Spanish Moss | Southern Living Blog June 9, 2008 | By Steve Bender | Comments (17) Q: I’m fairly new to the South and I have a question that none of the natives have been able to answer for me. I’m hoping you can. What causes Spanish moss to grow on one tree when the tree next to it has none? I know it sounds silly but this question is making me crazy! Thanks, Misty A: Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) is one of the signature plants of the Deep South. It is an epiphyte, meaning that it uses trees for support, but doesn’t draw moisture or nutrients from them, although rainwater running down the bark may supply it with both. You generally see it most often along the coast, because it needs high humidity and mild winter temperatures to survive. Why do you see it certain trees and not others? It tends to favor: • Trees that have lots of large, well-spaced branches • Trees whose branches are more horizontal than vertical • Trees with rough bark that provide a good foothold Among its favorite hosts — live oak, bald cypress, red cedar, hackberry.

One additional factor is the willingness of the tree to be a happy host. Spanish moss can grow so profusely in a tree that it interferes with photosynthesis by blocking sunlight from reaching the leaves. So certain trees, such as camphor, release chemical substances that kill Spanish moss. Hope this helps, Spanish Moss Habitat | Garden Guides Spanish Moss Habitat Submit Overview Neither a moss or a fungus, Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) is a bromeliad with thin, dangling thread-like leaves that reach up to 10 feet in stringy length. Native from the southeastern United States across the West Indies, Central America and as far south as Chile and northern Argentina, it is perhaps the most famous bromeliad in the world after the pineapple. It is an epiphyte, a plant that grows upon another plant, naturally draping the limbs of trees. Native Range Spanish moss has the greatest natural range of any bromeliad in the world, as noted by Robert Lee Riffle, noted tropical plantsmen from Florida. It occurs in the coastal southeastern United States from Virginia to Florida and westward to Texas.

In Latin America its range continues from the Rio Grande through Central America and the West Indies, southward into lowland and warm highlands across South America to northern Chile and Argentina. Growing Environment Lacking roots, Spanish moss needs a warm growing season with light frosts in winter at most and lots of ambient humidity and drenching rainfall. Its foliage is silvery, with scale-like trichomes, that protect the thread-like foliage from excessive sunlight and dryness. Thus, it grows in bright, indirect shade to partially sunny locations, where it is exposed to no more than four to six hours or direct sunlight in the heat of summer. Good air circulation around the draping foliage prevents fungal rot in the warm, moist, humid growing conditions. Natural Habitats Found extensively in evergreen tropical trees and winter-deciduous tropical trees, massive curtains of Spanish moss foliage prosper in the dappled sunlight under tree leaves. Although tolerant of occasional exposure to hot, baking summer sunshine, the foliage is lush and nearly succulent especially when humidity is high. It is commonly associated with the live oak and bald cypress trees in the American South and in tropical America nearly any tall evergreen tree, especially in the upper limbs where wind, bright light and exposure to rain is prevalent.

If humidity is high year round, Spanish moss also can germinate and clasp onto rock surfaces on cliffs, cave openings or moist escarpments. This ability to sprout and dangle from any advantageous coarse surface manifests itself in human settlements, where the bromeliad sprouts up and grows on roof eaves, telephone lines or fences. Plant Life Cycle The small seed of Spanish moss is scattered by wind or dripping water and is wedged into cracks and crevices on tree bark, crotches of plant branches and twigs, or in humusy nooks between rocks or on the decaying wood of fallen trees. Warmth and humidity causes the seed to sprout and grow curling, eyelash-like leaves that elongate and grow to form long strings. Usually growing from two to 10 feet in length, healthy plants in perfect conditions can grow as long as 50 to 100 feet, albeit rare. In summer, when humidity is high and seasonal rains common, small chartreuse flowers appear almost invisibly on the thread-like leaves and are pollinated in the wind. Seeds ripen and again scatter, germinating only in optimal locations and conditions. Spanish moss will live for decades.

As wind or sheer weight of the foliage breaks off and falls onto lower tree branches or to the ground, new growth continues on the plant. Only lack of humidity and rainfall or intense, baking sunlight will slowly degrade the bromeliad and kill it once all foliage is fully dehydrated. Plants floating in water will also die. Hardiness Prosperous in frost-free tropical settings, Spanish moss tolerates light frosts and short bouts with subfreezing temperatures. Clumps protected under the evergreen foliage of trees in winter are most likely to survive frosts and light freezes than those exposed on upper branches or on bare deciduous trees. It is winter hardy in USDA Hardiness Zones 7 and warmer. Spanish moss native to areas that are warm and humid year round, such as the jungles of equatorial America usually have slightly wider foliage and lack tolerance to chilly temperatures compared to plants native to tropical highlands or the American Southeast. Keywords: epiphyte, Tillandsia, bromeliad About this Author James Burghardt has written for "The Public Garden," "Docent Educator," non-profit newsletters and for horticultural databases, becoming a full-time writer in 2008.

He holds a Master of Science in public horticulture from the University of Delaware and studied horticulture and biology in Australia at Murdoch University and the University of Melbourne. What is the relationship between Spanish moss and trees? | Reference.com What is the relationship between Spanish moss and trees? A: Quick Answer Spanish moss uses trees for mechanical support, but it does not get any nourishment from trees. Spanish moss does not harm trees, but it can occasionally weigh down weaker branches and become a nuisance to property owners. Full Answer Unlike parasitic organisms that cause harm by taking nutrients from their host, Spanish moss does not grow into the tissues of the trees that harbor it. Spanish moss is an epiphyte, a type of plant that grows on the surface of another plant but remains entirely independent. It is not a true moss, but belongs to the family Bromeliacae and is related to pineapples. Spanish moss uses energy from the sun to create its own food and gathers moisture from rainwater and the air. The gray scales on the surface of Spanish moss trap moisture and retain it so that the plant can gradually absorb it over time. Spanish moss reproduces by sending out feathery seeds that float through the air until they land on a suitable tree.

Live oaks and bald cypress trees commonly develop colonies of Spanish moss in their branches, but the plant can form colonies in other types of trees and on inanimate objects, such as telephone poles or buildings. A single mass of Spanish moss can grow up to 25 feet long. Spanish Moss - UF/IFAS Extension: Solutions for Your Life Weather Spanish Moss Hanging off trees and landscape plants, Spanish moss is a familiar part of Florida’s environment. Despite its name, Spanish moss is not a moss but a bromeliad—a perennial herb in the pineapple family. Most bromeliads, including Spanish moss, are epiphytes. Epiphytes grow on other plants, but do not rely on them for nutrients. They take nutrients from the air and debris that collects on the plant. Spanish moss has permeable scales that “catch” moisture and nutrients. Spanish moss prefers moist environments, but its ability to trap water lets it survive dry periods. The plant can also go dormant until moisture conditions improve Spanish moss does not have any roots. It attaches to substrates by wrapping its stems around a surface. Also, it does not need roots for water and nutrient uptake, since all parts of Spanish moss have that ability.

Spanish moss is commonly found on oak and cypress trees, but can grow on other plants as well. Spanish Moss and Tree Damage Many homeowners think that Spanish moss kills their trees. This is not the case because the moss is not parasitic. The only thing Spanish moss uses trees for is support. If you observe tree decline after heavy infestations of Spanish moss, the trees are usually declining because of a different factor. In fact, tree decline can cause Spanish moss growth as the canopy thins and lets in more sunlight for the moss to grow. Heavy moss on a tree can shade leaves and slow growth, but healthy trees will grow faster than the moss. Be aware that the moss can also weigh down and sometimes break branches. If you want to remove Spanish moss, have an arborist remove it by hand. However, it will grow back after a while. Uses Spanish moss used to be harvested for stuffing material in automobile seats, furniture, mattresses, and even insulation in homes. Today it is sometimes used for stuffing or packing material, but it is more widely used for floral arrangements and mulch. Songbirds build nests with the moss, and many other species use moss clumps for shelter, including bats, reptiles, and amphibians.

Be aware that chiggers are common in Spanish moss and may cause a rash on the skin if the moss is handled. Adapted and excerpted from: “ Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides) ,” Florida 4-H Forest Ecology (accessed 04/2011). Related Sites & Articles Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) Taxodium distichum Redwood family (Taxodiaceae) Description: This coniferous tree becomes 80-120' tall at maturity, forming a stout central trunk and an oblongoid crown. The central trunk is somewhat swollen at the base and buttressed; when a tree grows in a location that is flooded during several months of the year, it often develops 'knees' that help to stabilize it. These knees are an extension of the trunk that protrude from the water around its base. The major branches of the crown are more or less horizontal and widely spreading. Trunk bark is reddish or brownish gray and rather thin. With age, it has a tendency to peel off the trunk in narrow strips. The bark of smaller branches are reddish brown and more smooth.

There are two kinds of twigs: deciduous and non-deciduous. Deciduous twigs remain green and develop needle-like leaves in 2 ranks, resembling a compound leaf with pinnate structure. Non-deciduous twigs become reddish brown and develop deciduous twigs with leaves. Individual leaves are light to medium green, ï¿½–ï¿½" in length, narrowly linear in shape, and flattened in cross-section. They have a feathery appearance and soft texture. Bald Cypress is monoecious: individual trees produce either all male cones (pollen-bearing) or all female cones (seed-bearing). Male cones are produced in drooping panicles about 5-10" long. Individual male cones are 1/8" (3 mm.) across and sessile (or nearly so). Each tiny male cone is ovoid-globoid in shape, consisting of a few appressed scales and pollen-bearing structures. Female cones are produced individually or in small clusters. Individual female cones are about 1" across and nearly sessile. Each female cone is globoid in shape with a wrinkled surface, consisting of about 12 irregular scales that are appressed together and non-overlapping.

During the spring, the cones are cross-pollinated by the wind. At maturity, the female cones change from green to brown and begin to disintegrate, releasing the seeds. There are 2 chunky seeds at the base of each scale. Individual seeds are about ï¿½" long, 3-angled, and irregular in shape. Seeds can travel some distance by floating on water, otherwise they don't wander far. The root system is woody, consisting of a taproot with lateral roots; the latter are shallow, but widely spreading. This tree reproduces by reseeding itself. It sometimes forms colonies and becomes the dominant tree at favorable locations. During the autumn, the deciduous leaves turn yellow or brown and fall off the tree. Cultivation: This tree prefers full sunlight, wet to moist conditions, and a somewhat acidic soil containing muck, clay, or sand. Unlike most other trees, it can tolerate waterlogged conditions for several months per year. Growth and development are fairly slow, but individual trees can live 200 years or more. Some trees in the southeast are suspected of being 1000-1500 years old.

The seeds need consistently moist conditions in order to germinate. It is possible to plant Bald Cypress in areas that are located north of its normal range – depending on the local ecotype, it is winter-hardy to Zone 4 or 5. Range & Habitat: In Illinois, native populations of Bald Cypress are restricted to southern Illinois, where it is uncommon to occasional. Illinois lies along the northern range-limit for native populations of this tree. Habitats include bottomland woodlands along major rivers, soggy wooded areas along lakes, and swamps. Sometimes Bald Cypress is the dominant tree in swamps, or it is codominant with Water Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica). During dry spells, stands of Bald Cypress are sometimes killed by wildfires, as the thin bark of these trees provides little protection. Sometimes Bald Cypress is grown as an ornamental landscape tree; naturalized populations of this tree will probably occur from escaped cultivated plants in the near future. Faunal Associations: Bald Cypress appears to have fewer insect pests than most trees.

Insect feeders that are known include the moth caterpillars Chloropteryx tepperaria (Angle-Winged Emerald), Isoparce cupressi (Bald Cypress Sphinx), Malacosoma disstria (Forest Tent Caterpillar), and Nemoria elfa (Cypress Emerald). The larvae of the Buprestid beetle, Acmaeodera pulchella (Flat-Headed Bald Cypress Borer), bore through the wood, as do the larvae of the Cerambycid beetles Atimia confusus confusus, Leptura abdominalis, Oeme rigidus rigidus. Several oligophagous (or monophagous) plant bugs also feed on Bald Cypress; these species include Ceratocapsus taxodii, Orthotylus taxodii, Parthenicus taxodii, Phytocoris exemplus, Phytocoris taxodii, and Pilophorus taxodii. The seeds are eaten to a limited extent by such birds as the Wood Duck, Gadwall, Mallard, and Wild Turkey; they are also eaten to a limited extent by tree squirrels.

Bald Cypress provides good nesting habitat for several species of birds; this includes the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker, Pileated Woodpecker, Bald Eagle, Osprey, Yellow-Throated Warbler, and various herons and egrets. In swampy areas of southern Illinois, Barred Owls often roost in this tree. Photographic Location: The Arboretum of the University of Illinois at Urbana, Illinois. Comments: This coniferous tree has very soft and attractive foliage during the summer and odd-looking wrinkled cones that are spherical in shape. It does appear rather barren during the winter after its leaves fall to the ground, however. In southeastern United States, the branches of Bald Cypress are often draped with Spanish Moss (the latter is actually a flowering air-plant, or bromeliad), but the range of this mossy plant doesn't extend as far north as Illinois. Bald Cypress superficially resembles another coniferous tree, Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), because their needle-like leaves are similar in appearance (flattened & 2-ranked) and soft in texture. However, Eastern Hemlock has more conventional female cones that are ovoid in shape with overlapping scales.

Furthermore, the ranges of these 2 species don't overlap as Eastern Hemlock is primarily a boreal species that prefers cool climates. There is a variety or subspecies of Bald Cypress, Taxodium distichum imbricarium, sometimes referred to as 'Pond Cypress,' that has overlapping scale-like leaves up to 1/3" (8 mm.) long that are terete, rather than flattened. Pond Cypress is restricted to the Gulf region of southeastern United States, where it often intergrades with Bald Cypress. Bald Cypress Knees | Project Noah Bald Cypress Knees Tweet Description: (Bald-cypress, Baldcypress, Bald Cypress, Cypress, Southern-cypress,White-cypress, Tidewater Red-Cypress, Gulf-Cypress, Red-Cypress, or Swamp Cypress) is a deciduous conifer that grows on saturated and seasonally inundated soils of the Southeastern and Gulf Coastal Plains of the United states Habitat: The native range extends from Delaware Bay south to Florida and west to Texas and southeastern Oklahoma-(Little Dixie region, Oklahoma), and also inland up the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers north to southern Illinois and Indiana. Large planted specimens are seen as far north as Pittsburgh[9].

Ancient Bald-cypress forests, with some trees more than 1,700 years old, once dominated swamps in the southeast US. The largest remaining old-growth stands of Bald-cypress are at Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, near Naples, Florida.[citation needed] and in the Three Sisters tract along eastern North Carolina's Black River. The Corkscrew trees are around 500 years of age and some exceed 40 m in height. The Black River trees were cored in 1986 by University of Arkansas dendrologists with dates ranging back to 364 AD.[10]In the northern and more inland part of its range from Delaware and Maryland to Williamsburg, Virginia, it is found in groups growing in swamps and is accompanied by other hardwoods. In the southern parts of its range from extreme southeastern Virginia, Virginia Beach south to Florida and west to Texas, bald cypress can be found growing with loblolly pine, live oak and it may be heavily covered in spanish moss.

A place to observe this in the far northern part of its range is at First Landing State Park, Virginia Beach, Virginia where you will see bald cypress growing with live oak, loblolly pine, spanish moss and other trees at their farthest north and farthest south ranges. From eastern North Carolina down throughout Florida, bald cypress may be accompanied in forests by sabal minor (dwarf palmetto). It is native to humid climates where annual precipitation ranges from about 760 mm (in Texas) to 1630 mm (along the Gulf Coast). Although it grows best in warm climates, the natural northern limit of the species is not due to a lack of cold tolerance, but to specific reproductive requirements; further north, regeneration is prevented by ice damage to seedlings. Larger trees are able to tolerate much lower temperatures and lower humidities. Notes: Growing knees of a live tree. No species ID suggestions Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) Gulf Cypress, Red Cypress, Southern Cypress, Swamp Cypress, White Cypress, Yellow Cypress Description Bald cypress trees can grow to a height of up to 120 feet (15.2 to 36.6m).

Their needle-like leaves grow individually from the twig. Leaves are soft and feathery in appearance, dull light green above and whitish underneath. Cone-shaped "knees" project from submerged roots. The bald cypress is a deciduous (loses its leaves in fall) conifer (cone bearing tree). It is covered with brown or gray bark with long fiber-like or scaly ridges that peel off in strips. Cones are made up of several four-angled, flattened scales. Limbs are often draped with Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides). Life History Bald cypress trees add grace and beauty to many of Texas' most cherished waterways. A member of the Redwood family, they are among the first trees in Texas to loose their leaves in the fall (hence the name "bald cypress") and the last to bud in the spring. Flower buds appear in late December or early January and bloom in March and April. Pollen is shed, or released, when the flowers bloom. Seeds are produced inside the female cone. The cones ripen from October to December, changing from green to brownish purple, before dropping from the parent tree.

Cones can contain anywhere from two to 34 seeds, but generally average 16. Sprouts can form from the cut trunk of bald cypress trees as old as 60 years. Most live up to 600 years, but some individuals have survived 1,200 years. Bald cypress trees provide habitat for many species. Wild turkey, wood ducks, evening grosbeak and squirrels eat the seeds. Branches provide nesting places for bald eagles and osprey. Rotting knees are used as nesting cavities by warblers. Catfish spawn beneath cypress logs. Bald cypress diffuse and slow floodwaters, reducing flood damage. They also trap sediments and pollutants. Habitat Bald cypress are most abundant in wet, swampy soils of floodplain lakes and along riparian (streamside) corridors. Distribution Taxodium distichum (L T. distichum (L.) Rich. var. distichum Baldcypress T. distichum var. nutans (Ait.) Sweet Pondcypress L. P. Wilhite and J. R.

Toliver Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) is a deciduous conifer that grows on saturated and seasonally inundated soils of the Southeastern and Gulf Coastal Plains. Two varieties share essentially the same natural range. Variety nutans, commonly called pondcypress, cypress, or black-cypress, grows in shallow ponds and wet areas westward only to southeastern Louisiana. It does not usually grow in river or stream swamps. Variety distichum, commonly called baldcypress, cypress, southern -cypress, swamp-cypress, red-cypress, yellow-cypress, white-cypress, tidewater red-cypress, or gulf-cypress, is more widespread and typical of the species. Its range extends westward into Texas and northward into Illinois and Indiana. Pondcypress is less likely than baldcypress to have knees, and its knees are shorter and more rounded. Its fluted base tends to have rounded rather than sharp ridges and its bark usually is more coarsely ridged (24).

Its branchlets are more ascending than those of baldcypress (44), but unfortunately it was given the varietal name nutans (nodding) from observation of a cultivated variation having drooping branches (43). Typical specimens of pondcypress have nearly scale like leaves, which are appressed along the twig in several ranks. Seedlings and fast-growing shoots of pondcypress, however, often have disichous (two-ranked) leaves much like typical baldcypress foliage (39). Despite the usual differences in appearance between the two varieties, not all specimens are typical, and it is often difficult and sometimes impossible to distinguish them (44). BALDCYPRESS Habitat Native Range The native range of baldcypress extends along the lower Atlantic Coastal Plain from southern Delaware to southern Florida and thence along the lower Gulf Coast Plain to southeastern Texas. Inland, baldcypress grows along the many streams of the middle and upper coastal plains and northward through the Mississippi Valley to southeastern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and southwestern Indiana (31). - The native range of baldcypress. The broken line indicates the northern limit of the variety nutans, pondcypress.

Climate Humid, moist subhumid, and dry subhumid climatic types occur within the range of baldcypress. Normal precipitation increases from about 1120 mm. (44 in) per year in southern Delaware and southern Illinois to about 1630 mm. (64 in) along the central Gulf Coast, then decreases to about 760 mm (30 in) in southeastern Texas (31). It should be noted, however, that baldcypress usually grows on intermittently flooded sites. Drainage, therefore, may be more important than rainfall in determining site suitability for baldcypress. The growing season within the natural range of baldcypress increases from about 190 days in southern Illinois to virtually 365 days in southern Florida, and average annual minimum temperatures increase from about -18° C (0° F) to about 4° C (40° F) across this range (31). Baldcypress trees planted in the Northeastern United States and southern Canada withstand minimum winter temperatures of -29° to -34° C (-20° to -29° F) (23).

Thus, baldcypress can grow across a wide climatic range. Few seeds mature in the extreme northern part of the species' native range (44) however, and baldcypress grows best in warm climates (28). Soils and Topography More than 90 percent of the natural baldcypress stands are on flat topography or in slight depressions at elevations of less than 30 m (100 ft) above sea level. The upper limit of its growth in the Mississippi Valley is at an elevation of about 150 m (500 ft). A few isolated stands occur at elevations of 300 to 530 m (1,000 to 1,750 ft) bordering deep hollows on the Edwards Plateau of Texas (44). Because baldcypress usually grows on nearly flat topography, little is known about its growth in relation to topographic factors. Baldcypress sites are characterized by frequent, prolonged flooding. Floodwaters may be 3 m (10 ft) deep or more and may flow at rates up to 6 km (4 mi) per hour or may be stagnant at times (17).

Normally, baldcypress is found on intermittently flooded and very poorly drained phases of Spodosols, Ultisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Entisols (40). The native range of the species is in the thermic and hyperthermic soil temperature regimes. On the Atlantic Coastal Plain, baldcypress grows best in the bottom lands of "red water" rivers, which originate in the Piedmont and mountains and during floods deposit a reddish, nutrient-rich silt into the bottom lands. Growth is poorer on the less fertile, coarser textured soils of the bottom lands of "black water" rivers, which originate in the Coastal Plain and are dark-colored with organic matter. Besides these alluvial soils, there are broad interstream areas of baldcypress swamps where soils range from heavy clays to coarse sand to mucks and peats, and where site quality is extremely variable (41). Baldcypress also grows along estuaries near the coast but apparently cannot tolerate water containing more than 0.89 percent salt (36).

Stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis of 1-year-old baldcypress seedlings was reduced when salinity exceeded three ppt (.003 percent), indicating that salt water intrusion can adversely affect cypress at much lower concentrations (37). Horticulturally, baldcypress can be grown on many upland soils, and it is seen in cities as a shade tree or ornamental. Associated Forest Cover Baldcypress is a dominant species in forest cover types Baldcypress (Society of American Foresters Type 101) and Baldcypress-Tupelo (Type 102). It is an associate species in Cabbage Palmetto (Type 74), Sweetgum-Willow Oak (Type 92), Black Willow (Type 95), Pondcypress (Type 100), Water Tupelo-Swamp Tupelo (Type 103), and Sweetbay-Swamp Tupelo-Redbay (Type 104) (17). Tree associates of baldcypress include water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), swamp tupelo (N. sylvatica var.

biflora), red maple (Acer rubrum), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), southern magnolia (M. grandifolia), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and various oaks Quercus spp.), ashes (Fraxinus spp.), and pines Tinus spp.) (2,29,46). Lesser vegetation associates include common buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia), Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides), cattail (Typha latifolia), lizardtail (Saururus cernuus), and various hollies (Ilex spp.), viburnums (Viburnum spp.), lyonias (Lyonia spp.), sedges, grasses, and ferns (2,44). Baldcypress grows along streams that can deposit or remove soil to the extent that the soil surface, and consequently the depth to the water table, can fluctuate a few meters (several feet) during the life of a stand.

Therefore, its understory and even arboreal associates can vary from species tolerant of prolonged flooding to species requiring well-drained conditions (44). Life History Reproduction and Early Growth Flowering and Fruiting- Baldcypress is monoecious. Male and female strobili mature in one growing season from buds formed the previous year. The male catkins are about 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter and are borne in slender, purplish, drooping clusters 7 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in) long that are conspicuous during the winter on this deciduous conifer. Pollen is shed in March and April. Female conelets are found singly or in clusters of two or three. The globose cones turn from green to brownish purple as they mature from October to December. The cones are 13 to 36 mm (0.5 to 1.41 in) in diameter and consist of 9 to 15 4-sided scales that break away irregularly after maturity. Each scale can bear two irregular, triangle-shaped seeds that have thick, horny, warty coats and projecting flanges (19,39,44,45).

Number of seeds per cone averages 16 and ranges from 2 to 34 (20). Cleaned seeds number from about 5600 to 18,430/kg (2,540 to 8,360/lb) (39,44,45). Seed Production and Dissemination- Some seeds are produced every year, and good seed crops occur at 3- to 5-year intervals (45). At maturity, the cone scales with their resin-coated seeds adhering to them, or sometimes entire cones, drop to the water or ground (42). This drop of mature seeds is often hastened by squirrels, which eat baldcypress seeds but usually drop several scales with undamaged seeds still attached from each cone that they pick (5). Floodwaters spread the scales or cones along streams and are the most important means of seed dissemination (44). Seedling Development- Germination is epigeal (45). Under swamp conditions, germination generally takes place on a sphagnum moss or a wet-muck seedbed. Seeds will not germinate under water, but some will remain viable for 30 months under water.

On the other hand, seeds usually fail to germinate on better drained soils because of the lack of surface water. Thus, a soil saturated but not flooded for a period of 1 to 3 months after seedfall is required for germination (44). After germination, seedlings must grow fast enough to keep at least part of their crowns above floodwaters for most of the growing season (10,12,13). Baldcypress seedlings can endure partial shading but require overhead light for good growth (49). Seedlings in swamps often reach heights of 20 to 75 cm (8 to 30 in) their first year (7). Growth is checked when a seedling is completely submerged by flooding, and prolonged submergence kills the seedling (44). In nurseries, Taxodium seeds show an apparent in ternal dormancy that can be overcome by various treatments that usually include cold stratification or submerging in water for 60 days (19). Nursery beds are sown in spring with pretreated seeds or in fall with untreated seeds (45).

Seedlings usually reach 75 to 100 cm (30 to 40 in) in height during their first (and usually only) year in the nursery (49). Average size of 1-0 nursery-grown seedlings in a seed source test including 72 families was 81.4 cm (32 in) tall and 1.1 cm (0.43 in) in diameter (19). Control of competing vegetation may be necessary for a year or more for baldcypress planted outside of swamps. Five years after planting baldcypress on a harrowed and bedded poorly drained site in Florida, survival was high but heights had increased only 30 cm (12 in), probably because of heavy herbaceous competition (25). Seedlings grown in a crawfish pond in Louisiana, where weed control and soil moisture were excellent through June, averaged 2.9 m (9.7 ft) and 3.5 cm (1.4 in) d.b.h. after 5 years. However, a replicate of the same sources planted on an old soybean field, where weed control and soil moisture were poor, resulted in the same d.b.h.

but a smaller average seedling height of 2.1 m (7.0 ft) (John R. Toliver, unpublished data). When planted in a residential yard and weeded and watered averaged 3.7 m (12 ft) tall 3 years later (49). Vegetative Reproduction- Baldcypress is one of the few conifer species that sprouts. Thrifty sprouts are generally produced from stumps of young trees, but trees up to 60 years old also send up healthy sprouts if the trees are cut during the fall or winter. However, survival of these sprouts is often poor and those that live are usually poorly shaped and do not make quality sawtimber trees (10,13,38). Stumps of trees up to 200 years old may also sprout, but the sprouts are not as vigorous and are more subject to wind damage as the stump decays (44). In the only report on the rooting of baldcypress cuttings found in the literature, cuttings from trees 5 years old rooted better than those from older trees (30).

Sapling and Pole Stages to Maturity Growth and Yield- Baldcypress is reputed to be slow growing and very long-lived, but during some growing seasons, perhaps in response to soil-moisture fluctuations, many baldcypress appear to produce more than one ring of stemwood. Counting these false rings in with true annual rings has led to overestimations of ages and consequently to underestimations of growth rates. A study in three baldcypress plantations of known age revealed that on increment cores under magnification, true latewood appeared as narrow bands of small, thick-walled cells, and the stains that cause false latewood tended to disappear. The larger trees in the study had more apparent rings than smaller trees of the same age, and conventional ring counts averaged about 1.6 times the actual age (44). Many years before that study, an investigator having no trees of known age to confirm his age counts, but stating that he could distinguish the stains of false latewood from true latewood bands, concluded that trees 400 to 600 years old were common in many virgin stands of baldcypress and that a few trees reached about 1,200 years (44).

Under forest conditions, baldcypress stems generally require about 200 years to reach sufficient size to yield a high proportion of heartwood lumber (28). Also at about age 200, height growth ceases (44). After this age many baldcypress slowly die back from the top as a fungus-caused rot progresses downward through the stem. Baldcypress is noted for the large size it can attain. In virgin forests, the largest trees were 215 to 365 cm (84 to 144 in) in d.b.h. and 43 to 46 m (140 to 150 ft) in height (44). In the 1982 "National Register of Big Trees," the champion baldcypress, which grows in Louisiana, was reported to be 520.7 cm (205 in) in d.b.h. and 25 m (83 ft) tall (1). Baldcypress also is noted for its high merchantable yields.

In virgin stands, yields of 112 to 196 m³/ha (8,000 to 14,000 fbm/acre) over tracts hundreds of hectares in extent were common, and some stands likely exceeded 1400 m/ha (100,000 fbm/acre). One tree in Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia scaled 168 m³ (12,000 fbm) (44). Some second-growth stands are approaching the yields of the best virgin stands. A 96-year-old stand in Mississippi contained 980 m³/ha (70,000 fbm/acre) and its crop trees averaged 36.3 m (119 ft) tall (49).

A 63-year-old second-growth stand in Louisiana averaged 1,260 cypress and 258 swamp tupelo trees per hectare, respectively (504 and 103/acre), resulting in volumes of 409 and 107 m³/ha (6,356 and 1,423 ft³/acre), respectively (15). The sample is limited, but some plantations, at least, grow faster than natural stands. In Mississippi, one plantation established on abandoned cropland had dominants averaging 21 m (69 ft) tall at 41 years (49), and another plantation that had been cultivated or mowed for the first 10 years contained 175 m³/ha (2,333 ft³/acre) at age 31 and the 30 largest trees averaged 21.6 m (72 ft) tall and 36 cm (14.2 in.) d.b.h.

Ten-year volume growth (from age 21 to 31 yrs) of the trees in this plantation was 77.5 m³/ha (1,033 ft³/acre) (29). Baldcypress grows well at high stand densities. From age 60 to 70 years, a baldcypress-hardwood. stand in Florida increased from 39 to 43 m³/ha (168 to 189 ft³/acre) in basal area and from 359 to 428 m³/ha (57 to 68 cords/acre) in volume. The baldcypress grew at a faster rate than the tupelo and sweetgum. Thinning plots within the stand to various densities at age 60 resulted in faster growth of individual crop trees, but in slower growth per unit area than for the unthinned part of the stand (33). Density was even higher in a second-growth stand of baldcypress in Mississippi: 61 m²/ha (265 ft²/acre) at age 78.

Thinning that stand to 46 m²/ha (200 ft²/acre) increased growth through age 96 more than did no thinning or a heavier thinning (49). Volume growth of a 63-year-old second-growth stand in Louisiana, with an average density of 50 m²/ha (220 ft²/acre) in basal area, was 54 m³/ha (716 ft³/acre) over a 5-year period. Crown thinning in this stand increased diameter growth and appeared to increase sawtimber volume per hectare after 5 years. Heavier thinning intensities stimulated epicormic branching on many trees, which could lower log quality. However, the largest dominant crop trees were least affected by epicormic branching (15). Cypress swamps and other forested wetlands that receive periodic nutrient subsidies from floodwaters probably are some of the world's most productive ecosystems. The annual above-ground production of biomass in a baldcypress-ash floodplain forest in Florida was 15 700 kg/ha (14,000 lb/acre) (4).

In comparison, terrestrial forest communities in the temperate region often produce 12 300 to 15 000 kg/ha (11,000 to 13,400 lb/acre) annually (11). Stillwater forested wetlands do not receive nutrient subsidies from floodwaters, and they have production rates comparable to, or lower than, those of terrestrial forests. Such wetlands, however, offer additional benefits such as storage of water and peat (4). Rooting Habit- Baldcypress seedlings develop a taproot (49), and at least some planted baldcypress up to 25 cm (10 in) in d.b.h. maintain taproots (43). Older, naturally seeded baldcypress in swamps develop several descending roots that provide anchorage, and numerous lateral roots from which rise peculiar conical structures known as "knees" (23). These knees vary in height from several centimeters to more than 3.7 m (12 ft), depending apparently upon the average water level of the site (44,47).

Knees are less likely to form in absence of flooding or where permanently standing water is 30 cm (12 in) or more in depth (48). However, small knees have been observed on many trees not subjected to flooding (3) and it is not uncommon for ornamental trees to produce knees. Research has found no physiological function for cypress knees. They may be beneficial as aeration organs but are not of critical importance to survival (17). Knees may also help to anchor trees because they develop large masses of roots. The extensive root system along with a buttressed base make baldcypress windfirm in soft, wet soils. Even winds of hurricane force rarely overturn them (44). Reaction to Competition- The relative shade-tolerance of baldcypress has not been definitely established. Seeds often germinate in heavily shaded places but usually do not survive or develop into large trees (10,13). Most successful stands regenerate in large openings. The species grows slowly in partial shade but the best growth occurs with full overhead light. For these reasons, intermediate shade tolerance seems the most appropriate classification.

In fully stocked stands baldcypress characteristically has a clean, smooth stem and small crown, readily pruning itself of branches, but in poorly stocked stands it is very limby (44). Damaging Agents- A fungus, Stereum taxodi, that causes a brown pocket rot known as "pecky cypress" attacks the heartwood of living baldcypress trees, especially the overmature ones. The fungus most frequently gains entrance in the crown and slowly works downward, sometimes destroying a considerable part of the heartwood at the base of the tree. The action of the fungus ceases when the tree is felled. The durability of baldcypress lumber, so far as is known, is not affected by the presence of pecky material (28,44). A few other fungi attack the sapwood and heartwood of baldcypress and a few needle and twig fungi have been reported, but none of these is known to cause serious damage (26). Several insects attack baldcypress, but damage is generally minor (21).

However, the fruit tree leafroller, (Archips argyrospila), previously unreported on baldcypress, became epidemic in 1983, in the lower Atchafalaya Basin and adjoining drainages to the east and south in Louisiana. The leafroller larvae commence webbing and feeding on cypress needles as soon as buds break and small leaflets expand. Large-scale killing of trees has not been observed, but those suffering repeated leafroller defoliation show die-back. Mortality of pole-sized trees has been linked to defoliation (21). The cypress flea beetle (Systena marginalis) causes discoloration of foliage and the cypress looper (Anacamptodes pergracilis) causes defoliation (44). Another common defoliator is the bagworm (Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis) (42). The southern cypress bark beetle (Phloeosinus taxodii) tunnels beneath the bark of limbs and trunks (27).

The baldcypress coneworm (Dioryctria pygmaeella) is a serious pest of cones of baldcypress and pondcypress, capable of destroying more than 75 percent of a single year's crop (34). Nutria (Myocastor coypu) often clip or uproot newly planted cypress seedlings before the root systems are fully established, thus killing the seedlings (12). Where high nutria populations occur, entire plantings are often destroyed in a few days. The Soil Conservation Service recommends cessation of baldcypress planting until control measures are found. To date, the only successful control has been placement of a chicken wire guard around each seedling (12). Deer and swamp rabbits clip seedlings above the ground and eat the tender stems and branches, but these seedlings generally resprout and continue to grow (18,44). Special Uses The unusual and pleasing appearance of baldcypress-its knees, buttressed base, massive bole, and irregular crown often festooned with Spanish moss-has led to its introduction as an ornamental in many parts of the world (3,45).

Baldcypress seeds are eaten by wild turkeys, squirrels, evening grosbeaks, and wood ducks (6); they are a minor part of the diet of other waterfowl and wading birds (32); and they were an important food for the now-extinct Carolina parakeet (6). Large old baldcypress furnish unique habitats for some wildlife. Bald eagles and ospreys nest in the tops. Yellow-throated warblers forage in the Spanish moss or resurrection fern (Polypodium polypodioides) often found on old trees. Prothonotary warblers achieve their highest densities in baldcypress-tupelo stands where they find nesting cavities in old decaying baldcypress knees. Catfish spawn in submerged hollow cypress logs (22). Baldcypress wood has a multitude of uses and is well known for its ability to resist decay. Cypressene, an oil extracted from the wood, is believed to give baldcypress high decay resistance. Older baldcypress, particularly old-growth, virgin trees growing in the deep swamps, is known as tidewater redcypress and is considered to be very resistant to rot (3).

For this reason, cypress wood has long been favored in the building construction, fences, planking in boats, river pilings, furniture, interior trim, cabinetry, sills, rafters, siding, flooring and shingles, garden boxes, greenhouses, and many other uses (3). However, second-growth baldcypress lack the decay resistant heartwood of the old-growth trees (8,9). At what age or size decay resistance develops is unknown, but wood from trees at least 63 years old is susceptible to rot (9). Caution is recommended in the use of lumber from these trees in exposed situations, and the wood should be treated if rot resistance is essential (3,9). Pecky cypress, caused by the fungus Stereum taxodii, is used in products where durability rather than water tightness is required, and in decorative wall paneling (14,28). Riverine swamps of baldcypress cause floodwaters to spread out, slow down, and infiltrate the soil. Thus, these stands reduce damage from floods and act as sediment and pollutant traps (46). Genetics Recognized varieties of baldcypress are indicated in the introduction to this report.

Baldcypress grows across a range of wetland sites and over a wide geographic area, however, so other races may exist. A cultivar, 'Pendens', having pendulous branches, has been developed (50). In Russia, hybridization of baldcypress with redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) has been reported (44). Genetic variation of baldcypress seed, cone, and nursery- seedling growth was explored in two geographic seed source studies incorporating seed collected along the Mississippi River flood plain from Illinois to Louisiana. Variation among seed sources and families-within-source was of significant magnitude to indicate a potential for genetic selection and gain in growth. However, no specific pattern of variation was noted (18,19,20). PONDCYPRESS Habitat Native Range Pondcypress grows from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida to southeastern Louisiana and almost always at elevations below 30 m (100 ft). Climate Humid and moist subhumid climatic types occur within the range of pondcypress.

Normal precipitation increases from about 1220 mm (48 in) per year in southeastern Virginia to 1630 mm (64 in) along the east Gulf Coast. The growing season increases from about 240 days in southeastern Virginia to about 300 days in southeastern Louisiana to virtually 365 days in southern Florida. Average annual minimum temperatures increase from about -12° C (10° F) in southeastern Virginia to 4° C (40° F) in southern Florida (31). Soils and Topography Pondcypress grows on the very poor and poorly drained phases of Spodosols and Ultisols (40) of the thermic and hyperthermic soil temperature regimes. Soils range from sands to clays to mucks to peats. Pondcypress occupies the shallow ponds and poorly drained areas of the Coastal Plain and rarely grows in the river and stream swamps as does baldcypress (44).

There is evidence that pondcypress does not grow on soils with a pH above 6.8 and bald cypress does not grow on soils with a pH below 5.5 (35), but it is not known if the range in which both grow might be narrower than pH 5.5 to 6.8. Pondcypress sites in general are much less fertile than baldcypress sites. Pondcypress grows on more acid soils, and it seldom grows on sites that receive periodic subsidies of nutrients from floodwaters. Pondcypress stands almost always are found on flat topography or in slight depressions often called domes (16); therefore, little is known concerning growth of pondcypress in relation to higher topographic features. Associated Forest Cover Pondcypress is the dominant species in the forest cover type Pondcypress (Society of American Foresters Type 100) (17).

It is an associate species in Longleaf Pine-Slash Pine (Type 83), Slash Pine (Type 84), Slash Pine-Hardwood (Type 85), Pond Pine (Type 98), Baldcypress (Type 101), Water Tupelo-Swamp Tupelo (Type 103), and Sweetbay-Swamp Tupelo-Redbay (Type 104). The most common sites for pondcypress are the shallow ponds of the Coastal Plain. Here, its chief tree associate is swamp tupelo. Along the margins and on slightly elevated positions within the ponds, associates are pines (Pinus spp.), red maple, sweetbay, and loblolly-bay (Gordonia lasianthus). Lesser vegetation associates include common buttonbush, yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), swamp cyrilla (Cyrilla racemiflora), viburnums, swamp privet (Forestiera acuminata), southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera), bitter gallberry (Ilex glabra), ferns, and vines (17).

In addition to growing in the ponds of the Coastal Plain, pondcypress is found in some of the swamps along "black water" rivers and creeks, in Carolina bays, in the Okefenokee Swamp, and in pondcypress savannahs. On these various sites, associates of pond cypress include most of those listed above plus many others (2,46). Life History Reproduction and Early Growth A sample of pondcypress seeds numbered 8 900/kg (4,040/lb) (45). Generally, the flowering characteristics, seeds, seeding habits, vegetative reproduction, and reaction to competition appear to be similar to those of baldcypress. Trees are monoecious, seeds are distributed by gravity and water, germination is epigeal, and the species is capable of sprouting and is classed as intermediate in its tolerance to shade. In shallow ponds, both soil and water conditions appear singularly favorable for pondcypress seed germination and early growth, for here natural reproduction is almost always uniformly abundant (44).

Sapling and Pole Stages to Maturity In the 1982 "National Register of Big Trees," the champion pondcypress, which grows in Georgia, was reported to be 229 cm (90 in) in d.b.h. and 41.1 m (135 ft) tall (1). This is approaching the size of the larger baldcypress. Such giants, however, are much more rare among pondcypress than among baldcypress. Although little information is recorded about the growth rate of pondcypress, general observations indicate that the tree does not attain the age and large size of baldcypress, nor does it grow as fast. The smaller size and slower growth of pondcypress may be inherent but are also attributable to the poor site conditions under which the tree usually grows (44). Because of its generally thicker bark, pondcypress is more resistant to fire than baldcypress (24). Special Uses Lumbermen commonly cut and sell pondcypress and baldcypress timber together without distinguishing between them (28).

Pondcypress ponds, domes (or heads), and savannahs provide the only breeding opportunity for a number of tree frogs, toads, and salamanders; provide nesting sites and habitats for herons, egrets, and many other birds; and are watering places for the birds, mammals, and reptiles of the surrounding pinelands. These wet areas serve as recharge areas for surface aquifers, and research has shown that pondcypress domes can serve as tertiary sewage treatment facilities in improving water quality, recharging ground water, and possibly increasing pondcypress growth rates (46). Functions of these domes and cypress swamps are discussed in depth in the book "Cypress Swamps" (16). Genetics There are no known hybrids of pondcypress. Literature Cited American Forestry Association. 1982. National register of big trees. American Forests 88(4):18-31, 34-48. Barry, John M. 1980. Natural vegetation of South Carolina. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia. 214 p. Brown, Clair A., and Glen N. Montz. 1986.

Baldcypress the tree unique, the wood eternal. Claitor's Publishing Division, Baton Rouge, LA. 139 p. Brown, Sandra. 1981. A comparison of the structure, primary productivity, and transpiration of cypress ecosystems in Florida. Ecological Monographs 51(4):403-427. Brunswig, Norman L. 1983. Personal communication. National Audubon Society, Francis Beidler Forest, Harleyville, SC. Brunswig, Norman L., Stephen G. Winton, and Paul B. Hamel. 1983. A dietary overlap of evening grosbeaks and Carolina parakeets. Wilson Bulletin 95:452. Bull, H. 1949. Cypress planting in southern Louisiana. Southern Lumberman 179(2249):227-230. Campbell, R. N., and J. W. Clark. 1960. Decay resistance of baldcypress heartwood. Forest Products Journal 10:250-253. Choong, Elvin T., Petre J.

Fogg, and John P. Jones. 1986. Natural decay resistance of baldcypress. LSU Wood Utilization Notes #38. School of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 4 p. Conner, William H, 1988, Natural and artificial regeneration of baldcypress [Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.] in the Barataria and Lake Verret basins of Louisiana. Ph.D. Dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 148 p. Conner, William H., and John W. Day, Jr. 1976. Productivity and composition of a baldcypress-water tupelo site and a bottomland hardwood site in a Louisiana swamp. American Journal of Botany 63(10):1354-1364. Conner, William H., and John R. Toliver. 1987. Vexar seedling protectors did not reduce nutria damage to planted baldcypress seedlings. USDA Forest Service, Tree Planter's Notes 38(3):26-29. Conner, William H., John R.

Toliver, and Fred H. Sklar. 1986. Natural regeneration of baldcypress [Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.] in a Louisiana swamp. Forest Ecology and Management 14:305-317. Davidson, R. W. P. Lentz, and H. M. McKay. 1960. The fungus causing pecky cypress. Mycologia 52:260-279. Dicke, Stephen G., and John R. Toliver. 1988. Effects of crown thinning on baldcypress height, diameter, and volume growth. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 12(4):252-256. Ewel, Katherine C., and Howard T. Odum, editors. 1984. Cypress swamps. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. 472 p. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p. Faulkner, Patricia L, 1985.

Genetic variation among half-sib families of baldcypress seedlings planted on two different sites. M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 101 P. Faulkner, Stephen P. 1982. Genetic variation of cones, seed and nursery-grown seedlings of baldcypress [Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.] provenances. M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 71 p. Faulkner, Stephen, and John Toliver. 1983. Genetic variation of cones, seeds, and nursery-grown seedlings of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich) provenances. p. 281-288. In Proceedings 17th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference, Athens, GA. Sponsored Publication No. 39. Goyer, R. A., and G. J. Lenhard. 1988. A new insect pest threatens baldcypress. Louisiana Agriculture 31(4):16-17, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge. Hamel, Paul B. 1983. Personal communication.

Clemson University, Department of Zoology, Clemson, SC. Harlow, William M., and Ellwood S. Harrar. 1979. Textbook of dendrology. McGraw-Hill, New York. 510 p. Harper, R. M. 1928. Economic botany of Alabama, Part 2. University of Alabama, Birmingham Printing, Birmingham. Harrington, T. A. 1965. Planting wetland species on upland soil. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SE-47. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 2 p. Hepting, George H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 386. Washington, DC. 658 p. Johnson, Warren T., and Howard H. Lyon. 1976. Insects that feed on trees and shrubs. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. 464 p. Kennedy, Harvey E., Jr. 1972. Baldcypress-an American wood.

USDA Forest Service, FS-218. Washington, DC. 5 p. Krinard, Roger M., and Robert L. Johnson. 1987. Growth of 31-year-old baldcypress plantation. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-339. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 4 p. Lee, Won-Yeal, Sang-Yung Shim, and Hyung-Bin Im. 1976. Rootings of cuttings of Taxodium distichum. Research Reports of the Forest Research Institute, Korea, 23:17-25. [In Korean with English summary] Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1971. Atlas of United States trees. vol. 1. Conifers and important hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture., Miscellaneous Publication 1146. Washington, DC. 9 p., 313 maps. Martin, A. C., H. S. Zim, and A. L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants. McGraw-Hill, New York. 500 p. McGarity, R. W. 1979.

Ten-year results of thinning and clear-cutting in a muck swamp timber type. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 3(2):64-67. Merkel, Edward P. 1982. Biology of the baldcypress cone worm, Dioryctria pygmaeella Ragonot (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), in north Florida. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 17(l):13-19. Monk, Carl D., and Timothy W. Brown. 1965. Ecological consideration of cypress heads in northcentral Florida. American Midland Naturalist 74(l):126-140. Montz, Glen N., and Arthur Cherubini. 1973. An ecological study of a baldcypress swamp in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana. Castanea 38(4):378-386. Pezeshki, S. R., R. D. Delaune, and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 1987. Response of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum L. var.

distichum) to increases in flooding salinity in Louisiana's Mississippi River deltaic plain. Wetlands 7:1-10. Prenger, Robert S., Jr. 1985. Response of a second-growth natural stand of baldcypress trees [Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.] to various intensities of thinning. M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 52 p. Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 1183 p. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 1969. A forest atlas of the South. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 27 p. Stubbs, Jack. 1973. Atlantic oak-gum-cypress. In Silvicultural systems for the major forest types of the United States. p. 89-93. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 445. Washington, DC. Stubbs, Jack. 1983. Personal communication.

USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Clemson, SC. Swanson, Paul L. 1965. The baldcypress. American Nurseryman 121(2):7, 72-77. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC. 762 p. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. C. S. Schopmeyer, tech. coord. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 450. Washington, DC. 883 p. Wharton, Charles H. 1977. The natural environments of Georgia. Georgia Geological Survey, Department of Natural Resources, Atlanta. 227 p. Wharton, Charles H., Wiley M. Kitchens, and Timothy W. Sipe. 1982. The ecology of bottomland hardwood swamps of the Southeast: a community profile. U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program, FWS/OBS-81/37. Washington, DC. 133 p. Whitford, L. A. 1956. A theory on the formation of cypress knees. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 72:80-83. Williston, H. L., F. W. Shropshire, and W. E. Balmer. 1980. Cypress management: a forgotten opportunity. USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Area State and Private Forestry, Forestry Report SA-FR-8. Atlanta, GA. 8 p. Wyman, Donald. 1965. Trees for American gardens. Macmillan, New York. 502 p. The Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana) Southern live oak The Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana) The Southern live oak or simply "Live Oak" (Quercus virginiana) is an evergreen (or nearly so) oak tree native to the southeastern United States. The tree is a common sight in states like Virginia, Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana. While the largest trees in the U.S.

in terms of wood volume are a few conifer tree species like the giant sequoia and the coast redwood on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, the Southern Live Oak is the biggest tree species on the eastern side of the Rockies, together with the bald cypress . The Live Oak is not a very tall species, but has a widespread canopy with heavy branches. Most of the wood is situated in these branches, as opposed to the conifer trees mentioned earlier, where most of the wood is in the (tall) trunk. Audubon Park, New Orleans ï¿½ The tree shown above is one of the largest Live Oaks in terms of wood volume. Its girth at breast height is 35'2" and has a crown spread of 165' [1] . This tree can be found between the Audubon Zoo and the Exposition Boulevard in Audubon Park, New Orleans, Louisiana. A view on a few other Live Oaks in Audubon Park. Audubon Park is situated west of the Garden District of New Orleans and is named in honor of artist and naturalist John James Audubon who lived in New Orleans starting in 1821.

The land now housing the park was a plantation in colonial days. ï¿½ On the left you can see some typical houses in the Garden District of New Orleans. On the right you can see Spanish moss, a epifytic plant that can be found hanging in the branches of trees everywhere where the air is humid enough (more on Spanish moss on this page ). The Middleton Oak ï¿½ The largest measured Southern Live Oak, named the "Middleton Oak", grows in Middleton, South Carolina. In 2004, when the Middleton Oak was measured, the tree had a total wood volume of roughly 4,820 cubic feet (roughly 136 mï¿½) [3] and was the largest tree in eastern part of the U.S. Until 2012 this tree was only surpassed by "The Senator" , a bald cypress tree in Florida. For comparison: according to the Dutch Oak specialist Jeroen Philippona, the largest (volumewise) European tree is an English Oak (Quercus robur) in Ivenack, Germany [4] and has an estimated wood volume of about 140 mï¿½.

However, beginning 2008, the tree lost a large part of its crown, heavily reducing its total wood volume [5] . On the left you can see the Middleton Oak as it was before 2008 (photo by Will Blozan). Notice the people standing next to the trunk to appreciate the size of this striking beauty. The image on the right shows the present situation (photo by Michael Moran). The Angel Oak Near the Middleton Oak, on another plantation in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, another famous Live Oak can be visited, the Angel Oak. The tree is often called the oldest living thing in the U.S. east of the Mississippi and is often cited to be over 1500 years old. While the first might be true for a single, not resprouting tree, the second is almost certain an exaggeration. Age estimations for this tree are not scientifically substantiated, but a comparison with live oak trees for which the growth rings were counted and a comparison with proven ages for deciduous oak trees in temporate climates (where trees grow slower) makes an age of less than 600 years more likely.

The Angel Oak is standing 20 m (65 ft) tall, with a girth of about 7.7 m (28 ft) in diameter, and the crown covers an area of 1,580 mï¿½ (17,000 square feet). Its longest limb is 27 m (89 ft) in length. The tree and surrounding park have been owned by the city of Charleston since 1991 [6] . The oak derives its name from the Angel estate, although local folklore told of stories of ghosts of former slaves would appear as angels around the tree [7] . Oak Alley Plantation Oak Alley Plantation is a remarkable historic plantation located in the little town of Vacherie, Louisiana and is protected as a National Historic Landmark. It still has that Old Southern Charm feel about her, like in the French colonial days. As you might expect, it is named after its distinguishing feature, an alley of a double row of 28 live oaks, 14 on each side, of about 240 m long, forming a fabulous gateway to the Mississippi river. ï¿½ A few of the largest oaks in the alley.

The image on the right shows the Josephine A. Stewart Oak with a girth of 31'2", a height of 71' and a crown spread of 150' [2] . The oaks where planted by a French Settler around 1710 long before the present house was built, so these oak trees are now around years old. Most of them are in good shape and probably have at least one to a few centuries to go, however, I saw one tree in the alley that is clearly declining. The remarkable view from the balcony of the house offers a magnificent view of the Live Oaks of Oak Alley. The plantation is situated next to the Mississippi River, and in the background the levees can be seen. ï¿½ Nowadays Oak Alley is open for the public and can be rent for garden parties, weddings, and the like. As you can see on the image on the right, tables were being set up for a wedding, the evening when I visited Oak Alley.

Question: What type of moss commonly grows on Live Oak and Bald Cypress trees in the southeast?
Answer: Spanish Moss