Peace of Westphalia | European history | Britannica.com Peace of Westphalia France Peace of Westphalia, European settlements of 1648, which brought to an end the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Dutch and the German phase of the Thirty Years’ War . The peace was negotiated, from 1644, in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück . The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, 1648. The treaty of October 24, 1648, comprehended the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III , the other German princes, France , and Sweden . England , Poland , Russia , and the Ottoman Empire were the only European powers that were not represented at the two assemblies. Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty . The Swearing of the Oath of Ratification of the Treaty of … Photos.com/Thinkstock The delegates The chief representative of the Holy Roman emperor was Maximilian, Graf (count) von Trauttmansdorff , to whose sagacity the conclusion of peace was largely due.

The French envoys were nominally under Henri II d’Orléans, duc de Longueville , but the marquis de Sablé and the comte d’Avaux were the real agents of France. Sweden was represented by John Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor of that name, and by John Adler Salvius, who had previously acted for Sweden in negotiating the Treaty of Hamburg (1641). The papal nuncio was Fabio Chigi, later Pope Alexander VII . Brandenburg , represented by Johann, Graf von Sayn-Wittgenstein, played the foremost part among the Protestant states of the empire. On June 1, 1645, France and Sweden brought forward propositions of peace, which were discussed by the estates of the empire from October 1645 to April 1646. The settlement of religious matters was effected between February 1646 and March 1648. The war continued during the deliberations. The decisions Under the terms of the peace settlement, a number of countries received territories or were confirmed in their sovereignty over territories. The territorial clauses all favoured Sweden, France, and their allies.

Sweden obtained western Pomerania (with the city of Stettin ), the port of Wismar , the archbishopric of Bremen , and the bishopric of Verden. These gains gave Sweden control of the Baltic Sea and the estuaries of the Oder , Elbe , and Weser rivers. France obtained sovereignty over Alsace and was confirmed in its possession of Metz , Toul , and Verdun , which it had seized a century before; France thus gained a firm frontier west of the Rhine River . Brandenburg obtained eastern Pomerania and several other smaller territories. Bavaria was able to keep the Upper Palatinate , while the Rhenish Palatinate was restored to Charles Louis, the son of the elector palatine Frederick V . Two other important results of the territorial settlement were the confirmation of the United Provinces of the Netherlands and the Swiss Confederation as independent republics, thus formally recognizing a status which those two states had actually held for many decades.

Apart from these territorial changes, a universal and unconditional amnesty to all those who had been deprived of their possessions was declared, and it was decreed that all secular lands (with specified exceptions) should be restored to those who had held them in 1618. The Thirty Years’ War. Tashkent Agreement Even more important than the territorial redistribution was the ecclesiastical settlement. The Peace of Westphalia confirmed the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which had granted Lutherans religious tolerance in the empire and which had been rescinded by the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II in his Edict of Restitution (1629). Moreover, the peace settlement extended the Peace of Augsburg’s provisions for religious toleration to the Reformed ( Calvinist ) church, thus securing toleration for the three great religious communities of the empire— Roman Catholic , Lutheran, and Calvinist. Within these limits the member states of the empire were bound to allow at least private worship, liberty of conscience , and the right of emigration to all religious minorities and dissidents within their domains. These measures of toleration did not extend to non-Catholics in the hereditary lands of the house of Habsburg , however.

Britannica Stories Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent The difficult question of the ownership of spiritual lands was decided by a compromise. The year 1624 was declared the “standard year” according to which territories should be deemed to be in Roman Catholic or Protestant possession. By the important provision that a prince should forfeit his lands if he changed his religion, an obstacle was placed in the way of a further spread of both the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation . The declaration that all protests or vetoes of the Peace of Westphalia by whomsoever pronounced should be null and void dealt a blow at the intervention of the Roman Curia in German affairs. Exploring Italy and France: Fact or Fiction? The constitutional changes made by the treaty had far-reaching effects. For Germany , the settlement ended the century-long struggle between the monarchical tendencies of the Holy Roman emperors and the federalistic aspirations of the empire’s German princes. The Peace of Westphalia recognized the full territorial sovereignty of the member states of the empire. They were empowered to contract treaties with one another and with foreign powers, provided that the emperor and the empire suffered no prejudice . By this and other changes the princes of the empire became absolute sovereigns in their own dominions.

The Holy Roman emperor and the Diet were left with a mere shadow of their former power. Not only was the central authority of the empire replaced almost entirely by the sovereignty of about 300 princes, but the power of the empire was materially weakened in other ways. It lost about 40,000 square miles (100,000 square km) of territory and obtained a frontier against France that was incapable of defense. Sweden and France as guarantors of the peace acquired the right of interference in the affairs of the empire, and Sweden also gained a voice in its councils (as a member of the Diet). For many years Germany thus became the principal theatre of European diplomacy and war, and the natural development of German national unity was delayed. But if the Treaty of Westphalia pronounced the dissolution of the old order in the empire, it facilitated the growth of new powers in its component parts, especially Austria , Bavaria, and Brandenburg. The treaty was recognized as a fundamental law of the German constitution and formed the basis of all subsequent treaties until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

More about Peace of Westphalia 34 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References Treaty of Westphalia - Springer Treaty of Westphalia Get Access History Major wars engulfed continental Europe during the early seventeenth century, as changes in religion and politics threatened the established order. This period ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which has profoundly influenced international law, diplomacy, and world order for over 350 years. The 30 Years War (1618–1648) was the central conflict, closely related to the Spanish-Dutch 80 Years War (1568–1648) and the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). In 1555, with the Peace of Augsburg, Catholics and Lutherans had achieved an uneasy coexistence in the Holy Roman Empire, a loose coalition of over 200 political entities stretching through the heart of continental Europe. Under the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (“whose region, his religion”), each leader was free to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism, and then could compel his subjects to adopt it.

The rise of Calvinism, territorial ambitions, and complicated conflicts over dynastic successions led to renewed warfar ... This is an excerpt from the content Reference Work Entry Metrics Oxford Public International Law: Westphalia, Peace of (1648) February 2011 Subject(s): 1648-1815 — Religion — Treaties, interpretation — Peace treaties — Specific treaties — Treaties, reservations and declarations — Treaties, scope (temporal and territorial) Published under the auspices of the Max Planck Foundation for International Peace and the Rule of Law under the direction of Rüdiger Wolfrum. A. Introduction 1 The term ‘Peace of Westphalia’ principally denotes the Treaty of Peace between France and the Holy Roman Empire and the Treaty of Peace between the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden, signed on 24 October 1648 in the town of Münster in Westphalia, a territory in the north–west of Germany which today belongs to the German states North Rhine—Westphalia and Lower Saxony. The treaties had been negotiated in Münster’ and the nearby town of Osnabrück’.

Accordingly, they are also referred to as the ‘Peace of Münster’ and the ‘Peace of Osnabrück’, respectively. The first treaty was concluded by the German Empire and Emperor on the one hand, and France on the other hand, and the second treaty by the German Empire and Emperor on the one hand, and Sweden on the other hand. The treaties were ratified by the Emperor, France, and Sweden in November 1648 and by the German Estates (Reich–sstände) between November 1648 and January 1649. A third treaty, the Treaty of Peace between Spain and the Netherlands, which also belongs to the Peace of Westphalia, had already been entered into by –Spain on the one hand and the United Provinces of the Netherlands on the other hand on 30 January 1648. In the treaty, Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands. 2 The Westphalian towns had been determined as places of the peace negotiations in the course of pre-liminary talks in Hamburg at the end of 1641, but it was only three years later that the actual negotiations began.

In Osnabrück, the envoys of the Emperor, the Estates of the Empire, and of Sweden met, while the discussions between the diplomatic agents of the Emperor, the Estates, France, and the other foreign powers took place in Münster. 3 The Peace of Westphalia formally ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618—48), a prolonged struggle over religion and political power in which most European powers had been involved. The Thirty Years‘. War was a religious conflict, the height of the struggle between Catholics and Protestants which had begun with the Reformation of the 16th century. It was also a fight for the supremacy over Europe, with France and Sweden opposing the German Emperor who belonged to the house of Habsburg. Lastly, it was a conflict between the Emperor and the larger German territories which sought to throw off their constitutional commitments to the Emperor and to establish a sort of semi–independence. 4 The Thirty Years’ War had left much of Central Europe devastated. There was an enormous loss of population, of an average of 40 per cent in the countryside and 33 per cent in the cities.

The greatest losses were suffered in Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Silesia, and central and south-west Germany where approximately 60 to 70 per cent of the population vanished due to acts of war, disease, famine, and expulsion. By the end of the war, France had replaced the Holy Roman Empire as the most populous country in Europe. The German population had declined from around 16 million in 1620 to approximately 10 million in 1650 (Oestreich [1968] 385—86). 5 The terms of the treaties shaped the landscape of Europe for centuries to come. The Peace of West-phalia was both a religious and a political-territorial settlement. Since it was extended to most European powers—among them Savoy, England, Denmark, Norway, Poland, the principalities and republics of Italy, the Netherlands, and the Swiss cities—it was truly a European peace. While little has remained of the territorial order established in 1648, the Reformation introduced by Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin was not challenged again in continental Europe after the Peace of Westphalia.

The Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück also included important rules about the constitution of the German Empire (the Holy Roman Empire ), which remained in force until the end of the Empire in 1806. 6 The long-standing peace conferences of Münster and Osnabrück were an important event in the modern history of diplomacy . Compromises over questions of protocol, many of which were only achieved after prolonged negotiations, served as a precedent for later international conferences and congresses. 7 To many international lawyers and political scientists, the Peace of Westphalia is a decisive caesura in the history of international law and relations, a divide between an older European order marked by the religious and political unity of the res publica christiana under the rule of Emperor and Pope and a modern secular system of sovereign and equal State [s] that is still in existence today, or that lasted at least until the end of World War II ( History of International Law, Ancient Times to 1648 ; History of International Law, 1648 to 1815). In the English-language literature, the latter order is often described as the Westphalian System of international law or international relations.

Historians of international law have seen the Peace of Westphalia as the end of a ‘Spanish age’ (1494—1648) and as the beginning of a ‘French age’ (1648—1815) which was marked by a political and cultural hegemony of France (Grewe 279-85). B. Religious Arrangements and General Amnesty 8 In the two peace treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, the Catholic and the Protestant denominations were in principle recognized as equal. The ‘Edict of Restitution’ (Restitutionsedikt) of 6 March 1629 was invalidated, and the Emperor had to renew recognition of the Religious Peace of Augsburg (Augsburger Friede) of 25 September 1555, which was extended to the Calvinists. With the Edict of Restitution, Emperor Ferdinand II had ordered that the monasteries, convents, and other ecclesiastical possessions that had been secularized by the Protestants since the 1552 Treaty of Passau had to be returned to the Catholics.

The Edict of Restitution also excluded the Calvinists from the benefits of the Religious Peace of Augsburg of 1555, and it allowed the Catholic Estates to suppress Protestantism in their territories. Already the Peace of Prague (1635) had included a clause invalidating the Edict of Restitution. 9 For the question whether a particular territory was Catholic or Protestant, the status of the year 1624 was determined as decisive (terminus a quo; Normaljahr; standard year) so that the religious and political conditions of that year had to be re-established (certain exceptions, for example of the city of Augsburg, notwithstanding). Also expropriations of church property to the benefit of Protestant princes and Estates that had taken place before 1 January 1624 were recognized as lawful. 10 The individual princes of the Empire retained the power, bestowed on them in 1555, to decide on the confession of their subjects (cuius regio eius religio; the religion of a person follows that of his ruler), but Protestants living in Catholic territories who had already in 1624 practised their Protestant faith were entitled to continue doing so.

Further, Protestant subjects of Catholic rulers and Catholic subjects of Protestant rulers were generally allowed to pray in their homes, to attend religious services, and to bring up their children according to their confession. Subjects were also entitled to emigrate, within a certain period of time, to another territory. To that extent, an individual right of free religious observance was established. That right, however, can only be regarded as a precursor of the later freedom of religion proclaimed by the American and French Revolutions as a consequence of a general principle of human freedom ( Religion or Belief, Freedom of, International Protection ). The religious clauses summarized above were the main reason for the Bull ‘Zelo domus Dei’ of Pope Innocent X of 26 November 1648 which condemned the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück. 11 In accordance with Christian peace ethics, the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück granted a general amnesty to everybody who had participated in the hostilities of the Thirty Years’ War. The amnesty was absolute and without any exception; there was to be an ‘everlasting oblivion5’ of everything said and done by the parties to the war. C.

Territorial Arrangements 12 The dioceses and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine were awarded to France, which had had de facto supremacy over them since 1552, as was the hitherto Austrian part of Alsace. The diocese and city of Strasbourg, however, remained with the Empire. Sweden received a number of territories bordering the Baltic Sea , including Western Pomerania (Vorpommern), Stettin (today Szczecin in Poland), Wismar, and the dioceses Bremen (not including the town) and Verden. The territories be-stowed on Sweden formally continued to be a part of the Empire, and the King of Sweden was given a seat in the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). Brandenburg was compensated for its losses (the territories given to Sweden) with former bishoprics and monasteries (Halberstadt, Minden, and Cammin), and so was Mecklenburg-Schwerin which received Schwerin and Ratzeburg.

Bavaria kept the Kurwürde, or right to be an elector of the Emperor, and Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz), while Count Palatine (Pfalzgraf) Karl Ludwig was given Rhenish Palatinate (Rheinpfalz) together with a newly created eighth Kurwürde. Hessen—Kassel was enlarged by the Abbey of Hersfeld and the Countship of Schaumburg. Basel and the other Swiss cantons (the Helvetic Confederation) were recognized as completely free and exempt from the Empire and its courts. D.

Arrangements concerning the Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire 13 The eighth Kurwürde created for Count Palatine Karl Ludwig amounted to a substantial change of the provisions of the Golden Bull of 1356, one of the fundamental laws of the Empire which determined, in particular, the procedure by which the Emperor was to be elected ([10 January 1356 and 25 December 1356] in K Zeumer [ed], Quellensammlung zum Staats-, Verwaltungs- und Völkerrecht vol 2.1 [2nd edn Siebeck Mohr Tübingen 1913] 192). The Golden Bull had explicitly named the seven Kurfürsten or prince-electors who were to choose the King of the Romans (Römischer König; Rex Romanorum), who would then usually be crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope later. Further, the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück modified the voting procedure of the Imperial Diet by determining that decisions in religious matters could only be taken unanimously, ie by mutual agreement of the Catholic and the Protestant Estates.

The imperial cities (Reichsstädte) were given seats and voting rights in the Imperial Diet. In addition to the Council (Kollegium) of the prince-electors and the Council of the imperial princes (Reichsfürsten), the cities formed a third council, divided into two benches, the Swabian and the Rhenish Bench. 14 The Peace Treaties also recognized the Reichshofrat (Aulic Council) in Vienna as a second supreme court of the Empire, beside the older Reichskammergericht (Court of the Imperial Chamber) in Wetzlar. The two courts had a concurrent jurisdiction, but in certain matters the Reichshofrat had an exclusive competence, eg in disputes over feudal rights (Feudalsachen), in criminal cases concerning the immedi-ate feudatories of the Emperor (Reichsunmittelbare), and in matters which concerned the imperial government (Reichsregierungssachen). Of the 18 members of the Council, six had to be Protestants, who, when they voted unanimously, could not be overruled. That way, a religious parity was to some extent preserved.

15 The Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück included a provision recognizing a right of the individual Estates to enter into alliances with one another and with foreign powers in order to maintain their existence and security (ius faciendi inter se et cum exteris foedera pro sua cuiusque conservatione ac securitate). Hereby, the Emperor had to accept a long-standing practice of the Estates concluding treaties of alliance with other European powers not belonging to the Empire, in particular France and Sweden. The Emperor was unable to uphold the prohibition of such alliances provided for in the Peace Treaty of Prague of 1635. However, the Peace of Westphalia limited the right to enter into alliances by saying that it did not extend to alliances directed against the Emperor or the Empire (Kaiser und Reich), or against the peace of the Empire (Reichsfriede), or against the terms of the Westphalian Treaties themselves. The Peace of Westphalia thereby confirmed the condition of loyalty to the Emperor and the Empire (exceptio imperatoris et imperii), which the alliance policy of the Estates of the 16th and 17th century had challenged.

On the other hand, the Peace of Westphalia made a declaration of war by the Emperor, on behalf of the Empire, dependent on the approval of a majority of the Estates. 16 The right of the Estates to enter into alliances involved not only the right to pursue their own foreign policy and diplomacy but also the right to make war (ius pacis ac belli) and to maintain a standing army (ius armorum). This amounted to recognition of an individual international legal personality of the princes and territories of the Empire who, although they still belonged to the Empire, came close to the status of sovereignty . 17 The Imperial Diet of 1653—54 made the Peace of Westphalia one of the ‘fundamental laws’ of the Empire, before such a concept even existed. The Peace of Westphalia was incorporated into subse-quent electoral capitulations (Wahlkapitulationen) which constitutional and legal historians see as impor-tant precursors of the constitutions of today (Oestreich [1982] 179—80). E.

The Importance of the Peace of Westphalia in the History of International Law 18 As mentioned above, the Peace of Westphalia is seen by many international lawyers and political scientists as a decisive caesura in the history of international law and relations, which marks the begin-ning of a modern secular system of sovereign and equal States. According to Hans Morgenthau, the Peace of 1648 ‘made the territorial state the cornerstone of the modern state system’ (at 264). Richard Falk called the co-ordination of sovereign State units ‘[t]he basic formal ordering conception in international society since the seventeenth century’ and explained that ‘[i]t is convenient to identify this conception with the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a dramatic event in the process of transition from medieval society to the modern world… Westphalia evolved a new image of coordinated states, each sovereign within its territorial sphere’ (at 43). Other authors introduced the term ‘Westphalian cartography’ to describe an international system characterized by clear, mainly territorial, delimitations of political authority and social bonds (Devetak and Higgott 484).

19 While it is possible to use ‘Westphalia’ as a shorthand symbol of a period in the history of international law characterized by a dominance of sovereign States, that usage is nevertheless problematic from a historical point of view. It equates with the treaties of 1648 developments which partly took place much earlier, and partly about 200 years later (Fassbender 22—26). Modern international law did not begin in the mid-17th century but in the late middle ages, already achieving a high degree of maturity both in terms of international practice and doctrine in the ‘Spanish age’ of the 16th and early 17th century. In many ways, the Peace of Westphalia presupposed the existence of a modern secular international order, an order which it confirmed. 20 By the time of the Westphalian peace negotiations, the concept of sovereignty as supremacy of a power over a particular territory and its independence from ‘foreign’ powers was doctrinally well devel-oped. Jean Bodin‘s treatise ‘Six Livres de la République’ of 1576 was generally known in Europe.

Therefore, Münster was certainly not the birthplace of the idea of sovereignty. Also, the word does not appear in the lengthy text of the Westphalian treaties, neither as suprema potestas nor in the form of similar expressions used at the time (majestas, summum imperium). In particular, the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück carefully avoided calling the Estates of the Empire ‘sovereign’. They used instead the expression ius territoriale or territorial power, thereby emphasizing the continued affiliation of the Estates with the Empire. 21 More importantly, the notion of sovereignty prevalent in the 17th century must not be equated with that used—and abused—in the 19th and early 20th century. Contrary to the latter, it was restricted by obligations arising from natural law (Scheuner 245). In other words, a king or prince of the 17th century was not regarded as ‘standing above the law’. Also, the idea, later developed by legal positivism , of States being only bound by obligations freely accepted by them, was not yet known at the time of the Peace of Westphalia.

It is true that the Peace of Westphalia, by confirming the dissolution of the medieval unity of Christendom, fostered and accelerated the process towards a European order of independent States. But there is no uniform or coherent ‘period of the sovereign State’ stretching from the 17th to the 20th century. 22 In conclusion, this writer agrees with Leo Gross who described the Peace of Westphalia as an event of outstanding and lasting value in the evolution of international law because it promoted ‘the laicization of international law by divorcing it from any particular religious background, and the extension of its scope so as to include, on a footing of equality, republican and monarchical states’ (at 31). Gross rightly added, however, that it would seem hazardous to regard the settlement of Münster and Osnabrück as more than a stage ‘in the gradual, though by no means uniform, process which antedates and continues beyond the year 1648’ (at 32). Select Bibliography L Gross ‘The Peace of Westphalia: 1648-1948’ (1948) 42 AJIL 20—41.

U Scheuner ‘Die groβen Friedensschlüsse als Grundlage der europäischen Staatenordnung zwischen 1648 und 1815’ in K Repgen and S Skalweit (eds), Spiegel der Geschichte: Festgabe für Max Braubach zum 10. April 1964 (Aschendorff Münster 1964) 220—50. HJ Morgenthau Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (4th ed Knopf New York 1967) G Oestreich ‘Das Reich—Habsburgische Monarchie—Brandenburg—Preuβen von 1648 bis 1803’ in F Wagner (ed), Handbuch der europêischen Geschichte vol 4 Europa im Zeitalter des Absolutismus und der Aufklêrung (Union Verlag Stuttgart 1968) 378—475.

RA Falk ‘The Interplay of Westphalia and Charter Conceptions of the International Legal Order’ in RA Falk and CE Black (eds), The Future of the International Legal Order vol 1 Trends and Patterns (Princeton University Press Princeton 1969) 32—70. G Oestreich Neostoicism and the Early Modern State (CUP Cambridge 1982). H Duchhardt (ed), Bibliographie zum Westfêlischen Frieden (Aschendorff Münster 1996).

J Arndt ‘Der Frieden von Münster zwischen dem König von Spanien und der Republik der Vereinigten Niederlande 1648— e vrede van Munster tussen de koning van Spanje en de Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden 1648’ in G Dethlefs (ed), Der Frieden von Münster 1648: Der Vertragstext nach einem zeitgenössischen Druck und die Beschreibungen der Ratifikationsfeiern—De vrede van Munster 1648: De verdragstekst naar een contemporaine druk en de beschrijvingen van de ratificatievieringen (Regensberg Münster 1998) 12—43. F Dickmann Der Westfälische Frieden (7th ed Aschendorff Münster 1998). H Duchhardt (ed) Der Westfêlische Friede: Diplomatie—politische Zäsur—kulturelles Umfeld—Rezeptionsgeschichte (Oldenbourg München 1998).

A Eyffinger ‘Europe in the Balance: An Appraisal of the Westphalian System’ (1998) 45 Netherlands International Law Review 161—87. B Fassbender ‘Die verfassungs- und völkerrechtsgeschichtliche Bedeutung des Westfälischen Friedens von 1648’ in I Erberich (ed), Frieden und Recht (Boorberg Stuttgart 1998) 9—52. C Harding (ed) ‘Der Westfälische Frieden in rechts- und staatstheoretischer Perspektive’ O Moorman Van Kappen (ed) Renegotiating Westphalia: Essays and Commentary on the European and Conceptual Foundations of Modern International Law(Kluwer The Hague 1999).

D Philpott ‘Westphalia, Authority and International Society’ (1999) 47 Political Studies 566—89 A Randelzhofer ‘Die Bedeutung des Westfälischen Friedens für das Völkerrecht’ in J Isensee and H Lecheler (eds), Freiheit und Eigentum: Festschrift für Walter Leisner zum 70. Geburtstag (Duncker & Humblot Berlin 1999) 3—17.

M Schröder (ed) 350 Jahre Westfälischer Friede: Verfassungsgeschichte, Staatskirchenrecht, Völkerrechtsgeschichte K-H Ziegler ‘Die Bedeutung des Westfälischen Friedens von 1648 für das europäische Völkerrecht’ L Bély (ed) L’Europe des traités de Westphalie: Esprit de la diplomatie et diplomatie de l’esprit (Presses Universitaires de France Paris 2000) WG Grewe The Epochs of International Law (De Gruyter Berlin 2000). K Malettke ‘Les traités de paix de Westphalie et l’organisation politique du Saint Empire romain germanique’ (2001) 210 XVIIe siècle 113–44. R Lesaffer (ed) Peace Treaties and International Law in European History: From the Late Middle Ages to World War One (CUP New York 2004).

R Babel (ed) Le diplomate au travail: Entscheidungsprozesse, Information und Kommunikation im Umkreis des Westfälischen Friedenskongresses (Oldenbourg München 2005). A Blin 1648 La Paix de Westphalie ou la naissance de l’Europe politique moderne (éditions Complexe Bruxelles 2006). H Steiger Von der Staatengesellschaft zur Weltrepublik? Aufsätze zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts aus vierzig Jahren (Nomos Baden-Baden 2009). Select Documents K Zeumer Abschied des Augsburger Reichstages (Augsburger Friede) (25 September 1555) in K Zeumer (ed), Quellensammlung zum Staats-, Verwaltungs- und Völkerrecht vol 2.1 Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der Deutschen Reichsverfassung in Mittelalter und Neuzeit (2nd ed Siebeck Mohr Tübingen 1913) 341.

M Braubach and M Braubach (eds), Acta Pacis Westphalicae vol III B 1/1 and 1/3 Urkunden and Materialien zur Erschließung und Register (Aschendorff Münster 1998 and 2007). WG Grewe (ed), Fontes Historiae Iuris Gentium: Quellen zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts vol 2 1493-1815 (De Gruyter Berlin 1988). K MüLler (ed), Instrumenta Pacis Westphalicae: Die Westfälischen Friedensverträge 1648 (3rd ed Lang Bern 1975). J Dumont Peace of Prague (30 May 1635) in J Dumont Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens (Brunel Amsterdam 1728) 88.

M Frisch Restitutionsedikt (6 March 1629) in M Frisch, Das Restitutionsedikt Kaiser Ferdinands II.: Eine rechtsgeschichtliche Unter-suchung (Siebeck Mohr Tübingen 1993) 184. JJ Schmid (ed), Quellen zur Geschichte des Dreißigjährigen Krieges: Zwischen Prager Frieden und Westfälischem Frieden (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt 2009). Treaty of Passau (signed 2 August 1552) in VH Drecoll Der Passauer Vertrag (1552): Einleitung und Edition (De Gruyter Berlin 2000) 98. Treaty of Peace between the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden and the Treaty of Peace between France and the Holy Roman Empire (signed and entered into force 24 October 1648) (1648-49) 1 CTS 198, 319.

Treaty of Peace between Spain and the Netherlands (signed and entered into force 30 January 1648) 1 CTS 1. Zelo domus Dei (26 November 1648) in MF Feldkamp ‘Das Breve “Zelo domus Dei” vom 26. November 1648’ (1993) 31 Archivum Historiae Pontificiae 293. final - History Western Civ 1 with Gilley at Northwest Missouri State University - StudyBlue The uprising in Paris was led by _____________ in 1358. Étienne Marcel The organized persecution of Jews during the Black Death was worst in ________. Germany The first major crisis that undermined Italian banks occurred when _________ defaulted on his loans. Edward III In 1324, ____________, a physician and lawyer, argued in The Defender of the Peace that the source of all power lay with the people. Marsilius of Padua The powerful state of ______________ disappeared by the end of the fifteenth century. Burgundy The rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy were famous for ___________.

their patronage of the arts Gallicanism refers to ____________. the French monarchy's control of ecclesiastical affairs Venice was well-known for its _________. Navy In _________, conversos were frequently subjected to persecution. Spain In 1467 two German printers established the first press in Rome and produced twelve thousand volumes in five years, which in the past would have required _____________ scribes working full time for the same number of years. 1000 In the 1490s, the city of ______________ became an international meeting place for printers and booksellers, establishing a book fair that remains an unbroken tradition to this day. Frankfurt-am-Main Floretine architect, __________, argued for large-scale urban planning, with monumental buildings set on open squares that were harmonious and beautiful in their proportions. Leon Battista Alberti The humanist Lauro Quirini made his living as a _____________. merchant In a voyage lasting from 1497 to 1499, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed in ___________, the center of the spice trade.

Calicut In _____, Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe. 1519 In 1500, ____ claimed Brazil for Portugal while on a voyage to India. Pedro Alvares Cabral The capture of the ___________ city of Tenochtitlán added Mexico to the Spanish Empire. Aztec Looking for a northwest passage to China, _____________ led three voyages that explored the St. Lawrence River as far as Montreal. Jacques Cartier John Calvin developed his ministry and lived most of his later life in _______________. geneva The Jesuit Francis Xavier landed in ____________ in 1549 and his missionary work eventually gained more than 100,000 converts. japan In his book Utopia, __________ wrote about an imaginary land that was free from the miseries caused by politics, property, and war. thomas more In 1529 the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Suleiman I laid siege to _____________, which was unsuccessful but sent shock waves throughout Christian Europe. vienna The Treaty of __________ , signed in 1559, ended the conflict between the Hapsburg Emperor and the French Monarchy.

Cateau-Cambrésis The accidental death of _____________ in a jousting match in 1559 worsened the religious factionalism in France by leaving the monarchy in the hands of a fifteen-year-old. henry II For Henry IV, Paris was "worth a _________." mass In the Peace of Augsburg in the year ________, Emperor Charles V agreed to the principle that all princes held the sole right to determine the religion of their lands and subjects. 1555 The Thirty Years' War was sparked when a Protestant mob in ___________ threw two Catholic deputies out of a castle window. prauge King ___________ of Denmark responded to Albrecht von Wallenstein's occupation of Protestant Germany by invading it himself to protect the Protestants and extend his influence. christian IV Louis XIII's chief minister ______________ advocated a policy in which the interests of the state overrode all other concerns, including religion. Cardinal Richelieu Hoping to block Spanish intervention in the Thirty Years' War and increase their influence in the Holy Roman Empire, the Catholic French monarchy subsidized the Lutheran ___________ of Sweden's invasion of Germany.

Gustavus Adolphus The _________ issued by Emperor Ferdinand II in 1629 outlawed Calvinism in the Holy Roman Empire and reclaimed Catholic church property that had been confiscated by the Lutherans. Edict of Restitution The ____________ were the only people to emerge from the economic downturn of the seventeenth century unscathed due to their innovative systems of field drainage, crop rotation, and animal husbandry. dutch The _________ government did not allow Protestants to emigrate to the New World, effectively denying itself a ready population for settling its colonies. french In __________ the complete enserfment of the peasantry was accomplished with the Code of Laws in 1649. muscovy The crisis of the seventeenth century ended the dominance of the ____________ economies, which had endured since the time of the Greeks and Romans. mediterranian Separating from the Church of England, a small sect of ________________ emigrated to the New World aboard the Mayflower. pilgrims The painter __________ epitomized the Mannerist style, using larger-than-life figures and elongated figures to create an effect of religious intensity.

greco The ideas of ____________ paved the way for absolutism by arguing that the monarch should be the sole and uncontested source of power. jean bodin _____________ argued for a "natural law" that was more important than Scripture, religious authority, or tradition in politics. hugo grotius The observation by __________ of a new star in 1572 and a comet in 1577 challenged the Aristotelian view that the universe was unchanging. Tycho Brahe ___________ helped establish the modern science of pharmacology with his experiments with new drugs, although he still pursued interests in magic, alchemy, and astrology. paracelsus The Treaty of Westphalia - YouRepeat Add our chrome extension to repeat YouTube videos at the click of a button The Treaty of Westphalia Choose your time range using the slider. Start: Use this link to share your repeat GIF Creation Settings Separate tags with commas or press enter (max 5 tags) Quick GIF Create Prince Blackadder - Blackadder - BBC Peace of Westphalia The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabrück and Münster.

These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. The Peace of Westphalia treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, of the House of Habsburg; the Kingdom of Spain; the Kingdom of France; the Swedish Empire; the Dutch Republic; the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire; and sovereigns of the free imperial cities and can be denoted by two major events. The signing of the Peace of Münster between the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648, officially ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648. The signing of two complementary treaties on 24 October 1648, namely: The Treaty of Münster, concerning the Holy Roman Emperor and France and their respective allies. The Treaty of Osnabrück, concerning the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of France, Sweden and their respective allies.

The treaties resulted from the big diplomatic congress, thereby initiating a new system of political order in central Europe, later called Westphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of a sovereign state governed by a sovereign and establishing a prejudice in international affairs against interference in another nation's domestic business. The treaty not only signaled the end of the perennial, destructive wars that had ravaged Europe, it also represented the triumph of sovereignty over empire,of national rule over the personal writ of the Habsburgs and the establishment of the first version of international order. The treaties' regulations became integral to the constitutional law of the Holy Roman Empire, and stood as a precursor to later large international treaties and thereby the development of international law in general. Also known as: Treaty of Westphalia Popular videos The Treaty of Westphalia | History Today The Treaty of Westphalia Germany Thirty Years War On October 24th 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, marking the end of the Thirty Years' War. The Westphalia area of north-western Germany gave its name to the treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War, one of the most destructive conflicts in the history of Europe.

The war or series of connected wars began in 1618, when the Austrian Habsburgs tried to impose Roman Catholicism on their Protestant subjects in Bohemia. It pitted Protestant against Catholic, the Holy Roman Empire against France, the German princes and princelings against the emperor and each other, and France against the Habsburgs of Spain. The Swedes, the Danes, the Poles, the Russians, the Dutch and the Swiss were all dragged in or dived in. Commercial interests and rivalries played a part, as did religion and power politics. Among famous commanders involved were Marshal Turenne and the Prince de Condé for France, Wallenstein for the Empire and Tilly for the Catholic League, and there was an able Bavarian general curiously named Franz von Mercy. Others to play a part ranged from the Winter King of Bohemia to the emperors Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III, Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania, Christian IV of Denmark, Gustavus II Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, Philip IV of Spain and his brother the Cardinal-Infante, Louis XIII of France, Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin and several popes.

Gustavus Adolphus was shot in the head and killed at the battle of Lutzen in 1632. The increasingly crazed Wallenstein, who grew so sensitive to noise that he had all the dogs, cats and cockerels killed in every town he came to, was murdered by an English captain in 1634. Still the fighting went on. The war was largely fought on German soil and reduced the country to desolation as hordes of mercenaries, left unpaid by their masters, lived off the land. Rapine, pillage and famine stalked the countryside as armies marched about, plundering towns, villages and farms as they went. ‘We live like animals, eating bark and grass,’ says a pitiful entry in a family Bible from a Swabian village. ‘No one could have imagined that anything like this would happen to us. Many people say that there is no God...’ Wenceslas Hollar recorded devastation in the war zone in engravings of the 1630s and starvation reached such a point in the Rhineland that there were cases of cannibalism.

The horror became a way of life and when the war finally ended, the mercenaries and their womenfolk complained that their livelihood was gone. The peace conference to end the war opened in Münster and Osnabrück in December 1644. It involved no fewer than 194 states, from the biggest to the smallest, represented by 179 plenipotentiaries. There were thousands of ancillary diplomats and support staff, who had to be given housing, fed and watered, and they did themselves well for close to four years, despite famine in the country around. Presiding over the conference were the Papal Nuncio, Fabio Chigi (the future Pope Alexander VII), and the Venetian ambassador. The first six months were spent arguing about who was to sit where and who was to go into a room ahead of whom. The principal French and Spanish envoys never managed to meet at all because the correct protocol could not be agreed. A special postal system handled reams of letters between the envoys and their principals at a time when it took ten days or more to send a communication from Münster to Paris or Vienna and twenty days or more to Stockholm or Madrid.

Slowly deals were hammered out. Even then it took almost three weeks just to organise the signing ceremony, which commenced at two o’clock in the afternoon of Saturday, October 24th, 1648. The treaty gave the Swiss independence of Austria and the Netherlands independence of Spain. The German principalities secured their autonomy. Sweden gained territory and a payment in cash, Brandenburg and Bavaria made gains too, and France acquired most of Alsace-Lorraine. The prospect of a Roman Catholic reconquest of Europe vanished forever. Protestantism was in the world to stay. Example Essays: Treaty Of Westphalia 1. The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) When the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, many aspects of European society were changed dramatically. Two significant changes were that the Thirty Years War altered the balance of power between countries and also impacted the role and influence of religion across the continent.First of all, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed at the end of the war in 1648 after four years of negotiations. ... This treaty drastically changed the balance of power between these territories. ...

The Dutch, when granted independence from Spain as a result of the treaty, were able to create their own overseas trade ... Word Count: 734 2. Dutch DBQ The Dutch Republic in 1650 was independent under the Peace of Westphalia. ... The Treaty of Dover shows that foreign enemies were allying against the Dutch Republic and preparing to overpower it. Under the treaty, France and England joined forces and France fought on the land, while England went to war at sea. ... Word Count: 693 3. Thirty Years War The treaty did not recognize the Calvinists, even though many German states adopted the faith. ... All sides were ready for peace now, and the Peace of Westphalia ended the conflict in 1648. ... The Peace of Westphalia ensured freedom to the German states, and broke up the Holy Roman Empire. ... Word Count: 445 4. Libreral War In Iraq Last summer at West Point, president Bush gave a speech about how the country will be following the lead of a 354-year old doctrine, the Treaty of Westphalia.

Jim Lobe, of the Asia Times, summarizes the treaty saying that it "Codified the principles of sovereignty and non-interferences in the international affairs of other countries." ... Word Count: 377 5. Sovereignty With the Reformation and Counter-reformation and the subsuquent wars of religion "the emerging authority of the secular state appeared to be the most effective remedy for the widespread religious and political disorder that enfulged EuropeaE(2).State sovereignty reached its top point after Westphalia Treaty (1648) and subsequent 300 years world politics was basicly organized on the basis of so-callaed westphalian system. "The treaties of Westphalia formally recognized the existence of seperate sovereignities in one international societyaE(3). The Westphalia state was sovereign and... Word Count: 1850 6. The Hapsburg Dilema Charles the 5th signed the treaty of Augsburg and the treaty of Cambresis therefore ending all major wars amongst the Europeans. ... They all agreed to the Treaty of Westphalia, which ended all outstanding European conflicts. ...

The results of the Treaty of Westphalia were that it allowed Europeans to concentrate more on their economies and on their civil issues. ... Word Count: 1537 7. Strategic Alliances The bloody Thirty Years War was ended by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and the conclusion of these religious wars would be determined by the secular ruler and not by an external authority, such as the Pope. However, this principle had already been established through the Treaty of Augsburg (1555). According to this treaty each individual German principality had the right to decide whether its territory would be Lutheran or Catholic (Britannica, p.383). ... This system of the secular state after the Treaty of Westphalia formed the basis of the today"s system (Cobban, p. 1)3. ... Word Count: 2410 10.

Is the Concept of the Sovereign state Relevant in the Contem It was the Peace Treaties of Westphalia of 1648 at the end of the Thirty Years' War which marked the birth of the state system and acknowledged the individual sovereignty of the empire's states (Schreuer, 1999; p1). After the Peace of Westphalia, two legal rules of °immunity from jurisdiction ± and °immunity of state agencies ± were taken to uphold the national sovereignty in international affairs (Held, McGrew, Glodblatt & Perration, 1999; pp38). ... More recently (1999), the U.S. government acted in the context of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and led humanitaria... Word Count: 1818 11. Thirty Years War The book that I chose to read for my book report is called Problems in European Civilization: The Thirty Years' War: Problems of Motive, Extent and Effect. This book is a summary of the history of the Thirty Years war.. In my essay, I will show what lead to war and what happened during the war as ... Word Count: 1037 12.

What are the effects of an expanding EU on the sovereignty Europeans invented national sovereignty with "The Treaty of Westphalia,aE in 1648.2 European colonization and power quickly spread this concept throughout the world creating the modern nation state. ... By March 1957 these six countries signed treaties forming the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Eurotom). ... In February 1992 member states signed the treaty of the European Union initiating this structure. ... This treaty restructured the voting power of the member nations to accommodate the new members. ... The governmental struct... Word Count: 2411 13. Thirty years war The Thirty Years War was a series of European conflicts that lasted from 1618 to 1648. The battles were mainly fought in Germany. The struggle was initially based on the religious conflicts among Germans by the Protestant Reformation, but it was later influenced by other issues and later became domi... Word Count: 2101 14.

Evolution of international state system The State System in this arena was affected by Industrial Revolution, representative governments, political changes, growth of international law, emergence of international organization, economic interdependence, revolution in the means of transport and communication.FROM WESTPHALIA TO UTRECHTAn important concept to the state system was the principle of "dynastic legitimacy." ... Four Major Wars of Louis XIV were the War of Devolution 1667-1668 against Spanish Netherlands, Second Dutch War 1672- 1678 against Dutch, War of the League of Augsburg 1688-1697 and War of the Spanish Succession 1702-... Word Count: 1478 15. European History in the seventeenth century After reforms in France, and his alliance with Charles II (of England), Louis attacked again in 1672 (the Dutch War) which was blocked by the William III of Orange and resolved in the treaty of Nimwegen. ... Although France had rights in the region the terms of the Peace of Westphalia and local law made it possible for claims to "go in contrary directions". ...

The Dutch broke off from Spain and gained legal existence from the Treat of Westphalia. ... Word Count: 1538 16. Religion and Politics The second period will include the Renaissance, the Reformation to the Treaty of Westphalia (1101 to 1648 A.D.). ... The treaty of Westphelia was the agreement which not only settled the war, but gave absolute authority to the sovereign of each individual state. ... Word Count: 1327 17. Napoleon In May 1796, Napoleon rushed across North Italy, making Sardinia sign a peace treaty for its region. ... When Napoleon realized his army was moving too slow and had a chance of being attacked from behind he made a peace treaty between France and Austria which was called the Treaty of Campo Formio. ... The Second Coalition ended when Napoleon made the Treaty of Luneville with Austria (1801) and the Treaty of Amiens with Great Britain (1802). The victory at Marengo and the two treaties made France the highest power in all of Europe. ... Austria was then forced out of the Coalition by the harsh T...

Word Count: 1970 Between 1618 and 1648 Europe was torn apart by a horrific war known as the thirty years war, which finally ended with the peace of Westphalia. This treaty enshrined the inviolability of the Sovereign state. ... Word Count: 1549 21. Endangered and Minority Languages Culture, "the future of the local languages depends not so much on the strength of the national languages as on the relationship of the local language to education, government, and commerce.aE The Peace Treaty of Westphalia, the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna and the League of Nations Minority Treaties during the inter-war period in the first half of the twentieth century all included provisions for specific group-based rights in key areas related to language use, such as cultural institutions, education and communication with public services. ... Word Count: 1941 22. Do we really want an European constitution Do we really want a European Constitution?In science the award comes for the question aE" rather than for a seemingly certainanswer. The same is true for teaching, especially for teaching democracy, andfor education.

It often strikes me how much education and democracy have incommon: both, theories of education as well as theories of democracy, presumethe autonomous individual from the very beginning, capable to question anyauthority and any wisdom by itself. However, at the same time in both theoriesthere seems to exist the certainty that this autonomous individual still has to bedeveloped to... Word Count: 5120 23. love Black death- combination of bubonic and pneumonic plague. 1st swept through Europe in 1347, than returned for 3 yrs. on intervals. It originated in the Gobi desert of Mongolia and spread along the western trade routes and reached ports along the black sea. If received by a flee the person would swel... Word Count: 2695 24. Napoleons Russian Campaign The Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony and Westphalia each sent 17,000 men and there were many additions from various other nations under Napoleon"s control. ... He received no reply from Alexander who promised his army that he would never go through with any peace treaty with Napoleon, which left Napoleon with three options. ...

Word Count: 2800 Treaty of Rijswijk | Europe [1697] | Britannica.com Treaty of Rijswijk THIS IS A DIRECTORY PAGE. Britannica does not currently have an article on this topic. Learn about this topic in these articles: in India: The French ...of the settlements was interrupted by events in Europe. The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693; when the French regained it under the Peace of Ryswick (1697), they gained the best fortifications in India but lost their trade. By 1706 the French enterprise seemed moribund. The company’s privileges were let to a group of Saint-Malo... in Saarland: History ...the Peace of Westphalia (1648). Saar became a French province in 1684 under the Truce of Regensburg, but in 1697 France was forced to surrender all of Saar except the town of Saarlouis under the Treaty of Rijswijk. From 1792 to 1815 France again occupied Saar, together with the entire west bank of the Rhine.

With the final defeat of Napoleon I in 1815, France was forced to cede most of Saar... in Haiti: Plantations and slaves The Treaty of Rijswijk (1697) formally ceded the western third of Hispaniola from Spain to France, which renamed it Saint-Domingue. The colony’s population and economic output grew rapidly during the 18th century, and it became France’s most prosperous New World possession, exporting sugar and smaller amounts of coffee, cacao, indigo, and cotton. By the 1780s nearly two-thirds of France’s... in Strasbourg: History ...avoided the religious conflicts of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48). In 1681 Louis XIV of France seized the city in peacetime and obtained ratification for his arbitrary action by the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697). The town retained its privileges until the French Revolution (1787–99). In 1792 Claude-Joseph Rouget de Lisle, a French poet, musician, and soldier, composed in... in Protestantism: Catholic recovery of Protestant territories ...population.

Louis XIV ruled the Palatinate for nine years and allowed the French Catholics to share the churches with the Protestants; though he was compelled to surrender the country at the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697) to the Holy Roman Empire following the War of the Grand Alliance, a clause (the Simultaneum) of the treaty (added at the last moment... in King William’s War ...attacks on Schenectady, N.Y., Salmon Falls (in present New Hampshire), and Casco Bay (in present Maine) but failed against their main target—Boston. The protracted war ended with the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697). Because of the importance of Indian participation, it is also known as the first of the four French and Indian Wars. in War of the Grand Alliance ...separate negotiations. Savoy, which had joined the League of Augsburg in 1687, signed a separate peace (Treaty of Turin) with Louis in June 1696. A movement for a general peace culminated in the Treaty of Rijswijk in September-October 1697.

The treaty brought no resolution to the conflict between the Bourbon rulers of France and the Habsburgs, or to the English-French conflict; both were... in James II (king of Great Britain) ...increasingly under the influence of his pietistic wife. He became daily more absorbed in his devotions, and his more aggressive supporters soon came to regard him as something of a liability. The Treaty of Rijswijk between England and France (1697) removed his last hopes of restoration. in Leopold I (Holy Roman emperor): The struggle with France. ...The Emperor was accused of a wavering attitude and lack of initiative, and these character traits were indeed partly responsible for the failure of his policies. The war ended in the unfavourable Treaty of Rijswijk (1697), under the terms of which Strasbourg had to be ceded to France, a great discredit to Leopold. in Louis XIV (king of France): Revocation of the Edict of Nantes ...united in the Grand Alliance to resist Louis’s expansionism. The resulting war lasted from 1688 to 1697.

Despite many victories, Louis gave up part of his territorial acquisitions when he signed the Treaty of Rijswijk, for which the public judged him harshly. He reconciled himself to another painful sacrifice when he recognized William of Orange as William III of England, in violation of his... in France: Foreign affairs ...for their own economic benefit. Here again was an example of mutual hostility and suspicion in which interpretations of motives in Versailles and in The Hague were diametrically opposed. At the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697) the Dutch gained the right to keep a series of Dutch barrier fortresses within the southern Netherlands as a check against French aggression; it was Louis’s seizure of these... in William III (king of England, Scotland, and Ireland): The Glen Coe massacre From 1691 William spent much time campaigning on the continent with varying degrees of success, but by 1696 a number of factors made both sides anxious for peace, and the Treaties of Rijswijk were signed in 1697.

The question, vital for a European balance of power, of who was to succeed the childless king Charles II of Spain remained unsettled, however, and William had good cause to fear that... in United Kingdom: The sinews of war ...believe. The ascendancy of the so-called Junto Whigs might have been secured had not European events once again intruded into English affairs. In 1697 the War of the Grand Alliance ended with the Treaty of Rijswijk, in which Louis XIV formally recognized William III as king of England.

Question: The treaty known at The Peace of Westphalia formally ended which seventeenth-century contact?
Answer: Thirty Years Wars