History of road safety, The Highway Code and the driving test - GOV.UK GOV.UK History of road safety, The Highway Code and the driving test Updated 26 March 2015 4. Development and timeline of British driving, road safety and driving tests 1. Overview of road safety in Great Britain Driver licences were first introduced in Britain by the Motor Car Act, 1903, purely as a means of identifying vehicles and their drivers. All motor vehicles had to be registered, display registration marks and be licensed annually at a cost of 20 shillings (£1). The fee for the first driving licence, which was obtained over the counter at Post Offices, was 5 shillings (25p). Failure to sign your driving licence with your ‘ordinary signature’ could lead to a fine of up to £5. In 1921 there were only 1 million drivers in Britain. By 1939 this figure had risen to 3 million. But it was only during the 1960s, when cars became more affordable, that motoring really took off.

In 1973 the number of drivers had risen to about 20 million and a centralised computer-based licensing system was brought in to cope with the huge increase in demand for both driver and vehicle licences. 2. The Highway Code Hundreds of thousands of copies of The Highway Code are sold each year, ensuring that it never leaves the bestseller lists. It’s one of the few books in print that can lay claim to saving thousands of lives. When it was first launched in 1931 there were just 2.3 million motor vehicles in Great Britain, yet over 7,000 people were killed in road accidents each year. The Highway Code first edition. Today there are more than 27 million vehicles on our roads but, thanks to greater public awareness, advances in technology and the introduction of British summer time, only half the number of road deaths occur. Some things have not changed over the years: the very first edition of The Highway Code urged all road users to be careful and considerate towards others, putting safety first. However, other aspects of the code have changed considerably. For example, in 1931 mirrors were not even mentioned and drivers were advised to sound their horn when overtaking.

Nowadays, advice on how to cross the road fills a whole chapter, but in the early days it only merited a paragraph. More than a third of the original 24-page booklet described the various hand signals the police and road users should use, compared to the single page given to the subject in the current edition. The first edition The first edition was published in 1931, it: cost 1 old penny was the only one to carry advertisements, for the AA, The Autocar magazine, The Motorcycle magazine, Castrol Motor Oil, BP, Motor Union Insurance and the RAC contained 18 pages of advice, compared to 135 pages in the 2007 edition included advice to drivers of horse drawn vehicles to ‘rotate the whip above the head; then incline the whip to the right or left to show the direction in which the turn is to be made.’ Since those early days, regular revisions of the Code have reflected changes in technology and developments in traffic management and road safety. Road signs Diagrams of road signs - just 10 signs in all - were first seen in the second edition, as was a warning about the dangers of driving when affected by alcohol or fatigue.

Stopping distances Stopping distances made their first appearance in the third edition, along with new sections giving hints on driving and cycling. In colour The 1954 Highway Code, complemented by brand new colour illustrations, gave over the back cover to first aid guidance, while the expanded traffic signs section contained the first triangular warning signs. Motorways The arrival of motorways in the late 1950s led to the inclusion, in the fifth edition, of a new section on motorway driving. It explained such things as how to use exit slip roads and advising drivers to avoid drowsiness by stretching their legs at the parking or service areas. Photographs and 3D illustrations By the sixth edition in 1968 photographs and 3D illustrations had been included to help make rules clear and the price had risen from 6 old pence to 1/3d (6p). After decimalisation reprinted editions cost just 6 new pence. Green Cross Code The 70-page 1978 edition introduced the Green Cross Code for pedestrians and the new orange badges for people with a disability. Prompted by soaring car crime statistics, the amended version contained advice on vehicle security.

Theory test The 1990s saw a new format taller booklet and the inclusion of a section geared to the new driving theory test, which in the current edition has now become part of the Code itself. Getting social In 2011 the Highway Code joined social networking websites Twitter and Facebook to share reminders of the rules of the road. The Highway Code app In May 2012 The Official Highway Code app for iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad was launched, priced £3.99. 3. Top 10 driving test facts The driving test’s been going for 80 years. Here are the top 10 driving test facts: Mr Beere was the first person to pass the driving test in 1935: he paid the grand total of 7/ 6d (37.5p) to take the test. There were no test centres in 1935 so you had to arrange to meet the examiner somewhere like a post office, train station or town hall. The test was suspended for the duration of World War 2 and didn’t resume until 1 November 1946. In 1975, candidates no longer had to demonstrate hand signals.

The theory test was introduced in 1996, replacing questions about The Highway Code during the practical test. Driving was much more hazardous 80 years ago - 7,343 people were killed on Great Britain’s roads when only 2.4 million vehicles were in use - in 2008, 2,538 people were killed with 26.5 million vehicles on the road. Candidates could book their theory test online for the first time in December 2001. The pass rate in 1935 was 63% compared to 46% in 2009 . 1969 saw the first driving test set for an automatic vehicle. Since 1935 more than 46 million tests have been taken. 4. Development and timeline of British driving, road safety and driving tests 1888 The first recorded sale of a manufactured motor car was to Emile Roger of Paris, who bought a petrol-driven Benz. 1907 Cabs with meters began operating in London. 1930 Regulations introduced covering endorsements and fitness declaration. The Road Traffic Act 1930 introduces licensing system for public service vehicles ( PSV ).

In the early days of motoring, one licence covered both cars and motorcycles use. Age restrictions and a form of driving tests brought in for disabled drivers. Full licences for disabled drivers valid for 1 year. 1931 PSV drivers could be required to take a test, at discretion of Traffic Commissioners. The first edition of the Highway Code was published including advice for motorcycle riders. 1934 Licences for lorry drivers were introduced on 16 February 1934 under the Road Traffic Act, 1934 - the licensing authority could require the applicant to submit to a practical test of their ability. ‘Belisha’ beacons provide advanced warning of new pedestrian crossings. 1935 Voluntary testing was introduced on 16 March 1935 by the Road Traffic Act 1934. This was done to avoid a rush of candidates when the test becomes compulsory. Mr R Beere was the first person to pass the driving test, at a cost of 7/ 6d (37.5p). Mr R Beere's pass certificate (Photo above used with permission of M Beere).

Compulsory testing was brought in on 1 June 1935 for all drivers and riders who started driving on or after 1 April 1934: around 246,000 candidates applied the pass rate was 63% between 9 and 16 half-hour tests were conducted each day by 250 examiners Those passing the motorcycling test did not need to take another test to drive a car. The test was conducted by the examiner positioning themselves at a point where they could observe the motorcyclist’s riding such as beside a common or in a city square. In the case of sidecar outfits or three-wheelers, the examiner might have accompanied the rider.

Examiners were responsible for: handling the booking of driving tests they met candidates at pre-arranged locations such as car parks or railway stations because there were no test centres Other road safety milestones included: anyone buying a driving licence must put ‘L’ plates on the car and eventually take a driving test to get their full licence a 30 miles per hour (mph) speed limit was introduced in urban areas windscreen wipers were used for the first time 1937 Speedometers and safety glass in windscreens were made compulsory on 1 January 1937. Provisional licences were brought in for heavy goods vehicle ( HGV ) drivers. 1939 Driving tests were suspended on 2 September 1939 for the duration of World War 2. During the war, examiners were redeployed to traffic duties and supervision of fuel rationing. 1940 HGV licences and tests were suspended on 1 January 1940 because of World War 2. 1946 Testing resumed on 1 November 1946 following the end of World War 2 the previous year.

1947 The Motor Vehicles (Driving Licences) Regulations placed motorcyclists in their own licence group, but testing remained virtually unchanged until the 1960s. On 18 February 1947, a period of 1 year was granted for wartime provisional licences to be converted into full licence without passing the test. 1950 The pass rate for the driving test was 50%. 1951 1956 The test fee doubled from 10 shillings (50p) to £1 on 19 October 1956. Testing was suspended from 24 November 1956 during the Suez Crisis. Learners were allowed to drive unaccompanied and examiners helped to administer petrol rations. 1957 Testing resumed on 15 April 1957 after the Suez Crisis. Provisional licences were no longer stamped with ‘passed test’ from 15 July 1957. The 3-year driving licence was introduced on 1 September 1957 under the Road Traffic Act 1956.

The fee for a replacement licence, if lost or defaced, rises by 150% from 1 shilling (5p) to 2/ 6d (12.5p). 1958 From 1 March 1958, provisional licences are valid for 6 months. The M6 Preston bypass was the first stretch of motorway built in December 1958. 1959 A new examiner training facility was acquired at Stanmore training school, near Heathrow. Until then, examiners were trained ‘on the job’. The M1 was officially opened on 2 November 1959. In the early days it had none of the following: speed limit motorway lighting 1961 From 1 July 1961, learner riders were restricted to machines of no more than 250cc capacity in order to deal with the high number of motorcycling fatalities. 1962 From 1 April 1962, people who had held more than 7 provisional licences were required to take a driving test. If they failed to do so, the licensing authority could refuse a further application for a licence.

1963 The Road Traffic Act 1962 permitted riders to ride motorcycles of more than 250cc after passing their test. New grouping systems were introduced for driving tests and driving licences and a distinction was made between the test of competence and the test of fitness. Mopeds were placed in their own vehicle group for driving test purposes. 1964 A voluntary register of approved driving instructors (ADIs) was set up under the Road Traffic Act 1962. To become an ADI you had to pass stringent written and practical tests. 1965 Centralised licensing system was set up at new Swansea Driver and Vehicle Licensing Centre ( DVLC ), taking over licence issue from County/Borough councils. The application form for a driving or motorcycle licence was revised from 1 May 1965. The medical standard for eyesight was changed. The distance from which a driving test candidate must be able read a number plate was changed to 67 feet for 3 1/8 inch high characters. 1967 On 10 May 1967, The Road Safety Act 1967 paved the way for regulations covering the licensing and testing of HGV drivers.

The Driving and Motor Licences Division began promoting safe driving through film and TV ‘shorts’. New drink-drive laws came into force on 8 October 1967. The legal limit was 80mg alcohol in 100ml blood. 1968 The test fee was increased to £1 and 15 shillings (£1.75p) on 2 July 1968. 1969 Changes to the driving test from 2 June 1969 included: vehicles used in the test must not have dual accelerator control unless this had been made inoperable a separate driving licence group for automatic vehicles was introduced candidates were required to produce their driving licence to the examiner at the test and sign the examiner’s attendance record - examiners could refuse to conduct a test if these requirements were not met The Vehicle and Driver Licences Act introduced new regulations from 25 June 1969, including a licence fee increase and the specification of vehicle groupings for the purposes of driving tests. An up-to-date scheme was introduced for licensing and testing new lorry drivers on 4 August 1969. The first official driving manual was published in November 1969.

Called ‘Driving - the Ministry of Transport Manual’, it was priced 12/ 6d (62.5p). 'Driving - The Ministry of Transport Manual' 1970 All driving instructors now had to be officially registered. A total of 3,500 people are prosecuted for driving on a forged licence or wrongfully attempting to obtain a licence. The new HGV test prompted a change in PSV testing. Previously, vehicle inspectors had carried out PSV driving tests: this was taken over by HGV qualified examiners. 1972 The demand for driving tests rose by 20% in 1972, and a further 15% in the following year, leading to a huge backlog of tests. The minimum age for riders of motorbikes over 50cc was raised from 16 to 17 from 16 December 1972. 1973 Safety helmets were made compulsory for moped and motorcycle riders. The top speed for mopeds was set at 30mph. Computerised driving licences were issued from 1 March 1973, with green paper licences replacing the old-style red booklets.

A full licence was still only valid for 3 years. 1975 Candidates no longer have to demonstrate arm signals in the driving test from May 1975. 1976 Full licences become valid until the age of 70 from 1 January 1976. In July 1976, the Stanmore training school where examiners were trained was relocated to new premises at Cardington, Bedfordshire. Newly recruited ‘L’ test examiners had to undergo four weeks of training. 1981 The government produced a 3 point package of changes: the maximum size of learner machines was reduced to 125cc provisional motorcycling licence entitlement was limited to 2 years a 2-part test was introduced with the intention of reducing accidents by steering learners to take training with approved organisations on suitable motorcycles - the first part of the test included some basic off-road motorcycle control exercises - usually conducted at large goods vehicle (LGV) centres - the second part included the usual on-road riding 1982 Provisional licences were extended until the age of 70 from 1 October 1982. 1985 PSV driving tests became compulsory in March 1985.

Previously, Traffic Commissioners decided whether local applicants took the test. 1988 Driving tests were now conducted under the provisions of the Road Traffic Act 1988. 1989 A new accompanied motorcycle test was introduced on 1 October 1989. Prompted by alarming accident figures, the old-style ‘part 2’ motorcycle test, where the examiner stood by the roadside, was replaced by the new, more demanding ‘pursuit test’. The examiner now follows the candidate on a motorcycle and maintains radio contact during the test. 1990 The Driving Standards Agency ( DSA ) was created as an executive agency of the Department for Transport (DfT) on 1 April 1990. DVLC became an executive agency of DfT and was renamed the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA). Provisional licence holders were prevented from carrying pillion passengers, even if the passenger is a full licence holder. Compulsory Basic Training ( CBT ) was introduced for all new learner riders of motorcycles and mopeds. CBT comprises 5 elements including a minimum two-hour accompanied road ride.

The course was designed to ensure new riders have a basic level of competence before they are allowed to ride on public roads displaying L plates and continue the learning process. From 1 May 1990, examiners gave candidates a brief explanation of faults committed during the test, plus advice on areas for improvement. Under new legislation, anyone accompanying a learner driver from October 1990 must be at least 21 and must have held a driving licence for a minimum of 3 years. 1995 The Pass Plus scheme was introduced in November 1995 to help newly qualified young drivers gain valuable driving experience and reduce the risk of them being involved in an accident. 1996 A separate written theory test was introduced on 1 July 1996. It replaced questions asked about the Highway Code during practical test. Candidates now have to produce their driving licence for their test. The theory test pass mark was raised from 26/35 to 30/35 on 1 October 1996. 1997 Introduction of additional licence categories and tests for learners aged over 21 years riding larger motorcycles (Direct Access Scheme) and small motorcycles.

New riders under 21 years restricted to riding machines of 125cc whilst learning. Once they pass the test they were then restricted to riding machines of 25kw (33bhp) for two years. After this period they could ride any size of motorcycle. New licence and test changes on 1 January 1997 included: a new test category was created for a car with large trailer (B+E) licence categories and tests were introduced for Direct Access and small motorcycles the written theory test was introduced for LGV and PCV drivers Photographic ID was required for both practical and theory tests from 1 March 1997. From 1 June 1997, if a new driver gained 6 or more penalty points during the first 2 years of driving, they lost their licence and must retake both the theory and practical driving test before being allowed back on the roads.

On 29 September 1997, waiting times between tests were reintroduced for unsuccessful candidates: for car drivers and motorcycle riders, the minimum wait of 10 days between tests of the same category for lorry and bus driver testing, a minimum wait of 3 days between tests of the same category 1999 The newly revised Highway Code was published in February 1999, with current advice and up-to-date legislation for all road users. From 6 April 1999, cars being used for a driving test must have a front passenger seat belt, head restraint and rear-view mirror. Changes to the ‘L’ test on 4 May 1999 included extending the length of the test, randomising the emergency stop manoeuvre and failing candidates for committing 16 or more driving faults. Photocard licences were introduced from 1 July 1999 for both first time issues and licence renewals. 2000 The touch-screen theory test was introduced on 4 January 2000. The touch-screen theory test was introduced in 2000.

2001 Drivers getting a full car licence from 1 February 2001 must now pass compulsory basic training ( CBT ) before being allowed to ride a moped. Various changes to the motorcycle training regulations were introduced, including the: reduction of the validity period for a CBT certificate from 3 to 2 years removal of the 2 year on - 1 year off rule for provisional licence holders requirement for drivers gaining a full car licence to take CBT before being able to ride a moped Candidates could book their theory test via the internet from 19 December 2001. 2002 A hazard perception element was introduced into the car and motorcycle theory test; this uses video clips to test candidates’ awareness of hazards on the road. 2003 ‘Show me’ and ‘tell me’ vehicle safety questions were added to the beginning of the driving test on 1 September 2003. Candidates could book their practical test on the internet for the first time from 24 October 2003. 2006 The enhanced rider scheme for motorcyclists was launched in November 2006.

2007 The register of post-test motorcycle training ( RPMT ) was introduced in February 2007. The number of questions in car and motorcycle theory test changed from 35 to 50 on 3 September 2007 - the pass rate became 43 out of 50. The 2007 edition of The Highway Code was published. 2008 An assessment of eco-safe driving was introduced in the driving test in September 2008. The Driver Certificate of Professional Competence ( CPC ) was introduced for professional bus and coach drivers on 10 September 2008. 2009 A new 2-part modular motorcycle test was introduced on 27 April 2009. It enabled the UK to comply with the EU Second Directive requiring new and more demanding manoeuvres to be tested: module 1 contains the specified manoeuvres element of the test which is conducted off-road. It includes exercises designed to assess the rider’s ability to control their machine safely, including avoidance and emergency stop exercises module 2 includes an eyesight test and 30 minutes of on-road riding, assessing the rider’s ability to safely interact with other road users.

A new 2-part modular motorcycle test was introduced on 27 April 2009. Driver CPC for lorry drivers was introduced on 10 September 2009. A case study was introduced into the theory test on 28 September 2009. 2010 From 6 April 2010, driving test candidates have been encouraged to take their instructor with them on their test. ‘ Independent driving ’ became part of the practical driving test on 4 October 2010. Candidates have to drive for 10 minutes making their own decisions. 2011 A new case study was introduced into the theory test in September 2011. 2013 New rules affecting motorcyclists in Great Britain were introduced on 19 January 2013. They included changes to motorcycles you can ride and the age you have to be to ride them. 2014 DSA and the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency ( VOSA ) merged to create the Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency ( DVSA ) on 2 April 2014. DVSA is an executive agency of the Department for Transport.

The launch of the Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency in April 2014. On 7 April 2014, driving test candidates were stopped from being able to use foreign language voiceovers and interpreters on their theory and practical driving tests. The change was made to cut out the risk of fraud, and to make sure that all drivers can read road signs and fully understand the rules of the road. The ADI check test was replaced by the ADI standards check on 7 April 2014. This assesses the ADI ’s ability to instruct and whether their instruction helps a person to learn in an effective way. At the same time a new grading system for ADIs was introduced. 2015 New computer-generated imagery (CGI) clips replaced old filmed clips in the hazard perception part of the theory test on 12 January 2015. An old-style video clip (left) and an updated CGI clip (right). History Of Motorcycle Testing The History of the MOT History Of Motorcycle Testing The history of the Motorbike MOT test from the start in 1931 to the present day. In the early days of motoring, one licence covered both cars and motorcycles use.

1931 First edition of the Highway Code published including advice for motorcycle riders. 1 Jun 1935 Compulsory testing brought in for all drivers and riders who started driving on or after 1 April 1934:  around 246,000 candidates applied  the pass rate is 63%  250 examiners taking at least nine, and up to sixteen, half-hour driving tests each day Those passing the motorcycling test did not need to take another test to drive a car. The test was conducted by the examiner positioning themselves at a point where they could observe the motorcyclist's riding such as beside a common or in a city square. In the case of sidecar outfits or three-wheelers, the examiner might have accompanied the rider. Examiners were responsible for handling the booking of driving tests. There were no driving test centres; examiners met candidates at pre-arranged locations such as car parks or railway stations. 1939 Testing of all vehicles was suspended during World War II. Examiners were re-deployed to traffic duties and supervision of fuel rationing. 1946 Testing resumed after the war.

1947 The Motor Vehicles (Driving Licences) Regulations placed motorcyclists in their own licence group, but testing remained virtually unchanged until the 1960s. 19 Oct 1956 The test fee doubled from 10 shillings to ï¿½1. 1956 Testing suspended during Suez crisis and resumed after a year. Learners allowed to drive or ride and examiners help administer petrol rations. 1961 Learner riders were restricted to machines of no more than 250cc capacity in order to deal with the high number of motorcycling fatalities. 1963 New grouping systems were introduced for driving tests and driving licences and a distinction was made between the test of competence and the test of fitness (the visual acuity test/number plate test). Mopeds were placed in their own vehicle group for driving test purposes. 1965 The application form for a driving or motorcycle licence was revised. The medical standard for eye sight changed. The distance from which a driving or motorcycle test candidate must be able read a number plate changed to 67 feet for 3? inch high characters.

1972 The minimum age for riders of motorcycles was increased from 16 to 17 years. The minimum age for moped riders remained at 16 years. 1976 A new Driving Training Establishment opened in Cardington, Bedfordshire. Newly recruited examiners undergo four weeks of initial training. 1981 The government produced a three point package of changes: 1. the maximum size of learner machines was reduced to 125cc 2. provisional motorcycling licence entitlement was limited to two years 3. A two-part test was introduced - the intention is to reduce accidents by steering learners to take training with approved organisations on suitable motorcycles. The first part of test included some basic off-road motorcycle control exercises - usually conducted at Large Goods Vehicle (LGV) centres. The second part included the usual on-road riding. 1989 A new accompanied motorcycle test was introduced.Prompted by concerns about accident figures, the old-style 'Part 2' motorcycle test, where the examiner stands by the roadside, was replaced by the new, more demanding 'accompanied' test'. The examiner followed the candidate on a motorcycle or in a car and maintained radio contact with the candidate during the test.

1990 The Driving Standards Agency (DSA) is created as an executive agency of the Department for Transport. Provisional licence holders prevented from carrying pillion passengers. Compulsory Basic Training (CBT) was introduced for all new learner riders of motorcycles and mopeds. CBT comprises five elements including a minimum two-hour accompanied road ride. The course is designed to ensure new riders have a basic level of competence before they are allowed to ride on public roads displaying L plates and continue the learning process. 1996 Introduction of specific theory tests for car drivers and motorcyclists. 1997 Introduction of additional licence categories and tests for learners aged over 21 years riding larger motorcycles (Direct Access Scheme) and small motorcycles. New riders under 21 years restricted to riding machines of 125cc whilst learning. Once they pass the test they are then restricted to riding machines of 25kw (33bhp) for two years. After this period they can ride any size of motorcycle. A minimum wait between tests of the same category is introduced for unsuccessful motorcycle riders set at ten days to ensure they had sufficient time to retrain.

2001 Changes to regulations obliged people with full car licence to take mandatory training (CBT) before riding a moped. 14 Nov 2002 A hazard perception element was introduced into the motorcycle theory test; this uses video clips to test candidates' awareness of hazards on the road. April 2009 A new two part modular motorcycle test introduced enabling the UK to comply with the EU second Directive requiring new and more demanding manoeuvres to be tested. Module 1 Module 1 contains the specified manoeuvres element of the test which is conducted off-road. It includes exercises designed to assess the rider's ability to control their machine safely, including avoidance and emergency stop exercises. Module 2 Module 2 includes an eyesight test and 30 minutes of on-road riding, assessing the rider's ability to safely interact with other road users. June 2010 The new coalition government announced a review of the current motorcycle test.

An announcement about the review is expected before Christmas BBC - History - British History in depth: The Welfare State - Never Ending Reform Print this page The mixed economy of welfare The theme of most welfare histories is 'the coming of the welfare state' as though all previous forms of welfare were temporary and incomplete, that it was inevitable Britain's welfare should be ultimately dominated by state provision, and that, somehow, the journey is now at an end. However, if we step back only 100 years - and use this as a vantage point to look forward - we would have a very different perspective. In the 19th century Britain's welfare was characterised by voluntary provision, with mutual and friendly societies delivering a whole range of benefits. Local authorities and voluntarily run hospitals, together with a national system of panel doctors were financed from health insurance contributions, which were set by the state and collected through mutually owned societies. If we move back further still we gain yet another perspective of how welfare was delivered collectively, free of the state. In mediaeval times many hospitals were church run, though the word hospital should not be understood in today's terms. Back then such places were communities where the elderly and frail in particular were looked after.

Parishes, the first basic administrative units in Britain, also had a responsibility to their poor. The Elizabethan Poor Law enshrined this right with the practice of sturdy and less sturdy beggars being sent back to their parish of origin ostensibly for help. This system, although modified, remained largely intact until the offensive launched by the Utilitarian reformers. For them, no fiddling with the facts was beyond the pale if it could discredit the old regime. The new poor law of 1834 was the result of this campaign, and where the principle of 'less eligibility' was enforced - help in the new system would only be offered if a person came into the 'House', as the poor law institution was known - a standard of living awaited them which was below that on which the poorest labourer could survive. Top Advent of state welfare Lloyd George did not therefore invent the welfare state. As we have seen it was already very much in existence. But he did, along with a young Winston Churchill, refine the concept and drive it forward into the arms of the state - surprising for a Liberal politician. But we have jumped too far ahead in our story. ...a means-tested old age pension was introduced for those of 70 or more.

At the time average life expectancy for men was 48 years! The 1906 landslide victory of the Liberal Government was not based on a programme of welfare reform. Indeed, it did its best not to discuss it. But reform came. In order to protect the friendly societies a non-contributory, means-tested old age pension was introduced for those of 70 or more. At the time average life expectancy for men was 48 years! National health and a more limited coverage, unemployment insurance, were introduced by the 1911 Act. Contribution and benefit levels were laid down by Parliament, but friendly societies and mutually-owned bodies operated the health scheme. The insurance principle was advanced to finance this new welfare because the Liberal Government was anxious not to raise income tax and alienate the bedrock of its support. It therefore followed Bismarck's lead. In Germany Bismarck had faced even greater resistance to a tax-based welfare. The German Chancellor did not then have the power to levy taxes on income. The insurance principle, now regarded as a crucial aspect of state welfare, was originally met with considerable hostility. Lloyd George won over the initial opposition with his tripartite financing from worker, employer and taxpayer.

Hence his cry to the workers of '7d for 3d'. Neville Chamberlain added to this insurance base with the Widows', Orphans and Old Age Contributory Pensions Act of 1925. Pensions were paid from 65 and widow's benefit introduced. But these inter-war years were dominated by unemployment. And it was the financial chaos resulting from botched attempts to provide income for the mass unemployed, while maintaining an insurance fund, which helped reposition trade unionists, and others, on the question of state or voluntary based welfare. The use of a household based means-test for unemployment assistance added grist to the mill for this campaign. Top Enter Beveridge An enquiry was established in 1941 to propose how best to tidy up state welfare. Beveridge seized the opportunity, rewrote the script, and then redesigned the contours of British welfare. The publication of his report was fortuitously delayed. When it was produced in November 1942 it followed hard on the heels of the Allies' first major victory of World War Two. Implementing Beveridge was immediately seen as part of winning the peace. The prize was security 'from the cradle to the grave'.

Although largely a synthesis of ideas (including Beveridge's) which had been around for some time, it was the blueprint for conquering Want, one of the five giants Beveridge declared should be slain by way of post-war reconstruction. Each giant was countered by: The 1944 Butler Act which reformed schooling, the commitment to full employment in the same year. The Family Allowance Act of 1945. The 1946 National Insurance Act The 1948 National Health Act, aimed at achieving that very objective, and established for the first time a national minimum. But, as always, the world did not stand still. Although for sometime in the 1950s and 1960s welfare provision did just that. How to finance the NHS increasingly became a key political issue. Insurance benefits were not paid at a high enough level to prevent many pensioners from becoming poor, and by the 1970s full employment began taking a battering which it has had to endure until recently. The political caravan had once again moved off in search of new ideas. Top Thatcherism There was never a coherent Thatcherite approach to welfare.

Following the main haemorrhage of manufacturing jobs in the 1981-82 recession (exacerbated by the inept handling of the exchange rate), the formal abandonment of a full employment goal looked like a mere precaution against future political failure. The NHS budget continued to increase, driven upwards by a growing demand set by a combination of rising expectations, by health consumption becoming a lifestyle-type choice, by advances in medical technology, and by a rapid growth in life expectancy. The NHS budget continued to increase... Welfare bills were confronted in two ways. Insurance benefits were hacked back with an ever-growing number of individuals pushed on to means-tested support rising from one in six of the population in 1979, to one in three in 1997. But the biggest savings for taxpayers (paid for by less generous pensions) came in 1980 with the switch to increasing the state retirement pension only in line with prices, and not by earnings if these were rising faster - as they invariably did. By 1979 occupational pensions had grown from the modest initiatives recalled earlier into the great welfare success of this country. Alongside these pensions the Tories planted individually owned schemes, known as personal pensions.

The advent of these schemes was their major welfare innovation. This advance, however, has been hampered by miss-selling - i.e. persuading people to leave occupational schemes almost invariably against their best interest - often accompanied by the imposition of very high charges and the absence of an employer's contribution. Even so, by 1979, Britain had more assets owned by occupational and personal pension schemes than the whole of the asset portfolio owned by other European Community schemes combined. And yet welfare bills continued to escalate in an apparently unstoppable fashion. Welfare was about to undergo another major rethink. Top Welfare and character When welfare was run by friendly societies and mutually owned organisations few questioned the fact that welfare affected how people behaved. Welfare was not simply strictly policed; the range of benefits full recognised the danger that some people would claim benefit to which they were not entitled if the regime was slack. Welfare was seen not merely as a means of meeting a need, but by its organisation, and the means by its delivery, it was conceived as a tool for building good character. The biblical view of human nature - its fallen status, yet conceived to be redeemed - was lost sight of in left-wing intellectual circles by the 1960s.

Welfare was by them seen primarily as an act of altruism and this paternalistic view was advanced behind the cover of politically correct statements, so much so that even the Right lost the confidence to mouth, let alone act on, the broader, age-old understanding of mankind. The resulting paralysis of both will and mind resulted in little concern for how different types of welfare (insurance or means-tested) affected behaviour; and to raise the question of fraud was to be automatically deemed politically unbalanced. 'Thinking the unthinkable' was the task for Labour's final years in opposition before 1997, and was part of the strategy of making Labour electable. It was never meant to be an activity undertaken in government. Thinking the unthinkable in Opposition took place across five inter-related areas. It was not simply a question of the size and the rate of growth of social security expenditure. The key issue was the growth of means-tested welfare and in particular how this form of provision affected the actions of recipients. Welfare was not therefore seen as a neutral agency operating in society. Rather it was one, which, for good or ill, helps determine motivation, shape action and thereby determine character. Welfare had to work with the grain of human nature.

Self-interest, one of the most powerful of human instincts, had to be the cornerstone around which welfare reform was built. A clear distinction had to be maintained between the means and the ends of welfare policy. In order to gain adequate universal pension coverage for instance, new partnerships between the private and mutual sector were necessary. Welfare reforms were not merely an add on to the government's constitutional reform programme. Proposals for building up membership organisations which are separate from the government on the one hand, and privately owned companies on the other, would have a central role in rebuilding civil society which itself was an aim of welfare reform. Top A health warning The present Government has now embarked on its programme of welfare reform. Time will tell how well it succeeds in implementing the unthinkable. Making reform workable is a more important objective. As I resigned as Welfare Reform Minister I will inevitably be seen as a biased observer. And bias in the welfare debate is something about which readers should continually be on their guard. One notable academic observed that to study welfare was to highlight the values of the society within which that welfare was provided. I would argue that our values determine to a large extent what we observe.

Hence it was observers believing in state collectivist solutions who have generally written up the story of the coming of the welfare state and the final arrival of state provision. Any deviation from this model is seen not just as defeat, but as essentially retrogressive. That view is now under attack. As one of those who first questioned the inevitability, let alone the desirability of state provision being welfare's final stop, and who seeks to present welfare developments as a continuous story, I am open to the charge by those who believe in the correctness of state welfare solutions, of being equally biased. Contraception: past, present and future factsheet - Factsheets - FPA Contraception: past, present and future factsheet Contraception: past, present and future factsheet Last updated November 2010 This factsheet looks at the early development of contraceptive methods, the methods currently available and possible future developments. Unless otherwise stated, dates refer to availability in the United Kingdom (UK). Further reading Withdrawal (coitus interruptus) Coitus interruptus is probably the oldest form of birth control still practised today. There is a lack of research on current prevalence, use-effectiveness and safety of withdrawal.

Chemical contraception For thousands of years women have inserted fruit acids, jellies, pastes and various mixtures into their vagina in an attempt to prevent conception. Environments that are either sharply acidic or alkaline are hostile to sperm and therefore these methods may have had some effect. Since the 1600s, vaginal douches have been used after intercourse as contraceptives but are not recommended as either safe or effective. 1885 The first commercial vaginal suppository using cocoa butter and quinine sulphate was developed by Walter Rendell, an English pharmacist. This was later replaced by hydroquinine, a more potent spermicide, and sponges soaked in quinine sulphate. 1906 Friedrich Merz developed the first known commercially produced spermicidal jelly, called Patentex. 1930s Numerous chemicals were investigated for potential spermicides. The work led to the setting up of standardised testing of spermicides and their effectiveness. During the 1950s, more effective chemicals such as nonoxinol-9 were developed. Today, there is only one spermicidal gel available in the UK.

Research is ongoing into a range of microbicides which will prevent infection with HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), some of which may also be contraceptive. Male barrier methods: the condom (sheath) Early Egyptians used various forms of penis protectors for protection against disease and insects, and as badges of rank and decoration. 1564 Gabriello Fallopius recommended a moistened linen sheath for protection against STIs. 18th century onwards Condoms were made from animal intestines. 1843 Vulcanisation of rubber developed by Goodyear and Hancock, and rubber condoms replaced skin condoms. 1930s Crepe rubber was replaced by latex. 1997 First polyurethane condom launched in the UK: stronger, less sensitive to heat and humidity, and not damaged by oil-based lubricants. 2005 A new synthetic non-latex condom was launched in the UK. Modified designs and types of condoms are now available to provide greater variety and choice. Female barrier methods: diaphragms, caps and condoms For centuries, many items such as leaves, lemons and sponges were used as vaginal barriers.

Sponges have continued to be used in one form or another up to the present day with the development of spermicide-releasing sponges. The Today Sponge was available in Britain between 1985 and 1995. It is currently available in some other countries but not in the UK. 1882 Dr C Hasse (pseudonym was Wilhelm Mesinga) credited with inventing the diaphragm. 1883 Aletta Jacobs, a Dutch doctor, described a vulcanised rubber cap. Known as the Dutch cap, it had an integral circular watchspring and covered the upper vagina and cervix. The introduction of the diaphragm into Victorian England contributed to the emancipation of women, allowing them to control their own fertility for the first time. early 1900s Female condoms (‘Capote Anglais’ or Feminine Sheaths) made of rubber were first available. 1992 Polyurethane female condoms designed to line the vagina were introduced and Femidom became available in the UK. Research is addressing new types of female condoms involving different materials and designs.

2001 The first cap (Oves) made from silicone became available in the UK but it is no longer available. It was never on the drug tariff. 2003 FemCap, made from silicone, became available in the UK, and is available on the drug tariff. This is the only cervical cap currently available in the UK. 2004 The first silicone diaphragm (Milex) became available. There are now two types – a coil spring type and an arcing spring type. Both are available on the drug tariff. Natural family planning Periodic abstinence has been used as a birth control method ever since it was first discovered that sexual intercourse led to pregnancy. In the mid-19th century, Von Baer identified the female ova, and in the 1930s studies by Ogino in Japan and Knaus in Austria showed when ovulation and thus fertilisation occurred. This knowledge enabled improved calculation of the fertile and infertile times of a woman’s menstrual cycle. The Ogino–Knaus theory, which became known as the Calendar Method in 1934, was promoted by the Roman Catholic faith, which continues to denounce all artificial birth control methods.

1930s and 1940s Improved understanding of ovulation and temperature changes led to development and use of the temperature method. 1964 Following research into cyclical changes in cervical mucus, the Billings method (also known as ovulation or cervical mucus method) was introduced. 1990s The sympto-thermal method combines all fertility indicators and is highly effective. Various devices are now available which monitor changes in a woman’s menstrual cycle, based on changes in temperature, urinary hormones or saliva. Intrauterine devices There is little proof about the origins of IUDs, but there is evidence that ancient Greeks used some form of device. 1868 Cervico–uterine stems were developed. These were small button/cap shapes attached to stems, made of a number of different materials, which extended into the cervix. 1909 The first specifically designed IUD (a ring of silk-worm gut) was made by Dr R Richter. 1920s E Graefenberg developed a silver ring. 1934 The Ota ring was introduced, allowing for smaller and more effective IUDs.

1962 The Population Council convened its first conference on IUDs. This helped to establish the IUD as a medically safe and effective contraceptive method. 1960s Plastic IUDs were developed (Lippes Loop, Marguilies Spiral, Saf-T-Coil). 1969 Copper IUDs were introduced. 1996 Hormonal-releasing devices (intrauterine systems) introduced. 1997 First copper frameless IUD introduced (Gynefix). 1998 to date Continuing research into IUDs with modified shapes or with more copper. Combined copper and hormonal IUDs are also being researched. Hormonal contraception Combined oral contraceptive pills Oral contraceptives date back more than 2000 years. Early preparations varied from eating willow shoots and bees to consuming the internal scrapings of male deer horns. 1945 Syntex SA was established to produce steroids from diosgenin (a plant steroid in Mexican yams) and search for compounds which could be administered orally. 1950s Work by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, John Rock and others resulted in the development of oral contraceptives.

1956 Clinical trials of oral contraceptives began. 1957 Norethynodrel, mestranol and norethindrone (with estrogen) were approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for menstrual disorders. 1960 FDA approved norethynodrel-Enovid as a contraceptive. The first large-scale British clinical trials of oral contraceptives were carried out. 1961 Conovid, Conovid E and Anovlar oral contraceptives containing high doses of estrogen and progestogen were approved for use in Great Britain. Each pill used in the 1960s was roughly equivalent to seven of today’s pills. 1980s onwards Pills containing new progestogens were developed: desogestrel in 1982; gestodene in 1987; norgestimate in 1991. These are commonly referred to as ‘third generation’. 1981 Triphasic pills providing hormones in three phased sequences were introduced. 1982 Biphasic pills (two phases) introduced.

2002 The first combined pill (Yasmin) to contain the new progestogen, drospirenone became available. 2009 The first combined pill (Qlaira) to contain estradiol valerate (a synthetic estrogen) and dienogest (a new progestogen) became available. Qlaira has a quadraphasic dosage regimen, with 26 active tablets with a sequence of reducing estrogen and increasing progestogen dose, followed by two placebo tablets. The monthly regimen of 21 active pills containing estrogen and progestogen, followed by a seven-day break of no pills (or seven placebo tablets) was created to promote a monthly withdrawal bleed and so mimic the menstrual cycle. Continuous use of COCs reduces the number of monthly bleeds. Various formulations are being researched which vary the number of days of use. Seasonale was approved for use in the US in 2009 and is taken continuously for three months (84 days). It is not known when or if similar products will be available in the UK. Progestogen-only pills 1960s Progestogen-only contraception was developed.

1969 The first progestogen-only pill contained chlormadinone acetate, followed by pills containing norethindrone and norgestrel. 2002 The first new progestogen-only pill for 20 years became available (Cerazette contains desogestrel). Emergency contraception 1960s The first hormonal preparations used high doses of estrogen alone, taken over five days. 1970s Combined estrogen and progestogen (called the Yuzpe regimen) replaced estrogen used alone. 1976 IUDs inserted postcoitally were found to be very effective. 1984 The first specifically licensed EC product was launched in the UK – Schering PC4. 2000 The first specifically licensed progestogen-only EC (POEC) product (Levonelle-2) was launched in the UK. 2001 POEC (Levonelle) became available to buy from pharmacies in the UK. 2005 POEC regimen changed from two pills to one, known as Levonelle 1500 and Levonelle One Step (pharmacy product).

2009 An oral emergency contraceptive containing ulipristal acetate, a selective progesterone receptor modulator was launched in the UK. ellaOne is licensed for use up to 120 hours after unprotected sex. Other hormonal preparations are being researched, for example mifepristone. Injectable contraception 1950s The first systemic contraceptives using short-acting progestogens were developed. These were administered orally and had to be given frequently. 1953 Dr K Junkman found that by combining a progestogen and an alcohol, an injectable drug with long-lasting contraceptive action was obtained. 1957 Schering AG began trials with Norigest (now Noristerat) and Upjohn with Depo-Provera (depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate/DMPA) in 1958. 1963 The first trials of Depo-Provera as a human contraceptive began. 1974 Depo-Provera was licensed in the UK for short-term contraceptive use. 1984 Depo-Provera was granted a licence for long-term use in cases where other methods were not suitable. This restriction was lifted in 1994.

Noristerat is licensed only for short-term use. Combined estrogen and progestogen monthly injections are available in the US and others are being researched. A sub-cutaneous preparation of DMPA for self administration has been licensed, but is not yet available. Implants 1967 The development of contraceptive hormone-filled silastic capsules which could be implanted under the skin started in America. 1993 Norplant, consisting of six progestogen (levonorgestrel)- releasing rods, was introduced in the UK. 1999 Norplant discontinued. Introduction of single rod implant (Implanon) containing etonorgestrel. 2010 Nexplanon phased in to replace Implanon. This is the same as Implanon, except that Nexplanon is radio-opaque and the insertion procedure is different. Hormone-releasing vaginal rings Contraceptive vaginal rings containing contraceptive hormones have been studied since the early 1970s. 2009 NuvaRing, a combined estrogen and progestogen ring became available. It is used for three weeks, followed by seven hormone-free days. Progestogen-only vaginal rings are also being researched.

Contraceptive skin patches and gels 2003 Contraceptive patch (Ortho Evra) containing ethinylestradiol and Norelgestromin became available – one patch per week for three weeks, followed by seven hormone-free days. Research is ongoing into the use of gels applied to the skin as hormone delivery systems. Anti-progesterones Research is addressing the use of anti-progesterone compounds (known as progesterone receptor modulators – PRMs) for contraception in a variety of forms. Male hormone methods Research over 40 years has been directed at producing a male hormonal method of contraception or a ‘male pill’. Attempts have been made using androgens alone or combined with progestogens to suppress the production of sperm. Combined progestogen and testosterone approaches are being researched in the form of injectables, pills or implants. Further development requires funding from pharmaceutical companies. Contraceptive vaccines Vaccines are being researched to prevent the production of the pregnancy hormone, human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG). Sterilisation 1775 First reference to vasectomy. 1830 Sir Astley Cooper began to experiment with various vasectomy techniques.

In the 20th century, with the advancement of surgical techniques, the use of sterilisation as a procedure for fertility control became possible and widely available. 1907 Compulsory sterilisation for eugenic purposes was legalised in the USA. 1929 Eugenic concerns increased after the publication of the Wood Report in the UK, which addressed the need to limit fertility in ‘mentally unfit’ people. 1934 The Brock Departmental Committee recommended that voluntary sterilisation for eugenic reasons should be legalised. 1966 Promotion by the Simon Population Trust increased acceptance of vasectomy for social reasons in the UK. 1972 The National Health Service (Family Planning) Amendment Act allowed local health authorities to provide vasectomy services on the same basis as other contraceptive services. 1974 No-scalpel vasectomy was developed in China. This involves reaching the vasa through a tiny puncture hole rather than an incision. Ongoing research includes reversible inhibition of sperm, and the intra-vas device which can be implanted in the vas using no-scalpel techniques. Female sterilisation First mentioned by Hippocrates. 1834 First full description of the procedure by Von Blundell.

In the late 19th and 20th centuries, it was a major operation involving all the hazards of abdominal surgery and weeks of hospitalisation. Dr A Decker was the first to use, name and describe culdoscopy (where the procedure is performed through the vagina rather than by an incision). The first female sterilisation performed by applying clips to the fallopian tubes is attributed to Dr T Evans using Tantalum clips. 1961 Laparascopic sterilisation was first described for postpartum sterilisation by Uchida and his colleagues. Various rings and clips are now used to occlude the fallopian tubes. Methods being researched include using plugs, small devices or chemicals which block the fallopian tubes. 2002 Hysteroscopic sterilisation, using ESSURE, was first made available in the US. Tiny intra-tubal devices are inserted through the vagina (hysteroscopic placement) and placed at the entrance to the fallopian tubes. This is totally irreversible. Now licensed in the UK but not widely available. Further reading For further information on methods of contraception currently available in the UK, see FPA contraception information .

Blacker CP, Voluntary Sterilisation (Oxford University Press, 1934). Dickens E, Immaculate Contraception: The extraordinary story of birth control from the first fumblings to the present day (London: Robson, 2000). Djerassi C, From the Lab into the World: A pill for people, pets and bugs (American Chemical Society, 1994).

Question: In which year were MOT tests introduced into Britain?
Answer: 1960