The French Fifth Republic: Against All Odds The French Fifth Republic: Against All Odds By Håkon Tranvåg Since the French Revolution in 1789, France has had five different republican systems. All of them have been the results of violent crises. The fifth and current one was an outcome of the Algerian crisis in the 1950’s. It withstood several assassinations attempts and rebellions, proving to be one the longest lasting and most stable political systems France has seen so far. In this article I seek to give a brief overview of how this happened. The First Republic began with the fall of King Louis XVI in 1792 and ended with Napoleon Bonaparte declaring himself emperor of the First French Empire in 1804. After Napoleon’s empire had ended, a period of monarchies followed, until the 1848 Revolution saw the birth of the Second Republic, paradoxically enough with the election of Napoleon’s own nephew, Napoleon III, as its first president. An apple never falls to far from the tree, and within just four years he had made himself emperor of the French Second Empire.

The Second Empire collapsed in 1870 with the catastrophic war against the Prussians, which the French soundly lost. That same year, the Third Republic was created. This would prove to be the hitherto longest lasting of the French republics. But although the Third Republic had a long life, it was on the other hand quite unstable: In the period from 1929 to 1939, there were 18 different governments. The Third Republic ended in 1940 with the German occupation of France. The Fourth Republic was established after the war and officially put in place in 1946. It was in many respects a revival of the Third Republic, and thus suffered from a lot of of the same problems. But more acutely, it was confronted with the collapse of the French Colonial Empire, and in particular the Algerian War, which began in 1954. The Fourth Republic had successfully lead France to an economic recovery after WWII, but proved itself incapable of resolving the conflict in Algeria.

As the French generals and army section stationed in there feared that the government in Paris would abandon them and strike a deal with the Algerian independence movement, the FLN, they took control over the French administration and forces in Algeria, and issued a poorly hidden threat of a coming coup d’état: If the French government failed to give them the support they needed, they “could not predict the army’s reaction.” They then followed this up by taking control of Corsica to force the president to the negotiation table. The generals wanted the former leader of the Free French Forces, Charles de Gaulle, as new head of government to ensure support for the war. It was now a straightforward threat: If de Gaulle wasn’t given the position they would land paratroopers in Paris and seize the city. The president’s hands were tied, and de Gaulle was named head of government. In June 1958 the Parliament dissolved itself and the constitution. De Gaulle now led the forging a new constitution, and by the end of the summer the result was presented to the French people for a referendum. On September 28th a vast majority approved of the constitution, thus commencing the Fifth Republic.

In December that year de Gaulle became it’s first elected president. The main problem with the two preceding republics had been that the executive branch was too weak. Governments struggled to achieve a majority; they relied on coalitions and alliances, and were often forced to resign. Further, the political parties were poorly organised, thus making the political game even more complicated. De Gaulle De Gaulle was well aware of all this, and keen to change it. The Fifth Republic was to have a strong executive power. The Prime minister and his cabinet would be less dependent on the Parliament, but more importantly, the President was given considerable authorities: He would be elected by an electoral college and not by the people directly, he appointed the Prime minister, could rule by decree in times of crisis and he could dissolve Parliament and call for new elections. Also, the President would have considerable control of the country’s foreign and defence policy. However, de Gaulle had a problem: As the leader of the Free French Forces during WWII, he had promised the native inhabitants of the French colonies – then controlled by the Vichy regime – that he would fight for their independence after the war if they helped fight the Germans.

After the war, many Algerians were waiting for de Gaulle to fulfil this promise. But in the first decade after the war, he lacked political power and was thus unable to do so. Now though, he did have that power, but mostly because the French generals in Algeria had helped him win it, and they, on their hand, expected de Gaulle to support their efforts of keeping Algeria French. De Gaulle decided to pursue a line that gradually gave more independence to the Algerians. This was met with strong resistance from the French communities and military in Algeria who again rebelled and attempted a coup d’état. In 1961, at the height of the crisis, de Gaulle narrowly avoided the coup by using his power of decree to remove several officers from their posts while securing support from the army and the public in mainland France. The generals, though, did not give in without a fight. As things were turning to the favour of the pro-independence movement, they formed a secret underground army, the OAS. In the final years of the Algerian war there were three attempts on de Gaulle’s life and more successful assassinations against other high officials in the French administration by the OAS. A French Pied-noir in Algeria.

De Gaulle did not yield. A referendum giving more self-determination to Algeria turned out in his favour, and in 1962, de Gaulle was able to settle a peace-agreement with the FLN. He then proceeded to hold a new referendum that finally gave Algeria its longed freedom. In 1962 there was also an important change in the functions of the Fifth Republic: After a referendum presented by de Gaulle passed, the president was now to be elected directly by the people. This gave the republic a more democratic groundwork, but there was a strong concern that it was first and foremost the support for de Gaulle personally that kept the republic going, not support for the system itself. On the political right, there was a strong loyalty to de Gaulle, while the left fiercely opposed the republic. Francois Mitterrand of the Socialist Party called the Fifth Republic de Gaulle’s “permanent coup d’état.” As de Gaulle’s support slowly began to fade, concerns were growing of what would happen when he eventually would have to resign. Would the Fifth Republic be strong enough to make it on its own?

De Gaulle gradually lost support through the sixties, and in May 1968 he faced real threat. The uprisings that year threatened to overthrow him and the government, but de Gaulle managed to survive, again by rallying support to him personally. But later that same year, he lost a somewhat unimportant referendum, and decided to resign. He could not continue to go on from one marginal victory to another. But de Gaulle’s resignation was not the end of the Fifth Republic. It became evident that the support for the republic among the populace was stronger than many had thought. The system survived de Gaulle’s fall, and steadily established itself through the coming decades. The final evidence for this came in 1981, when no other than François Mitterrand became president. The Fifth Republic was undoubtedly consolidated: The majority of the people supported it, the elites on the right had gradually changed their loyalty towards the Republic, and the left, who since the Republic’s beginning had strongly opposed it, became benign partners in the system now that they were at the helm (in becoming president, Mitterrand admitted he had been wrong in his criticism). The Fifth Republic had managed to survive war and the fall of its chief architect.

However, the modern version is not what the republic anno 1958 was. There have been 24 revisions of the original constitution of 1958, affecting two thirds of its articles. As mentioned, the president is now elected directly, not by an electoral college. Further, one term is not seven years as it was originally, but five, and the executive branch’s power and authority are now much more balanced by Parliament and the Constitutional Council. It has proven to be one of the most stable and longest lasting political systems in France. But today, criticism is mounting both from the left and the right that the Fifth Republic is out of date and too authoritarian for a modern democracy. Is a Sixth Republic coming, or will the Fifth be able to adapt itself for a new era? Further reading: Berenson, Edward, Vincent Duclert, Christophe Prochasson (ed.) (2011). The French Republic – History, Values, Debates. Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. French politics, government and constitution.

About-France.com Government, the Constitution and politics in France A short guide to the institutions of power in France Most recent page update; Jan 2015 The French Constitution: France is a republic; the institutions of governance of France are defined by the Constitution, more specifically by the current constitution, being that of the Fifth Republic. The Constitution has been modified several times since the start of the Fifth Republic, most recently in July 2008, when the French "Congress" (A joint convention of the two chambers of Parliament) approved - by 1 vote over the 60% majority required - constitutional changes proposed by President Sarkozy. The Fifth Republic: The fifth republic was established in 1958, and was largely the work of General de Gaulle - its first president, and Michel Debré his prime minister. It has been amended 17 times. Though the French constitution is parliamentary, it gave relatively extensive powers to the executive (President and Ministers) compared to other western democracies. The executive branch: The head of state and head of the executive is the President, elected by universal suffrage. Since May 2012, France's president is François Hollande.

Originally, a president of the Fifth Republic was elected for a 7-year term (le septennat), renewable any number of times. Since 2002 the President has been elected for a 5-year term (le quinquennat). Since the passing of the 2008 Constitutional reform, the maximum number of terms a president can serve has been limited to two. The President, who is also supreme commander of the military, determines policy with the aid of his Council of Ministers (Conseil des ministres). The residence of the President of the French Republic is the Elysée Palace (le palais de l'Elysée) in Paris. The President appoints a prime minister (currently - 2015 - Manuel Valls ) , who forms a government. The residence of the French Prime Minister is at Matignon House (l'Hôtel Matignon) in Paris. In theory ministers are chosen by the PM; in practice unless the President and the PM are from different sides of the political spectrum (a system known as la cohabitation), PM and president work together to form a government. The President must approve the appointment of government ministers.

The cabinet, le Conseil des ministres, meets on a weekly basis, and is presided over by the president. Ministers determine policy and put new legislation before Parliament in the form of bills (projets de loi); within the framework of existing law, they apply policy through decrees (décrets). The legislative branch: The French parliament is made up of two houses or chambers. The lower and principal house of parliament is the Assemblée nationale, or national assembly; the second chamber is the Sénat or Senate. Members of Parliament, called Députés, are elected by universal suffrage, in general elections (élections législatives) that take place every five years. Senators are elected by "grand electors", who are mostly other local elected representatives. The electoral system for parliamentary elections involves two rounds; a candidate can be elected on the first round by obtaining an absolute majority of votes cast. The second round is a runoff between two or more candidates, usually two. Until 2014, the left-wing Socialist party had a majority in both houses. However, following the municipal elections, the Socialists lost their majority in the Senate in September 2014.

Senators are chosen by "grands électeurs", notably by mayors and other locally elected representatives. The judicial branch: While the Minister of Justice, le Garde des Sceaux, has powers over the running of the justice system and public prosecutors, the judiciary is strongly independent of the executive and legislative branches. The official handbook of French civil law is the Code Civil. Promulgation of laws: New bills (projets de loi), proposed by government, and new pivate members bills (propositions de loi) must be approved by both chambers, before becoming law. However, by virtue of Article 49.3 of the French constitution, a government can override parliamentary opposition and pass a law without a parilimentary vote. This does not happen frequently, and in the framework of constitutional amendments, president Sarkozy curtailed the possibility of using 49.3. However, in 2015, Prime Minister Valls had to resort to using 49.3 in order to push the controversial economic reforms of the "Loi Macron" through parliament, in the face of a revolt by hard left members of his own Socialist party.

Laws and decrees are promulgated when the official text is published in the Official Journal of the French Republic, le Journal Officiel. The Constitutional Council The Constitutional Council , le Conseil constitutionnel, exists to determine the constitutionality of new legislation or decrees. It has powers to strike down a bill before it passes into law, if it is deemed unconstitutional, or to demand the withdrawal of decrees even after promulgation. The Council is made up of nine members, appointed (three each) by the President of the Republic, the leader of the National Assembly, and the leader of the Senate, plus all surviving former heads of state. Political parties; In 2016, France is governed by the Socialist Party .

The main political parties are: On the right: Les Républicains formerly the Popular Union Movement (UMP - Union pour un Mouvement Populaire), Centre right: the New Centre (Nouveau Centre), and the Union of Democrats and Independents (launched in 2012) l'Union des démocrates et indépendants, Centre : The Democratic Movement (Mouvement Démocratique, MoDem) On the left: the Socialist party (Parti Socialiste, PS) - since June 2012 the party in power. The Radical left (les Radicaux de gauche - a centre left group) The Left Front (le Front de Gauche) The French Communist Party (parti Communiste Français - PCF). The Green Party (EELV - Europe Ecologie Les Verts) (See more detailed article: Political parties in France ) France also has some surprisingly resiliant extremist parties on the left and on the right, including the NPA (Nouveau parti anticapitaliste) and the trotskyist Workers' Party (Lutte ouvrière), and the National Front (Front National).

France: Government Government France Government Since the Revolution of 1789, France has had an extremely uniform and centralized administration, although constitutional changes in 2003 now permit greater autonomy to the nation's regions and departments. The country is governed under the 1958 constitution (as amended), which established the Fifth French Republic and reflected the views of Charles de Gaulle . It provides for a strong president, directly elected for a five-year term; an individual is limited to two terms as president. A premier and cabinet, appointed by the president, are responsible to the National Assembly, but they are subordinate to the president. The bicameral legislature consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. Deputies to the 577-seat National Assembly are elected for five-year terms from single-member districts. The 348 senators are elected for six-year terms from each department by an electoral college composed of the deputies, district council members, and municipal council members from the department, with one half of the Senate elected every 3 years. France's 22 administrative regions (see above under Land ) each have a directly elected regional council, primarily responsible for stimulating economic and social activity.

The regions are further divided into 96 departments (not including the four overseas departments), which are governed by a locally elected general council, with one councilor per canton. Further subdivisions are districts ( arrondisements ), cantons, and communes. The districts and cantons have little power. The communes, however, are more powerful because they are responsible for municipal services and are represented in the national government by the mayor. Sections in this article: The Third Republic 1870-1914 European History I am happy that you are using this web site and hope that you found it useful. Unfortunately, the cost of making this material freely available is increasing, so if you have found the site useful and would like to contribute towards its continuation, I would greatly appreciate it. Click the button to go to Paypal and make a donation. The Third Republic 1870-1914 This document was written by Stephen Tonge . I am most grateful to have his kind permission to include it on the web site.

Main Topics First Republic (French Revolution) 1792-1804 Second Republic 1848-1852 Fourth Republic 1946-1958 Fifth Republic 1958- France had a long history of political turmoil. Prior to 1870 there had been the French Revolution and the Terror. The rule of Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1815) had brought great victories and eventual defeat for France. There had been revolutions in 1830 and 1848 that had removed Charles X and Louis Philippe respectively. Key points: France during the Third Republic was politically very unstable. This instability was caused by rivalry between monarchists and republicans. There were a number of scandals that threatened the existence of the Republic but it survived longer than any other regime since 1789. It was also a period of imperial expansion and scientific and artistic achievement. 1. The Paris Commune Commune = Town or local Council In September 1870 the Third Republic was proclaimed after the defeat of Napoleon III at Sedan. The new government continued resistance to the Germans who then laid siege to Paris.

To defend Paris, a National Guard was raised which soon numbered 360,000 men. The siege of Paris was harsh with food shortages and over 40,000 people died. In February 1871, France surrendered and the Prussians paraded through Paris on March 1. The French government was established at Versailles not at Paris. Parisians were angered by this and they opposed the policies of the government, headed by Adolphe Thiers. They felt it was too conservative, too royalist, and too ready to accept a humiliating peace with Prussia. The National Government at Versailles now attempted to restore order within Paris. In March regular troops were sent into Paris to seize the cannon of the National Guard. Many of the troops deserted and the officers were imprisoned. Paris was now in revolt The Paris Commune was elected on 28 March, with its seat at the Hôtel de Ville. Its symbol was the red flag. The Communards' policies included economic reforms and reform of the church. It contained many shades of political opinion— Anarchists, Socialists, Jacobins and Communists. A civil war was now fought between the Commune and the troops of the Versailles government.

The Second Siege of Paris began. The Commune was suppressed by government troops led by Marshal McMahon during the last week of May 1871. This became known as the 'Semaine Sanglante' (the Bloody Week). Hostages were shot on both sides including the Archbishop of Paris. Bismarck allowed French prisoners of war to pass through German lines and attack Paris About 25,000 Communards were killed, and after a further 35,000 arrests, many were deported to the penal colony New Caledonia in the Pacific. All remaining communard prisoners were finally released in 1880. The Commune was seen by many including Karl Marx as the first example of a Communist revolution. It served as an inspiration to later revolutionaries such as Lenin. It also embittered relations between the classes in France. French politics were divided on what attitude people took to the Commune. The Treaty of Frankfurt The National Assembly approved the Treat of Frankfurt with Germany that ended the Franco-Prussian War. Under the Treaty Alsace and Eastern Lorraine were lost to Germany with their mines and industries.

The French were to pay a war indemnity of 5 Billion Francs German troops were to occupy Northern France until the indemnity was paid (which the French paid off by 1873). The loss of Alsace-Lorraine was to poison relations between Germany and France. One of the most important issues in French politics was the desire for revanche or revenge against the Germans for this insult to French honour. back The Establishment of the Third Republic At first the majority of Frenchmen favoured the return of the monarchy. Monarchists won the elections of 1871. However they were divided on the issue of who was to be the new king. As the Bonapartists were discredited by the recent war, there were two main claimants to the throne of France: The Comte de Chambord who was the grandson of Charles X (King:1824-1830) and a member of the Bourbon family The Comte de Paris from the Orlean family was the grandson of Louis Philippe (King 1840-1848) The Comte de Chambord was old and childless and very conservative. He wanted to replace the tricolour with the pre-Revolutionary flag.

This was very unpopular. It was hoped that he would stand aside for the Comte de Paris. However he refused to surrender his title to the Orleanist claimant. The first president, Adolphe Thiers, was a moderate republican. He commented that “there is only one throne of France and two men can not sit on it”. Thiers made many political enemies and was replaced by the monarchist, Marshal McMahon. The failure of the monarchists to agree on a suitable candidate played into the hands of the republicans. Briefly discredited by the Commune, the Republicans won a number of by-election victories as popular opinion moved in their favour. In 1875 a new constitution was approved that made France a republic. It was passed by one vote. In 1876 this new arrangement was strengthened when the Republicans gained an overall majority in the Chamber of Deputies (parliament). The monarchists still controlled the senate. The elections of 1877 were won by the republicans and McMahon resigned as president in 1879. The government returned to Paris from Versailles. Thereafter all Presidents and Prime Ministers were republicans. A series of political measures reflected the victory of Republicans.

They were designed to increase patriotic identity to the republic in France and they included: The Marseillaise became the National Anthem. July 14 (Bastille Day) became a national holiday. The Constitution: The President was the head of state and had little political power: He had the right to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies with the support of the Senate. He had the right to nominate the new head of government He played an important role in foreign affairs. The Senate was elected by mayors and councillors in departments (counties) throughout France. It was nicknamed the “Chamber of Agriculture” because the countryside was over represented. Senators were elected every nine years. Conservative, rural interests dominated in the senate and were thereby able to block progressive legislation in the areas of women’s rights and worker’s rights. The Chamber of Deputies was chosen every four years. It contained 600 members elected by universal male suffrage. It chose the government or ministry. There was no organised party system although there were four main political groupings in the Chamber: Socialists Political force after 1890. Many were revolutionaries who followed the theories of Karl Marx. Formed most of the governments during this period. Middle class and social conservatives.

It was said that their hearts were on the left but their wallets were on the right. Very anti-clerical. Powerful influence after Dreyfus Affair. Very Catholic. Saw the Republic as weak and corrupt. Divided between Bonapartists and more traditional monarchists Because there were so many different factions, all governments were coalitions. On average a ministry lasted eight months. Most governments contained six or seven ministers. Often the new government contained nearly all of the same men as the previous one! Ministries gave a lot of local favours to MPs (who were relatively poorly paid) in exchange for his support. This led to a lot of corruption. Some of the most important political figures during the Third Republic were Leon Gambetta, Jules Ferry (Opportunists). Emil Combes, George Clemenceau (Radical) and Aristide Briand (Socialist) The Third Republic faced four major crises between the years 1879 and 1914. They exposed the fundamental political difference between Frenchmen, Monarchists versus Republicans. However the Republic survived.

The Boulanger Affair 1886-9 “It was Bonapartism without a Bonaparte” Cobban The split in French society was shown clearly by the support for General Boulanger. The army was traditionally dominated by monarchists. General Georges Boulanger was one of the few republican generals in the army. In 1886 he was appointed Minister of War, largely by the influence of Georges Clemenceau. He brought in measures that improved the welfare of his troops and this earned him great popularity. He also attacked German policy and was nicknamed “General Revanche”. His popularity and his speeches attacking Germany worried the government and he was removed as Minister of War in 1887. He was now a national figure around whom opposition to the government especially from the right began to rally. His support increased when it was revealed that the President’s son in law, Daniel Wilson, was selling favours from the Elysee Palace. As a result the President, Jules Grevy, was forced out of office. Monarchists hoped that his popularity might be used to overthrow the republic. Economic conditions were poor and he received support from socialists and the unemployed as well.

In 1888 he was removed from the army and this allowed him to stand for election. He won a number of spectacular by-election victories culminating in an overwhelming success in Paris. His supporters urged him to stage a revolution. But Boulanger hesitated and the moment was lost. The government then began legal proceeding against him and he fled the country. A few years later he committed suicide on his lover’s grave. With his flight the movement collapsed. The elections of 1889 resulted in a clear majority for the Republicans. back The Panama Scandal The next crisis to hit the Republic was the Panama Scandal. Because of his success with the Suez Canal, Ferdinand de Lesseps was chosen president of the French company that worked on the construction of a canal across Panama from 1881 to 1888. French investors eagerly invested in the project. Engineering difficulties and a high death rate among the workers plagued the project. The crisis broke when members of the government were charged with having taken bribes from the Panama Canal Company to withhold from the public the news that the Company was in serious debt. This meant people in Paris continued to invest, and lost more money as a result.

Overall one billion francs were lost affecting 800,000 investors. All but one of the accused went unpunished due to lack of evidence (he foolishly confessed!). The heat was taken away from the government somewhat by the fact that two German Jews (Baron Reinach and Cornelius Herz) were also involved in the scandal and they received most of the coverage from the press and public. Georges Clemenceau was defeated in the 1893 election because of his association with Cornelius Herz. Although three governments collapsed, This crisis differed from the Boulanger affair in that the Republic was never really in threat of being overthrown. However, it did raise doubts in the public eye and meant that politicians were no longer trusted. To monarchists it proved that the republic was corrupt. It also created a climate of anti-Semitism that was to come to the fore during the Dreyfus affair. back The Dreyfus Affair (L’Affaire) In 1894 a list of French military documents (called a bordereau) was found in the waste paper bin of the German embassy in Paris.

French counter-intelligence suspected Captain Alfred Dreyfus, from a wealthy Alsatian Jewish family. He was one of the few Jews on the General Staff (the Holy of Holies). After an irregular court martial where documents were withheld from the defence, Dreyfus was found guilty and sentenced to Devil’s Island off French Guiana. Very few people believed his protestations of innocence even though hand writing experts had disagreed at his trial. Documents were forged by an intelligence officer Major Henry to prove Dreyfus’s guilt. There the matter might have rested but for Colonel Picquart. In 1896 Picquart, the new head of French counter-intelligence, realized that documents were still being passed to the Germans. He found the real culprit a Major Esterhazy whose handwriting was the same as that on the bordereau. The War office became alarmed. They wanted to hush the affair up and Picquart was transferred to Tunisia (to a dangerous area!). But events were beginning to move in Dreyfus’s favour. Picquart confided his views while on leave to a lawyer who persuaded the leading politician Scheurer-Kestner to call for a retrial.

When Matthieu Dreyfus accused Esterhazy of being the original spy the government ordered a trial of Esterhazy. In January 1898 he was acquitted after a trial that lasted only two days. Events took a dramatic turn when the famous author, Emile Zola published an open letter called “J’Accuse” in Clemenceau’s newspaper, L’Aurore. He accused the army of a mistrial and a cover up. The government reacted by prosecuting Zola for libel. He was found guilty and sentenced to one year in prison. Public opinion in France was now bitterly divided. The affair reflected the divisions in French society. For supporters of Dreyfus or Dreyfusards the fate of an innocent man was at stake, some also saw it as an ideal opportunity for a campaign against the enemies of the republic. They were mainly anti-clericals, freemasons and intellectuals (writers, artists). The socialist leader Jean Juares was a supporter of Dreyfus. For anti-dreyfusards, the honour of France and the army was more important than the guilt or innocence of Dreyfus.

They saw Dreyfusards as unpatriotic and opposed to everything they held dear. Many were anti-Semitic and felt that Jews were not loyal to France. Anti-Jewish riots broke out in many towns including Algiers. Anti-Dreyfusards consisted of the Army, monarchists and Catholics. The Assumptionist Order and its newspaper, La Croix, played a prominent role in the campaign against Dreyfus. In the summer of 1898, the new war minister hoped to prove once and for all the guilt of Dreyfus. He put Piquart on trial and made a speech to parliament outlining the case against Dreyfus. However it was discovered that some of the written evidence against Dreyfus was forged. Major Henry, under questioning, confessed and committed suicide. The case was referred to the appeal court. In June 1899 after a number of delays a new trial was decided. Dreyfus was brought back from Devil’s Island “white-haired and broken.” (Cobban) He was again found guilty but with extenuating circumstances and he was given a presidential pardon. In 1906 he was exonerated completely.

He served honourably in World War One and died in 1935. The affair had bitterly divided France and it seemed that the system was on the verge of collapse. In 1899 a government of Republican Defence was formed led by Waldeck-Rousseau. The major result of the affair was a renewed outbreak of anti-clericalism. The Struggle between Church and State These notes may also be used to prepare questions on Church-State relations in Germany and France. Note Anti-Clericalism refers to measures that were taken to reduce the power of the church, usually in the area of education. Relations between Church and State in France had been regulated by the Concordat of 1801. By this agreement the state paid the salaries of priests and nominated bishops. Reasons for the dispute: Historically the Catholic Church was identified with the Monarchy and conservative forces in France. This was especially true during the French revolution when hundreds of priests were guillotined for their opposition to the First Republic. Because of this most Catholics were monarchists and opposed the Third Republic. Liberals, especially the Radical party, as throughout the rest of Europe, saw the Church as the main threat to individual liberty and an enemy of progress.

The main area of struggle between Church and State was education where the Church exercised a large measure of control. It was felt that Church control of education had prevented the development of a modern system of education that existed in France’s great rival, Germany. As the clergy were in the main monarchist, the government ferared their influence on the educational system. Although born Catholic most Frenchmen were non-practising whereas Church attendance was much higher among women. In some areas of France the Catholic Church was very popular and these included: Savoy The main Catholic groups in French society were: The Aristocracy Higher government officials in the Army and the Civil Service Peasants in the regions listed above. The dispute between Church and State grew increasingly bitter. It reflected the very deep divisions present in French society during the Third Republic, especially during the Dreyfus affair (l’Affaire) of the 1890s. Between 1879 (when the Anti-Clericals took power) and 1914 there was not a single Catholic minister or head of state.

Quotes on reasons for the Anti-clerical policy “As the clergy were in the main monarchist in their political sympathies this was a reason for fearing their influence on the educational system.” Cobban “French education, it was alleged, was still following the methods and aims of the seventeenth century.” Cobban “The anti-clerical, republican left took power in the National Assembly in 1879. Their anti-Catholicism was a vestige of the Revolution, and they stayed in power until 1914.” Sevillia The Ferry Laws Between 1879 and 1885 the “Ferry Laws” were passed. They were named after Jules Ferry. He was one of the ablest politicians of the Third Republic. These laws were the first major attempt at reform of the Education system. The main aspects of these laws were: The granting of degrees was confined to the State. Free education in public primary schools introduced and religious instruction was excluded from State schools (“ecole sans Dieu.”) Unauthorised congregations under the Concordat of 1801 were forbidden to teach (among these were the Marists, Jesuits [later expelled from France] and Dominicans).

Authorised Catholic orders were denied the right to teach in State run schools. Increased provision was given to the training of teachers by the State. These laws were not strictly enforced especially the ban on Catholic orders teaching in state schools. However the laws created a deep division between the Church and the Republican government. On the Ferry laws “The goal was not to outlaw Catholic schools but to rather to expand the rival public-school system.” Wright “It was the beginning of a conflict which was to embitter the politics of the Third Republic almost to the end.” Cobban The Dreyfus Affair In the 1890’s the “Railliement” was a movement inspired by the moderate Pope Leo XIII. He advised Catholics to rally to the republic and defend the interests of the church by taking a greater role in the political life of France. There was no great support for it among Catholics and it was destroyed by the divisions and bitterness that gripped France during the Dreyfus affair. The Dreyfus affair persuaded Republican politicians that a new set of anti-clerical laws was needed. They pointed to the strongly anti-Dreyfus attitude of Catholics in France and the actions of the right wing, anti-Semitic, Assumptionist Fathers.

This convinced them of the unacceptable nature of Clerical influence in France. The persecution of the Catholic Church In 1901 each religious order had to apply for legal authorisation and no member of an unauthorised order was allowed teach (Waldeck-Rousseau government). The Assumptionist Order was dissolved. The elections of 1902 saw a victory for the anti-clerical coalition. The new administration of Emil Combes applied the 1901 law ruthlessly and religious orders found it very difficult to gain legal authorisation. 81 congregations of women and 54 of men were dissolved. By 1903 over 14,000 schools run by unauthorised orders were closed. In 1904 members of religious orders were forbidden to teach. Almost all religious orders were banned. Their property was sold often at well below its real value. Between 30,000 and 60,000 priests and nuns were exiled. Some went to Ireland, Britain, Italy, Spain and Canada. Catholics regarded this period as one of intense persecution. The rest of Europe was appalled at what it saw as French extremism.

The same year France withdrew its ambassador to the Vatican after a papal protest against the visit of the president of France to his Italian counterpart. On Emil Combes “No one has a good word to say for this product of a seminary education ......... for Combes was originally intended for the priesthood.” Cobban “Combes shared none of Waldeck-Rousseau’s spirit of moderation but was a dedicated fanatic who saw clerical plots and intrigues everywhere.” Wright The Separation of Church and State In 1905 the Law of separation of Church and State was passed which ended the Concordat of 1801. All ties between Church and State were cut. State salaries for priests and Bishops were ended and in theory all Church property was now controlled by the State. Two people were killed and many injured when Catholics staged sit-ins to prevent the state from assessing Church property. In some remote regions bears were chained to church doors. The more moderate government of Briand allowed the Church to use its own property. The divisions of this period died, along with so many Frenchmen, in the trenches. When the war ended most of the measures against the Church were reversed and priests and nuns returned from exile.

The church emerged from the period smaller in numbers but with more committed members and an independence that it had not had in previous French history. Conclusion “On the whole separation....tended to reduce the tension between Church and State ......with the decline of clerical interference in politics the violence of anti-clerical sentiment inevitably declined.” Cobban “The clerical threat gradually lost most of its potency after 1905.” Wright “Catholics experienced this period as one of intense persecution” Sevillia back Colonialism The empire built up under the Third Republic was the greatest France had ever possessed. This was ironic as most political groups in France had at first opposed colonialism. The left were against it because it strengthened the army and the right because it distracted from the struggle with Germany. The man most associated with this period of empire building was Jules Ferry. The primary motivations for this empire building were economic, religious and prestige. For example in 1870 two-thirds of the missionary priests outside Europe were French. France’s first step on the path to imperial expansion was the occupation of Tunis in 1881. This was followed by Indo-China (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia), Madagascar and much of West and North Africa (e.g.

Morocco). By 1914 she was the second largest colonial power in the World and the largest in Africa. back La Belle Epoque (The Beautiful Period) While France may have been unstable politically the era of the Third Republic saw a flowering of the arts that was unparalleled in any other period of French or for that matter any other country’s history. This period of artistic achievement became known as the Belle époque. Paris was the centre of fashion and culture in Europe. It became the pleasure ground of the world, a Mecca for artists and writers. In painting, the period was most associated with the impressionist school of painting. Famous artists such as Manet, Monet, Degas, Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec, Cezanne, Renoir, Matisse and Picasso all worked in France during these years. In the area of music composers such as Bizet, Saint Saens, Debussy, Ravel and Faure rivalled the traditional dominance of Germany.

Writing flourished including the Naturalist school led by Emile Zola, Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, the short stories of Guy de Maupassant, the novels of Anatole France and the work of the philosopher, Henri-Louis Bergson. The period saw scientific and technological achievements. Among these was the work of Louis Pasteur and Marie and Pierre Curie, the building of the Eiffel Tower and the opening of the Paris metro. The Lumiere brothers made the first short films and the first film studio was opened in 1896. Authors Quoted Alfred Cobban: A History of Modern France, vol. 3: 1871 - 1962 Gordon Wright: France in Modern Times Sevillia Jean: When Catholics Were Outlawed French Foreign Policy 1871-1914 The major aims of French foreign policy in this period were: To regain the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine (Revanche) lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian war. This idea was never very far from the minds of French policy makers during this period. To end her isolation in international affairs after the Franco-Prussian war.

To expand her colonial empire and regain some of her prestige lost after the Franco-Prussian War. It is also important to remember that alone of all the great powers, France was a republic. This fact was exploited by Bismarck and made a Russo-French alliance difficult. Relations with each of the major powers Russia At first both distrusted each other because of their respective political systems. One a republic, the other was an autocracy. Two factors led to an alliance in 1894: Mutual fear of Germany and Britain French financing of Russian industrial expansion. This alliance put an end to twenty years of isolation for France. It formed the core of the Triple Entente and left Germany facing the prospect of a two front war. Britain Initially relations were poor. Both countries had been traditional enemies stretching back to the Middle Ages. There was intense colonial rivalry between the pair in Africa. The "Fashoda Incident" of 1898 nearly led to war. However as Britain became more alarmed at her international isolation and at the rising power of Germany, relations improved. An "Entente" or understanding was agreed in 1904. Colonial differences between both powers were resolved especially over Egypt and Morocco.

Austria-Hungary Relations between both powers were good as they had no serious conflict of interest. Germany Relations between both hampered by Germany's possession of Alsace and Lorraine. This prevented any genuine reconciliation between both countries. France was afraid of Germany's military power and sought allies to counter this. Germany was wary of a re-emergent France. Initial German policy was to isolate France under Bismarck. There was a brief “entente” during the 1880’s. After 1905 German policy changed to one of trying to undermine France's relationships with her new found ally, Britain e.g. the First and Second Moroccan crisis (1905, 1911). French Government random quotations! FRENCH GOVERNMENT France's political institutions have undergone several changes since the 1789 revolution. The present constitution, adopted in 1958 and revised in 1962, established the Fifth Republic and provided for a powerful president, originally Charles DE GAULLE, and a bicameral legislature with less power than it had in the past. The president is elected by direct popular vote for a 7-year term.

He appoints the prime minister and may dissolve the National Assembly. The legislature consists of a 318-member Senate elected indirectly by an electoral college, and a politically more important 577-member, directly elected National Assembly. The five overseas departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion, and St. Pierre and Miquelon are represented in the National Assembly, as are New Caledonia, Mayotte, Wallis and Futuna Islands, and French Polynesia. Senate members serve 9-year terms, with one-third of the seats falling due for election every three years. The National Assembly is elected every five years. The minimum voting age is 18 years. The four leading French political parties are the Socialist party; the conservative Rassemblement pour la République (RPR), founded by Charles de Gaulle and now led by Jacques CHIRAC; the Union pour la Democratie Française (UDF); and the French Communist party. Francois MITTERRAND, leader of the Socialist party, was elected president in May 1981, giving the Fifth Republic its first socialist government.

When a UDF-RPR coalition won a majority of seats in the parliamentary election of 1986, Mitterrand had to call on opposition leader Chirac to form a government, marking another first for the Fifth Republic--a "cohabitation" arrangement in which the president and the prime minister were of different parties. The Chirac government modified many of the socialist reforms introduced earlier by Mitterrand. When Mitterrand was elected to a second term in 1988, he was able to replace Chirac with a succession of Socialist premiers. A second period of cohabitation under Prime Minister Edouard BALLADUR began after a Socialist defeat at the polls in March 1993. Chirac won 52.6% of the vote in the presidential election of May 1995, winning a narrow victory over his Socialist opponent, Lionel Jospin. Local administration of France is organized around 22 administrative regions and 96 metropolitan departments, and the Mitterrand government implemented (1982) a devolution plan, giving more authority to regions and departments.

Each department covers about 5,000 sq km (1,930 sq mi) and is administered by an elected departmental council. Within the departments are about 36,000 communes, corresponding to the parishes of prerevolutionary France, which are small and are headed by elected mayors. Daniel Noin; Reviewed by Anne Depigny and Agnes Jolivet. Source: The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Release #6, ©1993. France: Constitution of October 4, 1958 (as amended up to July 23, 2008) Constitution of October 4, 1958 (as amended up to July 23, 2008) Year of Version: Date of Entry into Force: October 4, 1958 Other Notes: The current Constitution of France, often referred to as the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, was adopted on October 4, 1958. It has been amended 17 times, most recently on July 23, 2008.

It is the fifteenth Constitution in the long constitutional history of France since the first Constitution of September 3, 1791. The Preamble to the Constitution proclaims the French people's attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of national sovereignty as determined by the Declaration of the 1789 and the Preamble to the 1946 Constitution, as well as to the rights and duties as defined in the Charter for the Environment of 2004. France is defined as an indivisible, secular, democratic and social republic, which is based on the principle “Government of the people, by the people and for the people', and the maxim “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”. The state power is divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. The legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Parliament consisting of the National Assembly, whose members are elected by direct suffrage, and the Senate, whose members are elected by indirect suffrage. The executive power is entrusted to the President and the Government headed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. The judiciary is independent. The judicial system consists of criminal and civil courts, including commercial courts.

The administrative system deals with disputes between the State and individuals The French legal system belongs to civil law tradition, which evolved from the Napoleonic codes. The five original Napoleonic codes were the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedure, the Commercial Code, the Criminal Code, and the Code of Criminal Procedure. The Parliament passes statutes (laws), which come into force after their promulgation by the President of the Republic and publication in “Journal Officiel”. The Constitution grants exclusive power to the Parliament to enact laws in the following areas: public liberties, criminal law, taxation, property rights, , labor law, social security, and national defense. The President and the Prime Minister issue regulations, which are called decrees and can be autonomous (Article 37: “Matters other than those coming under the scope of statute law shall be matters for regulation”) or taken to implement laws (Article 21). Moreover, the government can legislate within the legislative field of competence via ordinances (ordonnances) (Art. 38, lois d'habilitation that authorize the measures for a limited time, to be ratified by Parliament) and presidential decisions (Art. 16 on emergency powers).

Decisions of the Ministers or other implementing regulations are issued in many forms, such as arrêtés, circulars, and notices. The Constitutional Council reviews the constitutionality of laws. The members of the Council are appointed by the President of the Republic, the President of the National Assembly and the President of the Senate. The Constitution does not contain provisions on intellectual property. However, because intellectual property rights are considered as proprietary rights, they fall within the scope of Article 34 of the Constitution. Beside, this IP rights are protected by the Preamble of the Constitution as it gives a constitutional value to the Declaration of 1789, which Article 17 consecrate the right of property. Available Texts: French political system Back to home page click here A SHORT GUIDE TO THE FRENCH POLITICAL SYSTEM Local Government INTRODUCTION Although the Greeks might claim that democracy originates from the ancient city state of Athens, the French could plausibily argue that modern democracy emanates from the French Revolution of 1789 - although the course of democracy in France has hardly run smoothly since then.

Indeed, unlike the American political system [ click here ] and the British political system [ click here ] which essentially have existed in their current form for centuries, although the French political system has evolved since 1789 - with the two world wars having a major impact - the current form of the French system is a much more recent construct dating from 1958 and today's Fifth Republic - which centralises substantial power in the President - is a response to the political weaknesses of the pre-Second World War Third Republic and post-war Fourth Republic. The Fifth Republic came about following a political crisis over France's colonial war in Algeria, when Charles de Gaulle took power under a new constitution which gave the President new executive powers compared to the Fourth Republic, making the post uniquely powerful in European politics. The current constitution can only be changed with the support of three-fifths (60%) of the Congress which is the body formed when both houses of parliament, the National Assembly and the Senate, meet at the Palace of Versailes to vote on proposed revisions to the constitution. During the presidential election of 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy's manifesto proposed changes to modernise the institutions of the Fifth Republic.

The Comité de réflexion et de proposition sur la modernisation et le rééquilibrage des institutions (literally : "A committee of reflection and proposal on the modernisation and the re-balancing of the institutions") presided over by Édouard Balladur, a former Prime Minister, was established in July 2007 and submitted its report to the President in October 2007. This resulted in a bill which was approved by both chambers of the legislature in 2008. Controversially, the final approval was secured by only one vote more than the required three-fifths majority of votes cast. Jack Lang, who broke his party whip, voted for the changes. The President of the National Assembly, Bernard Accoyer, also voted for them which defied the tradition whereby the President of the Assembly abstains from voting. Without those two votes, the bill would not have passed. The bill re-evaluated the role of the executive and strengthened the parliament's powers. The President was banned from exercising more than two consecutive periods in office. There was limitation of the exceptional power of the President after 30 and 60 days.

However, some of the proposals were not ratified, such as the introduction of proportional representation for election of the National Assembly, the reform of representation in the Senate, and the ban on dual mandates. Following the terrorist attacks in Paris on the evening of 13 November 2015, there are currently proposals to amend the French Constitution to enshrine state of emergency powers in the constitution, making them easier to activate, and to strip people convicted of terrorist offences of their French nationality. THE PRESIDENCY Four of France's five Republics have had presidents as their heads of state, making the French presidency the oldest presidency in Europe still to exist in some form. However, in each of the Republics' constitutions, the President's powers, functions and duties - and his relation with French governments - have differed. Under the Third and Fourth Republic, which were parliamentary systems, the office of President of the Republic was a largely ceremonial and powerless one. The constitution of the current Fifth Republic greatly increased the President's powers. Consequently the Presidency is easily the most powerful position in the French political system.

Duties include heading the armed forces, appointment of the Prime Minister, power to dismiss the National Assembly, chairing the Council of Ministers (equivalent to the Cabinet in Britain), appointing the members of the highest appellate court and the Constitutional Court, chairing the Higher Council of the Judiciary, negotiating all foreign treaties, and the power to call referenda, but all domestic decisions must be approved by the Prime Minister. The President has a very limited form of suspensive veto: when presented with a law, he or she can request another reading of it by Parliament, but only once per law. The official residence of the President is the Elys&#233e Palace. Since 1875, the President has been barred from appearing in person before the National Assembly or the Senate in order to ensure that the executive and the legislature are kept seperate. However, in 2008, a constitutional amendment was carried which enables the President to convene the Congress of the French parliament in order to make a declaration. A debate may then follow his declaration, without his presence. Candidates for the Presidency must obtain 500 sponsoring signatures of elected officials from at least 30 departments or overseas territories.

The post is directly elected in a two-stage voting system. A candidate who receives more than 50% of the vote in the first round is elected. However, if no candidate receives 50%, there is a second round which is a run-off between the two candidates who secured the most votes in the first round. This is held two weeks later. All elections are held on a Sunday. The term is five years, a reduction from the previous seven years. A President can seek a second term and normally secures it, but two Presidents of the Fifth Republic have failed a re-election bid: Val&#233ry Giscard d'Estaing and Nicolas Sarkozy. In the French political system, the relationship between the President and the Prime Minister - the first- and second-highest authorities respectively - is critical. It is not always the case that these two individuals come from the same political party or part of the political spectrum and, when they are of different political persuasion (as was the case in 1986, 1993 and 1997), the two figures must practice a process of 'cohabitation'.

In May 2012, Nicolas Sarkozy, the incumbent President and candidate of the conservative UMP, was beaten in the second round of the Presidential election by the Socialist Party candidate Fran&#231ois Hollande, the self-syled 'Mr Normal', who gained 51.63% of the vote. Hollande is the first socialist President in France for 17 years and has never previously held ministerial office. He soon became so unpopular in the polls that he acquired the new nickname of Monsieur Flanby - a reference to a wobbly French pudding. The next Presidential election will be held in May 2017. THE EXECUTIVE The head of the government is the Prime Minister who is nominated by the majority party in the National Assembly and appointed by the President for an indefinite term. The Prime Minister recommends Ministers to the President, sets out Ministers' duties and responsibilities, and manages the daily affairs of government. He issues decrees and is responsible for national defence. Following the election of the new President Fran&#231ois Hollande in May 2012, Jean-Marc Ayrault - who was previously leader of the Socialist group in parliament - was appointed Prime Minister.

However, following local elections in March 2014 when the Socialists did very badly, a new Prime Minister was appointed by Hollande: Manuel Valls, who has been likened to the British politician Tony Blair. Interestingly, he was born in Spain and only acquired French citizenship at the age of 17 - his father was Spanish and his mother Swiss. In December 2016, Valls stepped down from the premiership to seek the candidature of his party in the forthcoming presidential elections. So the new prime miniuster is Bernard Cazeneuve. The Council of Ministers - typically consisting of around 15-16 individuals - is headed by the Prime Minister but chaired by the President. The total size of the ministerial team is typically 30-40. The members of the Council are called Ministers, while the junior ministers are known as Secretaries of State - the reverse of the nomenclature in the British political system. It is customary for the President, in consultation with the Prime Minister, to select elected representatives from the National Assembly for ministerial posts, but this is not a set rule.

For example, there has been Raymond Barre, Prime Minister (1976-81), who prior to that appointment was a university economics lecturer, while Thierry Breton, Minister for Economy, Finance and Industry (2005-07) was a business man. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY The lower house in the French political system is the National Assembly. This has 577 seats representing single-member constituencies. The 2.5 million French people living abroad have the opportunity to vote in one of 11 constituencies grouping areas of the world together. Members of the National Assembly are directly elected in a two-stage voting system. A candidate who receives more than 50% of the vote in the first round is elected. However, if no candidate receives 50%, there is a second round which is a run-off between all those first round candidates who secured more than 12.5% of the votes in that first round. This is held one week later. All elections are held on a Sunday. Members of the National Assembly serve five-year terms. The National Assembly tends to specialise in scrutinising day-to-day government business.

In cases of disagreement with the Senate, the position of the National Assembly prevails. Critics have argued that the Assembly is weak in terms of setting its own agenda and holding the exeutive to account. The last Assembly elections were held in June 2012 when the Socialist grouping won a comfortable victory over the Right-wing grouping, taking 331 seats to 229 (17 members are outside the two groups). The next Assembly elections will be held in June 2017. Link: French National Assembly click here THE SENATE The upper house in the French political system is the Senate. This currently has a total of 348 seats (the number depends on population changes): 323 representing mainland France, 13 representing French overseas territories, and 12 representing French nationals abroad. Many French Senators are also high-level local officials. Members of the Senate are indirectly elected by an electoral college of 88,000 made up of city councillors and local officials which provides a rural and therefore Right-wing bias to the process.

Indeed, since the Fifth Republic was established in 1958, Right-wing parties have always held a majority in the Senate until the elections of September 2011 when the Left took control for the first time. Members serve a six-year term - a reduction from the previous nine years - and one-half of seats (previously one-third) come up for election every three years. In the last Senate elections in September 2014, the far-Right Front National won representation - two seats - for the first time and the Left lost its majority. The next Senate elections will be held in September 2017. The Senate tends to specialise in constitutional matters and foreign affairs including European integration (it has a 'listening post' in Brussels, the headquarters of the European Union). The Senate meets in the Luxembourg Palace.

Question: When was the Fifth, and current, Republic established in France?
Answer: 1958