Cinnabar and Vermilion - Beautiful and Toxic Mineral and Pigment | Owlcation Cinnabar and Vermilion - Beautiful and Toxic Mineral and Pigment Updated on April 26, 2015 Joined: 6 years agoFollowers: 1,253Articles: 429 20 Cinnabar on dolomite Advertisement Cinnabar is a beautiful orange red to dark red mineral that is prized for both its color and its mercury content. In ancient times, cinnabar was ground into a powder, forming a pigment called vermilion. This pigment was used for art and decoration and was also added to cosmetics. It's still used in artists’ paints today, although it's often replaced by synthetic and less toxic pigments. Cinnabar is made of a compound called mercury (ll) sulfide or mercuric sulfide. The chemical formula of this compound is HgS. Mercury (ll) sulfide occurs in two forms in nature - the more common red or cinnabar form and the rarer black or metacinnabar form. Mercury and mercury compounds are toxic to humans, although cinnabar is not as poisonous as some other forms of mercury.

Cinnabar is usually found in rocks that form near volcanic activity or in hot springs. It’s produced near the Earth’s surface from hot liquids that bubble up from deeper in the Earth. Most of the world’s mercury supply is obtained from cinnabar. Major cinnabar producers today include Spain, China, Italy, Serbia, Slovenia and parts of the United States. Cinnabar, quartz and dolomite Advertisement Uses of Cinnabar in the Past Cinnabar, vermilion, mercury (ll) sulfide and mercuric sulfide all refer to the same substance (with the exception of the rare black form of mercury (ll) or mercuric sulfide). Like several other red materials in nature, cinnabar was also known by the evocative name of “dragon’s blood” in earlier times. Its vibrant red color was a great attraction for people looking for pigments. Ancient Romans created paintings and decorated statues and their faces with ground cinnabar mixed with a medium such as egg yolk or plant gums. The Mayan people used cinnabar to decorate burial chambers, the sarcophagi and the dead bodies of important members of their society.

Earlier women in India wore vermilion along the parting of their hair and in a dot on their foreheads to indicate that they were married. Some modern Indian women still follow this custom. Today the pigment, known as sindoor, is made of turmeric, lime juice and other substances instead of cinnabar. Ancient Chinese people used cinnabar in their famous red lacquers and in special inks. The technique for making artificial vermilion from mercury and sulfur was apparently first devised in China in the eighth century. Vermilion from China is sometimes known as China Red. A Large Specimen of Cinnabar Advertisement Art and Vermilion in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii Vermilion was loved by artists of the past. Paintings with vibrant red colors created by vermilion have survived, including some in an Ancient Roman villa shown in the video below. The villa paintings may not have been as richly colored in the past as they are today, however. They've been preserved with a wax layer, which darkened the paint when it was applied. The name of the villa which has left us such interesting art is the Villa of Mysteries. It stands just outside the city of Pompeii.

The villa was affected by the famous eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D., but not to the same extent as many other buildings in the area. The villa is believed to have been used for initiation into a mystery cult of Dionysus, the god of wine. The murals on the walls appear to depict initiates and their experiences, although expects are not quite certain about the meaning of the paintings. The murals are frescoes - paintings created on wet plaster that become an integral part of a wall. Frescoes in the Villa of Mysteries Advertisement Color Change in Vermilion Unfortunately, in some cases vermillion used in historical art has turned brown over time. The darkening of vermilion is of great concern to art historians and to those working in art conservation. Researchers have discovered a chemical reaction which may be responsible for vermilion's loss of color. They say that chlorine salts in the air may act as a catalyst for a reaction that releases mercury from the pigment when it's exposed to light. Mercury looks black when it's present in a thin layer. The combination of a mercury layer on top of the layer of vermilion may produce the dull brown appearance.

Once the cause or causes of vermilion's color change have been discovered, it may be possible to protect historical art from further damage. If a way to reverse the damage is discovered, it may even be possible to return the art to its former glory. A detail from "Assumption of the Virgin" painted by Titian in 1516 to 1518; the orange robes were created with vermilion Advertisement Uses of Cinnabar Today In more recent times, powdered cinnabar or vermillion was added to candies as a food coloring, although it's no longer used for this purpose. However, cinnabar is still part of many traditional Chinese medicines. Cinnabar in the form of natural or artificially made vermillion is sold today as an artist’s paint. The paint is accompanied with a warning to avoid ingestion and skin contact. Many artists use cadmium red as a replacement for vermillion because it's safer and more permanent. Some rock and mineral collectors like to include cinnabar samples in their collection. The color of the mineral varies considerably and ranges from orange to a deep purple-red. Some people enjoy the hunt for the perfect specimen. The main use of cinnabar today is for mercury production.

To extract mercury from cinnabar, the cinnabar must be heated. The mercury escapes from the cinnabar as a gas, which is then cooled and condensed to make liquid mercury. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. It needs to be treated with great caution because it can be absorbed through the skin and releases dangerous vapors. The early alchemists called mercury “quicksilver” for two reasons. One is that mercury is silver in color. The other is that when it’s placed on a surface it forms beads that roll around as though they are alive. A cinnabar lacquer box from China, 1736 - 1795 Other Meanings of the Word Cinnabar The word "cinnabar" is sometimes used to name items unrelated to the cinnabar mineral in order to convey an exotic impression. For example, Cinnabar perfume contains no mercury. Today's cinnabar boxes are generally made of wood that is covered by a red lacquer containing no cinnabar or by a red resin polymer and then imprinted with a design. Cinnabar jewelry doesn't contain the cinnabar mineral, since mercury compounds shouldn't stay in contact with the skin.

Mercury Poisoning Mercury exists in three forms – elemental mercury (pure metallic mercury), organic mercury (mainly methylmercury, the form found in some fish) and inorganic mercury, such as the mercury (ll) sulfide that makes up cinnabar. Unlike organic mercury, inorganic mercury doesn't contain carbon. The severity of mercury poisoning in humans depends on many factors, including the form of the mercury, the way in which the mercury is absorbed into the body (through ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption), the dose of mercury absorbed, the duration of the exposure, the frequency of the exposure and the age and health of the affected person. Mercury poisoning can result in damage to the nervous and muscular systems as well as damage to the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys and respiratory system. Mercury in a thermometer Inorganic Mercury Toxicity Inorganic mercury such as the mercury found in cinnabar is the least toxic form of mercury, but it's still poisonous. Inorganic mercury is absorbed through the lining of the digestive tract, but in lower quantities than organic mercury. Inorganic mercury doesn’t vaporize much at room temperature, so inhalation is not a major problem. The dust is dangerous for the lungs, however.

Small amounts of inorganic mercury compounds can be absorbed through the skin. Contact with high levels of inorganic mercury can cause skin rashes. Although it’s less likely to cause nervous system damage than other forms of mercury, chronic exposure to inorganic mercury can damage the kidneys and the nervous system. Mercury Safety from the CDC The CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) has a useful webpage about mercury facts in relation to health. Mercury - Properties and Safety Toxicity and Safe Use of Cinnabar There is uncertainty about how poisonous cinnabar is and about the amount required to produce dangerous effects. Scientists generally recommend that we limit our exposure to all mercury compounds, however, including inorganic mercury. People using cinnabar are warned not to inhale cinnabar dust and to be very careful when breaking the mineral in case dust is created. The mineral mustn’t be ingested or licked. In addition, it mustn’t be heated, which might trigger mercury vapor release. Opinions are divided about whether cinnabar is safe to touch. Mercury (ll) sulfide can be absorbed through the skin, but how much is actually absorbed from a lump of cinnabar mineral is unknown.

Since there are unanswered questions about the mineral's safety, it's best to wear gloves when handling it. One potentially serious problem is that sometimes drops of liquid mercury can be found in a piece of cinnabar mineral, which are more dangerous than the cinnabar itself. Liquid mercury releases a poisonous vapor. Cinnabar and alunite A Beautiful Mineral Cinnabar is a beautiful but potentially dangerous mineral. Anyone coming into close contact with the mineral - especially if this happens on a frequent basis - should be aware of important safety precautions. It's wonderful to be able to admire the mineral at close range, as long as this is done safely. © 2011 Linda Crampton vermilion - definition - What is ? What is ? vermilion definition : vermilion Vermilion (sometimes spelled vermillion) is a brilliant red or scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. It was widely used in the art and decoration of Ancient Rome, in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, in the paintings of the Renaissance, as sindoor in India, and in the art and lacquerware of China.

==In art and culture== File:Villa of Mysteries (Pompeii)-20.jpg|The bright vermilion murals in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii (before 79 AD) were painted with ground and powdered cinnabar, the most expensive red pigment of the time. File:Masaccio, pala colonna, santi girolamo e giovanni battista.jpg|The painting of Saint Jerome by Masaccio (1428–29) featured a vivid robe painted with vermilion. File:Girart de Roussillon (full page).jpg|A page of the Roman de Girart de Roussillon (1450). Both vermilion and minium, or red lead, were used in Medieval manuscripts. Vermilion, as expensive as gilding, was usually reserved for the most important illustrations or designs. File:Tizian 041.jpg|The Venetian painter Titian used vermilion for dramatic effect. In the Assumption of the Virgin (1516–18) the vermilion robes draw the eye to the main characters.

File:Lacquerware-roundbox-w-children.jpg | A "Chinese red" lacquerware roundbox from the Qing dynasty (1736-1795), from the National Museum of China in Beijing. ==Etymology== The word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus, the diminutive of the Latin word vermis, or worm. It has the same origin as the English word vermin. The words for the color in Portuguese (vermelho), Galician (vermello) and Catalan (vermell) have the same origin. The first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289. The term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, when vermilion became the more common name. By the late 18th century 'cinnabar' applied to the unground natural mineral only. ==Chemistry and manufacture== Vermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue. The pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, the ore which contains mercury.

The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS (mercury(II) sulfide); like most mercury compounds it is toxic. Vermilion is not one specific hue; Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller bluish-red. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the ground particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue. Cinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus (371-286 BC) described the process in "De Lapidibus", the first scientific book on minerals. Efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment. The Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC. The Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis (Third–Fourth century AD) wrote that such a method existed.

In the early ninth century the process was accurately described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (722–804) in his book of recipes of colors, and the process began to be widely used in Europe. The process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple. Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis. This was then heated in a flask. The compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask. The flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, and it was ground. When first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared. The longer the color was ground, the finer the color became. The Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote: "if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect." During the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, known as the 'Dutch' method.

Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with a strong alkali, washed and finally ground under water to yield the commercial powder form of pigment. The pigment is still made today by essentially the same process. Vermilion has one important defect; it is liable to darken, or develop a purplish-gray surface sheen. The darkness is not a result of the vermilion itself, which is very stable, but is caused by impurities and adulteration of the pigment. Newer research indicates that chlorine ions and light may aid in decomposing vermilion into elemental mercury, which is black in finely dispersed form. Vermilion was the primary red pigment used by European painters from the Renaissance until the 20th century. However, because of its cost and toxicity, it was almost entirely replaced by a new synthetic pigment, cadmium red, in the 20th century. Genuine vermilion pigment today comes mostly from China; it is a synthetic mercuric sulfide, labeled on paint tubes as PR-106 (Red Pigment 106).

The synthetic pigment is of higher quality than vermilion made from ground cinnabar, which has many impurities. The pigment is very toxic, and should be used with great care. File:Cinnabar-172403.jpg|Cinnabar crystals from the Almaden Mine in northern California. File:Cinnabar-3d6b.jpg|Cinnabar crystals on dolomite from Tongren Prefecture, Guizhou, China. File:Paolo Uccello 035.jpg|Vermilion has the defect of darkening with time. The bridle of the horse in The Battle of San Romano by Paolo Uccello in the National Gallery in London has turned from red to dark brown. The principal source of cinnabar for the ancient Romans was the Almaden mine in northwest Spain, which was worked by prisoners. Since the ore of mercury was highly toxic, a term in the mines was a virtual death sentence. Pliny the Elder described the mines this way: Nothing is more carefully guarded. It is forbidden to break up or refine the cinnabar on the spot. They send it to Rome in its natural condition, under seal, to the extent of some ten thousand pounds a year.

The sales price is fixed by law to keep it from becoming impossibly expensive, and the price fixed is seventy sesterces a pound. In Rome, the precious pigment was used to paint frescoes, decorate statues, and even as a cosmetic. In Roman triumphs, the victors had their faces covered with vermilion power, and the face of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill was also colored vermilion. Cinnabar was used to paint the walls of some of the most luxurious villas in Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries. Pliny reported that the painters of that villa stole a large portion of the expensive pigment by frequently washing their brushes and saving the wash water. In the Byzantine Empire, the use of cinnabar and the vermilion color was reserved for the use of the Imperial family and administrators; official letters and imperial decrees were written in vermilion ink, made with cinnabar. ===In the Middle Ages and Renaissance=== The technique for making a synthetic vermilion by combining sulphur and mercury was in use in Europe in the 9th century, but the pigment was still expensive.

Since it was almost as expensive as gold leaf, it was used only in the most important decoration of illuminated manuscripts, while the less expensive minium, made with red lead, was used for the red letters and symbols in the text. Vermilion was also used by painters in the Renaissance as a very vivid and bright red, though it did have the weakness of sometimes turning dark with time. The Florentine artist Cennino Cennini described it in his famous handbook for artists: this pigment is made by alchemy, prepared in a retort, which subject I will leave be since to put every method and recipe into my discussion would be too longwinded. The reason? Because if you care to take the trouble you will find a lot of recipes for it, and particularly if you cultivate friendships with monks. But, so that you do not waste your time with the many different techniques, I advise you, just take what you can find at the apothecary's for your money. And I want to teach you how to buy it and how to recognise the good vermilion. Always buy solid vermilion and not crushed or ground. The reason? Because more often than not you are cheated either with red lead or crushed brick.

By the 20th century, the cost and toxicity of vermilion led to its gradually being replaced by synthetic pigments, particularly cadmium red, which had a comparable color and opacity. ===Chinese Red=== File:Lacquerware bowl, Western Han Dynasty.JPG |A lacquerware bowl from the Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) File:Red lacquer tray, Song Dynasty.jpg | A lacquerware tray from the Song Dynasty, 960-1279 (Freer and Sackler Galleries, Washington, D.C.) File:Red lacquerware dish, Ming Dynasty.jpg | A lacquerware dish from the Ming Dynasty, late 15th to mid-16th century. (Freer and Sackler Galleries, Washington, D.C.) File:Shaolinsi.JPG|The Shaolin Temple in China. Vermilion plays an important role in Chinese culture, and is often used for temples and shrines. File:Wumen.jpg|The main gate of the Forbidden City in Beiljing, like most Chinese palace walls and gates, is painted vermilion or Chinese red.

File:Forbidden City August 2012 28.JPG|Vermilion columns in The throne room in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City of Beijing. On the other side of the world, in China, the color vermilion was also playing an important role in the national culture. The color was most famously used in creating Chinese lacquerware, which was exported around the world, giving rise to the term "Chinese red." The lacquer came from the Chinese lacquer tree, or Toxicodendron vernicifluum, a relative of the sumac tree, which grew in regions of China, Korea and Japan. The sap or resin of the tree, called urushiol, was caustic and toxic (it contained the same chemical compound as poison ivy) but, painted on to wood or metal, it hardened into a fine natural plastic, or lacquer surface. The pure sap was dark brown, but beginning in about the 3rd century BC, during the Han Dynasty, Chinese artisans colored it with powdered cinnabar or with red ochre (ferric oxide), giving it an orange-red color.

Beginning in about the 8th century, Chinese chemists began making synthetic vermilion from mercury and sulfur, which reduced the price of the pigment and allowed the production of Chinese lacquerware on a larger scale. The shade of red of the lacquerware has changed over the centuries. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) the Chinese word for red referred to a light red. However, during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), when the synthetic vermilion was introduced, that color became darker and richer. The poet Bai Juyi (772–846) wrote that "the flowers in the river when the sun rises are redder than flames", and the word he used for red was the word for vermilion, or Chinese red. When Chinese lacquerware and the ground cinnabar used to color it were exported to Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, European collectors considered it to be finer than the European vermilion. In 1835 "Chinese vermilion" was described as a cinnabar so pure that it only had to be ground into powder to become a perfect vermilion.

Historically European vermilion often included adulterants including brick, orpiment, iron oxide, Persian red, iodine scarlet—and minium (red lead), an inexpensive and bright but fugitive lead-oxide pigment. In China, From ancient times vermilion was regarded as the color of blood, and thus the color of life. It was used to paint temples, the carriages of the Emperor, and as the printing paste for personal name chops. It was also used for unique red calligraphic ink reserved for Emperors. Chinese Taoists associated vermilion with eternity. ===Sindoor=== In India, vermilion, or sindoor as it is called, is the symbol of fertility. It is therefore applied on the forehead as a dot or on the hair parting of the woman signifying that she is married. A key ritual in Indian marriages is application of vermilion by the groom on his bride, signifying their marital bond, which she applies every day for the rest of life till her husband's death.

==Variations== 1000+ images about Art+Mineral, cinnabar, vermillon, natural, pigment used in painting on Pinterest | Scarlet, Carbon black and Villas Forward "CHINESE VERMILLION" - Original packet of early nineteenth century Chinese vermilion - a brilliant red-scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. Indians preferred to buy commercial vermillion from the traders to use in painting themselves and various items. Museum of the Fur Trade See More 1000+ images about Art+Mineral, cinnabar, vermillon, natural, pigment used in painting on Pinterest | Scarlet, Carbon black and Villas Forward "CHINESE VERMILLION" - Original packet of early nineteenth century Chinese vermilion - a brilliant red-scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. Indians preferred to buy commercial vermillion from the traders to use in painting themselves and various items.

Museum of the Fur Trade See More Cinnabars | Article about cinnabars by The Free Dictionary Cinnabars | Article about cinnabars by The Free Dictionary Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Wikipedia . cinnabar (sĭn`əbär), mineral, the sulfide of mercury, HgS. Deep red in color, it is used as a pigment (see vermilion vermilion, vivid red pigment of durable quality. It is a chemical compound of mercury and sulfur and is known as red sulfide of mercury; it was formerly obtained by grinding pure cinnabar but is now commonly prepared synthetically. ..... Click the link for more information. ), but principally it is a source of the metal mercury. It is mined in Spain, Italy, and in the United States in California. The mercury is obtained from it by roasting, the sulfur combining with oxygen and passing off as sulfur dioxide. Cinnabar a mineral of the sulfide group. Chemical composition, HgS; contains 86.2 percent Hg. Cinnabar crystallizes in the trigonal system, forming rhombohedral crystals and fine granular or powdery masses.

Red in color, it sometimes exhibits bluish-gray iridescence. Cinnabar is transparent in thin pieces and has a bright adamantine luster. It has a hardness of 2–2.5 on the mineralogical scale and a density of 8,090–8,200 kg/m3. Cinnabar is the most abundant mineral of mercury and is formed in hydrothermal deposits near the surface together with quartz, calcite, barite, antimonite, pyrite, and marcasite, less often with realgar and native gold. Cinnabar deposits in the USSR are located in the Ukraine (Nikitovka), in Kirghizia (Khaidarken, Chauvai), in the Altai Mountains (Aktash, Chagan-Uzun), and elsewhere. Abroad it is found in Spain (Almadén), Yugoslavia (Alvala), Italy (Idria), and the USA (New Almaden, Calif.). Natural cinnabar serves as a primary raw material in the production of mercury; it is also used in the manufacture of paints, chiefly pigments (watercolors and oils). The ancient Egyptians were the first to use cinnabar in artwork. G.

P. B cinnabar - definition and meaning cinnabar from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition n. A heavy reddish mercuric sulfide, HgS, that is the principal ore of mercury. n. Red mercuric sulfide used as a pigment. n. See vermilion. from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License n. A deep red mineral, mercuric sulfide, HgS; the principal ore of mercury; such ore used as the pigment vermilion. n. A bright red colour tinted with orange. adj. Of a bright red colour tinted with orange. from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English n. Red sulphide of mercury, occurring in brilliant red crystals, and also in red or brown amorphous masses. It is used in medicine. n. The artificial red sulphide of mercury used as a pigment; vermilion. from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia n. Red Sulphid of mercury. n. A red resinous juice obtained from an East Indian tree, Calamus Draco, formerly used as an astringent; dragon's-blood.

from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. n. a heavy reddish mineral consisting of mercuric sulfide; the chief source of mercury n. large red-and-black European moth; larvae feed on leaves of ragwort; introduced into United States to control ragwort adj. of a vivid red to reddish-orange color Etymologies from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition Middle English cinabare, from Latin cinnabaris, from Greek kinnabari. Examples Her arms and legs wound around the trunk, her incandescent forehead pressed against the ancient idol, this offshoot of Roman Priapus that had escaped being daubed in cinnabar by womenfolk. Cinnabar | Article about cinnabar by The Free Dictionary Cinnabar | Article about cinnabar by The Free Dictionary Related to cinnabar: cinnabar moth cinnabar (sĭn`əbär), mineral, the sulfide of mercury, HgS. Deep red in color, it is used as a pigment (see vermilion vermilion, vivid red pigment of durable quality.

It is a chemical compound of mercury and sulfur and is known as red sulfide of mercury; it was formerly obtained by grinding pure cinnabar but is now commonly prepared synthetically. ..... Click the link for more information. ), but principally it is a source of the metal mercury. It is mined in Spain, Italy, and in the United States in California. The mercury is obtained from it by roasting, the sulfur combining with oxygen and passing off as sulfur dioxide. Cinnabar a mineral of the sulfide group. Chemical composition, HgS; contains 86.2 percent Hg. Cinnabar crystallizes in the trigonal system, forming rhombohedral crystals and fine granular or powdery masses. Red in color, it sometimes exhibits bluish-gray iridescence. Cinnabar is transparent in thin pieces and has a bright adamantine luster. It has a hardness of 2–2.5 on the mineralogical scale and a density of 8,090–8,200 kg/m3.

Cinnabar is the most abundant mineral of mercury and is formed in hydrothermal deposits near the surface together with quartz, calcite, barite, antimonite, pyrite, and marcasite, less often with realgar and native gold. Cinnabar deposits in the USSR are located in the Ukraine (Nikitovka), in Kirghizia (Khaidarken, Chauvai), in the Altai Mountains (Aktash, Chagan-Uzun), and elsewhere. Abroad it is found in Spain (Almadén), Yugoslavia (Alvala), Italy (Idria), and the USA (New Almaden, Calif.). Natural cinnabar serves as a primary raw material in the production of mercury; it is also used in the manufacture of paints, chiefly pigments (watercolors and oils). The ancient Egyptians were the first to use cinnabar in artwork. G. P. B Vermilion V Vermilion Vermilion, sometimes spelled vermillion, when found naturally occurring, is an opaque orangish red pigment , used since antiquity, originally derived from the powdered mineral cinnabar . Chemically, the pigment is mercuric sulfide, HgS, and like many mercury compounds it is toxic .

Its name is derived from the French vermeil which was used to mean any red dye, and which itself comes from vermiculum, a red dye made from the insect Kermes vermilio. The word for the color red in Portuguese (vermelho) and Catalan (vermell) derives from this term. Today, vermilion is most commonly artificially produced by reacting mercury with molten sulfur. Most naturally produced vermilion comes from cinnabar mined in China, giving rise to its alternative name of China red. History There is evidence of the use of cinnabar pigment in Spain, India (where it is known as Sindoor) and China since prehistory. It was known to the Romans as minium and was their most valuable pigment, being used to color the faces of triumphant generals in imitation of the vermilion visage of the image of Jupiter Capitolinus in the Temple on the Capitoline Hill where the triumphant processions would conclude; Pliny the Elder records that it became so expensive that the price had to be fixed by the Roman government at 70 sesterces per pound, ten times more expensive than red ochre, because of the rarity of sources of pure cinnabar.

The synthesis of vermilion from mercury and sulfur may have been invented by the Chinese; the earliest known description of the process dates from the 8th century. The synthetically produced pigment was used throughout Europe from the 12th century, mostly for illuminated manuscripts, although it remained prohibitively expensive, often costing as much as gilding , until the 14th century when the technique for synthesizing vermilion became more widely known in Europe. Synthetic vermilion was regarded early on as superior to the pigment derived from natural cinnabar. Cennino Cennini mentions that vermilion is made by alchemy , prepared in a retort . I am leaving out the system for this, because it would be too tedious to set forth in my discussion all the methods and receipts. Because, if you want to take the trouble, you will find plenty of receipts for it, and especially by asking of the friars. But I advise you rather to get some of that which you find at the druggists' for your money, so as not to lose time in the many variations of procedure. And I will teach you how to buy it, and to recognize the good vermilion. Always buy vermilion unbroken, and not pounded or ground.

The reason? Because it is generally adulterated, either with red lead or with pounded brick.'' In the Dutch method of manufacturing vermilion used from the 17th century, which was a modified version of the Chinese method, mercury and melted sulfur were mashed together to make black mercury sulfide, which was heated in a retort. This caused it to give off vapor which condensed as the bright red crystalline form of mercury sulfide, which was then scraped off and treated with a strong alkali solution to remove sulfur, then washed and ground under water. The names "cinnabar" and "vermilion" were used interchangeably to describe either the natural or manufactured pigment until the 17th century when vermilion became the more common name. By the late 18th century the name cinnabar was applied only to the unground natural mineral. "Chinese vermilion" was described in 1835 as a cinnabar so pure that it only had to be ground into powder to become a perfect vermilion. Chinese vermilion was considered of a more crimson tone than the vermilion manufactured in Europe from less pure cinnabar.

European vermilion of the time was often cut with various materials because of its high cost; adulterants included brick dust, orpiment , iron oxide, Persian red, iodine scarlet, and minium (red lead), an inexpensive bright lead oxide pigment that was too reactive to be trustworthy enough for use in art. Modern day Vermilion has largely been replaced in painting by the pigment cadmium red, a pigment that is less reactive because of the replacement of mercury with cadmium , especially in certain applications such as watercolors. The last mainstream commercial source in watercolors was from the Belgian artist's materials company Blockx, although the pigment can still be obtained in oils, where it is considered more stable. Unlike mercuric sulfide, cadmium sulfide is available in a large range of warm hues, including hues obtained by the addition of selenium or zinc. The range is from lemon yellow to a dull deep red, sometimes referred to as "cadmium purple". Vermilion is also the name of the typical color of the natural ground pigment, which is a bright red tinged with orange. It is somewhat similar to the color scarlet. Vermilion is not on the color wheel since the color is mixed with a slight amount of grey .

As with cadmium sulfide, mercuric sulfide can be found in a range from a bright orange-toned red to a duller slightly bluish red. The differences in hue are due to the range in the size of the ground particles. The larger the average crystal is, the duller and less orange-toned it appears. It has been theorized that the more coarsely ground "Chinese" form of vermilion is more permanent than the more orange "French" variety. It is also theorized that purification leads to increased stability, as with many other pigments. Hindu women use vermilion along the hair parting line known as Sindoor, to signify that they are married. Hindu men often wear the vermilion on their forehead during religious ceremonies. Vermilion is part of all Hindu religious ceremonies and festivals. China red "China red" is another name for the pigment vermilion, which is the traditional red pigment of Chinese art. Chinese name chops are printed with a red cinnabar paste, and vermilion (or cinnabar) is the pigment used in Chinese red lacquer . Cinnabar also has significance in Taoist culture, and was regarded as the color of life and eternity.

Orange-red Displayed at right is the web color orange-red, which has a special significance in hacker culture. The documentation for Digital Equipment Corporation's VMS version 4 came in memorable, distinctively colored orangish-red ring binders, and "China red" was Digital's official name for this color. (According to Mark Crispin seems to claim Digital's name for the color was Terracotta, at least in the context of PDP-10 machines running Tops-20.) (Wikipedia) GemRX: Cinnabar CINNABAR (Fr- cinnabre; Ger- Zinnober; Nor- Sinnober; Rus- ) Cinnabar, HgS. (See also CHICKEN-BLOOD STONE entry.) A. Cinnabar, upper left. High-grade mercury ore specimen (height - 3.9 cm) from Almadén district, Spain. (© photo from Graham C. Wilson, B. Cinnabar lacquer, middle. Carved box with floral designs (overall width - ca.18.5 cm, height - ca. 5.9 cm).

"This 'tsuishu' (carved cinnabar) box is an exquisite example of the . . . intricacy of the Chinese art and craftworks." (© photo courtesy Chuu Inc., C. "Cinnabar" brooch (greater axis ca. 3.3 cm) is carved into flowers; bezel is gold wash over silver. Cleora's Vintage Costume Jewelry. (© photo by Cleora Craw, pages.tias.com/stores/cleora) D. Cinnabar, lower left. Microcrystalline cinnabar atop bleached basalt (specimen width - 8.75 cm) from east dump, Sulfur Bank mine, Clear Lake, Lake County, California. (© photo by J.A. Crowley, E. "Cinnabar quartz" – i.e., cinnabar-bearing, quartz-rich breccia – cabochon (height ca. 3.0 cm). Specimen is from an unlisted locality. Heaven & Earth, LLC . (© photo, ---------------------->>>>>>>+++++!!!+++++<<<<<<---------------------- PREAMBLE: This late entry was prepared in response to comments and requests made by visitors to this web site.

Cinnabar was not included originally because the jewelry and decorative items marketed as cinnabar (with and without enclosing quotations marks) that I had examined consist of red lacquer. In addition, even had I known about the use of natural cinnabar as a gemrock, I would have had misgivings about including it because of its toxicity -- i.e., I would have worried that including it might prompt someone to search for it, collect it, and try to fashion it into something, which could lead to their contracting physiological and/or mental problems, and perhaps even death. Whatever, readers' continual urging prompted me finally to search for and record pertinent information. From that information I found, some of which I consider of doubtful verity, I postulated a hypothetical history that has the use of massive cinnabar as a gemrock as the precursor of similar uses of cinnabar-pigmented lacquer -- see paragraph three of REMARKS -- and decided I could present information treating toxicity problems with appropriate (Better Safe than Sorry!!) emphasis. In addition, the compiled information led me to think that cinnabar-pigmented lacquer -- unlike simulants of other entries -- should be described virtually as fully as cinnabar per se.

With such coverage, however, to be sure readers will have no doubts about what pertains to natural massive cinnabar and what pertains to the lacquer, the information is given under Massive cinnabar and Cinnabar lacquer (short for cinnabar-pigmented lacquer) as secondary headings under each of the major subheadings, which are the same ones that are used for the other entries in this GEMROCKS document. ---------------------->>>>>>>+++++!!!+++++<<<<<<---------------------- Massive cinnabar: Properties for compact masses (i.e., not for crystals) follow: Color - cochineal red to brownish red H. 2 - 2½ S.G. 8.0 - 8.1 Luster - dull to submetallic or adamantine Miscellany - streak -vermillion; photo sensitive -- i.e., extended exposure to light causes it to darken; volatilizes on heating, emitting toxic fumes. Cinnabar lacquer: Properties for relatively thick masses of the polymerized resins used as a medium for carving jewelry etc.

-- see also the first paragraph under the Cinnabar Lacquer secondary heading, in REMARKS -- follow: Color - vivid reddish orange to dark reddish purple H. ~ 2 ½ S.G. < 1, ranging slightly higher with amount of pigment -- Notice how much this differs from the specific gravity of massive cinnabar(!) Luster - satinlike to glossy Miscellany - some is photo sensitive like massive cinnabar; see also paragraph two under REMARKS about Cinnabar Lacquer). OTHER NAMES: Listing "other names" for this entry is a nomenclature nightmare: 1.As well as being the accepted name of the trigonal trimorph of HgS, cinnabar (with or without enclosing quotation marks) is used both as a noun and an adjective for cinnabar-pigmented lacquers -- and, in addition, for at least a few other red lacquers with other pigments -- that have been fashioned into jewelry and/or other pieces.

[and] 2.The term lacquer, with no modifiers, is used widely for red lacquers (originally cinnabar-pigmented ones) despite the fact that lac tree sap and lacquer produced from it is a dull gray color until it has been colored, by the addition of, for example, yellow, green, brown, and/or black, as well as other red pigments. Problem "1" is apparently based on the fact that cinnabar has become in essence a color term in general parlance. Aspect "2" (in my opinion) directs attention to the fact that the term lacquer should be used as a generic noun preceded by its color and/or the identity of its pigment. Nonetheless, a few other names seem noteworthy. Massive cinnabar: "Cinnabar quartz" - quartz-rich rocks with sporadic irregular masses -- e.g., veinlets -- of massive cinnabar.

Cinnabar matrix - not massive cinnabar per se but noteworthy here -- "term applicable to various varieties of minerals containing numerous inclusions of cinnabar but especially to a Mexican variety of jasper." (Shipley, 1951) Hepatic cinnabar (also called liver ore) - a liver brown or nearly black variety of cinnabar, which so far as I have been able to determine has not been used as a gemrock. Mercury blende - term used, particularly in the past, by miners and some economic geologists. Minium - former name applied to the "Sulphuret of Mercury ... the Vermilion used in painting" (King, 1865), who also notes that this cinnabar minium came from "the quicksilver mine Miniaria (fodina) . . .

the source of the Italian [word] 'miniera,' and of our [word] 'mine.'" Natural vermilion - term applied in the marketplace, apparently because powdered cinnabar was the so-named red pigment "well known to the Romans and widely used in China since the third millennium B.C." ( Cinnabar lacquer: see names of predominantly lacquer materials given under SIMULANTS. USES: Massive cinnabar: As well as its probable historical role as a gemrock, even now "Massive cinnabar in limestone is a very desirable carving material among the Chinese" (Kellar and Fuquan, 1986). In addition, cinnabar-bearing rocks such as breccias and "cinnabar quartz" have been fashioned into cabochons used as pendants, earrings, and ring stones (see Figure E). See also the CHICKEN-BLOOD STONE entry. Cinnabar lacquer: Although some jewelry, such as beads and pendants, has been carved from cinnabar-pigmented lacquer masses, many of these and other pieces that are so represented have been carved from wood and are only coated with a red lacquer, not necessarily even cinnabar-pigmented lacquer.

These beads, pendants etc. are frequently combined with, for example, tumbled chips, spheres, ellipsoids, or even faceted beads of other materials such as silver, gold, diverse jades, lapis lazuli, black "onyx," tiger's-eye, pearls, coral, and ivory. Examples of relatively small functional and decorative pieces made from or coated by red lacquer, some of which is cinnabar lacquer, include the following: boxes for all sorts of uses, candle sticks, lamp bases, snuff bottles, trays, and vases. Lacquer pieces with inlays of, for example, mother-of-pearl, which have been used both in jewelry and for several of the other decorative and functional objects, are additionally noteworthy here. OCCURRENCES: Massive cinnabar occurs as relatively thin crusts to relatively thick coatings on fracture surfaces, as veins, and as impregnations, some of which are interpreted to have replaced preexisting components of the current host rocks; host rocks represented are of several diverse compositions and nearly all geological eras.

Most occurrences, however, are in disturbed areas and thought to have been deposited by hydrothermal solutions spatially associated with relatively recent volcanic activities or in so-called hot spring areas. For additional information, see Becker (1888). Cinnabar lacquer does not occur naturally. NOTEWORTHY LOCALITIES: Massive cinnabar: Almadén del Azoque, Ciudad Real, Spain, where mining dates back to at least 415 B.C.; Idria, Slovenia (formerly Gorizia, Italy); Guiyang, Guizhou Province (formerly Kweiyang, Kweichow/chau Province), China; the Cordillera Occidental (e.g., near Huancavelica), Peru, "where, as all historians are agreed, the subjects of the Incas were familiar with the use of vermilion" (Becker, 1888, p.8); and sporadicially in the Coast Range of, for example, Lake and Napa counties, California, where discovery of cinnabar-bearing ore bodies predated the 1849 gold rush. For additional world-wide localities, see, Becker (ibid.). Cinnabar lacquer does not occur naturally.

REMARKS: According to Mitchell (1979), the name cinnabar is "from Medieval Latin cinnabaris; with a long history which can be traced to Persian zinjifrah, apparently meaning dragon's blood, in allusion to its red color." The toxicity of mercury and cinnabar appears to have been recognized before 2000 B.C., when "the task of mining quicksilver [was assigned] to slaves and prisoners. The average life span of miners was 3 years from when they started this hazardous work." Nonetheless, during the Middle Ages, many alchemists used mercury in their experiments and procedures -- athough they, too, suffered ill effects. Among several widely cited examples are: King Charles II of England; Sir Isaac Newton "who actually tasted the chemicals he worked with ...

-- In 1979, hair strands from his corpse were tested for mercury and found to contain 75 parts per million (Normal levels are about 5 parts per million.)"; Michael Faraday; Abraham Lincoln; and hat makers of Danbury, Connecticut, where a "mercuric nitrate was used to soften fur for hats, [and] exposed workers contracted the classic syndrome called the 'Danbury Shakes'." (Preceding quotations, paraphrased statements, and additional pertinent information are on, for example, mercuryinschools.uwex. edu.) In addition, recall the plights of Lewis Carroll's Mad Hatter in "Alice in Wonderland." In any case, mercury toxicity is well established, and "Cinnabar (used in jewelry)" is listed as one of the sources of mercury exposure.

(e.g., Unfortunately, contrary statements relating to the toxicity of cinnabar, especially that powdered and used as a pigment, have been published and repeated(!!) in some fairly recent literature -- e.g., Wehlte, 1975, p.106 and Albus, 2000, p.315; because such misinformation is in the literature and repeated on web sites, I think it is important to direct attention to the fact that both of those authors are artists, not mineralogists or chemists, and to reiterate the following statements: 1."Toxicity: Some authorities consider natural cinnabar to be non-toxic. Anita Albus writes that the deadly poison of mercury becomes harmless when it is stably bound with sulfur. However, we consider cinnabar to be toxic and urge caution in handling the dry powder pigment, as well as the pigment dispersed in medium." (from a pigment marketer - 2.According to Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (10th ed., 2000), which is widely considered to be the authoritative source on toxic materials, Mercury Sulfide is given the highest Hazard Rating (3 on a scale of 1-3).

[and] 3."It is not generally appreciated that mercury is a virulent poison and is readily absorbed through the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract, or through unbroken skin. It acts as a cumulative poison since only small amounts of the element can be eliminated at a time by the human organism." (Lide, 2002) There are two additional aspects of toxicity that relate to the toxicity of cinnabar lacquer, although I hasten to add I have found no recorded data about either -- i.e., each is only a conjecture as to why or how pieces fashioned from cinnabar-pigmented lacquer might have relatively low toxicities: 1.lacquer has less cinnabar per unit volume so its toxicity is of lower concentration; and 2.one or more layers of colorless, cinnabar-free lacquer could be used as the final sealing coats and might so-to-speak encapsulate the toxicity. So far as this latter possibility -- if indeed it might serve the desired purpose -- the sealing coats would, of course, have to be applied after any carving (etc.) to provide the inferred safety.

Hypothesized History: Chiefly because of its vivid red color, powdered cinnabar was among the mineral pigments used during ancient times for such things as "war" and ceremonial face and body paint. With extended "artistic" efforts, for the most part for self adornment, massive cinnabar became a favored medium because of its fairly widespread availability and the ease with which, for example, pendants and beads could be fashioned from it. With time, however, it became apparent that the artisans who fashioned those things and also those who wore them often developed physiological and/or mental problems (because of cinnabar's toxicity). In spite of such recognition, the desire for pieces having the attractive red hues of cinnabar prevailed. As a result of this scenario, probably as the result of several experiments and/or errors, it was discovered that cinnabar-pigmented lacquer could be applied in multiple coats to produce masses large enough to be carved (etc.). Subsequently, these masses of cinnabar lacquer gained their role, which ultimately essentially supplanted the use of massive cinnabar so far as fashioning beads, pendants, etc., and later led to their use for fashioning several other decorative pieces.

----- (A tangent: Whether mixtures of lac pigmented by powdered cinnabar had already been produced, for whatever use, and found apparently not to affect people negatively is not significant so far as this hypothetical history.) ----- To me, the least supported parts of this hypothetical history relate to the following: 1.early use of massive cinnabar as the medium from which pendants etc. were fashioned; and 2.the implied thought processes that recognized the likelihood that cinnabar-pigmented lacquer might be less toxic than massive mercury, and, in turn, the consequent devising of procedures for producing large masses of cinnabar lacquer. -- The color, availability, and easy workability of massive cinnabar support the first premise, and the following published statement can be construed as at least permissively supportive: "The Greeks shot arrows at lofty cliffs to dislodge the cinnabar, and cinnabar carvings were popular during the Ming dynasty in China." ( I cannot, however, vouch for the veracity of that information. The second premise -- the alluded-to thought processes -- is pure conjecture, at least in my mind.

However, IF the hypothesized history is accepted, ancient uses of massive cinnabar as a gemrock became the precursor of similar uses of specially prepared, relatively large masses of cinnabar-pigmented lacquer. AND, continued and extended utilization of the lacquer for all practical purposes, supplanted gemrock uses of its natural cinnabar precursor. [[As already note, however, this is not to say that utilization of massive cinnabar preceded all uses of cinnabar-pigmented lacquer. Indeed, apparently well documented evidence indicates that such lacquer was used at least as early as during the Han dynasty (B.C.206 - A.D.220), and archaeological discoveries coupled with Carbon-14 dating indicate that black lacquer ware dates back to Neolithic times in China (see wwwregenttour.camalso; and also see Massive cinnabar: Derivation of the name cinnabar has been attributed differently by different authors.

According to Mitchell (1979) it is "from Medieval Latin cinnabaris; with a long history which can be traced to Persian zinjifrah, apparently meaning dragon's blood, in allusion to its red color." Cinnabar lacquer: Production of cinnabar lacquer used for carvings etc.: Early red lacquer consisted of a resinous sap collected from the lac tree, Rhus verniciflua -- which is related to poison ivy, poison sumac, etc. -- grown in central and southern China, plus powdered cinnabar. The cinnabar lacquer masses used, especially in the past, commonly consist of more than 200 (some times as many as 500) coats, with the built up masses made thick enough for carving the desired items (e.g., beads, brooches, and pendants; boxes, bowls, and trays). The process was laborious and time-consuming because each coat of lacquer had to be applied and then completely dried under carefully monitored conditions before the next coat was applied.... Indeed, it is recorded that "a fine large piece might take years to prepare and then years to carve ...

[and that] Ten years was not considered excessive." ( For additional information, and suggestions dealing with the care of lacquer, see According to Grove's Dictionary of Art "Vermilion has proved to be essentially a stable pigment, although this is not always the case. In an aqueous medium and exposed to strong light it can change to the metastable black modification of mercuric sulphide, metacinnabar" (groveart.com). Consequently, just as for anything fashioned from massive cinnabar, cinnabar-pigmented lacquer pieces should not be kept wet for any extended period (if, for example, they are washed with water, they should be dried with all due haste) and they should not be exposed to extensive sunlight, at least not for any prolonged time. The following recorded examples are of interest so far as the photo sensitive characteristic of lacquer: "Colour may be fugitive. ...

It is said that a twelfth-century monochrome box when recovered from a tomb was a lustrous coral red that later darkened; and a nineteenth-century box darkened merely from being exposed for a few months on an occasionally sunlit window-sill whereas the under curve of the box, being in shade, remained in a higher key.” (Clifford, 1992, p.22) Two tidbits for possible conversation use by those showing their cinnabar lacquer pieces: 1.A set of four postage stamps issued in 1993 by the People's Republic of China features cinnabar lacquerware: A bowl, a duck, a round tray and a box with lid are shown. 2.A carved cinnabar lacquer circular box and cover (diameter, 32 cm) -- "Yongle six-character mark and period (1403-1424)" -- was sold at Auction for a "world record price for an Asian work . . . of Chinese lacquer." The price was $1,578,850 (Auction Report, 18 May 2001 - band.com).

SIMULANTS: In one sense, all of the materials listed under this subheading -- i.e., under both secondary headings -- could be considered simulants of Massive cinnabar. Those below the "Cinnabar lacquer" secondary heading are given there because they appear to represent materials produced to resemble it rather than natural massive cinnabar. Massive cinnabar: ***Lacquer - especially that with cinnabar pigment but also those with other red pigments are simulants for two reasons: 1.If the hypothesized history fundamental to including this entry is accepted/correct, the original thick masses of cinnabar-pigmented lacquer were prepared to serve as simulants. 2.In the marketplace, cinnabar (in some cases enclosed in quotation marks) -- used as a noun or adjective preceding lacquer -- is used widely to designate jewelry and other pieces fashioned from or coated by lacquer. See listings under the next secondary heading. ***Polymer clay -- this material, appropriately color-dyed, is commonly stamped into, for example, beads and other items that appear to have been carved.

***Synthetic cinnabar -- Although synthesis has been accomplished using different procedures, most of which are relatively simple and have been used for several centuries (see, for example, Palache, Berman, and Frondel, 1944), I have found no record of synthetic cinnabar's ever having been used for fashioning jewelry etc. Cinnabar lacquer: The starting point here is the tentative assumption that materials listed under this subheading have been used to simulate cinnabar lacquer jewelry and pieces such as those noted under the USES subheading.

Three different kinds of material warrant mention: 1.Red lacquers the colors of which derive from a pigment other than cinnabar -- e.g., cadmium red (also toxic), cochineal, hematite, lead chromate (called Austrian cinnabar or Persian red), madder, pig’s blood, or safflower; however, to me, and I suspect several others, none of these quite matches the red hues that I associate with cinnabar- pigmented lacquer; 2.Materials that consist of one or more other materials, such as wood, bone or metal, that are merely coated with red lacquer, be its pigment cinnabar or something else; [and] 3.Other materials such as red colored plastics. Those given below are only examples -- i.e., the list is not comprehensive. Bastard lacquer (also called "piled red") - name applied to lacquer with brick dust as the pigment (Clifford, 1992, p.107). Cinebar - designation (apparently not just a "typo") given an otherwise unidentified material that in photographs accompanying advertisements for pendants closely resembles cinnabar-pigmented lacquer.

"Cinnabar wood"- marketplace designation applied to some wood carved articles with red lacquer coatings. A large percentage of the beads, pendants (etc,) marketed today as "Cinnabar" consist of a carved wood base and untold layers of lacquer. Two procedures have been used: 1.Coating wood with lacquer and then carving the lacquer, and 2.Carving the wood and then covering it with lacquer. Different references describe such pieces in different ways: "Sendai Tsuishu ('layered [or built up] red') is a lacquerware made by coating wood with over a hundred layers of vermillion lacquer, and then carving traditional patterns in them." ( and "This new craft was given the name Kamakura bori, or "Kamakura carving." ( ***Cinnebar (the "e" is as it appears) - A description of "hand carved" cinnebar beads -- which closely resemble lacquer -- states that "Cinnebar is from the Cinnebar Tree which grows in Southeast Asia. The beads are made by pressing a pattern into the wood and then the color is enhanced with a resin to give it stability as the wood is very soft.

Do not confuse this material with the mineral also known as cinnabar." ( ***Japanese Cinnabar Lacquer - a particular name given several pieces that consist largely of wood overlaid with layers and layers of lacquer -- cf. "Cinnabar wood" listing. ***Porcelain - Reticulated pieces -- e.g., snuff bottles -- that resemble carved lacquer are available in the marketplace. REFERENCES:

Question: Obtained from the ore cinnabar, vermilion is a shade of what color?
Answer: Red