Hadrians Wall, the Roman border of Scotland & England Hadrian's Wall, the frontier of Scotland Hadrian's Wall has come to represent the frontier between England and Scotland. Strangely enough, today it is well south of the political border between the countries. 90% of the English county of Northumberland is north of the wall. However many of the border changes took place during the Middle Ages, and to most people Scotland still starts at the wall Who built Hardens Wall The Roman Emperor Hadrian came to Britain in AD 122. It is believed that he gave the order for the building of the wall as a frontier, demarcating the Roman south from the barbarian north. There were already a line of forts following a Roman road, Stanegate. Hadrian's walls followed this line, and was a wall., ditch and a series of forts, milecastles and turrets along its 74 mile length from the North Sea to the Irish Sea Over the next six years legionaries, not slaves, built the wall. Why Hardens Wall was built Just to mark the northern frontier of Rome, seems to be the answer.

A few years later the Romans tried to establish a frontier further north in the Scottish Lowlands with the Antonine Wall. However that expansion did not last long (AD 140 to AD163) and they were soon back at Hardens Wall. Hardens Wall appears to have served its purpose as there is no record of any major battles along the wall How was it built The Romans started construction on the eastern end, and the wall was a stone wall 15 feet high, with a deep ditch to the north. and a further ditch to the south A sophisticated system of strongholds and sentries ensured the whole wall was defensively secure. There were a number of large forts, which were main supply bases and crossing points. Between forts there was a milecastle every Roman mile, garrisoned by 8 soldiers, and between each milecastle, two turrets for sentries West of Bowness a chain of forts and towers ran down the Cumbrian coast to protect the flank of the wall The decline of the wall By around 400 AD, the Roman Empire was in decline. Frontier defences were neglected and money stopped arriving from Rome. Eventually the Roman Army was withdrawn from Britain, and the wall abandoned.

Eventually local people started using it as a stone quarry, and stone was carted off to make houses. However much still remains, particularly in the wilder central sections, where there was little population to remove stone Hardens Wall is, of course now protected. Today, the best-preserved sections of wall are in a 20-mile section between Hexham and Haltwhistle in Northumberland. There you can see the run of the wall, forts, camps, turrets plus museums with relics of the Roman past Hadrian's Wall rebuild starts ahead of Scottish independence referendum | Daily Mail Online comments The referendum on whether Scotland should leave the UK is still a year away - but a group of craftsmen have already started the job of dividing England from its northern neighbour. Four dryliners from Cumbria are helping to rebuild parts of Hadrian's Wall, which was erected by the Romans to keep the 'barbarian' inhabitants of Scotland out of 'civilised' England. The project is intended as a way of protecting the ancient stone wall - but one of the workers jokes that they may have to reinforce the barrier with concrete if the referendum is successful in splitting up Britain.

Restoration: Craftsman Steven Allen pictured helping to rebuild Hadrian's Wall in northern Britain Historic: The workers, including George Allonby, are using the original Roman stone to repair weaker sections Collaboration: The local experts have resorted to old-fashioned techniques to reinforce the monument Hadrian's Wall was built in the 2nd century AD and manned by Roman soldiers, who wanted to protect their British territory from the Picts who lived in what is now Scotland. Ever since the Act of Union in 1707, the wall has run across the middle of the United Kingdom - but after next year's referendum, it could become an international border once again. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share Every inhabitant of Scotland will be asked to vote on the question, 'Should Scotland be an independent country?' on September 18 next year. Most polls suggest that the referendum question is likely to be rejected, but if it succeeds it will fundamentally change the landscape of Britain.

Friendly: George Allonby and Mark Jennings set to work replacing sections of the wall which have weakened History: But some have joked that the wall could divide England and Scotland if the UK breaks up next year Atmospheric: The wall runs for more than 80 miles across the hills of northern Britain The four dryliners who are rebuilding Hadrian's Wall are more interested in contributing to history than arguing about politics, however. George Allonby, Mark Jennings, Steven Allen and Geoff Capstick are taking original Roman stone from stronger sections of the wall in order to reinforce the weaker sections. They are shifting 10 tonnes of stone every day as part of the £500,000 project, which was commissioned by the Hadrian's Wall Trust and will continue until the end of next month. Heavy duty: The workers are moving 10 tonnes of ancient stone every ay as part of the project Hard at work: The £500,000 project is due to continue until the end of next month BRITAIN'S ANCIENT FRONTIER WALL Hadrian's Wall takes its name from the Emperor Hadrian, who ruled over the Romans at the time the fortification was first constructed in 122 AD.

The wall stretches across northern Britain from the River Tyne in the east to the Solway Firth in the west, roughly dividing the territory of the Romans from that of the Picts. The vast majority of the wall is now in England, suggesting that the border between the two countries has shifted north since ancient times. It was dotted with fortified towers which would have provided the bases for Roman soldiers defending the territory and inhabitants of their empire. Although much of Hadrian's Wall is now in a state of relative disrepair, it is still a notable landmark in the region and is popular among hikers walking its 84-mile length. 'This is a really enjoyable job,' Mr Allen said. 'To think you're working with stone somebody put in 2,000 years ago. And leaving something at the end of the day that'll be there in 200 to 300 years - there's not many jobs that are like that. 'It's about picking the right stone to go in the right place. You've got to look for the one that's going to fit. That comes with experience.

It's a big jigsaw.' Bryan Scott, from the Hadrian's Wall Trust, said: 'By repairing the dry stone wall we're protecting the Roman wall underneath. 'The wall was built to separate Romans and barbarians. The wall is still used as a boundary - but now it's between fields rather than Romans and barbarians.' Mr Scott also joked that it might be time to rebuild the wall entirely if the independence referendum drives England and Scotland apart. 'A local civil engineering firm was asked to calculate the cost of a wall made of concrete,' he said. 'It was £80million at 1974 prices - maybe we should think about it if there is a "yes" vote for Scottish independence next year?' Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall Forty years after the Emperor Claudius conquered southern Britain in 43 CE, the Roman governor, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, led a force of 20,000 troops northwards into the country known by the Romans as Caledonia (Scotland). Unlike the rest of Britain, Scotland was never considered part of the Roman Empire. The Roman armies invaded Scotland several times and even defeated the northern tribes a few times, but they never controlled Scotland.

Defending their Empire To control their newly won territory in England, the Romans built heavily defended forts around the country. Most famous of all, on the northern edge of their British territory, the Romans built a coast-to-coast wall to protect Roman England from the tribes who lived in Scotland. Hadrian's Wall was built so well, that you can still go and see parts of it today, nearly 2000 years after it was made. What was Hadrian's Wall? Hadrian's Wall was a stone barrier built to separate the Romans and the Picts tribes in Scotland. It allowed Roman soldiers to control the movements of people coming into or leaving Roman Britain. Every Roman mile along the Wall there was a milecastle, a fortified gateway which allowed Roman soldiers to go on patrol to the north of Hadrian’s Wall and control other people passing through the Wall. Between the milecastles were two turrets at regular intervals from which soldiers could keep watch over the surrounding countryside. Photograph on the right show the remains of a turret. The remains of a turret During the building of the Wall, it was decided to add forts. There were 16 forts in total along the length of the Wall.

These meant that even more Roman soldiers were based along the wall and the frontier was more effectively controlled. Housesteads (Vercovicium) Roman Fort Housesteads is the best-known fort on Hadrian,s Wall. It covers 5 acres (2 hectares). How long was Hadrian's Wall? It was 117 kilometers (73 miles) long across the narrow neck of England, from the North Sea to the Irish Sea. ( see map ) How wide and high was Hadrian's Wall? The wall was eight to ten feet wide and fifteen feet high. When did the Romans build Hadrian's Wall? The Romans began building the wall in 122 A.D. Why did the Romans build Hadrian's Wall? The Romans built it because they were afraid that the people of the north might attack them. The wall was built between Roman Britain and Scotland. How long did it take to build Hadrian's Wall? It took about 14 years to complete Hadrian's Wall. The largest structure ever made by the Romans. Who built Hadrian's Wall? Hadrians Wall was built on the orders of the Roman emperor Hadrian. It was constructed by three legions of soldiers. Who was Emperor Hadrian?

Hadrian was born in Rome in A.D. 76. He became Emperor of Rome in A.D. 117 and ruled for 21 years until A.D. 138. Hadrian came to visit Britain in A.D. 122, one of the many stops on a tour of the western provinces of the Roman Empire. His mission was to strengthen the defences along the northern Roman Empire. It is likely that during this visit that he ordered the construction of the Wall. Further information Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall at Steel Rigg : David Simpson Photo: Milecastle at Steel Rigg, Hadrian's Wall, photographed by David Simpson Photo: Hadrian's Wall at Black Carts Turret photographed by David Simpson Hadrian's Wall "Just when you think you are at the world's end, you see smoke rising from East to West as far as the eye can turn, and then under it, also as far as the eye can stretch, houses, temples, shops and theatres, barracks and granaries, trickling along like dice behind.... one, long, low, rising and falling, and hiding and showing line of towers... that is the wall.

" Rudyard Kipling From `Puck of Pook's Hill' Hadrian's Wall : David Simpson Why the Wall was built 55 B.C, is the year in which the Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar but it was not until almost a century later in 43 A.D , during the reign of the Emperor Claudius that the full scale Roman conquest and occupation of Britain really began. By A.D 70 a powerful army led by the Roman Governor of Britain Julius Agricola, had captured most of southern Britain and advanced into the northern part of our country. Here they defeated two great Celtic tribes, the Brigantes at Scotch Corner to the south of the Tees and the Picts at the Battle of Mons Grapius in Caledonia. Victory over the Picts was not difficult for the might of the Roman army, but the wild mountainous terrain of Caledonia made the total subjugation of this remote Higland people a formidable and rather unprofitable task. When the Roman Emperor Hadrian visited Britain in 122 A.D he recognised the difficulties in establishing control in Caledonia and saw that it would be impossible to introduce the Picts to the Roman way of life.

The Emperor therefore ordered the construction of a great defensive wall which would mark the northern limits of his empire and consolidate the hold on those parts of Britain already subdued. Hadrian's empire would not include Caledonia. Exploring Hadrian's Wall : David Simpson Romans and 'Barbarians' A biographer of Hadrian's time summed up the purpose of the Emperor's great wall when he recorded that its construction would `Separate the Romans from the Barbarians'. The `Barbarians' in question were of course the Caledonian Picts and the great local tribe called the Brigantes, whose territory lay on both sides of Hadrian's Wall. It is worth noting that when Hadrian's Wall was first built, many of its forts actually faced south into the heart of the Brigantian territory. This suggests that initially it was not the Picts who were the greatest threat to the Roman occupation of northern Britain. The Picts and the Brigantes were neither English or Scottish by origin, but were tribal descendants of earlier inhabitants of Britain. When Hadrian's Wall was built neither the English nor the Scots had yet settled our country, England or Scotland simply did not exist in Roman times.

One thing should therefore be made absolutely clear about Hadrian's Wall- it did NOT act as a boundary between England and Scotland. The English and the Scots, did not settle in Britain until three centuries after Hadrian's Wall was built. In Hadrian's time the ancient race called the Scots inhabited Hibernia (now called Ireland), while the English, or more accurately the Anglo-Saxons, were a Germanic race who inhabited the central mainland of northern Europe. It is an even greater mistake to think that Hadrian's Wall forms a boundary between England and Scotland today, for the simple reason that most of Northumberland, England's northernmost and very Anglo-Saxon county, actually lies to the north of the Wall. A multi-cultural military zone Hadrian's Wall was eighty miles long, six metres high, three metres wide and built of stone, (though the Cumbrian sections were originally built of turf). Its defences were supplemented by a northern DITCH, a MILITARY ROAD and an earthwork called the `VALLUM' . Together these features formed a `MILITARY ZONE' which restricted the movement of people to the north and south of the wall.

This military zone was a `No Go' area for armed `Barbarians'. The defences of the Military Zone were supplemented by MILECASTLES which housed garrisons of up to sixty men. These were built at intervals of one Roman mile and between each of these stood two smaller defensive towers called TURRETS which held small garrisons of four men. Most important of the military garrrisons along the wall were of course the great FORTS, of which there were sixteen, each housing between five hundred and one thousand men. The men who occupied these forts and the other Wall defences were sometimes recruited locally, but more often than not they were brought in from some distant corner of the Roman Empire. Soldiers garrisoned on the wall, thus came from as far away as Spain, Switzerland, Hungary, Germania, Romania and even North Africa. Surprisingly very few of the Roman soldiers originated from Rome or Italy. Instead the wall was a Multi-National Military Zone whose people had brought with them many different customs, languages and religions. Civilian towns The `Multi-Cultural Society was further developed by small Civilian towns called VICUS which grew up around the Roman forts.

These were inhabited by women, children, craftsmen, traders and retired soldiers who brought the wall to life in the way that Kipling superbly describes in `Puck of Pook's Hill'. It can therefore be seen that Hadrian's frontier was not just a dull and simple stone wall - far from it ! - Hadrian's wall was an active military zone, a customs barrier, a line of defence and above all `a way of life'. "Towns stood upon my length, where garrisons were laid. Their limits to defend and; for my greater aid With turrets I was built where sentinels were placed To watch upon the Pict; so me my makers graced." Michael Drayton `Poly Oblion' (1613) Hadrian's Wall was occupied for almost three centuries and at the height of its importance had been the home to thousands of men, women and children. Today, at eighteen hundred years old, Hadrian's Wall may be a mere relic of its magnificent past, but it is still nevertheless the most impressive monument to the Roman occupation of Britain, as well as being a very important feature of the heritage of North Eastern England.

Reconstruction of Roman Gateway at Arbeia fort, South Shields : David Simpson The end of Roman occupation From the middle of the third century A.D, the Empire of Rome came increasingly under threat from raiding Vandals and Goths on its eastern frontiers in continental Europe. This resulted in heavy demand for Roman troops in Europe and caused a gradual depletion in the number of Roman soldiers stationed in Britain. The movement of troops from Britain was bad news for the native Welsh speaking Britons of the Wall Country as the presence of the Roman army provided them with much needed protection from raiding Picts. By 367 A.D the number of Roman troops on Hadrian's Wall had reached an all time low and pre-empted the so called `Barbarian Conspiracy' in which the Picts overran Hadrian's Wall in conjunction with the Scots (from Ireland) who invaded western Britain and the Saxons (from Germany), who invaded the south and east. For a short period following the Barbarian Conspiracy the Romans managed to restore law and order to the Wall Country but by the year 399 A.D the Roman Empire was crumbling with further trouble in Europe. The full scale evacuation of Roman troops from Roman Britain began.

Hadrians Wall, extent of the Roman Empire 4 pages on Hadrian's Wall Hadrians wall One of the greatest monuments to the power - and limitations - of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall ran for 73 miles across open country. Why was it built? At the time of Julius Caesar's first small invasion of the south coast of Britain in 55 BC, the British Isles, like much of mainland Europe was inhabited by many Celtic tribes loosely united by a similar language and culture but nevertheless each distinct. He returned the next year and encountered the 4000 war chariots of the Catevellauni in a land "protected by forests and marshes, and filled with a great number of men and cattle." He defeated the Catevellauni and then withdrew, though not before establishing treaties and alliances. Thus began the Roman occupation of Britain. Nearly 100 years later, in 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent Aulus Plautius and about 24,000 soldiers to Britain, this time to establish control under a military presence.

Although subjugation of southern Britain proceeded fairly smoothly by a combination of military might and clever diplomacy, and by 79 AD what is now England and Wales were firmly under control, the far North remained a problem. However, the Emperor Vespasian decided that what is now Scotland should also be incorporated into the Roman Empire. Under his instructions the governor of Britian, Julius Agricola, subdued the Southern Scottish tribal clans, the Selgovae, Novantae and Votadini by 81 AD. Further to the North lived loose associations of clans known collectively as the Caledonians. Agricola tried to provoke them into battle by marching an army into the Highlands eventually forcing a battle with the Caledonian leader Calgacus in present day Aberdeenshire at a place called Mons Graupius. 30,000 Caledonians were killed, but the Roman victory was a hollow one, for the next day the surviving clansmen melted away into the hills, and were to remain fiercely resistant and independent. By the time Hadrian became Emperor in 117 AD the Roman Empire had ceased to expand. Hadrian was concerned to consolidate his boundaries.

He visited Britain in 122 AD, and ordered a wall to be built between the Solway Firth in the West and the River Tyne in the east "to separate Romans from Barbarians". Page 2: Inventory of Conflict and Environment (ICE), Template I. CASE BACKGROUND 1. Abstract This case study will examine the environmental impact of Hadrian’s Wall and the Wall as a cultural divider between Scotland and England. Hadrian’s Wall was built by the Romans around 120 A.D. and was meant to protect Roman Britannia (England) from Northern tribes located in modern day Scotland. The building of the Wall, the settlements that sprung up around the Roman fortifications, and tourism to the site have all changed the natural environment through deforestation, mining, biological seclusion, and roads. Not only has the Wall affected the natural environment, its creation established a split between two peoples on the English Isle: a division that created two distinct cultures and lands-- Scotland and England. 2. Description I. The Conflict The history of the conflict begins with the Roman invasion of Britannia by the armies of Julius Caesar in 55 B.C.

Caesar’s invasion was not a permanent occupation and the conquest and integration of Britain into the Roman empire did not come until Claudius’ reign in 43 A.D (Durant 176, 271). The Romans mostly fought Celtic tribes and the Brigantes in England, while the Northern tribes included the Pinnines, Brigantes, and Scots (Birley, 130). Revolts against Roman rule did occur in England, the most notable being in 61 A.D. when an English Queen named Boadicea marched on Londonium, the future London, and massacred an estimated 70,000 Roman citizens. When the Roman legions eventually caught up to this British army, Boadicea and 80,000 of her fellow Britons were killed. Roman governors eventually brought order to England and the process of Romanization, where conquered cultures began to accept Roman culture and customs, completed the conquest. Only in the North remained tribes that would not come under Roman control. Agricola, a Roman governor, defeated an army of Scots in the north but was recalled by orders from Rome.

Thus, the conflict was set for a divide between the Romanized South, modern England, and the Northern tribes, called barbarians by the Romans and located in modern Scotland. Emperor Hadrian began his rule in 117 A.D. and started a new strategy for the Roman empire of consolidating its borders and stopping expansion. To initiate this defensive posture, Hadrian began his reign with a tour of the European provinces to complete defensive fortifications. Whereas in the Eastern half of the Empire, the borders where protected by the natural boundaries of mountains and desert, the German and Northern English frontier had no natural boundaries to keep out migrating and warring tribes. The solution in Germany was a series of forts and fortifications, called limes, which used timber from the great central European forests and ditches to prevent tribal incursions. In contrast, large forests did not exist in Northern England and a great wall was built using stone, hence the title Hadrian’s Wall, which, as Hadrian’s biographer stated, was “to divide the barbarians from the Romans”(Durant, 417).

Emperor Hadrian inspected the fortifications himself during his tour of Britannia around 123 A.D., garrisoned several legions at the Wall, and instigated a period of peace in Britannia that lasted over 200 years. II. The Wall After its completion, Hadrian’s Wall was the most expensive building project ever undertaken by Rome to that point, most likely because of the stone that had to be imported to build the fortifications (Birley, 137). The Wall stretches seventy miles from the Irish Sea at Solway Firth in the West to the Eastern shore of England at Tyne. Its dimensions were enormous- 10 ft. broad and 14 feet high- and being made of stone, the Wall must have been an imposing structure to the Northern tribes (Birley, 132). Further making the building more impressive was that mortar was not used in the Wall, only in the guard towers. Using cut stone and a clay and rubber core, the completed Wall was whitewashed and could be seen for miles (Birley, 133). The layout of the fortifications consisted of the Wall, ditches, guard posts, and signaling turrets.

The ditch on the North side was 30 ft. wide and nine feet deep and usually had a false bottom with camouflaged sharp spikes. These ditches acted like modern day barb wire in that attackers had to run the gamut of obstacles even before they got to the Wall. The Wall had a guard post, also called a mile castle, every mile of its length, and between each mile castle stood two signaling towers, or watch towers (Birley, 133). In the event of an attack, runners from the watch tower would run down the line to the next position and the ensuing relay race would alert the whole line. At night, fires could be lit that could be seen from the next position, and as each new position lit its fire upon the seeing the signal, the whole line could be alerted to the danger. Hadrian’s Wall needed thousands of troops to man the fortifications, and these troops were garrisoned along the entire span of the Wall. As was the case with other Roman frontiers, settlements quickly sprung up around Roman fortifications as local merchants and craftsmen sold their wares and labor to the soldiers. Like military bases today, Roman fortifications were an important source of income for the local economy.

The Romans eventually built another wall 30 miles north of Hadrian’s Wall, which meant that all the troops and settlements had to move north. The frontier switched back and forth between these two fortifications and thus increased the amount of environmental damage. After the Romans left around 500 A.D., Hadrian’s Wall began to deteriorate, and locals used the stone to build houses and fences. III. Environmental Impact Using modern day scientific studies of the region and inferring likely effects of the occupation, we can look at the environmental impact of this conflict. There were several major consequences to the environment. First, the area had massive deforestation, which has been confirmed by scientific studies and can be inferred from the increase of population on this frontier. One study indicates that, “it was not until Romano-British times that man had much effect on the forests of the area. Organized clearance and farming in this marginal frontier zone of the Roman Empire was on a scale unparalled in history until recently” (Donaldson, abstract).

Pollen diagrams in another study show that there was a major clearance of wood for grazing during the Roman period, and that the regeneration of the forest only occurred 100 to 200 years after the Romans left (Davies, abstract). Furthermore, the new forests were small on scale and were managed mostly for firewood (Donaldson, abstract). From our knowledge of deforestation, we can infer a decline in the animal population and its diversity with the loss of habitat, and we can infer that the new landscape was pasture like with wide open spaces—an environment that would favor certain types of species. Besides the loss of forests to sustain this frontier settlement, Hadrian’s Wall created a division between animal species. Under the theory of evolution, species that are cut off from each other begin to produce unique characteristics to the point of creating new species because they are not allowed to breed together. This process of biological divergence would create new, distinct animal species on either side of the Wall. Another impact of the Roman frontier settlement involved mining and the use of lead to extract certain metals from ore. Romans used lead in their water pipes and bath houses, and scientific studies have shown high levels of lead around the area, indicating mining and smelting.

This increase of lead can damage the ecosystem and cause harm to humans, especially infant brain development. Last but not least, the region is faced with the new problem of tourism to see Hadrian’s Wall, and pollution and degradation of the natural environment are likely consequences. The Wall has undergone several studies on how to preserve the sight using new guidelines for eco-tourism provided by the English government and the European Union. The U.S. based Campaign for Environmentally Responsible Tourism stated, “it is estimated that the world will have over one billion annual travelers by the year 2010,” and that mass tourism tends to destroy the very things the traveler wanted to see and admire (Paterson, 98). 3. Duration: 55 B.C. - 450 A.D. This conflict lasted from the invasion of Brittania by Julius Caeser in 55 B.C. to around 450 A.D. when the Romans abadoned the Wall as the Roman Empire began to recede. As mentioned earlier, the effects of this conflict are still felt today with the impact of tourism to the region to see the Hadrian's Wall. 4. Location: Hadrian's Wall stretches 70 miles across Northern England.

5. Actors 1. The Romans - Stretching from Palestine in the East, across Northern Africa in the South, and most of Western Europe, the Roman Empire was one of the most impressive civilizations in history. The Roman Army included soldiers from all parts of the Empire and often local tribes, kingdoms, and mercenaries served as adjuncts to the Roman legions. 2. The Celts - This tribe arrived around 500 B.C. in the modern day United Kingdom from the European mainland and quickly displaced the native peoples. The Celts married with the local inhabitants, absorbed some of their culture, and spread across the island and into modern day Ireland. The majority of people living in Brittannia were Celts at the time of Roman occupation, as the Anglos and the Saxons did not invade until the 600s. 3. The Picts - Another tribe that had origins within the Celts and shared much of the same culture. 4. The Scots - These people also had their origins in the Celts and migrated from Ireland to modern Scotland around 400 A.D. 6. Type of Environmental Problem I.

Deforestation There have been several studies using pollen analysis and radio carbon dating indicating massive deforestation during the Roman period in the region of Hadrian’s Wall (McCarthy, 1995; Donaldson, Turner, 1977; Walker, 1966; Dumayne-Peaty, 1999; Davies and Turner, 1979). It must be noted that there are a couple of studies which disagree with these findings, mainly about using pollen diagrams and radio carbon dating to match historical dates (Manning, Birley, Tipping, 1997; Dumayne, Stoneman, Barber, Harkness, 1995). We can conjecture that deforestation during Roman occupation of the frontier zone caused the decline of species counts and possibly the extinction of other species. II. Pollution Besides deforestation, the Roman occupation, with Hadrian’s Wall as a central component, caused an increase in mined metals found in the environment. These metals included Copper, Zinc, and Lead (West, Charman, Grattan, Cherburkin, 1997).

The Romans used lead for bath buildings, lead pipes, and lead coffins (Frere, 276). Silver ore, another important metal found in Britannia, is naturally found coupled with lead, so the lead must be removed to mine silver, causing lead pollution as a by-product. Increases in these elements can damage the eco-system, disrupt the food chain, and cause defects in the region’s species, including humans. Another result of the Roman period was the spread of Calcareous grasslands (Poschold and Wallisdevries, 2002). This is typical of the entire Roman Empire in Europe, and now these grasslands are threatened on the continent. III. Unsustainable Development In the modern era, tourism to see Hadrian's Wall creates such problems as overtaxing the social structure, including the local economy, and creating unsustainable growth which the natural environment can not bear. Furthermore, increased tourism can damage the fragile habitats of endangered species. For example, a new national trail will run the length of the Wall beginning in 2003, and some hikers, who stray off the path, leave trash behind, camp, and use wood for campfires can significantly damage the environment.

Pollution from tourists traveling to the area is another cause for concern. 7. Type of Habitat:Temperate Looking at the environment of Northern England, there are five main habitats found along the length of the Wall: moorland, bog, hay meadows, forest, and streams, lakes, and rivers. Each has its own set of unique species, and when these habitats are threatened, so are the species that live there. A general description of the area is of rolling hills, mostly covered with grasses with rock outcroppings and small stands of trees. Wide open spaces with some limestone cliffs are central elements, too. There are farms and small villages with lots of grazing sheep, and in some meadows, there are over thirty different species per square yard. Several interesting and distinct animals and plants inhabit the region. Some common plants are heather, cotton grass, spring gentian, sphagnum moss (found in the bogs), sunden, melancholy thistle, wood cranesbill, and various wildflowers. There are several rare and endangered plant species, too. These include the Bog Orchid and Jacob’s Ladder. This environment is home to many types of birds.

Merlins, the Yellow Wagtail, Short Eared Owl, Curlew, Snipe, Oyster Catcher, Redshank, and the Black Grouse are found throughout the region. Other animals include the Mountain Blue Hare, Feral Goat, the Red Squirrel, Emperor Moth, Otter, Salmon, and Freshwater Pearl Mussel. Salmon has made a comeback because of pollution controls over the last twenty years; however, other animals are still threatened: the otter is rare and the Pearl Mussel is endangered. The Red Squirrel is an endangered species, mostly because there is so little forest left. In fact, forest makes up only 1% of the landscape. Another endangered animal is the large heath butterfly, and steps have been taken by the British government to protect all of these species and their habitats. The increase of tourism to the area may further endanger these animal species. 8. Act and Harm Sites Act Site: United Kingdom 9. Type of Conflict: Interstate 10. Level of Conflict: Low 11.

Fatality Level of Dispute: 200,000 The fatality level is an estimate based on combined total deaths from the Roman invasion and pacification of Brittania. The revolts of the British natives in the first century A.D. resulted in the deaths of 70,000 Romans and their allies and 80,000 Britains. It is also reported that the Romans defeated an army of 30,000 Scots along the frontier near Hadrian's Wall. While maintaining Hadrian's Wall, the Romans must have faced several attempts to cross the frontier by the Northern tribes. These battles likely resulted in numerous casualties. The level of conflict is low because the conflict spanned a long period of time. IV. Environment and Conflict Overlap 12. Environment-Conflict Link and Dynamics: Sources have given different depictions about the cost of building Hadrian’s Wall. On the one hand, Bedoyere writes that the Wall cost the Roman Empire nothing because the soldiers would have been paid anyway and all of the natural resources were free. As evidence of its low cost, Bedoyere points to the fact that the Wall was abandoned only twenty years after it was built.

On the other hand, Birley gives a different account when he describes the Wall as the most costly building project of the Romans up to 122 A.D. It has been estimated that 3,700,000 tons of stone were used to build the Wall. The cost alone of transporting this stone and building the roads over which it traveled must have been enormous. Bedoyere estimates that 8-10,000 Roman troops were stationed along the Wall; the cost of maintaining these troops would have been high, too. The Roman Empire had strong economic interests in the region and the Wall served to protect those interests. Britannia became an important source for raw materials like timber, silver, lead, and animal products. Roman investment and immigrant entrpeneuers spurred the British economy, causing industry and trade to spread quickly across the island (Frere, 280). The conflict on the frontier allowed the economy to grow because stabilty, order, and peace are essential for development. Hadrian's Wall, by sealing off the tribal conflicts in the North created the peace necessary for the growth in Britannia's economy. Consequently, the exploitation of the natural environment increases as developmet and trade increases.

The settlements that sprung up around the Wall must have created new environmental conflicts, too. As the natural resources were used up, especially the local timber, inhabitants would have to go farther and farther away, possibly across the frontier to get these resources. The military roads became essential to the survival of the frontier since the local resources were quickly depleted. Causal Diagram 13. Level of Strategic Interest: Medium The Romans invaded with the hopes of finding gold and silver. Cicero decries that not much gold was found, which Tacitus later confirms by writing that little gold was found and that the pearls from the oceans were of poor quality (Frere, 275). In contrast, silver was abundant in Britannia and was coupled with lead, another important metal for Roma industry in the rock ore. The silver-lead industry, with mining, smelting, and exporting, took off shortly after Roman conquest and this industry, much like the fur trading in North America, drove the economy and expansion of the Roman Empire in Britannia. The silver-lead industry was only the beginning of Roman exploitation of British natural resources. Copper and Tin, used to make Bronze, were soon mined, and stone quarries produced good stone for building puporses.

Timber was abundant enough to be exported.From the frontier came Scottish slaves and animal products like fur, hides, and wool (Frere, 286). Accordingly, Britannia became an important source for raw materials for the Roman Empire, increasing the strategic interest in the island. Hadrian's Wall protected these economic interests. Taxation was another economic interest that tied Rome to Britannia. Taxes came in several forms: payment in kind (often to feed the Roman army), gold and silver, and local men for service in the army. As the Roman Empire declined, the Roman Army relied heavily on these troop payments to maintain manpower.Tacitus claimed that Britons submited to taxation without resisting as long as there was not any abuse (Frere, 98). 14. Outcome of Dispute: Victory Great Britain (Includes England and Scotland) Common Law Scottish Dress Scottish Dialect We can assume that the tribal economy stayed the same in Scotland, with the possible exception of the adoption of Roman currency and some cross border trading. This split in economies due to Hadrian’s Wall, because the Romans stopped the frontier before conquering the entire island, might explain the difference in living standards and economic development between Scotland and Britain up to today.

Scotland has always been much poorer than England and this trend continues to this day. This split not only affected the two economies but helped create two different peoples who have different cultures: the Scottish and the English. Whereas most people are divided by natural geographic features, this cultural division occured because of man made conflict. Romanization in England created a new culture that synthesized Roman and Celtic cultures. Britons accepted Roman law, customs, and dress, and Latin became the dominant languange of the elite and educated. Roman architechture, including magnificent bath houses, and city planning were infused into the Britannia with the occupation. Building roads for the military and trade quickly unified England into one people with one culture as tribal distinctions faded away. The nature of nobility changed: where nobles once led their tribe into battle at the front, nobles in the Roman Empire were expected to be the most cultured and educated rather than the strongest fighters. Finally, Britannia accepted the Roman coinage, increasing its level of trade. The contrast with Scotland is stark. Clinging to the clan system, Scottish culture still holds onto its tribal roots. The Scottish have a different dialect, style of music and dance, food, and other customs which separate them from the English people.

Scottish wars for indepence testify to this division between two peoples who have separate identities and cultures. The Wall That Defined Scotland's Frontier 2,000 Years Ago To Today : Parallels : NPR The Wall That Defined Scotland's Frontier 2,000 Years Ago To Today Embed Embed The Wall That Defined Scotland's Frontier 2,000 Years Ago To Today The Wall That Defined Scotland's Frontier 2,000 Years Ago To Today Embed Embed Hadrian's Wall marks the Roman Empire's northernmost boundary, and at one point is less than a mile from today's border between England and Scotland. Ari Shapiro/NPR hide caption toggle caption Ari Shapiro/NPR Hadrian's Wall marks the Roman Empire's northernmost boundary, and at one point is less than a mile from today's border between England and Scotland. Ari Shapiro/NPR About 2,000 years ago, the Roman Empire stretched from the Middle East all the way across Western Europe. A wall marked the empire's northernmost boundary, at one point less than a mile from today's border between England and Scotland. The Roman emperor Hadrian built the 73-mile wall at this point to keep the unruly Scottish out.

When the Scottish vote in an independence referendum on Sept. 18, they will be deciding whether they want to separate from the rest of Britain. And Hadrian's wall, which still stands, has some modern-day issues of its own. The organization that maintains the wall has lost its funding. For most people, a hike along the wall demands only the most basic equipment: a water bottle, a sturdy pair of shoes, and (this being England) rain gear. Alisha Martin, 9, is working a more authentic look. The girl is ready for battle, with a plastic helmet, shield and sword. Alisha Martin, 9, visits Hadrian's Wall in a Roman costume. Ari Shapiro/NPR "A Roman costume," she says, "because it's Hadrian's Wall. Hadrian built it to keep out the barbarians." "Hadrian was a emperor, I think?" She glances at her mother, who nods encouragingly. "Yeah, emperor." Tourist David Fletcher explains it this way: "The Romans, who were occupying England at the time, were a bit cheesed off at the Scottish people, who kept stealing their sheep." Article continues after sponsorship "Marauding tribes!" adds his wife, Kath.

"Marauding. And Hadrian said, 'Enough is enough!' " Fletcher says. The wall took six years to build. It originally stood 15 feet high. The Romans put a major fort every five miles along its length. "There's quite strong evidence that the wall was painted white in Roman times," says Linda Tuttiett, chief executive of the Hadrian's Wall Trust. "So as you can imagine, that would have been visible from miles and miles and miles away." It made a grand statement about the empire's size and strength. And it also said something about the people who withstood the massive Roman Empire. "It's a testimony to the strength of feeling and character of the Scots as they were at the time," she says. And perhaps as they are today as well, given Scotland's upcoming vote. "Indeed," says Tuttiett. "Who knows how that strength of character has developed?" Two thousand years later, this wall is a lot less imposing. It's no longer white. The forts are gone. It looks like a garden wall, running along cliffs and hills surrounded by heather and scrubby trees. Hadrian's Wall — now standing only a few feet tall — stretches from one horizon to the other.

Related NPR Stories U.K. Warns Scotland: Vote To Secede, Lose Common Currency "Many, many of the farms and barns and churches across Hadrian's Wall are built out of the very stone of the wall," Tuttiett says. The Romans were great stonemasons. So after the empire fell, people took those nicely-cut stones for their own buildings. Today the wall is a UNESCO heritage site, and Tuttiett's organization has led the preservation effort — planting new grass, coordinating archaeological programs, and making sure nobody takes a stone for themselves. At least, that's what her organization used to do. Government funding dried up, and now the trust has been forced to close. "You really hate to see it disappear, because it is a great link to the past," says American tourist Steve Taylor, who's visiting from Houston. "And at the same time, you kind of wonder how long do you keep it around? Forever? I don't know the answer to that." Nobody expects the wall to vanish, but it won't be kept up like before. Responsibility will lie with 300 or so different entities along the wall's route, rather than one single organization.

"Wall maintenance has been a bit of an issue for almost 100 years, so these aren't new issues that are cropping up," says Dr. Andrew Birley. He's the archaeologist who runs excavations at a nearby Roman fort called Vindolanda, and the third generation of his family to excavate this site. Birley says studying ancient history gives him a long view of borders and empires. "Frontiers are not permanent things. Hadrian's Wall is a great example of that. It took a mighty Roman army here for almost 300 years to maintain this barrier between peoples," he says. As an Englishman, Birley won't be voting on Scottish independence. But he says his personal view is, why shove up more walls? He thinks, better to bring barriers down than put new ones up. Hadrian's Wall | Roman wall, England, United Kingdom | Britannica.com Roman wall, England, United Kingdom Written By: list of Roman emperors Hadrian’s Wall, continuous Roman defensive barrier that guarded the northwestern frontier of the province of Britain from barbarian invaders.

The wall extended from coast to coast across the width of northern Britain; it ran for 73 miles (118 km) from Wallsend (Segedunum) on the River Tyne in the east to Bowness on the Solway Firth in the west. The original plan was to construct a stone wall 10 Roman feet wide (a Roman foot is slightly larger than a standard foot) and at least 12 feet high for the eastern sector and a turf rampart 20 Roman feet wide at the base for the western sector; both were fronted by a ditch, except where the crags rendered this superfluous. At every 1/3 Roman mile there was a tower, and at every mile a fortlet (milefortlet, or milecastle) containing a gate through the wall, presumably surmounted by a tower, and one or two barrack-blocks. Before this scheme was completed, forts were built on the wall line at roughly 7-mile intervals and an earthwork, known as the vallum, dug behind the wall and the forts. Probably at this stage the stone wall was narrowed from 10 Roman feet wide to about 8 feet.

The fortlets, towers, and forts continued for at least 26 miles (42 km) beyond Bowness southward down the Cumbrian coast. Hadrian’s Wall, near the Scottish border in northern England. © Paul Banton/Shutterstock.com Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117–138 ce) went to Britain in 122 and, in the words of his biographer, “was the first to build a wall, 80 miles long, to separate the Romans from the barbarians.” The initial construction of the wall took approximately six years, and expansions were later made. Upon Hadrian’s death, his successor Antoninus Pius (138–161) decided to extend the Roman dominion northward by building a new wall in Scotland . The resulting Antonine Wall stretched for 37 miles (59 km) along the narrow isthmus between the estuaries of the Rivers Forth and Clyde. Within two decades, however, the Antonine Wall was abandoned in favour of Hadrian’s Wall, which continued in use nearly until the end of Roman rule in Britain (410).

Foundations of buildings at Housesteads Fort, an exceptionally well-preserved ruin of a Roman … © Gail Johnson/Fotolia Tower Bridge Hadrian’s Wall was built mainly by soldiers of the three legions of Britain, but it was manned by the second-line auxiliary troops. Its purpose was to control movement across the frontier and to counter low-intensity threats. There was no intention of fighting from the wall top; the units based on the wall were trained and equipped to encounter the enemy in the open. A section of Housesteads Fort, a Roman outpost along Hadrian’s Wall in Northumberland, England. © Jule_Berlin/Fotolia In 1990–91 excavations of a milefortlet just north of Maryport, Cumbria , provided information on a Roman garrison’s lifestyle. The fortlet, which was occupied for a short time during Hadrian’s reign, rendered artifacts such as fragments of game boards and a large number of hearths and ovens. The fortlet has been partially reconstructed and made accessible to the public. In 1987 Hadrian’s Wall was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site .

Over the centuries many sections of the wall have suffered damage caused by roads traversing it and by the plunder of its stones to build nearby houses and other structures. However, the remaining foundations and forts attract tourists from throughout the world. Compare Great Wall of China . Portion of Hadrian’s Wall between the Scottish Borders, Scotland, and Northumberland, England. Dmitri Kessel—Time Life Pictures/Getty Images The English Lake District, the Borders and Hadrian's Wall 3 Day Tour - Tour England from Edinburgh When do you want to go... Itinerary Day 1 Travel south into the Scottish Borders through the Galloway Hills and the Southern Uplands, stopping mid-morning in the Victorian spa town of Moffat. You then travel to the famous Cumbrian market town of Penrith in time for lunch. The afternoon to gives you the opportunity to explore some of the highlights of the Lake District, including visits to Ullswater, described as England’s most beautiful lake, where you can take a forest walk to see the mighty Aira Force waterfall, and Castlerigg standing stones. Finishing the day, you arrive in the charming town of Keswick, your base for the next 2 nights.

Day 2 Gives you the chance to travel through the heart of the Lake District. In the morning you once again pass by Ullswater, cross the majestic Kirkstone Pass over the fells to Boness on Windermere. Here you will have options to take lunch and a boat cruise on Windermere. The afternoon will be spent exploring Beatrix Potter country, Coniston water, Hawkeshead and the charming village of Grasmere. Day 3 Gives you time in the dramatic Whinlatter Forest Park, the quiet back roads of the western Lake District, Crummock Water, Buttermere and the Honister mountain pass, famous for its old slate mines. Your tour continues through the forest of Borrowdale, along Derwent Water and back to Keswick for lunch and some free time, before returning to Edinburgh in the early evening. Departure Point ~Transportation by a top of the range 16 seat Mercedes mini-coach. ~Air Conditioning as standard. ~Services of a professional Rabbie's driver/guide ~All ferry and bridge crossings. Exclusions: ~Entrances to all Visitor Attractions. Accommodation Your tour does not include accommodation in the price.

By giving you a choice of accommodation it allows you to choose your budget, stay in smaller places and get closer to the local people. This also means you help to sustain the communities you visit in the long term. Choose a hotel, B&B or a hostel and we will book it for you. *NB On occasions, when villages we stay in have events on, accommodation can be scarce and expensive so we may use other locations for your accommodation on the tour. We will always inform you of this when this is necessary. Discount Price Students, Seniors over 60 and Children between 5 and 15 (we regret we do not carry children under 5 years old) Important Information We like to give you plenty of opportunities to go on nature walks, so we recommend you bring suitable clothing and footwear for your tour. The English Lake District and the Scottish Borders can be very wet! Unless otherwise notified passengers are restricted to one medium sized suitcase/bag (maximum 15 kilos) and one carry-on bag per person. Customer Reviews We're a family of four from Singapore. We booked two tours with Rabbie's on the internet - the Whiskey & Highlands Tour (3 May) and the Lake District Tour (7 - 9 May).

We are indeed delighted with the service we received from its two two resentatives, Alan and Mav respectively. Both gentlemen were knowledgeable, service-oriented and friendly. We learnt so much about your beautiful country from them. We had such a great time that we have already informed our friends and relatives back home to travel with Rabbie's when they visit Scotland. Well done Rabbie's! Govendram Premchand - 09/05/2014 We joined 2D1N to Bath and Oxford, and 3D2N to Isle of Skye. It was very good! The place, the service provided by our tour guide cum driver, and etc. Especially to Isle of skye, We were constantly entertained by Gus throughout the journey with his music, story-telling, his driving skills, politeness, and etc. Everything is just so, so, so good! Jenny Tang - 06/11/2012 We went on the 3 day tour to the Lake District and Hadrian's Wall with Pete. Pete was an excellent guide, historian and storyteller, and he made sure that we all had a fabulous tour.

Marcus & Anette Schmidt - 20/07/2012 A great time! Hallo you all in Edinburgh. Sorry, I couldn't write earlier because work caught me faster than I had expected. My daughter Jana and me went on the 3 Day tour down to Hadrian's Wall and the Lake District. What a great tour with our guide Peter! He was very friendly, helpful and not bored by answering my endless questions. It was a tour through an amazing countryside, through Scottish history. We learned a lot and were able to recreate in places we would never have seen on our own. Autumn is a wonderful time: all the bright colours and the peaceful places without any hustle and bustle. Back to Edinburgh we had another day to spend. What to do because we saw a lot last year on our trips to the western Highlands and Loch Ness and on our stay in Edinburgh? Having passed your office, we decided to ask for a day tour. And we got one to St. Andrews. Thanks to Sarah who took us there and made our Scotland experience perfect. We are planning to come back next year to explore either the Isle of Skye or the Orkney Islands. Scotland has us calm in its hand.

GertraudeFreche - 08/11/2011 Wow –we had three wonderful days – 24 – 26 Aug. My sister and I have just returned from the 3 day English Lake District Tour with Ally. We admired Ally’s knowledge of the geology of the Lake District, the history and relevant dates, all told with a lot of humour. He is a mine of information, history, poetry, geology, music etc. We learned a lot and laughed a lot. It was great. The group consisted of a wide variety of nationalities and ages but Ally managed to get everybody involved and nobody felt ‘alone’. If you have not seen the English Lake District, book a tour with Rabbies and I can assure you that you will not be disappointed. A big thank you to Ally and to Rabbies. Hope to see you again next year. Monika Bowditch - 03/09/2011 Ally Rocks.. comments anyone?

Viral Sodha - 24/09/2010 I just had gr8 tour at lake district....our guide Ally was soooo good and he got excellent knowledge of everything...and he is funny aswell..i would love to go to another tour with him...this is my second tour with ribbie's.... and i can say rabbie's is the best of the best...i will definitely coming back to scotland again and next time and and and of course i will take rabbie's tour again. Again thanks to rabbie's team and specially Ally for the great tour.... Khandoker Jelani - 18/09/2010 View complete album Full Itinerary (English) Day 1 Depart Edinburgh at 08.30 and travel South through the Scottish Borders, with stunning views the Galloway Hills and the Southern Uplands, on our way to the first stop of the day, the Victorian Spa town of Moffat,. From Moffat you continue south over the border into England and head to the historic Cumbrian Market town of Penrith.

Here you will have the chance to get lunch and explore the ruins of Penrith Castle, which played a key role in defending the border from invading Scots. After lunch you travel into the Lake District National Park, along the northern shores of Ullswater described as England’s most beautiful lake where you can take a forest walk to see the mighty Aira Force waterfall. You then travel towards Keswick, stopping outside of the town to visit the mysterious Castlerigg standing stones, thought to have been built over 5,000 years ago and the scene of ancient rituals. You then have a short journey into the lively market town of Keswick where you will be dropped off at your accommodation and are then free to explore this charming town. (**During July/early August this tour may stay in Windermere). Day 2 After breakfast you head along the winding country lanes to travelling along the southern shores of Ullswater, taking stops to take in the majestic views of this beautiful lake. Continuing south you journey over the narrow and winding Kirkstone Pass you stop at Lake Windermere where you have the option to take a leisurely cruise on the Lake or simply eat lunch while enjoying views of the mountains and lakes.

After lunch you travel around the southern tip of Windermere and on towards Coniston Water and shortly afterwards you arrive at the picturesque conservation village of Hawkeshead, where the poet William Wordsworth attended Grammar School. After free time to explore the village you take the narrow country lanes north towards Grasmere, which Wordsworth described as “the loveliest spot that man hath found”. There is free time to visit Wordsworth’s Dove Cottage or enjoy the peace and tranquillity of the Wordsworth Daffodil Garden by the River Rothy. In the late afternoon you return to Keswick. Day 3 You will be collected from your accommodation and you head for the Whinlatter Forest Park and over the Whinlatter pass and into some of the most dramatic landscapes that the Lake District has to offer. Your journey takes us through the rural village of High Lorton, along the quiet winding lanes to the shores of Crummock Water and Buttermere and on towards the Honister mountain pass. Stopping amongst the mountains you have the opportunity to visit the old slate workings where a small number of Cumbrians continue to make their living.

Following refreshments, you continue through the forests of Borrowdale, passing Derwent Water on your return to Keswick where there is free time for lunch and shopping. Following lunch, you begin your return journey by heading towards Penrith and then north towards the border. After crossing into Scotland you take a stop in the town of Biggar, a royal burgh since 1415. From here it is a leisurely drive through the rolling border hills back to Edinburgh. Arrival approx 19.30. Photography Credits: Britainonview. VisitBritain: Rod Edwards (Derwent Water, Keswick, Hadrian's Wall), Joe Cornish (Honister Pass). Mike Hasted, Luke Sheppard, Ingrid Rasmussen, Pawel Libera, Tony Pleavin, Craig Easton, David Angel, Martin Brent, Bob Berry, Paul Watts, Robma (Moffat).

Question: Who built a wall to separate Scotland and England?
Answer: Hadrian