Francois Duvalier | president of Haiti | Britannica.com president of Haiti François Duvalier, byname Papa Doc (born April 14, 1907, Port-au-Prince , Haiti —died April 21, 1971, Port-au-Prince), president of Haiti whose 14-year regime was of unprecedented duration in that country. François Duvalier, 1963. AP Duvalier graduated in 1934 from the University of Haiti School of Medicine, where he served as a hospital staff physician until 1943, when he became prominently active in the U.S.-sponsored anti-yaws campaign. A contributor to the daily Action Nationale (1934), Duvalier was markedly influenced by the mystic scholar Lorimer Denis and became a member of Le Groupe des Griots, a circle of writers who embraced black nationalism and voodoo as the key sources of Haitian culture . A supporter of President Dumarsais Estimé , Duvalier was appointed director general of the National Public Health Service in 1946, and he directed the anti-yaws campaign in 1947–48.

He was appointed underminister of labour in 1948 and the following year became minister of public health and labour, a post that he retained until May 10, 1950, when President Estimé was overthrown by a military junta under Paul E. Magloire , who was subsequently elected president. Duvalier returned to his former work with the American Sanitary Mission in 1951–54 and began organizing the resistance to Magloire. By 1954 he had become the central opposition figure and went underground. After the resignation of Magloire in December 1956, Duvalier’s followers participated in most of the six governments that were formed in the succeeding 10 months. Running on a program of popular reform and black nationalism , Duvalier was elected president in September 1957. Setting about to consolidate his power, he reduced the size of the army and, with his chief aide, Clément Barbot, organized the Tontons Macoutes (“Bogeymen”), a private force responsible for terrorizing and assassinating alleged foes of the regime.

When Duvalier was stricken by a heart attack in 1959, Barbot acted in his stead. Upon recovery, the president promptly imprisoned his aide. His manipulation of legislative elections in 1961 to have his term extended to 1967 and other corrupt and despotic measures precipitated a termination of U.S. aid to Haiti. That summer he had Barbot murdered, after the latter, on his release from prison, had attempted an insurrection. Other attempts to overthrow Duvalier were equally unsuccessful. Late in 1963 Duvalier moved further toward an absolutist regime, promoting a cult of his person as the semidivine embodiment of Haiti. In April 1964 he declared himself president for life. Although diplomatically almost completely isolated, excommunicated by the Vatican until 1966 for harassing the clergy, and threatened by conspiracies against him, Duvalier was able to stay in power longer than any of his predecessors. His regime of terror quelled political dissent, causing nearly 30,000 deaths, but at the same time achieved for Haiti an unusual degree of political stabilization.

On Duvalier’s death, power was transferred to his son, Jean-Claude (“Baby Doc”). Learn More in these related articles: Terror, Repression, and Diaspora: The Baby Doc Legacy - FPIF Terror, Repression, and Diaspora: The Baby Doc Legacy Haiti’s late dictator leaves behind a 1-million-strong Diaspora unlikely to ever return home. This article is a joint publication of Foreign Policy In Focus and TheNation.com . Haitians have seen their fair share of dictators and despots since their country gained its independence in 1804. But for the 1 million Haitians currently living abroad, one dynasty looms above the rest. For nearly three decades, Haiti was ruled by the notorious Duvaliers—first by Francois “Papa Doc” Duvalier and then by his son, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc.” That era came to a close in early October, when Baby Doc died in Haiti at the age of 63. He had been facing charges of corruption and human rights abuse. Baby Doc’s death has revived memories of repression and violence throughout Haiti.

But one of his most significant legacies lies outside the country—in the flourishing Haitian Diaspora that fled the poverty and repression of the Duvalier era. Papa Doc ruled Haiti with terror and impunity from 1957 until his death in 1971. With help from the Tontons Macoutes—a secret police force that took its name from a folk bogeyman who devours misbehaving children—Papa Doc presided over the murders of an estimated 30,000 people . Thousands of others simply disappeared or were imprisoned at the notorious Fort Dimanche , a prison known for torture, mutilation, and death. When Papa Doc died, his youngest and only son, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc,” became a teenage dictator at the age of 19. Baby Doc lived an extravagant lifestyle as the president of Haiti, driving luxury cars while his wife pampered herself with fur coats. But beneath the flashy exterior, Papa Doc’s legacy of terror continued. Corruption, imprisonment, and repression remained staples in Haiti’s government during Baby Doc’s 15-year rule.

And so did abject poverty, with over half of the population living on less than $1.25 a day in the early 1980s. The lack of jobs in rural areas caused a massive influx of workers into Port-au-Prince, where they took low-paying factory jobs with foreign companies lured by Baby Doc’s tax incentives. Paying low wages and benefiting from cushy tax breaks, these factories did little to improve Haiti’s economy. Instead, expansive slums spread out around Port-au-Prince, putting immense pressure on the weak Haitian infrastructure. Prospects for economic mobility were bleak. A staunch anti-communist, Baby Doc managed to restore Haiti’s relationship with the United States—which had been strained during his father’s rule—by releasing a few political prisoners and loosening restrictions on the press, earning his otherwise oppressive regime support from the Reagan administration. But while the U.S. government was supporting Baby Doc, Haitians were fleeing to the United States by the thousands. A Nation in Exile Initially the numbers were modest: In 1960, about 5,000 Haitians were living in the United States. But in the late 1970s, the flow quickened into a torrent.

Approximately 220,000 Haitians immigrated to the United States between 1960 and 1990, including 25,000 in 1980 alone. Today over 600,000 Haitian-born people call the United States home. Haitian migration started making U.S. headlines when shoddily constructed boats filled with people began to wash up on the shores of Florida. The trip was perilous and often deadly, and because the U.S. policy on boat migrants was to accept Cubans but not Haitians, there was always a chance of being sent back. However, not everyone left by boat. Wealthier and more educated Haitians who had the means to purchase plane tickets became known as the “Boeing people”—a sharp contrast to the “boat people” arriving by sea. But for Boeing people and boat people alike, settlement patterns were quite similar. Many stayed right where they arrived in Miami, transforming neighborhoods into their own little enclaves. New York City—and in particular Brooklyn and Queens—also attracted a high density of Haitian migrants, as did Boston and northern New Jersey.

Haitians, however, were not welcomed with open arms. Though they fled brutal repression in Haiti, the U.S. government considered them “economic migrants,” making it difficult to secure refugee status. Haitian migrants also suffered from racism and dangerous social stigmas. In the 1980s, for example, the Center for Disease Control listed Haitians alongside homosexuals, hemophiliacs, and heroin users as key carriers of HIV. This malicious claim reared its ugly head again in 1990, when the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) restricted Haitians (and Sub-Saharan Africans) from donating blood. In a sign of the growing strength of the community, an estimated 50,000 Haitians, sub-Saharan Africans, and their allies marched on the Brooklyn Bridge to protest the FDA that year. While the Diaspora struggled to dispel debilitating myths and build new lives abroad, the Haiti they left behind continued to suffer. The brain drain that began in the 1970s and 1980s hollowed out the country’s labor force, with some 70 percent of Haiti’s skilled workers still living abroad today.

A shortage of teachers, doctors, scientists, and engineers has left a huge hole in the economy and slowed down the country’s development. Haiti remains the poorest country in the Western hemisphere. Yet in their absence, expatriate Haitians have become the country’s most valuable resource. The $1.5-1.8 billion they send home each year is more than half the national income of Haiti, and they have proven a crucial source of emergency funds in times of disaster. After the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake, which killed an estimated 300,000 people and destroyed 70 percent of buildings in the capital city, U.S.-based Haitian groups sent doctors and nurses to aid in the recovery process, along with an additional $360 million in remittances to family and friends struggling to restart their lives. End of an Era A little over a year after the earthquake, Haiti’s political scene was struck by a quake of its own when Baby Doc, who had been deposed in 1986, returned to the country after over two decades of exile in France. Some speculated that his return was politically motivated.

Others guessed that because of his sickly appearance, he had returned to die. Baby Doc himself claimed that he returned because he wanted to help in the reconstruction process. His return was met with mixed reaction. Duvalier supporters, like current president Michel Martelly, welcomed him home. But expatriate Haitians who had suffered under his regime felt anger and jealousy that he was in Haiti and they were not: He was the reason they left, and now he was back on Haitian soil—a free man, but hopefully not for long. Human rights groups scrambled to get Baby Doc to face trial for the crimes committed during his regime. He was arrested on charges of corruption and human rights abuses, but the justice process in Haiti moves slowly. After pleading not guilty to the charges, Duvalier died of an apparent heart attack before he could face trial. Immediately, President Martelly took to Twitter to release a statement of sorrow, reaffirming his support for the Duvalier regime by calling Baby Doc a “ true son of Haiti .” The Haitian Diaspora and their children, however, saw Baby Doc’s death differently. Patrick Gaspard, a child of Haitian emigrants who is now the U.S.

ambassador to South Africa, recalled “the look in my mother’s eyes when she talks about her brother Joel who was disappeared by that dictator.” Other Haitians called in to U.S. radio stations to demand an investigation of the deaths and disappearances during the Baby Doc years. Though they will never see Baby Doc imprisoned for his crimes, human rights groups in Haiti remain committed to moving forward with the case. Perhaps sensing this resolve, Martelly opted not to throw the deceased dictator a state funeral. The Duvalier era remains an open wound in Haitian history. Baby Doc leaves behind two surviving children, an ex-wife, a Haiti still struggling to recover, and a 1-million-strong Diaspora—who remain Haitian to their core, but will likely never return home. Nathalie Baptiste is a Haitian-American contributor to Foreign Policy In Focus who lives in the Washington, D.C. area. She holds a BA and MA in International Studies and writes about Latin America and the Caribbean. You can follow her on Twitter at @nhbaptiste .

Duvalier, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” (1951-2014) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed Duvalier, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” (1951-2014) Back to Online Encyclopedia Index Image Ownership: Public Domain Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier, the son of the infamously corrupt and authoritarian Haitian president François "Papa Doc" Duvalier , was president of Haiti from 1971 to 1986. Born on July 3, 1951 in the Haitian capital Port-au-Prince, he grew up largely in isolation, spending his time inside the presidential palace. He rarely left the capital and never traveled outside the country. When Jean-Claude was twenty years old, his father, the self-appointed president-for-life, died. On April 22, 1971, before his father's funeral had even taken place, Jean-Claude Duvalier was installed as president.

Obese, clumsy, and clearly affected by the sudden attention from the international press, "Baby Doc," as dubbed by the press, proved to be a weak and impressionable figurehead. For the first years of his presidency, his mother, Simon, and his sister, Marie-Denise, ruled by proxy. Though Jean-Claude released political prisoners from his father's regime, increased cooperation with the United States, and reduced media censorship, he quickly confirmed that the Tonton Macoutes , the terrorizing and corrupt paramilitary founded by François Duvalier's administration, would remain the country's force and that no opposition to his government would be tolerated. Under the rule of "Baby Doc" malnutrition and famine continued, as they had under his father's regime. Many Haitians attempted to leave the country, overcrowding boats that transported them to the United States. Others fled to the Dominican Republic , where they were exploited as a source of cheap labor on sugar plantations. Foreign officials and observers, however, seemed more tolerant of "Baby Doc" particularly in areas such as human-rights monitoring.

Following the lead of the United States which restored its aid program soon after "Baby Doc" came to power, they poured millions of dollars into the nation, much of which was stolen by the Duvalier family and close supporters. It is estimated that in 1980 alone, the Duvalier family siphoned $16 million of the International Monetary Fund's $22 million in aid with another $4 million given to the Tonton Macoutes. The aid that was not deposited directly into the Duvalier family's bank account served to modernize Haiti's infrastructure by updating roads and providing rural areas with drinking water and electricity. However, many of the modernizations benefited the urban middle and upper classes, who had the means to buy up the previously inaccessible rural land. Eventually foreign opposition and a popular uprising opposition forced Baby Doc Duvalier to flee Haiti for exile in France in 1986. While in exile Duvalier spent almost all of the money his immediate family had stolen from the Haitian national treasury. By 2011 he was forced to relinquish formerly lavish lifestyle on the French Riviera and moved to a two bedroom apartment.

Later that year he was allowed to return to Haiti where he spent his last years in a suburb in the hills surrounding Port-au-Prince. Jean-Claude Duvalier died from a heart attack at a friend's residence in that nation's capital on October 4, 2014. He was 63. Sources: James Ferguson, Papa Doc, Baby Doc: Haiti and the Duvaliers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1987); Bernard Diederich, Papa Doc & The Tontons Macoutes (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishing, 2005); Richard A.

Haggerty, ed., The Dominican Republic and Haiti: Country Studies (Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991); David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti (NY: Vail-Ballou Press, 1979); ; Contributor(s): Haiti: Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier Returns from Exile - TIME Follow @TIME In the past 12 months, Haiti  already the western hemisphere's economic basket case  has suffered an epic earthquake that according to latest estimates killed more than 250,000 people and leveled the country's infrastructure, a cholera epidemic that has claimed thousands more lives and a powder-keg political crisis tied to the fraud-tainted Nov. 28 presidential election. (See pictures of Haiti's cholera outbreak.) All the country needed now was the return of a brutal exiled dictator.

This being Haiti, whose chronic tragedy is so often served with a helping of banana-republic bizarreness, that's what it got Sunday afternoon when Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier landed in Port-au-Prince for the first time since being thrown out of the country and packed off to France almost 25 years ago. "I came to help my country," the 59-year-old former despot declared as some 2,000 of his supporters met him at the airport. But it's hard to imagine how Duvalier's reappearance, which Haitian officials insist took them by surprise, could do anything more than throw Haiti into even deeper turmoil as it tries to rebuild after last year's disaster. (See TIME's exclusive pictures from the Haiti earthquake.) And what's perhaps even harder to imagine is how the government of French President Nicolas Sarkozy could have allowed Duvalier, who arrived from Paris, to board an Air France flight bound for Haiti under the current circumstances. "For the French to have even permitted [Duvalier] to leave their territory amidst an electoral and cholera crisis here shows they have not much interest in the welfare of the Haitian people," says a high-ranking Haitian government official.

French officials, who technically had no power to stop Duvalier, weren't responding to that question on Sunday night. But Port-au-Prince media were rife with conflicting conspiracy theories  all of them focused on last week's election report by the Organization of American States (OAS). It concluded that Jude Célestin, the candidate of Haitian President René Préval's party, actually finished third, not second, in the first-round balloting on Nov. 28, and that Célestin should therefore not be eligible for a runoff vote  which, ironically, was originally supposed to have been held Sunday but has been postponed. (See TIME's photo-essay "Haiti One Year Later.") The less-than-credible Nov. 28 results, which many if not most Haitians believe the government fixed to eke out a runoff spot for Célestin, were met by violent street protests last month. Even before last week's OAS report, the aloof and unpopular Préval was under ample international pressure, including from the U.S., to recognize the official third-place finisher, Michel Martelly , as the actual runner-up.

(He would then face first-place candidate Mirlande Manigat in the runoff.) Last week, France's ambassador to Haiti, Didier Le Bret, was frequently on Haitian radio calling on Préval to respect the OAS recommendation. Préval in turn angrily charged France and the international community with imperialist-style strong-arming. The question now is, Who if anyone in this standoff benefits from the sudden presence of Duvalier? Some Haitian pundits on Sunday said it might be meant to compel Préval to acquiesce to international demands to sacrifice Célestin. But it's hard to believe, even under Sarkozy, that France and the international community would stoop so low diplomatically as to encourage Duvalier to return to Haiti for that purpose. Others suggested that Duvalier's return instead gives Préval leverage by showing the international powers how much more turbulent things can get if they keep messing with the Haitian President. But again, could even Préval be cynical enough to open the door to one of the 20th century's most notorious dictators for that kind of political gain?

Either way, sources close to Duvalier told reporters Sunday that he'd entered Haiti on a diplomatic passport  but if so, it was unclear which country had issued it to him. (See the early days of Baby Doc's life in exile in France.) What's worse, this drama could actually send many Haitians, albeit with blinders on, to the side of Duvalier, whose stunning return might make him seem a figure of stability and order amid their country's nightmarish uncertainties. Baby Doc had already announced his desire to return to Haiti in 2004, after the ouster of populist President Jean-Bertrand Aristide (whose supporters may now clamor more loudly for his own return from exile in South Africa). Duvalier even said he wanted to run for President himself in the 2006 elections. But Haitian officials made it clear that if Duvalier did return, he'd face trial on charges of corruption and brutality during his 15-year dictatorship, which had succeeded the even harsher regime of his father, François "Papa Doc" Duvalier, who died in 1971.

(See the death and legacy of Papa Doc Duvalier.) Both Papa Doc and Baby Doc ruled through terror, relying on bloodthirsty enforcers like the Tonton Macoutes, and each stole the western hemisphere's poorest nation blind. After Baby Doc and his infamously venal wife, Michèle Bennett, were whisked out of Haiti in February of 1986 on a U.S. Air Force plane amid a seething uprising by Haitians, they settled in the south of France and lived in one of the world's most luxurious exiles. (They divorced in 1993; Duvalier arrived in Port-au-Prince on Sunday with his new wife, Véronique Roy, the granddaughter of a former Haitian President.) Baby Doc apologized for his government's "errors" in 2004. But despite the welcome he received at the Port-au-Prince airport, Haitian police officials said they were "waiting for instructions from prosecutors" as to whether they should arrest him. After stepping off his Air France flight on Sunday, Duvalier declared, "I am here to see how the situation is." Please. He already knew how bad the situation was.

And just as he and his monstrous father did when they ruled Haiti, he's there to make it worse.  With reporting by Jessica Desvarieux / Port-au-Prince 'Baby Doc' Duvalier returns to Haiti in surprise move - CNN.com 'Baby Doc' Duvalier returns to Haiti in surprise move By the CNN Wire Staff 'Baby Doc' Duvalier returns to Haiti STORY HIGHLIGHTS NEW: A planned press conference by Duvalier was canceled The former dictator's motives are not immediately clear Duvalier has been living in exile for about 25 years "Baby Doc" Duvalier led Haiti for some 15 years before a revolt forced him to flee Port-Au-Prince, Haiti (CNN) -- Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier, Haiti's former dictator, returned unexpectedly Sunday to the country after some 25 years in exile, adding uncertainty into an already turbulent situation. Duvalier remained huddled inside his hotel Monday, as the reasons behind his visit and what he hoped to accomplish remained unclear.

A scheduled press conference at his hotel was canceled at the last minute because the hotel was not equipped to handle the crowd, and no other location could be found, Henry Robert Sterlin, a Duvalier associate, told reporters. Sterlin said that the former dictator had returned because he was moved by the anniversary of last year's tragic earthquake, and because he missed his homeland. The associate said he did not know how long Duvalier was staying, and added that he was not afraid to come back. RELATED TOPICS Dictatorships He arrived in the Haitian capital as the nation is grappling with a political crisis, sparked by fraud allegations in a presidential election. Duvalier, wearing a dark suit and tie, greeted supporters at the busy Port-au-Prince airport. He was traveling with his wife. The Duvalier family ruled Haiti for three decades starting in 1957, when Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier was elected president. He later declared himself president for life. When he died in 1971, he was succeeded by his 19-year-old son, Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier.

The younger Duvalier held onto power for 15 years before a revolt forced him to flee the country. Widely accused of corruption, Duvalier has been living in France. Upon arriving in Haiti, the former dictator and his wife went to the Karibe Hotel, according to Ryan Flaherty, head of security for Project Medishare. Duvalier's wife was swarmed by people as she approached the hotel and said that her husband had decided to return to Haiti some time ago, Flaherty reported. "There's definite energy in the air right now," he said, as he stood with a small crowd of Duvalier supporters outside of the hotel. "Right now, people don't know what he's back here for. People don't know if he is just visiting, or if he's here to talk about the earthquake and relief ... or, is he going to make a political move?" said Flaherty. "It's just going to be interesting to hear what he has to say." The United Nations restricted the movement of its staff in Port-au-Prince until further notice, or until the impact of the former leader's arrival becomes clear, said Patrick Hanson, a security officer for the United Nations in Haiti.

While groups of people have gathered in various parts of the city, they are calm and no violence has been reported, he said. Last week, Haiti marked the first anniversary of a devastating earthquake that left more than 200,000 people dead. The January 12 anniversary of the catastrophe, as Haitians call it, comes as the Caribbean nation faces new crises: a cholera epidemic that has killed more than 3,700 people and a political impasse sparked by allegations of election fraud in the nation's presidential balloting. Haiti's Provisional Electoral Council released preliminary election results in early December that showed former first lady Mirlande Manigat 31.4 with percent of the vote. Jude Celestin, President Rene Preval's handpicked successor, came in second with 22.3 percent, while popular musician Michel Martelly was third with 21.8 percent. However, a review of the results, conducted by an Organization of American States monitoring team, showed Martelly winning 22.2 percent of the vote to Celestin's 21.9 percent, affording Martelly a spot in a runoff election with Manigat.

A runoff, originally scheduled for Sunday, was postponed. Haiti's constitution mandates a new presidential term starting on February 7, but it is unclear whether that will happen. Anges Pierre-Louis, a local business owner, said Haitians are anxiously waiting to see what the government will do next, now that Duvalier has returned. "There are so many parties here and so many mixed feelings that it's really hard to know who to turn to at the moment," she said. "We don't know what the next week or the next couple of days will bring." CNN's Kim Segal and journalist Jean Junior Osman contributed to this report.

Share this on: Jean-Claude Duvalier: Brutal Haitian dictator who ruled the country for 15 years | The Independent People Jean-Claude Duvalier: Brutal Haitian dictator who ruled the country for 15 years He governed Haiti longer than his father thanks to the untiring but rather shamefaced support of Western governments, notably the US, and of the UN financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund Sunday 5 October 2014 21:24 BST Click to follow The Independent Online Duvalier attends a court hearing in 2013 AP On the death of his father, François “Papa Doc” Duvalier, when he was still only 19, Jean-Claude Duvalier, “Baby Doc”, succeeded him as Haiti’s President for Life. He ruled from 22 April 1971 until 7 February 1986, when he was forced to flee. He governed Haiti longer than his father thanks to the untiring but rather shamefaced support of Western governments, notably the US, and of the UN financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.

Especially during the term of President Reagan, Baby Doc was presented as a firm anti-Communist and a bulwark against Castroism. That view, however bizarre, ensured him military and diplomatic backing. He was also given all the money he and his wife Michèle needed to maintain a prodigal style of life in one of the world’s poorest countries, and later in exile. Born in Haiti’s capital city, Port-au-Prince, in 1951, the only son and youngest of the four children of Papa Doc and his formidable wife Simone, a former nurse, he was the apple of his father’s eye and led a pampered existence. When he was six his workaholic father began a presidency which lasted for more than 13 years, bringing him supreme power which he exercised with consummate brutality. Jean-Claude Duvalier at his wedding to Michèle Bennett in 1980 Jean-Claude was sent to the Methodist Collège Bird in Port-au-Prince, where he first met his future wife Michèle, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, Ernest Bennett, who exported coffee and cocoa and imported BMW cars.

The calm of his childhood was momentarily punctured on 26 April 1963 when the car delivering him and his 14 year-old-sister Simone to school came under a fierce attack which killed the driver and two bodyguards. Jean-Claude’s father wreaked vengeful murder on those with any connection with the assassins. The boy was transferred to the Lycèe St Louis de Gonzague, a Christian Brothers establishment where he was lethargically happy. The family, however, was not happy. On one occasion in 1967, after the elder Duvalier had flailed at his mother, the 15-year-old pushed his father into a room and kept him locked up there for three hours. On 18 November 1970 the old man, feeble and failing fast, formally named the teenager his successor. The obese, knock-kneed and ponderous son who regularly went to sleep over schoolbooks – indeed any book – was initially appalled at the prospect, guessing rightly that it would be a distraction from his passions for fast cars, fast motor bikes, fast girls and loud music.

He wanted his sister, Marie-Denise, to take the job, but the day after Papa Doc’s death he became the world’s youngest head of state as a requiem mass was said by Archbishop François-Wolff Ligondé to the strains of Beethoven’s Ninth and a salute of 101 cannons. The US ambassador wore lapel pins of both Duvaliers. Tranquillised by valium, Jean-Claude did not attend. Former Haitian president Jean-Claude Duvalier waves to supporters in January 2011 upon his return to the island For years he left the administration of the country in the hands of his mother, the grasping Simone, and her long-time lover, Luckner Cambronne, chief of the traditionalist group known as the Dinosaurs. As in Papa Doc’s time, the emasculated army yielded precedence to the Volunteers of National Security, the Tontons Macoutes. From the presidential court Cambronne ran a prosperous business exporting five tons of blood plasma a month. Under Duvalier’s indulgent eye he bought it for $5 a pint and sold it on at $35 to US firms such as Dow Chemical. He also traded in cadavers.

Nevertheless the President for Life became the people’s darling, informal, friendly, always ready for a game of dominoes with his subjects. Washington, too, was charmed and, encouraged by a pro-Duvalier coterie around the US Congress, increased its subsidy to him from $9.3m in 1974 to $35.5m in 1975. Away from the limelight the regime tortured and starved its enemies to death, notably in the capital’s Fort Dimanche. Duvalier told jailers to turn one prisoner into garbage: “Make him a vegetable,” he ordered. Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier succeeded his tyrant father, 'Papa Doc' in 1971 On 27 May 1980 Jean-Claude married Michèle in the Catholic cathedral amid celebrations which cost $7m. Her marriage to Alex Pasquet, by whom she had had two children, was conveniently declared null by the Vatican at the instance of the pliable Ligondé, who performed the presidential nuptials.

Duvalier’s marriage brought about terrible family discord, particularly with his mother, a power behind his father’s throne who enjoyed the title of First Lady. She was cast aside and stripped of the title, which was given to Michèle, who forced Jean-Claude on to a slimming diet, threatening staff who dared provide him with food that “they will wish they’d never been born,” according to Elizabeth Abbott, an historian of the dynasty. In 1980 the country suffered a foreign exchange crisis which was overcome with a $22m loan from the IMF – which did not prevent $4m going to the Tontons Macoutes and $16m to the president’s personal accounts. President Carter created some problems but these were forgotten in November 1980 when Duvalier threw a champagne party as Ronald Reagan defeated Carter at the polls. Former Haitian dictator Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier As the country sank deeper into indigence Duvalier allowed his court ever greater latitude for swindling.

In 1982, for instance, his father-in-law appropriated $11m worth of crude oil supplied cheaply as aid from Mexico and sold it to the apartheid regime in South Africa. The dictator’s fall was presaged by the visit in 1983 of Pope John Paul II. He called for change, encouraging the vacillating clergy. The following month 860 of them signed a petition calling for the Church to concentrate on the needs of the poor majority. Seven bishops were invited to Rome, where the Pope urged them to continue. Despite bloody repression his adversaries continued to undermine the president of a state where, as the historian James Ferguson remarked, for every teacher there were 189 members of the security forces. In a largely illiterate country the Church’s Radio Soleil was particularly effective. Tardily the US government, too, came round to a hostile posture. After much indecision on the night of 5 February 1986 the President for Life decided to leave and ordered Ernest Simon, one of the palace’s houngans, or voodoo sorcerers, to lay a spell on the presidential bed so that the next occupant would die a terrible death there.

The houngan called for two newborn, unbaptised children whom he could sacrifice in the ritual. The hospital charged $400 though one, a little girl, was sent back: the gods, the outraged houngan insisted, needed male blood. In the presence of Duvalier and his wife the babies were killed after hours of incantations and the liberal use of rum and herbs. Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier, upon his surprise return to Haiti Two days later the US government sent a transport aircraft from its base at Guantanamo Bay which was loaded up with their cash, jewellery, silver, paintings, antiques, furs, shoes, pictures and antiques. It took off in the middle of the night for France. There they stayed at the Hotel de l’Abbaye at Talloires on Lake Annecy until the owner went to law to dislodge them. They rented a villa near Cannes from the Saudi arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi, where they continued their life of luxury, calling in food from a nearby three-star restaurant. Money came from a bewildering number of accounts in many cities, including Barclays in London and Amro in Geneva.

But exile irked him and he took up with a succession of mistresses procured by his wife’s brothers. Michèle, famously foul-mouthed and never a devoted mother, lapsed into fretful boredom. The couple divorced by proxy in the Dominican Republic in 1989. Michèle won custody of their children Nicolas and Anya and a monthly settlement of $7,500. During Jean-Claude Duvalier's 15-year reign, the Tontons Macoutes militia carried out an estimated 30,000 murders In 2002 Duvalier said it was his “firm intention” to return to Haiti “as soon as conditions allow”, a view he repeated during the removal of Jean-Bertrand Aristide. He was said in 2003 to be short of money and living with his mistress Vèronique Roy in a one-bedroom flat in Paris, but in 2011 he returned with Roy to a country ravaged by the recent earthquake, insisting that he wanted to help the country get back on its feet. Some suspected he wanted to get round new Swiss banking regulations designed to stop former dictators accessing ill-gotten funds.

He was arrested and charged with embezzlement and other crimes, and there was talk of his being charged with crimes against humanity, but he remained in a hotel in the mountains above Port-au-Prince, where he died of a heart attack. Jean-Claude Duvalier, politician: born Port-au-Prince 3 July 1951; married Michèle Bennett (divorced 1990; one daughter, one son); died Port-au-Prince 4 October 2014. The Duvaliers killer file @ moreorless.net.au The Duvaliers Background Haiti gains independent from France on 1 January 1804, becoming the world's first black republic. Haitian history then follows a pattern of violence and political instability, with a succession of rulers being either assassinated or overthrown by revolution. The country is further burdened by the enormous reparations it is required to pay to France. By 1900 Haiti will be spending about 80% of its national budget on repayments of loans taken to cover the debt. The reparations will not be cleared until 1947.

At the start of the 20th Century the United States becomes involved in Haiti's internal affairs. US marines occupy Haiti from 1915-1934. Indirect US influence lasts to 1947. More background . Mini biography François Duvalier, Jean-Claude Duvalier François Duvalier is born on 14 April 1907 in Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti. His father is a teacher and journalist. His mother works in a bakery. He is a descendant of African slaves. Duvalier studies medicine at the University of Haiti. He graduates in 1934. Working as a doctor he is given the nickname 'Papa Doc' by his patients. While recognised as a humanitarian and intellectual, Duvalier also develops a deep interest in the African roots of Haitian culture, helping to found 'Le Groupe des Griots', a group of writers committed to black nationalism and voodoo mysticism. Among the poor and the superstitious Duvalier will gain a reputation as a practitioner of voodoo sorcery. 1939 - Duvalier marries Simone Ovide Faine, a nurse, on 27 December.

The couple will have four children, three daughters (Marie-Denise, Simone and Nicole) and a son (Jean-Claude). 1943 - Duvalier participates in a US-sponsored campaign to control the contagious tropical disease yaws, an infection of the skin, bones and joints. 1946 - Duvalier joins the government of President Dumarsais Estimé, becoming director general of the national public health service. In 1948 he is appointed as minister of public health and labour. 1950 - President Estimé is overthrown in a military coup on 10 May. Duvalier returns to his medical career. Behind the scenes he begins organising against the military regime. By 1954 he is the central opposition figure and goes underground, hiding in the interior. 1951 - Jean-Claude Duvalier is born on 3 July in Port-au-Prince. He is schooled in Haiti and Europe and completes his education at Haiti University. 1956 - The military relinquishes power in December. A general political amnesty allows François Duvalier to come out of hiding. Six governments are formed in the following 10 months.

1957 - With army backing, François Duvalier is elected president for a six year term on 22 September. He promises to end the privileges of the mulatto elite and bring political and economic power to the black masses. However, the political climate remains unstable. 1958 - After an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow him in June, Duvalier takes steps to consolidate his position. Senior officers in the military are replaced with younger men, the size of the army is reduced, the military academy is closed, political parties are banned and curfews are introduced. Duvalier also takes control of the Presidential Guard, turning it into the army's elite unit. With chief aide Clément Barbot, Duvalier organises the 'Tonton Macoutes' (Bogeymen), a private militia estimated to number 9,000-15,000 that will be used to terrorise and murder opponents. Recruits are initially drawn from the slums of Port-au-Prince. They receive no salary, relying instead on protection rackets and crime to support themselves. The Tonton Macoutes act as Duvalier's front-line security force and as a balance to the political power of the armed forces.

Their chain of command leads directly to the president. In November 1962 the Tonton Macoutes are formally recognised as the Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale (Volunteers for National Security). 1959 - Duvalier suffers a heart attack in May. Barbot acts in his place but is promptly imprisoned when Duvalier recovers. On 12 August a group of Cuban guerrillas and Haitian exiles lands on the southern most tip of Haiti in another attempt to remove Duvalier. They are defeated by the Haitian Army, with the aid of US marines. 1961 - Duvalier manipulates elections to have his term extended to 1967, winning the vote with an official tally of 1,320,748 votes to zero. "Latin America has witnessed many fraudulent elections," the 'New York Times' reports on 13 May, "But none will have been more outrageous than the one which has just taken place in Haiti." Following the election, the US raises concerns about the misappropriation of aid money by Duvalier. In 1962 US aid is suspended.

The following year diplomatic relations are also suspended and the US ambassador withdrawn. Meanwhile, Barbot is released from prison. He begins plotting to overthrow Duvalier but the attempt, which is to take place in July 1963, is uncovered at the last moment and Barbot is killed. 1963 - Attempts to remove Duvalier continue, reportedly with backing from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Duvalier's leadership becomes more extreme. He fosters a personality cult, exploiting his reputation as a sorcerer and portraying himself as semidivine, the embodiment of the Haitian nation, a voodoo Jesus Christ. "I am the Haitian flag," Duvalier proclaims, "He who is my enemy is the enemy of the fatherland." Following a failed attempt to kidnap his son Jean-Claude from school, it is reported that Duvalier orders the execution of 100 people, including 65 army officers. With corruption endemic, the elite gets richer and the poor suffer badly. The per capita annual income sinks to US$80, the lowest in the western hemisphere. The illiteracy rate remains at about 90%.

1964 - Duvalier has himself elected "president for life" in April. Haiti is now almost completely isolated. Duvalier's isolation is more profound. He is excommunicated by the Vatican for harassing the clergy and will not be readmitted to the Church until 1966. Discontent with the regime continues to grow, despite the tight security imposed by the Tonton Macoutes. Conspiracies and dissent proliferate. Duvalier responds with a reign of terror and is able to stay in power longer than any of his predecessors. 1971 - The constitution is amended in January to permit Duvalier to name his son, Jean-Claude, as his successor. Jean-Claude comes to be known as 'Baby Doc', echoing his father's nickname. François Duvalier dies on 21 April in Port-au-Prince. Power is immediately transferred to Jean-Claude, who, at the age of 19, becomes the youngest president in the world, inheriting the title "president for life" from his father.

However, Jean-Claude is not interested in the details of government and leaves much of the running of the country to his mother, Simone Ovid Duvalier, his older sister, Marie-Denise, and his dead father's cronies. Bending to pressure from the US, and at home, Jean-Claude agrees to economic and judicial reforms, the reopening of the military academy, the release of some political prisoners and the easing of media censorship. But no political opposition is tolerated and the president retains the power to appoint officials and judges. Though US aid is restored, Haiti remains diplomatically isolated. Corruption reaches new heights. The US Commerce Department reports misappropriation of 64% of Haiti's government revenues. Tens of millions of dollars are diverted from public funds for "extra-budgetary expenses," including deposits to Jean-Claude's Swiss bank accounts. 1973 - Jean-Claude creates a personal security force, the Corps des Léopards (Leopard Corps). The Leopards will take over most of the functions of Haiti's police force. 1978 - In August the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights visits Haiti.

The commission finds evidence of widespread abuse of human rights, including extrajudicial killings, arbitrary detention and torture. 1979 - Changes to Haiti's laws make it a jailable crime to offend the "chief of state or the first lady of the republic" or to make "any attack against the integrity of the people's culture." 1980 - In May Jean-Claude marries Michéle Bennett, the daughter of a wealthy coffee merchant. The lavish wedding, estimated to cost US$3 million, alienates much of the population. Bennett is a member of Haiti's mulatto elite. She is a young divorcee with a taste for the high life. Her family is implicated in corrupt business ventures, including drug running. Bennett and Jean-Claude will have two children, son Francois Nicolas and daughter Anya. During the final months of the year, several hundred journalists, trade unionists and opponents of the regime are detained.

1983 - On a visit to Haiti in March Pope John Paul II declares that "something must change here." 1984 - All political activities and groups are banned, except "those of the president." 1985 - Jean-Claude gets 99% of the vote in a fraudulent election. Popular demonstrations against high unemployment, poor living conditions and the lack of political freedom break out late in the year and early in 1986, beginning in the provincial capital of Gonaives. On 28 November 1985 soldiers in Gonaives chase demonstrators into a schoolyard and shoot and kill three schoolboys who were not involved in the protest. The incident leads to more demonstrations and riots. 1986 - With the Tonton Macoutes unable to repress the mounting social unrest and the military pressing for his resignation, Jean-Claude and his wife accept assistance from the US and flee the country for France on 7 February. They are joined by their two children and Jean-Claude's mother. As the news that the Duvaliers have left spreads, crowds take to the streets.

The Guardian newspaper reports that François Duvalier's tomb at the national cemetery is demolished and the remains of the dead dictator burned. Jean-Claude leaves behind an impoverished and ruined country. Well over half of Haiti's workers are unemployed. Over 80% of Haitians are illiterate. Almost a third of Haitian children die before their fifth birthday. Life expectancy is 53 years. Per capita income is US$300 a year. US$6 million held in a Duvalier family bank account in Switzerland is frozen. The Duvaliers, nevertheless, continue their luxury lifestyle. The couple take up residence in a chateau outside Paris and a villa in Mougins, near Cannes. Over the following years they will spend hundreds of thousands of dollars on car, boats, jewels, clothes and art. It is alleged that Duvalier has up to US$500 million of misappropriated state funds stashed in various foreign bank accounts. 1990 - Jean-Claude and Michéle Bennett divorce. Bennett is granted custody of the two children. Duvalier is ordered to pay alimony. It is reported that the split strips Jean-Claude of much of his wealth.

1993 - Jean-Claude moves to Paris with his companion, Véronique Roy, the granddaughter of former Haitian president Paul Magloire. 1997 - Jean-Claude's mother, Simone Ovide, dies. 2002 - In a television interview broadcast in the US on 17 December Jean-Claude reveals that he would like to return to Haiti. "It is my firm intention as soon as conditions allow," he says, adding that he wants to take part in "rebuilding" Haiti. According to Jean-Claude, there are no legal reasons for him not to return. He claims that Haiti has "gone backward by 50 years" since he fled the country and calls on the current president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, to retire. "(Aristide) does not have the possibility of ruling Haiti any more," Jean-Claude says, "He has been rejected by the vast majority of the population. He should, according to me, retire. ... "People are suffering a lot. It is not bearable. It is revolting. I know parents who can't have their children go to school any more.

Some families eat every other day." When questioned about his alleged misappropriation of tens of millions of dollars of Haiti's state funds, Jean-Claude challenges his accusers to provide the evidence. 2003 - Jean-Claude tells the 'Wall Street Journal' that he neither stole state funds nor organised the murder of opponents. "If I were dictator, I would have done everything in my power to stay in power," he says. "I laugh when I hear the amounts: $400 million, $800 million. It's a lot of blah, blah, blah. ... There were the children to care for, school expenses, other bills. ... We were not perfect. Perhaps I was too tolerant." 2004 - On 29 April President Aristide is forced out of office by an armed rebellion. Jean-Claude quickly restates his wish to return to Haiti, telling a French journalist on 1 March that he wants to put himself "at the disposal of the Haitian people." "I think I'm getting close and that I will soon have the opportunity to go back to my country," Jean-Claude says, revealing that he had requested a diplomatic passport several weeks earlier.

According to Duvalier, while he is in constant communication with contacts in Haiti, he is not involved with the rebel movement and is not planning to run for president if he returns. Meanwhile, on 25 March the international anticorruption organisation Transparency International (TI) places Jean-Claude at number six on a list of the world's most corrupt political leaders of the past two decades. According to TI, Jean-Claude is alleged to have embezzled between US$300 million and US$800 million from Haiti. 2007 - In September the Transparency International estimates are quoted in a report by the Stolen Assets Recovery Initiative, a joint venture of the World Bank and the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime. "According to the numbers ... Jean-Claude Duvalier allegedly stole the equivalent of 1.7 to 4.5 percent of Haitian GDP for every year he was in power," the report says. "The only other two kleptocrats to come close as a percentage of GDP were Ferdinand Marcos (of the Philippines) and Sani Abacha (of Nigeria)." At the same time, Jean-Claude makes another appeal to the Haitian public.

"If, during my presidential mandate, the government caused any physical, moral or economic wrongs to others, I solemnly take the historical responsibility," he says in a prerecorded statement. "(I) request forgiveness from the people and ask for the impartial judgement of history," he adds. Jean-Claude is reported to be living modestly in a one-bedroom flat in Paris, his money apparently gone. 2010 - On 12 January a massive earthquake rocks Haiti, killing over 200,000, destroying infrastructure and leaving more than one million homeless. 2011 - Jean-Claude unexpectedly returns to Haiti on 16 January, saying he has come back to help the country recover from the 2010 earthquake. "I was waiting for this moment for a long time," he says. "When I first set foot on the ground, I felt great joy." "I know the people are suffering. I wanted to show them my solidarity, to tell them that I am here, I am well disposed and determined to participate in the rebirth of Haiti." Two days later a Haitian prosecutor formally charges Duvalier with corruption, embezzlement and other alleged crimes committed during his rule.

Duvalier also faces criminal complaints accusing him of crimes against humanity. Following an investigation into these complaints, Duvalier is indicted for crimes against humanity. Meanwhile, a new law allowing the Haitian Government to claim the US$6 million frozen in Duvalier's Swiss bank account since 1986 comes into effect in Switzerland. Some commentators speculate that Duvalier's return to Haiti was a last-bid attempt to access the funds before the law came into effect. In September, Amnesty International releases the report 'You cannot kill the truth': The case against Jean-Claude Duvalier . The report calls on the authorities in Haiti to bring Duvalier to justice for the human rights abuses committed under his regime. "For 15 years, Jean-Claude Duvalier ruled Haiti with total disregard for the rights of the Haitian people," the reports concludes. "The grave human rights abuses perpetrated during those years still remain shrouded in absolute impunity. ...

Torture, enforced disappearance and extrajudicial executions were state policy under Jean-Claude Duvalier." According to Javier Zúñiga, special advisor at Amnesty International, "There's sufficient evidence to prosecute Jean-Claude Duvalier for the widespread arbitrary detentions, torture, deaths in custody, killings and disappearances that took place during his regime, some of which amount to crimes against humanity." "What is needed is political will from Haiti's new administration to comply with their international obligations and their duty to the survivors and victims of abuses." Duvalier, meanwhile, is reported to be living comfortably in a private villa overlooking Port-au-Prince. 2012 - At the end of January the judge investigating the case against Duvalier recommends that the charges of crimes against humanity be dropped because a 10-year statute of limitations had expired. The judge recommends that Duvalier only be prosecuted for financial corruption, a charge that would carry a maximum prison term of five years, if Duvalier was convicted. The judge's recommendations are expected to be challenged by both Duvalier and the victims of his rule.

2013 - Duvalier attends an appeals court on 28 February for a pre-trail hearing to determine the charges he may have to face. It is the first time he has been questioned in court about his alleged crimes. 2014 - In February an appeals court rules that Duvalier can be charged with crimes against humanity, rejecting arguments that the statute of limitations had expired and that international law underpinning the charges did not apply. The court stops short of ordering a trial and calls for further investigation. Duvalier's defence attorney files an appeal against the ruling in March. Jean-Claude Duvalier dies from a heart attack at the home of a friend in Port-au-Prince on Saturday, 4 October. He was 63. His funeral, held the following Saturday, is attended by hundreds, including his partner Véronique Roy, his former wife Michéle Bennett, and their two children. Duvalier is denied a state funeral. Comment François Duvalier's story mirrors the history of Haiti - a promising beginning completely despoiled by ambition and greed. On the one hand a humanitarian apparently committed to social justice metamorphoses into a corrupt dictator.

On the other the world's first black republic turns on itself in an ongoing cycle of political and economic impoverishment that not even world superpowers seem able to halt. Under the kleptocratic regime of Jean-Claude Duvalier this cycle only seemed to become more intense. Both Duvaliers are now gone, but the legacy of their misrule and self-indulgence will plague Haiti for years and perhaps generations to come. More information 'Baby Doc' Duvalier returns to Haiti from exile - BBC News BBC News 'Baby Doc' Duvalier returns to Haiti from exile 17 January 2011 Close share panel Media captionDuvalier arriving at Port-au-Prince airport The former president of Haiti, Jean-Claude Duvalier, has returned to the country, 25 years after he was overthrown by a popular revolt. Mr Duvalier, 59, also known as "Baby Doc", arrived on a flight from France where he had been living in exile. It was not clear what prompted his return, though he said he wanted "to help the people of Haiti" following last year's devastating earthquake. He arrived amid political uncertainty after disputed presidential elections.

Prime Minister Jean-Max Bellerive said there was no reason to believe Mr Duvalier's return would destabilise the country. "He is a Haitian and, as such, is free to return home," said Mr Bellerive. Voodoo cult Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier Image caption "Baby Doc" was only 19 when he inherited power from his father.

Took over presidency aged just 19 when his father, Haiti's authoritarian leader Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier, died in 1971 Called himself "president-for-life" and ruled with an iron fist, aided by a brutal private militia known as the Tontons Macoutes Accused of corruption and human rights abuses that prompted more than 100,000 Haitians to flee the country during his presidency Ruled for 15 years before outbreak of popular protests led him to flee to France in 1986 Asked Haitian people for forgiveness for "errors" made during his rule in a 2007 radio interview Returned to Haiti as it was supposed to hold run-off election to choose successor to outgoing President Rene Preval, although vote has been postponed Baby Doc's return evokes dark past Wearing a dark suit and tie, Mr Duvalier was greeted by a small group of supporters when he stepped off an Air France flight at Port-au-Prince airport.

Jean-Claude Duvalier was just 19 when he inherited the title of "president-for-life" from his father, the notorious Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier, who had ruled Haiti since 1957. He is accused of massive corruption, repression and human rights abuses during his 1971-1986 rule. Critics allege he embezzled millions of dollars from the impoverished Caribbean nation, a charge he denies. Like his father, he relied on a brutal private militia known as the "Tontons Macoutes", which controlled Haiti through violence and intimidation. Papa Doc reinforced his power with a fearsome personality cult based on Haiti's traditional voodoo religion, but "Baby Doc" was regarded as more of a playboy. In 1986 he was forced to flee into exile by a popular uprising, as well as diplomatic pressure from the US. Since then, he has lived in France, although he was never granted formal political asylum. In a radio interview in 2007, he asked the Haitian people for forgiveness for "errors" made during his rule. A small group of Duvalier loyalists have been campaigning to bring him home from exile.

His return to Haiti came on the day the country was supposed to hold the second round of elections to choose a successor to outgoing president Rene Preval. But the vote has been postponed because of a dispute over which candidates should be on the ballot paper. Provisional results of the 28 November first round provoked violent demonstrations when they were announced in December, and most observers said there was widespread fraud and intimidation. Haiti is also struggling to recover from a massive earthquake a year ago which killed more than 250,000 people and left the capital, Port-au-Prince, in ruins. Your comments in reaction to the return of "Baby Doc" I live in the Cite Soleil area of Port-au-Prince, which is always full of life and activity. When we had the first bout of violence here, even though there was little violence in Cite Soleil itself, the burning tires throughout the rest of Port-au-Prince were like clots in the arteries of the city, preventing its blood from flowing properly. The roads were empty. There were no taptaps (shared taxis), no markets, nothing in the streets.

Life just stopped for a few days, with no one able to sell even a bit of bread on the street. Haiti doesn't need excitement like this. It needs a slow, steady calm so people can rebuild their lives day by day. I don't want to see the roads turn empty again, just because an old head of state wants to come home. Sabina, Cite Soleil, Port-au-Prince, Haiti It seems to most Haitian citizens that Baby Doc has finally run out of cash, after his divorce. Most people feel that he has little to offer the country. Yes, there are those Duvalier nostalgics, or reformed Duvalierists, but their base of support now is rather limited. All the people at the airport were probably more curious than exuberant. Although with the current power vacuum, any politician may seem an attractive alternative to the present options. Tobias Cornelius Metzner, Port-au-Prince, Haiti The constitution does not prevent Mr Duvalier from returning home. A visa is not required for a Haitian national who wants to do so. However, Mr Duvalier has to face the consequences of his crimes. He asked for forgiveness once, but forgiveness walks together with justice.

If he accepts the conditions, he is welcome. His return could complicate the already chaotic situation, by adding another issue. I think he is returning to disrupt the work going on here and to try to get back his properties in Haiti. There is another issue. Most of the victims of his regime are old today, and some have already died. I think Haitian people forget too easily. Jean Bertrand Aristide is trying to do the same without justice for the people. There is no progress without justice. Gregory Domond, Port-au-Prince, Haiti I think that the prime minister made the right decision by allowing Duvalier to return to Haiti without a possible lawsuit. Unfortunately, since the departure of Duvalier, the situation has not really improved in Haiti. This country has been going from one struggle to another. It's true that Duvalier's regime was based on fear and repression. However, what has changed in this country since he left? Now with all of the kidnappings, rapes, murders, and killings going on in Haiti, even under the watch of the UN, I think that the situation has got even worse.

In good faith, I think that it's time for the Haitian people to forgive each other and look forward to rebuilding this proud but impoverished nation. Duvalier belongs to the past. Let's move forward. Ronald Charles, Haiti

Question: What country was ruled by "Papa Doc" and "Baby Doc" Duvalier?
Answer: Haiti