Neolithic Period - Definition Neolithic Period Ancient/Classical History Expert By N.S. Gill Definition: There is an archaeological system that divides the span of mankind into three eras, the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. The Neolithic Period is part of the late Stone Age. It preceded the Bronze Age and followed the Paleolithic period, which was also in the Stone Age. During the Neolithic Period people used stone tools, domesticated plants and animals, and lived in villages. The Neolithic period in China ran from about 10,000 B.C.

to 2000 B.C.; in northern India, from 8000 to 4500 B.C.; in Egypt, from 7000 to 4500 B.C.; in the Eastern Mediterranean, from about 10,000 to 3300 B.C.; in Cyprus, 8500 to 2500 B.C.; in the Balkans and Greece, from 7000 to 3200; in the Italic peninsula, from 5000 to 2000 B.C.; in northern and eastern Europe, from 3000 to 1800 B.C., according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art . Neo=new and lithic=stone, which is why the Neolithic Period is called the New Stone Age. Also Known As: New Stone Age Neolithic Period | anthropology | Britannica.com Neolithic Period Alternative Titles: Late Stone Age, New Stone Age Related Topics Çatalhüyük Neolithic Period, also called New Stone Age, final stage of cultural evolution or technological development among prehistoric humans.

It was characterized by stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, dependence on domesticated plants or animals, settlement in permanent villages, and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving . The Neolithic followed the Paleolithic Period , or age of chipped-stone tools, and preceded the Bronze Age , or early period of metal tools. The large burial mound at Newgrange, County Meath, Ireland. Brian Morrison/Tourism Ireland A brief treatment of the Neolithic Period follows. For full treatment, see Stone Age: Neolithic and technology: The Neolithic Revolution . The Neolithic stage of development was attained during the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years of Earth history). The starting point of the Neolithic Period is much debated, with different parts of the world having achieved the Neolithic stage at different times, but it is generally thought to have occurred sometime about 10,000 bce. During that time, humans learned to raise crops and keep domestic livestock and were thus no longer dependent on hunting , fishing , and gathering wild plants. Neolithic cultures made more-useful stone tools by grinding and polishing relatively hard rocks rather than merely chipping softer ones down to the desired shape.

The cultivation of cereal grains enabled Neolithic peoples to build permanent dwellings and congregate in villages, and the release from nomadism and a hunting-gathering economy gave them the time to pursue specialized crafts. Stone Age: Neolithic Archaeological evidence indicates that the transition from food-collecting cultures to food-producing ones gradually occurred across Asia and Europe from a starting point in the Fertile Crescent . The first evidence of cultivation and animal domestication in southwestern Asia has been dated to roughly 9500 bce, which suggests that those activities may have begun before that date. A way of life based on farming and settled villages had been firmly achieved by 7000 bce in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys (now in Iraq and Iran ) and in what are now Syria , Israel , Lebanon , and Jordan . Those earliest farmers raised barley and wheat and kept sheep and goats , later supplemented by cattle and pigs . Their innovations spread from the Middle East northward into Europe by two routes: across Turkey and Greece into central Europe, and across Egypt and North Africa and thence to Spain .

Farming communities appeared in Greece as early as 7000 bce, and farming spread northward throughout the continent over the next four millennia. This long and gradual transition was not completed in Britain and Scandinavia until after 3000 bce and is known as the Mesolithic Period . Similar Topics BBC - History - Ancient History in depth: Overview: From Neolithic to Bronze Age, 8000 - 800 BC Print this page The dawn of farming Human beings have been living in the part of northern Europe that is today called Britain for about 750,000 years. For most of that time, they subsisted by gathering food like nuts, berries, leaves and fruit from wild sources, and by hunting. Over the millennia there were phases of extreme cold, when large areas of Britain were covered in ice, followed by warmer times. Around 10,000 years ago, the latest ice age came to an end. Sea levels rose as the ice sheets melted, and Britain became separated from the European mainland shortly before 6000 BC. The introduction of farming was one of the biggest changes in human history.

The people living on the new islands of Britain were descendants of the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, who arrived in northern Europe around 30,000 - 40,000 years ago. Like their early ancestors they lived by hunting and gathering. The introduction of farming, when people learned how to produce rather than acquire their food, is widely regarded as one of the biggest changes in human history. This change happened at various times in several different places around the world. The concept of farming that reached Britain between about 5000 BC and 4500 BC had spread across Europe from origins in Syria and Iraq between about 11000 BC and 9000 BC. Top Neolithic revolution? The change from a hunter-gatherer to a farming way of life is what defines the start of the Neolithic or New Stone Age. In Britain the preceding period of the last, post-glacial hunter-gatherer societies is known as the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age. It used to be believed that the introduction of farming into Britain was the result of a huge migration or folk-movement from across the Channel.

Today, studies of DNA suggest that the influx of new people was probably quite small - somewhere around 20% of the total population were newcomers. Farming took 2,000 years to spread across the British Isles. So the majority of early farmers were probably Mesolithic people who adopted the new way of life and took it with them to other parts of Britain. This was not a rapid change - farming took about 2,000 years to spread across all parts of the British Isles. Traditionally the arrival of farming is seen as a major and rapid change sometimes called the 'Neolithic revolution'. Today, largely thanks to radiocarbon dates, we can appreciate that the transition from hunter-gatherer to farmer was relatively gradual. We know, for example, that hunters in the Mesolithic 'managed' or tended their quarry. They would make clearings in woodland around sources of drinking water, and probably made efforts to see that the herds of deer and other animals they hunted were not over-exploited. The switch from managed hunting to pastoral farming was not a big change. The first farmers brought the ancestors of cattle, sheep and goats with them from the continent.

Domestic pigs were bred from wild boar, which lived in the woods of Britain. Neolithic farmers also kept domesticated dogs, which were bred from wolves. It is probable that the earliest domesticated livestock were allowed to wander, maybe tended by a few herders. Sheep, goats and cattle are fond of leaves and bark, and pigs snuffle around roots. These domestic animals may have played a major role in clearing away the huge areas of dense forest that covered most of lowland Britain. Burial and belief Stonehenge stone circle, near Amesbury, Wiltshire © Neolithic farmers also brought with them the first seed grains of wheat and barley, which had been bred many millennia earlier from wild grasses that grew in region of modern-day Iraq. Initially, cereals were probably grown in garden plots near people's houses. Once harvested, the grain needed to be stored and protected from natural pests and from raiding parties. This tended to encourage a more settled way of life than that of the Mesolithic communities, who would move around the country on a seasonal pattern, following the animals, birds and fish they hunted. The 'henge' monuments, like Stonehenge, incorporate lunar and solar alignments.

In many cases the earliest Neolithic sites (approx 4000 - 5000 BC) occur alongside late Mesolithic settlements, or in areas that we know were important in post-glacial times. From the start of the fourth millennium BC (about 3800 BC), we see a move into new areas that had not been settled or exploited previously. This period, sometimes referred to as the Middle Neolithic, also witnesses the appearance of the first large communal tombs, known as long barrows, or mounds, and the earliest ceremonial monuments, known as 'causewayed' enclosures. Here people from communities in a particular region would gather together, probably at regular intervals, to socialise, to meet new partners, to acquire fresh livestock and to exchange ceremonial gifts. During these ceremonies, rituals took place which often involved the burial of significant items, such as finely-polished stone axeheads, complete pottery vessels, or human skulls. Some of the great ceremonial monuments of the Middle Neolithic, such as the so-called 'passage' graves, were aligned according to the position of the sun during the winter or summer solstice.

The long passage of a passage grave could be carefully positioned to allow the sun on the shortest few days of the year to shine directly into the central burial chamber. Passage graves were also constructed to provide good acoustics, and it seems most probable that they were the scenes of ritual or religious theatrical performances. The so-called 'henge' monuments, like the famous Stonehenge, seem to have developed out of the causewayed enclosures from around 3000 BC. They also incorporate lunar and solar alignments which are seen as a means of uniting the physical and social structures of human societies with the powers of the natural world. Top The Bronze Age Neolithic houses were usually rectangular thatched buildings made from timber with walls of wattle (woven hazel rods) smeared with a plaster-like 'daub' (made from clay, straw and cow dung). Some of the larger buildings were the size and shape of a Saxon hall and may well have been communal. Most others were smaller and would have been adequate for a family of six to ten people. The appearance of metal marks an important technological development, especially in the control of fire.

Neolithic houses are far more commonly found in Scotland and Ireland than in England or Wales, where communities may have retained a more mobile pattern of life, involving fewer permanent buildings. The first bronzes appear in Britain in the centuries just before 2500 BC, which is the usually accepted start date for the Bronze Age. On the European mainland the arrival of bronze was preceded by copper tools of the Chalcolithic or Copper Age, but in Britain tin and copper appear at about the same time as bronze. Although the appearance of metal marks an important technological development, especially in the control of fire, it does not seem to bring a big change in the way that people lived their lives in the Early Bronze Age. Henges, for example, continue in use, but the larger communal tombs, such as long barrows and passage graves, are replaced by smaller round barrows. Many of these contain an initial or 'primary' burial, often of an important man or woman, who may be buried with distinctive and highly decorated pottery known as 'Beakers', together with bronze or tin metalwork such as daggers or axes. Sometimes fine goldwork rings, bracelets and earrings adorned the bodies.

In many instances the round barrows of the Early Bronze Age (2500-1500 BC) continue in use, as smaller or 'satellite' burials and cremations are dug into the main primary mound. These places were clearly important gathering places for people and they were often carefully placed in the landscape either to be seen over a large area, or to mark the beginning or end or a community's land-holding or territory. Houses in the Early Bronze Age were usually round with a conical roof and a single entrance. Accelerated change The Ringlemere gold cup, found in Ringlemere, Kent © The Middle Bronze Age (1500 - 1250 BC) marks an important period of change, growth and probably of population expansion too. There was a fundamental shift in burial practice away from barrow burial, towards cremation in large open cemeteries where ashes were placed in specially-prepared pottery urns. Settlements consisted of round houses which were often grouped together, possibly for defence, but possibly too because people preferred to live near one another.

During this period we find an increasing number of metalwork hoards, where dozens, sometimes hundreds of spearheads, axes and daggers were placed in the ground - often in a wet or boggy place, a practice that would continue right through the Iron Age. The Late Bronze Age saw the start of the so-called 'Celtic' way of life. Certain hoards found in south western Britain contained large numbers of fancy bronze ornaments, such as elaborate dress-fasteners, rings, pins, brooches and bracelets. The Middle Bronze Age also sees the first field systems in Britain, indicating growing pressure on the land as the numbers of people and animals increased. The Late Bronze Age (1250-800 BC) is marked by the arrival of new styles of metalwork and pottery, but otherwise life continued much as before. Horse-riding became more popular and Late Bronze Age swords were designed as slashing weapons - resembling the cavalry cutlass. Houses were still round, a pattern that would continue into the Iron Age, but a number of large hall-like rectangular houses are also known. The field systems of the Middle Bronze Age continued in use and were enlarged.

In the uplands of Britain the Late Bronze Age saw the first construction of a few hillforts and the start of the so-called 'Celtic' way of life.

A Landscape Revealed: 10,000 years on a Chalkland Farm by Martin Green (Tempus Books, 2000) The Age of Stonehenge by Colin Burgess (Dent, 2002) Prehistoric Orkney by Anna Ritchie (Batsford Books, 1995) Avebury: The Biography of a Landscape by Joshua Pollard and Andrew Reynolds (Tempus Books, 2002) Hengeworld by Mike Pitts (Arrow Books, 2001) Understanding the Neolithic by Julian Thomas (Routledge, London, 1999) Ancestral Geographies of the Neolithic: Landscapes, Monuments and Memory by Mark Edmonds (Routledge, London, 1999) The Significance of Monuments by Richard Bradley (Routledge, London, 1998) The Passage of Arms: An Archaeological Analysis of Prehistoric Hoards and Votive Deposits by Richard Bradley (Cambridge University Press, 1990) Top About the author Dr Francis Pryor read archaeology and anthropology at Cambridge.

He has made significant finds from the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages at Fengate, Etton and Flag Fen. He has written several books, including Seahenge (HarperCollins 2001), Britain BC (HarperCollins 2003) and Britain AD (HarperCollins 2004). His latest book, Britain in the Middle Ages will be published in June 2006 by HarperCollins. Bronze Age facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Bronze Age The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press Bronze Age, period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the Copper Age. The earliest use of cast metal can be deduced from clay models of weapons; casting was certainly established in the Middle East by 3500 BC Following the Neolithic period , the development of a metallurgical industry coincided with the rise of urbanization.

The organized operations of mining, smelting, and casting undoubtedly required the specialization of labor and the production of surplus food to support a class of artisans, while the search for raw materials stimulated the exploration and colonization of new territories. This process culminated in the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Sumer . Later, the Minoan civilization and the Mycenaean civilization opened extensive trade routes in central Europe, where tin and copper were mined. This activity fostered native industries and political unification, especially in Hungary, Austria, and the Alpine region. It laid the foundations of the Iron Age civilization, which was to follow under Greek, Etruscan, and Scythian influences. In the New World the earliest bronze was cast in Bolivia c.AD 1100. The Inca civilization used bronze tools and weapons but never mastered iron. See V. G. Childe, The Prehistory of European Society (1958, repr. 1962); J. W. Alsop, From the Silent Earth (1964); G. Clark, World Prehistory: An Outline (2d ed. 1969); A. H. Jones, Bronze Age Civilization (1975); B.

Fell, Bronze-Age America (1982). Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable © The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable 2006, originally published by Oxford University Press 2006. Bronze Age a prehistoric period that followed the Stone Age and preceded the Iron Age , when weapons and tools were made of bronze rather than stone. The Bronze Age began in the Near East and SE Europe in the late 4th and early 3rd millennium bc. It is associated with the first European civilizations, the beginnings of urban life in China , and the final stages of some Meso-American civilizations, but did not appear in Africa and Australasia at all. Cite this article Prehistoric Ages. Categories of Time. Eons and Eras Prehistoric / Archaeological Periods The Stone Age Archaeologists and historians place the Stone Age as that period of human development when most of the tools used by human beings were made from stone.

The evidence available to us currently shows that while the this phase of early human development took place in different parts of the globe, the dates for the Stone Age was different for different parts of the world. It varies depending on the dates assigned to stone implements discovered in a region. As a consequence, dates for the Stone Age have changed with every discovery and the development of dating methods. There is evidence of stone implements having been used in Africa as early as 2.5 million years ago, 1.8 million years ago in Asia, and a million years ago in Europe. Therefore, current theory places the earliest development of human beings in Africa. During the Stone Age of human development, the earth also experienced an Ice Age some 1.6 million to 10,000 years ago. The Stone Age in an area ends with evidence of the earliest known metal implements, and generally ends between 6,000 and 4,000 BCE.

The Stone Age is further divided into: • Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age - 2.5 million to 15,000 years ago - a time period that spans 95% of human history): the age in which stone tools were chipped or flaked. (see the page on Anghilak cave, Uzbekistan ) • Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age, also called the Epipaleolithic Age - 15,000 to 10,000 years ago): the age in which microliths, small, geometric-shaped stone artefacts were attached to wood, antler, or bone to form implements such as arrows, spears, or scythes. • Neolithic Age (New Stone Age - 10,000 to 6,000-4,000 years ago): the age in which ground and polished stone axes became prevalent. Metal Age The Metal Age starts when human beings began to use metal to make tools. For archaeologists, the transition from the stone to the metal age occurs when these metal tools appear alongside stone tools.

The type of metal used initially was probably influenced by the surface availability of the metal in natural form, and appears to have been either gold or copper, both being softer, lower melting point metals. A lower melting point was probably critical since the development of metallurgy closely paralleled the ability to produce hotter fires as well as the development of containers to hold and cast the melted metal. The use of gold may even have started with the mechanical shaping of the metal, first in cold form, then heated and softened, and finally melted and cast. Golden Age Aryan and Saka legends place the use of gold before the use of copper - possibly a few thousand years earlier. Gold was the more readily available metal in Central Asia. The legends of Ferdowsi state that gold was used in ancient times to make surgical knives used to perform Caesarean operations. Most of the ancient gold artefacts were plundered, smelted and reused. The unearthing of gold artefacts that predated copper tools, requires finding sites that were hidden or otherwise inaccessible to robbers. We will have to await archaeological evidence to support the legendary evidence that the use of gold preceded the use of copper.

Copper (Chalcolithic, Eneolithic or ï¿½neolithic) Age The Copper Age in Central Asia and the rest of the Aryan lands is currently said to begin in the late 5th millennium BCE and lasted for about a millennium (4,300-3,200 BCE) leading in to the Early Bronze Age. Transition from the European Copper Age to the Bronze Age occurs about a millennium later - between the late 4th and the late 3rd millennia BCE. The use of copper required the development of metallurgy - the science of extracting metal from metal ores - and casting the molten metal in castings. Bronze Age Bronze Seal from Anau (Turkmenistan) with unknown markings Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin that is more hard than either pure copper or tin. In addition, bronze has a lower melting point than copper or tin making it easier to form into finished shapes by moulding, casting, or machining. While a harder metal, bronze still did not break easily under stress and was corrosion resistant. Bronze was better suited for weapons and tools than either copper or tin. The manufacture of bronze required the development of alloy-making technology.

Current reports suggest that the Bronze Age in Central Asia extended from about 3,300 to 1,300 BCE. Iron Age With the ability to create higher smelting temperatures came the ability to extract and work with iron, a metal that was in earlier ages considered more precious than gold. Simple iron mixed with some residual slag (the residue when iron is extracted from its ore) is called wrought iron - the earliest form of iron. Wrought iron is weaker than bronze, but because iron was more readily available than copper or tin, wrought iron was less complicated to manufacture than bronze. It was also more easily sharpened than bronze. Wrought iron was eventually replaced by steel - iron with between 0.02% and 1.7% of carbon. Steel weapons and tools were about the same weight as those of bronze, but stronger. The Iron Age in Central Asia is estimated to have extended from about 1,300 to 900 BCE. Categories of Time The broad categories of time are: Cosmological Period The Cosmological Period consists of time periods in the origin and evolution of the universe.

According to current scientific theory the Cosmological Period begins with the Big Bang 13.7 billion years ago and ends with the formation of the earth 4.5 billion years ago. Geological Period The Geological period consists of time periods in the origin and evolution of earth. The earth is about 4.5 billion years old. The time from the origin of the earth to the present is divided into super eons, eons, eras and periods. The Precambrian period is a super eon that is sub-divided into three eons: • the Hadean Eon (4.5 to 3.8 billion years before present), • the Archean Eon (3.8 to 2.5 billion years before present),, and • the Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion to 570 million years before present) millions of years Subdivisions of the Cenozoic Era (65 million years before present to the present) Prehistoric (Archaeological) & Historic Periods The Prehistoric Period consists of time periods in the origin and evolution of humankind from about 2.5 million years to about 900 BCE.

the Prehistoric Period is divided into the Archaeological Periods of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. The Historic Period records the activities of humankind from about 900 BCE or from that time when records are available or can re reconstructed. The Historic Period overlaps with the Prehistoric Periods such as the Iron Age when it is possible to reconstruct timelines of a people's history. • ï¿½ Author: K. E. Eduljee, Zoroastrian Heritage , 2005-14 (researched from 1979 onwards) • Contact • Page validated by W3C.org BBC - History : British History Timeline c. 4500 BC - 3500 BC Farming techniques are introduced from the continent Before circa 4500 BC, Palaeolithic and Mesolithic (Early and Middle Stone Age) people were nomads, hunting and gathering wild plants. In the middle of the fifth millennium BC, a new way of life, based on farming plants and animals, was introduced from the continent. The replacement of hunting and gathering was gradual and wasn't completed until the latter part of the third millennium BC in Britain. Once farming was established, communities began to settle down. c.

4500 BC - 3500 BC Simple pottery begins to be made The manufacture of pottery requires the control of high temperatures and is an important early technological development. Pottery arrived in Britain with the first farmers. Early pottery vessels were generally undecorated with heavy rims and rounded bases. From about 3500 BC the upper parts of some pottery vessels were decorated with patterns made while the clay was still soft. Pottery is important to archaeologists because it is very durable, surviving in the soil for thousands of years. c. 4500 BC - 2500 BC Increasingly sophisticated stone tools are made using new polishing techniques Throughout the Stone Age (Palaeolithic to Neolithic), stone tools were fashioned by chipping or 'knapping'. This involved the removal of flakes using either a hammer stone or a 'soft hammer' of bone or antler. In the Neolithic, axes and knives were first roughed-out by knapping, but were then polished using abrasive sand and water, or a shaped 'polissoir' (rubbing stone). This time-consuming process produced a more durable cutting edge that could easily be sharpened. c.

4500 BC - 2500 BC Houses become increasingly solid and permanent Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) houses were mainly light structures suited to a nomadic lifestyle. Neolithic (Late Stone Age) houses were more permanent with thatched roofs and walls of woven hazel or willow rods, wind-proofed with a mixture of clay, straw and dung. Earlier Neolithic houses were often rectangular, but by about 3000 BC roundhouses may have become more important. This coincides with the appearance of circular ritual monuments, such as henges and passage graves. c. 4500 BC - 2500 BC Carpentry and coppice woodworking is developed The hollowing out of trees for log-boats began in the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), but carpentry (using large structural timbers for building) was a Neolithic (Late Stone Age) innovation. Coppicing is the regular cutting back of a tree or shrub to stimulate the rapid growth of shoots. The polished flint axe was the main tool used. Large trees were felled with axes and split into planks.

Smaller rods and poles, cut from coppiced hazel, alder and willow, were woven to make fences and hurdles. c. 4500 BC - 2000 BC Flint and stone begins to be mined from underground Axes made from polished flint and stone were important throughout the Neolithic (Late Stone Age) and Early Bronze Age. Fine-grained stone was quarried from hillsides in Cumbria, Wales, Cornwall and Northern Ireland. Mined flint is of better quality than surface flint. Mines are known in Northern Ireland, Scotland and East Anglia, but the majority of flint mines were on the chalk hills of southern England, with underground galleries following the seams of flint reached by shafts up to 15m deep. c. 4500 BC - 3000 BC Small permanent settlements are developed There are fewer earlier Neolithic (Late Stone Age) settlements in England and Wales - which may reflect a more mobile lifestyle among early farmers in these areas - than in Scotland and Ireland. Most earlier Neolithic settlements in Britain were of about one to three houses with possibly a few outbuildings. They were rarely defended, except in Cornwall.

Most settlements were placed at some distance from areas of barrows. c. 4000 BC - 3000 BC Communal burial begins to be practised Earlier Neolithic (Late Stone Age) communities buried their dead in chambered tombs. The earliest tradition, from about 4000 BC, of long barrows had chambers made of large stones (megaliths) or timbers inside a long trapezoidal mound with a forecourt in which funerary rites took place. Later (from circa 3000 BC), 'passage' graves developed. Communal burial probably helped to unite communities in thinly-populated landscapes. Winter 3807 BC - Spring 3806 BC Europe's first wooden trackway (footpath) is built The Sweet Track in the Somerset Levels consists of a wooden footpath raised above boggy ground on crossed timber supports. It extended across a marsh between what was then an island and an area of high ground. It was excavated between 1970 and 1982 and its precise age revealed by tree-ring dating (dendrochronology). c.

3500 BC First ceremonial centres appear The first ceremonial meetings where different communities came together took place inside 'causewayed' enclosures, named from the roughly circular ditches that defined their limits, dug in segments separated by 'causeways'. Most of the ditches were filled in and re-opened at intervals, and the ditch fillings included offerings like human and animal skulls, meat bones, pottery and unused stone axes. In many cases the areas around the enclosures subsequently developed into 'ritual landscapes'. c. 3300 BC - 1200 BC First stone circles and 'henges' are built Although stone circles occur on the European mainland, 'henges' are a uniquely British and Irish phenomenon. They consist of a circular ditch and an external bank, usually surrounding settings of posts or standing stones. They are entered by way of one, two or four entranceways. Most henges lie within specialised 'ritual landscapes' and may be linked to avenues marked out by standing stones or banks and ditches. The best known are at Stonehenge and Avebury in Wiltshire. c.

3000 BC 'Passage' graves are developed The earliest tradition (from circa 4000 BC) was of long barrows, but around 3000 BC 'passage' graves developed. They consisted of a central stone-built 'hall' with three or more side chambers, reached by a long, low passage from which the name is derived. The passage and chambers were concealed within a large round barrow. The passage was often aligned on the midwinter sunrise. c. 3000 BC - 1500 BC Settlements proliferate and more land is cleared for farming Technology changed at the start of the Bronze Age (2500 BC in Britain), but the basic way of life continued much as before. The greater frequency of known settlements, allied to evidence for increasing clearance of land for farming, indicates steady population growth. From circa 2500 BC, roundhouses were the main form of domestic building. From circa 2000 BC there is evidence of field systems, often aligned on pre-existing barrows which suggests they followed earlier systems of land partition. c.

3000 BC - 1500 BC 'Ritual landscapes' like henges and round barrows proliferate From circa 3000 BC some areas that were ritually important in earlier times gained added significance. There is evidence for smaller and more specialised ceremonial sites such as henges. A huge variety of Bronze Age round barrows began to proliferate after 2500 BC. Ritual landscapes were usually in flat or undulating countryside like Salisbury Plain, or in river valleys. They often clustered around earlier causewayed enclosures and there were dozens or even hundreds of different monuments. c. 3000 BC - 1500 BC Single graves in round barrows replace communal burial The dominant practice of communal burial was overtaken by a new rite of graves within round barrows. The burial for which the barrow was originally made is known as the 'primary', but often a series of secondary burials or cremations were inserted. These suggests that barrows marked an important presence in the landscape and that they were significant to one family, clan or tribe. Sometimes the primary was furnished with valuable grave goods, suggesting an increasingly hierarchical society. c.

2500 BC Metalworking develops with improvements in furnace technology Following the introduction of pottery two millennia previously, the appearance of metalworking was another important technological step in the control of heat and the production of ever-higher temperatures using small furnaces and hide bellows. The earliest British metalwork was made of pure copper, bronze (an alloy of about 90% copper, 10% tin) or gold. Gold was used for ornaments and jewellery, bronze and copper for spearheads, axes, knives and daggers. c. 2500 BC - 800 BC Metalwork becomes increasingly sophisticated Early Bronze Age (2500-1500 BC) saw the regular production of more sophisticated metalwork, consisting mainly of axes, daggers and 'tanged' spearheads (attached to the shaft by a prong). c. 2500 BC - 800 BC Flintworking continues despite the development of metal tools The introduction of metal tools around 2500 BC did not lead to the sudden abandonment of flint as a material for making the light tools of everyday life.

In the late Neolithic (Late Stone Age), flint knapping shifted away from long blades towards shorter flakes that were sharp and strong. After about 1500 BC there was another change, towards piercing and boring implements used to work bone and hide. This tradition may well have continued into the early Iron Age. c. 2500 BC - 1500 BC Development of bronze axes leads to advances in woodworking techniques Knowledge of Bronze Age woodworking has recently rapidly increased thanks to the discovery of important waterlogged sites across Britain and Ireland. (Waterlogging can preserve wood for centuries.) Timber was the principal building material of the Bronze Age and the introduction of metal axes was a major technological advance. It was originally believed that bronze axes replaced stone gradually and over many centuries, but recent evidence suggests the process was rapid. c. 2400 BC - 2200 BC 'Specialists' create highly decorated 'beaker' pottery While household pottery was probably produced domestically, the appearance of metalwork and new, highly-decorated forms of drinking vessels called (by archaeologists) 'beakers' indicate the presence of 'specialists' in Britain.

The very first makers of beaker pottery probably came from the continent, but after a short interval these specialists were local. It seems probable that with metalworking went certain religious practices that may have marked the smiths out from other members of society. c. 2300 BC 'Amesbury Archer' dies near Stonehenge A 2003 excavation at Amesbury in Wiltshire found the body of a man and about 100 artefacts, including copper knives, gold hair ornaments, highly decorated pottery vessels and many flint arrowheads. Analysis of his teeth showed that he grew up in central Europe. Individuals found in two other nearby graves of the same period probably came from west Wales. These discoveries show that long-distance travel was an important part of Early Bronze Age life and belief. April - June 2049 BC 'Seahenge' is constructed on the Norfolk coast In 1998 a small elliptical 'circle' of 55 oak posts surrounding a large inverted oak tree was discovered at Holme-next-the-Sea. There was a blocked entranceway to the south west which faced onto the midwinter sunset.

About 50 different bronze axes had been used and woodchips found within the post sockets showed the timbers had been shaped in situ, probably as part of a communal effort. Tree-rings provided precise felling dates and showed that construction was a single event. c. 2000 BC - 1400 BC Elite leaders are buried with elaborate grave goods A series of burials of individuals beneath round barrows and with elaborate grave-goods, including special funerary pottery, bronze and copper daggers and gold and amber objects, were discovered in the 19th century in the Wessex area (Dorset, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire), and then in the 20th century as far afield as Norfolk. There are strong parallels with Brittany, France, suggesting regular contact between the two areas. c. 2000 BC Lockington Gold Hoard is buried A 1993 excavation in Leicestershire revealed a small barrow cemetery which included a pit with a hoard of Early Bronze Age objects. This came to be known as the Lockington Gold Hoard.

These consisted of two pottery vessels, a fine copper dagger (which probably originated in Brittany, France) and two fine decorated gold armlets. The discovery was important because it showed that rich objects of this sort were not confined to Wessex and the area around Stonehenge, as was once believed. c. 1800 BC First industrial-scale copper mines are dug Shortly after 2000 BC the first deep copper mines were dug. Two of the best known are at Mount Gabriel in County Cork, Ireland, and Great Orme, north Wales. Another major area of prehistoric mining was in mid-Wales. Most Bronze Age mines went out of use in the Iron Age. The scale of metal production was truly industrial. Mount Gabriel is thought to have produced about 370 tonnes of copper and Great Orme 175 to 235 tonnes. c. 1500 BC - 1200 BC More sophisticated metal weapons and ornamentation appear In the Middle Bronze Age (1500-1200 BC) smaller forms of axes (palstaves) began to appear alongside the first 'socketed' spearheads (attached to the shaft by a hole in the base).

Thrusting weapons (dirks, rapiers) appeared, as well as elaborate bronze pins and bracelets. c. 1500 BC - 800 BC Ceremonial practices change as new religious ideas develop Before about 1500 BC, rituals, ceremonies and religion followed practices established in the later Neolithic (Late Stone Age). After that date, burial in round barrows was replaced by cremation in cemeteries, with or without barrows. From about 1500 BC, hoards of metal items occur with increasing frequency, often placed in or near wet places as votive offerings - a practice that continued through the Iron Age. c. 1500 BC - 800 BC Lighter 'socketed' axes prove to be effective woodworking tools Prior to the 1970s, the smaller, lighter 'socketed' axes (attached to the shaft through a hole) of the Late Bronze Age were regarded as being functionally inefficient. They are known in huge numbers from hoards found across the British Isles.

But recent evidence from preserved timbers and complete wooden hafts (shafts or handles), has shown they were both effective and adaptable tools, with the heavy, well-balanced hafts compensating for the relative lightness of the axe head. c. 1500 BC - 800 BC Major lowland valleys are extensively settled The scale of later Bronze Age settlement was poorly understood until about 1970, when it became possible to differentiate pottery of the period from that of the Iron Age. This coincided with increased aerial survey data and excavation ahead of commercial development. Current knowledge suggests that this was the period when the major lowland river valleys were extensively settled. c. 1200 BC - 800 BC Production of metal objects increases and diversifies rapidly In the Late Bronze Age (1200-800 BC) both forms and quantities of metalwork increased rapidly. Major innovations were smaller 'socketed' axes (attached to the shaft through a hole) and swords with leaf-shaped blades intended for slashing. c. 1200 BC - 800 BC Celtic culture and tribal kingdoms start to emerge Changes in religion, ceremonial and burial practices imply social change.

The new structure persisted through the Iron Age and has been labelled as 'Celtic'. It seems probable that the later Bronze Age controlling elites comprised a larger proportion of society and may have been centred upon a 'warrior aristocracy'. This is the period when the numerous tribes of Britain began to combine into the larger groupings that became the named tribal kingdoms of the Iron Age. c. 1200 BC - 800 BC Roundhouse becomes the typical domestic structure Roundhouses were the dominant form of house in the later Bronze and Iron Ages. Iron Age houses were usually built without internal roof support posts, so the walls carried the thatch. Many Bronze Age houses were constructed in the same way, but some were built with a circle of internal roof-support posts, suggesting they had a heavier roof-covering such as turf. Bronze Age | Britannica.com Bronze Age Hellenistic age Bronze Age, third phase in the development of material culture among the ancient peoples of Europe , Asia , and the Middle East , following the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods (Old Stone Age and New Stone Age, respectively). The term also denotes the first period in which metal was used.

The date at which the age began varied with regions; in Greece and China , for instance, the Bronze Age began before 3000 bce, whereas in Britain it did not start until about 1900 bce. Bronze Age daggers. © G. Nimatallah/DeA Picture Library The beginning of the period is sometimes called the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age, referring to the initial use of pure copper (along with its predecessor toolmaking material, stone). Scarce at first, copper was initially used only for small or precious objects. Its use was known in eastern Anatolia by 6500 bce, and it soon became widespread. By the middle of the 4th millennium, a rapidly developing copper metallurgy , with cast tools and weapons, was a factor leading to urbanization in Mesopotamia . By 3000 the use of copper was well known in the Middle East, had extended westward into the Mediterranean area, and was beginning to infiltrate the Neolithic cultures of Europe. This early copper phase is commonly thought of as part of the Bronze Age, though true bronze , an alloy of copper and tin , was used only rarely at first.

During the 2nd millennium the use of true bronze greatly increased; the tin deposits at Cornwall , England , were much used and were responsible for a considerable part of the large production of bronze objects at that time. The age was also marked by increased specialization and the invention of the wheel and the ox -drawn plow . From about 1000 bce the ability to heat and forge another metal, iron , brought the Bronze Age to an end, and the Iron Age began. Watch archaeologists uncover traces of a Bronze Age metallurgical workshop in Georgia. Learn More in these related articles: in history of Europe Iron Age - definition of Iron Age by The Free Dictionary Iron Age - definition of Iron Age by The Free Dictionary Related to Iron Age: bronze age Iron Age n. The period in cultural development succeeding the Bronze Age in Asia, Europe, and Africa, characterized by the introduction of iron metallurgy. In Europe it began around the eighth century bc. See Usage Note at Three Age system . iron age n (Classical Myth & Legend) classical myth the last and worst age in the history of the world Iron Age n (Archaeology) a.

the period following the Bronze Age characterized by the extremely rapid spread of iron tools and weapons, which began in the Middle East about 1100 bc b. (as modifier): an Iron-Age weapon. I′ron Age` n. 1. the period in the history of humankind, following the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, marked by the use of implements and weapons made of iron: in Europe generally regarded as extending from the first millennium b.c. to the early first century a.d. ; the Halstatt and La Tène cultures are representative. 2. (often l.c.) (in Greek and Roman myth) the last and worst of the ages of the human race, characterized by danger, corruption, and toil. [1585–95] Iron Age The period in human history following the Bronze Age, during which people discovered how to make iron tools and weapons. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1.

Iron Age - (archeology) the period following the Bronze Age; characterized by rapid spread of iron tools and weapons archaeology , archeology - the branch of anthropology that studies prehistoric people and their cultures prehistoric culture , prehistory - the time during the development of human culture before the appearance of the written word 2. iron age - (classical mythology) the last and worst age of the world classical mythology - the system of mythology of the Greeks and Romans together; much of Roman mythology (especially the gods) was borrowed from the Greeks period , period of time , time period - an amount of time; "a time period of 30 years"; "hastened the period of time of his recovery"; "Picasso's blue period" Translations Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages | Essential Humanities ca. 1000 BC-present Prehistoric Climate Throughout its history, the Earth has cycled between cold glacial periods (during which large masses of ice, known as glaciers, cover much of the world's land area) and warm interglacial periods (which lack widespread glaciers). Humans have lived through many such cycles, which take place over thousands of years.

While glacial periods made survival more difficult, they also lowered the sea level, easing human colonization of the world. We currently live in an interglacial period, which began ca. 10,000 BC. Pre-human Evolution About 14 billion years ago, the Big Bang gave birth to a universe containing pockets of dust. About 4.5 billion years ago, our solar system (the sun and its planets) formed via the accretion of dust into spheres; Earth is therefore roughly 4.5 billion years old. Life began about 3.5 billion years ago, with the appearance of single-celled marine organisms; since then, evolution has continuously given rise to new forms of life.53,54,55 Eventually, multicellular organisms developed. Increasingly large and complex types of multicellular life emerged, with one branch of evolution leading to fish. Fish are the original vertebrates (animals with a backbone) and the ancestors of all other vertebrate groups. The Five Major Groups of Vertebrates tetrapod mammals live birth Vertebrates made the transition to land-based life when fish evolved into amphibians: cold-blooded tetrapods that lay aquatic eggs.

The term cold-blooded denotes that a creature's internal temperature is determined by its environment (in contrast to warm-blooded creatures, whose bodies maintain an internal temperature independent of their environment). A tetrapod is a creature with four limbs; a limb is a jointed appendage that extends from an animal's body. An aquatic egg is laid in water, and thus lacks a hard shell. Amphibians evolved into reptiles, which lay hard-shelled eggs. Consequently, reptiles were the first vertebrates that could live their entire lives on dry land. The final two major vertebrate groups, birds and mammals, evolved from reptiles. Some mammals came to abandon a ground-based life, evolving to swing among the trees. This lifestyle encouraged the development of hands with dextrous fingers and opposable thumbs (for grasping branches), as well as sharp colour eyesight (for navigating the complex, multicoloured, shadowy environment of the forest).A3 Sub-Saharan Africa was one region where tree-dwelling mammals thrived. One day, a species of Sub-Saharan tree-dwelling mammal returned to a ground-based life, leaving the forests behind for open grassland.

This animal subsequently evolved to walk upright (rather than on all fours), allowing it to see much farther across the plains. (Animals that walk upright are referred to as bipedal .) When these bipedal mammals started to develop larger brains, they evolved into a remarkable new creature: human. Main Article Paleolithic Age The term human denotes any creature belonging to the genus Homo. The first species of human was Homo habilis , which evolved in Sub-Saharan Africa ca. 2,500,000 BC. Since Homo habilis was a maker of stone tools, the evolution of this species marks the beginning of the stone age.56 The stone age can be divided into the Paleolithic ("Old Stone Age"), during which all humans were hunter-gatherers; the Mesolithic ("Middle Stone Age"), the transitional phase to agricultural life; and the Neolithic ("New Stone Age"), when humans subsisted through agriculture. The Paleolithic, which spans over ninety percent of human existence, can be further divided into three parts. The Lower Paleolithic was the age of human evolution. Various species of Homo emerged, with a trend toward increasing brain and body size.43 The evolution of modern humans, Homo sapiens , finally took place ca.

200,000 BC, in Sub-Saharan Africa.12 To recap: the Lower Paleolithic period began with the evolution of Homo habilis (the first human species) and concluded with the evolution of Homo sapiens. The latter species was anatomically the same as present-day humans, including (most importantly) brain size.56 Phases of the Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic behaviourally modern The next giant leap for our species was behavioural modernity (aka "modern behaviour"), which emerged ca. 50,000 BC. Humans of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic exhibited primitive behaviour; though they could make simple stone tools and eventually came to control fire, these humans did not behave much differently than the rest of the animal kingdom. The contrast between humans and animals only became sharp with the onset of modern behaviour.4,56 Behavioural modernity can be boiled down to two major features: complex ideas and creativity. The consequences of behavioural modernity include government, religion, art, and technology.4,56 As noted above, various species of human evolved in Sub-Saharan Africa prior to the evolution of modern humans. Some of these species migrated out of Africa, settling regions of Eurasia.

All would eventually go extinct, however, leaving the world to be dominated by a single human species: Homo sapiens. Modern humans colonized most of the inhabitable world during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods. The Americas were colonized by a great migration across the Bering land bridge, which connected Siberia and Alaska.2,22 Neolithic Age During the Paleolithic age, all humans were hunter-gatherers. They typically lived in small bands that followed an annual migration pattern, timing their movements according to ripening plants and travelling herds of game. Depending on food availability, these bands might be nomadic (constantly on the move) or semi-nomadic (migrating between temporary settlements).K30-31,18 Paleolithic life denotes a lifestyle based mainly on hunting/gathering, while Neolithic life denotes a lifestyle based mainly on agriculture (the production of food by raising domesticated crops and animals). A given region is considered to have progressed to the Neolithic age once agriculture has become the primary means of subsistence. Means of Subsistence hunting/gathering-based life (after ca.

10,000 BC) Neolithic life agriculture-based life Prior to reaching the Neolithic, humans experienced a transitional stage known as the Mesolithic. The transition to agricultural life commenced ca. 10,000 BC, when the most recent glacial period ended, giving rise to a warmer (and thus more farming-conducive) global climate. The beginning of the Mesolithic age is consequently placed at ca. 10,000 BC; the ending, however, varies by region. As noted earlier, hunting/gathering-based life is also known as Paleolithic life. This is only true up until ca. 10,000 BC, however; the continuation of hunting/gathering-based life beyond ca. 10,000 BC (in the new, warmer climate) is known as Mesolithic life. Phases of the Stone Age Lower Paleolithic Neolithic agricultural subsistence Over the final ten millennia BC (ca. 10,000 BC-0), most of the world transitioned to the Neolithic age. The unfolding of this transition can be mapped with very rough approximations for individual regions. For instance, Neolithic life was achieved in Mesopotamia ca.

10,000 BC; in Greece, ca. 7000 BC; in India, ca. 5000 BC; in Britain, ca. 3000 BC.4,18 Summary of the Spread of the Neolithic ca. 10,000-5000 BC agricultural life radiates from Mesopotamia, both westward (to Egypt and southern Europe) and eastward (to India) ca. 5000 BC-0 agricultural life continues to expand, covering most of the inhabited world As the above map illustrates, Neolithic life radiated from Mesopotamia, both across Eurasia and into North Africa. (It should be noted that while most of Eurasia adopted agriculture as it diffused from Mesopotamia, some regions may have developed agriculture independently.) The diffusion of agriculture to Sub-Saharan Africa, however, was frustrated by the vast Sahara Desert; across this region, agriculture-based life only emerged over the last two millennia BC.4,38,47 In the Americas, Neolithic life was first achieved in Mesoamerica and Peru, but not until ca. 2000 BC.

Thus, the rise of Neolithic life throughout the New World was (as in Sub-Saharan Africa) compressed into the final two millennia BC.4,44,46 Alternatives to Farming Some parts of the world forwent agriculture altogether. In these regions, one of two alternative subsistence methods was pursued. The first alternative was to continue with hunter-gatherer life indefinitely. This path was followed by Australia, much of Siberia, much of the Americas (the far north and south), and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. Though hunter-gatherer societies have mostly disappeared in the modern age, a few small populations survive; perhaps most famous are the San people of Sub-Saharan Africa and tribes of the Amazon rainforest.K30-31,4 The second alternative was nomadic herding life. Nomadic herding is well-suited to arid regions, where rainfall is sufficient for grass but too scarce for productive farming; typical herd animals are sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels (in the Islamic world), and reindeer (in Siberia).

Nomadic herding was especially successful in the Steppe (an east-west strip of grassland that runs from Ukraine to Mongolia).48 Like hunter-gatherer life, nomadic herding has been mostly (but not entirely) displaced by the modern age. The Eurasian Advantage As described above, the Neolithic age was achieved far earlier in Eurasia than elsewhere. Since Neolithic life was the crucial prerequisite to urbanization, Eurasia experienced the rise of cities thousands of years before the rest of the world. Consequently, Eurasia has given rise to most of the world's civilizations, including the four current "global civilizations": Western, Islamic, South Asian, and East Asian (see Global Civilizations ). The modern global political and cultural landscape has been shaped primarily by Eurasia and its colonial offshoots. Outside Eurasia, the Neolithic age was delayed for various reasons. One is sheer geographic isolation from Southwest Asia, the leading region of early technological progress. While advances in Southwest Asia were transmitted to Europe and Asia relatively quickly, they were blocked from spreading easily to Sub-Saharan Africa (by the Sahara Desert) and the Americas (by the oceans).

Eurasia was also blessed with an exceptional supply of domesticatable plants and animals, in terms of both quantity and quality of species.51 In this context, "quality" denotes usefulness for humans. High-quality domesticated plants are energy-rich and relatively easy to produce; high-quality domesticated animals also have these characteristics, as well as provision of labour and non-food animal products. The Eurasian advantage in domesticatable animals is particularly striking. Peoples across this region were blessed with goats, sheep, pigs, horses, and cattle (among others); notably, the latter two animals could be harnessed for heavy labour, including ploughing (which amplified farming production) and transportation. In fact, only fourteen large animal species (that is, animals in excess of 100 pounds) have ever been domesticated, and only one of these is native to a region outside Eurasia: the llama, in South America.51 Bronze and Iron Ages The Neolithic age was succeeded in Eurasia by the bronze age. In a given region, the bronze age is considered to begin when bronze becomes a much-used material for practical objects (i.e. tools and weapons).

The term "bronze age" is generally not applied if only a few bronze tools are being made, or if bronze is only being used for jewellery. The key prerequisite to the bronze age was the development of smelting (the process of extracting metal from ore). Once a sufficient volume of metal has been smelted, it can be hammered or cast (melted and poured into a mould) into a desired shape. Smelting technology first emerged in Southwest Asia.9 The first metal to be smelted was copper. Being a rather soft metal, copper was not a dramatic improvement over stone for the crafting of tools and weapons. It was eventually discovered, however, that by blending copper with tin, one obtains a much harder metal: bronze. (Occasionally, other elements were used instead of tin.)9,50 The bronze age of Southwest Asia spanned ca. 3000-1000 BC. Like agriculture, bronze technology radiated from Southwest Asia in all directions, taking roughly a thousand years to cover the entire east-west span of mainland Eurasia (from Britain to China). Thus, by ca.

2000 BC, most of Eurasia had transitioned to the bronze age.1,26,52 While the bronze age also diffused to North Africa, it was halted by the Sahara Desert. Bronze Age Transition Eurasia ca. 3000-2000 BC The iron age began in Southwest Asia ca. 1000 BC, once smelting pit designs had advanced sufficiently to produce the higher temperatures needed to smelt iron ore (see Iron Smelting ).9 In about five centuries, it covered the east-west span of Eurasia. Thus, by ca. 500 BC, most of Eurasia had transitioned to the iron age.27,28 The iron age also diffused across North Africa, and then (unlike the bronze age) southward across sub-Saharan Africa. It crossed the Sahara Desert by travelling down the Nile (through Egypt into Nubia), and may also have crossed at other points farther west. Diffusion was slower than in Eurasia; it took about a thousand years for the iron age to reach southern Africa.38,47 Iron Age Transition Africa ca.

1000 BC-0 It should be noted that the above descriptions of the spread of the bronze and iron ages are meant to convey the broad, overall picture. Most likely, these ages did not begin solely in Southwest Asia, but were arrived at independently (at later dates) in other regions as well. The transition to the iron age was critical not because of any property of the metal itself (iron is not harder than bronze), but rather because iron is overwhelmingly more abundant than copper and tin. This enabled, for the first time in history, true mass-production of metal tools and weapons. Both agriculture and warfare (to take two prominent examples) were thereby revolutionized, since metal implements are far more effective than stone in both endeavours. The bronze and iron ages have little relevance for the pre-colonial Americas. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the bronze age was reached only by the Inca (the final Andean civilization), while the iron age did not occur at all.7,33 Gold, silver, and copper were widely used in pre-colonial American art, however.49 1 - "Bronze Age", Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed April 2009.

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Question: Which prehistoric period followed the Stone Age and preceded the Iron Age?
Answer: Bronze Age