NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Corals Corals How Do Coral Reefs Form? Corals usually develop into one of three characteristic structures: fringing reefs, barrier reefs or atolls. Click the image to see an animation. Coral reefs begin to form when free-swimming coral larvae attach to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces along the edges of islands or continents. As the corals grow and expand, reefs take on one of three major characteristic structures fringing, barrier or atoll. Fringing reefs, which are the most common, project seaward directly from the shore, forming borders along the shoreline and surrounding islands. Barrier reefs also border shorelines, but at a greater distance. They are separated from their adjacent land mass by a lagoon of open, often deep water. If a fringing reef forms around a volcanic island that subsides completely below sea level while the coral continues to grow upward, an atoll forms. Atolls are usually circular or oval, with a central lagoon.

Parts of the reef platform may emerge as one or more islands, and gaps in the reef provide access to the central lagoon (Lalli and Parsons, 1995; Levinton, 1995; Sumich, 1996). In addition to being some of the most beautiful and biologically diverse habitats in the ocean, barrier reefs and atolls also are some of the oldest. With growth rates of 0.3 to 2 centimeters per year for massive corals, and up to 10 centimeters per year for branching corals, it can take up to 10,000 years for a coral reef to form from a group of larvae (Barnes, 1987). Depending on their size, barrier reefs and atolls can take from 100,000 to 30,000,000 years to fully form. As coral reefs grow, they establish characteristic biogeographic patterns. Click the image for a larger view. All three reef typesfringing, barrier and atollshare similarities in their biogeographic profiles.

Bottom topography, depth, wave and current strength, light, temperature, and suspended sediments all act to create characteristic horizontal and vertical zones of corals, algae and other species. These zones vary according to the location and type of reef. The major divisions common to most reefs, as they move seaward from the shore, are the reef flat, reef crest or algal ridge, buttress zone, and seaward slope. Coral Reefs - c. They need lots of salinity full strength seawater d. Like Coral Reefs Coral Reefs - c. They need lots of salinity full strength... SCHOOL View Full Document Coral Reefs I. Biology of Corals a. Anatomy of Coral i. Made up of tons of little polyps b. Zooxanthellae i. In coral polyp tentacles ii. Symbiotic relationship between the zooxanthellae and the coral animals c. Coral Forms i. Pillar Corals 1. Grow as single pillars with very few branches ii. Branching corals 1. Branch out, look like fingers iii. Massive Corals 1. Extremely large, boulder like corals iv. Table Corals 1.

Grown in layers, very wide 2. Have an increased surface area to increase photosynthesis v. Foliacious (leaf-like) Corals 1. Look like leaves 2. Provide good places for organisms to hide in vi. Encrusting Corals 1. Don’t grow up, but out d. Coral Reproduction i. Hermaphroditic ii. Eject egg/sperm from their polyps II. Geographic Distribution This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version. a. Tend to appear in clear, warm, low productivity, and low nutrient water b. Water Temperature > 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) This is the end of the preview. Sign up to access the rest of the document. Unformatted text preview: c. They need lots of salinity full strength seawater d. Like light and hard bottom III. Reef Building a. Fringing Reefs i. Reef that hugs the shore with little or no open water between the reef and the slope itself ii. Ex. Fringing Reef in the Red Sea b. Barrier Reefs i. Reef thats separated from the main land by a lagoon ii. Ex.

Great Barrier Reef in Australia c. Atolls i. Circular reef that occurs in the middle of oceans with no land in the middle of it; has a lagoon inside thats often connected to the open ocean by breaks in the reef IV. Ecology a. Coral acts as a primary producer along with sea weed b. Very little primary productivity energy/action c. Coral-Feeders i. Parrotfish ii.... Spider Crab (Libinia dubia) Lab Report In this lab, our group experimented with the s Lab Report The Coral Reef The Coral Reef This topic submitted by RoseannPlace ( wrdbplace@msn.com ) at 10:07 PM on 6/9/04. A beautiful nesting brown noddy on Catto Key in Grahams Harbor, San Salvador, Bahamas. See other beautiful phenomena from the Bahamas. First Draft-Paper The Coral Reef The coral reef is one of the most amazing and under appreciated ecosystems to a vacationing visitor. We appreciate its beauty but don�t understand its contribution to our lives. Not only is it beautiful but also it is a city in its own right. However today we have caused much destruction to this ecosystem due to pollutants.

The coral reefs give us indicators of survival which we must pay attention to. Our job is now to look at this underwater environment and see what we can do to help it in turn helping us When looking at an ecosystem the word �ecology� has to be included. Ecology is a term meaning the relationship between the habitat, the plants, and the animals that live there. The reef system is one of these ecosystems that will be explored here. The reef system contains a delicate balance between the animals and plants. Once one of these components are effected it changes everything around it. This balance forms an intertwining of a braid. The coral reefs are very complex and form just one part of this braid; the other parts are the mangroves and sea grasses. The knowledge gained from the coral reefs as a part of this braid helps in the total understanding of this underwater ecosystem. Documentations show that in the past mass global extinctions have been preceded by reef collapses. Small animals that lay a stony skeleton of calcium as they grow upward form these reefs. The coral reef is a complete city under the sea. There are three main types of coral reefs, the fringing, the atolls, and the barrier reefs.

These different types are often explained as just different stages of development for the same reef. The fringing reefs grow in shallow warm waters that border the coastlines closely. They are separated from the main land by a shallow body of water. The animal and plant life there will identify the depth and zone of that reef. The reef crest zone breaks the waves, the fore reef zone has medium energy and the groove buttress zone forms rows of corals with sandy passages between the rows. The atolls are island reefs which form around a sinking volcano or land mass rising surrounding the island. These reefs develop close to the surface separating a central lagoon. There are those that rise from the deep sea and the ones on the continental shelf. These shallow reefs are one of the most productive ecosystems. The barrier reef contains the coral animals that are stationary to the bottom with the plants that move. Those that are windward are battered by wind and waves that cause a grooved architecture. The largest barrier reef is the Great Barrier Reef along Australia. Corals are made of small animals called polyps with two cell layers, the epidermis and the gasastrodermis with a non-living tissue layer in between called the megogles.

These animals put down a calcium base to build up a wall and secrete mucus to help keep the suit away from the coral or it can�t attach. The coral polyps have cilia and a ring of stinging tentacles that will help to sweep the food, or shoot slings to get its food into its mouth as creatures pass by. There is a tissue that stretches over the surface of the coral between the polyps for protection.. These soft bodied animals use the skeletons as protection and as they grow upward dividing by two leave the stony body behind. They are considered carnivorous feeding on small particles floating in the water along with the zooxanthellae. The zooxanthellae help in the food production for the polyps. Red coral algae grow on top of reef to help protect it from the waves and lie calcium carbonate to fuse and keep the reef together. There are two main types of reef formation the porous skeleton and the solid skeleton. They form better in the warmer water that is clear, shallow, with little silt and not much in seasonal changes. The polyps settle on a firm place where the reef can grow upwards according to the change in the water level.

Corals have a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, a living plant dependent on the sunlight to provide the nutrients within the stomach along with CO2. This helps the coral to speed up the building of their stony skeleton by adding calcium carbonate to help in the calcification of the reef so that the waves won�t erode it away The reef can grow as much as 10 cm. a day with sunlight and less if there is less sun. The reef community will use the energy created through respiration. This digestion of oxygen takes the food and creates carbon dioxide and water. The enzyme, carbonic anhydrase combines with the calcium of seawater and carbon dioxide from plants to make the outer coat to add to the skeleton. The more sunlight the more the plant can help to make the calcium carbonate. Reefs need new larva to continually take over and grow upward or the reef will run down. Atolls are the first place of formation from volcanoes, the larva and coral are moved by the current to land in different places on the outside of the volcano base in shallow water. The calcium carbonate is laid on the floor to form buds to spread out.

Once the mountain sinks it leaves behind a lagoon with the ocean side having algae, and the reef with the sand keeps moving out. There are many types of corals produced in this cycle such as the horn coral, which are low in depth and build skeletons. The hydroid or �fire coral assume the shape of its support structure. The �mountainous star coral� is the most important reef builder with a column shape that is knobby with large raised cups. Other types are the �pillar coral, which is like a fuzzy giant finger, the �brain coral� with rounded heads of folds and groves like a brain, the elkhorn coral, with wide flattened branches with raised polyps giving a knobby texture, �leaf coral looking like lettuce and �finger coral� with large pores , swollen tips and grows thick in colonies. There are so many types of coral and life here that these are only a few. Corals have many ways in which they can reproduce from asexual, sexual, and budding. Sexually they can do a mass spawning, which allows there to be a better chance of survival, it also leaves a greater chance of producing a hybrid.

In this method eggs and sperm are sent to the top of the water to be fertilized. From this a zygote forms into a larva, which will float down and attach to a suitable substrate where it will grow a new colony. There is also brooding where the fertilization happened before they are released and float to the sop to settle and also form new colonies. Asexually it reproduces by fragments that are broken off and attach to a new surface where it can begin new colonies. With budding pieces can form from the top or bottom of an old polyp, which will grow into a new colony of coral. There are many organism that depend on the reef for life and protection, but there are also those which aid in the destruction of the reefs. Many types of sponges live on the reefs varying in color and shape. Sponges are made of two and three types of cells. They consist of holes, which filter the water to gather its food made of many different plankton which make up bulk and with sand help reef build up. Sea anemones a relative of the coral and jelly filled hydroids are inhabitants of the porous and solid skeleton of the corals.

Clown fish is a fish, which is able to live among the deadly sea anemones because of the mucus on the outside that confused the sea anemone as self. This relationship provides safety for the clown fish and the sea anemone gets the left over food or animals that follow the fish in. Other fish that live among the corals have a unique ability to change their sex. There are some, which stay male or female, their whole life called gonophores. There are those that can change from one sex to another called hermaphrodites. These fish can change for reproduction; however once they have changed they cannot change back. Most will make the change from female to male such as the parrotfishes, gobies, cods, groupers, snappers, and damselfishes. The anemone fish is one that changes from male to female. Then there are the hamlets, which have both male and female reproductive systems so they can switch back and forth to mate as both. Another endangered species is the sea turtle, which goes between the corals and the sea grasses. The turtles use a magnetic field to help navigate between the corals to the open sea.

The corals contain many predators with which the turtles must pass through. There are a variety of animals which inhabit the crevises of the coral reefs. One third of all the fish live among the coral reefs throughout the world. These animals usually do not have to adapt much to weather changes because of the constant weather conditions. Hermit crabs and snails being part of the herbivore community use their shells as hiding places among the color of the coral as camouflage along with the use of purple ink for protection. The sea urchin is another plant eater which helps keep the algae and plant growth down on the reef. It uses sharp teeth for cutting but can also be harmful to coral in that the sharp teeth can also bite off some of the calcium carbonate of the reef. Sea cucumbers can hide and help to break up sand as well as eating the blue green algae. They are dark in color, which helps them to hide. One of their defenses against predators is to release their digestive tract that preoccupies the predator. Pearl fish use the cucumber as protection during the day by going into the cucumber backwards. The mullets are herbivores that ground up the sand that will be deposited at the base of the reefs.

Sea club and red lip blenny which have front and back teeth will eat the plants as well as some crabs and clams from the open water and those that live at the coral. They are fast swimmers and rush out to get a bite. Damselfish come in different shapes and colors to match the environment and are very territorial who attack intruders and are browsers to help farmer by cleaning out unwanted plants. Surgeonfish travel in schools with a large scalpel at the end of the tail for protection also eats the algae from the coral. Parrotfish have chopping beaks that grind coral as well as eat the algae. The octopus finds the reef a great hiding place in the caves eating crabs and animals that it can reach with its arms; it also has a hard sharp beak. The moray eel looking like a large land snake will also hide among the corals to attack for its food. Snappers, grunts, and emperors travel in schools for protection eating cucumbers at night. However they make a great meal for the barracuda that preys on the schooling fish with its broad tail to move quickly for a short time.

Groupers are very large fish that will feed at dawn and dusk hiding in the coral caves. The top predators of the chain are barracuda, largest groupers, moray eels and sharks. The bottom dwelling sharks are more docile and live among the reef hunting at night. Reef sharks hunt in late afternoon and eat larger fish going deep at night. Diatoms and plankton are plants of the open water. They make great meals as they are pushed by the waves toward the reef. The dinoflagellates of the reef create plant tissue as well as becoming zooxanthellae. Even though the dinoflagellates are helpful to corals in a symbiotic relationship are poisonous to fish and decorate the night waters with flashes of light. Corals are the most abundant plankton catchers where the animals wait at night to make a meal as they brush up against them as the current carries them in. Reef fishes have changed very little over time. Most reef fishes are small, skinny and colorful which helps them hide among the coral. They use their color as camouflage, by changing as warning of danger or as apoisonousfish, such as the batesian who mimics the colors to avoid predators.

Some change their color as the water color changes due to the reflection and refraction of the light. The petite butterfly fish within its color has a fake eye near the tail to confuse the predator. Comet fish will hide in caves backwards to look like an eel and anglerfish will combine color and body shape to blend in with the sponges. Some fish have a cleaning symbiosis among the coral heads where larger fish will come to have smaller fish clean fungi, dead skin, and parasites from them with out becoming prey. Many plants grow among the coral and are known as the producers of the food chain. Photosynthesis is the first level of the chain. They produce the energy, which is stored in sugar. Without plants all life forms would eventually die out. Red and green algae help in the growth of the reef. The halimeda, and sea bottle are plants that help the coral to build up the sand around the plants that grow best among the corals. Natural environmental changes affect the coral reefs. Global changes in the environment are first reflected in the reef community. The change in water such as lower water which leaves the reef above the water where they die but leaving behind an account of their existence in fossils.

Most corals have died out at one time or another due to these changes. With glaciation where the melting caused the water to rise the corals can survive as long as the rise is slow. If it is fast then the coral has less of a chance because it needs shallow, warm water with sunlight to survive. The absence of these reefs also affects our coastlines through erosion, due to waves, hurricanes and tidal waves. Natural forces such as waves can shrink the mountain bases where the coral polyps settle to create new colonies causing an erosion of this ecosystem. However the dying corals can give a new base for new corals to grow closer to the surface. The waves also break down the coral to sand. Another predator is the sea urchins who drill holes into the base of the reef to eat the inside causing the outside to crumble displacing the animal and plant life of this ecosystem. The destruction of these reef communities also affects the inhabitants of the land. Reefs are very fragile and can only tolerate a narrow range of environmental conditions. Man has become one of the reefs most feared predator. We have caused much of their destruction probably not realizing it at first. Now we have to make changes on our part to help protect this wonderful world below the sea.

Some of what we have done is the over development which sends sediment into the water which coats the coral making it unable to survive. The destruction of the mangroves and sea grasses, for mans development, which are a natural buffer for the corals, cause more suit and nutrients to enter the water by changing the water drainage. The extra nutrients also cause algae to grow more rapidly, which will cover and suffocate the coral. This pollutant drainage and sewage also adds to coral diseases that come from bacteria, fungi and viruses that grow more rapidly due to human waste. Some of these diseases are black band disease, coral bleaching where the zooxanthellae leave the coral, discoloring spots, rapid wasting disease, red band disease, white band disease, white plaque disease, white pox disease and yellow blotch/band disease. The movement of the warm current can spread these diseases carrying these diseases with it. Coral mining can cause the left behind corals to die off also by taking the living top part. Anchors from boats break off parts of the coral. Man has also become very over zealous in making of money through over fishing dredging, and explosions.

This causes many changes to the food chains in the reef, which disturbs the balance of survival on the reef. The islanders started by providing enough food to feed their families. Now we not only feed our families but also go for the money for bulk fish supplies and big businesses. Over fishing in many ways destroys the balance of fish life in predator prey. Many of these fish also help in maintaining the reefs. However the destruction of the corals also affect the reef fisheries causing more starvation. The removal of different species in the balance of the ecosystem will cause changes elsewhere. For you cannot make a change in one area without it affecting many others. There are other habitats that help to balance the ecosystem of the corals which when destroyed cause more danger to this underwater wonderland. The mangroves are the closest to the land and help to filter pollutants and sediment from entering the ocean reefs. There are three types of mangroves. The red mangroves trees are the farthest from land and tolerate the most salt by using reverse osmosis to keep salt out of the roots. They transfer the salt to the leaves. The black mangroves are closer and also remove the salt through their leaves through special pores that the Indians used by scraping the leaves as food.

White mangroves are the closest to the land with the least amount of salt, which is removed form the base of the leaves. These trees live in hydrogen sulfide muck that is low in oxygen. The get their oxygen from projections that surround the trees by sticking out of the water. These mangroves also receive the most pollution and sediment. The mangroves absorb the nutrients that are passed along to the sea grasses and corals. The sea grasses closest to the corals help to filter the nutrients after the mangroves from the land. The mangroves and sea grass help in keeping the nitrogen and phosphorus from creating algae blooms that will destroy the coral reefs. The herbivore fish are the reefs immune system by helping to remove the algae from the coral. This has looked generally on the parts of this underwater city. The many braids that are woven in this environment are all connected. Once one is changed it changes aspects of the rest. The question is now what can be done to help save this marvelous city which in turn may save us.

ReefBase :: Global Database : Resources - Coral Reefs - Southeast Asia, Indonesia Global Database * Search with keywords such as "and", "or", "not" to fine-tune your search results. 1. coral and reefs Search for records which contain words coral and reefs 2. coral reefs Search for records which contain words coral and reefs. Same as the "and" function. 3. coral or reefs Search for records which contain words coral or reefs. 4. "coral reefs" Search for records which contain exact phrase "coral reefs". 5. coral and not acropora Search for records which contain words coral and not acropora. Search Result: 1 records INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS Indonesia is the largest archipelagic nation in the world comprising an estimated 17,508 islands. Coastal length has been variously estimated at between 80,791km ( Moosa, 1994 ) and 204,000km ( Tomascik et al, 1997 ). The official estimate for the area of coral reefs is 7500km² ( KLH 1992 ).

A re-estimate by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) based on the longer figure for coastline length is 85,707km² which represents about 14% of the world total. The area covered by this review is loosely termed as Eastern Indonesia. It includes the eastern shores of the island of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Halmahera, The Moluccas, West Papua and the islands of Bali, Flores, Sawu, Timor and Banda Seas. It thus covers the provinces of Bali, West Papua, East and South Kalimantan, Maluku, West and East Nusa Tenggara and North, Central, South and South-east Sulawesi. This area probably contains more than 50% of Indonesian coral reefs. It also corresponds closely to the areas of East and Central Indonesia as defined by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) and shown by reef type in table 1.1. Indonesia straddles the equator and it is not surprising that it has such an area of coral reefs.

As Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) note the “complex interplay of atmospheric, oceanographic and geologic processes has resulted in one of the most dynamic marine environments on the planet”. Although seasonal fluctuations do occur, variations in temperature and salinity are probably less than anywhere else in the world and disruptions from meteorological phenomena such as hurricanes are almost unknown. As disturbance is one factor which is responsible for the maintenance of high diversity and overall stability of coral reef ecosystems ( Connell 1978 ), it is therefore somewhat enigmatic to find that Eastern Indonesia is the world centre of diversity for coral reefs and associated flora and fauna ( Moosa, 1999 ). A major influence on this diversity relates to the geological history of the region. The modern scleractinian corals evolved in the ancient Tethys Sea in the Trassic, ( Veron, 1995 ). This body of water lay between the northern continents of Eurasia and the Southern African and Indo-Australian land masses. These have drifted together, closing the Tethys Sea from the west, the collision forming the massive fold mountains stretching from the Pyrennees and the Alps to the Himalayas.

The main centre of coral reef evolution has thus been pushed eastwards to what is now archipelagic Southeast Asia. This region, centred on Indonesia is the direct descendant of the Tethys Sea and is a modern collision zone with all the same characteristics of complex archipelagoes and island chains in which earthquakes and volcanic action provide the required degree of disturbances for the high diversity. Highly favourable biological, ecological and geological conditions of Eastern Indonesia have thus provided the richest and most diverse region of modern coral reefs. Unfortunately within Indonesia as a whole these are under increasing anthropogenic pressure from a population which is largely coastal and utilises coral reef resources extensively. Indonesia’s population is currently about 195 million, though the 11 provinces which make up Eastern Indonesia, as defined above, are home to a proportionally lower population of 35 million people. Many areas of reefs may still be in good condition and could benefit from sustainable management based on integrated coastal zone management principles. LOCATION AND TYPES OF EASTERN INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS This section describes the coral reefs of Eastern Indonesia from north and west to south and east. It relies extensively on the descriptions in Tomascik et al ( 1997 ).

East and South Kalimantan A major influence on reef distribution in eastern Kalimantan is the Mahakam River which drains almost one third of East Kalimantan with a discharge of 1500m3/sec a suspended sediment load of 80mg/l and a sediment yield of up to 10 x 106 tonnes annually. The plume may extend 400km to the south-east of the Mahakam Delta and is responsible for a general paucity of coral reefs along the coastline to the south. Only occasional fringing reefs are found with some offshore patch reefs, for example in front of Balikpapan Bay. Immediately to the north of the Mahakam, however, well developed fringing reefs are found from Tanjung (Cape) Setan to Tg. Samuntai (140km). A further 180km of fringing reefs are found around the Mangkalihat Peninsula but are then disrupted by the Berau River discharge. However, because of the southward coastal current, fringing reefs are again found immediately to the north for a further 60km to Tg. Karangitigau.

Northwards to the border with Sabah the coastline is reefless, dominated by major river deltas. The southwestern coast of South Kalimantan is also largely deltaic and devoid of reefs. Conditions for reef development improve considerably east and north of Tg. Selatan and significant fringing reef development occurs along the southeast and southwest coasts of the island of Pulau Laut. Offshore in eastern Kalimantan, the better water quality has allowed the development of three barrier reef systems (Table 1.2) where substrate is suitable. The longest barrier reef in Indonesia runs inside the 200m isobath at the margin of the Sunda shelf. Lying 60km offshore, the Great Sunda Barrier Reef has a length of 630km but little work appears to have been carried out on this system. Smaller barrier reefs are found north of the Mahakam delta. The Berau system is found immediately north of the Berau Delta, in places only 10km offshore, and has a length of 25km. Parts of the Mangkalihat Peninsula are also bordered by a barrier reef.

North of the Mangkalihat Peninsula are three major reefs which Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) term atolls, though they are more likely large lagoonal shelf reefs rather than fulfilling the strict geological criteria for oceanic atolls with volcanic foundations. These reefs lie about 90km offshore, in front of the Berau barrier reef (note their location as given in table 16.1 of Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) is in error). They are of considerable size: Muaras (288km²), Maratua (690km²) and Kakaban (21km²), the latter two having raised limestone rims up to 120m above sea level. Open water coral reefs are also probably associated with the islands of the Java Sea in the south (Pulau Keramian, P. Matasiri, P. Kadapongan, P. Kalamban). Sulawesi The island of Sulawesi, with a coastline of 4750km, probably has the largest coral reef area in Indonesia. A very high proportion of its coastline is fringed with reefs, as are the offshore islands.

Although a systematic geographic description is not available, most references to Sulawesi describe almost continuous fringing reefs up to 200m wide. Even more impressive are the almost undescribed barrier reefs of Sulawesi. Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) describe 34 individual barrier reefs around the islands with a total length of 2084km, i.e. bordering 43% of Sulawesi’s coastline (Table 1.3). No less than 8 are more than 100km long and whilst the majority are only a few kilometres offshore, the most studied, that of the Spermonde Archipelago, lies 60km offshore from the coastline of south-west Sulawesi. The longest is in the Gulf of Tomini 165km long, running eastwards from the volcanic Togian Islands. The most unique barrier system in Indonesia is the Banggai Barrier Reef running 175km along the southern margins of the Banggai Islands. Part of this barrier consists of lagoonal faro reefs very similar to those found in the Maldives.

Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) describe 27 atolls in the waters around Sulawesi. However, whilst many may have the superficial resemblance to open ocean atolls, with annular rims, with or without islands, and various types of lagoonal patch reefs, it is doubtful whether many have developed from volcanic foundations in the relatively simple tectonic setting of a mid oceanic location. Thus these reefs are considered with the further 27 oceanic or platform reefs as identified by these authors around Sulawesi. They also include open water reefs with continental (not always volcanic) islands and a number of submerged reefs. These open water reefs occur in clusters around Sulawesi: extending to the southwest of Makassar (Ujung Pandang) including Kepulauan (Archipelago) Liukang Tenggaya, K. Tengah extending to the west of Makassar, P. Marasende, P. Dewakang-lompo, P. Doandoangan-besar, P. Kalukalukuang within and to the south of Teluk Bone, including K. Bone Rate.

The best known and best studies of the Indonesian “atolls”, Taka Bone Rate is found here to the southeast, including Kepulauan Tukangbesi in Teluk (Bay) Tolo, including K. Bowokan within Teluk Tomini Very few of these offshore reefs have been the subject of scientific study. Although not coral reefs, a closely related habitat which requires similar management and conservation approaches is the area of Halimeda bioherms found at the southern end of the Makassar Strait off southeastern Sulawesi. ( Roberts and Phipps, 1988 ; Phipps and Roberts, 1988 ). Associated with the Kalukalukuang Bank in particular, these algal reefs may also be found around the margin of the Sunda Shelf towards Kalimantan. Here algal growth is favoured over reef growth as nutrient rich deep Pacific water floods southwards through the Makassar Strait and upwells around the banks and shelf margin. Bali and Nusa Tenggara These islands are all part of one of the worlds most active volcanic island arcs, formed at a tectonic plate subduction zone. Many of Indonesia’s active volcanoes are found here.

Fringing reefs are again ubiquitous, their morphologies depending on the geomorphology of the coastline and the tectonic history of the islands. Many are narrow structures 30 to100m wide with an intertidal reef flat and very sharp seaward drop-off. However, much wider reefs are present. For example around Bali, van Woesik ( 1997a, in Tomascik et al pp 689-894) indicates the fringing reefs extend 500m from the shoreline. Although very accessible few of these reefs have been described and there is no systematic description of their distribution. A few areas with more detailed studies or descriptions include: Southeastern Bali, where comparative surveys of 1992 and 1997 have been undertaken by van Woesik ( 1997a , 1997b ). Contrasting structure and assemblages were noted on southern aspect reefs open to the high energy Indian Ocean swells and those more sheltered.

Strong upwelling of cool oceanic water is also found along the southern side of the whole island arc and is believed to influence the diversity of flora and fauna including the presence of both deep water species and more poleward species, in the shallow coastal waters of the fringing reefs ( Tomascik et al 1997 , p 698). Komodo National Park, where The Nature Conservancy has produced a number of reports on the coastal reefs of Komodo (e. g. Djohani et al, 1999 ). Lembata Island, with 3 active volcanoes and described in detail by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ). Fringing reefs may be less continuous along the high energy southern shore of the island but are dominated by well constructed spur and groove systems. On the more sheltered western and northwestern sides facing the Flores Sea, the reefs are more continuous and up to 800m wide, with dense growth of sea grasses on the flats, which in the past may have been the habitat for dugongs. Similar patterns of distribution may be found in other islands of Nusa Tenggara.

Some 9 barrier reefs are listed by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) in this region (Table 1.4) though some are very close to shore and difficult to separate from fringing reefs. At least a third of the north coast of Flores is bordered by such a barrier with other significant barriers on both north and south coasts of Sumbawa, the north coast of Lombok and near Maumere Bay, P. Besar. Probably because of the great depth of water away from the volcanic arc islands no open water reefs are found to the south and only two in the Flores/Banda Sea area off the northern shores of Flores (Karang Serbete and Gosong Boni). Maluku The coral reefs of Maluku are regarded as the most extensive and richest in the world but unfortunately detailed descriptions are largely lacking. However, indicative of both rapid growth and species diversity and richness is the report of Tomascik et al ( 1996 ) on the rapid coral colonisation of a 1988 lava flow from the Gunung Api volcano in the Banda Islands.

Within 5 years of the eruption the flow supported a diverse coral community of 124 species with a coral cover of more than 60%. Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) suggest that some of the most widespread fringing reefs in Indonesia are found even in the turbid waters of the Aru Islands, which consist of 6 main islands and 79 smaller islands separated by long narrow channels. Major fringing reef development is along the shallow east coast where the reef can be up to 15km wide, but narrower reefs are found along the remaining coastlines, except the southern part of the west coast. 15 barrier reefs are listed for Maluku (Table 1.5) with a total length of 425km but so little of this area has been surveyed that this is probably an underestimate. They are associated with the islands of Morotai, Halmahera, Seram, Gorong, Kofiau, Obimayor, Batanme, Nila and K. Tanimbar. Open water reefs, very few if any of which are true atolls, are found in the Banda Sea (Kep. Lucipara and Kep.

Penyu) and to the south and east of Halmahera. West Papua West Papua, with a coastline length of 4200km remains one of the least studied areas in Indonesia. Because of high run-off and sediment yield, fringing reefs are missing from significant sections of the coastline, notably from Sarmi to Napainwainrami in Cenderawasih Bay on the north coast and from the Papua-New Guinea border to the Omba river on the south coast. Elsewhere, fringing reefs appear to be very continuous. Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) make particular mention of: the north coast from Jayapura to the border Jayapura to Tg. Kandara, where the reefs are 300-400m wide and westwards to Sarmi all the islands of Cenderawasih Bay, 50-100m wide on the south coast west of the Omba River the southern side of the “Bird’s Neck” between Lakahia Bay and Kamarau Bay and between Tg. Tongerai and Tg.

Kirana the coastlines along the foothills of Kumafa and Fakfak Mountains the northern side of the “Bird’s Head” appears to be suitable for fringing reefs though not the south side which is largely low lying riverine plain. Barrier reefs are reported in West Papua (Table 1.6), mainly around the islands of Cenderawasih Bay (P. Numfoer, Biak and Supiori) and the islands off the western tip of West Papua (P. Waigeo, Bakanta and Boo). That off the north coast of Waigeo is reported as being 250km long though this seems excessive from the size of the island (c. 120km long). Open water reefs are also found in close proximity outside the barrier reefs (Cenderawasih Bay and the western extremity of West Papua). Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) also list some atolls further offshore in the Pacific Ocean (Bepondi, Ayawi and Mapia) all of substantial size (105-250km²) and possibly true atolls, though little is known about them. Source: Hopley, D.

and Suharsono , 2000 , The Status of Coral Reefs in Eastern Indonesia . Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN). (See Document) ReefBase :: Global Database : Resources - Coral Reefs Global Database * Search with keywords such as "and", "or", "not" to fine-tune your search results. 1. coral and reefs Search for records which contain words coral and reefs 2. coral reefs Search for records which contain words coral and reefs. Same as the "and" function. 3. coral or reefs Search for records which contain words coral or reefs. 4. "coral reefs" Search for records which contain exact phrase "coral reefs". 5. coral and not acropora Search for records which contain words coral and not acropora. Search Result: 3 records Sumatra and Java The western end of the Indonesian islands includes Sumatra and Java which, with Kalimantan, are located on the Sunda Shelf, a vast continental shelf extending across a considerable part of the South China Sea. Both are continental islands, but with the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates lying off their southwestern and southern boundaries, there are numerous volcanoes.

The continental shelf lies relatively close to the shore on the western side of Sumatra and south of Java. Some distance off the west coast of Sumatra and off the continental shelf, lies the long chain of the Mentawai Islands. Off the east coast of Sumatra there is a complex of smaller islands at the southern end of the Strait of Malacca, the Riau Archipelago. Further south, towards the Java Sea, Bangka Island lies just off the Sumatra coastline and Belitung Island lies midway between Sumatra and Kalimantan. There are a few small islands north of Java, while Bali lies immediately to the east. Bali, unlike the other islands which continue in a chain to the east, is still located on the Sunda Shelf. The western side of Sumatra is heavily mountainous, with only a narrow coastal plain. In contrast the eastern side is low-lying and there is considerable riverine input all along this coastline. Java is very mountainous in its entirety, although the coastal plain is a little wider to the north and it is here that the most considerable riverine runoff occurs: rates of coastal progradation in the Solo Delta have been measured at 70 meters per year.

The coastal waters of both eastern Sumatra and northern Java are generally quite turbid. Weather and water conditions are largely determined by the opposing monsoon systems. During the Northeast Monsoon (December-March) winds over Sumatra predominate from the northeast, bearing moist air and typically driving higher rainfalls. This air is deflected in southern Sumatra and out over the Indian Ocean and bears round such that Java is dominated by northwesterly and westerly winds. During the Southeast Monsoon (particularly June-July), typically drier air flows from the southwest across Sumatra, and from the southeast across Java. Patterns of surface water currents are largely driven by these winds and during the Northeast Monsoon currents from the northeast flow in and are largely deflected into southeast and eastward flowing currents along southern Sumatra and Java. These are mirrored by longshore currents flowing south and east along the Indian Ocean shores of these islands. During the Southeast Monsoon some of these patterns are reversed, with strong westward flowing currents along the coasts of Java and deflecting northwards along the east coast of Sumatra. The west coast of Sumatra, by contrast, maintains a southeasterly flowing current all year round.

In the Strait of Malacca there is a permanent current flowing to the northwest. Surprisingly little is known about the development of reefs around Sumatra. Fringing reefs are considered well developed in the north around Aceh and around the islands immediately north of Sumatra. They are are also likely to be widespread along much of the west coast of Sumatra facing the Indian Ocean – and have actually been recorded at the Mentawai Islands – but there is little published material describing the remainder of this coastline. Likewise this region is believed to support some extensive barrier reef systems: an 85 kilometer section is reported in the north, 20 kilometers off the coast of Aceh. This is a submerged or drowned system some 13-20 meters below the surface, but it is not clear to what degree it enjoys active coral growth. Further barrier reefs along the west coast of Sumatra are recorded with a combined length of 660 kilometers, although these have been little studied and rarely mentioned in regional reviews. Reefs are thought to be poorly developed along the east Sumatra coast where there is significant riverine input and the coastline is dominated by large mangrove communities.

Fringing reefs are widespread in the Riau Archipelago and 95 species of scleractinian coral have been recorded from Batam Island. Water conditions are highly turbid in this area, however, and coral cover quickly diminishes with depth. Much further south around Belitung Island, fringing reefs have significantly higher diversities, presumably associated with more suitable conditions for reef development – 174 scleractinian species have been recorded. The fringing reefs around Java have received little attention despite their high accessibility (compared to much of the rest of the country). There are well developed fringing reefs surrounding the volcanic islands in the Sunda Strait. Although not marked on most charts, it has been suggested that there may be extensive reef development off the south coast of Java, but that classic reef flat and reef crest structures have not developed due to the extreme exposure and high energy environment. Fringing reefs are well developed around the Blambangan Peninsula and off the short east coast of Java, with reef flats reaching 200-400 meters in width, but these are again limited off much of the north coast.

One of the best known reef complexes in the region is the Kepulauan Seribu patch reef chain, also known as the Thousand Islands. This is a group of almost 700 reefs lying in a chain just northwest of Jakarta Bay. Many have associated islands and most have shallow intertidal reef flats. The reef slopes are quite diverse and there appears to be an increase in diversity with distance from Java – 88 scleractinian species have been recorded at one of the southerly reefs, rising to 190 species in the north. Outbreaks of crown-ofthorns starfish in 1995 may have reduced diversity in these southern islands still further. Reefs are widely developed around the Karimunjawa Archipelago north of Java, and there are reported to be extensive fringing communities around Bawean Island on its eastern side. Fringing reefs are also well developed along the south coast of Bali and have a deep spur and groove formation associated with the high exposure along this coast. The 1998 bleaching event did affect the reefs around Bali, with over 75 percent bleaching in some areas. North of Java it appeared to be more varied and generally less significant.

Kalimantan Much of the coastline of Kalimantan, or Indonesian Borneo, is low-lying and subjected to considerable riverine inputs. The Mahakam River, in particular, is noted for its high volume discharge and has been estimated to produce 4-10 million tons of sediment annually, with a plume which may extend up to 400 kilometers southeast of the Mahakam Delta. Even between the river mouths, the shores are largely fringed by mudflats and there are extensive mangrove communities. The main island lies on the Sunda Shelf and hence is surrounded by extensive shallow, and often relatively turbid, waters. To the east, however, the continental shelf edge lies relatively close to the mainland. There are several nearshore islands and some much further offshore, notably the Anambas, Natuna and Tambelan Archipelagos on the border between the South China Sea and the Natuna Sea. The patterns of monsoon weather are similar to those described for Sumatra and Java, with Northeast Monsoons bringing a northeasterly airflow which is deflected around the south of Kalimantan such that the south coast actually receives a predominantly westerly flow. Surface water currents at this time mirror these winds.

During the Southeast Monsoon airflows are predominantly from the southwest, however the surface water currents are a little different, flowing from the north along the east coast, then deflecting towards the west as they meet the south coast. Fringing reefs are absent from much of the main Kalimantan coastline, but do occur away from major areas of riverine input. They are thought to be well developed on the offshore continental islands, and also off the large headlands such as Tanjung (headland) Datu and T. Blimbing in the west, and T. Sambar, T. Putih, T. Pengujan and T. Selatan in the south. In the east, extensive reefs are recorded for 140 kilometers between T. Setan and T. Pamerikan, and again around the Mangkalihat Peninsula, while there is also an extensive fringing reef to the north of the Berau Delta. Offshore from the east coast lies Indonesia’s longest continuous barrier reef system, the Sunda Barrier Reef, some 630 kilometers long, on the edge of the Sunda Shelf. Despite its size and potential economic, social and biological importance, this reef is largely undescribed.

The coral communities of the Anambas, Natuna and Tambelan Archipelagos have not been well studied, although well developed fringing reef communities have been recorded on charts of the area. Sulawesi and the Nusa Tengarra This region is sometimes referred to as Wallacea, and encompasses the islands of Sulawesi and the Nusa Tenggara Islands. It is an area of complex oceanography: all of the islands have narrow continental shelves and many are separated from one another by relatively deep waters. The geological history of this region is extremely complex, and there are active volcanoes all along the southern islands and in the northeast peninsula of Sulawesi. All of these islands are mountainous, but their relatively narrow widths mean that there are few major watersheds and riverine input is widely dispersed. Air circulation patterns generally follow those of Kalimantan: during the Northeast Monsoon northerly winds reach the north of Sulawesi, but are rapidly deflected, becoming westerly along the southern coast of Sulawesi and the Nusa Tenggara Islands, while this pattern is almost exactly reversed during the Southeast Monsoon.

Surface currents flow permanently eastwards along the north coast of Sulawesi and permanently southwards along the west coast. Between Sulawesi and the Nusa Tenggara there is a strong east flowing current during the Northeast Monsoon, which is reversed during the Southeast Monsoon. South of Nusa Tenggara in the Timor Sea the currents flow permanently westwards. Conditions in this region are ideal for reef development and there are extensive fringing reefs along the shores of most islands, including some near continuous stretches running for hundreds of kilometers along the coastline of Sulawesi. These are particularly well developed along the eastern arm of Sulawesi where reef flats are typically 100-200 meters wide. In other areas reef flats may be less than 20 meters wide, resulting in their omission from many marine charts. Further offshore a large number of barrier reef systems have been described with a total length of 2 084 kilometers. Among the best known is the Spermonde Barrier Reef, which has a series of reefs leading towards the outer edge in a manner similar to the Great Barrier Reef – some 224 scleractinian corals have been described in this system.

South of Peleng Island on the Banggai Platform there is another shelf edge barrier reef system, the Banggai Barrier Reef. This is of particular interest because of the development of faros, circular atoll-like structures otherwise largely associated with the Maldives (Chapter 8). The Togian Islands, located in the mouth of Tomini Bay in northern Sulawesi, lie in very deep water and boast a number of interesting reef formations including fringing, barrier and atoll reefs. The reefs of the Tomini Bay are some of the most biodiverse in the world, with an estimated 77 species of Acropora alone. The 1998 bleaching event appears to have had relatively little impact over much of this region, and little or no bleaching was recorded north and west of Sulawesi. There is little detailed information describing the reef communities of the Nusa Tenggara Islands, but fringing reefs are again widespread. Studies of Lembata Island in the center of the group show significant variation around the coastline. The northwest fringing reef is well developed with a 200-400 meter wide reef flat rich in seagrasses; this reef flat is even wider on the west coast.

By contrast, the south coast has a narrower reef flat, which is fully exposed to Indian Ocean swell and may be further affected by cool water upwellings – a pronounced spur and groove structure is again noted, and a number of deep water species are found which may prefer cooler waters. North of these islands well developed barrier reefs are reported to occur northwest of Sumbawa and north of Flores. At the southern end of the Makassar Strait and in the Flores Sea there are a number of atolls, including the largest in the country: Kalukalukuang, Sabalana and Taka Bone Rate, each over 60 kilometers in length with complex atoll rims formed from individual patch reef structures separated by narrow and deep channels. In the western end of the Banda Sea there are, additionally, many smaller atolls. The Moluccas and Irian Jaya This final region, dominated by the coastline of Irian Jaya, also includes the complex island groups of the Moluccas to the west of Irian Jaya and a chain of small archipelagos along the south of the Banda Sea, stretching from Timor in the west to the Aru Islands in the east close to Irian Jaya.

Overall this is another region of relatively complex bathymetry. Its waters are very deep, and even islands only a few tens of kilometers apart might be separated by depths of over 1 000 meters. The only areas of relatively extensive shallow water and true continental shelf are a platform west of the Bird’s Head (Doberai) Peninsula and the wide expanse of the Arafura Sea, south of Irian Jaya and east of the Aru Islands. The latter largely lies above 100 meters in depth and is quite turbid, in marked contrast to the clear oceanic waters of much of the rest of the region. The coastline of Irian Jaya remains very poorly described. Large areas are low-lying and there is considerable riverine input, particularly along the south coast. The Bird’s Head Peninsula is more mountainous. During the Northeast Monsoon, northwesterly winds cut across most of the region, while during the Southeast Monsoon southeasterly winds come up towards southern Irian Jaya and the southern Moluccas, but these are deflected to become westerly in the more northern areas. Surface currents are somewhat mixed in this region.

However, a northward current flows between Irian Jaya and Halmahera and an eastward current flows along the north shore of Irian Jaya during the Northeast Monsoon. This pattern reverses during the Southeast Monsoon. Along the southeast coast of Irian Jaya wide areas are unsuitable for reef development: this coastline includes some of the largest mangrove forests in the world – those off the central coast and in Bintuni Bay may rival the area occupied by the Sundarbans forest between India and Bangladesh. There are reported to be fringing reefs along much of the higher coastal areas to the west. There is little or no information describing the reef communities around Bird’s Head Peninsula. Along the rest of the north coast there are fringing reefs on all islands in Cendrawasih Bay, however the central and eastern coasts of this bay are dominated by mangrove forests and wide mudflats, and fringing reef systems have not developed. Further east, fringing reefs are believed to follow a large proportion of the coastline between Sarmi and the border with Papua New Guinea. For the most part these are poorly described, but reef flats are estimated to reach 300-400 meters wide in places.

Further offshore, north of Irian Jaya, and also east of Halmahera, there are several small atolls. Off the east coast of the Aru islands there are vast fringing reefs, with shallow reef flats extending up to 15 kilometers from the coast. Corals are also widespread in the narrow winding channels which separate these islands, despite the still and often turbid waters which are found here. Fringing reefs are also found on the west coast of these islands, particularly in the northwest. Source: Spalding, M.D., C. Ravilious and E.P. Green , 2001 , World Atlas of Coral Reefs . Prepared at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press,Berkeley,USA.421p. (See Document) INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS Indonesia is the largest archipelagic nation in the world comprising an estimated 17,508 islands. Coastal length has been variously estimated at between 80,791km ( Moosa, 1994 ) and 204,000km ( Tomascik et al, 1997 ).

The official estimate for the area of coral reefs is 7500km² ( KLH 1992 ). A re-estimate by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) based on the longer figure for coastline length is 85,707km² which represents about 14% of the world total. The area covered by this review is loosely termed as Eastern Indonesia. It includes the eastern shores of the island of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Halmahera, The Moluccas, West Papua and the islands of Bali, Flores, Sawu, Timor and Banda Seas. It thus covers the provinces of Bali, West Papua, East and South Kalimantan, Maluku, West and East Nusa Tenggara and North, Central, South and South-east Sulawesi. This area probably contains more than 50% of Indonesian coral reefs. It also corresponds closely to the areas of East and Central Indonesia as defined by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) and shown by reef type in table 1.1. Indonesia straddles the equator and it is not surprising that it has such an area of coral reefs.

As Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) note the “complex interplay of atmospheric, oceanographic and geologic processes has resulted in one of the most dynamic marine environments on the planet”. Although seasonal fluctuations do occur, variations in temperature and salinity are probably less than anywhere else in the world and disruptions from meteorological phenomena such as hurricanes are almost unknown. As disturbance is one factor which is responsible for the maintenance of high diversity and overall stability of coral reef ecosystems ( Connell 1978 ), it is therefore somewhat enigmatic to find that Eastern Indonesia is the world centre of diversity for coral reefs and associated flora and fauna ( Moosa, 1999 ). A major influence on this diversity relates to the geological history of the region. The modern scleractinian corals evolved in the ancient Tethys Sea in the Trassic, ( Veron, 1995 ). This body of water lay between the northern continents of Eurasia and the Southern African and Indo-Australian land masses. These have drifted together, closing the Tethys Sea from the west, the collision forming the massive fold mountains stretching from the Pyrennees and the Alps to the Himalayas.

The main centre of coral reef evolution has thus been pushed eastwards to what is now archipelagic Southeast Asia. This region, centred on Indonesia is the direct descendant of the Tethys Sea and is a modern collision zone with all the same characteristics of complex archipelagoes and island chains in which earthquakes and volcanic action provide the required degree of disturbances for the high diversity. Highly favourable biological, ecological and geological conditions of Eastern Indonesia have thus provided the richest and most diverse region of modern coral reefs. Unfortunately within Indonesia as a whole these are under increasing anthropogenic pressure from a population which is largely coastal and utilises coral reef resources extensively. Indonesia’s population is currently about 195 million, though the 11 provinces which make up Eastern Indonesia, as defined above, are home to a proportionally lower population of 35 million people. Many areas of reefs may still be in good condition and could benefit from sustainable management based on integrated coastal zone management principles. LOCATION AND TYPES OF EASTERN INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS This section describes the coral reefs of Eastern Indonesia from north and west to south and east. It relies extensively on the descriptions in Tomascik et al ( 1997 ).

East and South Kalimantan A major influence on reef distribution in eastern Kalimantan is the Mahakam River which drains almost one third of East Kalimantan with a discharge of 1500m3/sec a suspended sediment load of 80mg/l and a sediment yield of up to 10 x 106 tonnes annually. The plume may extend 400km to the south-east of the Mahakam Delta and is responsible for a general paucity of coral reefs along the coastline to the south. Only occasional fringing reefs are found with some offshore patch reefs, for example in front of Balikpapan Bay. Immediately to the north of the Mahakam, however, well developed fringing reefs are found from Tanjung (Cape) Setan to Tg. Samuntai (140km). A further 180km of fringing reefs are found around the Mangkalihat Peninsula but are then disrupted by the Berau River discharge. However, because of the southward coastal current, fringing reefs are again found immediately to the north for a further 60km to Tg. Karangitigau.

Northwards to the border with Sabah the coastline is reefless, dominated by major river deltas. The southwestern coast of South Kalimantan is also largely deltaic and devoid of reefs. Conditions for reef development improve considerably east and north of Tg. Selatan and significant fringing reef development occurs along the southeast and southwest coasts of the island of Pulau Laut. Offshore in eastern Kalimantan, the better water quality has allowed the development of three barrier reef systems (Table 1.2) where substrate is suitable. The longest barrier reef in Indonesia runs inside the 200m isobath at the margin of the Sunda shelf. Lying 60km offshore, the Great Sunda Barrier Reef has a length of 630km but little work appears to have been carried out on this system. Smaller barrier reefs are found north of the Mahakam delta. The Berau system is found immediately north of the Berau Delta, in places only 10km offshore, and has a length of 25km. Parts of the Mangkalihat Peninsula are also bordered by a barrier reef.

North of the Mangkalihat Peninsula are three major reefs which Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) term atolls, though they are more likely large lagoonal shelf reefs rather than fulfilling the strict geological criteria for oceanic atolls with volcanic foundations. These reefs lie about 90km offshore, in front of the Berau barrier reef (note their location as given in table 16.1 of Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) is in error). They are of considerable size: Muaras (288km²), Maratua (690km²) and Kakaban (21km²), the latter two having raised limestone rims up to 120m above sea level. Open water coral reefs are also probably associated with the islands of the Java Sea in the south (Pulau Keramian, P. Matasiri, P. Kadapongan, P. Kalamban). Sulawesi The island of Sulawesi, with a coastline of 4750km, probably has the largest coral reef area in Indonesia. A very high proportion of its coastline is fringed with reefs, as are the offshore islands.

Although a systematic geographic description is not available, most references to Sulawesi describe almost continuous fringing reefs up to 200m wide. Even more impressive are the almost undescribed barrier reefs of Sulawesi. Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) describe 34 individual barrier reefs around the islands with a total length of 2084km, i.e. bordering 43% of Sulawesi’s coastline (Table 1.3). No less than 8 are more than 100km long and whilst the majority are only a few kilometres offshore, the most studied, that of the Spermonde Archipelago, lies 60km offshore from the coastline of south-west Sulawesi. The longest is in the Gulf of Tomini 165km long, running eastwards from the volcanic Togian Islands. The most unique barrier system in Indonesia is the Banggai Barrier Reef running 175km along the southern margins of the Banggai Islands. Part of this barrier consists of lagoonal faro reefs very similar to those found in the Maldives.

Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) describe 27 atolls in the waters around Sulawesi. However, whilst many may have the superficial resemblance to open ocean atolls, with annular rims, with or without islands, and various types of lagoonal patch reefs, it is doubtful whether many have developed from volcanic foundations in the relatively simple tectonic setting of a mid oceanic location. Thus these reefs are considered with the further 27 oceanic or platform reefs as identified by these authors around Sulawesi. They also include open water reefs with continental (not always volcanic) islands and a number of submerged reefs. These open water reefs occur in clusters around Sulawesi: extending to the southwest of Makassar (Ujung Pandang) including Kepulauan (Archipelago) Liukang Tenggaya, K. Tengah extending to the west of Makassar, P. Marasende, P. Dewakang-lompo, P. Doandoangan-besar, P. Kalukalukuang within and to the south of Teluk Bone, including K. Bone Rate.

The best known and best studies of the Indonesian “atolls”, Taka Bone Rate is found here to the southeast, including Kepulauan Tukangbesi in Teluk (Bay) Tolo, including K. Bowokan within Teluk Tomini Very few of these offshore reefs have been the subject of scientific study. Although not coral reefs, a closely related habitat which requires similar management and conservation approaches is the area of Halimeda bioherms found at the southern end of the Makassar Strait off southeastern Sulawesi. ( Roberts and Phipps, 1988 ; Phipps and Roberts, 1988 ). Associated with the Kalukalukuang Bank in particular, these algal reefs may also be found around the margin of the Sunda Shelf towards Kalimantan. Here algal growth is favoured over reef growth as nutrient rich deep Pacific water floods southwards through the Makassar Strait and upwells around the banks and shelf margin. Bali and Nusa Tenggara These islands are all part of one of the worlds most active volcanic island arcs, formed at a tectonic plate subduction zone. Many of Indonesia’s active volcanoes are found here.

Fringing reefs are again ubiquitous, their morphologies depending on the geomorphology of the coastline and the tectonic history of the islands. Many are narrow structures 30 to100m wide with an intertidal reef flat and very sharp seaward drop-off. However, much wider reefs are present. For example around Bali, van Woesik ( 1997a, in Tomascik et al pp 689-894) indicates the fringing reefs extend 500m from the shoreline. Although very accessible few of these reefs have been described and there is no systematic description of their distribution. A few areas with more detailed studies or descriptions include: Southeastern Bali, where comparative surveys of 1992 and 1997 have been undertaken by van Woesik ( 1997a , 1997b ). Contrasting structure and assemblages were noted on southern aspect reefs open to the high energy Indian Ocean swells and those more sheltered.

Strong upwelling of cool oceanic water is also found along the southern side of the whole island arc and is believed to influence the diversity of flora and fauna including the presence of both deep water species and more poleward species, in the shallow coastal waters of the fringing reefs ( Tomascik et al 1997 , p 698). Komodo National Park, where The Nature Conservancy has produced a number of reports on the coastal reefs of Komodo (e. g. Djohani et al, 1999 ). Lembata Island, with 3 active volcanoes and described in detail by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ). Fringing reefs may be less continuous along the high energy southern shore of the island but are dominated by well constructed spur and groove systems. On the more sheltered western and northwestern sides facing the Flores Sea, the reefs are more continuous and up to 800m wide, with dense growth of sea grasses on the flats, which in the past may have been the habitat for dugongs. Similar patterns of distribution may be found in other islands of Nusa Tenggara.

Some 9 barrier reefs are listed by Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) in this region (Table 1.4) though some are very close to shore and difficult to separate from fringing reefs. At least a third of the north coast of Flores is bordered by such a barrier with other significant barriers on both north and south coasts of Sumbawa, the north coast of Lombok and near Maumere Bay, P. Besar. Probably because of the great depth of water away from the volcanic arc islands no open water reefs are found to the south and only two in the Flores/Banda Sea area off the northern shores of Flores (Karang Serbete and Gosong Boni). Maluku The coral reefs of Maluku are regarded as the most extensive and richest in the world but unfortunately detailed descriptions are largely lacking. However, indicative of both rapid growth and species diversity and richness is the report of Tomascik et al ( 1996 ) on the rapid coral colonisation of a 1988 lava flow from the Gunung Api volcano in the Banda Islands.

Within 5 years of the eruption the flow supported a diverse coral community of 124 species with a coral cover of more than 60%. Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) suggest that some of the most widespread fringing reefs in Indonesia are found even in the turbid waters of the Aru Islands, which consist of 6 main islands and 79 smaller islands separated by long narrow channels. Major fringing reef development is along the shallow east coast where the reef can be up to 15km wide, but narrower reefs are found along the remaining coastlines, except the southern part of the west coast. 15 barrier reefs are listed for Maluku (Table 1.5) with a total length of 425km but so little of this area has been surveyed that this is probably an underestimate. They are associated with the islands of Morotai, Halmahera, Seram, Gorong, Kofiau, Obimayor, Batanme, Nila and K. Tanimbar. Open water reefs, very few if any of which are true atolls, are found in the Banda Sea (Kep. Lucipara and Kep.

Penyu) and to the south and east of Halmahera. West Papua West Papua, with a coastline length of 4200km remains one of the least studied areas in Indonesia. Because of high run-off and sediment yield, fringing reefs are missing from significant sections of the coastline, notably from Sarmi to Napainwainrami in Cenderawasih Bay on the north coast and from the Papua-New Guinea border to the Omba river on the south coast. Elsewhere, fringing reefs appear to be very continuous. Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) make particular mention of: the north coast from Jayapura to the border Jayapura to Tg. Kandara, where the reefs are 300-400m wide and westwards to Sarmi all the islands of Cenderawasih Bay, 50-100m wide on the south coast west of the Omba River the southern side of the “Bird’s Neck” between Lakahia Bay and Kamarau Bay and between Tg. Tongerai and Tg.

Kirana the coastlines along the foothills of Kumafa and Fakfak Mountains the northern side of the “Bird’s Head” appears to be suitable for fringing reefs though not the south side which is largely low lying riverine plain. Barrier reefs are reported in West Papua (Table 1.6), mainly around the islands of Cenderawasih Bay (P. Numfoer, Biak and Supiori) and the islands off the western tip of West Papua (P. Waigeo, Bakanta and Boo). That off the north coast of Waigeo is reported as being 250km long though this seems excessive from the size of the island (c. 120km long). Open water reefs are also found in close proximity outside the barrier reefs (Cenderawasih Bay and the western extremity of West Papua). Tomascik et al ( 1997 ) also list some atolls further offshore in the Pacific Ocean (Bepondi, Ayawi and Mapia) all of substantial size (105-250km²) and possibly true atolls, though little is known about them. Source: Hopley, D.

and Suharsono , 2000 , The Status of Coral Reefs in Eastern Indonesia . Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN). (See Document) KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, INDONESIA - ICRAN DEMONSTRATION SITE Komodo National Park, in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia, encompasses a number of islands, the largest of which are Komodo (34,000 ha) and Rinca (20,000 ha). While it is best known for the large endemic lizard, the Komodo dragon, the waters are very rich in marine life, supporting more than 200 hard coral species, seagrasses, mangroves, manta rays, 16 species of cetaceans, turtles, and over 1000 fish species. Source: Tun, K., L. M. Chou, A. Cabanban, V. S. Tuan, Philreefs, T. Yeemin, Suharsono, K. Sour and D. Lane , 2004 , Status of Coral Reefs, Coral Reef Monitoring and Management in Southeast Asia, 2004. .

p: 235-276. in C. Wilkinson (ed.). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2004. Volume 1. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. 301 p. (See Document)

Question: What word describes an area of open water separated from the open sea by a coral reef?
Answer: LAGOON