Ancient Rome - Ancient History - HISTORY.com Google Origins of Rome As legend has it, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war. Left to drown in a basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued by a she-wolf, the twins lived to defeat that king and found their own city on the river’s banks in 753 B.C. After killing his brother, Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him. A line of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations) kings followed in a non-hereditary succession. Did You Know? Four decades after Constantine made Christianity Rome's official religion, Emperor Julian--known as the Apostate--tried to revive the pagan cults and temples of the past, but the process was reversed after his death, and Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome. Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical, compared to his benevolent predecessors.

A popular uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king’s son. Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a monarchy into a republic, a world derived from res publica, or “property of the people.” The Early Republic The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected magistrates called consuls; they also served as commanders in chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the people, were drawn largely from the Senate, which was dominated by the patricians, or the descendants of the original senators from the time of Romulus. Politics in the early republic was marked by the long struggle between patricians and plebeians (the common people), who eventually attained some political power through years of concessions from patricians, including their own political bodies, the tribunes, which could initiate or veto legislation. In 450 B.C., the first Roman law code was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets–known as the Twelve Tables–and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum. These laws included issues of legal procedure, civil rights and property rights and provided the basis for all future Roman civil law.

By around 300 B.C., real political power in Rome was centered in the Senate, which at the time included only members of patrician and wealthy plebeian families. Military Expansion During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. Though the Gauls sacked and burned Rome in 390 B.C., the Romans rebounded under the leadership of the military hero Camillus, eventually gaining control of the entire Italian peninsula by 264 B.C. Rome then fought a series of wars known as the Punic Wars with Carthage, a powerful city-state in northern Africa. The first two Punic Wars ended with Rome in full control of Sicily, the western Mediterranean and much of Spain. In the Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.), the Romans captured and destroyed the city of Carthage and sold its surviving inhabitants into slavery, making a section of northern Africa a Roman province. At the same time, Rome also spread its influence east, defeating King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wars and turning his kingdom into another Roman province.

Rome’s military conquests led directly to its cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy and religion. Internal Struggles in the Late Republic Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove small farmers from public land, while access to government was increasingly limited to the more privileged classes. Attempts to address these social problems, such as the reform movements of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (in 133 B.C. and 123-22 B.C., respectively) ended in the reformers’ deaths at the hands of their opponents. Gaius Marius, a commoner whose military prowess elevated him to the position of consul (for the first of six terms) in 107 B.C., was the first of a series of warlords who would dominate Rome during the late republic.

By 91 B.C., Marius was struggling against attacks by his opponents, including his fellow general Sulla, who emerged as military dictator around 82 B.C. After Sulla retired, one of his former supporters, Pompey, briefly served as consul before waging successful military campaigns against pirates in the Mediterranean and the forces of Mithridates in Asia. During this same period, Marcus Tullius Cicero , elected consul in 63 B.C., famously defeated the conspiracy of the patrician Cataline and won a reputation as one of Rome’s greatest orators. Caesar’s Rise When the victorious Pompey returned to Rome, he formed an uneasy alliance known as the First Triumvirate with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus (who suppressed a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in 71 B.C.) and another rising star in Roman politics: Gaius Julius Caesar . After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C. From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering the rest of the region for Rome.

After Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died in 54 B.C., and Crassus was killed in battle against Parthia (present-day Iran) the following year, the triumvirate was broken. With old-style Roman politics in disorder, Pompey stepped in as sole consul in 53 B.C. Caesar’s military glory in Gaul and his increasing wealth had eclipsed Pompey’s, and the latter teamed with his Senate allies to steadily undermine Caesar. In 49 B.C., Caesar and one of his legions crossed the Rubicon, a river on the border between Italy from Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar’s invasion of Italy ignited a civil war from which he emerged as dictator of Rome for life in 45 B.C. From Caesar to Augustus Less than a year later, Caesar was murdered by a group of his enemies (led by the republican nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius). Consul Mark Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and Cassius and divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was known as the Second Triumvirate.

With Octavian leading the western provinces, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa, tensions developed by 36 B.C. and the triumvirate soon dissolved. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (also rumored to be the onetime lover of Julius Caesar) in the Battle of Actium. In the wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid meeting Caesar’s fate, he made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title of Augustus , becoming the first emperor of Rome. Age of the Emperors Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana–two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms, won numerous military victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish.

Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of deification for popular emperors. Augustus’ dynasty included the unpopular Tiberius (14-37 A.D.), the bloodthirsty and unstable Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), who was best remembered for his army’s conquest of Britain. The line ended with Nero (54-68), whose excesses drained the Roman treasury and led to his downfall and eventual suicide. Four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian (69-79), and his successors, Titus and Domitian, were known as the Flavians; they attempted to temper the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Titus (79-81) earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii .

The reign of Nerva (96-98), who was selected by the Senate to succeed Domitian, began another golden age in Roman history, during which four emperors–Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius–took the throne peacefully, succeeding one another by adoption, as opposed to hereditary succession. Trajan (98-117) expanded Rome’s borders to the greatest extent in history with victories over the kingdoms of Dacia (now northwestern Romania) and Parthia. His successor Hadrian (117-138) solidified the empire’s frontiers and continued his predecessor’s work of establishing internal stability and instituting administrative reforms. Under Antoninus Pius (138-161), Rome continued in peace and prosperity, but the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180) was dominated by conflict, including war against Parthia and Armenia and the invasion of Germanic tribes from the north. When Marcus fell ill and died near the battlefield at Vindobona (Vienna), he broke with the tradition of non-hereditary succession and named his 19-year-old son Commodus as his successor.

Decline and Disintegration The decadence and incompetence of Commodus (180-192) brought the golden age of the Roman emperors to a disappointing end. His death at the hands of his own ministers sparked another period of civil war, from which Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211) emerged victorious. During the third century Rome suffered from a cycle of near-constant conflict. A total of 22 emperors took the throne, many of them meeting violent ends at the hands of the same soldiers who had propelled them to power. Meanwhile, threats from outside plagued the empire and depleted its riches, including continuing aggression from Germans and Parthians and raids by the Goths over the Aegean Sea. The reign of Diocletian (284-305) temporarily restored peace and prosperity in Rome, but at a high cost to the unity of the empire. Diocletian divided power into the so-called tetrarchy (rule of four), sharing his title of Augustus (emperor) with Maximian.

A pair of generals, Galerius and Constantius, were appointed as the assistants and chosen successors of Diocletian and Maximian; Diocletian and Galerius ruled the eastern Roman Empire, while Maximian and Constantius took power in the west. The stability of this system suffered greatly after Diocletian and Maximian retired from office. Constantine (the son of Constantius) emerged from the ensuing power struggles as sole emperor of a reunified Rome in 324. He moved the Roman capital to the Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. At the Council of Nicaea in 325, Constantine made Christianity (once an obscure Jewish sect) Rome’s official religion. Roman unity under Constantine proved illusory, and 30 years after his death the eastern and western empires were again divided. Despite its continuing battle against Persian forces, the eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire–would remain largely intact for centuries to come.

An entirely different story played out in the west, where the empire was wracked by internal conflict as well as threats from abroad–particularly from the Germanic tribes now established within the empire’s frontiers–and was steadily losing money due to constant warfare. Rome eventually collapsed under the weight of its own bloated empire, losing its provinces one by one: Britain around 410; Spain and northern Africa by 430. Attila and his brutal Huns invaded Gaul and Italy around 450, further shaking the foundations of the empire. In September 476, a Germanic prince named Odovacar won control of the Roman army in Italy. After deposing the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, Odovacar’s troops proclaimed him king of Italy, bringing an ignoble end to the long, tumultuous history of ancient Rome.

Tags Servius Tullius – The last benevolent king of Rome | Ancient Origins 1 April, 2015 - 15:03 dhwty Servius Tullius – The last benevolent king of Rome (Read the article on one page) Just a stone’s throw away from the bustling Termini station in the heart of Rome stands a section of an ancient wall. This wall is known as the Servian Wall, as it is believed to have been built during the 6 century B.C. by Rome’s sixth and penultimate king, Servius Tullius. These notable defensive walls, however, are not the only enduring contributions made to the city by the man considered to be the last benevolent king of Rome. 16th century depiction of Servius Tullius, the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome. (c. 578 – 535 BC) Large section of the Servian Wall near the modern Termini Railroad station, Rome, Italy. Public Domain Although he attained the position of King of Rome, Servius Tullius is said to have come from humble origins.

Most ancient sources agree that Servius’ mother was Ocrisia, a young noblewoman who was enslaved after the Roman siege of Corniculum and given to Tanaquil, the wife of king Tarquinius. These sources, however, disagree as to what happened next. One source claims that she was already pregnant when captured, while another asserts that she was a virgin. In the latter version, she becomes a Vestal Virgin (chastity-sworn priestesses of goddess Vesta) due to her former status, and said to have been impregnated by a god. Her son’s divinity is also said to be attested in the story that a ring of fire was seen blazing around the head of the young Servius while he was sleeping. This was taken as a sign that the boy was destined to do great things. When king Tarquinius was assassinated, Servius ascended the throne. According to the Roman historian Livy, it was through the king’s wife, Tanaquil that Servius was able to succeed. Noticing that the king’s state was deteriorating, Tanaquil summoned and convinced Servius to seize the throne.

Addressing the people from a palace window, Tanaquil announced that the king would recover, and that Servius would serve as regent in the meantime. Although Tarquinius was already dead, his death was kept a secret for several days, thus allowing Servius to consolidate his own position. After Tarquinius’ death was announced, Servius was elected as king by the Senate without reference of the people, however some sources credit him with obtaining the throne via public support. Like most Roman rulers, Servius expanded Roman territory through conquests and celebrated triumphs with much pomp and ceremony. However, Servius was also quite unique as a ruler of Rome. Described as the benevolent king, Servius committed himself to improving the lot and fortune of Rome's lowest classes of citizens. Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome and the second king of the Etruscan dynasty. Public Domain During the early part of his reign, Servius pursued a war against the Veientes and Etruscans in order to preserve the internal peace of the kingdom. The war was a huge success, in which the king is recorded to have shown valor by routing a large army of the enemy.

The peace that ensued allowed Servius to undertake important reforms in the kingdom. These political reforms undermined the bases of aristocratic power and transferred them in part to commoners. Servius included new families into urban society by shifting the boundary of the city. The most important was perhaps the establishment of a census that divided Rome’s male citizen population based on class. This exposed the wealth of the upper class. The Roman ruler took land belonging to the upper classes for distribution to the poor. Rome's ordinary citizens became a distinct force within Roman politics, entitled to participate in government under certain circumstances, and bear arms on its behalf, despite the opposition and resentment of Rome's patricians and senate. The divisions of these classes were based on the armor each man could afford. As a result, the burden of serving in the military was lifted from the shoulders of the poor and placed on the wealthy. In return, the rich were granted more political power, as they were given the privilege of voting first, should a vote be required. However, Servius also extended voting rights to those that had been previously excluded based on ancestry, status, or ethnicity. The reforms are traditionally attributed entirely to Servius, and are now known as the Servian reforms.

Despite the success of his reign, Servius did not meet a happy end. Although Servius sought to avoid the fate of the previous king Tarquinius by marrying his daughters to the sons of his predecessor, it is ironic that their union would be the cause of his demise. Pages The Seven Kings of Rome The Seven Kings of Rome Romulus Romulus was the legendary eponymous founder and first king of Rome (conventional dates: 753-717/16 B.C.). The story of the twins Romulus suckled by a she-wolf, established at Rome by the third century B.C. may be native, although Greek motifs heavily influenced its development. To Romulus were attributed Rome’s early political and military institutions, and victories over neighbouring people including the Caeninenses, whose king he slew in single combat. His seizure of Sabine woman as wives for his men resulted in conflict and then co-rule with Titus Tatius. He was sometimes identified with the god Quirinus. Numa Pompilius Numa, from Cures, was the second king of Rome (conventional dates: 715-673 B.C.).

The name may be authentic but his portrait is a (priestly) stereotype. Though his establishment of priesthoods, cults, and rituals he represents the scrupulous (and simple) observance of public religious obligations. Stories accumulated of his debt to Pythagoras (fiercely contested on chronological grounds) liaison with the nymph Egeria, and various miracles. Alleged writings by Numa were “discovered” in 181 B.C.: they were promptly suppressed. Tullus Hostilius The third king of Rome (conventional dates: 672-641B.C.), Tullus’ re-awakening of Rome’s military ambitions and institutions of associated rituals (including the fetial procedure) were probably suggested by his name (latin “hostis” means enemy): his campaigns, including the conquest of Alba Longa, reflect only later conceptions of Rome’s early expansion. He also reputedly constructed the senate house (Curia Hostilia) and neighbouring Comitium. Ancus Marcius The fourth king of Rome (conventional dates: 640-617 B.C.), Ancus Marcius remained a shadowy figure of whom virtually nothing was known.

His later portrait is modelled partly on Numa whose religious rituals he reputedly revived. He is also attributed military successes against neighbouring states, the bridging of the Tiber, and fortification of the Janiculum. His supposed settlement at Ostia (to exploit the salt-beds) has not yet received archaeological confirmation. Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Lucius The Tarquins were conventionally the fifth (616-579 B.C.) and seventh (534-510 B.C.) kings, but their reigns are so thoroughly confused that tradition evidently offered no reliable detailed information between them. That thr family (perhaps from Caere rather than Tarquinia) ruled twice is credible, but their chronology and the details of their accessions are unreliable. Wether either was dependent on outside support is unknown, although a Gnaeus Tarquinius from Rome was apparently involved with other Etruscan associates, in Vulcetatn Affairs.

Later sources ascribed to one or both kings measures which (whoever their author) certainly reflect Rome’s development as a city-state under Etruscan influence in the sixth century B.C.: the drainage and organization of the Forum, the Circus and games, the (re-modelled triumph), the fasces and other insignia, The Capitoline temple, and Sibylline books. Both kings are also attributed a significant part in Rome’s external conquests, notably Superbus who establishes Roman hegemony in Latium. Priscus’ portrayal is largely favourable but Superbus supposedly his son or grandson, has acquired the characteristics of a Greek tyrant, to justify his expulsion by L. Junius Brutus. Servius Tullius Servius Tullius was the sixth king of Rome (conventional dates: 578-535 B.C.). Despite his suspect identification by the Emperor Claudius with Mastarna, an associate of Caeles Vibenna and Roman stories of his servile origins (derived from his praenomen), the rela basis and political tenor of his rule are purely conjectural.

The tribal system and centuriate organization, ascribed to him, mat date from this period in a rudimentary form, reflecting, respectively, Rome’s urban development and adoption of hoplite tactics: His establishment of the Aventine shrine of Diana as a Latin cult centre would also mirror Rome’s growing importance, and archaeological finds support a sixth-century date for his temples of Fortuna and Mater Matuta (though is fortification wall is controversial). It is uncertain that all this was the work of a single king. Rome City guide Tarquin the Proud - the Last King of Rome By N.S. Gill Updated August 16, 2016. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus or Tarquin the Proud, who ruled from 534-510 B.C., was the last king the Romans would tolerate. One of the Etruscan kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud was the son or grandson of Tarquinius Priscus and son-in-law of Servius Tullius , whom he is thought to have murdered .

Tarquin's despotic reign earned him the title superbus (proud, haughty); however, it was Tarquin the Proud's son, Tarquinius Sextus, who raped Lucretia , the wife of his cousin, another Tarquin, Tarquinius Collatinus. As a result of a revolt headed by Tarquin the Proud's nephew Lucius Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus, Tarquin the Proud and his family (ironically, including Collatinus) were expelled from Rome. Along with the end of the Etruscan kings of Rome, the power of the Etruscans over Latium weakened. Rome replaced the Etruscan rulers with a Republic. Although there are some who believe there was a gradual transition to the two consul system of the Republic, the Fasti Consulares list the annual consuls straightaway from the end of the regal period . continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance Also see The Kings 715-674 Reign of Numa Pompilius Your browser does not support the IFRAME tag. 673-642 Reign of Tullus Hostilius.

Destruction of Alba Longa. 642-617 Reign of Ancus Marcius. Extension of Rome's power to the coast. 616-579 Reign of L. Tarquinius Priscus. Forum drained. 578-535 Reign of Servius Tullius. Treaty with Latins. 535-510 Reign of L. Tarquinius Superbus. Erection of the Capitoline Temple. Treaty with Gabii. Roman territory extended to ca. 350 square miles. 510 Downfall of the last Tarquinian king, Tarquinius Superbus. Brutus liberates Rome. Establishment of a republic headed by two magistrates (later called consuls) elected annually. The Roman Kings Historical details are still too obscure for any definite records of Rome under the kings, All remains half mythical. But it was under the Roman Kings that the Roman ability to create an empire of sorts first came to the fore, even though any original intentions will hardly have been of an imperial nature. In all there was said to have been seven kings of Rome covering a period of over two hundred years.

Romulus The first recognized king of Rome was its mythical founder, Romulus. To him is attributed the foundation of the senate. He is also said to have ruthlessly pursued a policy of expanding the population, granting refuge and acceptance to criminals on the run at the asylum on the Capitoline Hill. He expanded the city�s boundaries to encompass four hills; Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian and Quirinal. If Romulus� reign was infamous, this impression is only further reinforced with an episode widely known as the �Rape of the Sabine women�. With Rome�s populace enlarged with runaway slaves and criminals, king Romulus found himself ruling a nation with too few women. The story goes that he staged extravagant celebrations for the festival of Consus (the god of the granary and the storehouse), inviting the neighbouring tribes to attend. For large image click on picture Italian warrior of the late 8th, early 7th century BC Museo della Civilta, Rome Many of the neighbouring Sabines were invited. But in mid-celebration the festival was brought to a sudden end, when Romulus and his Romans revealed their true intentions, taking possession of the unmarried Sabine women by force and claiming them as brides.

Romulus himself came by his wife Hersilia by this very method. The Sabine town of Cures, ruled by king Titus Tatius, quite understandably declared war. In the resulting fight the Sabines managed to capture the Capitoline Hill, due to the treachery of Tarpeia who opened a gate (and who gave name to the Tarpeian Rock on the Capitoline). Further legend has it that it was the Sabine women who intervened to stop the fighting between their Sabine relatives and their new found Roman husbands. A peace was agreed and the Sabines of Cures and the Romans united and henceforth became one people. The two kings thereafter ruled jointly, Titus Tatius from the Capitoline and Romulus from the Palatine. Once the Sabine king died, sole rule fell to Romulus until his death at the age of 54. If all this sounds very much like a string of fairy tales and legends, there are hints to underlying truths. For example, Quirinus was the Sabine equivalent of the Roman god Mars and we found his name reflected in the Quirinal Hill. So too in the rarely used alternative name the Romans would use for themselves, the quirites.

Naturally Romulus death is also wrapped up in legend. While he was performing a ritual sacrifice to the gods at the river a thunderstorm struck. The people ran for cover from the rain, leaving Romulus and the senators behind. When they returned Romulus had vanished. If the official version suggested he had been swept up to the heavens by his father Mars in a chariot, this sounded just a little too far fetched, even to the Romans. Especially as in his later life Romulus was said to have grown unpopular. So it was indeed suspected that the senators had ceased him and stabbed the tyrant to death. Given later Roman history the legend of Romulus proved indeed ominously prophetic. Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius came to power following the controversy surrounding the death of Romulus. Immediately after Romulus� death the leading senator Julius Proculus then claimed that Romulus had appeared to him in a vision and was now the god Quirinus. This elegantly absolved the senators of any suspected wrongdoing and cleared the way for Julius Proculus to become the next king, no doubt with Romulus� supposed blessing.

The Roman people, however, were not willing to accept this seamless transition to one of their king�s possible murderers. Clearly it was not going to be the wily Julius Proculus. Instead the Sabines in Rome demanded that, since the death of Titus Tatius had seen them ruled by a Roman without complaint, it was now for one of their number to become ruler. The Romans agreed, as long as it would be for them to choose who among the Sabines should be king. The choice fell upon Numa Pompilius, a man who apparently didn�t even want the job. Unlike Romulus, Numa was not a warrior king, but a religious, cultural figure. Traditionally, Numa is seen as the man who moved the order of the Vestal Virgins from Alba Longa to Rome, founded the temple of Janus, established the various priestly colleges, including the order of the fetiales who held the power to declare war and make peace. In order to allow for all the religious rites to be performed at the appropriate time, Numa is said to have reformed the calendar, adding the months January and February and bringing the days to a total of 360 for each year.

During the 43 years of Numa�s reign Rome enjoyed uninterrupted peace. Much of his wisdom was said to be due to his receiving divine guidance from the gods. He was said to have received their advice from the nymph and prophetess Egeria who became his lover after the death of his wife. To the Romans King Numa Pompilius was the father of their culture; the man who turned the semi-barbarian peasants, criminals and bride-robbers of Romulus into something resembling a civilization. Modern historians are not sure what to make of this figure. Some priesthoods he is said to have created are believed to predate his reign. Meanwhile his supposed reform of the calendar was possibly the achievement of a later generation. Nonetheless, the high esteem in which the Romans held this figure, suggests that he was of great significance in the creation of their identity as a people. For large image click on picture Italian warrior of the late 8th, early 7th century BC Museo della Civilta, Rome Tullus Hostilius With the death of the peaceable Numa Pompilius rule next fell to the warlike Tullus Hostilius.

In these primitive days of early Roman history many of the disputes arose from mundane issues such as cattle rustling along territorial borders. Numa Pompilius had been a diplomatic man who would seek to achieve reconciliation. However, his successor Tullus Hostilius was a man who would seek to solve problems by the sword. When another such dispute arose between Rome and its neighbour Alba Longa, Tullus Hostilius declared war. Given the very close ties between the two cities, this was a virtual civil war. Therefore, in order to avoid slaughter between armies related to each other, the two leaders Tullus Hostilius and Mettius Fufetius agreed instead on a contest of champions. Three brothers from each side would fight in place of the armies. For the Romans the brothers Horatius took the field and for the Albans the brothers Curiatius. The fight ended with all Curiatii dead and only one of the Horatians alive. The Roman victory meant that Alba Longa conceded defeat and swore allegiance to Rome. King Mettius however had no intention of accepting Roman supremacy and succeeded in provoking another Roman neighour, the Fidenates, into war.

When the Romans met the Fidenates in battle their supposed Alban allies abandoned them. Mettius Fufenius� though proved plans were in vain. Rome defeated the Fidenates on her own. The Albans were soon crushed, their leader torn apart by two chariots and the city of Alba Longa was destroyed. The Albans were thereafter moved to Rome where they were given the Caelian Hill to settle on. This increase in population made the senate�s meeting place too small to contain the enlarged senate. Tullus Hostilius therefore decided a new senate house was needed. It was constructed at the western end of the Forum at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. It remained there throughout Roman history and continued to bear its builder�s name, the Curia Hostilia. Tullus Hostilius is said to have thereafter campaigned successfully against the neighbouring Sabine tribes, until a plague befell him as well as the people of Rome, forcing them to make peace. In seeking to avert the wrath of the gods, Hostilius now sought to emulate his predecessor and took greater interest in his religious duties. Yet his new found religious devotion fell well short of having the desired effect.

King Tullus Hostilius was struck lighting and died. As with other kings of Rome we are not sure if Tullus Hostilius ever existed at all. The family of the Hostilii did however appear in the records some one or two centuries later. So it is well possible that their half-mythical ancestor existed. As the destroyer of Alba Longa it may indeed have been Hostilius, not Numa Pompilius, who brought the religious orders, including the Vestal Virgins, to Rome. Either way, the fall of Alba Longa and Rome�s assumption of all her religious festivals greatly increased the victorious city�s prestige throughout the region. Ancus Marcius Rome�s fourth king was Numa Pompilius�grandson and therefore another Sabine. Ancus Marcius was chosen as a ruler to restore the peace and quite the Romans had enjoyed under the rule of his grandfather. This in turn gave Rome�s neighbours the impression that the city�s new leader was a pushover, eager for peace at any price and therefore unlikely to retaliate. The first to test this premise were the so-called Old Latins (prisci latini), an ancient tribe who even predated Aeneas.

Yet king Ancus Marcius, perhaps to everyone�s surprise, proved to be as much of a warrior as he was an administrator, priest and diplomat. The prisci latini were defeated, their city destroyed and their people absorbed into Rome. Ancus Marcius is also said to have settled the Aventine Hill. Given this new influx of people, this may indeed Tradition has it that Ancus Marcius founded the city of Ostia. Archaeology appears to say otherwise, suggesting the founding of Ostia to be of a later era. Rome�s interest in the mouth of the river Tiber will most likely have been due to the presence of salt-pan. Occupying the later site of Ostia granted Rome control over the pans on the southern bank of the river Tiber. Those to the north remained in Etruscan hands. Building the first bridge over the Tiber, the wooden Sublician Bridge, Ancus established a bridgehead to the Janiculan Hill, which he fortified, though most likely did not as part of the city.

This may well have been to help protect the salt route from Ostia and to deny the growing threat of Etruscans the strategic strongpoint on the western side of the river. Ancus Marcius died widely respected and was deemed a truly good king by later Roman historians. As with Tullus Hostilius, King Ancus Marcius does have much later descendants make an entrance into the Roman records. By 357 BC the Marcii reached the consulship. Again this suggests the existence of this ruler of Rome�s semi-mythical history may indeed have existed. Tarquinius Priscus Tarquin the Elder The fifth king of Rome was one Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Priscus in this case simply signifies him as Tarquin �the Elder� and it was a title attributed to him much later by Roman historians). The stories surrounding this monarch show us that we are still deeply reliant on legend and myth to paint any sort of picture of his rule. Tarquin the Elder, as Tarquinius is generally called, moved to Rome from the Etruscan town of Tarquinii.

His father, Demaratus, was a nobleman from Corinth who was forced to leave his city (655 BC) when the tyrant Cypselus assumed power there. The link to Greece is indeed possible as there is evidence of Greek traders in Tarquinii. But it nonetheless sounds like a somewhat strained effort by later Romans to avoid admitting that Rome had in fact been ruled by Etruscans. Legend has it that on his entering the city of Rome an eagle swooped down and snatched Tarquin�s cap with his talons, only to place on his head again before flying away. Evidently Tarquin was a man favoured by fate. Nontheless he deemed it wise to change his forename from the Etruscan Lucumo to the Latin Lucius in order to smooth his transition from Etruscan to Roman nobility. Tarquin�s wife Tanaquil was of aristocratic Etruscan blood. If by his own right, or by that of his wife�s connections, Tarquin soon rose to be a figure of significant influence in Rome. He further assumed an influential position with the reigning king, Ancus Marcius.

So much so in fact, he was made guardian of King Ancus� two sons. This proved a position of vital importance when Ancus Marcius died. Tarquin persuaded the two sons to go hunting while he made arrangements for their father�s funeral ceremony. When they returned it was to find Tarquin on the throne. He�d used their absence to win over the Romans to grant him their votes. The Roman monarchy was not hereditary. Ancus Marcius� sons had been in a prime position to win the favour of the Roman people, but Tarquin had outmanoeuvered them. Tarquin�s means of accession to the throne may have been underhand, but his record as monarch seems to have been impressive. First he was to see off the military challenges by neighbouring tribes which seemed always to flare up at the accession of anew monarch. Though in battle Tarquin seems to have achieved much more than merely holding his ground. Tarquin�s many campaigns led to victories over the Sabines, Latins and Etruscans.

According to Dionysius, it was a deputation of Etruscan cities defeated in battle which brought him the symbols of sovereignty: A gold crown, an ivory chain, an eagle headed scepter, a purple tunic and robe and twelve fasces (axes enclosed in bundles of rods). Tarquin the Elder may have begun the construction of the great Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, but this is uncertain. The introduction of the Circus Games to Rome is ascribed King Tarquin the Elder. He is traditionally believed to have been the ruler who laid out the Circus Maximus. Tarquin is also credited with the initial drainage of the forum and the creation of the Cloaca Maxima. Though it must be added that what was eventually to become the main sewer of Rome, was at this early stage merely a large drainage ditch to make usable the marshy ground in the shallow between the hills of Rome. Later further drainage was added by his successors. He also added 100 members of the lesser nobility (minores gentes) to the senate. These were most likely lesser Etruscan nobles whom he�d encouraged to settled in the city. Their promotion will no doubt have helped to strengthen his grip on power.

Tarquin�s end, when it came, was a violent one. The scorned sons of King Ancus finally sought revenge and hired two assassins. As one approached from the front posing as a party in a legal dispute, the other came up behind and struck at his head with an axe. Tarquin died instantly. Yet that was not what the Romans were told. Tarquin�s wife Tanaquil informed the people that she was tending to his wounds and that the king meanwhile wished to see the little known Servius Tullius, a prot�g� of Tanaquil�s and Tarquin's son-in-law, act on his behalf until he had recovered. Naturally Tarquin the Elder never recovered. But by the time the Romans became aware of their king�s demise, the new man was already firmly on the throne. Servius Tullius The sixth king, Servius Tullius, was a monarch celebrated for particularly high achievement by the Romans. Yet to modern eyes, it appears as though several achievements of early Roman history have somehow been attributed to him as a means of attributing them to someone. For it seems doubtful that Servius was really responsible for all ascribed to him. Servius Tullius� origins are uncertain.

His name may in fact be a corruption of the word servus (slave). The name itself was later only used by plebeians. One story tells of him being the son of a household slave. (Though Livy writes he was a prince from the Sabine city of Corniculum held captive by the Romans.) Interestingly, there was also an Etruscan tradition, which claimed that Servius was in fact an Etruscan named Mastarna. Legend also states that, when Servius was still a boy, his parents discovered him asleep in bed with his head covered by flames. Yet the sleeping child suffered no harm. Word of this momentous portent eventually reached Tanaquil, the wife of King Tarquin the Elder, who deemed it a sign that the boy was marked out for great things. Thenceforth Servius was a prot�g� of Rome�s powerful queen. At the death of King Tarquin the Elder it was Tanaquil who assured Servius� ascent to the throne. The sons of Ancus Marcius being implicated in Tarquin�s murder made it impossible for them to now contest the throne. They retired into exile. Tarquin the Elder however had three sons; Tarquin, Lucius and Arruns.

To win their support, Servius shrewdly married them to his own daughters. His position though was soon secured, when a war against the Etruscan city of Veii proved him to be an able military commander. In fact so impressive was his victory that in his 44 years in power he had no need to take to the field again. The Romans believed Servius� reign to have seen the first use of coinage in the city. Unlike the Greeks, early Roman society did not use money. Far more they bartered - salt for pottery, grain for wood, etc... Where the system proved inadequate the Romans expressed value in for of 'heads of cattle'. One such head of cattle was worth ten sheep. The head of cattle (pecus) became the first Roman monetary unit. From this came the first Latin word for money - pecunia. A primitive monetary system evolved based on ingots of raw copper of the Roman pound (libra) of 327 g. Such an ingot could then be broken up into yet different sizes and values. King Servius was the first to have a stamp put onto the copper, until then it was just the raw metal.

The design to have been used supposedly was either an ox or sheep. King Servius Tullius is said to have enlarged the city. Romans also attributed the �Servian Wall� to him, though it is most likely that he was this city wall was a product of the 4th century BC. It is widely believed though that the agger, a set of defensive earthworks on the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline Hills were a legacy of his. It is therefore possible that, although not the Servian Wall, some lesser defensive cordon may have been set up around the city by King Servius Tullius. After all, archaic Rome is believed to have possessed defences, albeit that we know very little about them. A major achievement of his reign appears to have been the transfer of the regional festival of Diana from Aricia to the Aventine Hill of Rome. A temple was dedicated to the goddess on the Aventine Hill, not merely by the Romans but by the people of Latium. Archaeology seems to grant this story some support. The moving of a regional festival and the prestigious Temple of Diana to Rome seems to show that the city was of rising importance to the wider region.

Perhaps the most impressive idea ascribed to Servius Tullius is the census, which counted the people and ranked them in five classes, according to wealth. (This division of the people by wealth is often referred to as a �timocratic� system, after the Greek timo (worth) and kratia (rule); so literally �rule by worth�.) The classes were divisions created to decide the voting rights of the people (with the rich enjoying most votes) and to help administer the levying of troops, as the higher a citizen�s class, the better armour and weaponry he was able to afford. Servius is further said to have made the division of the people into three tribes for tax purposes: the ramnes, the luceres and the tities. (Hence the relation of the words �tribe� and �tribute�.) These tribal divisions may have been ethnic in nature, though very little is known about them. A further change of constitutional importance credited to Servius Tullius is his reform of the army, in particular his granting the army a political assembly in its own right, the comitia centuriata.

His reign is also closely associated with the construction of the great Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus (185 ft wide and 65 ft high). If it is believed that Tarquin the Elder begun the temple, most of its construction must have been completed under Servius Tullius. Especially bearing in mind the length of Servius� reign, it is perhaps doubtful that Tarquin the Proud was the king to complete this great work, as tradition holds. Legend tells of an outrageous coup that overthrew King Servius Tullius in old age. It was the ambitions of Servius� daughter Tullia and her husband Lucius Tarquin which should prove disastrous to the old king. Servius Tullius� policies had made him unpopular with the senators and Lucius Tarquin was quick to exploit that. If the tale of the king�s slave origins is true, this also will not have helped. At some point a conspiracy was hatched to overthrow the king. For large image click on picture Model of the archaic Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus Museo della Civilta, Rome One day Tarquin simply arrived at the senate in royal robes and summoned the senators to acknowledge him in his position.

Servius rushed to the senate, but was bodily thrown from the hall. In the chaos that followed King Servius was stabbed to death by hired assassins. Roman legend adds a gruesome note, describing how Tullia later returned from the senate, where she had seen her husband confirmed as the new ruler. When her carriage drove down the street in which her father Servius had fallen it ran across his dead body. The street in which King Servius Tullius was assassinated and run over was henceforth known as the vicus sceleratus, the �street of guilt�. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Tarquin the Proud The seventh and final king of Rome was one Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Superbus in this case simply signifies him as Tarquin �the Proud� and it was a title attributed to him much later by Roman historians). Tradition holds that Tarquin �the Proud� was the son of Tarquin �the Elder�, though logic suggests that he more likely was a grandson.

(Tarquin the Elder died in old age, his successor, Servius Tullius ruled for 44 years and Tarquin himself ruled for another 24/25 years.) Having come to power by means of a violent conspiracy, Tarquin the Proud lacked any kind of legitimacy. He therefore governed Rome by much the same methods than those he�d used to win the throne. Tarquin was a tyrant similar to those which had seized power in many other Hellenistic kingdoms. His only means of sustaining his position were violence and oppression. He pronounced himself the supreme judge of Rome, granting himself complete authority over capital cases without the accused having any recourse of appeal. This privilege Tarquin now exploited to rid himself of any potential rivals. More so, the possessions of the convicted were then seized by the monarch. One of the victims of these seizures was the father of one Lucius Iunius Brutus, the very man who should come to eventually overthrow him. If Tarquin governed Rome as a petty, sometimes vindictive tyrant, his performance as a military commander and diplomat was more impressive.

He harassed and cajoled the Latin League into accepting Rome as its official head (the so-called �Treaty of Ferentia�), thereby tying the Latins into the Roman military machine, effectively doubling Rome�s military power in a single stroke. This new military power was then put to use against the neighbouring tribe of the Volcians. Two cities were conquered; one by storm, the other, the city of Gabii, by deceit. The spoils of this successful campaign were put to use in public works. Roman tradition ascribes the completion of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus to Tarquin �the Proud�, although today it is widely believed to have been completed by Servius Tullius. But Tarquin is further thought to have continued the process of draining the forum, built and improved roads and strengthened the city�s defences. Such public construction was, however, also the product of Tarquin�s oppression. Much of the labour was forcibly obtained from the plebeians. A legend of considerable importance which attached itself to Tarquin was that of the Sibylline Books.

The story goes that the famous Sibyl, a mythical prophetess known throughout the Hellenistic world, appeared before King Tarquin and offered him nine books, containing great wisdom. The price she demanded was astronomical. Tarquin declined. Unflustered, the Sibyl then threw three of the book sin the fire, only to demand the same price for the remaining six books. Unnerved, Tarquin though again declined only to see another three of the books tossed into the flames. Once more the Sibyl demanded the price. Tarquin relented, if only to save what knowledge was left. If the Sibyl was legend, the Sibylline Books are indeed thought to have existed, though their origin is unknown. The books were repeatedly consulted for divine guidance in the republican era during times of crisis and were eventually destroyed when fire consumed the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in 83 BC. With the wealthy living in fear of prosecution, should Tarquin deem them a threat or take a fancy to their possessions, and the poor being used to labour in public construction, all Rome have been seething with resentment towards her ruler. When finally revolution occurred, Tarquin was not in the city, but engaged in another military campaign.

The final straw had been the rape of the noblewoman Lucretia by Tarquin�s son Sextus set the city alight. The nobles made their move, led by Lucius Iunius Brutus, declared themselves against Tarquin and instead announced Rome to be a republic (510/509 BC). The army quickly came over to the rebels and Tarquin the Proud was forced into exile. The early days of the Roman republic saw a bitter struggle for independence against Tarquin�s attempts to regain his throne. Nonetheless Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the tyrant of Rome, would never achieve control again. The Roman monarchy had fallen. Epilogue It goes without saying that we have to take much of the history of the Roman kings with a pinch of salt. Much of this is mere myth and legend, though it evidently contains kernels of truth. Some of the myths, may indeed be of considerable significance to the very nature of Rome and its future achievement. The very seed that created the Roman mentality which was to create the republic may indeed have lain in that heartfelt belief that they were a breed of refugees, criminals and runaway slaves who sought shelter at the asylum on the Capitoline Hill under king Romulus.

Such an identity may have fostered the communal feeling of equality which we find reflected again and again in Roman history. Rome was divided by wealth and privilege, yet she believed in the essential equality of men. Albeit that some later claimed nobility or divine descent, the Romans were not pretentious about their origins. The ambiguities surrounding the she-wolf who suckled Romulus and Remus, the refuge on the Capitoline Hill and the legend regarding the �Rape of the Sabine Women� demonstrate that very aptly. Believing themselves at least spiritual descendents of the uprooted, the fleeing and criminals in search of a second chance, it is perhaps not surprising that they should form a society which should eventually rid itself of its king and forge ahead with a government by the people for the people. As with so much of Roman history changes to the constitution tended to be gradual. We find aspects republican constitution emerged under the kings. Not least the fact that monarchy was never deemed to be hereditary in Rome most have had a important part to play in the development of republican ideals. Far more the king was elected by the people, formerly appointed by the senate, an advisory body of patricians.

However, the Roman monarch's rule was a total one. He possessed the right of capital punishment, was responsibility for foreign relations and war, for public security, public works, justice and proper maintenance of religion. The very symbol of this total power were the fasces; the rods to scourge and the axe with which to behead the condemned. But this royal power was tempered by the principle of consultation with the senate. This was the tradition that Tarquin the Proud ignored to his peril. Early Rome would simply not bear the arbitrary use of power by a tyrant. Nonetheless it remains questionable how much longer a monarchy could have lasted were Tarquin to have been a wise and benign ruler. Most likely its time was up. Rome had evolved. Rome�s growing power and influence meant that her elite were growing richer and more powerful. The total rule of one could simply no longer be sustained with the patricians demanding a role for themselves in the running of affairs. In all this we should perhaps also not underestimate the influence of the Greeks. Greek traders living in Rome may have introduced democratic ideas which the Romans, ever pragmatic, shaped into something of their own.

Perhaps the very notion of Rome�s growth to a substantial town of rising regional power and prestige meant that it became subject to the influence of �dangerous foreign ideas�, such as democracy. These would weaken the monarchy, sapping its support from the nobles and the people alike. So with a egalitarian spirit at the heart of Roman mentality, an ever more confident and ambitious elite seeking to have a share of power and Greek ideas undermining its standing among the people, the Roman monarchy may indeed have been doomed at the end of the sixth century. Rome�s future was to be a republic. - For the next chapter please select �The Early Republic� This page was last updated on 7th April 2012. Author: F. Cavazzi The Etruscan Kings of Rome - the Tarquins - Historywiz Roman Kings exhibit Etruscan horses 616-579 B.C. - L. Tarquinius Priscus The 5th king of Rome was L. Tarquinius Priscus. According to Livy, he had been born into an Etruscan family and moved to the young city of Rome to improve his fortunes.

The king made him the guardian of his children in his will, but ruled until his sons were grown. After the king's death, Tarquin, as guardian, sent them away on a hunting trip. While they were gone, he persuaded the people of the city to elect him as their king. And so an Etruscan became a king of Rome. To solidify his support, Tarquin created 100 new senators. He waged war against other Italian cities. He was victorious against the Latins and captured their town of Apiolai. To celebrate the great victory he started the tradition of Roman Games (Ludi Romani). The spot where the Roman games began later becamse the Circus Maximus. The Sabines revolted and were conquered as were all cities of Latium. 578-535 B.C. - Servius Tullius He was succeeded by Servius Tullius, who was probably not related to him. Tarquin's mother Tanaquil had a vision in which she saw the boy Servius as their hope and protector. Tarquin raised the boy as his own son and eventually married him to his daughter. He clearly marked him as his successor.

When Tarquin died, his mother helped Servius preserve the fiction that Tarquin was still alive, while Servius consolidated his power. He then became king, the first king who was not elected. He divided the Roman citizens into tribes and continued to expand and conquer. He enlarged the city and built a city wall enclosing all 7 hills of Rome. The last of the Etruscan Kings, and the last King of Rome, was L. Tarquinius Superbus, known as Tarquin the Proud . ©HistoryWiz 2001-2008

Question: Who was the last king of ancient Rome?
Answer: Tarquin the Proud