Irritants - CS, CN, CNC, CA, CR, CNB, PS: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology Practice Essentials Overview Practice Essentials Riot control agents are chemical compounds that temporarily disable victims due to their noxious contamination of skin, eyes, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract. They are not meant to kill, but to render a victim momentarity helpless. However, in certain circumstances, they can cause long-term medical sequelae, including death. No antidotes exist. Treatment is supportive and begins with removal from the site of exposure. Patients with significant exposures require decontamination. [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ] Next: Background The sole purpose of irritants (also known as tear gas, riot control agents, and lachrymators) is to produce immediate dermatological, respiratory, and ocular discomfort in order to render the victim incapable of fighting or resisting. Police forces use them for crowd control, and military forces currently use them mainly for training. These agents were used before World War I, and in that war, they were the first chemical agents used—well before the better-known chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas.

The United States used them during the Vietnam War to deny tunnel access to its enemies. The United States excludes these agents from the 1925 Geneva Convention banning other chemical and biological weapons. Dispersal is allowed in specific US military operations but only by presidential order. Tear gas (CS) and chloroacetophenone (CN) are by far the most important pulmonary irritants. The two-letter codes designating these types of compounds were assigned by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). CN was the primary pulmonary irritant after World War I until Corson and Stoughton developed CS in 1928. CS was found to be more potent (10 times more potent as a lachrymator than CN) but less toxic. In approximately 1959, CS replaced CN as the principal military and law enforcement riot control agent. CS is the familiar tear gas most often used by police for crowd control (eg, the police in the United Kingdom have used CS as an incapacitant for the past decade). CN has been available as Mace, a product that had been used for personal protection.

Capsaicin, or pepper spray, has to some extent replaced CN as a personal protective agent, with less dangerous effects. [ 6 ] Although CS and CN are the most important agents in this class, several others require mention. Chloropicrin (PS) and bromobenzenecyanide (CA) were developed before World War I. Both largely have been replaced, as they were too lethal for their intended effects but not lethal enough to compete with the more effective blistering and nerve agents. PS is still seen occasionally as a soil sterilant, fumigant or grain disinfectant. [ 1 , 5 ] Attempts to make CN more effective resulted in the creation of CNB (CN, carbon tetrachloride, and benzene), chloroacetophenone in chloroform (CNC), and CNS (CN, chloroform, and PS). However, CS proved more effective and less toxic than any of the CN series and largely has replaced them. While the clinical effects of a CS spray may last for days, subjects sprayed with CS have shown no convincing physical evidence of pathology for up to 10 months afterward.

[ 7 ] Dibenz-(b,f)-1,4-oxazepine (CR) is a more recent tear gas, first synthesized in 1962. It reportedly is more potent and less toxic than CS. Part of its high safety profile is due to its low volatility, which minimizes its effects deep in the pulmonary system. However, it is still is not used widely. Pepper spray, or oleoresin capsicum (OC), is also considered a riot control agent. A 1% solution is sold commercially to the public, but 10% solutions exist. OC causes the release of a neuropeptide (substance P) that causes pain and inflammation. A recent review states that the neurogenic inflammation caused by capsaicinoid in the pepper spray is the cause of the compound's irritative effects. [ 8 ] However, at high concentrations and with prolonged exposure, fatalities with capsaicinoids have been reported. [ 9 ] The possibility of secondary contamination is very real. In one incident, CS was used to flush out possible stowaways on a cargo vehicle.

When the cargo was finally delivered to 16 stores within Scotland, 21 workers experienced itching and running eyes, rhinorrhea, a burning sensation on the face and hands, and a burning throat. [ 10 ] Onset of symptoms occurs in seconds to several minutes after exposure to pulmonary irritants. Most cases are brief and self-limited, and most persons do not seek medical care. Without continuing exposure, symptoms typically resolve spontaneously in 15-30 minutes, and most persons do not seek medical care. However, serious effects, including death, have been reported. [ 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 ] See Presentation. How Things Work: Tear gas - The Tartan Online How Things Work: Tear gas Suggest this article to a friend: From: To: (email) College activists, street protesters, radical civilians, and perhaps perverted stalkers are all familiar with what tear gas is and what it does. Nowadays, tear gas is usually used by both police for crowd control and by individuals for personal protection. What exactly is tear gas? Moreover, how do you fabricate tear gas yourself at home?

“Tear gas” is a term commonly used to refer to a group of chemicals known as lachrymators, or riot control agents. Lachrymators stimulate the corneal nerves in the eyes to cause symptoms of tearing, pain, hard breathing, and even temporary blindness. They attack the sulphur containing compounds in enzymes and irritate the mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, mouth, and lungs. Some common lachrymatory agents are 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (CS gas), phenacyl chloride (CN gas), and oleoresin capsicum (OC spray). CN gas has been used for personal protection and defense since the 1920s. Phenacyl chloride is usually synthesized by the Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene using chloroacetyl chloride, along with an aluminum chloride catalyst. Some of the first such products were tear gas pens and pistols . These gas pens and pistols were able to aim the CN particles at an individual and cause some serious damage. The use of such devices usually results in both mechanical and chemical injuries to the eye.

In 1965, CN was sold by General Ordinance and Equipment Company as a personal protection spray device. It was widely marketed under the brand name Mace. This product gained extreme popularity in the 1960s, and the term Mace is still incorrectly used as a generic term for all aerosol defense spray. Unfortunately, according to Howard Hu’s article “Tear Gas — Harrassing Agent or Toxic Chemical Weapon?” since the advent of the product, there have been reports indicating the product to have limited effectiveness against some individuals, notably people who are under the influence of drugs and alcohol, or those with certain mental disturbances. In addition, it can take from several seconds to a few minutes for CN to achieve its full effect, which makes the person using the spray vulnerable to attack during this period of time. After CN gas, CS gas was first developed by the Chemical Defense Experimental Establishment in Portland, England in the 1950s. CS gas is synthesized by the reaction of 2-chlorobenzaldehyde and malononitrile via the Knoevenagel condensation, in which a hydrogen atom is added to the carbon atom in the compound, and a water molecule is removed.

The reaction is catalyzed by a weak base, such as piperidine or pyridine. The catalyst helps the reaction proceed much faster than it would without the catalyst. Its useful form is intended to be a smoke or fog of suspended particles. This can form a mist that is very harmful. Since its introduction, CS has predominantly replaced CN as the riot control agent of choice in England and the United States. It can cause extreme severe skin and mucous membrane irritation even in minute doses. The symptoms caused by CS are also exacerbated in hot or humid weather. During the Vietnam War, the United States developed the “Mighty Mite,” which is a continuous spray device used in caves and tunnel systems. Although described as a non-lethal weapon, recent studies have shown otherwise.

In his research article “Possible Lethal Effects of CS Tear Gas” Uwe Heinrich stated that under the circumstances in which gas masks are not used and occupants were trapped, “there is a distinct possibility that this kind of CS exposure can significantly contribute to or even cause lethal effects.” In addition, according to the United States Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine, CS gas emits “very toxic fumes” when heated to decomposition, and at specified concentrations, CS gas is an immediate danger to life and health. They also state that individuals exposed to CS gas should seek medical attention immediately. OC spray, most widely known as pepper spray, is another commonly used tear gas nowadays. It is a much less lethal agent but can be deadly in rare cases. The active ingredient in pepper spray is capsaicin, which is a chemical derived from the fruit of the plants in the Capsicum genus, including chilis. Pepper spray has effects similar to those of other types of tear gas and can cause a stinging and painful sensation in the eyes. Pepper spray is currently one of the most effective personal protection devices available.

For Carnegie Mellon students who constantly stay in the library until late at night and feel unsafe walking back to their residences, it may be helpful to carry a can of improvised homemade pepper spray that has similar effects. A step-by-step guide for making tear gas at home: According to InfoBarrel.com, all you need to make pepper spray are two tablespoons of hot red pepper powder, rubbing alcohol, baby oil, and an empty spray bottle. 1.Put the red pepper powder in a small glass container. 2.Pour rubbing alcohol until it is one centimeter above the pepper powder. 3.Grind the pepper in the alcohol. A spoon or spatula could be used. 4.Continue to grind and stir for at least 10 minutes. 5.Add half a centimeter of baby oil and mix for about two minutes; cover the glass container and shake until well mixed. 6.Try to avoid spilling while shaking the container. 7.To filter the solution, pour it into another container that has a piece of cloth over it. 8.Lastly, put the solution into the spray bottle, clearly labeled to avoid accidents.

Riot control agents - King County Riot control agents Riot control agents Human effects of pepper spray and tear gas Riot control agents are also known as tear gas, irritants, and lacrimators (tear producers). Injuries from riot control agents are rarely serious and exposed persons do not usually seek medical assistance after exposure to these agents. Pepper spray and CS are dispersed into the air as aerosols or powders. Your eyes are very sensitive to exposure and the discomfort can temporarily disable you. Symptoms appear very rapidly and then usually improve quickly. This message is intended to provide additional information about potential health effects that can occur after exposure to these chemicals. About pepper spray Pepper spray contains capsaicin, a chemical derived from cayenne, paprika, or chilies. Capsaicin causes extreme irritation and pain when you are first exposed. However, repeated exposure to skin makes people less sensitive to pain. For this reason, capsaicin is available in a cream and is used to treat arthritis or other painful conditions. About tear gas (or "CS") CS is one of several chemicals commonly called "Tear Gas." CS is a powder and is dispersed into the air as either an aerosol or powder.

The chemical name for CS is o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile. Potential health effects of pepper spray and tear gas These riot control agents affect the eyes, airways and skin. Exposure to pepper spray and CS causes burning, irritation, tearing and pain in the eyes. Airway symptoms include burning, sneezing, cough, shortness of breath and increased secretions such as runny nose and increased salivation. Gagging and vomiting may also occur. People with pre-existing respiratory problems, such as upper respiratory infections, asthma, or emphysema, may be more sensitive to CS or pepper spray. The very old or very young may be more sensitive to chemical exposures than other individuals. In these groups of people, symptoms may take longer to clear up. Skin symptoms include burning, redness and irritation. High concentrations of CS can cause blistering of the skin. Effects usually occur within seconds after exposure begins and symptoms usually end within 30-60 min after exposure stops. For some people symptoms can take a few days to clear up completely. Effects on skin may take longer to improve. More severe health effects have been seen when people remain in an enclosed space where CS is present.

In these cases exposure was for up to an hour or more and the concentrations of CS were much higher than seen in outdoor air. Severe effects would not be expected when people are exposed for a short time while outdoors. Possible future health problems after exposure to pepper spray or CS For most people, health effects improve quickly and no future health problems would be expected. After being exposed to CS once though, some people can have more severe skin reactions the next time they are exposed. For these people, a second exposure to the chemical can cause a skin reaction called allergic contact dermatitis. Dermatitis can include severe redness, swelling, and blistering. There is no evidence that exposure to CS or pepper spray causes birth defects. Self-decontamination after exposure You can decontaminate yourself by washing your skin with soap and water. Wash your clothes separately from the rest of your laundry. Medical treatments necessary after exposure Symptoms generally improve without medical treatment. However, if you have special concerns about pre-existing medical conditions, experience severe symptoms that do not improve within the expected time frame, or continue to experience health problems, you should contact your health care provider.

Last Updated December 29, 2016 Riot control R Riot control Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other forces to control, disperse, and arrest civilians that are involved in a riot , demonstration, or protest. Law enforcement officers or soldiers have long used less-lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds. For the last several decades, riot control officers have also used tear gas , pepper spray , plastic bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use water cannons , armoured vehicles , police dogs or mounted police on horses. Officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, body armour , gas masks and riot shields. Equipment For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective riotsquad helmets and carry riot shields. These are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection. If tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers' side arms, which may be stolen or even used against the police.

In a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other extra means of retention, if their agencies can afford such tools. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of offensive equipment used. The base choice is between lethal (e.g. 12 gauge shotgun ) and less-lethal weaponry (e.g. tear gas, pepper spray, plastic bullets, Tasers, batons, and other incapacitants). The decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws; in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton; the African sjambok, a heavy leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi , a 6 to 8-foot (2 m) long cane with a blunt metal tip. Vehicle-mounted water cannons may serve to augment personal weapons.

Some water cannons let police add dye to mark rioters or tear gas to help disperse the crowds. [ In major unrest, police in armoured vehicles may be sent in following an initial subduing with firepower. Occasionally, police dogs, fire hoses, or mounted police are deployed. At least in Western countries, it is less common to use police dogs in modern riot situations. This is because police dogs can become too vulnerable during riots, as crowds restrict the dogs' mobility and put them at risk of attack from more than one direction at the same time. Riot control agent Riot control agents are less-lethal lachrymatory agents used for riot control. Most commonly used riot control agents are pepper spray and various kinds of tear gas. These chemicals disperse a crowd that could be protesting, in a riot, or to clear a building. They can rapidly produce sensory irritation or disabling physical effects which usually disappear within 15 minutes (for tear gas) and up to 2 hours (for pepper spray) following termination of exposure. They can also be used for chemical warfare defense training, although their use in warfare itself is a violation of Article I.5 of the Chemical Weapons Convention .

Article II.9 of the CWC specifically authorizes their use for civilian law enforcement . Two lachrymatory agents most commonly used for riot control are pepper spray and various kinds of tear gas. Pepper spray The active ingredient in pepper spray is capsaicin , which is a chemical derived from the fruit of plants in the Capsicum genus, including chiles. A synthetic analogue of capsaicin, pelargonic acid vanillylamide (desmethyldihydrocapsaicin), is used in another version of pepper spray known as PAVA spray which is used in England . Another synthetic counterpart of pepper spray, pelargonic acid morpholide, was developed and is widely used in Russia . Its effectiveness compared to natural pepper spray is unclear and it has caused some injuries. Pepper spray typically comes in canisters , which are often small enough to be carried or concealed in a pocket or purse. Pepper spray can also be bought concealed in items such as rings. There are also pepper spray projectiles available, which can be fired from a paintball gun . Having been used for years against demonstrators , it is increasingly being used by police in routine interventions.

Tear gas Tear gas is a non-specific term for any chemical that is used to cause temporary incapacitation through irritation of eyes and/or respiratory system. It is used as a hand-held spray or can be fired in canisters that heat up spewing out a 'gas' cloud at a steady rate. Technically, these clouds are aerosols , and not true gases. [ Popular tear gases include the eye irritants ortho-chlorobenzylidene-malononitrile (CS gas) , chloroacetophenone (CN gas) , and dibenz (b,f)-1,4-oxazepine (CR gas). Among a long list of substances, these three have become of greater importance than the others because of their effectiveness and low risks when used. Today, CS has largely replaced CN as the most widely used tear gas internationally. Decontamination At room temperature, these tear gases are white solid substances. They are stable when heated and have low vapor pressure . Consequently, they are generally dispersed as aerosols. All of them have low solubility in water but can be dissolved in several organic solvents. Hydrolysis of CN is very slow in water solution, also when alkali is added.

CS is rapidly hydrolyzed in water solution (half-life at pH 7 is about 15 min. at room temperature) and extremely rapid when alkali is added (half-life at pH 9 is about 1 min.). CR is hydrolyzed only to a negligible extent in water solution. CN and CR are, thus, difficult to decompose under practical conditions, whereas CS can easily be inactivated by means of a water solution. Skin is suitably decontaminated by thorough washing with soap and water. CS is then decomposed whereas CN and CR are only removed. Decontamination of material after contamination with CS can be done with a 5-10 % soda solution or 2 % alkaline solution. If this type of decontamination cannot be accomplished (e.g., contaminated rooms and furniture), then the only other means is by intensive air exchange—preferably with hot air. Exposed streets and sidewalks will have toxic and irritating CS powder that will be stirred into the air by traffic and pedestrians long after the cloud has dissipated, and should be washed away with water. In contrast to human beings, domesticated animals generally have low sensitivity to tear gases.

Dogs and horses can therefore be used by police for riot control even when tear gas is used. Dispensing large quantities Backpack dispensers for riot control agents, when the intent is to use a larger quantity than possible with grenades, are one type of device used by organizations that might, for example, need to cover a prison yard Dispensers are also made for attachment to helicopters; see CBU-19 . Tactics The front-line officers in a riot control are often fully armoured and carry weapons such as batons, designed to be in direct contact with the crowd. These officers use force and intimidation to subdue rioters and subsequently allow less heavily armoured, more mobile officers to arrest people. In face of a greater threat, the riot police will be backed up with other officers equipped with riot guns to fire tear gas, rubber bullets , plastic bullets or "beanbag" rounds. As a less aggressive step, mounted police may first be sent into the crowd. The might and height offered by the horse are combined with its training, allowing an officer to more safely infiltrate a crowd.

Usually, when front-facing a riot, officers slowly walk in a line parallel to the riot's front, extending to both its ends, as they noisily and simultaneously march and beat their shields with their batons, to cause fear and psychological effects on the crowd. The French CRS's tactics against a long demonstration march is to attack it at several points and chop it into segments, rather than to merely try to block it at its front end. Since the advent of artillery, straight roads have been of notable importance in city defense and control. Upon coming to power, Napoleon III built great avenues, referred to as anti-riot streets, into the troublesome quarters of Paris. The wide straight roads also allowed for cavalry charges to subdue rioters. In the United Kingdom, usually when large demonstrations take place that are deemed unstable, the territorial police force responsible for the demonstration in that area will usually deploy Police Support Unit personnel who are trained in riot tactics, along with normal divisional officers. If the demonstration turns violent, "snatch squad" tactics would be used. Research Research into weapons that are more effective for riot control continues. Netguns are non-lethal weapons designed to fire a net which entangles the target.

Netguns have a long history of being used to capture wildlife, without injury, for research purposes. A netgun is currently in development for less-than-lethal riot control. Pepper-spray projectiles are a projectile weapons that launch a fragile ball which breaks upon impact and releases an irritant powder called PAVA (capsaicin II) pepper. The launchers are often slightly modified .68 caliber paintball guns. Stink bombs are devices designed to create an extremely unpleasant smell for riot control and area denial purposes. Stink bombs are believed to be less dangerous than other riot control chemicals, since they are effective at low concentrations. Sticky foam weapons are being tested, which cover and immobilize rioters with a gooey foam. Low frequency sound cannons are weapons of various types that use sound to injure or incapacitate subjects using a focused beam of sound or ultrasound . While described as "non-lethal", they can still kill under certain conditions. Active denial systems (ADS) are a non-lethal, directed-energy weapon developed by the U.S. military. The ADS directs electromagnetic radiation , specifically, high-frequency microwave radiation, at a frequency of 95 GHz, which causes a burning sensation on the subject's skin.

Dazzler lasers are directed-energy weapons that use intense light to cause temporary blindness or disorientation of rioters. (Wikipedia) Crowd control: Riot police techniques from Ferguson to France | Al Jazeera America Election 2016 Immigration Drugs Special Coverage Search Form Police responded with tear gas and rubber bullets as residents and their supporters protested the shooting by police of an unarmed black teenager named Michael Brown, who was killed Saturday in the suburban St. Louis community of Ferguson, MO. Scott Olson/Getty Images Riot control agents | Weapons Law Encyclopedia Weapons Law Encyclopedia Home » Weapons » Riot control agents Categories: Main injury or damage mechanism: Chemical agent Policy theme: Incapacitants Chemical irritants or riot control agents (RCAs) as they are known under international law, such as tear gas or pepper spray, are used around the world by a range of actors for both personal protection and ‘crowd management’.

The most common chemicals used in law enforcement include o-Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile (CS), Chloroacetophenone (CN), and Dibenz(b,f)-1,4-oxazepine (CR), which are often referred to as ‘tear gases’, and oleoresin capsicum (OC) and pelargonic acid vanillylamide (PAVA) which are often referred to as ‘pepper sprays’. OC is naturally derived from the capsicum species of plant (such as chilli peppers) whereas PAVA is a synthetic formulation of one of the active ingredients in OC. Other less commonly used irritants or ‘tear gases’ include N-nonanoylmorpholine (MPK/MPA) which is manufactured predominantly in the Russian Federation and Ukraine, and Diphenylaminearsine (DM, or Adamsite). Methods of dispersal vary and can range from highly targetable handheld sprays to more indiscriminate forms such as launched projectiles or via water cannon. Use of RCAs is widespread.

In 2011, of the 190 states parties to the 1992 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), 111 have declared holdings of CS; 67 of CN; 25 of Capsaicinoids (‘pepper sprays’); 11 of CR; and 15 of ‘other types’ [undefined].Report of the OPCW on the Implementation of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction in 2011, . The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) does not report which states have declared these holdings.

Of the six states not bound by the CWC in 2012 (Angola, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Egypt, Israel, Myanmar, and South Sudan), evidence suggests that all six are in possession of, or have used in the past, a range of RCAs.See, e.g., ‘Israeli Soldiers Use Tear Gas, Stun Grenades to Evict Palestinian Camp’, Russia Today, 2 February 2013, ‘Riot Police Break Up Myanmar Copper Protest’, Al Jazeera, 29 November 2012, Chosun Media, ‘N. Korea Imports Chinese Riot Gear’, 22 June 2011, ‘South Sudan: Civil Unrest and State Repression: Human Rights Violations in Wau, Western Bahr El Ghazal State’, Amnesty International Report, AFR 65/001/2013, 2013, .

Case law Alien Tort Claims Act (US) The Alien Tort Claims Act is set out under Title 28 §1350 of the United States Code to allow the district courts of the US to ‘have original jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States’ (US GPO (2010)). The Alien Tort Claims Act has the potential to be a powerful tool for non-US citizens to seek redress for human rights violations through the US court system. In 1991, the case of Abu-Zeineh vs. Federal Laboratories Inc. was brought to court under the Alien Tort Claims Act. The plaintiff, a relative of a Palestinian who died after Israeli troops used US-made CS gas in a confined workplace, sued Federal Laboratories for wrongful death after they ‘allegedly sold gas to Israel with the knowledge that [the] gas caused many civilian deaths’.A. Fagan (ed.) Human Rights & Peace Law Docket 1945-1993, Meiklejohn Civil Liberties Institute Archives, 2013, #PL-663/34.9 .

This case was dismissed as the plaintiffs were stateless and therefore had no ‘foreign citizenship for the purposes of diversity jurisdiction’ in US federal courts.US District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania, Abu-Zeineh v. Federal Laboratories, Inc., Case No. Civ. A. No. 91-2148, 975 F.Supp. 774, 7 December 1994, available at: and S. Joseph, Corporations & Transnational Human Rights Litigation, Hart Publishing, 2004, p. 66. Other Cases In February 2012, 21 plaintiffs filed a class action law suit in a US District Court in California against the Regents of the University of California alleging campus police violated their first, fourth, and fourteenth amendment rights (freedom of speech & assembly, unreasonable search & seizure, and taking property without due process of law) as well as provisions set out under California penal, civil, and government codes of false imprisonment/arrest, and failure to provide medical care (after pepper spray was used against them). The case, Baker v.

Katehi, was settled out of court in January 2013 after the University agreed to pay damages and allow the American Civil Liberties Union, over a two-year period, to contribute to the University’s rules on the use of force, handling of student demonstrations and crowd control policies.US District Court for the Eastern District of California, Baker v. Katehi, Case No. 2:12-cv-00450; see the report on the University of Michigan Law School’s Civil Rights Litigation Clearing House website: . In the British case of Johnston v. Chief Constable of Merseyside Police, the claimant was given permission to commence civil proceedings for damages arising from an alleged assault (including use of CS spray) and false imprisonment during an incident in Bootle, Merseyside, in 2009. Results of the subsequent case found the defendant’s use of CS spray an unreasonable level of force and resulted in damages being paid to Mr Johnston.Johnston v. Chief Constable of Merseyside Police, [2009] EWHC 2969 (QB), Case No. 9LV21806, available at: and M.

Johnson, Bootle Schizophrenic Sprayed with CS Gas Wins Compensation from Police, Southport Visitor, 20 September 2010, . In July 2006, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) of Colorado filed a sweeping class action lawsuit in federal court … on behalf of prisoners in the Garfield County Jail who … [were] … subjected to widespread excessive force by deputies’ misuse and abuse of PepperBall guns, restraint chairs, Tasers, pepper spray, and electroshock belts. This case was settled in April 2011 after changes to the jail’s operating rules, internal reporting systems, and increased access to due process (among other actions).ACLU, ‘ACLU of Colorado Challenges Abuse of Prisoners at Garfield County Jail’, 19 July 2006, and J. Colson, Garfield County Settles ACLU Lawsuit over Jail Mistreatment, Post Independent, 9 May 2011, . In the 2002 case of Headwaters Forest Defense v.

County of Humboldt, the US Court of Appeal for the Ninth Circuit concluded that the use of RCAs against peaceful protesters as an excessive use of force.US Court of Appeal for the Ninth Circuit, Headwaters Forest Defense v. County of Humboldt 276 F.3d 1125, 1 November 2002, available at: v. Humbolt 2 pepper spray.txt. Last updated on: 15 September 2016 Chemical irritant compounds have been used widely throughout history. They were allegedly used against the Ambracians by Marcus Fulvius in the 2nd Century BC and by the Byzantines to harass their enemies. Further, Plutarch, a Roman historian, describes the use of ‘an irritant cloud’ by a Roman general to drive an enemy from a cave in Spain.J. P. Robinson, The Problem of Chemical & Biological Warfare, Vol. 1 in The Rise of CB Weapons, Humanities Press, 1971 in F. R. Sidell, ‘Chapter 12: Riot Control Agents’, in The Textbook of Military Medicine: Medical Aspects of Chemical & Biological Warfare, 1997, .

The development of the chemicals used in today’s RCAs (CN, CR, CS, OC, and PAVA) began in the late 1800s with the synthesis of CN by German chemist Carl Graebe.H. Salem et al., ‘Chapter 13: Riot Control Agents’, in M. Lenhart (ed.), Textbooks of Military Medicine: Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare, US, 2008. According to Salem et al. (2008), CN was the RCA of choice from the latter part of the 1914–18 War until the 1950s when it was replaced with CS. Despite this replacement, CN is still in use today and is sold by a number of companies worldwide in the form of self-defence sprays and tear gas grenades/canisters. A total of 67 states parties to the CWC declared holdings of CN in 2011.Report of the OPCW on the Implementation of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction in 2011.

CN has been recently used in: Yemen (2011) – images show fired US-made CN canisters photographed after protests in the capital Sana’a.L. Loveluck, Yemen & the War on Terror, Varsity Blogs, 13 March 2011, and in the Red Sea city of Hodeidah (Yemen Rights Monitor, Protests March 16, Hodeidah, 16 March 2011. Mexico (2007) – images show fired US-made CN canisters photographed in Oaxaca in 2007El Enemigo Comun (2007) Corporate Criminals in Oaxaca, reprinted through IndyMedia, 21 July 2007. Panama (2001) – images show fired US-made CN canisters photographed in the capital Panama CityE. Jackson, ‘Turmoil in the Capital’, Panama News, May 2001, .

CS was first synthesised by British scientists Corson and Stoughton in the 1920s but was not widely accepted for use as an RCA until after 1945 when it was discovered that it was ‘less toxic but more potent than CN’.Salem et al. (2008) (op. cit.). Today, CS is the most widely used RCA, and 111 states parties to the CWC have declared holding CS.Report of the OPCW on the Implementation of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction in 2011. CS has been recently used in many countries, such as: Azerbaijan (2013) – Israeli-made CS smoke canisters photographed after a demonstration in Baku in March 2013A. Kazimova (2013) 10 mart aksiyaindaki qulaqbatiran LRAD, Azadliq Radiosu, 13 March 2013. Bahrain (2012) – images show Brazilian & South African CS gas canisters photographed in Bahrain.

Equatorial Guinea (2012) – French-made CS gas canister photographed being fired by police at Bata Stadium, Bata, January 2012A. Dalsh (2012) Reuters image ID: GM1E81M1M9701). Kenya (2012) – French-made CS gas canisters photographed on the belt of a police officer standing guard outside a damaged shop during unrest in Mombasa, August 2012AP Image reprinted by Yahoo News (2012) Riot Police Stand Guard Outside a Damaged Shop in Mombasa, 27 August 2012. Malaysia (2012) – US-made CS canister photographed after the Bersih 3.0 sit-in rally in Kuala Lumpar, Malaysia, April 2012PDRM Blog (2012) PDRM 2.0, 30 April 2012. Peru (2012) – CS gas canisters photographed on the vest of a Peruvian police officer during a protest against a mining project in Cajamarca, Peru on 6 August 2012.

The canisters appear visually similar to those made in Spain, and under licence from the Spanish companies in VenezuelaE. Benavides (2012) Getty Image ID: 147956867. Senegal (2012) – French-made CS gas canisters photographed on the vest of a Senegalese police officer during demonstrations in Dakar, 19 February 2012Seyllou (2012) Getty Image ID: 139311166. Sudan (2012) – Chinese-made CS gas canister photographed in Sudan during protests in June 2012Images collated from various sources by Right Now I/O. Turkey (2013) – images show fired US-, Brazilian-, and South Korean-manufactured CS canisters/grenades after protests in Istanbul, in 2013Brown Moses (2013) Imgur Collection. CR, the most recently synthesised but least widely used chemical in use in RCAs today, was developed in the UK in 1962 by Higginbottom and Suchitzsky.

It is six times more powerful than CS and 30 times more powerful than CN.Omega Foundation, Crowd Control Technologies: An Appraisal of Technologies for Political Control, 2000, . While not widely used today, there have been unconfirmed allegations of use of CR in Egypt (2011) and in Bahrain (2012);P. Beaumont and J. Domokos, ‘Egyptian Military using “More Dangerous” Tear Gas on Tahrir Square Protesters’, The Guardian, 23 November 2011; G. Carlstrom, ‘Bahraini Villagers Fear Effects of Tear Gas’, Aljazeera, 2 April 2012. and it is still currently manufactured in the Czech Republic by the Oritest Group and recently manufactured in India by Tear Smoke Unit, although their CR and CN products had (at time of writing) been removed from their respective websites.

Less recently, reports indicate that South Africa manufactured more than 20 tons of CR for use by soldiers policing black townships in the 1980s as, according to Amnesty International, ‘the government realised it was easy for people to deal with the effects of CS gas.’Amnesty International, The Pain Merchants: Security Equipment and its use in Torture and Ill-Treatment, ACT 40/008/2003, 2003, . A report from 2005 indicates that CR was secretly authorised by the British government for use in prisons in Northern Ireland in the 1970s in the event of attempted mass breakout, and allegedly used in 1974 to quell rioting at Long Kesh prison, nine miles southwest of Belfast.C. Morrison and M. Bright, ‘Secret Gas was Issued for IRA Prison Riots’, The Observer, 23 January 2005, cited in Salem et al (2008 (op. cit.). OC was developed in 1960 at the University of Georgia by Jenkins and Hayes.

It is derived from the naturally occurring capsicum species of plant and as such, the components of it can vary depending on the crop chosen to manufacture the product.Omega Foundation (2000), op. cit.). OC was originally developed as an animal repellent and sold under the brand name HALT! In the late 1980s, the firearms training unit at the FBI Academy in Virginia, US, undertook a three-year study on OC and subsequently authorized its use by its special agents and SWAT teams to ‘control unruly subjects without having to resort to a physical confrontation or deadly force’.Safety Gear HQ, ‘The History of Pepper Spray’, undated but accessed in October 2013 at: #11 . PAVA is a capsaicinoid that occurs naturally as a minor component in certain varieties of pepper; it can be synthetically produced. PAVA used in RCAs is predominantly sourced as a synthetic formulation and as such has a consistent strength and composition.Haber et al., Human Effectiveness & Risk Characterisation of OC & PAVA Handheld Devices, Air Force Research Laboratory, May 2007, .

PAVA is ‘believed to have similar but safer effects … than the natural form of OC’.Salem et al (2008) (op. cit.) OC and PAVA have become widely used by law enforcement officials for both self-protection and crowd management. Recent examples of their use include: Bahrain (2012) – images show a Bahraini police officer spraying a woman in the face with a handheld pepper spray during anti-government protests in Manama, 12 October 2012.L. Davidson, ‘Violence Rapidly Escalating in Bahrain’, Washington Post, 12 October 2012, #photo=18 . Brazil (2013) – images show a Brazilian police officer spraying a protester with what appear to be a Brazilian-made handheld pepper spray in Rio de Janeiro.V. Caviano (2013) reprinted on the BBC website, Day in Pictures 18 June 2013. Israel (2012) – images show Israeli border police officers using handheld pepper sprays whilst detaining a protester in Jerusalem, March/April 2012A.

Awad (2012) reprinted on the BBC website, Week in Pictures: 31 March – 6 April 2012. Turkey (2013) – images show police using backpack-style sprayers to disperse crowds during protests, and using pepper spray in their water cannons, in Istanbul in May and June 2013L. Harding (2013) Turkey’s Resistance Image Forged as Pepper Spray Burns Woman in Red Dress, The Guardian, 5 June 2013, and Facebook (2013) Photos of Police Adding JENIX Pepper Spray to the Water from the TOMAs Water Cannons, 15 June 2013. US (2011) – images and video show University of California campus police officers dousing peaceful sit-in protesters with pepper spray, November 2011BBC News (2011) Pepper Spray: US Campus Police Suspended, BBC News Online, 20 November 2011.

Last updated on: 15 September 2016 Of the most commonly used RCAs today, CN, CS, CR, and PAVA, are crystalline solids at room temperature, and OC is an oil. They are delivered in relatively low concentrations, in several ways: As a smoke or powder – many hand-thrown or weapon fired products are available which deliver either a dense cloud of irritant smoke or a direct localised burst of irritant powder. These include: Grenades which are activated by a fuse and can be hand-thrown or weapon fired via grenade launchers or ‘launching cups’ which fit over the muzzle of conventional shotguns or rifles allowing them to fire larger calibre ammunition. Irritant is dispersed via hot gases and smoke produced through pyrotechnic burning of the payload. Manufactured worldwide in states such as Argentina, Brazil, China, India, the Republic of Korea, and the USA, grenades most commonly contain CS but are also available containing CN, CR and OC. These are designed to be fired at the ground where they release their irritant into the surrounding area.

Cartridges consist of a cartridge case containing either a projectile which is expelled, or the irritant load; like ammunition for conventional arms, they must be fired from a weapon. They range from 12 gauge shotgun rounds up to 40mm cartridges and can be fired from a range of devices including shotguns and a wide variety of specially designed launchers (often called ‘riot guns’). The projectiles have a range of up to 100 metres and once fired a pyrotechnic charge initiates burning to expel the irritant, or a blast charge initiates to disperse powdered irritant. ‘Muzzle blast’ cartridges expel powdered irritant directly from the muzzle of the weapon and are designed for close in fire up to approximately 10 metres. Some cartridges are designed to be fired at the ground where they release their irritant into the surrounding area; however, ‘direct impact projectiles’ are also available which are designed to be fired directly at an individual, which on impact release a small localised burst of powdered irritant combining kinetic impact with irritant effect. Cartridges most commonly contain CS but are also available containing CN, CR, and OC.

‘Pepperball’ and other specially designed projectiles, typically containing OC or PAVA, are designed to be fired directly at an individual using a high pressure air gun. Some projectiles, such as the US-made ‘Pepperball’ projectiles are similar in design to paintball projectiles used for recreational purposes (i.e. a small gel ball containing powdered irritant which splits open on impact releasing a small cloud of irritant). The FN303, manufactured in Belgium by FN Herstal and under licence in the US by FNH USA, consists of a fin-stabilized polystyrene projectile with a bismuth forward payload which, like their paintball-style counterparts, split open on impact to release the irritant payload. ‘Wide-area’ RCA delivery mechanisms including multiple munition launchers, mortar munitions, artillery projectiles, heliborne munition dispensers, cluster munitions, unmanned aerial or ground vehicles, among others, are designed to disperse large amounts of RCAs over wide areas and/or extended distances. These products predominantly contain CS, although others containing CN, CR, and OC have also been developed.

The development of certain forms of wide-area RCA delivery mechanisms is a cause for concern given the dangers of: (a) employment of inherently inappropriate munitions for law enforcement; (b) proliferation to and misuse by non-state actors; (c) misuse to facilitate human rights violations; (d) potential employment in armed conflict; and (e) their potential use in chemical weapons programmes. Certain forms of ‘wide-area’ RCA delivery mechanisms may have utility in large scale law enforcement situations provided they meet the CWC ‘types and quantities’ provision and are employed in conformity with human rights standards. Other forms of ‘wide-area’ RCA means of delivery appear to be completely inappropriate for law enforcement. Such means of delivery could inherently breach the CWC ‘types and quantities’ provision and/or the prohibition on the use of RCAs as a ‘method of warfare’.For further discussion see: M. Crowley, Drawing the Line: Regulation of ‘Wide Area’ Riot Control Agents under the Chemical Weapons Convention, Report, 2013, ORF RCA Munitions Report April 2013.pdf.

Products of concern have been manufactured in a range of countries since the coming into force of the CWC in 1997, including China, India, the Russian Federation, Serbia, Turkey, and the USA. As a liquid spray or foam, having been dissolved in a suitable solvent, the irritant is then sprayed or expelled from a range of devices. These include: Handheld Sprays (aerosols) which usually contain OC or PAVA but are also available in CS, CN, CR, or a mixture thereof. Typically ranging in capacity from 25 millilitres up to one litre. They are manufactured worldwide and are widely used for law enforcement purposes, but also by civilians as personal protection sprays. Larger ‘over the shoulder’ or ‘backpack-style’ sprayers disperse larger amounts of irritant with a capacity of up to several litres. They commonly contain OC or CS, or an OC-CS mixture. These larger sprayers have been used for law enforcement purposes in States such as Australia, DR Congo, Greece, Mexico, Peru, Turkey, Uganda, and the USA, and are manufactured in China, Germany, Israel, Poland, and the US, among others.

Confined-area extraction devices are predominantly manufactured in the USA and consist of a handheld spray with a ‘wand’ attachment for dispersal of OC spray into a confined area such as a cell, closet, or vehicle, etc. Water cannon – most models of water cannon are manufactured with two or three separate tanks; the largest for the water and then one or two smaller additional tanks which can contain RCAs (predominantly CS or OC) and/or dye marking products which are mixed with the water for dispersal. As most of the RCAs are unstable and insoluble in water, the irritant is injected into the water stream at the last moment. Water cannon with tanks for RCA dispersal are manufactured in states such as China, Israel, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and the USA, among others. As a vapour fog or irritant cloud, having been mixed with a solvent to produce a dense fog or cloud, they are usually dispersed via: Fixed delivery systems – which are usually installed in secure rooms or places of detention, they disperse CS or OC into an enclosed space via remote control. They are manufactured in Germany and the USA, among others.

Aerosol grenades are a newer type of delivery mechanism for OC, CS or an OC/CS mix. They are a small aerosol with a single activation that empties the entire contents in one burst. They have been advertised as being suitable for use in confined spaces in order to force an individual or group to leave the space, as an area denial system (i.e. to deny access to an enclosed space), and for crowd control purposes. They are predominantly manufactured in the USA. Hand-held ‘foggers’ – which have been promoted for use during crowd control or law enforcement situations. Mostly manufactured in the USA, hand-held ‘foggers’ can disperse OC, CS, or CN. Last updated on: 15 September 2016 RCAs are intended to cause temporary incapacitation through sensory irritation; the effects of which disappear within a short time following termination of exposure. 6 Creepy New Weapons the Police and Military Use To Subdue Unarmed People | Alternet World 6 Creepy New Weapons the Police and Military Use To Subdue Unarmed People From microwave energy blasters and blinding laser beams to chemical agents and deafening sonic blasters, these weapons are at the cutting edge of crowd control.

This article has been updated. The US is at the forefront of an international arms development effort that includes a remarkable assortment of technologies, which look and sound like they belong in a Hollywood science fiction thriller. From microwave energy blasters and blinding laser beams, to chemical agents and deafening sonic blasters, these weapons are at the cutting edge of crowd control. The Pentagon's approved term for these weapons is "non-lethal" or "less-lethal" and they are intended for use against the unarmed. Designed to "control crowds, clear streets, subdue and restrain individuals and secure borders," they are the 21st century's version of the police baton, pepper spray and tear gas. As journalist Ando Arike puts it, "The result is what appears to be the first arms race in which the opponent is the general population." The demand for non-lethal weapons (NLW) is rooted in the rise of television. In the 1960s and '70s the medium let everyday Americans witness the violent tactics used to suppress the civil rights and anti-war movements. Today’s rapid advancements in media and telecommunications technologies allow people to record and publicize images and video of undue force more than ever before.

Authorities are well aware of how images of violence play out publicly. In 1997, a joint report from the Pentagon and the Justice Department warned: "A further consideration that affects how the military and law enforcement apply force is the greater presence of members of the media or other civilians who are observing, if not recording, the situation. Even the lawful application of force can be misrepresented to or misunderstood by the public. More than ever, the police and the military must be highly discreet when applying force." The global economic collapse coupled with the unpredictable and increasingly catastrophic consequences of climate change and resource scarcity, along with a new era of austerity defined by rising unemployment and glaring inequality have already led to massive protests in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and even Madison, Wisconsin. From the progressive era to the Great Depression to the civil rights movement, Americans have a rich history of taking to the streets to demand greater equality. Meanwhile, tens of millions of dollars have been invested in the research and development of more "media-friendly" weapons for everyday policing and crowd control. This has lead to a trade-in of old school weapons for more exotic and controversial technologies. The following are six of the most outrageous "non-lethal" weapons that will define the future of crowd control. 1.

The Invisible Pain Ray: The 'Holy Grail of Crowd Control' Source: Pasadena Star News It sounds like a weapon out of Star Wars. The Active Denial System , or ADS, works like an open-air microwave oven, projecting a focused beam of electromagnetic radiation to heat the skin of its targets to 130 degrees. This creates an intolerable burning sensation forcing those in its path to instinctively flee (a response the Air Force dubs the " goodbye effect "). The Pentagon's Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Program (JNLWP) says , "This capability will add to the ability to stop, deter and turn back an advancing adversary, providing an alternative to lethal force." Although ADS is described as non-lethal, a 2008 report by physicist and less-lethal weapons expert Dr. Jürgen Altmann suggests otherwise: " ... the ADS provides the technical possibility to produce burns of second and third degree. Because the beam of diameter 2 m and above is wider than human size, such burns would occur over considerable parts of the body, up to 50% of its surface.

Second- and third-degree burns covering more than 20% of the body surface are potentially life-threatening – due to toxic tissue-decay products and increased sensitivity to infection – and require intensive care in a specialized unit. Without a technical device that reliably prevents re-triggering on the same target subject, the ADS has a potential to produce permanent injury or death. " The weapon was initially tested in Afghanistan , but later recalled due to a combination of technical difficulties and political concerns, including the fear that ADS would be used as a torture tool making it " not politically tenable ," according to a Defense Science Board report. The tens of millions of dollars spent to develop the ADS did not necessarily go to waste, however. While the weapon may be too controversial for use on the battlefield, it appears that nothing is too sadistic for use on US prisoners, so the ADS has since been modified into a smaller version by Raytheon, for use in law enforcement. Last year, the renamed Assault Intervention System (AIS) was installed at the Pitchess Detention Center's North County Correction Facility at the behest of the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (LASD).

Former LASD Commander, Charles “Sid” Heal had been lobbying for the pain ray for years, calling it the " Holy Grail of Crowd Control ," due to "its ability to make people scatter, almost instantly." The device is operated by a jail officer with a joystick, and is intended to break up prison riots, inmate brawls and prevent assaults on officers. Sheriff Lee Baca added that it would allow officers to "quickly intervene" without having to physically enter the area to incapacitate prisoners. The ACLU claims that use of such a device on American prisoners is "tantamount to torture." The organization even sent a letter to the sheriff in charge, demanding he never use the energy weapon against inmates. “The idea that a military weapon designed to cause intolerable pain should be used against county jail inmates is staggeringly wrongheaded,” said Margaret Winter, associate director of the ACLU National Prison Project. “Unnecessarily inflicting severe pain and taking such unnecessary risks with people’s lives is a clear violation of the Eighth Amendment and due process clause of the U.S. Constitution.” The pain ray’s use in the Pitchess Detention Center is a pilot program. If successful, the weapon could find its way into other prisons around the country.

The National Institute of Justice has also expressed interest in a hand-held, rifle-sized, short-range weapon "that could be effective at tens of feet for law enforcement officials." 2. The Laser Blinding 'Dazzler' Source: Air Force Fact Sheet The Personal Halting and Stimulation Response rifle, or PHaSR, is a massive laser shooter. PHaSR technology is being co-funded by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Program (JNLWP), and the Office of the Secretary of Defense, and is being developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory. While JNLWP is interested in the technology for military applications, NIJ is focusing on its law enforcement use. So what is the purpose of this light-shooting toy? Well, it won't kill you, but it will temporarily blind you — or as the NIJ prefers to say, it will "dazzle" you into disorientation — by shooting you with two low­-power diode­-pumped lasers.

Protocol IV , the Blinding Laser Protocol of the United Nations Convention on Conventional Weapons, states that, "The use of laser weapons that are specifically designed, as their sole combat function or as one of their combat functions, to cause permanent blindness to unenhanced vision is prohibited." After the US agreed to the Blinding Laser Protocol in 1995 under President Clinton, the Pentagon was forced to cancel several blinding laser weapon programs that were in the works. But the PHaSR rifle can skirt this regulation because the blinding effect is apparently temporary due to its low-intensity laser. According to a U.S. Air Force fact sheet , "The laser light from PHaSR temporarily impairs aggressors by dazzling them with one wavelength. The second wavelength causes a repel effect that discourages advancing aggressors.” The JNLWP website says that "a significant amount of research and experimentation is still required to gain a full understanding of the safety, military effectiveness, and limitations of these future capabilities." 3. The Taser on Steroids Source: Taser website The Albuquerque Police Department now has Taser shotguns in its arsenal.

Most of us are familiar with hand-held Tasers and understand that they only work if the police are standing pretty close to you (about 20 feet). But Taser has developed the Taser X12 , a 12-gauge shotgun that instead of firing lethal bullet rounds, is designed to fire Taser projectile rounds. Known as Extended Range Electronic Projectiles (XREP), the XREP cartridge, as defined by the Taser website, is a "self-contained, wireless projectile that delivers the same neuro-muscular incapacitation bio-effect [a fancy way of saying electric shock] as the handheld Taser, but up to 100 feet." According to a July 21 press release , Taser International has taken the XREP to the next level, teaming up with the Australian electronic gun company Metal Storm to enhance the 12-gauge Multi-Shot Accessory Under-Barrel Launcher (MAUL). The two companies will combine Metal Storm's MAUL stacked projectile technology to "provide semi-automatic fire as fast as the operator can squeeze the trigger," which boasts a full weapon reload of up to five rounds in less than two seconds.

Picture five rounds of Taser XREP cartridges flying out in less than two seconds up to 30 yards away -- that is the plan. In September 2010 Raw Story reported that the rate of Taser-related deaths were on the rise. The story cited an Amnesty International report from 2008 that found "351 Taser-related deaths in the US between June 2001 and August 2008, a rate of just slightly above four deaths per month." About 90 percent of the victims were unarmed and did not appear to pose any serious threat, according to an article in the Boston Review. The Amnesty report points out that Tasers are “inherently open to abuse as they are easy to carry and easy to use and they can inflict severe pain at the push of a button without leaving substantial marks.“ In Amnesty's US 2010 report, the Taser-related death toll had increased to 390 . If the MAUL-Taser combined shooter find its way into police departments around the country, it may not bode well for the rate of Taser-related deaths.

Another project of Taser International described by Ando Arike is the Shockwave Area-Denial System , "which blankets a large area with electrified darts, and a wireless Taser projectile with a 100-meter range, helpful for picking off “ringleaders” in unruly crowds," In 2007, Taser's French distributor announced plans for a stun-gun-equipped flying saucer that shoots stun darts at "criminal suspects or rioting crowds"; however, it has yet to be unveiled. Clearly there is no limit to Taser International’s capacity for creativity. 4. Calmative Agents for Riot Control The Sunshine Project, a transparency and accountability organization, defines calmatives as "chemical or biological agents with sedative, sleep-inducing or similar psychoactive effects." Although the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits the use of riot control agents in warfare, JNWLP and NIJ have long considered calmatives for both military and law enforcement applications, such as dispersing a crowd, controlling a riot or calming a noncompliant offender. The most well-known and widely used riot-control agents are tear gas (CS) and chloroacetophenone (CN), also known as mace.

A few ways that more advanced non-lethal calmatives might be administered , depending on the law enforcement environment, would include "a topical or transdermal skin application, an aerosol spray, an intramuscular dart, or a rubber bullet filled with an inhalable agent," according to NIJ research. In the March 2010 issue of Harper'smagazine, Ando Arike gives an extensive overview of riot control technology in his article " The Soft Kill: New Frontiers in Pain Compliance ." He wrote: Pentagon interest in “advanced riot-control agents” has long been an open secret, but just how close we are to seeing these agents in action was revealed in 2002, when the Sunshine Project, an arms-control group based in Austin, Texas, posted on the Internet a trove of Pentagon documents uncovered through the Freedom of Information Act. Among these was a fifty-page study titled “The Advantages and Limitations of Calmatives for Use as a Non-Lethal Technique,” conducted by Penn State’s Applied Research Laboratory, home of the JNLWD-sponsored Institute for Non-Lethal Defense Technologies.

Penn State’s College of Medicine researchers agreed, contrary to accepted principles of medical ethics, that “the development and use of non-lethal calmative techniques is both achievable and desirable,” and identified a large number of promising drug candidates, including benzodiazepines like Valium, serotonin-reuptake inhibitors like Prozac, and opiate derivatives like morphine, fentanyl, and carfentanyl, the last commonly used by veterinarians to sedate large animals. The only problems they saw were in developing effective delivery vehicles and regulating dosages, but these problems could be solved readily, they recommended, through strategic partnerships with the pharmaceutical industry. Little more was heard about the Pentagon’s “advanced riot-control agent” program until July 2008, when the Army announced that production was scheduled for its XM1063 “non-lethal personal suppression projectile,” an artillery shell that bursts in midair over its target, scattering 152 canisters over a 100,000-square-foot area, each dispersing a chemical agent as it parachutes down. There are many indications that a calmative, such as fentanyl, is the intended payload—a literal opiate of the masses. 5.

Screaming Microwaves That Pierce the Skull Source: Wired Researchers are in the process of developing the Mob Excess Deterrent Using Silent Audio or MEDUSA (that's right, from Greek mythology), which uses "a beam of microwaves to induce uncomfortable auditory sensations in the skull." The device " exploits the microwave audio effect , in which short microwave pulses rapidly heat tissue, causing a shockwave inside the skull that can be detected by the ears," explains David Hambling in the New Scientist. MEDUSA’s audio effect is loud enough to cause discomfort or even incapacitation. It may also cause a little brain damage from the high-intensity shockwave created by the microwave pulse. MEDUSA's intended purpose is deterring crowds from entering a protected perimeter, like a nuclear site, and temporarily incapacitating unruly individuals. So far the weapon remains in development and is funded by the Navy. 6. Ear-Splitting Siren Source: Associated Press The Long Range Acoustic Device , or LRAD, developed by American Technology Corporation, "focuses and broadcasts sound over ranges of up to hundreds of yards," according to David Axe in Wired's Danger Room.

LRAD has been around for years, but Americans first took notice when police used it in Pittsburgh to ward off protesters at the 2009 G-20 summit . David Hambling says it is generally used in two ways : "as a megaphone to order protesters to disperse; or, if they disobey, as an “ear-splitting siren” to drive them away." While LRAD may not be deadly, it can cause permanent hearing damage . Similar sonic blasters have proven deadly. One is the Thunder Generator, an Israeli-developed shock wave cannon that farmers commonly use to scare away crop destroying birds. According to a Defense News report last year, Israel's Ministry of Defense licensed ArmyTec to market the Thunder Generator in military and security versions. In a brief overview, Hambling explains that it works using "gas from a cylinder of domestic liquid petroleum," which is mixed with air. When detonated it produces "a series of high-intensity blasts," at a range of 50 meters." While the makers insist it doesn't cause permanent damage, they warn that people within 10 meters could suffer lasting injuries or possibly death .

The Impact The application of pain to control to coerce people into submission helps achieve the desired aims of perception management, while sheltering the public from the brutality of such devices. Perhaps these less-lethal tactics for crowd control do result in fewer injuries. But they also severely weaken our capacity to enact political change. Authorities have ever more creative ways to manage dissent, at a time when the need for change by popular demand is vital to the future of our society and the planet. EDITOR'S NOTE:This article has been corrected since its original publication for more accurate attribution to original sources. Rania Khalek is a progressive activist. Check out her blog Missing Pieces or follow her on Twitter @Rania_ak . Contact her at [email protected] . Why you should support AlterNet Dear AlterNet Reader: As the dark cloud of Trump descends on America, now more than ever, we need more strong, independent, and progressive media. AlterNet is one of the best. They provide high-quality articles, big reach, and rapid response. — Robert B. Reich Trump is out to change or destroy so many things we believe in — our environment, social security, immigration, freedom of choice, civil rights, and much more. We cannot let this happen.

AlterNet is on the job 24/7. We will offer the best ideas for resistance. We will aggressively push back against lies and propaganda. We will be working for you non-stop. Please dig deep , if you can. There is no time like the present to make your commitment. Peace, tear gas - 必应 Pepper spray, also known as OC spray (from "oleoresin capsicum"), OC gas, and capsicum spray, is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the ey… spray?mkt=zh-cn 2009-7-4 ... C10H5ClN2), a cyanocarbon, is the defining component of a tear gas commonly referred to as CS gas, which is used as a riot control agent. gas?mkt=zh-cn 2016-12-25 "Skunk" is a malodorant, non-lethal weapon used for crowd control by the Israel Defense Forces.

It was developed and is manufactured by Odortec, with two supporting comp… 2009-4-18 Four of these universities currently include the name "Sorbonne" in their names or are affiliated with the Sorbonne: Panthéon-Sorbonne University (Paris I), which also hous… 2014-12-26 The E-4 process is a now outdated process for developing color reversal (transparency) photographic film. The process is infamous for two reasons: First, its use of the highl… 2015-9-14

Question: Used in riot control, what is a lachrymator commonly known as?
Answer: Tear gas