Lustrum - definition of lustrum by The Free Dictionary Lustrum - definition of lustrum by The Free Dictionary (lŭs′trəm) n. pl. lus·trums or lus·tra (-trə) 1. A ceremonial purification of the entire ancient Roman population after the census every five years. 2. A period of five years. [Latin lūstrum; see luster.] n, pl -trums or -tra (-trə) (Units) a period of five years [C16: from Latin: ceremony of purification, from lustrāre to brighten, purify] lus•trum (ˈlʌs trəm) n., pl. -trums, -tra (-trə). 1. (in ancient Rome) a lustration or ceremonial purification of the people, performed every five years, after the taking of the census. 2. Also, luster ;esp. Brit., lustre . a period of five years. [1580–90; < Latin lūstrum; compare luster 1] lustrum, luster, lustre 1.

lustrum - a period of five years period , period of time , time period - an amount of time; "a time period of 30 years"; "hastened the period of time of his recovery"; "Picasso's blue period" 2. lustrum - a ceremonial purification of the Roman population every five years following the census ceremony - the proper or conventional behavior on some solemn occasion; "an inaugural ceremony" capital of Italy , Eternal City , Italian capital , Rome , Roma - capital and largest city of Italy; on the Tiber; seat of the Roman Catholic Church; formerly the capital of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire antiquity - the historic period preceding the Middle Ages in Europe Translations The Cambrian Period Online exhibits : Geologic time scale : Paleozoic Era The Cambrian Period The Cambrian Period marks an important point in the history of life on Earth; it is the time when most of the major groups of animals first appear in the fossil record. This event is sometimes called the "Cambrian Explosion," because of the relatively short time over which this diversity of forms appears.

It was once thought that Cambrian rocks contained the first and oldest fossil animals, but these are now found in the earlier Ediacaran (Vendian) strata. Life Almost every metazoan phylum with hard parts, and many that lack hard parts, made its first appearance in the Cambrian. The only modern phylum with an adequate fossil record to appear after the Cambrian was the phylum Bryozoa, which is not known before the early Ordovician . A few mineralized animal fossils, including sponge spicules and probable worm tubes, are known from the Ediacaran Period immediately preceding the Cambrian. Some of the odd fossils of the biota from the Ediacaran may also have been animals representative of living phyla, although this remains a somewhat controversial topic. However, the Cambrian was nonetheless a time of great evolutionary innovation, with many major groups of organisms appearing within a span of only forty million years. Trace fossils made by animals also show increased diversity in Cambrian rocks, showing that the animals of the Cambrian were developing new ecological niches and strategies  such as active hunting, burrowing deeply into sediment, and making complex branching burrows.

Finally, the Cambrian saw the appearance and/or diversification of mineralized algae of various types, such as the coralline red algae and the dasyclad green algae. This does not mean that life in the Cambrian seas would have been perfectly familiar to a modern-day SCUBA diver! Although almost all of the living marine phyla were present, most were represented by classes that have since gone extinct or faded in importance. For example, the Brachiopoda was present, but greatest diversity was shown by inarticulate brachiopods (like the one pictured below, left). The articulate brachiopods, which would dominate the marine environment in the later Paleozoic, were still relatively rare and not especially diverse. Cambrian echinoderms were predominantly unfamiliar and strange-looking types such as early edrioasteroids, eocrinoids, and helicoplacoids. The more familiar starfish, brittle stars, and sea urchins had not yet evolved, and there is some controversy over whether crinoids (sea lilies) were present or not. Even if present, crinoids were rare in the Cambrian, although they became numerous and diverse through the later Paleozoic.

And while jawless vertebrates were present in the Cambrian, it was not until the Ordovician that armored fish became common enough to leave a rich fossil record. Left: Acrothele, a fairly common inarticulate brachiopod from the the Wheeler Shale of western Utah. Middle: Olenellus fremontii from the Latham Shale of southern California. Right: A hyolith, also from the Latham Shale. Other dominant Cambrian invertebrates with hard parts were trilobites (like the one pictured above), archaeocyathids (relatives of sponges that were restricted to the Lower Cambrian), and problematic conical fossils known as hyolithids (like the one pictured above, right). Many Early Cambrian invertebrates are known only from "small shelly fossils"  tiny plates, scales, spines, tubes, and so on. Many of these were probably pieces of the skeletons of larger animals. A few localities around the world that preserve soft-bodied fossils of the Cambrian show that the "Cambrian radiation" generated many unusual forms not easily comparable with anything today.

The best-known of these sites is the legendary Burgess Shale (middle Cambrian) in the British Columbian Rocky Mountains. Sites in Utah , southern China, Siberia , and north Greenland are also noted for their unusually good preservation of non-mineralized fossils from the Cambrian. One of these "weird wonders", first documented from the Burgess Shale, is Wiwaxia, depicted at lower left. Wiwaxia was an inch-long, creeping, scaly and spiny bottom dweller that may have been a relative of the molluscs , the annelids, or possibly an extinct animal group that combined features of both phyla. Stratigraphy A lot can happen in 40 million years, the approximate length of the Cambrian Period. Animals showed dramatic diversification during this period of Earth's history. This has been called the "Cambrian Explosion". When the fossil record is scrutinized closely, it turns out that the fastest growth in the number of major new animal groups took place during the as-yet-unnamed second and third stages (generally known as the Tommotian and Atdabanian stages) of the early Cambrian, a period of about 13 million years.

In that time, the first undoubted fossil annelids, arthropods, brachiopods, echinoderms, molluscs, onychophorans, poriferans, and priapulids show up in rocks all over the world. Stratigraphic boundaries are generally determined by the occurences of fossils. For instance, the trace fossil Treptichnus pedum marks the base of the Cambrian. This boundary is an unusual case, since stratigraphic boundaries are normally defined by the presence or absence of groups of fossils, called assemblages. In fact, much paleontological work is concerned with questions surrounding when and where stratigraphic boundaries should be defined. At first glance, this may not seem like important work, but consider this: if you wanted to know about the evolution of life on Earth, you would need a fairly accurate timeline. Questions such as: "how long did something stay the same?" or,"how fast did it change?" can only be assessed in the context of time.

Tectonics and paleoclimate The Cambrian follows the Ediacaran Period, during which time the continents had been joined in a single supercontinent called Rodinia (from the Russian word for "homeland", rodina). As the Cambrian began, Rodinia began to fragment into smaller continents, which did not always correspond to the ones we see today. The reconstruction below shows the rifting of Rodinia during the second stage (Tommotian) of the Cambrian . Green represents land above water at this time, red indicates mountains, light blue indicates shallow seas of the continental shelves, and dark blue denotes the deep ocean basins. (For clarity, the outlines of present-day continents have been superimposed on the map.) World climates were mild; there was no glaciation. Landmasses were scattered as a result of the fragmentation of the supercontinent Rodinia that had existed in the late Proterozoic. Most of North America lay in warm southern tropical and temperate latitudes, which supported the growth of extensive shallow-water archaeocyathid reefs all through the early Cambrian. Siberia, which also supported abundant reefs, was a separate continent due east of North America.

Baltica  what is now Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and European Russia  lay to the south. Most of the rest of the continents were joined together in the supercontinent Gondwana, depicted on the right side of the map; South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia are all visible. What is now China and east Asia was fragmented at the time, with the fragments visible north and west of Australia. Western Europe was also in pieces, with most of them lying northwest of what is now the north African coastline. The present-day southeastern United States are visible wedged between South America and Africa; they did not become part of North America for another 300 million years. Tectonism affected regions of Gondwana, primarily in what are now Australia, Antarctica, and Argentina. The continental plate movement and collisions during this period generated pressure and heat, resulting in the folding, faulting, and crumpling of rock and the formation of large mountain ranges. The Cambrian world was bracketed between two ice ages, one during the late Proterozoic and the other during the Ordovician . During these ice ages, the decrease in global temperature led to mass extinctions.

Cooler conditions eliminated many warm water species, and glaciation lowered global sea level. However, during the Cambrian there was no significant ice formation. None of the continents were located at the poles so land temperatures remained mild. In fact, global climate was probably warmer and more uniform than it is today. With the retreat of Proterozoic ice, the sea level rose significantly. Lowland areas such as Baltica were flooded and much of the world was covered by epeiric seas. This event opened up new habitats where marine invertebrates, such as trilobites, radiated and flourished. Plants had not yet evolved, and the terrestrial world was devoid of vegetation and inhospitable to life as we know it. Photosynthesis and primary production were the monopoly of bacteria and algal protists that populated the world's shallow seas. Also during the Cambrian, the oceans became oxygenated. Although there was plentiful atmospheric oxygen by the beginning of the period, it wasn't until the Cambrian that there was a sufficient reduction in the number of oxygen-depleting bacteria to permit higher oxygen levels in the waters.

This dissolved oxygen may have triggered the "Cambrian Explosion"  when most of the major groups of animals, especially those with hard shells, first appeared in the fossil record. Localities Aldan River, Siberia, : This early Cambrian fauna tells us about the early evolution of animals with skeletons. Burgess Shale, British Columbia : Thousands of soft-bodied animal fossils paint us a picture of early marine life. House Range, Utah : An array of Cambrian critters has been found in the Wheeler Shale and the Marjum Formation. Marble Mountains, California : Olenellid trilobites and more are found in this Mojave Desert locality. White-Inyo Mountains, California : Visit ancient Cambrian reefs in these mountains of eastern California. Resources * Dates from the International Commission on Stratigraphy's International Stratigraphic Chart, 2009. Page content written and completed by Ben M. Waggoner and Allen G.

Collins, 11/22/1994; tectonics and paleoclimate material added by Karen Hsu, Myun Kang, Amy Lavarias, Kavitha Prabaker, and Cody Skaggs as part of a Biology 1B project for Section 112 under Brian R. Speer, 5/1/2000; Ben M. Waggoner revised the Life content, 9/2001; Sarah Rieboldt updated the pages to reflect the Geological Society of America (GSA) 1999 Geologic Timescale, 11/2002; Dave Smith recombined the content into a single page, adapted it to the new site format and made some content updates, 7/6/2011; Acrothele and hyolith photos by Ben M.

Waggoner; Olenellus photo by Dave Smith; source of Tommotian map unknown Millennium | Define Millennium at Dictionary.com millennium [mi-len-ee-uh m] /mɪˈlɛn i əm/ Spell [mi-len-ee-uh] /mɪˈlɛn i ə/ (Show IPA) 1. a period of 1000 years. 2. the millennium, the period of a thousand years during which Christ will reign on earth. Rev. 20:1–7. 3. a period of general righteousness and happiness, especially in the indefinite future. 4. 1630-40; < New Latin, equivalent to Latin mill(e) a thousand + -ennium, extracted from biennium , triennium , etc. Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for millennium Expand Contemporary Examples Why Jamie Dimon Apologized for JPMorgan’s $2 Billion Loss Sydney Finkelstein May 21, 2012 Historical Examples For generations now, since the signs have pointed to the millennium, have the daughters of the house been kept unwedded. The Automobilist Abroad M. F.

(Milburg Francisco) Mansfield Ah, thou canst not imagine it: thou hast thy groceries safe in the shops, and little or no hope of a millennium ever coming! British Dictionary definitions for millennium Expand noun (pl) -nia (-nɪə), -niums 1. (Christianity) the millennium, the period of a thousand years of Christ's awaited reign upon earth 2. a period or cycle of one thousand years 3. a time of peace and happiness, esp in the distant future 4. C17: from New Latin, from Latin mille thousand + annus year; for form, compare quadrennium Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for millennium Expand n.

1630s, from Modern Latin millennium, from Latin mille "thousand" (see million ) + annus "year" (see annual ); formed on analogy of biennium, triennium, etc. For vowel change, see biennial . First in English in sense of "1,000-year period of Christ's anticipated rule on Earth" (Rev. xx:1-5). Sense of "any 1,000-year period" first recorded 1711. Meaning "the year 2000" attested from 1970. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Expand millennium definition A period of a thousand years foretold in the Book of Revelation . During the millennium, those who have been faithful to Jesus and who have not worshiped the Antichrist will reign with Jesus over the Earth . According to the Book of Revelation, the millennium will precede the final battle for control of the universe; Judgment Day will come afterward. Note: The meaning of the Bible 's words about the millennium has been much debated by Christians . Prophecies about the millennium are part of the basic doctrine of several denominations, including Jehovah's Witnesses .

Note: Figuratively, a “millennium” is a period of great justice and happiness on Earth. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. millennium in the Bible Expand a thousand years; the name given to the era mentioned in Rev. 20:1-7. Some maintain that Christ will personally appear on earth for the purpose of establishing his kingdom at the beginning of this millennium. Those holding this view are usually called "millenarians." On the other hand, it is maintained, more in accordance with the teaching of Scripture, we think, that Christ's second advent will not be premillennial, and that the right conception of the prospects and destiny of his kingdom is that which is taught, e.g., in the parables of the leaven and the mustard-seed.

The triumph of the gospel, it is held, must be looked for by the wider and more efficient operation of the very forces that are now at work in extending the gospel; and that Christ will only come again at the close of this dispensation to judge the world at the "last day." The millennium will thus precede his coming. Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary Age | Define Age at Dictionary.com age noun 1. the length of time during which a being or thing has existed; length of life or existence to the time spoken of or referred to: trees of unknown age; His age is 20 years. 2. a period of human life, measured by years from birth, usually marked by a certain stage or degree of mental or physical development and involving legal responsibility and capacity: the age of discretion; the age of consent; The state raised the drinking age from 18 to 21 years. 3. the particular period of life at which a person becomes naturally or conventionally qualified or disqualified for anything: He was over age for military duty. 4. one of the periods or stages of human life: a person of middle age. 5. His eyes were dim with age. 6.

a particular period of history, as distinguished from others; a historical epoch: the age of Pericles; the Stone Age; the age of electronic communications. 7. the period of history contemporary with the span of an individual's life: He was the most famous architect of the age. 8. a generation or a series of generations: ages yet unborn. a great length of time: I haven't seen you for an age. He's been gone for ages. 10. the average life expectancy of an individual or of the individuals of a class or species: The age of a horse is from 25 to 30 years. 11. Psychology. the level of mental, emotional, or educational development of a person, especially a child, as determined by various tests and based on a comparison of the individual's score with the average score for persons of the same chronological age. 12. a period of the history of the earth distinguished by some special feature: the Ice Age. a unit of geological time, shorter than an epoch, during which the rocks comprising a stage were formed. 13. any of the successive periods in human history divided, according to Hesiod, into the golden, silver, bronze, heroic, and iron ages.

14. Poker. the first player at the dealer's left. Compare edge (def 10a). verb (used without object), aged, aging or ageing. 15. to mature, as wine, cheese, or wood: a heavy port that ages slowly. verb (used with object), aged, aging or ageing. 17. to make old; cause to grow or seem old: Fear aged him overnight. to bring to maturity or a state fit for use: to age wine. 19. to store (a permanent magnet, a capacitor, or other similar device) so that its electrical or magnetic characteristics become constant. 20. to expose (a dye or dyed cloth) to steam or humid air in order to fix the dye. 21. to stabilize the electrical properties of (a device) by passing current through it. Idioms 22. of age, Law. being any of several ages, usually 21 or 18, at which certain legal rights, as voting or marriage, are acquired. being old enough for full legal rights and responsibilities.

Origin of age Old French 1225-1275 1225-75; (noun) Middle English < Anglo-French, Old French aage, eage, equivalent to aé (< Latin aetātem accusative of ae(vi)tās age; aev(um) time, lifetime + -itās -ity ) + -age -age ; (v.) Middle English agen, derivative of the noun Related forms See more synonyms on Thesaurus.com 6. Age, epoch, era, period all refer to an extent of time. Age usually implies a considerable extent of time, especially one associated with a dominant personality, influence, characteristic, or institution: the age of chivalry. Epoch and era are often used interchangeably to refer to an extent of time characterized by changed conditions and new undertakings: an era (or epoch ) of invention. epoch sometimes refers especially to the beginning of an era: the steam engine—an epoch in technology. A period may be long or short, but usually has a marked condition or feature: the glacial period; a period of expansion. 16. ripen, mellow, develop. -age 1.

a suffix typically forming mass or abstract nouns from various parts of speech, occurring originally in loanwords from French (voyage; courage) and productive in English with the meanings “aggregate” (coinage; peerage; trackage), “process” (coverage; breakage), “the outcome of” as either “the fact of” or “the physical effect or remains of” (seepage; wreckage; spoilage), “place of living or business” (parsonage; brokerage), “social standing or relationship” (bondage; marriage; patronage), and “quantity, measure, or charge” (footage; shortage; tonnage; towage). Origin Expand Middle English < Old French < Latin -āticum, neuter of -āticus adj. suffix; an extension of Latin -āta -ate 1, whose range of senses it reflects closely Ag.E. The Pax Romana [ushistory.org] 6c. The Pax Romana The term "Pax Romana," which literally means "Roman peace," refers to the time period from 27 B.C.E. to 180 C.E. in the Roman Empire.

This 200-year period saw unprecedented peace and economic prosperity throughout the Empire, which spanned from England in the north to Morocco in the south and Iraq in the east. During the Pax Romana, the Roman Empire reached its peak in terms of land area, and its population swelled to an estimated 70 million people. This map depicts the Roman Empire in 117 C.E., at the height of the Pax Romana. Nevertheless, Rome's citizens were relatively secure, and the government generally maintained law, order, and stability. The Pax Romana began when Octavian became the leader of the Roman Empire. Civil War and More After the murder of Julius Caesar, a period of civil war erupted in Rome. Out of this turmoil emerged the Second Triumvirate, consisting of Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian, who was Julius Caesar's nephew. This new triumvirate ruled Rome for a decade, but as happened with the First Triumverate, differences among the leaders eventually emerged. The romance between Antony and Cleopatra has inspired the imaginations of artists for a millennium. Octavian defeated Lepidus in battle, and then turned his armies against the more powerful Mark Antony.

Antony had fallen in love with and married the spellbinding queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. At the Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece in 31 B.C.E., Octavian's navy defeated the navy of Antony and Cleopatra, who later both committed suicide. Octavian returned to Rome triumphant and gave himself the title of princeps or "first citizen." Octavian was careful not to upset the Senate by declaring himself dictator as his uncle Julius Caesar had done. Even though Octavian ruled as a de facto dictator, he maintained the Senate and other institutions of the republican government. In 27 B.C.E., the Senate bestowed the holy title of Augustus upon Octavian. Augustus, as he became known, ruled for 41 years, and the policies he enacted lay the groundwork for the peace and stability of the Pax Romana. All Roads Lead to Rome The 200 years of the Pax Romana saw many advances and accomplishments, particularly in engineering and the arts. To help maintain their sprawling empire, the Romans built an extensive system of roads. These durable road facilitated the movement of troops and communication. The Romans built aqueducts to carry water overland to cities and farms.

The Roman army built the roads that connected the vast Roman empire. By layering sand, cement, and stone, they created durable roads that lasted long after the fall of Rome. Many of the advances in architecture and building relied upon the Romans' discovery of concrete. Concrete made possible the creation of huge rounded arches and domes. One of the most famous structures built during the Pax Romana, the Pantheon in Rome, has one of the largest freestanding domes in the world to this day. During the Pax Romana, many of Rome's finest writers (such as Horace, Virgil, Ovid, and Livy) produced literary and poetic masterpieces. Rome became the economic, political, and cultural capital of the entire Western world. Caligula's bizarre and sometimes sadistic behavior eventually led to his assassination in 41 C.E. Bald Is Not Beautiful After Augustus's death in 14 C.E., other Roman emperors ruled with varying effectiveness. One emperor, Caligula, was mentally ill and regularly abused his power. He was so sensitive about his baldness that he prohibited anyone from looking down upon his head and shaved some people who had a full heads of hair.

Caligula was a vicious sadist who took great pleasure in watching people being put to death. In fact, he often requested that killings be prolonged as much as possible. Caligula also had a tremendous sexual appetite and committed incest with his sisters. "Consider when thou art much vexed or grieved, that man's life is only a moment, and after a short time we are all laid out dead." -Marcus Aurelius He even invited his favorite horse to eat at formal state dinners. Eventually, his bizarre and tyrannical behavior turned the Romans against him, and in 41 C.E., Caligula was assassinated by members of his own Praetorian guard. Not all emperors were unfit to rule. In fact, a series of leaders known as the Five Good Emperors ruled in succession and presided over a prolonged period of peace and prosperity. The last of these emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was the final emperor of the Pax Romana. His reign was followed by the disastrous reign of his brutal son Commodus (160-192 C.E.). By this time, the Empire was struggling to hold off attacking tribes on the frontiers.

Statute of limitations legal definition of statute of limitations Statute of limitations legal definition of statute of limitations Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Medical , Financial , Acronyms , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Statute of Limitations A type of federal or state law that restricts the time within which legal proceedings may be brought. Statutes of limitations, which date back to early Roman Law , are a fundamental part of European and U.S. law. These statutes, which apply to both civil and criminal actions, are designed to prevent fraudulent and stale claims from arising after all evidence has been lost or after the facts have become obscure through the passage of time or the defective memory, death, or disappearance of witnesses. The statute of limitations is a defense that is ordinarily asserted by the defendant to defeat an action brought against him after the appropriate time has elapsed. Therefore, the defendant must plead the defense before the court upon answering the plaintiff's complaint. If the defendant does not do so, he is regarded as having waived the defense and will not be permitted to use it in any subsequent proceedings. Statutes of limitations are enacted by the legislature, which may either extend or reduce the time limits, subject to certain restrictions.

A court cannot extend the time period unless the statute provides such authority. With respect to civil lawsuits, a statute must afford a reasonable period in which an action can be brought. A statute of limitations is unconstitutional if it immediately curtails an existing remedy or provides so little time that it deprives an individual of a reasonable opportunity to start a lawsuit. Depending upon the state statute, the parties themselves may either shorten or extend the prescribed time period by agreement, such as a provision in a contract. Criminal Actions A majority of states have a statute of limitations for all crimes except murder. Once the statute has expired, the court lacks jurisdiction to try or punish a defendant. Criminal statutes of limitations apply to different crimes on the basis of their general classification as either felonies or misdemeanors. Generally, the time limit starts to run on the date the offense was committed, not from the time the crime was discovered or the accused was identified. The running of the statute may be suspended for any period the accused is absent from the state or, in certain states, while any other indictment for the same crime is pending. This suspension occurs so that the state will be able to obtain a new indictment in the event the first one is declared invalid.

Civil Actions In determining which statute of limitations will control in a civil action, the type of Cause of Action that the claim will be pursued under is critical. States establish different deadlines depending on whether the cause of action involves a contract, personal injury, libel, Fraud , or other claim. Recovered Memory: Stopping the Clock Statutes of limitations are intended to encourage the resolution of legal claims within a reasonable amount of time. Courts and legislatures have had to reconsider the purpose of time limits in dealing with the controversial issue of Recovered Memory by child Sexual Abuse victims. For the most part, the clock has been stopped until a victim remembers the abuse. In the 1980s some mental health therapists began exploring the nature of child sexual abuse. They contended that memories of childhood trauma are so disturbing that the child represses them. Many years later, while in therapy or by happenstance, the person remembers the traumatic events. Therapists built on this concept, working with patients to fully recover these memories. Victims of child sexual abuse who sought to sue their abusers for damages faced a statute of limitations question: Had the time expired to file a civil lawsuit because the memory of abuse was not recovered until many years after the actual abuse?

Courts that faced this issue for the first time sought ways to circumvent the time barrier. One method was to apply the "discovery rule" found in Tort Law . The discovery rule applies if the injury is one that is not readily perceptible as having an external source. Thus, a person who has serious mental health problems but does not know the cause will be allowed to toll (suspend the running of) the statute of limitations until he or she discovers that the injury was caused by the defendant's tortious conduct. Legislatures have been urged to amend their statutes of limitations to permit recovered memory plaintiffs to sue their abusers. Between 1989 and 1995 24 states had amended their laws. By 2003, 42 states had codified some form of a recovered-memory law on their books, while one state admitted recovered-memory evidence pursuant to its Common Law rules. Typically recovered-memory laws provide that the action must be filed within a certain number of years after the plaintiff either reaches the age of majority or knew or had reason to know that sexual abuse caused the injury.

Because of these judicial and legislative changes, many lawsuits have been filed alleging child sexual abuse that occurred many years before, sometimes as long as 20 years earlier. Further readings Isaac, Rael Jean. 2001. "Down Pseudo-Memory Lane." Priorities for Health 13. Pezdek, Kathy, and William P. Banks, eds. 1996. The Recovered Memory/False Memory Debate. San Diego: Academic Press. Cross-references Child Abuse ; Sexual Abuse ; Sex Offenses . Once the cause of action is determined, the date of the injury must be fixed. A cause of action ordinarily arises when the party has a right to apply to the proper court for relief. Some states, for example, require a person to bring a lawsuit for breach of contract within six years from the date the contract was breached. The action cannot be started until the contract has actually been violated, even though serious disagreements between the parties might have occurred earlier. Conversely, the time limit within which to bring an action for fraud does not begin until the fraud has been discovered.

Waiving the Defense A court cannot force a defendant to use a statute of limitations defense, but it is usually in the person's best legal interests to do so. Nevertheless, defendants do sometimes waive the defense. The defense may be waived by an agreement of the parties to the controversy, provided that the agreement is supported by adequate consideration. For example, a debtor's agreement to waive the statute of limitations in exchange for a creditor's agreement not to sue is valuable consideration that prevents the debtor from using the defense. A defendant may be unable to use the limitations defense due to her agreement, conduct, or representations. To be estopped, or prevented, from using this defense, a defendant need not have signed a written statement, unless required by statute. The defendant must, however, have done something that amounted to an affirmative inducement to the plaintiff to delay bringing the action. Statements that only attempt to discourage a person from bringing a suit or mere negotiations looking toward an amicable settlement will not estop a defendant from invoking the statute of limitations. Tolling the Statute Statutes of limitations are designed to aid defendants. A plaintiff, however, can prevent the dismissal of his action for untimeliness by seeking to toll the statute.

When the statute is tolled, the running of the time period is suspended until some event specified by law takes place. Tolling provisions benefit a plaintiff by extending the time period in which he is permitted to bring suit. Various events or circumstances will toll a statute of limitations. It is tolled when one of the parties is under a legal disability—the lack of legal capacity to do an act—at the time the cause of action accrues. A child or a person with a mental illness is regarded as being incapable of initiating a legal action on her own behalf. Therefore, the time limit will be tolled until some fixed time after the disability has been removed. For example, once a child reaches the age of majority, the counting of time will be resumed. A personal disability that postpones the operation of the statute against an individual may be asserted only by that individual. If a party is under more than one disability, the statute of limitations does not begin to run until all the disabilities are removed. Once the statute begins to run, it will not be suspended by the subsequent disability of any of the parties unless specified by statute.

Mere ignorance of the existence of a cause of action generally does not toll the statute of limitations, particularly when the facts could have been learned by inquiry or diligence. In cases where a cause of action has been fraudulently concealed, the statute of limitations is tolled until the action is, or could have been, discovered through the exercise of due diligence. Ordinarily, silence or failure to disclose the existence of a cause of action does not toll the statute. The absence of the plaintiff or defendant from the jurisdiction does not suspend the running of the statute of limitations, unless the statute so provides. The statute of limitations for a debt or obligation may be tolled by either an unconditional promise to pay the debt or an acknowledgement of the debt. The time limitation on bringing a lawsuit to enforce payment of the debt is suspended until the time for payment established under the promise or Acknowledgment has arrived. Upon that due date, the period of limitations will start again. Further readings Corman, Calvin W. 1991. Limitation of Actions. Boston: Little, Brown. Hamilton, Marcie. 2003. "The Case for Abolishing Child-Abuse Statutes of Limitations." CNN.com: Law Center.

Available online at < (accessed September 30, 2003). Lazo, Joy. 1995. "True or False: Expert Testimony on Repressed Memory." Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 28 (June). Levy, Adolph J. 1987. Solving Statute of Limitations Problems. New York: Kluwer Law. statute of limitations n. a law which sets the maximum period which one can wait before filing a lawsuit, depending on the type of case or claim. The periods vary by state. Federal statutes set the limitations for suits filed in Federal courts. If the lawsuit or claim is not filed before the statutory deadline the right to sue or make a claim is forever dead (barred). The types of cases and statute of limitations periods are broken down among: personal injury from negligence or intentional wrongdoing, property damage from negligence or intentional wrongdoing, breach of an oral contract, breach of a written contract, professional malpractice, libel, slander, fraud, trespass, a claim against a governmental entity (usually a short time), and some other variations.

In some instances a statute of limitations can be extended ("tolled") based on delay in discovery of the injury or on reasonable reliance on a trusted person (a fiduciary or confidential adviser who has hidden his/her own misuse of someone else's funds or failure to pay). A minor's right to bring an action for injuries due to negligence is tolled until the minor turns 18 (except for a claim against a governmental agency). There are also statutes of limitations on bringing criminal charges, but homicide generally has no time limitation on prosecution. The limitations (depending on the state) generally range from 1 to 6 years except for in Rhode Island which uses 10 years for several causes of action. Louisiana has the strictest limitations, cutting off lawsuit rights at one year for almost all types of cases except contracts. California also has short periods, usually one year, with two years for most property damage and oral contracts and four years for written contracts. There are also statutes of limitations on the right to enforce a judgment, ranging from five to 25 years, depending on the state.

Some states have special requirements before a lawsuit can be filed, such as a written warning to a physician in a claim of malpractice, making a demand upon a state agency and then waiting for the claim to be denied or ignored for a particular period, first demanding a retraction before filing a libel suit, and other variations. Vermont protects its ski resorts by allowing only one year for filing a lawsuit for injuries suffered in a skiing accident as an exception to that state's three-year statute of limitations for other personal injuries. (See: laches , toll , demurrer ) statute of limitations generally, a legislative enactment prescribing the period of time within which proceedings must be instituted to enforce a right or bring an action at law. HIV & AIDS Information :: Understanding test results - Window periods Understanding test results Window periods The window period is the time during which markers of infection are not detectable. The length of the window period varies between individuals; UK guidelines state that for a fourth-generation test the window period is one month. Testing during this period can result in false negative results. People seeking testing may be confused or uncertain about the significance and length of window periods.

The window period refers to the time after infection and before seroconversion, during which markers of infection (HIV-specific antigen and antibodies) are still absent or too scarce to be detectable. Standard screening tests cannot reliably detect HIV infection until after the window period has passed. Testing guidelines therefore recommend that a person who may have been recently infected should have a repeat test some weeks or months after the possible date of infection. But as there is a natural variation in the time it takes different individuals to produce detectable antigen and antibodies, definitive statements about the length of window periods are difficult to make. Older recommendations were to defer testing until as much as three months after exposure. 1 However, the effective window period has grown shorter with more sensitive, newer-generation assays. Current UK testing guidelines 2 , 3 state that the time between infection and testing positive is typically one month. Many sources agree that, in many cases, the effective window period is probably shorter still: as little as one to three weeks. However, messages around window periods may not always reflect these newer realities, and may not be consistent or clearly communicated. Some experts have expressed concerns that people may unnecessarily defer or avoid testing due to concerns or confusion about the window period.

4 , 5 (The window period also depends on the type of assay used, which may also add some confusion: the figures stated here refer to the fourth-generation, antibody/antigen assays in standard use, while community-based, point-of-care tests used outside the medical clinic setting still have a suggested window period of twelve weeks.) While testing during the window period should not necessarily be discouraged, it should be made clear that a negative result is not necessarily reliable (see False negatives ), and that the person should return to the clinic to be retested. 6 7 8 The British Association for Sexual Health and HIV issued a statement on window periods in 2010, noting that fourth-generation tests will detect the great majority of individuals who have been infected with HIV four weeks after exposure. Moreover: “Patients attending for HIV testing who identify a specific risk occurring more than 4 weeks previously, should not be made to wait 3 months (12 weeks) before HIV testing. They should be offered a 4th generation laboratory HIV test and advised that a negative result at 4 weeks post exposure is very reassuring / highly likely to exclude HIV infection.

An additional HIV test should be offered to all persons at 3 months (12 weeks) to definitively exclude HIV infection. Patients at lower risk may opt to wait until 3 months to avoid the need for HIV testing twice.” 3 Calculating window periods Precise figures for the duration of the window period are difficult to come by, for a number of reasons: There are individual variations in its duration. People infrequently present to healthcare and have multiple plasma samples taken during this period, making this a difficult topic to investigate. A single, precise date of exposure is rarely known. To be calculated accurately, researchers would have to know the precise date that a person was exposed to HIV, and then have multiple plasma samples to test with different assays (for RNA, antigen or antibodies). From these results, it would be possible to give an average number of days during which tests were not able to detect the infection. It is more common to be able to identify the first date on which HIV RNA was detectable, and then to calculate the number of days before which other assays are reactive. It is therefore possible to say HIV RNA becomes detectable approximately eleven days before antibodies (or that use of an HIV RNA test reduces the window period by eleven days).

It is more challenging to say how many days after exposure HIV RNA is detectable, or what the total length of the window period is. One way of calculating window periods 9 therefore uses the first detection of HIV RNA as ‘day zero’: First detection of p24 approximately five days later (typical range three to eight days). First detection of antibodies approximately ten days after detection of RNA (typical range seven to thirteen days). Nonetheless, there is also a gap between exposure and the first detection of HIV RNA. This is sometimes referred to as the eclipse phase, and refers to the time during which there is viral replication principally at the site of infection, before widespread dissemination of virus in the body (as observed in animal models). This time period has been thought by some to vary between four and eleven days, 10 , 11 or by others to be between one and two weeks, but occasionally longer. 12 13 Based on the assumption that HIV RNA is first detected approximately ten days after exposure, researchers have estimated 11 window periods to be as follows. First detection of HIV RNA: approximately ten days after exposure (typical range 7 to 21 days).

First detection of p24: approximately 17 days after exposure (typical range 13 to 28 days). First detection of antibodies: approximately 22 days after exposure (typical range 18 to 34 days). However, these are averages, and if the period between exposure and detectable viraemia is as variable as some authors suggest, these periods will occasionally be several weeks longer. Moreover, the information we have is based on studies of the HIV subtype that is most commonly found in Europe and the United States (group M, clade B). Equivalent data are not available for HIV subtypes more commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa and in other parts of the world. Related Links References Stekler JD et al. Learning from missed opportunities for HIV testing. Sex Transm Infect 85: 2-3, 2009 BHIVA, BASHH and BIS UK national guidelines for HIV testing. September, 2008 BASHH Statement on HIV window period. Available at 15 March 2010 Brenner BG et al. High rates of forward transmission events after acute/early HIV-1 infection.

J Infect Dis 195: 951-959, 2007 Malarelli F 'Diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection' in: Mandell, Bennett and Dolin, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 6th ed (online version), chapter 115. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2007 Wawer MJ et al. Declines in HIV Prevalence in Uganda: Not as Simple as ABC. Twelfth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, abstract LB27, 2005 Yerly S et al. The contribution of individuals with recent infection to the spread of HIV-1 in Switzerland: a 10-year survey. Fifteenth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, abstract 512, 2008 Hughes G et al. Recent phylodynamics of the HIV epidemic among MSM in the UK. Fifteenth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, abstract 13, 2008 Fiebig EW et al.

Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS 17:1871-9, 2003 Kahn JO et al. Acute Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 infection. NEJM 339:33-39, 1998 Cohen MS et al. The detection of acute HIV infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 202: S270-S277, 2010 Busch MP et al. Time course of viremia and antibody seroconversion following human immunodeficiency virus exposure. Am J Med 102(5B):117-126, 1997 Coombs RW Clinical laboratory diagnosis of HIV-1 and use of viral RNA to monitor infection. In Holmes KK (editor), Sexually Transmitted Diseases. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008 Times, Time, and Half a Time. Time, Times, and Half a Time?

One of the most misunderstood and misinterpreted time periods to be found in scripture is the time, times and half a time which is mentioned in Daniel and Revelation: Dan 7:25 And he shall speak great words against the most High, and shall wear out the saints of the most High, and think to change times and laws: and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and the dividing of time. Dan 12:7 And I heard the man clothed in linen, which was upon the waters of the river, when he held up his right hand and his left hand unto heaven, and sware by him that liveth for ever that it shall be for a time, times, and an half; and when he shall have accomplished to scatter the power of the holy people, all these things shall be finished. Rev 12:14 And to the woman were given two wings of a great eagle, that she might fly into the wilderness, into her place, where she is nourished for a time, and times, and half a time, from the face of the serpent. The word time in this context refers to a period of a year.

In the story of King Nebuchadnezzar, because of his pride, he went crazy for seven years and ate grass as an ox- Dan 4:32 And they shall drive thee from men, and thy dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field: they shall make thee to eat grass as oxen, and seven times shall pass over thee, until thou know that the most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will. So on a literal level, time, times and half a time means time (1 year), times (2 years) and half a time (1/2 year) or 3 1/2 years. Most people who study Bible prophecy stop at this point and accept the 3 1/2 years only at face value. The period that this is generally attributed to by most people, is the last half of the 70th week of Daniel and the reign of the AntiChrist, which is proposed to be fulfilled at some time in the future. A Day Equals One Year The 70 week prophecy of Daniel 9:24, however, establishes a principle related to prophetic time that few completely understand.

Virtually everyone acknowledges that the 70 weeks are not literally 70 weeks, but rather 70 weeks of years, or 490 years. The principle is that in Bible prophecy, you must substitute a period of a year in place of a day. This is the day=year principle. This equation is clearly established in scripture- Num 14:34 After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years, and ye shall know my breach of promise. In this verse, a relationship between day and year is clear, each day will equate to a literal year. For the forty days that Israel spied in Canaan in unbelief, they would be punished by wandering forty years in the desert. Ezek 4:6 And when thou hast accomplished them, lie again on thy right side, and thou shalt bear the iniquity of the house of Judah forty days: I have appointed thee each day for a year. Here again, the equation is stated quite openly, a prophetic day represents a literal year.

So to return to the 70 weeks of Daniel, you must first determine the number of days represented. Seventy weeks is 70 x 7 or 490 days, which will then equate to a literal 490 years in the fulfillment of the prophecy. The Lunar Calendar So now to apply this formula to the 3 1/2 times we must first establish just exactly how many days this represents. The Jews did not use a solar calendar as we do today, they used instead a lunar calendar, as indicated in Psalms- Psa 104:19 He appointed the moon for seasons: the sun knoweth his going down. The length of the lunar month can be determined from Genesis- Gen 7:11 In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened. Gen 7:24 And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days. Gen 8:4 And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat.

Note that the there were exactly 5 months from the point where the flood began and the ark came to rest on Ararat, and that this was a period of 150 days. This demonstrates that the lunar calendar set forth in the Bible has a 30 day month, therefore the year is counted as 360 days. (This 360 day lunar year also accounts for the reason that there are 360 degrees in the compass). The 1260 Days Returning to the 3 1/2 times, which we now know represents 3 1/2 lunar years of 360 days each, using the same methodology as is used for the 70 weeks of Daniel we calculate it to actually represent 1260 literal years. So, Time, Times and half a Time in prophecy is really 1260 years! To confirm this formula we need only to look to the 12th chapter of the book of Revelation- Rev 12:6 And the woman fled into the wilderness, where she hath a place prepared of God, that they should feed her there a thousand two hundred and threescore days.

Here the woman represents the faithful church, who flees into the wilderness for 1260 days. Again using the day=year formula, this actually speaks of 1260 years that the church would be persecuted. Now look at this next verse from the same chapter- Rev 12:14 And to the woman were given two wings of a great eagle, that she might fly into the wilderness, into her place, where she is nourished for a time, and times, and half a time, from the face of the serpent. Here the exact same time of persecution is referred to as 3 1/2 times, again meaning the same period of 1260 days/years as found in verse 6. In the book of Daniel, this exact same period of persecution in church history is found- Dan 7:25 And he shall speak great words against the most High, and shall wear out the saints of the most High, and think to change times and laws: and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and the dividing of time.

This verse in context is referring to a period of time that the little horn or AntiChrist will persecute the true believers or true church, again for 1260 years. The same is true for this next verse- Dan 12:7 And I heard the man clothed in linen, which was upon the waters of the river, when he held up his right hand and his left hand unto heaven, and sware by him that liveth for ever that it shall be for a time, times, and an half; and when he shall have accomplished to scatter the power of the holy people, all these things shall be finished. The Two Witnesses The exact same 1260 years is found in Revelation chapter 11- Rev 11:3 And I will give power unto my two witnesses, and they shall prophesy a thousand two hundred and threescore days, clothed in sackcloth. The commonly accepted interpretation of the verse is that the two witnesses are real prophets, perhaps Moses and Elijah. When you understand that the time period does not represent 1260 literal days, but rather 1260 years, it can be seen that it cannot be referring to real people as witnesses.

One clue is in the next verse- Rev 11:4 These are the two olive trees, and the two candlesticks standing before the God of the earth. The two witnesses are also called two olive trees standing before God. This links us to- Zec 4:2 And said unto me, What seest thou? And I said, I have looked, and behold a candlestick all of gold, with a bowl upon the top of it, and his seven lamps thereon, and seven pipes to the seven lamps, which are upon the top thereof: Zec 4:3 And two olive trees by it, one upon the right side of the bowl, and the other upon the left side thereof. Zec 4:4 So I answered and spake to the angel that talked with me, saying, What are these, my lord? Zechariah sees a candlestick and two olive trees and asks what they are. Note the answer- Zec 4:5 Then the angel that talked with me answered and said unto me, Knowest thou not what these be? And I said, No, my lord.

Zec 4:6 Then he answered and spake unto me, saying, This is the word of the LORD unto Zerubbabel, saying, Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit, saith the LORD of hosts. The candlestick and two olive trees are the word of the Lord! So the language used in Revelation 11:4 is prophetic and symbolic, the two witnesses actually representing the word of God, the Old and New Testament, that would "prophesy in sackcloth" or be suppressed during the very same 1260 years of persecution we are considering. The 42 Months This same period of persecution is found in the following verses- Rev 11:2 But the court which is without the temple leave out, and measure it not; for it is given unto the Gentiles: and the holy city shall they tread under foot forty and two months. Again as in Rev 12, we have a strong relationship between this 42 months of verse 2 and the 1260 days of Rev 11: 3.

Forty two months calculates as 42 x 30 (30 days in a lunar month) which equals 1260 days/years. This verse is saying that the Gentiles or unbelievers would trample the people of God (the holy city) for 1260 years. Again this same time period of 42 months is found in Revelation 13- Rev 13:5 And there was given unto him a mouth speaking great things and blasphemies; and power was given unto him to continue forty and two months. Rev 13:6 And he opened his mouth in blasphemy against God, to blaspheme his name, and his tabernacle, and them that dwell in heaven. Rev 13:7 And it was given unto him to make war with the saints, and to overcome them: and power was given him over all kindreds, and tongues, and nations. This passage speaks of the great and terrible beast from the sea, which actually is the same as the little horn of Daniel, which is to say the AntiChrist power that would persecute the people of God for 1260 years.

So, here is a complete listing of the passages that deal with the same 1260 year time period of persecution- 3 1/2 Times - Rev 12:14, Dan 7:25, Dan 12:7 1260 days - Rev 11:3, Rev 12:6 42 Months - Rev 11:2, Rev 13:5 If you know much about what is called the Dark Ages, then you probably know who this persecuting power is already. So now, to find out exactly when this 1260 years is fulfilled, and the real identity of the little horn and beast from the sea in Revelation that persecuted God's people for those 1260 years, please continue to:

Question: A 'lustrum' refers to a period of how many years?
Answer: Five