Purdue OWL: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue ( When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice at bottom. Gerunds This handout provides a detailed overview (including descriptions and examples) of gerunds, participles, and infinitives. Contributors:Purdue OWL Last Edited: 2011-12-09 01:47:54 A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition. Gerund as subject: Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.) The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as direct object: They do not appreciate my singing.

(The gerund is singing.) They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed) Gerund as subject complement: My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.) My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as object of preposition: The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.) The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.) A gerund phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as: The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents. jabbering away to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund) Punctuation A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it. Points to remember: A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Gerund: hints and tips [infographic] | Grammar Newsletter - English Grammar Newsletter Gerund: hints and tips [infographic] September 24, 2012 Buy this poster Gerunds are behind some of the most confusing and persistent grammar problems. These verbals are found in many sentences, and they function in many ways, which only adds to the confusion. In order to understand how verbals work, it’s essential to understand their meaning and purpose. The definition of gerund describes these verbals as words that are derived from verbs but function as nouns. Gerunds can be recognized by the ending –ing. Unfortunately, this causes a problem because present participles use the same suffix. This causes a number of mistakes and questions as to which form must be used with different pronouns and subjects. These gerund examples will explain proper pronoun usage and will end the confusion between gerunds, infinitives and participles. <a href=""><img src=" alt="Grammar.net" /></a> [Infographic provided by <a href=""><em>Grammar.net</em></a>] To download high-resolution poster click here The simplest gerunds are the names of activities that are put into a noun form. Here’s an example.

Meredith enjoys running, swimming and biking. One more simple gerund example in a big sentence: Teacher gave a task to review the website about 1 hour ago and said that she doesn’t like waiting. This type of use doesn’t generally cause a problem. However, it’s important to note that gerunds should not be mixed with infinitives within a list to keep the sentence parallel. The most important rule of gerunds is that the possessive case must be used with all pronouns and proper nouns. If the objective case is used instead, the gerund becomes a participle, and the meaning of the phrase is altered. Here are two examples of gerunds followed by one example that uses a participle. The teacher didn’t appreciate his talking. The dog’s barking infuriated the neighbors. The boss didn’t like him leaving without notice. Gerunds describe functions and activities in a noun form. On the other hand, infinitives are used when describing a purpose or a reason. The following examples illustrate the difference between gerunds and infinitives. The soft rag is used for dusting. Polish is used to shine the wood. According to this rule, the word “for” should always be paired with a gerund.

Using an infinitive with the word “for” is a common mistake. The word “to” is typically used with infinitives. Gerunds follow the word “by” when describing how something is done. If “with” is used, a simple noun should be used instead. Gerunds are inextricably linked to prepositions. This produces another common mistake. When the word “to” is used as a preposition, an infinitive cannot be used. Here are three examples of gerunds that are paired with prepositions. Tara is accustomed to painting murals. After opening the shed, Martin noticed that the tools were missing. Nicholas is looking forward to meeting the whole group. Another common mistake occurs when gerunds or participles are orphaned. All present participles must be paired with a subject and a helping verb. This also applies when gerunds or participles are used in introductory phrases. If helping verbs and subjects are omitted, the sentence becomes nonsensical. There are plenty of exceptions that make gerunds even more complicated. To ensure that the proper verbal is used, always make sure that possessive nouns and pronouns are used with gerunds.

Present participles can be scattered around a sentence that uses compound verbs, so it’s important to check for other verbs that disguise themselves. When in doubt, check to see if an infinitive or present participle might be the correct verbal. If you have any questions, comments or strategies for dealing with gerunds, feel free to share your comments. Gerunds: -ing action words | English Grammar Lesson | Elemental English Subscribe: iTunes | Android | RSS …or watch the video!: In English, we are not limited to using just one verb, but we can use two verbs together [verb + infinitive]. Examples “I like to eat sushi.” “I like to read books.” “I like to buy clothes” Notice the structure of the answers: subject (noun) + verb + infinitive (2nd verb) + object (noun) Now…. What if I asked you: “What do you enjoy doing on the weekends?” (Notice how my intonation went down ).

You could NOT say: “I enjoy to listen* to music on the weekends.” “I enjoy to cook* dinner on the weekends.” Instead, you would have to say: “I enjoy listening to music on the weekends.” “I enjoy cooking dinner on the weekends.” So, why “listening” instead of “to listen”? These -ing words are called gerunds. When to Use a Gerund 3 types of Verbs in English Verbs that can only be followed by infinitives [to + verb] Example: “I want to go to school today.” Verbs that can only be followed by gerunds [verb + -ing] Example: “I enjoy going to school.” Verbs that can be followed by either infinitives or gerunds Example: I like to go/going to school.” So, the verb used in the sentence would tell you whether to use an infinitive or a gerund following it. Are Gerunds Verbs? Gerunds are funny — they look like verbs, they sound like verbs, they seem like verbs…. but they are not verbs — they’re nouns! Specifically, gerunds are action-oriented verb-like words that function as nouns. Why is that important? English is an SVO language.

English sentences must have the word order of: Subject – Verb – Object Because gerunds are nouns–and not verbs–they can move around to different locations in a sentence, including acting as: a subject (SVO) an object (SVO) following a preposition Whereas a verb must be between the subject and the object [SVO], so a verb’s movement in the sentence is very limited. Because gerunds are nouns and can move in a sentence, they give you greater flexibility in expressing yourself, as opposed to the verb, which is stuck in that one spot (SVO). Got it? Let’s practice. And also notice how I stress and de-stress certain words, and how I connect my speech in the examples. Listen and Repeat “Jogging is important for your health.” <– gerund as subject. “I look forward to meeting you soon.” <– gerund as object. “I adore swimming in the ocean at sunset.” <– gerund as object. “I avoid walking alone at night as much as I can.” <– gerund as object. “Please consider giving a donation.” <– gerund as object. “Buying some new clothes will definitely cheer her up.” <– gerund as subject.

“I don’t recall telling her I would meet her tonight.” <– gerund as object. (Notice how I deleted the “h” in the second “her”). Verbs followed by Gerunds (-ing) admit Don’t forget to subscribe to the Elemental English podcast on iTunes . And please leave And if this lesson was helpful to you, feel free to share it with friends and family on Facebook and Twitter .

ElementalEnglish.com is your resource for free English language and pronunciation lessons, 無料オンライン英語教材, 免费在线英文课程, 免費在線英文課程, मुफ़्त ऑनलाइन अंग्रेज़ी, آنلائن مفت میں انگریزی سیکھئے, Kostenloser Englisch-Unterricht Online, Język angielski online, Học tiếng anh miễn phí, Libreng Pag-aaral ng Wikang Ingles sa Internet, Libreng Pag-aaral ng Wikang Ingles Online, دروس في اللغة الانجليزية على الانترنت مجانا, Lecciones gratuitas de Ingles Americano, cursuri online gratis de limba engleza, เรียนภาษาอังกฤษออนไลน์ ฟรี, American English pronunciation, アメリカ英語の発音, 纯正美语发音, 純正美語發音, अमरीकी अंग्रेज़ी, امریکی انگریزی کا تلفّ

ظ سیکھئے, Amerikanisches Englisch Aussprache, wymowa język angielski, Học tiếng anh miễn phí, Wastong Pagbigkas ng American English sa Internet, astong Pagbigkas ng, تعلم اللهجة الامريكية على الانترنت, American English Online, Pronunciacion de Ingles Americano en linea, pronuntie engleza americana online, บทเรียน การออกเสียงภาษาอังกฤษ สำหรับคนไทย Verbs and Verbals Verbs and Verbals Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.

I am a student. The students passed all their courses. As we will see on this page, verbs are classified in many ways. First, some verbs require an object to complete their meaning: "She gave _____ ?" Gave what? She gave money to the church. These verbs are called transitive. Verbs that are intransitive do not require objects: "The building collapsed." In English, you cannot tell the difference between a transitive and intransitive verb by its form; you have to see how the verb is functioning within the sentence. In fact, a verb can be both transitive and intransitive: "The monster collapsed the building by sitting on it." Although you will seldom hear the term, a ditransitive verb  such as cause or give  is one that can take a direct object and an indirect object at the same time: "That horrid music gave me a headache." Ditransitive verbs are slightly different, then, from factitive verbs (see below), in that the latter take two objects. Verbs are also classified as either finite or non-finite. A finite verb makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can stand by itself as the main verb of a sentence.

The truck demolished the restaurant. The leaves were yellow and sickly. Non-finite verbs (think "unfinished") cannot, by themselves, be main verbs: The broken window . . . The wheezing gentleman . . . Another, more useful term for non-finite verb is verbal. In this section, we discuss various verbal forms: infinitives, gerunds, and participles. For WebCT Users The "-s" Problem Icon means that the verb requires an -s ending because it's a third-person (he/she/it) verb in the present tense. See the Table of Verb Tenses for help in identifying present tenses requiring the -s. The "-ed" Problem Icon probably means that the verb requires an -ed ending because it's in the past tense or that an -ed ending has been used inappropriately. The -ed ending is particularly problematic when it occurs just before a "d" or "t" sound as in "We are used to doing things the way we're supposed to: like in the old-fashioned days." See the Table of Verb Tenses for help in identifying past tenses requiring the -ed. The "Verb" Problem Icon probably means that the verb tenses in this sentence are inconsistent or incorrect.

See the section on Sequencing for help in using the correct sequence of verb tenses. See the section on Consistency for help in maintaining a proper consistency in verb tense. Four Verb Forms The inflections (endings) of English verb forms are not difficult to remember. There are only four basic forms. Instead of forming complex tense forms with endings, English uses auxiliary verb forms. English does not even have a proper ending for future forms; instead, we use auxiliaries such as "I am going to read this afternoon." or "I will read." or even "I am reading this book tomorrow." It would be useful, however, to learn these four basic forms of verb construction. Name of verb I have written. Linking Verbs A linking verb connects a subject and its complement . Sometimes called copulas, linking verbs are often forms of the verb to be, but are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will be either a noun complement or an adjective complement: Those people are all professors. Those professors are brilliant. I feel great.

A victory today seems unlikely. A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being are sometimes called resulting copulas. They, too, link a subject to a predicate adjective: His face turned purple. The milk has gone sour. The crowd grew ugly. "This is he." A Frequently Asked Question about linking verbs concerns the correct response when you pick up the phone and someone asks for you. One correct response would be "This is he [she]." The predicate following the linking verb should be in the nominative (subject) form  definitely not "This is him." If "This is he" sounds stuffy to you, try using "Speaking," instead, or "This is Fred," substituting your own name for Fred's  unless it's a bill collector or telemarketer calling, in which case "This is Fred" is a good response for everyone except people named Fred. Active and Passive Voice There is now a separate section dealing with issues raised by a verb's VOICE (active/passive). Mood Click on the "Verb Guy" to read and hear Bob Dorough's "Verb: That's What's Happening!" (from Scholastic Rock, 1974).

Schoolhouse Rock® and its characters and other elements are trademarks and service marks of American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. Used with permission. Mood in verbs refers to one of three attitudes that a writer or speaker has to what is being written or spoken. The indicative mood, which describes most sentences on this page, is used to make a statement or ask a question. The imperative mood is used when we're feeling sort of bossish and want to give a directive, strong suggestion, or order: Get your homework done before you watch television tonight. Please include cash payment with your order form. Get out of town! Notice that there is no subject in these imperative sentences. The pronoun you (singular or plural, depending on context) is the "understood subject" in imperative sentences. Virtually all imperative sentences, then, have a second person (singular or plural) subject.

The sole exception is the first person construction, which includes an objective form as subject: "Let's (or Let us) work on these things together." The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the following: 1) express a wish; 2) begin with if and express a condition that does not exist (is contrary to fact); 3) begin with as if and as though when such clauses describe a speculation or condition contrary to fact; and 4) begin with that and express a demand, requirement, request, or suggestion. A new section on the uses of the Conditional should help you understand the subjunctive. She wishes her boyfriend were here. If Juan were more aggressive, he'd be a better hockey player. We would have passed if we had studied harder. He acted as if he were guilty. I requested that he be present at the hearing. The subjunctive is not as important a mood in English as it is in other languages, like French and Spanish, which happen to be more subtle and discriminating in hypothetical, doubtful, or wishful expressions. Many situations which would require the subjunctive in other languages are satisfied by using one of several auxiliary verbs in English.

The New York Public Library's Writer's Guide to Style and Usage has this important note on the subjunctive: "The words if, as if, or as though do not always signal the subjunctive mood. If the information in such a clause points out a condition that is or was probable or likely, the verb should be in the indicative mood. The indicative tells the reader that the information in the dependent clause could possibly be true" (155). Cited with permission. The present tense of the subjunctive uses only the base form of the verb. He demanded that his students use two-inch margins. She suggested that we be on time tomorrow. The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative except (unfortunately) for the verb to be, which uses were regardless of the number of the subject. If I were seven feet tall, I'd be a great basketball player. He wishes he were a better student. If you were rich, we wouldn't be in this mess. If they were faster, we could have won that race. An excellent resource for learning more about the subjunctive is available in the online American Heritage Book of English Usage .

Quiz on Uses of the Subjunctive Auxiliary or Helping Verbs The issues raised by Helping or Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries are covered in a separate section. Click here for help with Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries . Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition . The resulting combination creates what amounts to a new verb, whose meaning can sometimes be puzzling to non-native speakers. Phrasal verbs often arise from casual uses of the language and eventually work themselves into the mainstream of language use. Phrasal verbs can be both intransitive (The children were sitting around, doing nothing. The witness finally broke down on the stand.) and transitive in meaning (Our boss called off the meeting. She looked up her old boyfriend.) The word that is joined with a verb in this construction (often a preposition) is called a particle. The problem with phrasal verbs is that their meaning is often, at first, obscure, and they often mean several different things. To make out, for instance, can mean to perceive or to see something; it can also mean to engage in light sexual play.

If someone chooses to turn up the street that is a combination of a verb and a preposition, but it is not a phrasal verb. On the other hand, if your neighbors unexpectedly turn up (appear) at a party or your brother turns up his radio, those are phrasal verbs. To come out, we are told, has eighteen different meanings. Verbs can be combined with different prepositions and other words, sometimes with dizzying effect: stand out, stand up, stand in, stand off, stand by, stand fast, stand pat, stand down, stand against, stand for. Further, the verb and the word or phrase it connects to are not always contiguous: "Fill this out," we would say, but then we would say, "Fill out this form." You can click HERE for an extensive list of phrasal verbs , broken down into categories of transitive and intransitive, separable and inseparable. The list of verbs is accompanied with brief definitions and examples. Printed out, the list will be five or six pages long, depending on the size font you are using, the width of your browser window, etc.

Understand, however, that the list is a mere sampling of the hundreds of phrasal verb combinations. For beginning language learners, the challenge of mastering phrasal verbs is so great that only intensive instruction and practice in an ESL program and a great deal of time spent listening and reading carefully can address the problem. Having a good dictionary at hand is also helpful. Second Quiz on Phrasal Verbs Causative Verbs Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen. In "The devil made me do it." the verb "made" causes the "do" to happen. Here is a brief list of causative verbs, in no particular order: let, help, allow, have, require, allow, motivate, get, make, convince, hire, assist, encourage, permit, employ, force. Most of them are followed by an object (noun or pronoun) followed by an infinitive: "She allows her pet cockatiel to perch on the windowsill. She hired a carpenter to build a new birdcage." Three causative verbs are exceptions to the pattern described above.

Instead of being followed by a noun/pronoun and an infinitive, the causative verbs have, make and let are followed by a noun/pronoun and the base form of the verb (which is actually an infinitive with the "to" left off). Professor Villa had her students read four short novels in one week. She also made them read five plays in one week. However, she let them skip the final exam. Factitive Verbs Verbs like make, choose, judge, elect, select, name. are called factitive verbs. These transitive verbs can take two objects, or seem to: They judged Philbert's dog Best of Show. (where "dog" is the direct object and "Best of Show" is the second complement). The faculty elected Dogsbreath the new Academic Dean. (where Dogsbreath is the direct object and "Academic Dean" is the second complement). U.S. News and World Report named our college the best in the northeast. (where "our college" is the direct object and "the best" is the second complement). Tenses Tense shows the time of a verb's action or being. There are three inflected forms reflected by changes in the endings of verbs.

The present tense indicates that something is happening or being now: "She is a student. She drives a new car." The simple past tense indicates that something happened in the past: "She was a student. She drove a new car." And the past participle form is combined with auxiliary verbs to indicate that something happened in the past prior to another action: "She has been a student. She had driven a new car." Unlike most other languages, English does not have inflected forms for the future tense. Instead, English future forms are created with the use of auxiliaries: "She will be a student. She is going to drive a new car." English can even create the future by using the present tense, "The bus arrives later this afternoon," or the present progressive, "He is relocating to Portland later next month." For an extensive discussion of the future tense in English, click HERE . Progressive Verbs The progressive tenses, which indicate something being or happening, are formed with the present participle form (ending in -ing) along with various auxiliaries. "She is driving. She was driving. She will be driving. She has been driving. She had been driving.

She will have been driving." Click HERE for more on the progressive forms. Some verbs, called stative verbs, (including, sometimes, the verb to be) do not normally create the progressive. Click here for a discussion of the difference between stative and dynamic verbs . For help with the verb "to be," click the enter button below. If you have a frames-capable browser, we recommend the ENGLISH TENSES The Directory contains descriptions, conjugations (for both regular and irregular verbs), and sample sentences for the twelve tenses of active voice verbs. For a greatly simplified one-page summary of these tenses, click HERE . Colin Mahoney, a teacher of English as a foreign language, has a considerable page devoted to the Present Perfect Tense (and related issues) , which we recommend. For ESL learners and students wanting a thorough review of verbs, we also recommend the tutorial on English tenses at Englishpage.com (expect ads). Quiz on Identifying Tenses Irregular Verbs Most verbs in English form their various tenses consistently: add -ed to the base of a verb to create the simple past and past participle: he walked; he has walked.

There are, however, a number of so-called irregular verbs, (including, unfortunately, some very common verbs such as to be and to have) whose various forms must be memorized. An alphabetized list of Common Irregular Verbs is available in the Guide that you can copy or print out and then try to memorize or at least use in practice sentences. You should take the quizzes on irregular verbs, below, after you've looked at this list. Irregular Verbs Crossword Puzzle Sequence of Tenses Sequence of Tenses: The relationship between verbs in a main clause and verbs in dependent clauses is important. These verb tenses don't have to be identical as long as they reflect, logically, shifts in time and meaning: "My brother had graduated before I started college." "My brother will have graduated before I start." Click HERE for a chart describing various time relationships and how those relationships determine the appropriate sequence of verb tenses. Verbals Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do not function as a true verb. The are sometimes called "nonfinite" (unfinished or incomplete) verbs.

Because time is involved with all verb forms, whether finite or nonfinite, however, following a logical Tense Sequence is important. Click HERE for a chart describing the time elements involved in choosing the correct verbal form. Verbals are frequently accompanied by other, related words in what is called a verbal phrase. There is a whole section on how verbals connect with other words to form phrases. Be sure to visit the always pleasant GARDEN OF PHRASES . Participle: a verb form acting as an adjective. The running dog chased the fluttering moth. A present participle (like running or fluttering) describes a present condition; a past participle describes something that has happened: "The completely rotted tooth finally fell out of his mouth." The distinction can be important to the meaning of a sentence; there is a huge difference between a confusing student and a confused student. See the section on Adjectives for further help on this issue. Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to. To sleep, perchance to dream.

A present infinitive describes a present condition: "I like to sleep." The perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that of the verb: "I would like to have won that game." See the section on Sequence below for other forms as well. The Split Infinitive If there is one error in writing that your boss or history prof can and will pick up on, it's the notorious split infinitive. An infinitive is said to be "split" when a word (often an adverb) or phrase sneaks between the to of the infinitive and the root of the verb: "to boldly go," being the most famous of its kind. The argument against split infinitives (based on rather shaky historical grounds) is that the infinitive is a single unit and, therefore, should not be divided. Because it raises so many readers' hackles and is so easy to spot, good writers, at least in academic prose, avoid the split infinitive. Instead of writing "She expected her grandparents to not stay," then, we could write "She expected her grandparents not to stay." Sometimes, though, avoiding the split infinitive simply isn't worth the bother.

There is nothing wrong, really, with a sentence such as the following: He thinks he'll be able to more than double his salary this year. The Oxford American Desk Dictionary, which came out in October of 1998, says that the rule against the split infinitive can generally be ignored, that the rule "is not firmly grounded, and treating two English words as one can lead to awkward, stilted sentences." ("To Boldly Go," The Hartford Courant. 15 Oct 1998.) Opinion among English instructors and others who feel strongly about the language remains divided, however. Today's dictionaries allow us to split the infinitive, but it should never be done at the expense of grace. Students would be wise to know their instructor's feelings on the matter, workers their boss's. Both gerunds and infinitive phrases can function as nouns, in a variety of ways. Noun uses are covered in a separate document, a section that should be helpful to students who want to understand why some verbs take gerunds, others take infinitives, some take either. (In addition, there is a section on the use of the infinitive as adjective complement  free at no extra charge.) Click the button to enter.

Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun. Running in the park after dark can be dangerous. Gerunds are frequently accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund phrase ("running in the park after dark"). Because gerunds and gerund phrases are nouns, they can be used in any way that a noun can be used: as subject: Being king can be dangerous for your health. as object of the verb: He didn't particularly like being king. as object of a preposition: He wrote a book about being king. Infinitives and Gerunds and Sequence Although they are not, strictly speaking, verbs, infinitives and gerunds carry within them the idea of action. Combined with auxiliary verb forms, like verbs, they also express various shades of time. Simple To have been competing at that level, at their age already, was quite an accomplishment. Actual and Potential Meanings Although a gerund and an infinitive will often have practically the same meaning ("Running in the park after dark can be dangerous" and "To run in the park after dark can be dangerous"), there can be a difference in meaning.

Gerunds are used to describe an "actual, vivid, or fulfilled action" whereas infinitives are better used to describe "potential, hypothetical, or future events" (Frodesen & Eyring 297). This is especially true with three kinds of verbs: verbs of emotion, verbs of completion/incompletion, and verbs of remembering. EMOTION Actual Event Potential Event We began working on this project two years ago. We finished working on this project a month ago. (Finish always takes a gerund.) We will continue to work on this project for the next four months. I wonder when we will start to wrap up this project. REMEMBERING (such as remember, forget, regret) Juanita forgot to do her homework. (meaning that Juanita failed to do her homework because she didn't remember to do it) Juanita forgot doing her homework. (meaning that Juanita did her homework but that she forgot she had done so) For the various noun functions of both gerunds and infinitives, click on the button. These distinctions for the various kinds of verbs (above) are based on those found in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use. 2nd Ed. Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring.

Heinle & Heinle: Boston, 1997. Examples our own. For additional help recognizing and working with verbs and verb forms, see Chapter 2 of Sentence Sense: A Writer's Guide. Grammar A–Z | Oxford Dictionaries abstract noun A noun which refers to an idea, quality, or state (e.g. warmth, liberty, happiness), rather than a physical thing that can be seen or touched. Compare with concrete noun . active An active verb has a subject which is performing the action of the verb, for example: John ate the apple. The opposite of passive. Find out more about active and passive verbs . adjective A word, such as heavy, red, or sweet, that is used to describe (or modify ) a noun. Learn more about adjectives . A type of optional adverbial that adds extra information to a sentence, for instance: I can’t sleep at night. Read more about adverbials and adjuncts . adverb A word, such as very, really or slowly, that is used to give more information about an adjective, verb, or other adverb. Learn more about how to use adverbs .

adverbial An adverb, phrase, or clause which changes, restricts, or adds to the meaning of a verb, for instance: I put my bag on the floor. Read more about adverbials . affirmative A word, sentence, or phrase that states that something is the case or which expresses agreement, for instance: Whales are mammals; that’s correct. The opposite of negative . agent The person or thing in a passive sentence that does or causes something (e.g. she was asked to leave). Read more about active and passive verbs . article An article belongs to the group of words called determiners . There are two types of article: the definite article and the indefinite article . aspect The form of a verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is completed or still continuing. See continuous , perfect . Read more about verb tenses . attributive An attributive adjective is used before the noun it describes (e.g. a red apple or a heavy bag). The opposite of predicative . auxiliary verb Auxiliary verbs are used to form tenses or passive forms of other verbs. The main ones are be, do, and have. See also modal verb . Learn more about auxiliary verbs .

classifying adjective An adjective that is used to put people or things into categories or classes (e.g. an electric oven, a presidential candidate). Compare with qualitative adjective . Find out more about classifying and qualitative adjectives . clause A group of words that contains a verb and either forms part of a sentence or is a complete sentence in itself. For example: I went to the bank and drew out some money. [clause] [clause] cohesion The close relationship between the parts of a piece of writing (e.g. the clauses of a sentence or the sections of a longer text), based on grammar or meaning. Cohesion helps to guide the reader through the ideas in a text in a logical way. See also cohesive device . cohesive device A word or phrase used to link parts of a text so that the reader finds it clear to understand. Typical cohesive devices are pronouns (to refer to earlier nouns without repeating them); prepositions , conjunctions , and adverbs (to show contrast, addition, ordering, etc.); and ellipsis (to avoid stating words which the reader expects). See also connective . For instance: My friend loves sailing, but he’s often too busy [ellipsis of to do this].

Apart from this, he also enjoys swimming, while I prefer to stay in and read. collective noun A noun which refers to a group of people or things, e.g. team, family, police, committee. Find out how to match verbs to collective nouns . common noun Any noun which refers to a person, animal, or thing in general: woman, dog, and bed are all common nouns. Compare with proper noun . comparative The comparative form of an adjective is used for comparing two people or things, to express the fact that one has a higher degree of a quality than the other. For example: She’s taller than me. He’s happier today than yesterday. They’re more popular than the Beatles. Compare with positive and superlative . Find out more about comparing adjectives . complement A word or phrase, especially an adjective or a noun , that is used after linking verbs such as be, seem, and become, and describes the subject of the verb, for example: She became a teacher. compound A word made up of two or more existing words, such as credit card, left-handed, or website. Learn more about hyphens in compound words .

concrete noun A noun which refers to a physical person or thing that can be seen, felt, heard, etc. For example, child, horse, and house are all concrete nouns. Compare with abstract noun . conditional In grammar, conditional can mean two things. Firstly, the conditional form ( mood ) of a verb , which is made from would (also should with ‘I’ and ‘we’) plus the infinitive without ‘to’: He would see. Should we stay or go? Secondly, conditional is used to refer to a clause or sentence expressing the fact that something must happen before something else can happen, for example: If I had more money, I’d buy a bigger house. Should you change your mind, we’d be happy to help. conditional clause A clause which describes something that is possible or probable, depending on something else happening. Such clauses usually begin with if or unless, for example: If it rains, the match will be cancelled. I’m not going to the party unless she comes too. conjunction A word that is used to link other words or parts of a sentence, such as and, but, or if. Learn about the different types of conjunctions .

connective A word or phrase that links other words, phrases, clauses , or sentences , such as a conjunction , a preposition , or an adverb . For example: My cat fell out of the tree, but she wasn't hurt. In fact, she climbed up it again! See also cohesive device . consonant A spoken sound made by completely or partially blocking the flow of air breathed out through the mouth. In English, consonants are represented by the letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, and z. Compare with vowel . See also Is the letter Y a vowel or a consonant? continuous A verb tense (or aspect ) used to describe an action that continues for a period of time. Continuous tenses are formed with the verb to be plus the present participle , for example: I’m watching the TV. It was snowing. Also called progressive. Compare with perfect . Learn more about continuous tenses . contraction A shortened form of a word or group of words (e.g. they’re is a contraction of they are). Read more about contractions .

coordinate clause A clause that is linked to another clause by a conjunction such as and, or, or but. Coordinate clauses make separate statements that have equal importance, for instance: It was freezing cold but the sun was shining. [coordinate clause] [coordinate clause] Learn about the different types of conjunctions . coordination In grammar, coordination refers to a relationship between two or more words, phrases, or clauses in which both elements have equal importance. For instance, in the sentence we visited Paris and London, the words Paris and London are joined by the conjunction and to show that they are equally important. Compare with subordination . See also coordinate clause . corpus In the context of dictionaries and linguistics, a corpus is a very large and diverse collection of written (or spoken) material that is gathered into an electronic database and can be analysed to find out how people are really using language. Find out more about the Oxford English Corpus . countable noun Also called count noun. A noun that refers to something that can be counted and has both singular and plural forms, such as cat/cats, woman/women, family/families. The opposite of uncountable noun . Learn more about countable and uncountable nouns . Another term for restrictive relative clause .

A term for the determiner the. See also indefinite article . determiner A word that introduces a noun, such as the, a, every, and this. See also definite article , indefinite article , possessive determiners . digraph A combination of two letters that represents a single speech sound ( phoneme ). For instance, in the word phone, the sound /f/ is shown by the letters ‘ph’. See also split digraph . direct speech The actual words of a speaker quoted in writing (e.g. ‘I don’t believe you,’ said Nina). Compare with reported speech . Learn about punctuation in direct speech . ellipsis The act of leaving out a word or phrase deliberately, either to avoid repeating something, or because the meaning can be understood without it (e.g. ‘How many coffees did you drink today?’ ‘Three.’ [ellipsis of I drank...coffees today]. etymology The origin of a word (for instance, from a particular language) and the historical development of its meaning. You can find the etymologies (described as ORIGIN) of many words near the end of each dictionary page on Oxford Dictionaries Online; here is the etymology of nice .

exclamation A sound, word, or phrase expressing an emotion or feeling such as anger, surprise, pleasure, or pain (e.g. Ow!; That’s great!). Learn more about exclamations . Also called interjection. finite verb A verb form which shows a particular tense , person ( first person , second person , or third person ), or number (singular or plural ). For instance, am, is, was, and were are the finite forms of the verb to be. Compare with non-finite verb . first person The pronouns , verb forms, and determiners which are used by a speaker to identify himself or herself, or to refer to a group including himself or herself, for instance, I, we, my, we were, I went. Compare with second person , third person . formal Formal speaking and writing typically has more complex grammatical structures and more conservative or technical vocabulary than everyday English. It’s used in official communications and speeches, business reports, legal contexts, academic books, etc. For example: The defendant was unable to give any alternative satisfactory explanation of how he financed the purchase, apart from unspecified loans from individuals not available to give evidence.

fronting The emphasis of a word or phrase by placing it at or near the start of a sentence, instead of beginning the sentence with its grammatical subject . For instance, in the following sentence, this afternoon has been fronted so as to emphasize the time that the meeting is happening: This afternoon, we’re going to meet our friends for lunch (the typical word order would be We’re going to meet up with our friends for lunch this afternoon). A verb tense used to refer to something that has not yet happened, for example: I shall arrive in Paris at midday. Will it be sunny this weekend? Learn more about verb tenses . Another term for verbal noun . grapheme The smallest unit (a letter or combination of letters) that has meaning in a writing system and which represents a particular phoneme (speech sound) For example, the word sheet has 5 letters and 4 graphemes . grapheme-phoneme correspondences The associations between the units of a writing system ( graphemes ) and the speech sounds ( phonemes ) that they represent. For instance, the graphemes ee, ea, ei, and e can all represent the phoneme /i:/ (sleeve; each; receive; me).

homograph A word that is spelled the same as another word or words, but which may have a different meaning or pronunciation. For instance: the violinist put down her bow and made a bow to the audience. See also homophone , homonym . homonym A word that has the same spelling or pronunciation as another word or words, but which has a different meaning and origin. For example: I can see one can of beans on the shelf. See also homophone , homograph . homophone A word that is pronounced the same as another word or words, but which has a different spelling or meaning. For instance: She knew that she urgently needed a new car. See also homograph , homonym . The form (or mood ) of a verb that expresses a command or instruction. For example: Come here! A term for the determiner a (or an). See also definite article . indicative The form (or mood ) of a verb that expresses simple statements of fact. In the sentence Jo likes coffee, the verb like is in the indicative mood. Find out more about the indicative and other moods of verbs . Another term for reported speech . infinitive The basic unchanged form of a verb, which usually occurs with the word ‘to’.

For instance: to read; to be. See also split infinitive . inflection A change in the form of a word (usually the ending) to show its grammatical function in a sentence, for example the tense of a verb (e.g. I walked; she had) or the plural of a noun (e.g. potatoes; children). Read more about verb tenses and forming plurals of nouns . informal Informal speaking and writing typically has fairly simple grammatical structures, doesn't always follow strict grammatical rules, and uses non-specialist vocabulary. It’s suitable for everyday communication with friends or other people you know. For example: ‘Coming out tonight?’ ‘No chance, sorry!’ interrogative Used to describe a word used to ask a question, or to describe a sentence in the form of a question. For instance, how, where, and who are interrogative words, and Why don’t we meet for coffee? is an interrogative sentence (that is, a question). The interrogative form ( mood ) of a verb is used to ask questions and in English it’s formed by an auxiliary verb which is placed before the subject , for example: Are you going on holiday this year?

intransitive An intransitive verb is not followed by an object . In the following sentences, talk and cry are intransitive verbs: The baby was crying. The opposite of transitive . Read more about intransitive and transitive verbs . irregular An irregular word, such as a noun or verb, has inflections that do not follow the normal rules. For example, the plural of man is the irregular form men, and the past of the verb run is ran. The opposite of regular . Learn more about regular and irregular verbs . main clause A clause that makes sense on its own, or may form part of a longer sentence . For example: We’re waiting for the bus. [main clause] I went to a restaurant and I treated myself to lunch. [main clause] [main clause] mass noun A noun that refers to something that can’t be counted, and which does not regularly have a plural form, for example rain, darkness, happiness, or humour. Also called uncountable noun. The opposite of countable noun . Learn more about countable and uncountable nouns . modal verb A modal verb is an auxiliary verb which is used with another verb to talk about possibility, probability, permission, intention, etc.

The main modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would. Also called modal auxiliary verb. Find out more about auxiliary verbs. modifier A word or phrase that changes, restricts, or adds to the meaning of another word, often a noun or adjective used before another noun. Adverbs can also act as modifiers , for example, in the following sentence, very [adverb], large [adjective], and family [noun] are all being used as modifiers to give more information about the noun home: It was a very large family home. mood A category or form of a verb which indicates whether the verb expresses a fact (the indicative mood), a command (the imperative mood), a question (the interrogative mood), a condition (the conditional mood) or a wish or possibility (the subjunctive mood). Read more about the moods of verbs . morpheme The smallest unit of meaning into which a word can be divided. You cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has a meaning. For example, the word never has one morpheme, while the word nevertheless has three morphemes (never, the, and less). Read more about morphemes . Compare with syllable .

morphology In linguistics, morphology refers to the form of a word, or the study of the forms of words. For instance, the morphology of the word uninterested shows that it is formed from the prefix un-, the root word interest, and the suffix -ed. Back to top negative A word or phrase stating that something is not the case, such as never, nothing, no, or not. The opposite of affirmative . See also double negatives . non-finite verb A verb form which does not show a particular tense , person ( first person , second person , or third person ), or number (singular or plural ). For instance, be, been, and being are the non-finite forms of the verb to be. Compare with finite verb . non-restrictive relative clause A clause which gives extra information that could be left out of a sentence without affecting the structure or meaning. Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced by which, who, or whose (but never by that) and you should place a comma in front of them: He held out the small bag, which Jane snatched eagerly.

[main clause] [non-restrictive relative clause] noun A word that refers to a person or thing, for example book, John, country, London, or friendship. Different types of noun include abstract , collective , countable / uncountable , concrete , gerund/verbal , mass , and proper . Find out more about nouns . The person or thing affected by a verb , for example: He was eating a sandwich. She loves animals. Compare with subject . Read more about subjects and objects . Another term for word class . Find out more about different parts of speech . The past participle is the form of a verb which is used to form: certain past tenses, e.g. I have looked everywhere; we had decided to leave. adjectives , e.g. broken glass; lost property. The present participle is the form of a verb, ending in –ing, that is used to form: continuous tenses describing something that is still happening, e.g. I am thinking, she was talking. adjectives, e.g. running water, the freezing rain. verbal nouns , e.g. a woman of good breeding; no smoking allowed. Read more about participles . Here is some advice on avoiding dangling participles .

passive A passive verb has a subject which is undergoing the action of the verb, rather than carrying it out, e.g.: The apple was eaten. The opposite of active . Find out more about active and passive verbs . A verb tense used to refer to something that happened before the present, for example: We went shopping last Saturday. Did you go for a meal, too? Learn more about verb tenses . perfect A verb tense (or aspect ) typically used to talk about actions that are completed by the present or a particular point in the past or future, for example: It was the first time that I had seen an eagle. Compare with continuous . Find out more about verb tenses . personal pronoun A word such as I, me, you, him, her, s, we, they, or them that is used in place of a noun that has already been mentioned or that is already known. Compare with possessive pronoun . See when to use 'I' or 'me' . phoneme Any one of the set of the smallest units of speech sound in a language that distinguish one word from another. For example, the phonemes /p/, /k/, and /b/ differentiate the words pat, cat, and bat.

phrasal verb A verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a preposition (or both). Typically the meaning of a phrasal verb is not obvious from the meanings of the component words, for example: His car broke down. The idea didn’t catch on. You’re putting me off. Find out more about phrasal verbs . phrase A small group of words that forms a meaningful unit within a clause , for example the red dress; in the city. A phrase is also a group of words which have a specific meaning when used together, for example to let the cat out of the bag. Learn more about phrases . plural The form of a noun that is used to refer to more than one person or thing, such as books or benches. For more guidance see plurals of nouns . positive The basic form of an adjective or adverb that is used to express a simple quality, for instance sad, good, fast, loudly. Compare with comparative and superlative . Find out more about comparative and superlative adjectives . possessive Showing that someone or something belongs or relates to a person or thing. You can use a noun plus an apostrophe to show possession (e.g.

my father’s car; yesterday’s news), a possessive determiner (my house) or a possessive pronoun (those shoes are mine). possessive pronoun A pronoun , such as mine, yours, hers, or ours, that refers to something owned by the speaker or by someone or something previously referred to, for example: That book is mine. John’s eyes met hers. Ours is a family farm. postpositive A postpositive adjective is placed after the word it relates to, for example galore in there were prizes galore. Learn more about the different types of adjective . predicative A predicative adjective follows a verb such as be, become, grow, look, or seem. For example: The future looks gloomy. prefix A letter or group of letters placed at the beginning of an existing word to change its meaning, such as un- (as in unable, unlock, or unhappy) or multi- (as in multimedia, multitask, or multicultural). Compare with suffix . See examples of prefixes and suffixes . preposition A word that is used in front of a noun or pronoun to show place, time, direction, or method. For example: She ran across the street.

The restaurant is not open during the day. We went by train. Find out more about prepositions and guidance on ending sentences with prepositions . present A verb tense used to refer to something that is happening or exists now or that happens or exists regularly, for example: I love my parents. Read more about verb tenses . pronoun A word such as I, he, she, it, we, hers, us, your, or they that is used instead of a noun to indicate someone or something that has already been mentioned, especially to avoid repeating the noun. For example: Kate was tired so she went to bed. Print out the leaflet and pass it round. proper noun A noun that identifies a particular person or thing (e.g. John, Italy, London, Monday, Windsor Castle). In written English, proper nouns begin with capital letters. Compare with common noun . Find out about other types of noun . qualitative adjective An adjective that describes the qualities of a person or thing (e.g. an expensive car, a slender woman). Compare with classifying adjective . Read more about qualitative and classifying adjectives . quantifier A determiner or pronoun which is used to express quantity, for example: many, several, all, both.

regular A regular word, such as a noun or a verb , has inflections that follow the normal rules. For instance, the noun cat has a regular plural with -s (cats), and the verb to love forms its tenses in the normal way (loved; loving). The opposite of irregular . Find out more about regular and irregular verbs . relative clause A clause which gives more information about the noun to which it refers and which is connected to a main clause by a word such as that, which, who, whose, or where. For example: I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early twenties. [main clause] [relative clause] reported speech The reporting of a speaker’s words, rather than quoting them directly (e.g. Nina said that she didn’t believe him). Compare with direct speech . Also called indirect speech. restrictive relative clause A clause which gives essential information about a noun that comes before it. Restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by that, which, who, or whose. You should not place a comma in front of them. For example: It reminded him of the house that/which he used to live in.

[main clause] [restrictive relative clause] He's going out with a girl who used to go to my school. [main clause] [restrictive relative clause] Also called defining relative clause. See clause and compare with non-restrictive relative clause . root word A word or part of a word that has the main meaning and on which its other forms are based; a word that other words are formed from, for example by adding prefixes , suffixes , etc. For instance, look is the root word of looks, looking, looked, outlook, etc. schwa A vowel sound in parts of words that are not stressed, shown by the symbol /ə/ in the International Phonetic Alphabet and represented by different letters in English. For instance, there is a schwa sound at the start of ago, at the end of moment, and in the middle of information. second person The pronouns , verb forms, and determiners which are used to speak to someone, for instance, you, your, you slept. Compare with first person , third person . sentence A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main verb , begins with a capital letter, and ends with a full stop, exclamation mark, or question mark.

For example: Paul flew to New York last Monday. Whose turn is it to do the washing up? Read more on sentences . slang Very informal words and expressions that are mainly found in speaking rather than writing. Slang is often used by a particular group, such as young people or the armed forces. For example, in British teenage slang, bare means ‘very’ or ‘a lot of’ (I was bare tired), while in military slang, a bandit is an enemy aircraft. Compare with formal , informal . split digraph A digraph in which the two letters representing one speech sound are separated by other letters. For example, the sound /aI/ in mine is shown by the split digraph i-e, split infinitive A split infinitive happens when an adverb is placed between to and a verb (e.g. She seems to really like him). Some people object strongly to split infinitives. Although there’s no real grammatical justification for this view, it’s best to avoid them in formal writing. More on split infinitives . standard English The type of English that is suitable for use in every type of written or spoken situation (as opposed to informal language or slang ).

stress The extra emphasis used when pronouncing a particular word or syllable. For instance, in the word category, the first syllable (cat-) is stressed. Compare with unstressed . subject The subject of a sentence is generally the person or thing that the sentence is about, often the person or thing that performs the action of a verb . For example: The restaurant was packed. Compare with object . Here's some help on matching subjects with verbs . subjunctive A special form (or mood ) of a verb that expresses a wish or possibility instead of a fact. In the following sentences the verbs face and were are in the subjunctive mood (the ordinary indicative forms would be faces and was): The report recommends that he face a tribunal. I wish I were more organized. subordinate clause A clause which depends on a main clause for its meaning. Together with a main clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a longer sentence. A sentence may contain more than one subordinate clause. There are two main types of subordinate clause: the relative clause and the conditional clause .

subordination In grammar, subordination refers to a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses in which one element is less important but which gives us more information about the main element that it is linked to. For instance, in the phrase a difficult question, the adjective difficult is subordinate to the noun question and tells us more about it. In the same way, a subject or object is subordinate to a verb , as in the following sentence: He cleaned the floor. Compare with coordination . See also subordinate clause . suffix A group of letters placed at the end of an existing word to change its meaning, such as –ish (as in childish or feverish) or –able (as in likeable or breakable). The opposite of prefix . See examples of prefixes and suffixes . superlative The superlative form of an adjective is used for comparing one person or thing with every other member of their group, to express the fact that they have the highest or a very high degree of a quality. For example: She’s the tallest girl in the class. He’s the happiest person I know. They’re the most popular band in the world.

syllable A word or part of a word that contains one vowel sound, and usually one or more consonants before or after the vowel sound. For example, speak has one syllable and speaker has two syllables (speak and -er). Compare with morpheme . syntax Syntax is the way in which words and phrases are put together to create well-formed sentences in a language. For example, 'I went to the shops today' is correct English syntax, whereas 'Shops I went today the to' is not. tense The form that a verb takes to show when a person did something, or when something existed or happened. In English the main tenses are: present , past , and future . Learn more about verb tenses . third person The pronouns , verb forms, and determiners which are used by a speaker to refer to other people or things, for instance, he, she, it, their, it has, they were. Compare with first person , second person . transitive A transitive verb is one that is used with an object . In the following sentences, admire and follow are transitive verbs: I admire your courage. trigraph A kind of grapheme in which three letters represent one speech sound ( phoneme ).

For example, catch or sigh. uncountable noun Another term for mass noun . Opposite of countable noun . Find out about other types of noun . unstressed Used to refer to a syllable that is not pronounced with a stress (e.g. in the word admire, the first syllable, ad-, is unstressed). verb A word that describes what a person or thing does, or what happens, for example run, sing, grow, occur, seem. Learn more about verbs . verbal noun The present participle of a verb when it’s used as a noun (e.g. 'smoking' in smoking is strictly forbidden). Also called gerund. Find out more about participles . vowel A spoken sound made with the mouth open and without the tongue touching the roof of the mouth, teeth, etc. In English, vowels are represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u. Compare with consonant . See also Is the letter Y a vowel or a consonant? word A single unit of language, which has meaning and which can be spoken or written, typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed. Some words may consist of two or more elements (e.g.

credit card; bed and breakfast; out-of-town), but in terms of grammar and meaning, they are treated as a single unit. word class Word classes are the categories to which words belong according to the part they play in a sentence , e.g. ( noun , verb , adjective , adverb , or pronoun ). Also called part of speech. word family A group of words that are related to each other, typically by meaning, form, and grammar. For example, the words therapy, therapist, therapeutic, therapeutical, and therapeutically all form a word family.

Question: Describing a verb used as a noun, a gerund must end in what letters?
Answer: ING