England's Medieval Festival - Visitors Info - History - English Longbow The English Longbow by Christopher Agius The might of the English longbow has long since transformed this medieval weapon in to a nationally adopted weapon possessing mythical prowess. Many consider it as the machine gun of the Middle Ages, a flight of its arrows was likened to a lethal storm that maimed , killed and demoralised everyone in its murderous path. Without any doubt in mind it has been the main element that enabled England to become the superpower of the medieval world, usurping the title by sheer brutal force from France. The Origins of the English Longbow For centuries before the appearance of this incredible weapon on the battlefield, armies depended on heavily armoured cavalry to win the day. Its role was to demoralise, run down by the sheer force of the charge and finally to pursue and strike down the panic stricken fugitives of their fearsome attack. However, during the 14th century all this was going to change. At the battle of Crecy in 1346 during the Hundred Years War , an outnumbered English host composed chiefly of archers armed with the longbow put an end to the knight's arrogant sense of invincibility and supremacy.

The English became acquainted with the longbow in the 13th century while campaigning in Wales. The Welsh took a heavy toll on the invaders by using this extraordinary weapon of war. On their part the English were quick to realise the impact that the longbow could produce on the battlefield. As soon as the Welsh campaign was successfully over, Welsh conscripts began to be incorporated in to the English army, whilst also training their own archers. The lessons the English learned by hard experience in Wales were going to be put in practise with deadly effect on their enemies on the battlefield of France ad Scotland in the coming years. The Longbow The longbow was renowned for being a hard hitting weapons, with stories being told of Welsh longbow men penetrating a four inch solid oak door with their arrows at the siege of Abergavenny Castle during the Welsh campaign. The longbow was a cheap weapon to produce and one that could be easily constructed and maintained by the common subjects. The weapon varied in length according to the height of its user and since the average height of Medieval yeoman was around five feet two inches, the longbow rarely exceeded the length of six feet. The longbow was made by hand from the English yew.

Staves were cut only in Winter, when the sap was down. Skilful cutting and shaping of the stave in a D-section left a layer of sapwood left along the flattened back of the bow. The heartwood of yew is able to withstand compression and its sapwood is elastic by nature, and both tend to return to their original straightness when the bow is loosened. The edges were notched in order to take the string made of hemp or silk. There is no rest for the arrow on the bow ; it rests simply on the index finger of the archer himself. The best material for the longbow came from yew trees in the mountainous regions of Italy and Spain. This was due to the poor terrain that the trees grew in. This fact made the wood of these trees lighter due to a lesser amount of grain found in the staves. So important was this consideration that it was ordered that with every shipment of imported wine from Southern France there must be a consignment of yew staves. The archers used a mixture of fine tallow, resin and wax to protect the bow from the elements, especially during damp weather.

Also it was not unusual for a bow to be carried in an appropriate bow case to safeguard it more effectively from wet atmospheric conditions. Special care was taken in the protections of the string, since a broken string was a major shortcoming on the battlefield that could effectively put the weapon out of action.. In battle the arrows were either carried in an arrow bag or a belt quiver. In the absence of this, it was common practise to simply stuff a sheaf of arrows through the belt. The back quiver that one so often see in swashbuckling films featuring the 'prince of thieves' Robin Hood , was never adopted for use in combat . Training with the Longbow Naturally to achieve a high degree of precision and professionalism with a weapon such as the longbow requires a great deal of practise. Therefore it is though wonder that a great emphasis on training began form the tender age of seven. Further more to achieve a high degree of proficiency various laws were passed concerning the compulsory ownership of longbows for citizens in certain 'wage bands'. It was also mandatory to practise with the bow on Sundays after church. To this end churches were ordered to maintain butts in order to help foster the accomplished use of the longbow by constant practise .

Regulations were also applied in these medieval shooting ranges. They mostly concerned the distance one must shoot from. Yearly, tournaments for archers were also organised and the most successful were immediately pressed in to service with the army. One must bear in mind that in those days professional soldiers were few and far between and that these laws were intended for the common citizen who in time of was would be required for military service. So no wonder that the authorities constantly highlighted the important of rigorous training with the longbow. This fact is clearly demonstrated by anecdotal evidence from the time which stated that a man who could not draw and discharge 12 well aimed arrows in a minute aiming at a target 240 yards away was lightly esteemed, even if he only missed once. Such a degree of skill now seems incredible. In Battle Stories of the might and hard hitting power of the English Longbow an incredible dexterity of the English archers are abundant. There are stories of knights being literally pinned to their saddles. One account recalls an episode where a knight was pinned to his horse by an arrow that passed through both his armoured clad thighs, with the horse and saddle in between.

Arrows fired from a longbow could easily do this, at 400 yards it could severely wound, kill at 200 yards and penetrate armour at100 yards. The true potential in battle of the longbow was finally unleashed with deadly effect on an unsuspecting enemy during the Hundred years war. At the battle of Crecy in 1346, an English army which was mainly composed of English and Welsh bowmen under King Edward III inflicted a terrible defeat on a French host that greatly outnumbered them. The consequences of this military debut was that it elevated England to the rank of being a major power and elevated the role of the foot soldier above the knights. The lessons of Crecy were forgotten by the French it seems : At the battle of Agincourt in 1415 their forces suffered a further crushing defeat due to the English use of the longbow. Again a small but proficient English army inflicted a drastically high casualty rate on a French army that greatly outnumbered them, to the extent that there was hardly a French noble family that did not suffer a death , and countless French family lines were brought to an end due to the death of all their male relations.

The Decline of the Longbow Many historians argue that the importance of the longbow on the battlefield has been discarded too soon. Naturally with the introduction of firearms the decline of the longbow seemed inevitable, but one must also contemplate that early firearms had more disadvantages than benefits when compared to the longbow, especially when climatic conditions are taken in to consideration. Furthermore even if favourable conditions in which to use an early firearm prevailed, several arrows could well hit a harquebusier before he could even discharge a single shot ; even if he emerged unscathed enough to fire, his bullet might miss its target or do no real harm to an opponent. However once the longbow had fallen from favour, it was not to be re-introduced. Unlike firearms it needed a great deal more practice and dedication in order to enable a man to achieve a high degree of effectiveness without the use of sights and other aiming devices. There is also a key human factor in the tipping of the scales against the use of the bow, the desire of common soldiers not to be left behind in the march of progress.

Editors note : following Christopher's article , it is worth pondering that the success of England as a military power developed because of the relative ability to make use of changing practices in war, in this case by adapting to the use of the Longbow. French forces were still locked in to the emphasis being placed on armed knights on horseback and perhaps the romance of chivalry and so seemed to be less versatile. At Agincourt the placing of sharpened stakes by English soldiers at the height of a horse's belly worked against the charging French cavalry. Moreover the fact that armour became so heavy in bid to be a defence against arrows was deadly from the French perspective, many of their knights and horses died by being crushed and suffocated, sinking in the mud of the battlefield, unable to escape from the press . The longbow also seemed to have advantages over the crossbow, with arrows being able to be despatched at a quicker rate by skilled archers. At the battle of Crecy a posse of Genoese crossbowmen hired to fight on the French side performed so badly that the French charged them according to Froissart's Chronicles.

10 Most Influential Weapons in History 10 Most Influential Weapons in History Comments Weapons: these ever-changing martial tools have been used to forge nations, to create empires and to topple regimes. They have shaped society, signified ranks and, of course, been brutal implements of death. They’ve brought slaughter and destruction to millions of people, but they have also liberated those under the yoke of tyranny, defended the innocent and protected the vulnerable. Every historian, military expert or armchair general will have their own opinion on which weapons have had the greatest influence through history and which should be discarded from this roll call of ten. Indeed, the number of significant weapons is considerable, and thus a truly definitive list could include 50 or even 100 entries. The weapons featured here have been chosen because of their technologically advanced capabilities or unique designs, which have echoed through subsequent weapons manufacture and the military tactics of the day, flying in the face of political change or the threat of annihilation. In this article we will concentrate on hand-held weaponry for a degree of uniformity and ease of comparison.

Perhaps a later article can accommodate the cannon, the tank, the Nimitz class aircraft carrier, the atomic bomb and the inter-continental ballistic missile. Which would make your top ten? 10) The M1 Garand When Canadian engineer John Cantius Garand was hired by Springfield Armory in 1919 to develop a semi-automatic rifle, he fashioned what has become for Americans an iconic weapon. After many years perfecting his creation, Garand produced a firearm that would serve US forces well throughout the Second World War, Korea and even into Vietnam. Indeed, the Garand has had such an influence upon the American psyche that it is still used to this day by drill teams and honor guards. The M1 Garand earned its much-loved status in the heat of battle. Its semi-automatic firing mechanism not only gave the US soldier the ability to attain a much higher volume of fire compared to the single shot bolt-action small arms of the rest of WWII’s combatants but also delivered excellent accuracy. The epitome of excellent design, coupled with the power of industrial might, it became the standard for many other gas-operated, automatically loading rifles including both the famous M16 and the iconic AK-47. General George S.

Patton is often quoted as describing the weapon as: “The greatest battle implement ever devised.” As of March 15, 2010, 182 M1 Garand Rifles are still actively in use by US Army units, with another 115 serviceable rifles held for possible future issue. 9) The Bayonet In essence, the bayonet is simply a knife attached to the end of a rifle’s barrel for use in hand-to-hand combat. It is a throwback to the medieval warfare of centuries past, and yet today it remains an invaluable part of the modern soldier’s kit and is still carried into battle by almost every infantryman in the armies of today. While the exact origins of the bayonet are unclear, the first references to its existence came in the 1640s and pointed – aptly – to the south-western French city of Bayonne. The earliest form it took was as a blade with a plug-shaped pommel for inserting it into the firearm’s muzzle, but this form was not ideal. Once plugged in it blocked the barrel completely and prevented any shots from being fired.

It could also be difficult to remove if it was wedged in too firmly and if loose it would fall out or could become lodged inside an enemy, diminishing the wielder’s martial capacity. The socket bayonet appeared in the latter half of the 17th century and was quickly adopted by many European armies. This important improvement moved the blade out of the way of the barrel and allowed the firearm to be discharged and reloaded while having the bayonet fixed. Its inception ensured that while single-shot muskets and rifles remained prevalent, so did the bayonet. Despite the bayonet’s status as a secondary or last ditch weapon, it would help to change the outcome of many battles and skirmishes, from the Crimean War though to modern day conflicts. While the bayonet was sometimes vital (such as in its role in the infantry square of Napoleonic-era combat) it often saw more action as a tool for cooking, clearing flora or digging holes. It is perhaps the undeniably significant psychological value of having that reliable, cold steel as a companion that is perhaps its greatest historical role. The cry of “Fix bayonets!” will ever be associated with girding oneself for grim tasks ahead.

8) The MG42 With a record of resilience, reliability and ease of operation that has been proven in the heat of battle, and the capacity to produce a devastating volume of fire, the Maschinengewehr 42 was a terrifying beast. Its fast-firing action and distinctive muzzle report gave the weapon a fearsome reputation, so much so that the US Army employed a training film specifically to help combat its psychological effect on Allied troops. One soldier remarked: “I remember my first reaction was one of amazement at the crushing fire power of those guns. It seemed to me that the German soldier seldom used his rifle. He was a carrier of boxes of light machine-gun ammunition of which they seemed to have an endless supply!” Indeed, the German Army thought their machine guns critical to their structure and strategy and centered their infantry tactics upon the MG42 (in contrast to the Allies). Building upon the varied successes and failures of the earlier MG34, the 42’s new design was not just a significant improvement but also meant the weapon required considerably less manufacturing time and materials. It was also designed with varying climate conditions in mind, from the icy conditions on the Eastern Front to the dust and dirt of the North African and Italian campaigns.

Not only was the MG42’s firing rate swift (1,500 rounds per minute as noted by the German training manuals), but its quick-change barrel system allowed crews to swap in a new cool barrel in just a handful of seconds. This meant that it was possible for the user to lay down a withering amount of fire and suppress or eliminate a large number of enemy troops for as long as they had enough ammunition. The weapon was undoubtedly successful; it fulfilled many roles throughout WWII and even now the MG42’s legacy lives on, forming the basis for a whole host of other machineguns. Some 400,000 were manufactured by Germany during the war, and the design would outlive the Nazis considerably and influence weapons development and infantry tactics around the world. 7) The Hoplon This large, round and deeply dished shield was used to great effect by the ancient Greeks. It was both a superb defense – able to stop most weapons of the time – and its weight and thin, bronze-plated rim meant it could also be utilized as a bludgeoning weapon. Called the aspis by the Greeks themselves, the shield’s handles were unlike any other of its time.

There was a band for the left arm to slip through at the center, and a loop or rope for the hand to grasp near the edge. The unusual arrangement of these handles helps to illustrate how important the hoplon was to that great Hellenic combat formation: the phalanx. This was a time when the armies of Greek city states comprised of citizens rather than professional soldiers, and thus a formation that would give the baker and the merchant strength in battle was paramount. At this the phalanx – and the hoplon – excelled. With the bearer’s elbow being at the shield’s center, half of the shield stuck out to the left, protecting his neighbor, and so each man became part of a greater force, interlocked and steadied. Indeed, the handles of the shield made it so ill-balanced for single combat that no hoplite would want to break ranks and expose himself. The hoplon was everything to the hoplite: it gave him his name and it kept him and his neighbor alive. Indeed, to come home from battle minus your shield was a clear sign that you were a coward.

As Plutarch’s Moralia pointed out, the Spartan mother girded her son for battle with the line: “Son, either with this or on this,” meaning; return with this hoplon alive and victorious or die bravely and be carried home upon it. The phalanx was vital to the Greeks’ martial expulsion of the Persian Empire’s invading forces during the Greco-Persian Wars. It was used against them to great effect at Thermopylae, Plataea and Marathon and ensured that the ancient Greek culture has enjoyed a huge influence upon civilizations since then. 6) The Flintlock The flintlock was relatively inexpensive and far more reliable than previous methods of propellant ignition such as the matchlock and wheel-lock. It was also easy to operate. Gunpowder was poured into the flash pan and the frizzen closed over it to keep the powder in. When the trigger is pulled, the hammer is released and the shard of flint it grips strikes the rough surface of the frizzen, creating a small shower of sparks. These sparks ignite the pan’s powder, firing the ball. So effective was the design that it remained unchanged for two centuries.

It would see action all around the world and play a major part in some of the most decisive battles, campaigns and wars of European history. The flintlock ‘period’ also saw the innovation of barrel rifling. The spiraling grooves caused the projectile to spin in flight, making it more accurate at longer distances. The French King Louis XIII was thought to have been the first recipient of a Marin le Bourgeoys made flintlock in 1610. After that, the new mechanism quickly became popular, and soon it became the mainstay of Europe’s armies, replaced only in the mid-nineteenth century by Reverend Alexander John Forsyth’s percussion cap. Even then, the transition to the much better percussion cap was slow. The flintlock has also greatly influenced the military drills still in use today, as the weapon positions and drill commands were originally created to standardize the carrying, loading and firing of an infantryman’s flintlock weapon while in ranks. Even everyday speech is littered with references to the venerable flintlock: ‘flash in the pan’, ‘lock, stock and barrel’ and ‘to go off half-cocked’ to name but three familiar expressions.

5) The Gatling Gun Doctor Richard Jordan Gatling was a prolific inventor who created an eclectic range of products, from rice-sowing machines to improved toilets and bicycles, but it was the innovation of his famous (or infamous) Gatling gun that ensures his place in this list. It has been called “the gun that changed everything” and represented a significant step forward in firearms technology. Its six barrels, each firing a single shot, were rotated by means of a hand crank and could reach a firing rate of 200 rounds every minute – an astonishing and unparalleled amount for that time. Overheating a barrel through extended use is a problem that still affects today’s machine guns, but Gatling’s configuration of six meant they each had time to cool before firing the next bullet and restarting the cycle. The Gatling harnessed the power of gravity to load its bullets via hopper or stick magazines which slotted on top of the gun. It was a simple but brutally effective weapon that allowed unskilled operators to use it to full effect. First used in anger during the American Civil War, it was later purchased by police departments, militias and even varied business owners.

It achieved a lasting fame and even traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and became a tool of “domination and intimidation” to help expand European colonial empires – much like the Maxim gun would in later years. Gatling himself insisted that his intentions in creating the gun were in fact peaceable. He said: “It occurred to me if I could invent a machine, a gun, which could by its rapidity of fire, enable one man to do as much battle duty as a hundred, that it would, to a great extent, supersede the necessity of large armies, and consequently, exposure to battle and disease be greatly diminished.” Gatling’s multi-barreled design has echoed through the decades, and even today much-modernized versions of his 1862 patent are used by the armed forces. Some of these rapid-firing machines are capable of staggering firing rates of 10,000 shots per minute (or 166 shots per second). 4) The Longbow Bows have been around in one form or another for thousands of years, but one particular type stands out from the rest: the longbow.

It has been called the machine gun of the Middle Ages: powerfully accurate, with considerable range and blessed with a brisk rate of fire. A skilled military bowman could loose up to 12 to 15 aimed arrows each minute and still hit a man-sized target 200 yards away – as the French found out to their cost during the Hundred Years War. At the battles of Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt outnumbered English armies routed well-armored French opponents, inflicting many thousands of casualties while sustaining only a small fraction in return. Indeed, the longbow's intelligent implementation made England ‘the foremost power in Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries. England's armies became the most feared units in Europe.’ It is thought that the longbow originated in Wales, spreading to England during the 12th century and evolving by the 13th century to become ‘the most effective individual missile weapon system of Western Europe until well into the gunpowder age.’ Even firearms couldn’t beat it for both range and rate of fire until the mid-19th century.

However, even the heaviest of longbows had difficulty penetrating the steel plate armor (especially at range) which gained popularity after 1350, and eventually by 1595 the bow was dropped from military service, supplanted by guns. England’s rulers encouraged training in the use of the longbow throughout the centuries, which typically began at the age of seven. At one time all sports were outlawed on a Sunday except for archery, while crossbows were banned outright. 3) The Roman Gladius The Roman Empire was one of the most influential cultures in the history of civilization; so influential, in fact, that the legacy of the Roman culture is still evident around us in architecture, language and literature. Helping to propagate Rome’s culture was the success of its armies, and what aided their campaigns was the sword grasped in the legionaries’ hands. During the Punic wars the Romans encountered a weapon that they would come to adopt as the Gladius Hispaniensis. This short, stabbing sword proved to be the perfect addition to Roman battlefield tactics and would become a contributing factor to Rome’s martial prowess. The Empire’s military doctrine was one of cohesion and unity.

Whereas other nations at the time fought as a collection of individual fighters, the Roman cohort was drilled to get up close with the enemy and engage them in close quarters where the wielding of larger weapons made for rank-breaking and clumsy fare. In these tight quarters the gladius excelled, thrust as it was around or between the Roman scutum (shield). The gladius was in no way significantly superior to other hand weapons of the time, but its role as the literal cutting edge of Rome’s conquering armies ensures its importance among weapons. 2) The Maxim Gun Sir Hiram Maxim’s 1884 recoil-operated invention would change the face of the battlefield and alter world history forever. Operated by a four to six man crew, the Maxim was a water-cooled and belt-fed heavyweight. Although the poor reliability record of the crank-operated machine guns that came before Maxim’s weapon stopped it from being snapped up immediately, his flamboyant sales techniques, successful trials and the gun’s ability to fire continuously for hours on end (and even its much-recounted aptitude at felling trees) soon convinced the Western world of its awesome capabilities.

There are numerous accounts of the Maxim being employed against armies without similar technology, where it inflicted thousands of deaths upon the enemy, while the defending force triumphed with very few casualties. During the 1893 Matabele Wars, 50 British soldiers were able to overcome some 5,000 Ndebele warriors with their Maxim guns. As writer and historian Hillaire Belloc wrote: “Whatever happens, we have got the Maxim gun, and they have not.” During the First World War each of the major combatant nations used their own versions of the Maxim. The firepower was so great that each side was forced into entrenchment and years of muddy and miserable stalemate that was punctuated by huge loss of life and the deafening boom of artillery bombardments. Ultimately, the Maxim and its successors would lead to the development of a countermeasure that would become a ubiquitous part to the world’s armies: the tank. 1) The AK-47 The AK-47 is a legendary firearm. It is the most widely-manufactured single weapon in modern history. With a form that has become iconic, it is synonymous with revolution, civil war and communism.

Its image adorns t-shirts, posters and even a national flag. Even someone with little knowledge of firearms would probably be able to identify the venerable AK-47. Designed in the late 1940s by Mikhail Timofeyevich Kalashnikov for the Soviet Army, the Avtomat Kalashnikova 47 that bears his name was not just easy to fabricate but also quickly earned a reputation for being straightforward to use and undemanding to maintain – not to mention cheap. While by some margin not the most accurate rifle in the world, the large gaps between its moving parts meant that the rifle was a rugged battlefield tool which could tolerate operating conditions that would jam a lesser weapon. It is estimated that some 100 million members of the Kalashnikov family of firearms are currently in existence (most of them are likely to be AKMs, a ‘modernized’ version of the AK-47 with a stamped receiver, produced since 1959). They are used by the armed forces of at least 82 countries and are manufactured by at least 14 other nations.

The rifle and its later variants have been produced in such huge numbers that even armed forces which are not issued with the AK as standard are still instructed in its use. With so many units worldwide, ‘the world’s favorite weapon’ might still make more history. In spite of the gun's popularity and success, Kalashnikov himself received no financial benefits other than his state pension. He would even go on to outline his regret that the weapon has not been regulated effectively and ended up in unscrupulous hands, remarking that he wished he had invented the lawnmower instead. A History of Weapons WEAPONS IN THE MIDDLE AGES Saxon and Viking Weapons In battle thanes (upper class Saxons) wore chain mail. Ordinary Saxons just wore an iron helmet and held a round wooden shield. They fought with spears, swords and battle axes. The usual Saxon tactic was to form a 'shield wall' by standing side-by-side holding their shields in a line. The shield wall was a very effective tactic. The Saxons only lost the battle of Hastings because some of them broke formation. The Vikings were dreaded throughout Europe. They too fought with spears, axes and swords. Some of them wore chain mail.

They also formed shield walls. The Vikings also built forts. They dug a ditch and created an earth bank with a wooden palisade on top. Inside buildings were arranged in four groups of four. Later the 'backbone' of Medieval armies was the armored knight mounted on a horse. Norman knights wore chain mail, armor made of iron rings joined together. In the 14th century chain mail was replaced by plate armor. Metal plates were attached to each part of the body. Norman knights carried kite shaped shields. Later in the middle Ages shields became smaller. Castles The Normans built wooden forts called motte and bailey castles. An artificial mound of earth was created, called a motte and the living quarters were built on top. Below was a walled yard called a bailey where food and animals were stored. The whole thing was sometimes protected by a moat. However these early wooden forts were vulnerable to fire and later castles were built of stone. In the center was a stone tower called a keep where the inhabitants lived. Surrounding it was a curtain wall. However even if attackers breached the curtain wall the defenders could retreat into the keep and continue to hold out.

The weakest part of a castle was its gate but there were ways of strengthening it. A building called a gatehouse was built. Often it was approached by a drawbridge over a moat. Gatehouses usually had an iron grid called a portcullis that could be raised or lowered vertically. Behind the portcullis was a covered passageway running through the gatehouse. Sometimes there was a second portcullis at the other end of the passageway. If you got past the drawbridge and the first portcullis you would have to fight your way to the second portcullis and the defenders would not make it easy for you. In the roof were holes through which the defenders could drop stones or pour boiling liquids. Around the curtain wall were arrow slits called embrasures. Furthermore the tops of castle walls often had overhangs. In them were openings through which boiling liquids could be poured or stones could be dropped. They were called machicolations. However attackers could use a variety of siege weapons. The simplest was a battering ram. The users were protected by a wooden shed but the defenders might set it on fire. They could also use a crane with giant 'tongs' to try and grab the ram.

To climb the castle walls you could use ladders but that was dangerous as the defenders could push them over. Attackers might use a wooden siege tower on wheels. Inside it were ladders for soldiers to climb. At the top was a drawbridge. When it was lowered the attackers could swarm over the castle walls. Attackers could also use a kind of crane called a tenelon to get over the wall. On the end of a long wooden arm was a basket containing soldiers. The basket could be swung over the castle walls. The attackers could also hurl missiles using siege engines. A medieval catapult called a mangonel was powered by twisted rope. (It was similar to those used by the Romans). The rope was twisted tighter and tighter then released, firing a stone. Another Medieval siege weapon was called a trebuchet, which worked by counterweight. A trebuchet had an arm set on a pivot so it had a long and a short end. The long end held the missile and a heavy weight was attached to the short end. The long end was winched down and when it was released the weight at the short end swung down. The long end swung up firing the missile.

(However the defenders could also use engines to hurl missiles back into the attacker's camp). Attackers could also tunnel under the castle walls. The tunnels were supported by wooden props. When ready they were covered in animal fat and burned. The tunnels would collapse and hopefully so would the walls. However in the 14th century warfare was changed by the longbow. Longbows were not new (archaeologists have found examples thousands of years old). However in the 14th century the English learned to use the longbow in a new way. In the early Middle Ages archers were used to 'soften up' the enemy before knights charged. (They were used that way at Hastings). However in the 14th century the English devised a new tactic of having dismounted knights protect the archers and allowing the enemy to charge. The enemy cavalry was decimated by volleys of arrows. The longbow was used to win great victories at Crecy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415). An archer could shoot an arrow every 5 or 6 seconds. He could shoot an arrow up to 225 meters.

The one disadvantage of the longbow was that it took years to learn to use one properly. The Romans used a version of the crossbow called a hand ballista. However it died out in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. The crossbow reappeared in the 10th century. Some crossbows were so powerful they had to be loaded by a mechanical device called a cranequin. The arrows from a crossbow were called bolts or quarrels. It was such a terrible weapon that in 1139 the Pope decreed that it should not be used against Christians but only against Muslims. However crossbows fired only slowly. The crossbowman or arbalester (arbalest was another word for a crossbow) was vulnerable to fire while he reloaded. While he did so he had to hide behind a large shield called a pavise, which was held by another soldier. A crossbows slow rate of fire was all very well during siege but it was not a very useful weapon in a pitched battle. WEAPONS 1500-1800 16th Century Weapons In the 16th century guns transformed warfare.

Early guns were lit by a slow match (string was soaked in saltpetre and when it was lit it smoldered). The slow match was touched to the gunpowder to ignite it. However in the early 16th century the wheelock was invented. A metal wheel spun against a piece or iron pyrites generating sparks that ignited the gunpowder. As a result most cavalry stopped using lances. Instead they carried two or three pistols each, ready to fire, and sabers. Meanwhile the traditional English weapon was the longbow but handguns were increasingly used. The longbow slowly went out of use during the 16th century. However muskets took a long time to reload and during that time the infantry needed protection from cavalry. They were protected by men with pikes (a weapon like a long spear). Forts and walled towns had bastions. They were triangular sections of wall that jutted out from the rest of the wall. They provided flanking fire. In other words guns on the bastion could fire at approaching soldiers from the sides. Solid cannonballs (called shot) were useful for firing at walls during sieges and for firing at enemy ships.

However for killing enemy soldiers or sailors canister or case shot was used. That was a cylindrical container filled with sharp stones or pieces of metal. When fired the cylinder burst and sprayed the enemy. Aztec Weapons In the early 16th century the Aztecs were fearsome warriors. They fought with slings and spears made of wood with blades edged with pieces of sharp obsidian. However their main weapon was a wooden club called a maquahuitl, which was also lined with pieces of razor sharp obsidian. Aztec warriors also carried shields made of hides. Yet they were no match for the Spaniards with their cannons, horses and steel weapons. Meanwhile in the 16th century both the Japanese and the Indians learned to make guns. Japanese Weapons In feudal Japan the Samurai were hereditary warriors who followed a code of behavior called bushido. Samurai were supposed to be completely loyal and self-disciplined. Rather than by captured by the enemy samurai were supposed to commit suicide by disemboweling themselves. This was called seppuku. Samurai fought with long swords called katana and short swords called wakizashi. They also used spears called yari and daggers called tanta.

Samurai also had skewers called kogai and small knives called kozuka. The main piece of armor to protect a samurai's torso was called a haramaki. It had skirts called kasazuri to protect the lower torso. A samurai's helmet was called a kabuto. A kabuto had neck guards called shikoro. It sometimes had a crest called a kasjirushi. The neck was also protected by a piece called the nowdawa. Samurai also wore masks called mempo. They wore armored sleeves called kote to protect their arms. Indian Weapons Indian soldiers fought with a curved sword called tulwar or with a type of saber called a shamshir. (Known in Europe as a scimitar). Indian soldiers also used a steel axe called a khanjar. They also fought with a form of dagger called katar. It had a handle shaped like a letter 'H'. You held the handle with your fist and stabbed your enemy with a punching motion. Indian soldiers also used a form of ax called a bhuj. It looked like a short, heavy knife with a long handle. In Northwest India Sikhs used a steel quoit called a chakram.

The outer edge was very sharp and when thrown it would slash the enemy. Indian warriors carried a round shield called a dhal made of steel or hide. They wore helmets called tops with 'curtains' of chain mail to protect the neck. They also wore a metal 'sleeve' called a dastania to protect the lower arm. Indians also fought with matchlock muskets, which they called bandukh toradas. 17th Century Weapons In the early 17th century firearms were either matchlocks or wheel locks. A matchlock held a slow burning match, which was touched to the powder when the trigger was pulled. With a wheel lock a metal wheel spun against iron pyrites making sparks. During the 17th century both of these were gradually replaced by the flintlock which worked by hitting a piece of flint and steel making sparks. Furthermore in the early 17th century the cartridge was invented. The musket ball was placed in a container, which held the right amount of gunpowder to fire it. The soldier no longer had to measure powder from a powder horn into his gun. Apart from artillery there were two branches of an army.

The cavalry were usually armed with wheelock pistols and sabers. They were protected by back plates, breastplates and helmets. The infantry consisted of men armed with muskets and those armed with pikes. A musket took a long time to reload and the soldiers were very vulnerable while they did so. Therefore they were protected by men with pikes (a weapon like a long spear). In theory there were two musketeers to each pike man. The pike men usually had a steel helmet but musketeers did not usually wear armor. About 1680 the bayonet was invented. With bayonet fixed a musket could be used as a weapon even if it had been fired and was not reloaded. The bayonet did away with the need for pike men. The English army began using grenades in 1677. An early grenade was simply a hollow metal ball filled with gunpowder and with a fuse. There were no fundamental changes to weapons in the 18th century but artillery became lighter and more mobile. MODERN WEAPONS 19th Century Weapons The industrial revolution transformed warfare. Railways meant armies could be transported much faster than before.

The telegraph meant that messages could also be transmitted much faster. At the beginning of the 19th century Sir William Congreve (1772-1828) developed the Congreve rocket. These rockets were used at Copenhagen in 1807 and they set most of the town on fire. However rockets lacked both range and accuracy and after the Napoleonic Wars they fell from favor. Meanwhile in 1807 a Scot named Alexander Forsyth patented the percussion cap. When a trigger was pulled a hammer hit a container of fulminate of mercury, which exploded and ignited the charge of gunpowder. The percussion cap replaced the flint lock. Breech loading guns greatly increased the rate of fire. The British army began using breech loading guns in 1865. The range of guns was improved by rifling. Some guns had been rifled for centuries but it only became commonplace in the 19th century. In the late 19th century rifles were improved further by the introduction of magazines, which greatly increased the rate of fire. Meanwhile in 1836 Samuel Colt began making revolvers. Traditionally the cavalry fought with pistols and swords but the revolver made swords obsolete.

In the 19th century many people experimented with machine guns. In 1862 Richard Gatling invented the Gatling gun. However the first really successful machine gun was the maxim gun, invented by Hiram Maxim in 1884. It was adopted by the British army in 1889. War at sea was changed by exploding shells, by steam engines and by iron ships. In 1858 the French launched La Gloire. It was made with plates of iron fixed onto timber. However in 1860 Britain launched HMS warrior. This ship was made with an iron hull instead of a wooden hull with iron plates fixed on. Soon the traditional gun deck on warships was replaced by turret guns on the top deck. Then in the 1860s Robert Whitehead developed the modern torpedo. The British navy began making torpedoes in 1871. In the 19th century new explosives were invented to replace gunpowder. TNT was invented in 1863 and dynamite followed in 1867. Cordite was invented in 1889.

In the 19th century European armies fought a number of colonial wars in Africa. African warriors fought with spears and throwing axes as well as the bow. They also used throwing knives, which had several blades pointing in different directions. The Medieval English Longbow The Medieval English Longbow by Robert E. Kaiser, M.A. This article was first published in the Journal of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries, volume 23, 1980. Please read the copyright notice! From the thirteenth until the sixteenth century, the national weapon of the English army was the longbow. It was this weapon which conquered Wales and Scotland, gave the English their victories in the Hundred Years War, and permitted England to replace France as the foremost military power in Medieval Europe. The longbow was the machine gun of the Middle Ages: accurate, deadly, possessed of a long-range and rapid rate of fire, the flight of its missilies was liken to a storm. 1 Cheap and simple enough for the yeoman to own and master, it made him superior to a knight on the field of battle. 2 Yet, important as this weapon was, most of our present day beliefs concerning it are based upon myth.

There are many statistics available on the longbow, but few agree. The term longbow implies a weapon of greater length than the 4 foot bow used on the continent. Geoffrey Trease, author of The Condottieri, maintains the longbow used by the 14th century mercenary troops of Sir John Hawkwood "was as tall as themselves or a fraction taller". 3 This would make the bow approximately five feet long, since the average height of the medieval yeoman soldier was five feet to five feet two inches. 4 The Royal Antiquaries Society of Great Britain maintains the weapon was "of five or six feet" in length. 5 Major Richard G. Bartelot, Assistant Historical Secretary of the Royal Artillery Institution says "the bow was of yew, six feet long, with a three foot arrow". 6 Finally, Gaston Foebus, Count of Foix, wrote in 1388, that a longbow should be "of yew or boxwood, seventy inches between the points of attachment for the cord..." 7 These quotes demonstrate that the weapon was considerably longer than its continental counterpart, but still leaves the length in question. Another chracteristic of the English weapon was its superior strength.

An early 14th century English inquiry into the murder of Simon de Skeltington records the instrument of death as an arrow shot from a five foot seven inch bow. "The wound measured three inches long by two inches wide and six inches deep". 8 This was the powerful weapon used by Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, in the Hundred Years War. The two current authorities both agree the weapon was much stronger than our present day bows. Count M. Mildmay Stayner, Recorder of the British Long Bow Society, estimates the bows of the Medieval period drew between 90 and 110 pounds, maximum. 9 Mr. W.F. Paterson, Chairman of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries, believes the weapon had a supreme draw weight of only 80 to 90 pounds. 10 A bow of the strength described by Stayner and Paterson would project a war arrow a long distance. But here again, no one is sure how far: Stayner believes the war arrow had an effective range of 180 yards; 11 Paterson maintains a slightly further distance of 200 yards; 12 and Bartelot estimates a useful range of 249 yards.

13 Captain George Burnet, Secretary to the Royal Scottish Archers, notes that the members of the Queen's Body Guard for Scotland, who still shoot, use six foot long self yew bows of 55 to 60 pounds draw weight. The range of these modern bows is 180-200 yards shooting light target shafts. 14 The longbow, because of its rapidity of fire, was a medieval machine gun. It has been calculated that a bowman of the Hundred Years War period, when military archery was at its zenith, could shoot 10 to 12 arrows a minute. 15 The closest weapon in range and strength to the longbow was the crossbow. But, as the battle of Crecy (1346) showed, even the superior Genoese composite crossbow - made of wood, horn, sinew and glue - was no match for the English weapon. 16 After firearms were introduced into continental warfare, Sir John Smythe, soldier of fortune, and Queen Elizabeth's ambassador to the Spanish Court of Philip II, noted that "archers are able to discharge four or five arrows apiece before the harquebusies shall be ready to discharge one bullet.

17 The reason for present day confusion and controversy over the longbow is the limited number of surviving artifacts. There are no longbows in existence from the Early Middle Ages. There are, however, five surviving Renaisance weapons. All of these bows are similar. They are nearly six feet long; made of wood; shaped in order to use both the centre and sap wood; are symmetrically tapered; and appear to have a very stiff draw weight. What is more, all five weapons are self bows. This means that they are made from a single stave of wood. Horace Ford, Champion Archer of England from 1850 to 1859, and an authority on English archery, maintained: "The self bow of a single stave is the real old English weapon - the one with which the mighty deeds that rendered this country renounced in by-gone times were performed." 18 The first of the five surviving bows, by tradition, dates from the Battle of Flodden (1513). Burnet verifies that the artifact hangs on the wall of Archers Hall, headquarters of Royal Scottish Archers, in Edinburgh.

19 About the turn of the twentieth century, Colonel Fergusson of Huntly Burn presented it to Mr. Peter Muir of the Royal Scottish Archers. Fergusson claimed the artifact from the rafters of a house near Flodden Field where it had been for generations. 20 The Flodden Bow is a self yew weapon, 'probably of English yew", approximately six feet long, and "rather roughly made". The estimated strength of the weapon is between 80 and 90 pounds. 21 Burnet's decription can be deceiving. The rough appearance of the weapon does not imply it was poorly made. Most yew, even the kind that makes the finest bows, is quite irregular in appearance.The sapwood of the stave, following the longitudinal line of the trunk, rises and falls and tilts upwards or down in places. It has 'pins' (tiny black knots) too, as a rule." 22 It is ironic that a weapon should survive from this battle.

"Flodden is a landmark in the history of archery, as the last battle on English soil to be fought with the longbow as the principle weapon..." 23 Modern authors maintain that the victory of Flodden was due to archery. Indeed Longman and Walrond in their book, Archery, maintain that a 1515 statute endorsing the use of, and practice with the bow was a result of the victory. 24 These authorities are probably correct, but not for the reasons they believe. The sole contemporary account of the battle notes "that a few of thaim (the Scots) wer slaine with arrows, how be it the billes (spears with hooks on the head) did beat and hew thaim downe..." 25 It is apparent that the law was passed because of the poor showing of the archers. The most interesting and least known Renaissance longbow comes from the armoury of the church in the village of Mendlesham in Suffolk, England. Records show it was there in the reign of Queen Elizabeth; however, Paterson believes it may date back to the time of Henry VIII. 26 Unfortunately, the Mendlesham Bow is broken.

It is a self bow of 53 inches length. Paterson believes: "Assuming that the mid-point of the bow is about one inch above the centre of the grip, this would suggest a bow length of about 68-69 inches - if the remnant is an upper limb - or about 71 inches if it is the lower limb. I am inclined to suggest the former as the more likely choice." 27 The surviving limb tip is shaped to take a horn nock for the bow string loop. That would make the total length of the bow a little over six feet tall. Measurements suggest a draw-weight of 80 pounds at 28 inches. 28 The Mendlesham Bow, a typical longbow, is also unique for two reasons. First, although it is shaped to use the properties of the yew centre and sap wood; the bow's "cross-section approximated more closely to a rectangle with the corners rounded, than the reputed traditional 'D'-form" found in the other four artifacts. Second, the longitudinal taper of the bow limb is not straight but whip ended. This would better distribute the stress as the bow is drawn and force it to bend in an elipse instead of an arc.

29 Like the two previous artifacts, the Hedgeley Moor Bow is also something of a mystery. It is reputed to have been used at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor (1464), during the War of the Roses. The weapon was presented to Alnwick Castle by John Wilkinson, whose family lived on the Castle estate from the time of the battle. "It is 65.5 inches inches in length, 3.5 inches at its greatest girth, with greatest width of 1.5 inches. The wood is probably yew..." 30 There are no nocks, but the ends have been notched to take a string. "At mid-point where the handle is, there are two deep cuts which look remakably of the shape of a bodkin head (sic) would make if it were overdrawn." Draw weight is estimated at 50 pounds. 29 The remaining two Renaissance longbows, like the Mendlesham artifact, come from the reign of Henry VIII. Unlike the Flodden and Hedgeley Moor Bows, we are sure of the age and use of these artifacts. They were recovered in 1836 by John Deane from H.M.S. Mary Rose.

32 The Mary Rose, flag ship of the British fleet, sank off Portsmouth while engaging an invading French squadron on Sunday, 19th July, 1545. 33 These two bows are on display in the Armouries in the Tower of London. Inventory records show that they are made of yew wood, "of rounded section, tapered at tips to take the nocks, now missing". 34 The largest of the bows is 75 inches long.The smaller stave is 72.75 inches long. Both bows are 4.5 inches at "greatest girth" and weigh 1 pound, 10 ounces. 35 They are symmetrical weapons, utilising the same 'D'-shape as the Floddern Bow. Both weapons are unfinished looking, but as pointed out previously, this is a characteristic of yew wood. Ford, in his study of the Mary Rose bows, notes that they are self bows, made from "foreign yew" and had an estimated draw weight of 65 to 70 pounds.

36 The variation in length between the Mary Rose, the Flodden, and the Mendlesham bows; as opposed to the Hedgeley Moor artifact, lies in the fact that the individual archer had his personal bow made to measure. The Mary Rose weapons were arsenal issues meant to suit the tallest men in service. Shorter men would cut their weapons down to suit their height and arm length. This point is supported by Roger Ascham's treatise on Archery, Toxophilus, published in 1545. During the Middle Ages, the yeoman archer was illiterate, while the scholars of the day, by virtue of their noble birth, had little knowledge of archery. Ascham was both a scholar and an ardent archer. As tutor to Elizabeth I, he had considerable influence on the royal family and was favoured by Henry VIII for his writing on this subject.

Commenting on the selection and adjustment of a longbow, Ascham writes: "Take your bow in to the field, shote in hym, synke hym wyth deade heauye shaftes...whe(n) you haue thus shot in hym, and perceyued good shootynge woode in hym, you must have hym agayne to a good cunnynge, and trustie woorkeman, whyche shall cut hym shorter, and pyke him and dresse hym fytter." 37 All five weapons are remarkably similar and may be said to be typical longbows. They are approximately six feet tall, made of the sap and centrewood of the yew tree, are rough looking, and stiff weapons pulling between 65 and 90 pounds. Given this draw weight, a maximum effective range of approximately 200 yards with a heavy war missile is not unreasonable, especially considering the performance of the present day Scottish Archers. The making of logbows changed little from the Medieval period until the turn of the twentieth century. They still were wooden self bows utilising the centre and sapwood of the stave.

The best bows continued to be made of yew wood; and all bows were made by hand thus, each was unique. According to Ford, yew was the only wood for a self bow, and the best yew came from Spain and Italy. The foreign wood is "straigther, finer in grain, freer from pins, stiffer and denser in quality, and requires less bulk in proportion to the strength of the bow". 38 Stayner adds that the best wood is grown in the poor soil of the mountains; this produced the desired light grained wood. 39 Ascham described the best yew for bow staves as coloured: "...lyke virgin wax or golde, having a fine longe grayne, even from the one ende of the bowe, to the other... the short grayne are for a most part very brittle." 40 Staves were cut only in winter, when the sap was down. 41 Stayner notes that the yew wood trade was tied to the wine trade.

To insure an adequate supply of bows, "at one time, all wine imports (from Southern France) had to have longbow staves in the cargo as well." 42 Why was yew such a superior wood for bow making? The natural properties of yew are much like a modern thermostat: by skillfully cutting and shaping the stave in a 'D'-section, a layer of sapwood was left along the flattened back of the bow. "When a bow is drawn, the inside face of the arc undergoes compression while the outer surface is stretched. The heartwood of yew is able to withstand compression and its sapwood is elastic by nature, and both tend to return to their original straightness when the bow is loosed." 43 Bows were not made all at once. Cut down in winter, they were roughed out and left to cure for a year or two. After the bow was "seasoned", it was worked in slow stages into the finished product. Often these steps occurred at intervals of a year for three or four years. 44 Once the bow was made, it would provide long service with minimum maintanance.

Smythe tells us that archers of the Hundred Years War used to rub a mixture of "wax, resin, and fine tallow" into the bow to protect it from "all weather of heat, frost, and wet". 45 Ascham says that the archers also had bow cases, not of leather, but of canvas or wool to protect their bows from the elements. 46 Bow strings were of two materials: in the sixteenth century, strings were made of "good hempe...(but, earlier, strings were made of)...fine Flaxe or Sylk". 47 A waterproof glue was used to preserve the Renaissance bow string and it was reinforced by a whipping of fine thread. 48 The strings were attached to nocks made of bone or horn. 49 The English Medieval war arrow, like the longbow, is a controversial subject. Known as the clothyard shaft, it was efficient, cheap, capable of being mass-produced, and "made in greater numbers than any other type of arrow in history". 50 But few sources agree to its length: estimates range from 27 to 36 inches. 51 A close examination of the sources tend to point to approximately 27 inches as the correct figure.

The clothyard was not a standard yard.The term comes from the reign of Edward III, when he introduced Flemish weavers into England. The weavers brought their own system of measurement with them. Known as the "clothyard ", "clothier's yard", "ell", or "Flemish yard", it was 27 4/10 inches long. 52 The late John E. Morris, the acknowledged authority on the military organisation and tactics of Edward I, supports this conclusion by noting that a draw length of 36 inches from a 65 pound or strong bow is biomechanically impossible. 53 The final and most conclusive argument for a war arrow length of a "Flemish yard" is the sole surviving Medieval war arrow. The artifact, now in the Library of Westminster Abbey, was found in one of the turrets of the Chapter House in 1878. The exact age of the arrow is unknown; but, due to the construction of the war head, it was probably made during the second half of the Hundred Years War. Dr. Howard M.

Nixon, Abbey Librarian, notes the head belogns to type 16 in the London Museum Catalogue: "This is a typical medieval war head, with small barbs to prevent the arrow from being easily withdrawn. It seems likely that the wood is either ash or birch." 54 This type of war head was devised to negate the protection offered by the combination mail and plate armour, which came into wide use after the Battle of Poitiers (1356). (Froissart tells us that the archers of the Black Prince shot (broadhead) "bearded" arrows). 55 The Chapter House Arrow is 30.5 inches long. The diameter of the shaft varies from 1.07 centimeters at the war head to a maximum of 1.14 centimeters at a distance of 30.5 centimeters from head. The diameter reduces to 0.756 centimeters at the nock. The total weight is 1.5 ounces. 56 This arrow is a 27 inch shaft (approximately) mounted to a 4 inch or 5 inch socketed war head. Medieval Weapons Medieval Weapons Saved under Medieval Times Medieval Weapons.

Weaponry in Medieval ages. Types of medieval weapons. Medieval swords and Hand weapons, polearms, ranged weapons and guns, siege weapons in Middle Ages. Medieval swords – swords of various types were weapon of medieval knights but also by infantry units. One handed sword-common sword often used with shield, known from early medieval times. These swords probabley evolved from viking swords and they were widely used for example by Norman knights. Longsword-Sword length was 40-48 inches. The longsword was worn in two hands. Sword typical for high and late middle ages. Medieval daggers-daggers were often used as a side arm or backup weapon. Some daggers were used together with sword. Thyis was typical later, during renaissance times. There were various types of medieval daggers like rondel daggers, stilettos and poignards. Daggers are refered as weapons of mercy. They were used in close combat or as weapons giving the final hit to wounded opponent. Medieval axes Some medieval warriors prefered axes. Axe was more common in Frankish, viking and Slavic troops because of lower price. Swords were worn by jarls and chieftains.

Medieval Blunt Weapons Heavy blunt weapons were often more effective against armor than a sword. Blunt weapons: morning star, mace, hammer, club, flail. Medieval Polearms Polearm means a blade of various type attached to a long shaft. Polearms were designed to fight cavalry (knights). Medieval infantry was not a dangerous to heavy cavalry but polearms changed the rules. Formation of units armed by loearms was able to stop cavalry charge. Polearm could kill the horse of a knight, to stab the mounted knight from a safe distance. Blades with various hooks were able to remove shield or parts of plate armor from knights. Theŕe were numerous types of polearms by its size and by the shape of its blade: simple spears, winged spears, pikes, halberds, glaives, corseques, fauchards, guisarmes, poleaxes, bardiches and many more. Lances Lance was used by infantry or it was also weapon of knight. Charge of knights armed by lances was often the decisive for result of battle. Knight charge with lances.

Ranged weapons Throwing axe-Franks were often arned by axes and by thowing axes. Francisca axes was originally small throwing axes used by Frankish armies. Throwing spears or javelins were short and light spears designed to as a ranged weapon. Javelins were used for hunting and in medieval battles. Throwing spears were often used by Welshmen, vikings and Anglo-Saxons. Bow Longbow-6ft log English bow was capable to fire arrows up to 250-350 yards. This bows were a disaster for a French armies in Battle of Crecy and Agincourt. Much numerous French army was repeately destroyed by english longbowmen just from a safe distance. Disadvantage of longbow was training time. It was simply not easy to master this type of bow. Longbowmen were expensive units and it was not possible to substitute them quickly. Longbowment were also defenceless in a close combat. They were sometimes destroyed in a few moments by successful knight charge if left unprotected. Crossbow-crossbow was a very effective ranged weapon on a shorter distance than a medieval bow.

Metal bolts were capable to penetrate any type of the medieval armor including the full plate mail of knights. Mastering a crossbow was much easier and much shorter than in case of lonngow. Disadvantage of crossbow was its slow rate of fire. Crossbow was favourite weapon of Italian mercenary armies and for example of the Hussite insurgents. Crossbow was desribed as an unhonest weapon in medieval times due its ability to kill nobles (knights) easily. It was also banned by pope for a short time. Arbalest Medieval guns-gunpower was invented in ancient Chine but it took time to use it in the European military. Gunpowder was used sporadically in battles during 13th and 14th century. First mass use was in Hussite wars (15th century). The first medieval fireams were very unaccurate and rate of fire was very slow. Crossbow was much more accurate weapon than the early fireams. Medieval weapons-firearms. Medieval ranged weapons – bow, longbow, crossbows and javelins. Medieval Siege weapons Trebuchet-Trebuchets were invented in China. Trebuchets were improved by French armies during medieval times.

These powerful and very accurate slings were used even after mass use of cannons. Trebuchets were well suited for attacking castles: they could be set up at a safe distance from archers on the castle walls; they could be moved to sections of the walls that had weakened, and they could throw almost anything over the walls and into the areas of the hold. Trebuchets used torsion moment or a counterweight to throw rocks, balls or a fire bombs. Trebuchets were up to 60 feets high and able to fire its projectiles up to 300 yards. Ballista-Ballista is a missile weapon that launched a large projectile at a target. Ballista was widely used in ancient Greece and Rome. Ballista gets its power from torion moment. Simplified ballistae were used during medieval ages as a part of castle defence or as a siege weapon. Some ballistae were capable to fire projectiles up to 800 yards. Onager (mangonel)-originally a Roman weapon reinvented in about 1200AD. Onager was used that held the projectile from a fixed bowl . Onager got its name from a kicking aspect.

Bombard-medieval cannon or a mortar firing stone or metal balls against castle walls. The most powerful bombards were capable to fire balls up to 400 lbs (180 kg). Petard-medieval petard was a bomb fixed on walls or on a gate. Its purpose was breaching the part of fortification. Chemical, biological and psychological weapons-medieval warriors were a very inventive psychological warfare, Mongols were masters in intimidiation techniques. Greek fire was used by defenders and attacked during castle siege but also in naval battles. It was common to throw dead animals and even humans over walls of enemy. Poisoning a wells, rivers and ponds was a next common technique to eliminate enemy. Some defenders succesfully used a puppets installed on walls to convince the siege army about a big man power inside a castle. Mass executions of captives was a tactic used to destroy morale of castle defenders. Medieval siege weapons-ballista, onager, catapult, siege tower.

Question: What weapon do many historians call 'the machine gun of the Middle Ages'?
Answer: Longbow