Trip Information-Aconcagua Trip Information Summit Aconcagua Trip Information Argentina is the second largest country in South America and the eighth largest in the world. Argentina occupies a continental surface area of 1,068,302 sq miles between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. Argentina also claims 374,312 sq miles of Antarctica, known as Argentine Antarctica. The climate of Argentina is classified as temperate. Mendoza Mendoza is located in the northern-central part of the province, in a region of foothills and high plains, on the eastern side of the Andes. As of 2001 Mendoza's population was 110,993. The metropolitan population was 848,660 in 2001, making Greater Mendoza the fourth largest census metropolitan area in the country. Mendoza was founded in 1561 by Pedro del Castillo. Before this time it was populated by three tribes, the Huarpes, the Puelches, and the Incas.

The Huarpes devised a system of irrigation that was later developed by the Spanish. This allowed for an increase in population that might not have otherwise occurred. The system is still evident today in the wide trenches that run parallel to the city streets. It is estimated that less than 80 Spanish settlers lived in the area before 1600, but later prosperity increased due to the use of indigenous and slave labor. The temperature in December and January ranges from highs of 90 to lows of 64. The Mountain Cerro Aconcagua is the highest mountain in the Americas, and the highest mountain outside Asia. It is located in the Andes mountain range, in the Argentine province of Mendoza. The summit is located about 5 kilometers from San Juan Province and 15 kilometers from the international border with Chile. It lies 112 km (70 mi) west by north of the city of Mendoza. Aconcagua is bounded by the Valle de las Vacas to the north and east and the Valle de los Horcones Inferior to the West and South. The mountain has a number of glaciers. The most substantial are the north-eastern or Polish Glacier and the eastern or English Glacier.

The origin of the name is contested, it is either from the Arauca Aconca-Hue, which refers to the Aconcagua River and means 'comes from the other side' or the Quechua Ackon Cahuak, meaning 'Sentinel of Stone'. The mountain has two summits - North (22,841 ft. 6962 meters) and South (22,736 ft. 6930 meters), joined by a ridge (Cresta del Guanaco), pictured to the right, approximately one kilometer long. Various ridges radiate from each summit and the whole massif is isolated from other high peaks. Only to the northwest is it connected by a high snow ridge with the surrounding mountain systems. The usual approach is from the south up the Quebrada de los Horcones, which circles the western flanks of the peak, to the Plaza de Mulas base camp. From here 3 routes start: the Normal, will be the route we are taking, via the Horcones Glacier Superior and north ridge, the West Buttress route, and the South-West route.

Climbing History The first ascent of Aconcagua was led by the English alpinist Edward Fitz Gerald, during the summer of 1897. Fitz Gerald's group acceded to the stony slope of the Northwest side of the mountain after following upstream the Horcones River. After several tries, the Swiss teammate Mathias Zurbriggen reached the summit alone on the 14th of January, 1897. This was followed a few days later by Nicholas Lanti and Stuart Vines, members of the same expedition, made the second climb following the same route. The youngest person to reach the summit of Aconcagua was Jordan Romero of Big Bear Lake, California. He was 11 years old when he reached the summit on December 30, 2007. Geology The height of Aconcagua is not a result of active volcanoes such as Mt. Tupungato, rather the elevation is caused by the tectonic lifting of the mountain range. The tectonic characteristics are controlled by the interaction of the Nazca and South American plates, and the geometry of the zone of subduction.

The glacial action was much more active in the past and the rock forms that resulted from this action are now found modified by the action of the other processes mainly mass removal and the actions of the rivers. The glaciations in the principal pre-mountain range don't reach the level of the glaciers of Patagonia due to more arid conditions and intense tectonic activity. The action of the ice took the form of the valley glaciations, forming caps in the high mountain only united at the highest elevations, such as Aconcagua, Plomo Juncal, and the Ramada Range. In the area around Aconcagua one finds a series of glaciers including the Lower Glacier Horcones that have their birth at the foot of Mt Aconcagua and the Upper Horcones. We travel through this valley and the presence of the moraine is still evident until base camp. A famous geologist, Espizua (1993), described the Horcones drift as: "a current of ice some 50 meters thick occupied the valleys of the Lower Horcones Rivers and the Upper Horcones, extending for 20 kilometers from Mt.

Aconcagua as far as the Puente del Inca (Inca Bridge), at 2750 meters, where it finds the last moraine." Your Guide Each climb is led by the Climb Leader with a maximum of 3:1 ratio. The climb leader is responsible for overseeing all aspects of the climb and looks after the physical well-being of the crew. Your Crew On Aconcagua we will have a large support crew assisting us to the summit. Included are: Mules: We have a pack of mules to carry our equipment to our first and second camp. The mules are a very important part of our climb and offer great support with logistic transfers and evacuations. Porters: Included are a team of porters to carry all of our personal and expedition equipment to each of the high camps. Our porters will take over after camp (2) and carry the load up to the high camps. Camp Staff: We will have group dining in the first two camps with our second camp offering a variety of meals in Plaza de Mulas. After we depart for our high camps we will have a crew cooking all our meals to ensure we have the energy on our summit bid.

Your Team on the Ground The operations base for the climb is Mendoza and Plaza de Mulas, AR. Your guide leader will have constant contact with both bases during various periods of the expedition. The base team is responsible for the logistics of operating on the mountain and ensures that the equipment used is clean and in good condition. The operating team works closely with your team and is responsible for handling all transfers, meal preparation, porter coordination, and accommodations. Each climb is run with process checks and quality management built in to ensure a safe and enjoyable experience. Normal Route The normal route along the Northwest Ridge is a non-technical, however, a physically demanding climb that involves all the logistics of climbing a big mountain. The ascent does require mountaineering skills such as the use of crampons and trekking at high altitude. Our route begins at Plaza de Mulas located at the end of the Horcones Valley. We will utilize three higher camps, Canada 4,907 m (16,200 ft.), Nido de Condores 5,395 m (17,500 ft.) and Colera 5,861 m (19,200 ft.) to obtain our summit.

Weather Aconcagua, like all big mountains, attracts and generates its own weather patterns making it very difficult to predict. Be prepared for freezing nights, snowy and windy conditions, bright sunshine, and plenty of variety. Because our climb is late in the season we should expect to see large snowfields at the high camps. Aconcagua is located at 32 degrees 39 minutes south, the same distance from the equator as San Diego, California. The best time to climb the mountain is from Decemberï¿½March but the chance of storms during these months still exists due to moist humid winds blowing from the west off of the Pacific Ocean. As this humid air rises over the slopes of the Andes, its speed increases and it condenses to form lenticular clouds on the summit. Generally, winds from the south are a sign of good weather and enable us to go for a successful summit bid. What to Expect on the Mountain Each morning our team will be up at a reasonable hour, have a good breakfast, and begin our activity for the day. Some days we will arrive early and have a chance to relax at our site.

We will be issued a bag from the ranger station for our waste, as well as our permit, which we will need to have on our person at all times. Transportation Air Travel: Please make flight arrangements to fly into Mendoza, Argentina (airport code MDZ). LAN and American Airlines have the most direct flights through Santiago with a connecting flight to Mendoza. Please make your departure arrangements for an evening departure out of Mendoza since the majority of international flights leave after 9pm out of Santiago, Chile. If you elect to get a direct flight to Santiago, Chile and take a bus transfer over the mountains please be aware you will be required to pay a reciprocity charge passing through immigration. It is recommended that all participants book flights that can be changed in the event we exit the mountain earlier than expected. Ground Transfers: Included in your program are private transfers from the airport to the hotel, to and from the mountain, back to Mendoza and then to the airport after the climb. The vehicles are van style and have plenty of capacity for our team as well as our equipment we are taking to Confluencia. For transfer around the city there are several taxis available if you would like to explore the city reaches.

Taxis are inexpensive but it is recommended to have pesos to pay for the taxi in order to get an accurate rate. For those who are traveling in via the bus route we will have a guide meet you at the terminal and transfer you to the hotel. All transfers are with insured and certified vehicles approved by our organization. Helicopter Transfers: After our summit bid we will stay one additional night at our high camp before transferring back to base camp at Refugio Plaza de Mulas. The following morning we will have the opportunity to descend via helicopter to the trail head and have a view of your route from above. The helicopter is an Ecureuil AS-350-B3. The single engine AS350 Ecureuil is renowned for its altitude performance and its safety. The AS350 B3 is "the high performance" version of the single engine Ecureuil range. Powered by a Turbomeca Arriel 2B turbine engine it is equipped with the FADEC system. It is totally suited for operations in conditions such as mountainous areas, hot countries or for very demanding missions, performance wise. The helicopter will be optional for anyone who wishes to depart this way.

The other option is to hike the 17 miles back to the Horcones trail head. The team departing by foot will leave around 8 am and the team departing by air will leave around 2pm. We will all meet at the park entrance before heading back to Mendoza as a group. Mule Services: We will have mules carrying our equipment from the trail head to Confluencia and then from Confluencia to Plaza de Mulas. The mules can carry 132 lbs (60 kg) each. All our food will be provided at the camps and the majority of the high altitude equipment resides at our elevated base camp. We have mules to transfer our equipment back to the trail head on our descent enabling us to carry minimal weight for a speedy exit. On our descent from base camp the mules will depart at 10am from base camp. Mules are also available to ride out if you have, or encounter, knee trouble or other physical injury that may make your descent difficult. We can arrange this transfer for you prior to the program departure. 10 | May | 2012 | Mannaismaya Adventure's Blog Mannaismaya Adventure's Blog EXperience The Beauty of Indonesia !

Menu Andes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia and others. The Andes is the longest continental mountain range in the world. It is a continual range of highlands along the western coast of South America . This range is about 7,000 km (4,300 mi) long, about 200 km (120 mi) to 700 km (430 mi) wide (widest between 18° south and 20° south latitude ), and of an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela , Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , Chile and Argentina . : Along its length, the Andes is split into several ranges, which are separated by intermediate depressions . The Andes is the location of several high plateaux – some of which host major cities such as Quito , Bogotá , Arequipa , Medellín , Sucre , and La Paz . The so-called Altiplano plateau is the world’s second-highest plateau following the Tibetan plateau .

: The Andes range is the world’s highest mountain range outside of the continent of Asia . The highest peak, Mt. Aconcagua , rises to an elevation of about 6,962 m (22,841 ft) above sea level . The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the centre of the Earth than any other location on the Earth’s surface. This is because of the equatorial bulge that results from the Earth’s rotation . The world’s highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina frontier which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft). Fifty other Andean volcanoes also rise above 6,000 m (19,685 ft). Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between Argentina and Chile Countries Composite satellite image of the southern Andes Name The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The major consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means “high crest”. Others believe that Andes comes from Anti Suyu , one of the four regions of the Inca empire .

It is more likely however that the word Antisuyo derives from the use of Anti to designate mountain chains. Derivation from the Spanish andén (in the sense of cultivation terrace ) has also been proposed, yet considered very unlikely. Aerial view of Aconcagua. The Andes can be divided into three sections: I. The Southern Andes in Argentina and Chile; II. The Central Andes, including the Chilean and Peruvian cordilleras and parts of Bolivia; III. The Northern Andes in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador that consists of two parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental. In Colombia, north of its the border with Ecuador, the Andes split in three parallel ranges, the western, central, and eastern ranges. (The cordillera occidental, central, and oriental). In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often considered to be part of the Andes. This eastern range of Colombia is the only one that extends to Venezuela.The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word “cuerda”, meaning “rope”.

The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres (398 mi) wide. The islands of the Dutch Caribbean Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao , which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South-American and Caribbean plates. Geology edit The Andes are a Mesozoic – Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire , a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate . The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate .

To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins such as Orinoco , Amazon Basin , Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco which separates the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south the Andes shares a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane . To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean , although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered its ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. Orogeny The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the of the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana . The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangea began to break up and several rifts developed. It continued through the Jurassic Period.

It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take its present form, by the uplifting , faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion . Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate . Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. Rift valley near Quilotoa , Ecuador . Astronaut photograph with the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert.

The Andes range has many active volcanoes, which are distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being a type location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extrensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range on crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations. Ore deposits and evaporites The Andes mountains host large ore and salt deposits and some of its eastern fold and thrust belt acts as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons .

In the forelands of the Atacama desert some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occurs making Chile and Peru the first and second largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems . The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water . The dry climate in the central western Andes have also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni , the first one being the largest source of lithium today and the second the world’s largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivias Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí . Central Andes Astronaut photograph of the Central Andes The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea.

Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location.

It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,800–15,800 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,800–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level. The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes .

Since the Dry Andes extends from the latitudes of Atacama Desert to the area of Maule River , precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area . In the high Andes of central Chile and Mendoza Province rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation . Though precipitation increases with the height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7000 m towering highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typically of the subtropic position at 32-34° S. Therefore in the valley bottoms do not grow woods but only dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, as e.g. the Plomo glacier and the Horcones glaciers do not even reach 10 km in length and have an only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times however, c. 20 000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer.

On the East-side of this section of the Mendozina Andes they flowed down to 2060 m and on the West-side to c. 1220 m asl. The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua (6962 m), Cerro Tupungato (6550 m) and Nevado Juncal (6110 m) are situated deca-kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. Its dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km long, over 1020, i.e. 1250 m thick and overspanned a vertical distance of 5150 altitude metres. The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from currently 4600 m to 3200 m at glacial times. “La Linia” Andes mountain pass Flora The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristc regions due to its extension from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert.

Rainforests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished , especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. As a direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles , they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert. About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot . The small tree Cinchona pubescens , a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria , is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes . The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile.

These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered , with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains. Fauna A male Andean Cock-of-the-rock , a species found in humid Andean forests. Herds of alpacas on the mountain Ausangate hillside. Main article: Fauna of the Andes The Andes is rich in fauna: With almost 3,500 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes is the most important region in the world for amphibians .

The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptile (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic). The Vicuña and Guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano , while the closely related domesticated Llama and Alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool . The nocturnal chinchillas , two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabit the Andes’ alpine regions. The Andean Condor , the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere , occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.

Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul , cougar , foxes in the genus Pseudalopex , and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of the genus Nothoprocta ), Andean Goose , Giant Coot , flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), Lesser Rhea , Andean Flicker , Diademed Sandpiper-plover , miners , sierra-finches and diuca-finches . Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca Flightless Grebe and Titicaca Water Frog . A few species of hummingbirds , notably some hillstars , can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests (“ cloud forests “) growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina.

These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exists, exceptions being the threatened Mountain Tapir , Spectacled Bear and Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey . Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain-toucans , quetzals and the Andean Cock-of-the-rock , while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and Furnariids commonly are seen – in contrast to several vocal but typically cryptic species of wrens , tapaculos and antpittas . A number of species such as the Royal Cinclodes and White-browed Tit-spinetail are associated with Polylepis, and consequently also threatened . Human activity See also: Cultural periods of Peru , Inca Empire , Viceroyalty of Peru , and Andean states Map showing cultural influence in the Andes The Andes mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management.

The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today. Devastated by European diseases to which they had no immunity , and civil wars, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas , Chachapoyas , Cañaris ) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro . One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu , which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827. In modern times, the largest Andean cities are Bogota, Colombia , with a population of about eight million, La Paz, Bolivia , and Quito, Ecuador .

Transportation Troncal 7 ( Trans-Andes Highway ) in the Venezuelan Andes. Several major cities exist either in the Andes or in the foothills, among which are Bogotá , Medellín and Cali, Colombia ; Quito, Ecuador ; Mérida, Venezuela ; La Paz, Bolivia ; Santiago, Chile , and Cusco, Peru . These and most other cities and large towns are now connected with asphalt -paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example, the main cross over the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores , only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via airline . For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes.

However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile, the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Argentina out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia’s only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru, also – that was returned to Peru later. Bolivia has been a landlocked country ever since then. However, if Chile had kept some land to the east, the difficulties in transportation between east and west would have been enormous. There has also been bad blood between Bolivia and Chile ever since 1870, and these two countries have not had diplomatic relations since about 1974. Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in which motorized vehicles are of little use are still present. Locally, the relatives of the camel , the llama and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Agriculture Photograph of young Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans.

The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha , important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco , cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca , despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea , and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine . Mining The Andes rose to fame for its mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America . Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined in large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia was one of the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina derive their names from the silver of Potosí.

Currently, mining in the Andes of Chile and Peru place these countries as the 1st and 3rd major producers of copper in the world. The Bolivian Andes produce principally tin although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the economy of 17th century Europe. There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are also important. Peaks This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below).

Argentina Cerro Bonete , 6,759 m (22,175 ft) Galán , 5,912 m (19,396 ft) Mercedario , 6,720 m (22,047 ft) Pissis , 6,795 m (22,293 ft) Border between Argentina and Chile Cerro Bayo , 5,401 m (17,720 ft) Cerro Chaltén , 3,375 m (11,073 ft) or 3,405 m, Patagonia , also known as Cerro Fitz Roy Falso Azufre , 5,890 m (19,324 ft) Incahuasi , 6,620 m (21,719 ft) Lastarria , 5,697 m (18,691 ft) Llullaillaco , 6,739 m (22,110 ft) Maipo , 5,264 m (17,270 ft) Marmole

jo , 6,110 m (20,046 ft) Ojos del Salado , 6,893 m (22,615 ft) Olca , 5,407 m (17,740 ft) Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas , 6,127 m (20,102 ft) Socompa , 6,051 m (19,852 ft) Nevado Tres Cruces , 6,749 m (south summit) (III Region) Tronador , 3,491 m (11,453 ft) Tupungato , 6,570 m (21,555 ft) Nacimiento , 6,492 m (21,299 ft) Camino de Alta Montaña, Argentina/Chile Bolivia Yungas Road, La Paz, Bolivia : Yungas road on the Andes mountain , Yungas Road, La Paz, Bolivia: Yungas road on the Andes mountain range is also known as the road of death.

Roads are very narrow at places and accidents are common. .. Yungas Road From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The North Yungas Road (alternatively known as Grove’s Road, Coroico Road, Camino de las Yungas, Road of Death or Death Road) is a 61-kilometre (38 mi) or 69-kilometre (43 mi) road leading from La Paz to Coroico , 56 kilometres (35 mi) northeast of La Paz in the Yungas region of Bolivia . It is legendary for its extreme danger and in 1995 the Inter-American Development Bank christened it as the “world’s most dangerous road”. One estimate is that 200 to 300 travellers are killed yearly along the road. The road includes crosses marking many of the spots where vehicles have fallen. A South Yungas Road (Chulumani Road) exists that connects La Paz to Chulumani , 64 kilometres (40 mi) east of La Paz, and is considered to be nearly as dangerous as the North Road. Photographs of China ‘s Guoliang Tunnel are often incorrectly identified as showing the Yungas Road.

The road was built during the Chaco war in 1930 by prisoners from Paraguay, but since then it has been upgraded. It was paved, a little wider and a section was built between Chusquipata and Yolosa bypassing a good portion of old road. This new route includes various features such as fences, sidewalks and many other safety features. With all the facilities already in place, Yungas Road remains the World’s Most Dangerous Road! Attraction The danger of the road ironically made it a popular tourist destination starting in the 1990s, drawing some 25,000 thrillseekers . Mountain biking enthusiasts in particular have made it a favourite destination for downhill biking since there is a 64-kilometre (40 mi) stretch of continuous downhill riding with only one short uphill section. There are now many tour operators catering to this activity, providing information, guides, transport, and equipment. Nevertheless, the Yungas Road remains dangerous. At least 18 cyclists have died on the ride since 1998.

It is featured on the BBC show, Top Gear: Bolivia Special (Episode 6 of Top Gear series 14 ) where the hosts travelled 1,610 kilometres (1,000 mi) from the Bolivian rainforest to the Pacific Ocean . The danger of the road was readily apparent when the road began to crumble under the wheels of Jeremy Clarkson’s Range Rover, as he was forced to the edge while passing another vehicle. A Mitsubishi Outlander TV commercial was the first ever filmed on the road. The second season of IRT: Deadliest Roads, a spin-off of the History Channel series Ice Road Truckers , follows six North American drivers as they haul cargo along the road. History The road was built in the 1930s during the Chaco War by Paraguayan prisoners. The Yungas Road was modernized during a 20 year period ending in 2006. The modernization included enlarging the carriageway from one to two lanes, constructing asphalt pavement, and building a new section between Chusquipata and Yolosa, bypassing to the north one of the most dangerous sections of the old ‘Death Road’.

This new route features modern construction ( bridges , drainage , etc.), multiple lanes, pavement, guardrails, and many other elements that make it considerably safer than the original route.

The original North Yungas Road is currently much less used by traffic, although an increasing number of adventure travelers bike it for the thrills Ancohuma , 6,427 m (21,086 ft) Cabaray , 5,860 m (19,226 ft) Chacaltaya , 5,421 m (17,785 ft) Huayna Potosí , 6,088 m (19,974 ft) Illampu , 6,368 m (20,892 ft) Illimani , 6,438 m (21,122 ft) Border between Bolivia and Chile Acotango , 6,052 m (19,856 ft) Cerro Minchincha , 5,305 m (17,405 ft) Irruputuncu , 5,163 m (16,939 ft) Licancabur , 5,920 m (19,423 ft) Olca , 5,407 m (17,

740 ft) Parinacota , 6,348 m (20,827 ft) Paruma , 5,420 m (17,782 ft) Pomerape , 6,282 m (20,610 ft) Mount Tarn , c.825 m (2,707 ft) Polleras, 5,993 m (19,662 ft) Santiago de Chile on the western slopes of a snowcapped Andes View of Cuernos del Paine in Torres del Paine National Park Colombia Nevado del Quindío , 5,215 m (17,110 ft) Purace , 4,655 m (15,272 ft) Doña Juana , 4,150 m (13,615 ft) Galeras , 4,276 m (14,029 ft) Azufral .

4,070 m (13,353 ft) Antisana , 5,752 m (18,871 ft) Cayambe , 5,790 m (18,996 ft) Chimborazo , 6,268 m (20,564 ft) Corazón , 4,790 m (15,715 ft) Cotopaxi , 5,897 m (19,347 ft) El Altar , 5,320 m (17,454 ft) Illiniza , 5,248 m (17,218 ft) Pichincha , 4,784 m (15,696 ft) Quilotoa , 3,914 m (12,841 ft) Reventador , 3,562 m (11,686 ft) Sangay , 5,230 m (17,159 ft) Tungurahua , 5,023 m (16,48

0 ft) Titicacha , 5,035 m (16,519 ft) Alpamayo , 5,947 m (19,511 ft) Artesonraju , 6,025 m (19,767 ft) Carnicero , 5,960 m (19,554 ft) El Toro , 5,830 m (19,127 ft) Huandoy , 6,395 m (20,981 ft) Huascarán , 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Jirishanca , 6,094 m (19,993 ft) Nevado de Huaytapallana , 5,557 m (18,232 ft) Pumasillo , 5,991 m (19,656 ft) Rasac , 6,040 m (19,816 ft) Rondoy , 5,870 m (19,259 ft) Sarapo , 6,

127 m (20,102 ft) Siula Grande , 6,344 m (20,814 ft) Yerupaja , 6,635 m (21,768 ft) by Staff Writers Anyone who has ever read any of Jonathan Kozol’s books, such as Death at an Early Age, Amazing Grace, Savage Inequalities, or Shame of the Nation, cannot help but be affected by the portrayal of the inhumane conditions under which students and teachers in some of the nation’s poorest schools are expected to learn.

There are shootings in the streets outside, no heat or air conditioning, crumbling ceilings and walls, classes housed in closets and trailers, overcrowding, malnourished and homeless students, and every dehumanizing condition you would imagine in a Third World country — right here in the U.S. Yet every year, a few students from these schools manage to graduate and find their way to college. This can only be accomplished by the dedication of teachers who choose to work in terrible conditions, for little pay, and who often receive criticism or outright scorn for their efforts. Mr. Kozol hasn’t written a book since 2007 — even the most dedicated activists and educators grow old — but there has been little change for the better in the poorest schools in this country since then. In fact, with the recent economic downturn, conditions are likely to have gotten worse in many of them. In keeping with the spirit of Kozol’s work to shed light on the plight of students and teachers laboring under terrible conditions, here is a look at the 10 poorest schools in the U.S. East St. Louis, Illinois, Tomorrow’s Builders Charter School .Half a century ago, East St.

Louis was a prospering and growing community but in the decades since, the city has been in a slow and steady decline that has left it dangerous and desperate. Its schools haven’t been left unscathed during this process, and Tomorrow’s Builders Charter School is no exception. It was ranked as the worst performing public high school in the U.S. by Neighborhood Scout and with good reason: none of the school’s 181 students were proficient in math and just 3% were proficient in reading. Located in a deeply impoverished community, the school has few resources to improve and is battling against one of the highest violent crime rates in the U.S. and rampant gang activity. Today, four in 10 residents of East St. Louis live below the poverty line, two out of five children are born to a teenager, and just under half of the city’s children drop out of school before the age of 15. Amid this environment , it’s no mystery why schools like Tomorrow’s Builders suffer, and with little tax revenue coming in from the surrounding community, reform is a long, slow, and often frustrating process.

Albany, Georgia, Albany High School .It shouldn’t come as a surprise that an Albany-area school would rank as one of the poorest in the nation, as the community itself is one of the most deeply impoverished both within the state and in the U.S. as a whole. The city has been hit hard by unemployment due to several large businesses choosing to relocate elsewhere, and the resulting 11% unemployment rate has contributed to 27.7% of residents living below the poverty line , the fifh highest poverty level in the U.S. Schools in the area have felt the pinch of this economic turmoil as well, and Albany High School has been hit especially hard, making the Georgia State Department of Education’s list of the worst-performing schools. Just this year, the school was awarded a School Improvement Grant through the U.S. Department of Education, and with this additional funding, hopefully students at Albany High will see improvements in the coming years. Brownsville, Texas, Porter High School .The Brownsville School District is one of the poorest in the nation, with 94% of students qualifying for free or reduced lunches district-wide.

The city itself has the highest poverty level in the nation, with 36.3% of its residents living at or below the poverty line and a whopping 12.5% without a job. Because Brownsville is a border town, many Porter High School students are recent immigrants and 43% are still learning English. While the community might be poor and the schools may have extremely limited resources, test scores are holding steady in this community. In fact, the school district was recently awarded the $1 million dollar Broad Prize for Urban Education for making academic advances, a sum that will be divided up between the district’s seniors for college scholarships. Porter High is part of this surprising level of achievement, as its students did well on standardized tests, with proficiencies of 70% in math, 79% in reading, 77% in science, and 95% in social studies. Chicago, Illinois, Paul Robeson High School .Chicago’s South Side boasts some of the most dangerous neighborhoods in the United States, with gang violence claiming the lives of dozens of high school and middle school students each year.

The city’s Robeson High School, located in the infamous Englewood neighborhood, ranks among the lowest performing schools in the U.S., according to data from Neighborhood Scout, with just 2% proficient in reading and 5% in math. It’s not the only school on the South Side to make the list, with Harper High School and Englewood Technical Prep also bringing in pitifully low scores. Robeson’s poor performance and budgetary issues may be due to where the school is located, as Englewood is one of the poorest Chicago neighborhoods. According to City-Data.com 43% of Englewood residents live below the poverty line and the median income is just $22,131. Making things even harder on this already struggling school? About 31% of the school’s students are coming from single-parent homes and the neighborhood led the city in homicides last year, with a large number of both the perpetrators and the victims being high school students. Reading, Pennsylvania, Reading Senior High School :Reading has made headlines recently, but not in any way the struggling city would like to do so.

Recent Census Bureau data revealed it as the poorest city in America , with the largest share of residents living in poverty for a city of its size, a figure that stands at a staggering 41.3%. In decline for the past decade, the city slipped into despair with the departure of the major industries that had helped to sustain it, and the education system is reflecting these struggles. At Reading Senior High School, almost 89% of students qualify for free or reduced lunches, up from just 44% in 2003. The economic woes of the community haven’t helped test scores, either, with only 27% of students performing at a proficient level in math and 43% in reading. Frustration with the school system may be part of the reason this school has such high drop-out rates, with a distressing 50% of students leaving school before getting their diplomas. Beecher, Michigan, Beecher High School :If you’ve ever seen Michael Moore’s film Roger & Me, you have a pretty good idea of the havoc unemployment and poverty have wrecked on the once-prosperous industrial city of Flint.

Beecher, a small township on the edges of the city, has been hit even harder, which may be hard to do as the poverty rate in Flint is currently at 21% with unemployment at 18.1% as of January 2012, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Beecher, by comparison, has a staggering 45% of its residents living in poverty. The overall economic sluggishness of Flint and the surrounding areas has made it hard for schools to bring in much revenue, and many, like Beecher High School, are struggling. The school was recently ranked among the worst performing schools in the state, a fact that may be largely related to money: 82% of the school district’s students live below the poverty line. Detroit, Michigan, Central High School :Detroit has been a city in turmoil for decades, struggling with high unemployment (currently just over 11%) and rampant crime. Schools have been deeply affected as well, and in 2008, Detroit was reported as having the worst high school graduation rate of any city, just under 25% .

Central High School has been one of the most strongly affected by the general economic decline of Detroit, with more than 74% of students living below the poverty line. Over the past decade, Central has produced some of the worst test scores anywhere in the city, though Ford, Denby, Mumford, and Pershing high schools aren’t far behind. Just this year, the city announced plans to place these schools under the Educational Achievement Authority, which would regulate instruction, lengthen the school year, and work to improve teacher development. This infusion of cash and resources may be just what this impoverished school needs to get back on track. Batesland, South Dakota, Shannon County Virtual High School :According to census data, Batesland is located in the second poorest county in the nation, with most of its residents living on nearby reservations that have extraordinarily high rates of poverty. How high? 45.8% of families and 39.2% of the population as a whole live below the poverty line, including 39.4% of children and 100% of seniors. The community has no traditional high school, instead opting for a virtual school, which has much less overhead and does not require students to travel to attend classes.

Unfortunately, the poor quality of schools (perhaps giving students little hope of getting ahead) and the general poverty of the community has taken a toll on students, and during the 2009-2010 school year nine students committed suicide , promoting the USDE to give an emergency grant of $50,000 to the country to help improve conditions. New Orleans, LA, The Alternative Learning Institute :While the economy of New Orleans is finally starting to pick up after the devastation of Hurricane Katrina, many communities within the city are still struggling to get by, facing high crime rates, poverty, and unemployment. These factors all trickle down into the local school system and in 2011 a whopping 91 of the 103 public schools in the city were in the failing category according to No Child Left Behind standards, making it the lowest performing school district in the state. These poor scores are undoubtedly related to the economic despair of the community at large, with more than 40% of kids in New Orleans living under the poverty line, lacking basic school supplies, educational resources, and even food at home.

The Alternative Learning Institute serves some of the poorest communities in New Orleans, with 95.7% of its students living close to or below the poverty line. With few resources and beleaguered by larger community issues, test scores in the school are about as low as they could be, with only 4% of students being proficient in math and reading. Baltimore, MD, Frederick Douglass High :Many schools in Baltimore, particularly those in the most poverty-stricken areas, are feeling the pain of statewide budget issues. Recent changes in a school-improvement grants program that allows funds to go to any school in the state rather than straight to those that are neediest have made things even worse. At Frederick Douglass High, 80.7% of students receive free or reduced-cost lunches and citywide more than 83% of schools have half their students or more qualifying for these benefits. That’s a pretty high rate of poverty, and as you might imagine it has a direct impact on the quality and performance of schools in the city, including Frederick Douglass, one of the lowest performing schools in the state.

The school was the subject of a recent documentary called Hard Times at Douglass High: A No Child Left Behind Report Card, which documented the academic and financial struggles of the school. Only the efforts of outstanding teachers and administrators are able to keep these schools functioning at all. Legislation such as No Child Left Behind, the educational reforms proposed by a recent Council on Foreign Relations taskforce headed by Joel Klein and Condoleezza Rice , and even President Obama’s threat to penalize schools with high drop-out rates in his 2012 State of the Union Address, only serve to further weaken these schools by punishing them for “failing” to teach their students. How can even the best teachers reach all of the students who live under the circumstances described here? In areas where the tax revenue funding system has failed because of urban flight and de-industrialization, or exorbitant tax breaks given to corporations in these impoverished areas, societal and governmental responsibility for providing the support and funding for these schools is needed to help the schools and their neighborhoods crawl out of poverty. The argument that hard work will allow any individual to escape the circumstances of their birth is a myth; you can only pull yourself up by your bootstraps if you have boots to begin with.

Question: Cerro Aconcagua in the Andes, the highest mountain in the Americas and the highest mountain outside Asia, is 112 km (70 miles) from which closest city?
Answer: Mendoza, Argentina