Enter the Bible - Books: Deuteronomy AUTHOR: Mark Throntveit, Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament I. Moses' First Address (1:1-4:43) Deuteronomy begins with the first of three farewell addresses delivered by Moses before his death and before Israel enters the promised land of Canaan. A. Historical Retrospective (1:1-3:29) In this historical retrospective Moses tells the story of Israel's forty-year journey from Mt. Horeb to the plains of Moab east of the Jordan River--touching upon the exodus, the revelation at Mt. Horeb, and Israel's rebellion in the wilderness. B. The Importance of Obedience (4:1-43) In this sermon, Moses discusses the importance of observing the law by elaborating upon the significance of the first commandment (the second in Judaism) regarding the exclusive allegiance God demands. II.

Moses' Second Address (4:44-28:68) In his second of three farewell addresses, Moses discusses what life lived in covenantal relationship with God looks like, focusing on what it means to "love the LORD your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might" (6:5). A. Introduction (4:44-5:33) Two basic elements of God's will for Israel, the theophany at Mt. Horeb and the Ten Commandments, are presented as divinely revealed. B. The Importance of Loyalty to God (6:1-11:32) Here we find a selection of sermon fragments on the first commandment (chapter 6), the danger of assimilation with the Canaanites (chapter 7), the peril of prosperity (chapter 8), the temptation of self-righteousness (9:1-10:11), and obedience as a condition for prosperity in the land (10:12-11:32). C. The Deuteronomic Code (12:1-26:15) This long section is the heart of Deuteronomy.

It presents the laws themselves, but not in the style of a legal code. Rather, it contains detailed excerpts from ancient law together with theological commentary. Chapters 12:1-16:17 are basically concerned with matters of worship; and 16:18-18:22 are generally concerned with the duties of judges, other officials, the king, the Levites, and the prophets; but chapters 19-26 defy schematization. D. Covenant Renewal (26:16-28:68) Moses describes a ceremony for renewing the covenant made at Mt. Horeb. The ceremony is to take place at Mt. Ebal near Shechem after crossing the Jordan River (26:16-27:26). Blessings if Israel complies (28:1-14) and curses if they do not (28:15-68) complete the sermon. III.

Moses' Third Speech (29:1-30:20) Moses' third speech challenges Israel--whether on the verge of the Jordan, in the days of Josiah, or today--to choose between obedience and life and disobedience and death. A. Historical Review (29:1-29) The third speech begins with a historical review of God's covenant loyalty to Israel in the past (29:1-9). In verses 10-29, Moses switches from talking about the past to urging the present assembly to remain loyal. B. Promise of Restoration (30:1-10) Moses then reassures the people that, should they fail, restoration will follow if they repent. This appears to be an addition to the text, especially addressed to those in exile in the sixth century B.C.E. C. Exhortation to "Choose Life!" (30:11-20) The sermon concludes with an assurance that what the Lord requires is neither too difficult nor too far away (vv. 11-14) and a fervent appeal for the people to "Choose life!"-that is, life lived in covenantal relationship with the Lord (vv.

15-20). IV. Appendix (31:1-34:12) Deuteronomy concludes with a number of unrelated passages that provide a measure of closure to Deuteronomy as well as the Pentateuch as a whole. A. Joshua Appointed as Moses' Successor (31:1-8, 14-15, 23) The crucial transition from Moses to Joshua begins with Moses speaking of his own death and discussing what lies ahead for Israel. God will lead them into the promised land (vv. 1-6). Then he appoints Joshua as his successor (vv. 7-8), an action repeated by God in verses 14-15, 23. B. The Torah Is Entrusted to the Levites (31:9-13, 24-29) After committing the law to writing (v. 9a), Moses entrusts it to the Levitical priests (v. 9b), who are charged with its public reading every seventh year at the Festival of Booths (vv. 10-13). C.

The Song of Moses (31:16-32:47) The first part of the Song of Moses (32:1-25) is presented as a lawsuit brought by God against Israel, accusing them of unfaithfulness (vv. 2-22) and passing sentence (vv. 23-25). The second part (vv. 26-42) depicts God pondering the consequences of this action (vv. 26-27), turning to accuse the nations of misunderstanding (vv. 28-38), and finally declaring a verdict upon these unnamed nations (vv. 39-42). D. The Blessing of Moses (33:1-29) Moses' final words are words of blessing for each of the tribes (except Simeon) reminiscent of Jacob's blessing of his sons, who became the tribes of Israel, at the end of Genesis (Genesis 49:2-27). Thus, the blessing serves as a conclusion to the Pentateuch as well as to Deuteronomy. E.

The Death of Moses (32:48-52; 34:1-12) The death of Moses has been appended by the final redactor of the Pentateuch reporting that Moses was not allowed to enter the promised land (34:1-8) and assuring readers, once again, that Joshua is Moses' divinely appointed successor (34:9). The redactor's closing eulogy lifts up Moses' vigorous physical strength (v. 7) as well as the strength of the Lord that accompanied his encounter with Pharaoh (vv. 10-12). AUTHOR: Mark Throntveit, Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament • Canonical setting. Traditionally, Deuteronomy has been seen as the concluding scroll of the Torah or Pentateuch, the so-called five books of Moses (Genesis-Deuteronomy). Its legal materials (chapters 12-26) and narratives about the final days of Moses provide some justification for this view.

Since the middle of the twentieth century, however, scholars, following the lead of Martin Noth, have tended to see Deuteronomy as the theological introduction to the historical books of the Old Testament, the Deuteronomistic ("Deuteronomy-like") History that stretches from Joshua through 2 Kings. • Covenantal shaping. For over fifty years, scholars of both liberal and conservative persuasions have noticed the strong similarity between Deuteronomy and international treaties pervasive in the Hittite culture of the second millennium B.C.E. Such treaties established the relationship between the conquering Hittites and their vassals with this general structure: 1. preamble identifying the two parties 2. historical prologue relating their past relationship 3. stipulations agreed to by the vassal including loyalty and tribute 4. curses and blessings, including sanctions for noncompliance 5. invocation of the gods as witnesses to the treaty 6. provision for public reading of the document This framework was then applied to the book of Deuteronomy: 1. preamble identifying the two parties (1:1-5) 2. historical prologue relating their past relationship (1:6-3:29) 3.

stipulations agreed to by the vassal, including loyalty and tribute (chapters 4-26) general (4:1-11:32) 4. curses and blessings, including sanctions for noncompliance (chapters 27-30) 5. invocation of the gods as witnesses to the treaty (31:28) 6. provision for public reading of the document (31:9-13) The current debate centers on the different character of the Neo-Assyrian treaties of the first millennium B.C.E., which lack the historical prologue, only put forth curses for noncompliance, and lack the requirement of the depositing of the treaty in the sanctuaries of both suzerain and vassals. Conservatives tend to favor the second-millennium form and use this as an argument for Mosaic authorship. Liberals tend toward the Neo-Assyrian format. At least the origins of Israel's covenantal theology have been discovered, though what particular form that concept has taken is far from clear. • Farewell speeches in the Deuteronomistic History.

The book of Deuteronomy was probably conceived as a treaty document based upon either the Hittite treaties of the second millennium or the Neo-Assyrian treaties of the first millennium B.C.E. Upon its incorporation into the Deuteronomistic History (DtrH), however, a secondary shaping of the material was imposed upon the text.

The different "books" of the DtrH familiar to us (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) were originally divided by means of significant speeches, prayers, theological reflections of the editors, or farewell addresses of the major character of the period at the end of their era: Moses' first speech: Deuteronomy 1:1-4:40 Moses' second speech: Deuteronomy 5:1-28:68 Moses' third speech: Deuteronomy 29:1-31:13 Joshua's farewell address at the settlement of the land: Joshua 23 Theological reflection on the period of the Judges: Judges 2:11-23 Samuel's farewell address at the establishment of the monarchy: 1 Samuel 12 Nathan's dynastic oracle and David's prayer: 2 Samuel 7 David's farewell address: 1 Kings 2 Solomon's prayer at the dedication of the temple: 1 Kings 8:22-53 Theological reflection on the fall of Samaria to Assyria: 2 Kings 17:7-23 Theological reflection on the fall of Judah to Babylon: 2 Kings 25:1-7 •

 The Deuteronomic Code and the Decalogue.

There is a long history of interpretation that sees the Deuteronomic Code in chapters 12-26 as an explication of the Decalogue or Ten Commandments. Philo, a Jewish philosopher in the first century C.E., may have been the first to suggest this, but he was not the last. Both Luther and Calvin in the sixteenth century and several modern interpreters have attempted to find the elusive structure of the laws in Deuteronomy 12-26 by following this intriguing proposition.

A common result of their investigations, based upon the Catholic/Lutheran numbering of the commandments, follows: First Commandment: No other gods, 12:2-13:18 Second Commandment: Misuse of God's name, 14:1-21 Third Commandment: Observe the Sabbath, 14:22-16:17 Fourth Commandment: Honor father and mother, 16:18-18:22 Fifth Commandment: Do not murder, 19:1-22:8 Sixth Commandment: Do not commit adultery, 22:9-23:18 Seventh Commandment: Do not steal, 23:19-24:7 Eighth Commandment: Do not bear false witness, 24:8-25:4 Ninth Commandment: Do not covet neighbor's wife, 25:5-12 Tenth Commandment: Do not covet anything that belongs to your neighbor, 25:13-26:15 There is much to commend this approach. It is certainly logical and provides much needed order to a somewhat jumbled grouping of the legal materials.

As the chart makes clear, the specific stipulations can be shown to be elaborations or applications of the statements rather flatly made in the Ten Commandments themselves; these elaborations follow the order of the Decalogue. There are difficulties in the details, however. It seems best to acknowledge that Deuteronomy 12-26 is essentially a more detailed exposition of the general principles of relationship addressed in 5:1-11:32. • Parallels with other law codes. Scholars have long recognized that much of the legal material in Deuteronomy also appears in the Covenant Code (also called the Book of the Covenant) in Exodus 20:22-23:33 and the Holiness Code in Leviticus 17-26. It is well established that the Book of the Covenant is older than Deuteronomy. The Book of the Covenant reflects an agrarian setting, while the code in Deuteronomy is clearly more urbanized. Deuteronomy adopted the decisive features that made the Book of the Covenant unique from other ancient Near Eastern law codes, expanded them, and couched them as the command of Israel's God to the covenant people. • Laws unique to Deuteronomy.

Comparison of the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy 12-26) with the Book of the Covenant or Covenant Code (Exodus 20:22-23:33) and the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26, see above) indicates that only five topics are unique to Deuteronomy: centralization of worship (12:1-32; and elsewhere); apostate towns (13:12-16); kingship (17:14-20); war (20:1-20); and murder by unknown persons (21:1-9). This is surprisingly few, given the extensive legal materials assembled. The material in chapters 12, 17, and 20 is all germane to the Deuteronomic setting and is the most important. The concern with kingship points to the period of the monarchy as at least one moment in the redactional history of the book. Observations such as these are often used to deny Mosaic authorship. • Moses as the author of Deuteronomy?

Traditionally, Moses has been seen as the author of Deuteronomy, indeed, of the Pentateuch as a whole. Despite references to Moses "writing down in a book the words of this law" (Deuteronomy 31:24; see also 31:9), there are several indications that this is not the case: References to territories east of the Jordan River as "beyond the Jordan" (Deuteronomy 1:1, 5; 3:8; 4:46) presuppose a vantage point on the west side of the river, but Moses was never on the west side of the river (34:4). The language of Deuteronomy is very different from the rest of the Pentateuch, yet similar to the seventh-century language of Jeremiah. The settlement of Canaan is viewed as an accomplished fact (Deuteronomy 2:12). Chapter 34, the account of the death of Moses, cannot have been written by him.

The argument in Deuteronomy 12 for one central sanctuary is more restrictive than Exodus 20:24-25, which allows multiple altars, yet the central sanctuary is assumed in Leviticus, suggesting an intermediate chronological setting for Deuteronomy that is clearly long after the time of Moses. The concern for monarchy and regulations concerning the king are from a time long past Moses (for example, Deuteronomy 17:14-20). The setting of the laws in the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:22-23:33) is essentially agrarian, while that of the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy 12-26) is more urban. • Textual matters. The Masoretic Hebrew Text (approximately 1008 C.E.) of Deuteronomy is excellent. Roughly eighty passages from Deuteronomy of varying length are found in fragments of thirty-two of the Dead Sea Scrolls of Qumran, the most significant being 4QDeuteronomy (about 200 B.C.E.-60 C.E.). These attest to the popularity of Deuteronomy among that community.

The Nash Papyrus (second century B.C.E.) provides us with the Ten Commandments (Deuteronomy 5:6-21) and the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4-9) in a version similar to that of the Septuagint or Greek Old Testament (about 300 B.C.E.). • Title. The Septuagint's (LXX) mistranslation of Deuteronomy 17:18-19, which instructs the king to make "a copy of this law" (that is, the legislation in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers) is the most likely source of "Deuteronomy." The Greek translation of the Old Testament (LXX) translated this phrase as "this second law," suggesting a different body of legislation. The Hebrew title, "these are the words" (that Moses spoke to Israel before entering the promised land), is a more accurate representation of the contents of Deuteronomy.

• "Today." Deuteronomy frequently employs the term "the day" (hayyom), meaning "this day" or "today," as a way of making these sermons from Moses liturgically present for every hearer/reader (for example, 4:4; 5:1, 3; 11:32). Its most impressive rhetorical occurrence is in the sevenfold repetition found in 26:16, 17, 18; 27:1, 4, 9, and 10. • Torah. This definitive Hebrew concept is usually translated as "law." This is appropriate, though "teaching," "instruction," or even "revelation" often better capture the nuances of this pervasive Old Testament term that expresses the moral and social teaching of God's revelation to the covenant people.

In Deuteronomy, torah often signifies the body of legislation known as the Deuteronomic Code found in chapters 12-26 (4:8; 30:10; 32:46), thus pointing to its character as "law." After Deuteronomy, the entire Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), with its law codes and the story of God's dealings with Israel, came to be called "The Torah," thus pointing to its character as "teaching" or "revelation." • "You," singular and plural. The material that frames the law code in chapters 12-26 (1:1-11:32; 26:16-34:12) occasionally shifts back and forth between singular and plural forms of "you." While this is evident in the Hebrew text (and the King James Version) the failure of modern English to distinguish between these forms means this strange occurrence goes unnoticed when one reads the NRSV. In the past, scholarship attributed this variation to different traditions in the history of the growth of the text.

These days, while not denying the considerable editorial expansion in these chapters, the variations are usually seen as a feature of Deuteronomy's rhetorical style. For example, by couching the Ten Commandments in the second person singular "you," the Deuteronomist addresses each individual Israelite with the claim of each commandment upon one's life. • What kind of book is Deuteronomy? Presented as a series of sermons, Deuteronomy differs from the other legal collections of the Pentateuch. Those other traditions are cast in the form of a long speech from God to Moses, which comprises the bulk of the Sinai covenant found in Exodus 21-Numbers 10. Deuteronomy, in contrast, is cast as Moses' speech to the people of Israel before they enter the land of Canaan. Many see Deuteronomy as a "covenantal document" based upon the pervasive treaties of the ancient Near East in the second millennium. This structuring of the book has been discussed elsewhere in this section. Others see the basic shape as the "constitution" of Israel, due to its distinctive character as a treaty document with features of a law code. As such, Deuteronomy seeks to protect the most vulnerable segments of the population.

To date, no agreement exists between the suggestions of sermon, covenant document, and constitution. Deuteronomy seems to partake of all these elements. AUTHOR: Mark Throntveit, Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament • The ark. Whereas the traditions found in Exodus depict the ark as the place where the tablets of the covenant are housed and, more important, as a symbol of God's presence--since it is God's footstool, and the cherubim above the ark are described as God's throne from which God speaks to Moses (Exodus 25)--Deuteronomy describes the ark only as a chest that houses the tablets (Deuteronomy 10:1-5; 31:26). Further indications of Deuteronomy's rejection of the ark as a symbol of God's presence are its omission of the ark from those texts in Numbers that depict God traveling above the ark in the wilderness (Deuteronomy 1:33, 42; Numbers 10:33-36).

Deuteronomy's refusal to limit God's presence to objects such as the ark helps to explain its similar rejection of the temple as God's house and the use of the divine name as indicative of God's presence. • Ban. The Hebrew word herem ("ban" or "dedicated/devoted" object) refers to anything set apart as belonging to God and therefore disqualified from other use. In the priestly materials it usually has reference to things set apart for use in the cult, and therefore holy. In the Deuteronomic tradition, however, the ban has to do with war. Any spoils or booty attained in military encounters were understood to be devoted to God and therefore not to be used by Israel. In fact, following a victory, everything must be "utterly destroyed" (the verbal root of "ban"; Deuteronomy 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 13:15, 17; 20:17). The point of this is not to advocate violence, but that Israel is not to profit by means of warfare. • Blessings and curses.

Deuteronomy 28:1-14 describes the blessings that Israel will receive for faithful obedience: victory in war (vv. 1, 7, 10) prosperity (vv. 3-6, 8, 11-12) becoming God's holy people (v. 9) finding themselves only "the head," "at the top" (vv. 13-14, meaning obscure) God brought about all of this in the occupation of the land. Deuteronomy 28:15-68, however, describes the curses that Israel would receive for apostasy: no prosperity (vv. 17-19) affliction (vv. 20-22, 27-28, 58-61) drought (vv. 23-24) defeat by their enemies (vv. 25, 31-33, 47-57) population reduction (vv. 62-63) exile (vv.

32, 36-37, 41-44, 63-68) God brought about all of these "curses" for Israel at the hands of the Assyrians in 722/721 B.C.E. (2 Kings 17:1-41) and for Judah at the hands of the Babylonians in 587/586 B.C.E. (2 Kings 24:1-25:21). • Centralized worship. Deuteronomy 12 is important for the later Deuteronomistic editors because of its insistence upon the centralization of worship. When Jeroboam revolted and established the northern kingdom of Israel, he needed to set up shrines in Bethel and Dan as rival sanctuaries to the Jerusalem temple. This became the primary sin that brought condemnation upon all the northern kings in the judgment of the Deuteronomistic editors. The relevant items in Deuteronomy 12 include: Canaanite places of worship need to be destroyed (vv.

1-4) after Israel enters the land, God would choose one place to dwell instead of the tabernacle that functioned as a portable shrine in the wilderness (v. 5) sacrifices, offerings, and gifts may only be brought to this place (vv. 6-7) sacrifice can only be offered to God here (vv. 10-14) Within Deuteronomy the emphasis on centralized worship forms the background for the following passages: the tithe (14:22-29) the rights of the Levitical priests (18:1-8) the cities of refuge (19:1-13) It is important to recognize that no specific city is named in the chapter. If these traditions arose in the north, it is likely that Shechem, the most important shrine in Israel, was meant. When the traditions came south, after the fall of the North (722/721 B.C.E.), the chosen place was identified with Jerusalem. • Election. Election, God's free choice, is an important aspect of the theology of Deuteronomy.

Most important, Israel was regarded as an elect nation, chosen by God (4:37; 7:6-7; 10:15; 14:2). This means that Israel owed its very existence to the gracious initiative of God's prior choice, simply because God loved them, apart from any merit on Israel's part (7:7-8). Besides Israel, God has also freely chosen the king (17:15), the priests (18:5, 21:5), and the place of worship (12:11; 14:24; 16:6; 18:6). This understanding of God's prior establishment of the relationship militates against the common notion that Deuteronomy is a "legalistic" work in which God rewards Israel for its compliance with the commandments. On the contrary, God chose Israel before Israel had a chance to obey. Israel's response follows God's election and flows out of gratitude (chapter 8). This order is especially clear in Deuteronomy 27:9-10: "O Israel! This very day you have become the people of the LORD your God.

Therefore obey the LORD your God, observing his commandments and his statutes that I am commanding you today" (emphasis added). • High places, pillars, and poles. Due to their affinity with the religion of the Canaanites, these three cultic items were especially abhorrent to the Deuteronomistic editors. high places (bamoth): sites of Canaanite worship pillars (masseboth): standing stones, possibly phallic, that symbolized Baal, the Canaanite god of fertility sacred poles (asheroth): trees that represented the goddess Asherah • Josiah's reform. Since early-nineteenth century, Josiah's extensive reform of the cult in 621 B.C.E. has been linked to the book of Deuteronomy.

Comparison with 2 Kings 23 yields the following verbal correspondences; in most cases, the Deuteronomic citation is representative of terminology that frequently appears: "keeping his commandments, and his decrees, and his statutes" (2 Kings 23:3; compare Deuteronomy 6:17) "with all his heart and with all his soul" (2 Kings 23:3; compare Deuteronomy 6:5) destruction of the Asherah (2 Kings 23:4, 6, 15; compare Deuteronomy 7:5) "the sun, the moon, the constellations, and all the host of heaven" (2 Kings 23:5; compare Deuteronomy 4:19) "would make a son or daughter to pass through fire" (2 Kings 23:10; compare Deuteronomy 18:10) "broke the pillars in pieces" (2 Kings 23:14; compare Deuteronomy 12:3) "provoking the LORD to anger" (2 Kings 23:19; compare Deuteronomy 4:25) "mediums

, wizards" (2 Kings 23:24; compare Deuteronomy 18:11) "idols, and all the abominations" (2 Kings 23:24; compare Deuteronomy 29:17) "My [the LORD's] name shall be there" (2 Kings 23:27; compare Deuteronomy 12:5, 11, 21) The correspondence between Deuteronomic prohibitions and Josiah's reforms is even more striking: Against worship of heavenly host (Deuteronomy 17:3; compare 2 Kings 23:4, 5) Against worship of sun and moon (Deuteronomy 17:3; compare 2 Kings 23:5, 11) Destroy cultic vessels (altar, pillars, idols, etc.) (Deuteronomy 7:5; 12:3; compare 2 Kings 23:4, 6, 7, 14) Against cult prostitutes (Deuteronomy 23:17; compare 2 Kings 23:7) Against worship of Molech/child immolation (

Deuteronomy 12:31; 18:10; compare 2 Kings 23:10) Against worship of Astarte, Chemosh, Milcom (Deuteronomy 12:29-30; compare 2 Kings 23:13) Destroy high places and shrines (Deuteronomy 12:2; compare 2 Kings 23:13) Celebrate Passover at the central sanctuary (Deuteronomy 16:6; compare 2 Kings 23:21-23) Against discernment of the future through the occult (Deuteronomy 18:11; compare 2 Kings 23:24) • Kingship.

Deuteronomy 17:14-20 provides the blueprint for what kingship should look like: Verses 16-17 regularly appear in the descriptions of Solomon's reign: 1 Kings 4:26; 9:19; 10:14-28; 11:3. The king is to be faithfully obedient to the prescriptions of the Mosaic legislation (vv. 18-19). Most of the kings of Judah and all of the kings of Israel failed in this regard. Josiah, however, literally complied by ruling according to the precepts of the book of the law discovered in the temple (2 Kings 22:8-23:25). The continuation of the monarchy as well as the dynastic succession is tied to the king's faithful obedience (v. 20). • Monotheism. Deuteronomy is often seen as the Bible's charter document for monotheism, the belief that there is only one God. This fundamental belief at the root of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, however, is not quite present in Deuteronomy, since it fails to deny the existence of other gods.

Deuteronomy 5:7, "You shall have no other gods before me," implies that there are other gods; the point of the commandment is that they are not to be worshiped alongside or in addition to the Lord. • The name of God. Deuteronomy's frequent reference to the name of God in phrases like "the name of the LORD your God," "his name," "the name of the LORD," and others, has often been thought to be the means by which God is revealed. But the occurrence of this terminology in Deuteronomy may be an implicit critique of earlier, less sophisticated theological beliefs that God was actually present in Israel's places of worship (see Exodus 25:8, 22; 29:45-46; 40:34-35).

Following the division of the kingdom, which denied the northern tribes--where Deuteronomy probably originated--access to the ark, the authors of Deuteronomy intended to show that no earthly structure can "contain" God (see 1 Kings 8:27); what is present is not "God," who dwells in heaven (Deuteronomy 26:15), but God's "name" (12:5). • The people as one. Deuteronomy never urges the people to become one, because this state of affairs was assumed by the covenantal nature of their relationship to God. A further indication of Israel's assumed unity is the unusual habit of referring to members of the community as "brothers"-a term variously translated in the NRSV (see 1:16; 3:18, 20; 10:9; 15:3, 7, 9, 11; 17:20; 18:15, 18). By so doing, Deuteronomy effectively minimized the tribal differences that had divided the people in the past and fostered a perception among them of a united entity.

The emphasis on the "oneness" of God, the unity of the people, and the prescription to worship only in Jerusalem has led to the oft-repeated Deuteronomic dictum of "one people worshiping one God at one central sanctuary." • Prophecy. Deuteronomy is the only law code that addresses the role and function of prophecy. Contemporary notions of the prediction of future events are especially denounced in 18:9-14 where divination, soothsaying, augury, sorcery, the casting of spells, the consultation of ghosts or spirits, and the seeking of oracles from the dead are declared to be abhorrent practices. Notice that the possibility of such practices is not denied; Saul will later consult a medium who successfully conjures up the spirit of Samuel (1 Samuel 28). Rather, Deuteronomy prohibits such practices. In Deuteronomy the role of the prophet is modeled upon the role of Moses who, at the time the torah was given on Mt. Horeb, was designated as mediator, that is, as the one to explain and apply the torah to the lives of the people. The prophets are Moses' successors in this regard.

They are subservient to the regulation of the torah; if their message or behavior should deviate from its prescriptions or lead the people astray, they must forfeit their lives (13:1-5). In addition they are also enjoined to be attentive to new revelations from God (18:18-20). • Social Justice. One has the feeling that eighth-century prophets like Amos, Micah, Hosea, and Isaiah of Jerusalem would have been delighted with the book of Deuteronomy. In both traditions there is a clear emphasis on the necessity for social justice, particularly with regard to those on the margins of society, debtors, indentured servants, escaped slaves, Levites, the poor, widows, orphans, women, foreigners, even animals and convicted criminals.

This is especially clear in the following passages: care for the Levite (12:18-19;14:28-29) the sabbatical year with its release of debts (15:1-18) care for Levites, sojourners, orphans, and widows (16:11, 14) exemption from military service for various reasons (20:5-8) moral duties toward the neighbor (22:1-4; 23:24-25) care for animals (22:6-7, 10) asylum for escaped slaves; restrictions on prostitution (23:15-18) financial ethics (24:10-22) corporal punishment; humane treatment of animals (25:1-4) Such extensive humanitarian activity on behalf of those in need is based on Israel's own past experience (10:19; 15:15). All this is to be implemented through fair and impartial judges and a legal system designed to uphold the social fabric of the community (16:19-20). • True prophecy.

The importance of the Deuteronomic test of true prophecy (18:15-22) for the Deuteronomistic editors lies in its conformity to the facts of real life and history. The exiles wondered if God was reliable in the face of the apparent failure of God's promise to David. The book of Kings, especially, seeks to reassure the people that God remains true to God's word. The exile was not a failure on God's part, but rather a parade example that God would do what God had said: "The LORD sent against him bands of the Chaldeans, bands of the Arameans, bands of the Moabites, and bands of the Ammonites; he sent them against Judah to destroy it, according to the word of the LORD that he spoke by his servants the prophets" (2 Kings 24:2, emphasis added).

Numerous other places could be cited in support of the fulfillment of prophecy in these terms, including 1 Kings 13:1-2, 5, 21-22, 26, 32; 15:29; 2 Kings 1:17; 7:1; 9:26, 36; 10:17. • Why did the Canaanites have to be exterminated? Deuteronomy's call for the extermination of the Canaanites (Deuteronomy 20:17) troubles readers.

The logic of this position is as follows: since God promised the land of Canaan to Israel (1:8, 35; 6:10), and since Canaanite sin means they have lost all claim to the land (9:5), and since the odds are very good that Israel will fall into apostasy (4:3-4), and since the golden thread running through Deuteronomy is a demand for total loyalty to God and God alone, rejecting other gods (5:7; 17:2-7), therefore, the fear of Israel falling away from God into apostasy is the driving force behind the injunction to exterminate the Canaanites. But the injunctions may be idealized preaching rather than historical reminiscence. It makes no sense to have commands forbidding intermarriage and making treaties with the Canaanites (7:2b-5) following the demand to "utterly destroy them" (7:2a). Historically, the Canaanites were, in fact, never exterminated. Pentateuch - OrthodoxWiki Pentateuch or simply "LXX", the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible. 1. Genesis | 2. Exodus | 3.

Leviticus | 4. Numbers | 5. Deuteronomy Historical Books IV Maccabees The Pentateuch is a term referring to the first five books of the Old Testament . It comes from the Greek penta ("five"), and (τεύχος) teukhos, ("implement" or "volume"), meaning the five volumes or implementation of five books. It may also be translated as "five-fold scroll." In Judaism, is it called the Torah, or teaching, and the Law of Moses. The Pentateuch consists of the Bible's books of: Genesis Deuteronomy Contents A portion of the Pentateuch in Hebrew, specifically Exodus 20:1-5, the beginning of the Ten Commandments. Genesis begins with the primeval history: the story of creation and the garden of Eden (Genesis 1-3), the account of the descendants of Adam to the rise of Noah who survives a great flood (Genesis 3-9), and the account of the descendants of Noah through the tower of Babel to the rise of Abram (Abraham) (Genesis 10-11).

Next follows the story of the patriarchs: Abraham , Isaac , and Jacob , and the life of Joseph (Genesis 12-50). God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the clan of Jacob ends up leaving Canaan for Egypt because of a famine. Exodus describes the rise of Moses , who leads the Israelites out of Pharaoh's Egypt (Exodus 1-18) and into Mount Sinai /Horeb where he mediates to them God's covenant and laws (Exodus 19-24), deals with the violation of the law when Israel makes the Golden Calf (Exodus 32-24) and instructs them on building the tabernacle (Exodus 25-31; 35-40).

Leviticus begins with instructions about how to use the tabernacle that the Israelites had just built (Leviticus 1-10), followed by a long enumeration of the rules of cleanliness (Leviticus 11-15), the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16), and various moral and ritual laws sometimes called the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26). Numbers describes two censuses in which the number of Israelites are counted (Numbers 1-3, 26), with many laws mixed among the narratives. The narratives tell how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai (Numbers 1-9), set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan and spied out the land (Numbers 10-13). Because of unbelief at various points, but especially at Kadesh Barnea (Numbers 14), the Israelites were condemned to wander for forty years in the desert in the vicinity of Kadesh instead of immediately entering the land of promise. Even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the Promised Land (Numbers 20).

At the end of Numbers (Numbers 26-35) Israel moves from the area of Kadesh towards the Promised Land. They leave the Sinai desert and go around Edom and through Moab where Balak and Balaam oppose them (Numbers 22-24; 31:8, 15-16). They defeat two Transjordan kings, Og and Sihon (Numbers 21), and so come to occupy some territory outside of Canaan. At the end of the book they are on the plains of Moab opposite Jericho ready to enter the land. Deuteronomy consists primarily of a series of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab opposte Jericho exhorting Israel to obey God and giving further instruction on the laws. At the end of the book (Deuteronomy 34) Moses is allowed to see the promised land from a mountain, but dies and is buried by God before Israel begins the conquest of Canaan. It is believed by many scholars to be a later summation of the first four books with the death of Moses and events leading up to it added. Grouping The Pentateuch is traditionally believed to have been written down by Moses.

Hence Genesis is sometimes called the first book of Moses, Exodus the second book of Moses, and so forth. In its current form, each successive book of the Pentateuch picks up and continues the story of the previous book to form a continuous story. Hence Genesis tells how the Israelites went to Egypt while Exodus tells how they came to leave Egypt. Exodus describes the building of the tabernacle at Sinai while in Leviticus Moses is given rules while at Sinai for offering sacrifice and worship at that tabernacle. In Numbers the Israelites leave Sinai and travel eventually to the plains of Moab while in Deuteronomy Moses gives speeches about the law on the plains of Moab. The Pentateuch can be contrasted with the Hexateuch, a term for the first six books of the Bible. The traditional view is that Joshua wrote the sixth book of the Hexateuch, namely the Book of Joshua , and so it was separated from the five books of the Pentateuch ascribed to Moses.

But as a story the Pentateuch seems incomplete without Joshua 's account of the conquest of the Promised Land; it completes the story, continuing directly from the events of Deuteronomy, and documents the conquest of Canaan predicted in the Pentateuch. This has led some scholars to propose that the proper literary unit is that of the Hexateuch rather than the Pentateuch. Still others think that Deuteronomy stands apart from the first four books of the Pentateuch, and so speak of the first four as the Tetrateuch (Genesis through Numbers). Sources Old Testament Books | CARM Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry The Old Testament has 39 books total, which consist of . . .

Pentateuch - 5 books Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy Historical Books - 12 books Joshua, Judges, Ruth, First Samuel, Second Samuel, First Kings, Second Kings, First Chronicles, Second Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther Poetic books - 5 books Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon Prophetic books - 17 books Major Prophets - Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel Minor Prophets - Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi A list of books with brief descriptions of contents. Pentateuch - 5 books Genesis - Creation, the Fall, the Flood, spread of the nations, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. Enslavement in Egypt. Exodus - Enslavement, Moses, 10 plagues, Passover, Leave Egypt, Red Sea Crossing, Mt. Sinai and the 10 Commandments Leviticus - Instructions on sacrificial system and the priesthood. Instructions on moral purity.

Numbers - Still at Mt. Sinai, people make false idol, punishment, 40-years wandering begins. Deuteronomy - Moses' discourses on God's Acts for Israel the Decalogue, the ceremonial, civil, and social Laws, and covenant ratification. Historical Books - 12 books total Joshua - First half of Joshua describes the 7-year conquest of the Land of Promise. The last half deals with partitioning the lands to the people. Judges - Time of Judges. This was a bad time period. The Israelites did not drive out all the inhabitants of Canaan and began to take part in their idolatry. 7 cycles of foreign oppression, repentance, and deliverance. In the end, the people failed to learn their lesson. Ruth - Kinsman redeemer in Boaz, redeeming Ruth, a Moabitess. Speaks of righteousness, love, and faithfulness to the Lord. The next 6 books trace the time from Samuel to the Captivity First Samuel - Samuel carries Israel from judges to King Saul Second Samuel - David as King, adultery, and murder. First Kings - Solomon, Israel is powerful.

Solomon dies, then division of tribes: 10 to the north and 2 to the south. Second Kings - The Divided Kingdom. All 19 kings of Israel were bad, therefore, captivity in Assyria (722 B.C.). In Judah, 8 of 20 rulers were good but went into exile, too. First Chronicles - A recounting of the history of Israel to the time of Solomon. Second Chronicles - continued recounting of the life of Solomon, building of temple, to the captivity. History of Judah only. The Next 3 books deal with Israel's Restoration. Ezra - Cyrus let most of the Jews return to their land of Israel. Zerubbabel led the people (539 B.C.). Ezra returned later with more Jews (458 B.C.) Built the temple. Nehemiah - Building the walls of Jerusalem. Nehemiah got permission from the king of Persia to rebuild the walls (444 B.C.). Revival in the land. Esther - Took place during chapters 6 and 7 of Ezra. Mordecai. Plot to kill the Jewish people. Poetical - 5 books Job - a righteous man tested by God.

Deals with God's sovereignty. Psalms - Consists of 5 divisions. Worship in song. Large variety of subjects. Proverbs - Practical wisdom in everyday affairs. Ecclesiastes - All is vanity. The wisdom of man is futility. Song of Solomon - A song (between Solomon and his Shulammite bride) displaying the love between a man and a woman. Prophetical - 17 books Major Prophets - 5 books Isaiah - Looks at the sin of Judah and proclaims God's judgment. Hezekiah. Coming restoration and blessing. Jeremiah - Called by God to proclaim the news of judgment to Judah, which came. God establishes a New Covenant. Lamentations - 5 lament poems. Description of defeat and fall of Jerusalem. Ezekiel - He ministered to the Jews in Captivity in Babylon. Description of the end of times. Daniel - Many visions of the future for the Gentiles and the Jews. Minor Prophets - 12 books Hosea - Story of Hosea and his unfaithful wife, Gomer. Represents God's love and faithfulness and Israel's spiritual adultery. Israel will be judged and restored.

Joel - Proclaims a terrifying future using the imagery of locusts. Judgment will come, but blessing will follow. Amos - He warned Israel of its coming judgment. Israel rejects God's warning. Obadiah - A proclamation against Edom, a neighboring nation of Israel that gloated over Jerusalem's judgments. Prophecy of its utter destruction. Jonah - Jonah proclaims a coming judgment upon Nineveh's people, but they repented and judgment was spared. Micah - Description of the complete moral decay in all levels of Israel. God will judge but will forgive and restore. Nahum - Nineveh has gone into apostasy (approx. 125 years after Jonah) and will be destroyed. Habakkuk - Near the end of the kingdom of Judah, Habakkuk asks God why He is not dealing with Judah's sins. God says He will use the Babylonians. Habakkuk asks how God can use a nation that is even worse than Judah. Zephaniah - The theme is developed of the Day of the Lord and His judgment with a coming blessing. Judah will not repent except for a remnant, which will be restored.

Haggai - The people failed to put God first by building their houses before they finished God's temple. Therefore, they had no prosperity. Zechariah - Zechariah encourages the Jews to complete the temple. Many messianic prophecies. Malachi - God's people are lax in their duty to God. Growing distant from God. Moral compromise. Proclamation of coming judgment. SparkNotes: Bible: The Old Testament: Context Table of Contents Overview The Old Testament is the first, longer portion of the Christian Bible. It is the term used by Christians to refer to the Jewish scriptures, or Hebrew Bible. The Old Testament is not one book written by a single author, but a collection of ancient texts written and re-written by numerous authors and editors for hundreds of years. They tell the story of the ancient Israelites, or Hebrew people, and contain the laws and rituals that comprise their religion. For Jews, the collection comprises the Torah—the law for worship and everyday living—as well as the history of God’s promise to them. For Christians, the Old Testament is also sacred, but they view its religious meaning as incomplete without the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as related in the New Testament.

Muslims trace their religious roots to some of the figures in the Old Testament, although they deny the religious significance of the work as a whole. In general, the Old Testament is essential to the way Western civilization has long thought and talked about God, as well as ethics, justice, and the nature of the world. In its current form, the collection of the Old Testament books was completed by the first century b.c. The individual books themselves, however, are much more ancient—some dating to the tenth and eleventh centuries b.c. or earlier. Because these works purport to tell the history of human origins, many of the events occur much earlier and cannot be historically verified. Later interactions between the nation of Israel and the ancient world, however, can be verified, and historians use these dates to approximate the biblical events. It is estimated that the chronology of the Old Testament covers more than 1500 years, from approximately 2000 b.c. to 400 b.c. The setting of the Old Testament is the ancient Near East (or Middle East), extending from Mesopotamia in the northeast (modern-day Iraq) down to the Nile River in Egypt in the southwest.

The majority of the events take place in Palestine, the ancient land of Canaan—the eastern Mediterranean region stretching seventy-five miles west from the sea and marked by the Jordan River Valley, which runs down the heart of the mountainous land. Situated between the sprawling Egyptian Empire to the south and the Hittite and Babylonian Empires to the north and east, the area was an important trade route in the second millennium b.c. A variety of peoples, mostly nomadic herding communities, scattered the plains. They established small fortified cities, worshipped various deities, and farmed. The inhospitable region prevented any one nation from dominating the area, but the inhabitants were generally called “Canaanite,” speaking versions of a common Semitic language, including the languages now known as Hebrew and Arabic. Very little is known about the early existence of the Israelites outside of the biblical story. In fact, there are no references to Israel in ancient texts prior to 1200 b.c. The Old Testament explains that the Hebrew people (the term used for the Israelites by non-Israelites) were the descendants of a Semitic man named Abraham, who moved to the land of Canaan in obedience to God.

Ancient references to a group of outcasts and refugees known as habiru exist, but there is little evidence to indicate that these were the Hebrew people. The biblical story tells how the Israelites suffered as slaves in Egypt for many years, and how they miraculously emigrated to Canaan, where they conquered the land and its people in a sweeping military campaign. If true, modern scholars believe this migration may refer to the thirteenth or twelfth century b.c., when a vast upheaval probably occurred in the urban communities of the Canaanite region. However, it is unlikely that a violent or swift conquest by the Israelites took place. Historians believe that the Israelites may have been a part of a gradual, peaceful resettlement, or even a peasant uprising. The glory of the Israelites in the Old Testament is the vast, united kingdom of David and his son, Solomon, who established a royal capital in Jerusalem, erected a grand temple, and expanded Israel’s borders to the Euphrates River. According to the order of biblical events, David and Solomon’s kingdoms probably existed around the tenth century b.c.

The historical existence of such an Israelite empire is unclear; but after this point, the nation of Israel began to surface in the events of the ancient Near East. The Old Testament describes the tragic division of Israel into two kingdoms and the litany of evil kings who eventually caused the Israelites’ demise at the hands of the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires. Historical evidence corroborates some of these events. The northern area of Israel was captured by the Assyrian Empire in 722–720 b.c. The southern area of Israel, called “Judah,” was conquered by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, who destroyed the legendary city of Jerusalem and its temple from 589–586 b.c. A large population of Israel’s upper class—including artisans, rulers, and religious leaders—were exiled and resettled in Babylonian territory. The period of the Israelites’ exile proved extremely important to the formation of Judaism as an organized religion. The Jewish community’s need to retain its identity in a foreign land prompted great theological and literary developments. Much of the Old Testament, especially the religious laws and prophecy, was written whole-cloth or rewritten and edited at this time.

The experience of the exile caused the Old Testament writers to define the Torah, or God’s laws, and to emphasize biblical themes like suffering and the reversal of fortune. When Babylon fell to the Persian Empire in 539 b.c., the Persian king Cyrus permitted the Jews to return to their homeland. The biblical books of Ezra and Nehemiah (neither of which are discussed in this study guide) document the return of the Jews to Jerusalem under Ezra’s leadership, sometime around 460–400 b.c. The impoverished Jews rebuilt Jerusalem and erected a second temple, identifying themselves as a religious community and following the laws of the Torah. Israel’s history and geography is thus crucial to an appropriate understanding of the Old Testament. The region in which the biblical events take place was an area of constant ethnic and political change. The Old Testament depicts the Israelites as a separate and enduring entity throughout this change—a race of Hebrew people descended from one man, possessing a divine right to the land, and distinguishable from the surrounding peoples by its monotheism, or worship of one god.

Whether or not these claims are true, the Israelites certainly existed as a people, and the Old Testament remains one of the most vivid pictures of the historical, religious, and literary life of the ancient Near East. As a work of literature, the Old Testament contains many literary forms, including narrative and poetry, as well as legal material and genealogies. Critics often use terms such as epic, myth, and legend to classify the biblical stories, as well as describing the heroes, dialogue, and symbols within the text as examples of its literary qualities. Such concepts represent modern and classical ways of understanding literature and were most likely foreign to the authors of the Old Testament. Nevertheless, the Old Testament itself greatly influenced the way Western civilization has thought about literature and stories. As a result, describing the biblical stories through literary terminology remains an important way of understanding the significance of the Old Testament as literature. Structure and Composition The Old Testament contains thirty-six books, three of which are separated into two volumes, rendering a total of thirty-nine individual books. The Hebrew Bible divides the books into three main categories: the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Writings.

In addition to the Old Testament books accepted as scripture by Jews and Protestants, Catholics consider seven “deuterocanonical” books to be scripture. Because the authors of the Old Testament books are largely unknown, scholars believe that the final form of the books indicates the work of “redactors,” or editors, who performed a practice common in ancient near eastern literature. The redactors combined previously existing writings, oral traditions, and folktales, and added their own material, to compose the completed books. Often, the redactors attributed a book or a group of books to a significant biblical figure to add validity to their work. The Pentateuch (Greek for “five scrolls”) comprises the first five books of the Old Testament—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The collection of books was probably in its final form by the fourth century b.c. The Pentateuch represents the most important section of biblical narrative. It explains the origins of the human race and the rise of the Israelites, including the Israelites’ miraculous emigration from Egypt. More than half of the Pentateuch is devoted to God’s laws and commandments to Israel.

Jews call these books the Torah, or law, because of its religious precepts and for the model of ethical behavior that the leading characters prescribe. Moses, the hero of the Pentateuch, was traditionally assumed to be the work’s author. However, modern scholars describe the Pentateuch as the time-worn product of four ancient writers and editors, each of whom revised and expanded existing work. Scholars label the unknown contributors “J,” “E,” “P,” and “D,” and identify “J” as the oldest writer, a scribe in King David’s court. Different parts of the narrative and laws in the Pentateuch are ascribed to each contributor based on differences in the style and theology of the text. The second category of Old Testament books comprises the Prophets. Many of these works were composed during or after Israel’s exile in the sixth and fifth centuries b.c. The books can be divided into two further categories: the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets are sometimes called the “Historical Books” because they continue the story of the Israelites from the death of Moses to the fall of Jerusalem in 587 b.c.

The four works—Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings—follow the Pentateuch in the Christian Bible. Scholars sometimes surmise that, together, these books represent the work of a single, unknown editor labeled the “Deuteronomist,” who combined separate stories and added work of his own to form a coherent history of the Israelites. The Latter Prophets (which are not covered in this study guide) include the fifteen books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and twelve “Minor Prophets.” Written before or during the Israelites’ exile, these difficult works include sayings and oracles about Israel’s downfall, its salvation from exile, and theology. The Writings denotes the final category of the Hebrew Bible, collected in its present form around the first century b.c. Some of these books are later works chiefly concerned with Israel’s history during and after the exile, such as Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah (most of which are not covered in this study guide).

With the exception of Ruth and the two books of Chronicles, the remaining books—Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon—represent the biblical books of poetry and wisdom and are placed after the Historical Books in the Christian Bible. Some are quite ancient, and many represent collections of traditional poems and sayings attributed by a later editor to King David or King Solomon. Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox versions of the Old Testament contain an additional category of books called the “deuterocanonical writings,” or “Apocrypha”. These fifteen books were included in the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Jewish scriptures translated by scribes in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and first centuries b.c. The Apocrypha contains additional works of poetry and wisdom and, more importantly, stories about Israel during the Greek and Roman periods. These works were not included in the Hebrew Bible, but they were included in the canon, or list, of Old Testament books accepted by the early Christian church. They were later excluded from Protestant versions of the Old Testament following the Reformation in the sixteenth century a.d., and are not included in this study guide.

More Help scripture scripture Please check the reference to make sure it is correct. The book you have entered was not recognized. View all books of the Bible THE PENTATEUCH The Pentateuch (Greek for “five books”) designates the first five books of the Jewish and Christian Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). Jewish tradition calls the five books Torah (Teaching, Law) because of the centrality of the Sinai covenant and legislation mediated through Moses. The unity of the Pentateuch comes from the single story it tells. God creates the world and destines human beings for the blessings of progeny and land possession ( Gn 1 – 3 ). As the human race expands, its evil conduct provokes God to send the flood to wipe out all but righteous Noah’s family. After the flood, the world is repopulated from his three sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth ( Gn 4 – 9 ). From them are descended the seventy nations of the civilized world whose offense this time (building a city rather than taking their assigned lands, Gn 10 – 11 ) provokes God to elect one family from the rest.

Abraham and his wife, Sarah, landless and childless, are promised a child and the land of Canaan. Amid trials and fresh promises, a son (Isaac) is born to them and Abraham takes title to a sliver of Canaanite land, a kind of down payment for later possession ( Gn 12 – 25 ). Gn 25 – 36 tells how their descendant Jacob becomes the father of twelve sons (because of which he is called “Israel”), and Gn 37 – 50 tells how the rejected brother Joseph saves the family from famine and brings them to Egypt. In Egypt, a pharaoh who knew not Joseph subjects “the seventy sons of Jacob” (“the Hebrews”) to hard labor, keeping them from their land and destroying their male progeny ( Ex 1 ). Moses is commissioned to lead the people out of Egypt to their own land ( Ex 2 – 6 ). In ten plagues, the Lord defeats Pharaoh.

Free at last, the Hebrews leave Egypt and journey to Mount Sinai ( Ex 7 – 18 ), where they enter into a covenant to be the people of the Lord and be shaped by the Ten Commandments and other laws ( Ex 19 – 24 ). Though the people commit apostasy when Moses goes back to the mountain for the plans of the dwelling (tabernacle), Moses’ intercession prevents the abrogation of the covenant by God ( Ex 32 – 34 ). A principle has been established, however: even the people’s apostasy need not end their relationship with God. The book ends with the cloud and the glory taking possession of the tent of meeting ( Ex 36:34 – 38 ). “The sons of Israel” in Ex 1:1 are the actual sons of Jacob/Israel the patriarch, but at the end of the book they are the nation Israel, for all the elements of nationhood in antiquity have been granted: a god (and temple), a leader, a land, and an authoritative tradition. Israel remains at the holy mountain for almost a year.

The entire block of material from Ex 19:1 to Nm 10:11 is situated at Sinai. The rituals of Leviticus and Numbers are delivered to Moses at the holy mountain, showing that Israel’s worship was instituted by God and part of the very fabric of the people’s life. Priestly material in the Book of Exodus (chaps. 25 – 31 , 35 – 40 ) describes the basic institutions of Israelite worship (the tabernacle, its furniture, and priestly vestments). Leviticus, aptly called in rabbinic tradition the Priests’ Manual, lays down the role of priests to teach Israel the distinction between clean and unclean and to see to their holiness. In Nm 10:11 – 22:1 , the journey is resumed, this time from Sinai through the wilderness to Transjordan; Nm 22:2 – 36:13 tells of events and laws in the plains of Moab.

The final book of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy, consists of four speeches by Moses to the people who have arrived at the plains of Moab, ready to conquer the land: 1:1 – 4:43 ; 4:44 – 28:68 ; 29:1 – 32:52 ; 33:1 – 34:12 . Each speech is introduced by the formula “This is the law/words/blessing.” The Priestly editor used literary formulas. The formula “These are the generations (the wording can vary) of…” occurs five times in the primordial history ( Gn 2:4a ; 5:1 ; 6:9 ; 10:1 ; 11:10 ) and five times in the ancestral history ( 11:27 ; 25:12 ; 25:19 ; 36:1 [v. 9 is secondary]; 37:2 ). In Exodus and Numbers the formula (with slight variations) “They departed from (place name) and encamped at (place name)” occurs in two groups of six: A.

Ex 12:37a ; 13:20 ; 14:1 – 2 ; 15:22a ; 16:1 ; 17:1a ; and B. 19:2 ; Nm 10:12 ; 20:1a ; 20:22 ; 21:10 – 11 ; 22:1 . Who wrote the Pentateuch, and when? Up to the seventeenth century, the virtually unanimous answer of Jews and Christians was “Moses.” Moses wrote the Pentateuch as David wrote the Psalter and Solomon wrote the wisdom literature. Though scholars had noted inconsistencies (compare Ishmael’s age in Gn 16:16 and 21:5 , 14 ) and duplications ( Gn 12 , 20 , and 26 ), they assumed Mosaic authorship because of the prevalent theory of inspiration: God inspired authors while they wrote. With the rise of historical criticism, scholars began to use the doublets and inconsistencies as clues to different authors and traditions.

By the late nineteenth century, one theory of the sources of the Pentateuch had been worked out that proved acceptable in its main lines to the majority of scholars (apart from Christian and Jewish conservatives) then and now. It can be quickly sketched. In the premonarchic period of the Judges (ca. 1220–1020 B.C.), the twelve tribes had an oral form of their story from creation to the taking of the land. With the beginnings of monarchy in the late eleventh and tenth centuries, the oral material was written down, being known as the Yahwist account (from its use of the divine name Yhwh). Its abbreviation, “J,” comes from the German spelling of the divine name. In the following century, another account took shape in the Northern Kingdom (called E after its use of Elohim as a divine name); some believe the E source is simply a supplement to J. After the fall of the Northern Kingdom in 722/721 B.C., the E version was taken to Jerusalem where it was combined with the J version to produce J-E.

During the exile (conventionally dated 587–539 B.C.) or thereafter, an editor recast J-E to make it relevant for the exiled population. This editor is conventionally known as P (= Priestly) because of the chronological and ritual interests apparent in the work. P can also designate archival material and chronological notices. The audience for the Priestly edition no longer lived in the land and was deeply concerned about its survival and its claim on the land. Deuteronomy (= D) stands alone in style, genre (preaching rather than narrative), and content. How did it come to be the fifth book of the Pentateuch? The J-E narrative actually ends in Numbers, when Israel arrives at the plains of Moab. Many scholars believe that Deuteronomy was secondarily attached to Numbers by moving the account of Moses’ death from its original place in the J-E version in Numbers to the end of Deuteronomy (chap. 34 ). Deuteronomy was attached to Genesis–Numbers to link it to another great work, the Deuteronomistic History (Joshua to Kings). Deuteronomy is now the fifth book of the Pentateuch and the first book of the Deuteronomistic History.

In the last three decades, the above consensus on the composition of the Pentateuch has come under attack. Some critics are extremely skeptical about the historical value of the so-called early traditions, and a few doubt there ever was a preexilic monarchy of any substance. For such scholars, the Pentateuch is a retrojection from the fourth or third centuries B.C. Other scholars postulate a different sequence of sources, or understand the sources differently. How should a modern religiously minded person read the Pentateuch? First, readers have before them the most significant thing, the text of the Pentateuch. It is accurately preserved, reasonably well understood, and capable of touching audiences of every age. Take and read! Second, the controversies are about the sources of the Pentateuch, especially their antiquity and character. Many details will never be known, for the evidence is scanty. Indeed, the origin of many great literary works is obscure. The Pentateuch witnesses to a coherent story that begins with the creation of the world and ends with Israel taking its land.

The same story is in the historical Ps 44 , 77 , 78 , 80 , 105 , 114 , and 149 , and in the confessions Dt 26:5 – 9 , Jos 24:2 – 13 , and 1 Sm 12:7 – 13 . Though the narrative enthralls and entertains, as all great literature does, it is well to remember that it is a theopolitical charter as well, meant to establish how and why descendants of the patriarchs are a uniquely holy people among the world’s nations. The destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and deportation of Israelites in the sixth century B.C. seemed to invalidate the charter, for Israel no longer possessed its land in any real sense. The last chapter of the ancient narrative—Israel dwelling securely in its land—no longer held true. The story had to be reinterpreted, and the Priestly editor is often credited with doing so. A preface ( Gn 1 ) was added, emphasizing God’s intent that human beings continue in existence through their progeny and possess their own land.

Good news, surely, to a devastated people wondering whether they would survive and repossess their ancestral land. The ending of the old story was changed to depict Israel at the threshold of the promised land (the plains of Moab) rather than in it. Henceforth, Israel would be a people oriented toward the land rather than possessing it. The revised ending could not be more suitable for Jews and Christians alike. Both peoples can imagine themselves on the threshold of the promised land, listening to the word of God in order to be able to enter it in the future. For Christians particularly, the Pentateuch portrays the pilgrim people waiting for the full realization of the kingdom of God.

Question: Which book of the Old Testament follows the Pentateuch (ie. is the sixth)?
Answer: JOSHUA