CSSHS Archives -- v15n3p04.htm Gardening and Man's Creation in God's Own Image Ellen Myers Throughout history men have set aside gardens, that is, specially cultivated plots of land for vegetables trees blooming shrubs and flowers. No other creature on earth has this strong desire and ability for gardening, especiafly formal horticulture involving the aesthetically pleasing integration of buildings with the grounds where they stand. This paper will concentrate on formal horticulture in the West. Today there are countless hooks and magazines on gardening design, gardening techniques, gardening history, famous gardens, gardening catalogs, supply houses, nurseries and the like. According to a Gallup Poll, "On any given weekend up to 78 percent of American households (were) out working the earth" in the late 1980s (Francis and Hester, p.8). Many people without access to a plot of ground at least care for potted houseplants or window boxes as their miniature gardens. Millions visit the many beautiful public gardens and parks so characteristic of human civilization. Gardens are so extensively used as symbols in literature and poetry that many books and articles regularly appear on this special area of human creativity.

Historians, philosophers, landscape architects, and most recently medical researchers, psychologists and sociologists study and write about gardening. All these facts testify to the obvious truth that man is preeminently and inveterately a gardenen Sir Francis Bacon paid homage to this truth when he wrote in 1620: "God Almighty first planted a Garden. And indeed it is the purest of human pleasures. It is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man; without which buildings and palaces are but gross handyworks." (Quarto Marketing, p. 13) This paper will give a brief outline of the origin and meaning of gardening, of the history of gardening in the West till the zenith of formal gardening in the baroque period, of the gardening revolution in Europe in the late 1700s and its aftermath, ofhow gardens reflect their makers, and flnMly of gardening and the contemporary New Age movement. The Origin and Meaning of Gardening Where does this amazing feature of man's character come from?

Man's love of formal landscape architecture and especially his diligent use of his leisure time to breed, plant and care for ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers which today bloom and tomorrow fade away cannot be explained by evolutionist theories based on chance and utility. Consider the following evolutionist speculation on the origin of gardening by well-known contemporary landscape architect Garrett Eckbo, Professor Emeritus of Landscape Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley: In the beginning the land was hot and fluid.... Much time passed. Somewhere in the ocean there was a spark. Vegetable and animal kingdoms began to dominate the mineral.... One day an animal stood up on his hind legs to reach a higher fruit. ... The production and control of fire was discovered, and shortly after, landscape design began. (Francis and Hester, p.96) This statement reads like bad science fiction or a bad joke, but it is meant seriously and agrees with the overall evolutionist scenario. In no way does it do justice to man's love of ornamental gardening which is strong evidence that be lives by more than bread (Eckbo's "higher fruit") alone. The origin and hence the explanation of mankind's universal and unique predisposition to gardening must be sought elsewhere.

The Bible account of Eden, which evolutionists like Eckbo seek to discredit and supplant by their scientifically totally unsubstantiated flights of fancy, offers the only alternative. According to the biblical creation record God Himself was the original Gardener Who made the Garden of Eden. This God, Creator and Gardener, created man in His own image and likeness, and therefore man is an invererate gardener as well. Creationist leader Henry Morris writes that "the world's first garden ... must have been a beautiful garden, for God had planted it Himself. Every tree was 'pleasant to the sight'; there was a lovely river 'to water the garden' (Genesis 2:9, 10), and God was there." (Morris, Days of praise, Oct. 7, 1991) when Lot chose the plain of the Jordan River to dwell in, he saw that it was "well watered everywhere ... like the garden of the LORD" (Genesis 13:10).

Strikingly enough, Jesus Christ prayed in another garden, Gethsemane, before going to His death, and "in the place where He was crucified there was a garden: and in the garden a new tomb, in which no one had ever been laid. ... they laid Jesus there" (John 19:41, 42 NIV). Morris concludes: God had walked alone in the first garden, seeking His own. He knelt alone in the second garden, praying for His own. He was buried alone in the third garden, dying for His own. Therefore, in the new "Paradise of God," where the pure river flows and the tree of life grows, eternally, "His servants shall serve Him" and reign with Him "for ever and ever" (Revelation 2:7; 22:1, 2, 3, 5). Yes, Eden points to Paradise! It also points to the "enclosed garden" to which the Bridegroom (Christ) compares His beloved Bride (the Church) in the Song of Solomon. In Henry Loray's moving novel on the life of St.

Augustine, Monica, Augustine's saintly Christian mother, tells her son never to forget that heaven is to be a garden, or rather a fountain of gardens, a well of living waters ... or better still, an orchard ... with all the chief spices [Song of Solomon 4:12-15].... Better than an orchard, a park ... watered by the water of life... and His servants shall serve Him and they shall see His face [Revelation 22:1-6]. (Loray, pp.227-228) Not only Christians and the Bible compare the eternal abode of the righteous to a perfect garden. As John Brookes notes, "It is significant that in most ancient civilizations and religions, the life hereafter and the place of eternal happiness are depicted as gardens." (Quarto Marketing, p.14) Even as Eden and the natural creation reflect God, so man's gardens reflect man. Eden and the natural creation which man must take care of under God (Genesis 2:15) give meaning to time. Russell Page has found a special meaning for gardening in our hurried age: "It is a gardener's pleasure ...

to break this crazy rhythm, to change and break the rush of time, and make the garden a quiet island in which a moment has a new meaning." (Quoted in Massiugham, p.17) This idea is not new: the "medieval garden [alreadyj was essentially a sanctuary, a place enclosed." (Clifford, p.20) That we feel the need to make our gardens "quiet islands" or "sanctuaries" apart from the world points to man's fall, when man was barred from Eden by cherubim with flaming sword (Genesis 3:24). Even as God must deal with men no longer perfect in His own image and likeness but corrupted and rebellious by sin, so man must deal in the sweat of his brow with fields and gardens infested by thorns and thistles (Genesis 3:17-19). Work itself is not a curse but was involved in gardening already before the fall as part and parc& of God's creation mandate to man. To sum up, man's gardening originates in his cre- ation in God's own image and likeness.

Hence gardens remind us of Eden, our primordial home, of our ~ and our need for salvation, and embody our longing for restoration to eternal joy in paradise in the presence of our Creator. The Garden from Antiquity through the Baroque Period The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of antiquity. They were built around 600 B.C. by King Nebuchadnezzar, perhaps for his wife who longed for the mountainous land of ber birth. "Although no remains have been found, the Garden's design was probably the combination of an agricultural method (growing plants on terraced bfllsides) and an architectural monument (the temple tower or ziggurat)." (Quarto Marketing, p.14) Similar garden mounds have been recorded from ancient China, Babylonia, the Hittites, Medes and Persians, and also fifteenth century America. In Assyria there were enclosed parks for the amusement of the rulers, and there is some evidence of garden design in Sumer and Assyria.

It is possible that Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt (1490-1469 B.C.), and Assyrian Kings Tiglath-Pileser (ca. 1100 B.C.) and Sennachenb (705-681 B.C.) already started botanic collections (Clifford, p.46). Surviving wall paintings show that gardens were made in Egypt. The most detafled view comes from a wall painting in Thebes which shows the garden of a high official under Amenhotep III (1411-1372 B.C.). It was a walled garden adjacent to a canal. Its layout was symmetrical and orderly with vineyards, orchards, water tanks, and garden pavilions. The residence was an intregral part of the whole garden. Important garden traditions can already be noted, such as an axis for structure and order, the use of plants for specific functions such as food, shade, and decoration, and the integration of the garden with its natural environment (ef.

Quarto Marketing, p.16) Traditions of garden design in ancient Greece are little known because few records exist, because the Greek landscape was possibly not well suited for gardening, and because of Greece's pantheistic religion which forbade intefference with local deities of mountains, streams and groves of trees. By the first century A.D. gardening in Rome was well developed as we know from garden descriptions in letters of Pliny the Younger (A.D. 62-118) to his friends. Topiary, the art of trimming bushes in various shapes such as animals, naval battles, or even the names of the estate's owner or the topiarist himself, had entered ornamental gardening with Canius Martius, a friend of the Emperor Augustus. Pliny had some topiary in his garden in Thscany, where there was "the careful juxtaposition of the wild garden and the formal" (Clifford, p.18). We hear little about ornamental gardens from the fall of Rome until the high middle ages, when medieval gardens had pergolas ("green tunnels") with open squares between.

They always had water (a fountain or well) and "principal ornamental features" (Clifford, p.87). The use of water not only to nourish the plants but also to beautify the garden design as a whole through artful techniques of water jets and decorative fountains came to Europe from the Arabs by way of Spain. Renaissance gardens reached out beyond the medieval garden enclosure to nature at large. The zenith of formal gardening came with the baroque period of the sixteenth century, which brought us the magnificent classic gardens and parks designed by Louis XV's court gardener Andre Le Notre and his school. Le Notre's influence reached as far as Russia where his famous pupil Alexandre Le Blond designed the court gardens of Peterhof and other famous St. Petersburg gardens for Tsar Peter the Great. Had he not died of smallpox at age 89 after only thirty months in Russia, French baroque would have had a yet greater impact upon Russia. (Massie, pp.

627-682) The Gardening Revolution of the Late 1700s and Its Aftermath A gardening revolution of tremendous proportions against baroque's classic constraints took place in Europe in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Whereas always before the garden had been carefully cultivated and landscaped as an extension of the residence and was by definition clearly and intentionally distinguished from uncultivated nature, garden designers now wanted to bring an idealized nature or wilderness right up to men's very dwellings. In England this revolution was introduced by William Kent, who "brought back from Italy isolated pictures of deteriorated Renaissance gardens. `But here was no longer the ordered reflection of a disciplined universe."' (Clifford, p. 186) Gardens were now to be merged with the rest of nature with as little visible cultivation and enclosures as possible. Presumably with approval Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the philosopher who blamed civilization for all mankind's ills, described in Julie, or La Nouvelle Heloise (1760) "a garden in which there is to be discerned no trace of man's hand." (Clifford, p.

151) Such a "garden" would really be not a true garden at all. This gardening revolution foreshadowed the rejection of traditional and especially Christian social mores which erupted with the French Revolution in 1789. (cf. Berthoud, Revolution et Christionisme) The next notable garden designer in England after Kent was Lancelot "Capability" Brown, whose ideal was the English park garden. He used an "abstractionist approach" of very simple patterns aad the sparse means of "Contours of green turf, mirrors of still water, a few species of tree used singly or in clumps or in loosely contrived belts-and that was all." (Clifford, p. 159) People soon grew tired of these overly simple nad monotonous gardens, and Humphrey Repton replaced "Capability" Brown as England's favorite landscape designer. He ushered in the eclectic gardening of the Victorian era, which could still be very "romantic" and was carried on by more people than ever before.

More and more foreign plants were introduced and more and more flowers were planted to create oases of beauty for which people, reflecting man's original creation in God's own image and likeness, longed in a rapidly industrializing and urbanized society Eminent historian Paul Johnson gives us other fascinating details: People, if they could afford it, made their gardens look wild" and `ancient" by putting in bits of Gothic apparatus. ... In the years after 1815, "rustic" garden furniture made its appearance, along with rock gardens and painted wooden or plaster gnomes (imported from ultra-romantic Germany)... The cult of gardens, which was spreading rapidly down the social scale in the years after 1815, was one way of protesting against the modern world, holding it at bay as the 1820s progressed, a new phenomenon appeared - the London and especially the suburban garden. Indeed it found a crusading advocate, John Claudius Loudon (1783-1843)...

[London] wrote, illustrated and published books [on gardening] which often sold tens of thousands of copies [Loudon] was the first writer to insist that it was not merely proper but positively moral for ladies and gentlemen to dig and plant their own gardens ... [He] gave people hope that beauty and nature could still hold their own in an industrialized society....in his own way, [he] was one of the most influential minds of the century (Johnson, pp.282-283) The eclecticism which marked Victorian gardening has continued to prevail to our own time. Rarely do home gardeners consciously follow a historical pattern in the layout of their gardens. Besides, gardening depends upon the financial means and especially the leisure time available to the gardener. There are, of course, still numerous wealthy estates where landscape architects can design gardens according to ideaf preconceived plans. Finally, there are the community parks and botanical gardens where formal horticulture flourishes. Gardens as Reflecting Their Makers While gardening is a facet of God's image and likeness bestowed upon man at creation, it does not necessarily match the gardener's overall character or express a godly imagination.

Andre Le Notre was "honest, honourable and plain-spoken; everybody loved and respected him, for he never stepped out of his place nor forgot it and was always perfectly disinterested ... There was an artlessness about him, a simple-hearted candour that was perfectly delightful." (Saint-Simon, quoted in Clifford, p.80) On the other hand, Paul de Parrie and Mary Pride point out that "the apparent contradiction between the fantastic gardens of [Aztec King] Montezuma which rivaled the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and his utterly debased witchcraft and blood-rites takes your breath away." (Deparrie and Pride, p.111) Rudolf Hoess, commandant of the infamous Nazi concentration camp of Auschwitz, had prisoners work in his garden which "was a paradise of flowers." (Hoess, p.173) The medical exterminators of handicapped children at the psychiatric hospital of Eglfing-Haar near Munich in the Nazi euthanasia program saw to it that at the window of the extermination room there was "a geranium plant which was always carefully watered." (Wertham, p.59) In his superb novel That Hideous Strength C.

S. Lewis hints at the character of the Christian remnant gathered at St. Anne's on the hill and the demonic organization named N.I.C.E. ("National Institute for Coordinated Experiments") at Belbury by way of their gardens. The garden at St. Anne's is well tended and inviting to man and beast, large, homey and comfortable. The grounds around Belbury were not the sort of grounds that anyone could walk in for pleasure ... [they were] enclosed ... with a low brick wall surmounted by an iron railing ... There were ... winding paths covered so thickly with round white pebbles that you could hardly walk on them. ... There were plantations-slabs would be almost a better word-of that kind oflaurel which looks as ifit were made ofcleverly painted and varnished ........ The whole effect was like that of a municipal cemetery. (Lewis, 1965,p. 101) Lewis also gives a chilling picture of the anti-life and anti-human nature of the N.I.C.E.

in Professor Filostrato, one of its leaders, a scientist who has kept the head of a guillotined criminal functioning for the use of the N.I.C.E.'s real rulers, the "macrobes" (demons). Filostrato has some fine natural trees in the grounds of Belbury cut down and wants to replace them by artificial trees, "Light, made of aluminium. So natur~, it would even deceive." Such trees could be moved about at will and would cause "No leaves to fall, no twigs, no birds building nests, no muck and mess." (Lewis, 1965, p.172) Here, as Lewis also made clear in his excellent non-fiction treatise The Abolition of Man, is the essence of that inhuman hatred for natural life which indwells extreme atheistic rationalists and materialists.

The opposite extreme is idolatrous worship of nature above God and man, and ultimately just as deadly to man, as in the neopagan pantheistic world view whose rapid rise we are observing among us today Gardens and the New Age Movement For the last ten to fifteen years there has been a noticeable trend towards the garden as an extension of wild, uncultivated nature. This trend, a veritable "paradigm shift" according to its promoters, is the expression in gardening of the "New Age" philosophy of our generation, and it is sometimes deliberately presented in antibiblical terms. For example, Jeff Cox puts it as follows in one of the most recent and most important analyses of gardening: In our traditional myth, the Garden of Eden was a paradise with no good or bad to it. Only when Adam and Eve ate the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil did they become imperfect, and therefore exiled from paradise. It's not that there was no darkness in paradise - the snake was there after all - but rather that before the fall, good and evil were not recognized by Adam and Eve. They had not tasted the fruit. They lived without prejudice and acted without second thoughts...

When the wholeness of the world became split into categories, humankind saw the world and its creatures as good (my caribou) and bad (those wolves). ... Modern civilization began. Gardens attempted to recreate paradise A natural garden, on the other hand, dissolves the split and validates reality. It includes the wide, wild world as it is, warts and all. (Francis and Hester, p.25) Of course this "paradigm shift" is not new, as nothing is really new in the New Age movement; the gardening revolution of the late 1700s already called for uncultivated wilderness "gardens." The New Age movement is but the old paganism, or the barbarism ever crouching at the borders of civflization ready to invade and destroy. As Gilbert Keith Chesterton put it, "Civilisation in the best sense merely means the full authority of the human spirit over all externals [as God commanded man at creation, Genesis 1:26, 28]. Barbarism means the worship of those externals in their crude and unconquered state [and is therefore rebellion against God's creation mandate to man].

Barbarism means the worship of Nature; and in recent poetry, science, and philosophy there has been too much of the worship of Nature." (Marlin, Rabatin, and Swan, p.67) We might ask proponents of their untended "natural garden" whether they do not simply wish to sbirk the hard work of garden cultivation; after all, an easy way to produce their "natural garden" is simply to neglect a cultivated one. We must ask today's New Age worshipers of nature whether their "natural garden" is really a garden, that is, by definition cultivated and separate from "the wide, wild world," and expose their semantic deceit. We must also point out that their "natural garden" would include poison ivy, wasps' nests and other organisms harmful or even deadly to man. We must understand that to replace the worship of the God and Creator of the Bible by the worship of nature is and must be hostile not only to God but also to man, the unique creature made in God's own image and likeness. The "romantic" gardening revolution in the late iloos, like today's neopagan New Age movement, opposed garden cultivation due to its idolatrous worship of untamed nature.

The early Romantics may not have been aware of the anti-biblical and ultimately anti-human implications of their view. However, spokespersons of today's New Age movement certainly know what they are doing. To substantiate this claim, let us turn once more to evolutionist professor of landscape architecture Garrett Eckbo, who describes his picture of the New Age ecologist future one-world utopia in his article "Today into Tomorrow: An Optimistic View": In each growth area of the world, following the experience of China [that is, first the mass murder of many millions of people and then forced abortion and sterilization to limit population growth!], humane [!] measures [would be] designed ... to bring the population down to a level that the basic ecosystems of its land could support The plans ... [would be] aimed at ultimate coordination in a steady-state world in which the population would be tailored to fit the environment, rather than vice versa.

(Francis and Hester, p.230) This statement also shows that prominent New Age thinkers want to rule the whole world, and that they, like their atheist-materialist counterparts and allies, by no means eschew the use of force to implement their goal, "tailoring" the population to fit the environment. This their goal is open, ultimate rebellion against God's biblical creation mandate to man, and is indeed, in C. S. Lewis's words, the visible "abolition of man" as that unique being created to live by obeying God's moral law. Summary and Conclusion Ornamental gardening is a unique mark of man. It cannot be accounted for by evolutionist fiction but only by the biblical creation record. Gardens witness to man 5 creation in God the Creator's and First Gardener's own image and likeness, and they point back to Eden, our primordial perfect home, to our fall and need for salvation, and to our hope for eternal life in paradise restored. From antiquity until the latter part of the eighteenth century gardening was always understood to be the cultivation of a special plot of land distinguished from untamed nature.

At that time a gardening revolution occurred in the West which sought to merge gardens with the rest of nature with as little visible cultivation and enclosures as possible. This development really meant the abolition of the garden properly speaking. It foreshadowed the abolition of traditional and especially Christian social mores which erupted with the French Revolution. This gardening revolution was followed by a brief "abstractionist" school of gardening, and then by the eclectic gardening of the Victorian era which is still largely the vogue today. Gardens reflect their makers in that gardening itself is a facet of God's image and likeness in man, but gardening does not necessarily match the gardener's overall character or express a godly imagination. Andre Le Notre, the greatest gardening genius of the zenith of formal horticulture during the baroque period, was a loveable man, but love of gardening also marked bloody Aztec King Montezuma, Nazi concentration commandant Rudolf Hoess, and the child exterminators of the Nazi euthanasia program. C. S. Lewis describes gardens to hint at the character of godly and evil people in his novel That Hideous Strength.

Today's New Age movement, which worships "nature" rather than God, aims at the replacement of gardens by wild, uncultivated nature, a trend reminiscent of the gardening revolution of the late 1700s. This is really the abolition of gardens proper and must lead to the abolition of man himself. Lastly, it is done in conscious rejection and rebellion against the God of Creation and as such a sign of our apostate, chaotic time. Selected Bibliography A Breif history - Plant Science for Beginners Plant Science for Beginners A brief history of plant biology After the fall of the Empires in Europe including The Romans, people were left to fend for themselves. Many people became frightened and turned to religion and superstition, moving away from science and 'enlightenment'. This period of time was called The Dark Ages & The Middle Ages (410-1,300 CE). The Dark Ages were where historical documents and scriptures were few and far between, 'dark' meaning without history. Many people moved out into the country to rebuild their lives after the fall of most civilisations in Europe. This was during the time where the Jutes Angles and Saxons took over Britain.

These people created regional kingdoms such as Northumbria, Wessex and East Anglia. The majority of people left were 'peasants' and religious orders. Order became chaos. The Catholic Church was the only organisation left. During these times it flourished and became the new equivalent to a government. Since there were no rulers or empires, the church took over region by region. They did this by comforting a broken society. Frightened people conformed and created a new society. The church expanded all over Europe including Britain. The church invented titles such as the bishops, which ruled their region or county like a Mayor. Churches became the centre of towns as well as cities. Later the church created kings and queens of countries to deal with the influx of law and order issues. For many hundreds of years Kings and very few Queens worked very closely with the church and ruled their kingdom, until Henry VIII during the early Tudor period. To briefly mention his influences, he required a divorce.

However, the church did not believe in them so with his power he disillusioned the church and created 'The Church of England' which was fully protestant, people who believed that you did not require material goods to worship God) and created parliament which shared power over the land. Many countries followed and disputed this new system and wars begun. Going back to The Dark Ages the most popular type of garden was The Monastery Gardens. The Catholic Church was the only organisation left which taught education, religion and had infirmaries. These gardens held fruits, culinary & medicinal herbs, vegetables would have been grown in additional to fibrous plants, dye plants and ornamental flowers such as lilies & roses for church altar decoration. In the sixteenth century St Benedict of Nursia decreed gardening to be worthy and virtuous which increased popularity to many other regional kingdoms. St Benedict of Nursia created the first blueprints for an efficient and worthily garden which was followed by all monasteries. St. Gall’s plans for a proposed monastery layout that was created circa 816-836 CE. The plan included detailed drawings for the monastic gardens including a kitchen garden, physic garden, cloister-Garth and a cemetery orchard.

The plants found in these gardens were meant to be grown in the first raised, rectangular beds, which were separated by narrow pathways. A good example of this type of garden was called Mosteiro dos Jeronimos located in Lisbon, Portugal. It had a monastic cloister which contained a central fountain, surrounded by a covered walkway. This design was based on the Roman peristyle garden and was commonly used throughout Europe. These types of monasteries were self supporting communities who grew very powerful with huge estates and extensive trade routes. They used their wealth to create beautiful buildings, books and other treasures to glorify their god and were also international centres of literacy and learning as well as more practical subjects like horticulture and agriculture. An example of one of the first royal gardens was called The Queen Eleanor’s Garden in Winchester. Today it has been reconstructed next to The Great Hall, in Winchester. The original garden had a large fountain in the centre with several water channels pasting through it. It also contained flowering lawns, long winding pathways. A trellis was constructed around the garden with a trelliswork tunnel covered in climbing roses and honeysuckle species.

We can learn a lot about these types of Dark Aged gardens from the 'Books of Hours'. These contained religious texts to be used at different times of the day and year, and were often richly illustrated with scenes from daily life, including gardens. Across Europe garden styles were similar, showing that people and ideas moved around freely. Some gardening problems have not changed since Medieval Times. In 827 CE Walafried Strabo’ a monk at Reichenau Monastery in Germany, wrote 'Hortulus' along Latin poem about gardening. He complains about the problems of killing nettles and asks. Quid Facerem, 'What shall I do?' Some of his writings deal with the cultivation of herbs and vegetables. He describes “raised planning beds” a gardening method that lasted into the eighteen century. Just after The Dark Ages followed The Middle Ages were history started to be recorded again. Both these periods are referred to as “Medieval Times” where castles were constructed. I have combined The Dark & Middle Ages primarily due to their similarities. One major different between the two periods are The Castle and Pleasure Gardens were invented during The Middle Ages compared to The Dark Ages were Monastery Gardens were in fashion.

Gardens during this period were enclosed and rectangular with raised beds or borders, many flowers (usually dug from the woods), tufted seats, basic trelliswork and a few carefully placed trees. These types of garden were only for the royalty or the rich. The Italians lead the way for Castle Gardens with The Heaven on Earth otherwise known as a Pleasure Garden, which was located in Rocca Borromeo, Italy. It was constructed on a hill for defence purposes as well as to have good views from the garden. In the centre of this garden was a miniature mound were a tufted seat stood, this was where the owners could relax and appreciated the borrowed landscape. The walls had trellis built on them to growing fruits such as Pears. Carefully placed trees such as Apples were planted around the garden. An example of a commonly used garden was The Hortus Conclusus or as walled garden. These garden structures were simple and geometrical, like Roman and Persian gardens. They were rectangular, surrounded by stone or brick walls which created unknowingly a micro-climate, or trellis, wattle or picket fences for the less well off and contained many varieties of plants, grown for beauty and usefulness.

Grass covered mountains (view mounds) were popular and raised banks also flat lawns of wildflowers/grass. The gardens of the wealthy were places of pleasure, for games, reading, dinning and even holding court. Towns were developing at this time, with open spaces for everyone: ponds, streams, orchards and small gardens, as well as private gardens. Houses were often close to the street and had long gardens behind them for growing fruit and vegetables as well as keeping some animals. This pattern can still be seen in the high streets of many old towns throughout Europe. One of the most well-known plagues was the Bubonic or Black Death. The Bubonic is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population, reducing the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million, in 1400 CE. This was thought to have started in Central Asia; it had reached the Crimea by 1346 CE. From there, probably carried by fleas residing on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships, it spread throughout the Mediterranean and Europe.

This encouraged villages and towns to be enclosed and houses to be built in rows. This affected horticulture due to the fact that many people wanted to be enclosed in a small place for protection against the plague, and reducing the amount of room for plants. Botanical gardens were established as early as the tenth century Alphonso X of Castile between 1252 to 1284 had an Arabic horticultural works translated. His sister Eleanor, who was a keen gardener, married Edward I of England and imported gardeners from Spain to help her create a garden at Kings Langley in Hertfordshire. Religious orders were important landowners and were known for creating gardens for culinary and healing purpose, herbs were grown as a part of the infirmary. Cloister gardens were often found in monasteries. A direct descendant of the Roman courtyards, where a colonnaded walkway surround an area if rectangular lawn, cloisters were used by monks and nuns for walking, reading and as places of quiet contemplation: 800 CE – Charlemagne writes Capitulare de Villis setting out style for estates and listing plants that should be cultivated.

1066 CE – The Norman invasion of England. 1095 CE – First crusades to the Middle East. 1237 CE – Roman de la Rose was started and finished forty years later. It is the most famous literary celebration of gardens at this time and was translated into English by Chaucer. 1300 CE – The climate became much warmer in Britain until this point. After the fall of The Roman Empire, the philosophies of Islamic culture spread westwards, encouraging learning, gardening, fruit growing, craftsmanship and the arts. The gardens of Persia were considered to be representations of heavenly paradise and Greek and Roman botanical works were translated into Arabic, updated and expanded. In this way the horticultural wisdom of the ancient Christian and classical world was preserved and expanded. Through the Arabic conquests of Spain and the Mediterranean, Arabic horticultural influences found their way into Western Europe. Moorish Spain in particular became centres of plant collections or botanical gardens. The Renaissance (French for rebirth) was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Tudor period and later spreading to the rest of Europe.

The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the fourteenth century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331 CE – 1406 CE), Niccolò de' Niccoli (1364 CE – 1437 CE) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380 CE – 1459 CE) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero, Livy and Seneca. By the early fifteenth century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was now under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.

With the end of the medieval times and the beginnings of the renaissance, gardens became larger and castle gardens were replaced with unfortified buildings. The house and garden became an integrated as a whole. The change is illustrated by Chenonceaux and Courance; two french gardens built in 1530 CE and 1620 CE respectively. The former beside a lake in irregular with a somewhat haphazard overall design. The latter has a central courtyard and vista; the garden is related to the house. The Italians followed The Renaissance movement, however they believed in harmony with nature compared to the french who believed that man was ruler of nature. Italian villas were built to escape from the hot, dusty towns during the summer. Wind and shade were also necessary because of the summer heat (closer to the equator). Many of the villas and gardens were therefore built on hillsides for example Villa Medici which had a possible Spanish influence, thus providing views. In France there was less requirements for shade because of the cooler climate. There was no need to escape from the towns to the hills. Gardens tended to be cut out of heavily wooded broad flood plains.

These have a high water table and allowed for lots of water in their designs, however no head for fountains. The earlier usage of water would have been as a defensive moat. There were no city states in France unlike Italy were power was centralised. Wealthy aristocrats owed allegiance to the crown. Gardens like Versailles and Vaux le Vicomte were designed for the use of hundreds of people. The scale of the gardens was much larger than those found in Italy. The Baroque style enabled royalty and aristocrats to display their power, wealth and authority which the Italians did not have. The strict class structure of France gave rise to many ceremonies and courtyards set aside for different classes of people. The Italians produced courtyard gardens, linked with a central axis, stepping down the hillsides. The garden and the house were of equal importance in the design. There was deep shade, bright flowers and patterns of low hedges. The French’s approach to gardens was ceremonial with central axis and divisions. The gardens were usually approached along a central axis, unlike the Italian gardens which tended to be approached from the side. The gardens were largely level, large open and open to the sky. Views were extended by cutting avenues through the surrounding woodland.

This was not necessary in Italian gardens which were usually on hillsides. The Italian Renaissance was the reinvention of the ancient Roman and Greek designs and styles. It began in northern Italy in the 14th century and spread through Europe and Britain unlike The French who just saw The Renaissance for their own gain. As The Renaissance spread through Europe it changed the way Europeans saw themselves and how they perceived the world. The movement made sure that gardens should overlook some picturesque landscapes or in a wide open plain and vistas. The greatest innovation was the use of terraces which turned the disadvantages of uneven ground into gardens most prominent feature. Wide staircases connected the terraces with their landings which were decorated with fountains, niches and statues. Raphael drew up the designs for The Villa Madama, situated in a high terrace, from which the views were magnificent (hilly-countryside borrowed landscape). The terraces were partly screened by a wall of shrubs; opening like windows. They framed part of the landscape and made it more interesting through different forms and textures. Below were three gardens: the first being circular, the second being square and the latter being elliptical. These were decorated with niches and flowerbeds; their straight paths intersected at a right angle.

Statues and grottoes were features of Italian Renaissance garden such as the grotto at Castello which was dedicated to Orpheus. The garden of The Villa Lante emerges from a large grotto. The Villa Lante near Rome, was constructed in 1566 the design as a whole was so important that the designer divided the villa into two, to achieve symmetry and a continuous axis. The garden ran down the hillside from a wooden grotto through more formal gardens to parterres and a pond with a fountain at the bottom. The Villa d’Este was constructed in 1580. Bigger than Villa Lante it was used by others rather than the owners. It was full of contrasts, the noise of fountains, the tranquilly of mirror ponds and the use of light and shade. Vaux le Vocomte in France, was designed by Le Notre for Louis XIV’s finance minister. It was very geometrical with both central and side axis. It was broad and tranquil having an ornamental moat. It was designed for the use of hundreds of people. Versailles was also design by le Notre for Louis XIV. His nobles were required to live most of the year there.

The approach avenues were in the form of a goose-foot. The garden was very controlled and nature was subdued. The garden had along vista and was enlarged before the chateau. The vast scale of the garden required use of hundreds and perhaps even thousands of people. Baroque is the term given to the late renaissance period when all the arts were combined to produce dramatic effects. It is said to be derived from the Portuguese word for a rough pearl. This was believed that the world had some thing good to offer but it had to be refined. The Civil war in 1649 turned English society on its head. In 1649 CE the House of Lords was abolished and many of the nobility went to live abroad. John Tradescant the younger also disappeared to go plant hunting and the culture of gardening was put on hold. With the restoration period in 1660, Charles II brought with him from his exile the French style of horticulture. The Italian renaissance gardens, such as The Villa d’Este, were big influences in Europe. However unlike the Italian landscape of the valleys, hills and terraces, the French countryside was flatter and densely wooded.

French gardens in the 1600’s took over lost landscapes with great avenues stretching into the distant forests. They demonstrated power over nature with the clipping of trees, shrubs and fruit bushes, tall clipped hedges and the layout of great parterres. The French also developed the idea of the ornamental canal which also served a practical purpose of draining marshy ground. The French royalty activity encouraged Italian artists to migrate to France where some were employed to work on a variety of French royal gardens. When William III and May II came to the throne in 1689, they brought The Dutch influences of the gardens at Het Loo with them to Britain. During The Renaissance Partie Deux tulips Tuilpa sp. became highly popular and was named Tulipomania. It reached its peak in 1624 CE when fanatical collectors in were trading houses, businesses, ships and farms for tulip bulbs. The bubble burst in 1637 CE, causing bankruptcy and ultimately the loss of several Dutch colonies. William of Orange from Holland became King of England as he had married James II’s daughter, Mary.

Following from the new monarch The Dutch style reflected a more moderate protestant approach to design rather than the flamboyant French catholic style. Key elements include: simple bedding out parterres, often containing bulbs - a recent introduction, evergreen topiary in simple shapes such as pyramids and spirals, orchard laid out in geometrical patterns typically in a quincunx matrix, one placed at each corner and one in the centre of a square or rectangle, long and rectangular canals and finally the green or lawn usually dotted with clipped evergreen topiaries to complement each other. Garden architecture was exemplified by a tall pavilion such as Westbury Court or The Pin Mill at Bodnant. These structures provided a raised area from which to view the garden; as The Dutch gardens were notoriously flat. Though not new in concept, in Tudor gardens many have had a pavilion or banqueting hall on top of a mount, the folly was to heavily influence the 18th century English landscape style.

The former royal residence Het Loo near Apeldoorn in the Netherlands was built in 1684 CE for the Stadtholder Willem (William of Orange) and his consort Mary II Stuart, who became King and Queen of England in 1689 CE. For over three hundred years, Het Loo was the summer residence of The House of Orange. The house itself was built in The Dutch Baroque style, great care was taken so as not to make it overly ornate. Willem wanted it to look stylish yet refined. In February 1689 CE, William and Mary were called to the throne of Britain by parliament, replacing James II, who was deemed to have failed the country in The Glorious Revolution of 1688 CE. As James II’s daughter Mary was the Heir to the throne. William was concerned that as a Stadtholder of the Netherlands he would be his wife’s consort; a Prince of the realm but not the King. Mary accepted the throne on condition that parliament make a one off decree allowing William to be King. Their rule was the only period of time in British history in which joint sovereigns with equal powers were allowed to reign.

After Mary died in 1694 CE, William ruled alone until his death in 1702 CE. The new King and Queen chose to live at Hampton Court. At this time the vast palace and grounds remained; largely unchanged since the time of Henry VIII, one hundred years previously. William and Mary set about redesigning the palace and commissioned Sir Christopher Wren to remodel the exterior and add new wings, starting with the south front of the building. At the same time they commissioned George London and his apprentice, Henry Wise to create a baroque garden around their new home. London was a renowned gardener and took inspiration for his deigns from Italy and France. At Hampton Court, London & Wise of created a privy garden for the King as well as using the long canal already installed for Charles II to create a spectacular parterre and walks leading away from the east of the Palace. Most famously, they created The Hampton Court Maze. The maze was plant in 1689 CE; it covered 1300 m squared and contains 800 m of pathways. It was possible that the design was replaced with an earlier maze panted for Cardinal Woolsey.

It was originally planted with Carpinus betulus, although it had been repaired using many different genera. During the start of The Nature Revolution and The English Landscape Movement (18th Century), classical architecture and Chinese architecture were joined by Gothic revival ruins in English gardens. This was largely the result of poet Horace Walpole, who introduced Gothic revival features into his house and garden at Strawberry Hill in Twickenham. At Stowe, Capability Brown followed the new fashion between 1740 CE and 1753 CE by adding a new section to the park, called Hawkwelle Hill or the Gothic promenade, with a Gothic revival building. The most influential figure in the later development of the English landscape garden was Lancelot (Capability Brown) 'Yes this is capable' (1716 CE - 1783 CE) who began his career in 1740 CE as a gardener at Stowe under Charles Bridgman, then succeeded William Kent in 1748 CE.

Brown's contribution was to simplify the garden by eliminating geometric structures, alleys, and parterres near the house and replacing them with rolling lawns and extensive views out to isolated groups of trees, making the landscape seem even larger. He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside. He created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden. He compared his own role as a garden designer to that of a poet. "Here I put a comma, there, when it's necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis; there I end it with a period and start on another theme”. Brown designed one hundred and seventy gardens. The most important were: Petworth West Sussex in 1752 CE, Chatsworth Derbyshire in 1761 CE, Bowood Wiltshire in 1763 CE, and Blenheim Palace Oxfordshire in 1764 CE. Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to France by Abbé Le Blanc, who published accounts of his voyage in 1745 CE and 1751 CE.

A treatise on the English garden, Observations on Modern Gardening, written by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770 CE, was translated into French in 1771 CE. After the end of the Seven Years War in 1763 CE, French noblemen were able to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves, and the style began to be adapted in French gardens. The new style also had the advantage of requiring fewer gardeners, and was easier to maintain compared to the French. Stowe evolved from an English baroque garden into a pioneering landscape park; the gardens became an attraction for many of the nobility, including political leaders. Stowe is said to be the first English garden for which a guide book was produced. Wars and rebellions were reputedly discussed among the gardens many temples; the artwork of the time reflected this by portraying caricatures of the better-known politicians of history taking their ease in similar settings. Stowe began to evolve into a series of natural views to be appreciated from a perambulation rather than from a well-chosen central point. In its final form the Gardens were the largest and most elaborate example of what became known as The English Garden.

The main gardens, enclosed within the ha-ha (sunken or trenched fences) over four miles in length, cover over 1.6 km squared but the park also has many buildings, including gate lodges and other monuments. The gardens, created by Bridgman and then Kent, overlook a curve of the River Cherwell. Bridgman had laid out the layout of the garden, with meandering walks through the woods, and pools of varying degrees of formality. Kent's theme was to create and transform the natural landscape created by Bridgman into an Augustan landscape to recall the glories and atmosphere of ancient Rome. Thus the Roman Forum was to be recreated in the verdant English countryside. The garden is Daphne in little, Walpole told George Montagu: the sweetest little groves, streams, glades, porticoes, cascades, and river, imaginable; all the scenes are perfectly classical. The expanding British Empire opened up far flung corners of the globe to avid gardeners and a sort of collector-mania spread throughout Victorian Britain. Avid botanists combed the globe for new and exotic plants to bring home.

One of the results of this frenzy of collecting was another craze, bedding out plants. The concept of bedding plants was Aztec in origin but in the hands of Victorians enthusiasts it became a British passion. The bedding out “craze” resulted in a fashion for massed beds of vibrantly coloured plants laid out in intricate mosaic patterns. The Victorian age, the age of industrial revolution and squalid city slums, was also the age of a popular explosion of interest in that most British of occupations, gardening and not just as a private pastime. For the first time a concerted effort was made by authorities to provide extensive public gardens. There was a reason for this benevolent behaviour by the well to do. They believed that gardens would decrease drunkenness and improve the manners of the lower classes. Intellectuals and the upper classes also encouraged gardening as means of decreasing social unrest. This era was also characterised as a long period of peace, known as the Pax Britannica and economic, colonial and industrial consolidation, temporarily disrupted by the Crimean War, although Britain was at war every year during this time.

Towards the end of the century, the policies of New Imperialism led to increasing colonial conflicts and eventually the Anglo Zanzibar War and the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform and the widening of the voting franchise. The population of England had almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901 CE. Ireland’s population decreased rapidly, from 8.2 million in 1841 CE to less than 4.5 million in 1901 CE. At the same time, around 15 million emigrants left the United Kingdom in the Victorian era and settled mostly in the United States, Canada, and Australia. The Victorian period also saw a profusion of public gardens and green spaces aimed at bringing culture to the masses. Some of the finest Victorian gardens are public parks, like The People's Park in Halifax. Taste in the later Victorian period varied between formal and the wild garden advocated by the influential writer William Robinson.

Sometimes the formal and informal looks were combined in the same garden as at Sissinghurst Castle Kent and Hidcote, Gloucestershire. Inevitably, this passion for exotic plants created a reaction in favour of traditional British plants and garden forms, particularly the parsonage or vicarage garden. Strangely, the number of parsons who have had a strong influence on British garden history is quite high. The vicarage garden was a showpiece of one to three acres planted, not with colourful exotics but with a homogeneous mix of traditional plants, such as Wisteria. In 1840 CE the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew passed from crown control to the government which meant a transfer from enthusiastic amateurs to professional gardeners. Another Victorian garden phenomenon was known as The London Square. London squares were developed by 19th century property developers. Here, the houses backed onto a green space where children could play in full view of the houses. The squares were the focal point for a communal social life. This green space garden was run by a resident committee, funded by subscriptions from all the householders.

As years went by and pollution increased, only the hardiest plants could survive, particularly the plane tree, which took over many of these squares. Examples of these London squares exist at Bloomsbury, Pimlico, Brompton, Kensington and Notting Hill. Weston Park Gardens, which dates from 1671 CE is surrounded by 1,000 acres of parkland containing formal gardens, a 19th century Italianate parterre, to the south and west side of the house and leading to sweeping lawns, a hermit's cave, Tear Drop garden and the Rose Walk. Further on are to be found the Pleasure Grounds with a conservatory, Church Pool and Temple Wood where the Grade I listed Paine's Bridge and two of the park's other follies, also designed by him are situated. Weston Park Gardens houses a collection of rhododendrons and azaleas and many magnificent trees. The name Cannizaro has been associated with Wimbledon since 1832 when Francis Platamone, Count Sant Antonio, leaseholder of Warren House, succeeded to the Sicilian Dukedom of Cannizzaro.

He left, but his wife lived on there for some years and the name stuck. Today’s park and gardens holds few memories of them. Its most outstanding features either predate their turbulent marriage or were introduced long afterwards. Today, Cannizaro House is a hotel while the grounds are a public park and gardens since 1987 it has been a Grade 2 listed English Heritage garden, boasting one of the country's finest collections of rhododendrons, azaleas and rare trees. It is also rich in wildlife. An open air concert festival is held there every summer as well as art exhibitions. The estate dates back to the early 1700s. Famous 18th century residents included Thomas Walker, an intimate friend of Britain’s first Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole; John Lyde-Brown, governor of the Bank of England, who accumulated a classical sculpture collection, sold to Catherine the Great of Russia; and Henry Dundas Viscount Melville, Home Secretary and under Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. Key Summary dates in Victorian Gardening Period: 1840 - The most popular plants for displays were chrysanthemums, dahlias and roses.

James Pulham invents a cement that can be poured to form rockeries. 1841 - Victorian gardener Joseph Paxton creates the glasshouse at Chatsworth. William Hooker starts his role as the new director at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Alexander Shanks of Arbroath registered a pony-pulled mower that cleared the clippings in 1841 CE. Architect Decimus Burton builds the Palm house at Kew. The monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana is reintroduced after its first introduction in 1795 CE. A brief timeline 1845 CE - Glass tax is abolished, making greenhouses and conservatories cheaper and more popular. Conservatories, which made an attractive addition to the side of the house, were used for entertaining more than cultivating plants. 1847 CE - James Hartley produces good quality sheet glass that's used for greenhouses. 1848 CE to 1851 CE - Joseph Hooker brings back 28 species of rhododendrons from his expeditions to the Himalayas.

1849 CE - Joseph Paxton is credited with bringing the first the giant water lily into flower at Chatsworth House. 1851 CE - The Great Exhibition of London takes place in Crystal Palace, designed by Joseph Paxton. 1854 CE - Veitch Nurseries starts to sell seeds of Wellingtonia. 1859 CE - Charles Darwin publishes the controversial On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection. Darwin also wrote regular articles for Gardeners' Chronicles and devoted his later years to detailed studies of plants and the action of earthworms in the soil. 1860 CE - Gnomes were introduced from Germany. Sir Charles Isham built a rockery in 1847 at Lamport Hall in Northamptonshire, which he filled with gnomes 20 years later. One still survives - who's insured for £1 million. 1861 CE- The Horticultural Society becomes the Royal Horticultural Society. 1865 CE - Joseph Hooker takes over from his father William Hooker as director of Kew. 1870 CE - The Wild Garden by William Robinson promotes the idea of natural-looking planting schemes.

1874 CE - The pesticide DDT is synthesised by Othmar Zeider. DDT is banned in 1972 CE. 1887 CE - The council introduces the Allotment Act. The council makes land available at a reasonable rent for the public to grow plants on. 1895 CE - The National Trust is founded by Miss Octavia Hill, Sir Robert Hunter and Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley. The Trust was set up 'to act as a guardian for the nation in the acquisition and protection of threatened coastline, countryside and buildings'. The first women gardeners are employed at The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 1897 CE - The Victoria Medal of Honour in Horticulture is established by the RHS. The medal is awarded to people who've made an important contribution to gardening, such as Alan Titchmarsh and Christopher Lloyd.

Changed the botanical system with the genus, species and cultivar system He was a lecture of botany 1735-1778 – lived abroad to form his system of nature He became professor of botany in 1740 He classified plants, fungi and animals during a period between 1750-1760 He collected and classified plants, animals and minerals He published Specie Plantanum Genera Plantanum System Plantaum After his death The Linnaeus Society was setup which is the equivalent of The Royal Horticultural Society to horticulture. Also the University of Linnaeus opened. David Douglas Born in 1799 and died in 1834 He was scottish and worked as a gardener and a traveller in the highlands of Scotland 1823-1827 he created and published Journals during my travels in North America The Douglas fir, spriea, water-hemlock, aster and maple were all named after him He introduced over two hundred North American plants to Britian He had an accident death in Hawaii aged 35 After his death The David Douglas Society was setup to keep his work and horticultural practises alive.

Born in 1873 and died in 1932 He made several major expeditions He introduced hundreds of new species such as Pieris japonica 'Forestii', as well as many Clematis, Chrysanthemums, Iris and Jasminum. Born in The Falkland, Scotland He went to The Kilmarnock Academy were he was a apprenticed chemist and learnt the mechanical uses of plants He worked in at Edinburgh Botanical Gardens 1905 went to Yunnan hear Tibet with 17 other collectors 1932 he completed the bulk of his work William Kerr To prosecute his work in consequence of some evil habits he had contracted as unfortunate as they have new to him He died in 1814 William was a Scottish gardener and plant hunter He sent back to Kew gardens as the virgoruous shrub at the first asserted greenhouse the Kerria, named after him.

He brought back 238 new plants to Europe He lived at Hawick, noted by Sir Joseph Banks in 1804 He was sent to Colombia in 1802 to be superintendent of their botanical gardens where he later died His most famous plant discoveries include: Euronymus japonica Sir Joseph Banks (1768–1771) Banks left Oxford for Chelsea in December 1763. He continued to attend the university until 1764, but left that year without taking a degree Banks was promptly appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the south Pacific Ocean on HM Bark Endeavour, 1768—1771 A foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1773 1778 to 1797. On 30 November 1778 he was elected President of the Royal Society Bank’s was a major supporter of the internationalist nature of science In March 1779 Banks married Dorothea Hugesson, daughter of W. W.

Hugesson, and settled in a large house at 32 Soho Square David Bruke (1854-1897) Famous Quote I am off again if I make a good meal for someone I hope I shall give full stratification He lived mainly in Kent He was a widely travelled plant collector at Guiana, Burma and Colombia. He joined Veitch as a gardener at Chelsea. In 1880 wanted to travelled accompanied by Charles cutis to Bomeo He collected stoves, palms and orchids He rediscovered insectivorous plants In 1896 last voyage to the celebe islands

Question: With a history stretching back thousands of years, the age old art of trimming bushes and shrubs into ornamental shapes is called what?
Answer: Topiary