Rainier | Volcano World | Oregon State University OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY Articles Mount Rainier is the highest and third most voluminous volcano of the Cascade Range. The main cone of this has formed since 730,000 years ago. Photograph of Mount Rainier from STS-64 (STS064-51-27).Image Source: The Earth Observation Images at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. For the last 100,000 years the rate of erosion, by debris avalanche and glaciers, has been greater than that of the rate of volcano growth. Mount Rainier is potentially the most dangerous volcano in the Cascades because it is very steep, covered in large amounts of ice and snow, and near a large population that lives in lowland drainages. Numerous debris avalanches start on the volcano. The largest debris avalanche traveled more than 60 miles (100 km) to Puget Sound. The most recent , blocks, and bombs. Photograph by D.R. Crandell, U.S. Geological Survey. Mt. St. Helens with Mt. Rainier in the background.

(March 31, 1980) Photo by U.S. Geological Society. The Cascade Volcano Observatory has additional information about the history and hazards of Mt. Rainier. Sources of Information: Crandell, D.R., 1971, Postglacial lahars from Mount Rainier volcano, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 677, p. 1-75. Crandell, D.R., 1969, The geologic story of Mount Rainier: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1292, 43 p. Driedger, C.L., 1995, Increasing public awareness of Mount Rainier volcanic hazards: Eos Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, p. F644. Fiske, R.S., Hopson, C.A., and Waters, A.C., Geology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444, p. 1-93.

Hopson, C.A., Waters, C.A., Bender, V.R., and Rubin, M., 1962, The latest eruptions from Mount Rainier volcano: Journal of Geology Majors, H.M., and McCollum, R.C., 1981, Mount Rainier: the eruption of 1894: Northwest Discoveries, v. 2, p. 334-381. Mullineaux, D.R., 1974, pyroclastic deposits in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1326, p. 1-83. Mullineaux, D.R., Sigafoos, R.S., and Hendricks, E.L., 1969, A historic eruption of Mt. Rainier, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 650-B, p. 1-83. National Research Council, 1994, Mount Rainier Active Cascade Volcano: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, 114 p.

Pringle, P.T., Driedger, C.L., Frank, D., McKenna, J., Murphy, M.T., Scott, K.M., Sisson, T.W., Vallance, J.W., Venezky, D.Y., Walder, J.S., and Zimbelman, D.R., 1994, 2G Mount Rainier, a Decade Volcano GSA field trip, in Swanson, D.A., and Haugerud, R.A. , eds., Geologic field trips in the Pacific Northwest, Volume 2, p. 2G 1-23. Simkin, T., and Siebert, L., 1994, Volcanoes of the World: Geoscience Press, Tucson, Arizona, 349 p. Sisson, T.W., 1995, An overview of the geology of Mount Rainier's volcanic edifice: Eos Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, p. F643.

Venezky, D.Y., 1995, Global Volcanism Program | Rainier Most Recent Bulletin Report: June 1969 (CSLP 53-69) Increased seismicity since September 1968 Card 0619 (27 June 1969) Increased seismicity since September 1968 "Local activity has been increasing each month for the last three months. We have been averaging about 1-3 'Mt. Ranier Events' per 5-day period with an increase to about five per 5-day period last September 1968. This April, the events increased to approximately five per 5-day period. In May, it increased to about six per 5-day period and as of 15 June the increase is to approximately 12 per 5-day period." Information Contacts: N. Rasmussen, Seismology Station, University of Washington. The Global Volcanism Program has no Weekly Reports available for Rainier. Bulletin Reports - Index Reports are organized chronologically and indexed below by Month/Year (Publication Volume:Number), and include a one-line summary. Click on the index link or scroll down to read the reports.

2,667,609 Geological Summary Mount Rainier, at 4392 m the highest peak in the Cascade Range, forms a dramatic backdrop to the Puget Sound region. Large Holocene mudflows from collapse of this massive, heavily glaciated andesitic volcano have reached as far as the Puget Sound lowlands. The present summit was constructed within a large crater breached to the northeast formed by collapse of the volcano during a major explosive eruption about 5600 years that produced the widespread Osceola Mudflow. Rainier has produced eruptions throughout the Holocene, including about a dozen during the past 2600 years; the largest of these occurred about 2200 years ago. The present-day summit cone is capped by two overlapping craters. Extensive hydrothermal alteration of the upper portion of the volcano has contributed to its structural weakness; an active thermal system has caused periodic melting on flank glaciers and produced an elaborate system of steam caves in the summit icecap. Reported 19th-century eruptions have not left identifiable deposits, but a phreatic eruption may have taken place as recently as 1894.

References The following references have all been used during the compilation of data for this volcano, it is not a comprehensive bibliography. Coombs H A, Howard A D, 1960. United States of America. Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields, Rome: IAVCEI, 9: 1-68. Crandell D R, 1969. The geologic story of Mount Rainier. U S Geol Surv Bull, 1292: 1-43. Crandell D R, 1971. Postglacial lahars from Mount Rainier volcano, Washington. U S Geol Surv Prof Pap, 677: 1-75. Fiske R S, Hopson C A, Waters A C, 1963. Geology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. U S Geol Surv Prof Pap, 444: 1-93. Frank D, 1995. Surficial extent and conceptual model of hydrothermal system at Mount Rainier, Washington.

J Volc Geotherm Res, 65: 51-80. Gardner J E, Carey S, Sigurdsson H, 1998. Plinian eruptions at Glacier Peak and Newberry volcanoes, United States: implications for volcanic hazards in the Cascade Range. Geol Soc Amer Bull, 110: 173-187. Hildreth W E, 2007. Quaternary magmatism in the Cascades--geologic perpectives. U S Geol Surv Prof Pap, 1744: 1-125. John D A, Sisson T W, Breit G N, Rye R O, Vallance J W, 2008. Characteristics, extent and origin of hydrothermal alteration at Mount Rainier Volcano, Cascades Arc, USA: implications for debris-flow hazards and mineral deposits. J Volc Geotherm Res, 175: 289-314. Moxham R M, Crandell D R, Marlatt W E, 1965.

Thermal features at Mount Rainier, Washington, as revealed by infrared surveys. U S Geol Surv Prof Pap, 525-D: 93-100. Mullineaux D R, 1974. Pumice and other pyroclastic deposits in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. U S Geol Surv Bull, 1326: 1-83. Pringle P T, 2008. Roadside geology of Mount Rainier National Park and vicinity. Wash State Dept Nat Resour, Inf Circ 107, 200 p. Reid M E, Sisson T W, Brien D L, 2001. Volcano collapse produced by hydrothermal alteration and edifice shape, Mount Rainier, Washington. Geology, 29: 779-782. Sherrod D R, Smith J G, 1990. Quaternary extrusion rates of the Cascade Range, northwestern United States and southern British Columbia. J Geophys Res, 95: 19,465-19,474.

Sisson T W, Vallance J W, 2009. Frequent eruptions of Mount Rainier over the last ~2,600 years. Bull Volc, 71: 595-618. Stockstill K R, Vogel T A, Sisson T W, 2003. Origin and emplacement of the andesite of Burroughs Mountain, a zoned, large-volume lava flow at Mount Rainier, Washington, USA. J Volc Geotherm Res, 119: 275-296. Vallance J W, Scott W E, 1997. The Osceola mudflow from Mount Rainier: sedimentology and hazard implications of a huge clay-rich debris flow. Geol Soc Amer Bull, 109: 143-163. Venezky D Y, Rutherford M J, 1997. Preeruption conditions and timing of dacite-andesite magma mixing in the 2.2 ka eruption at Mount Rainier.

J Geophys Res, 102: 20,069-20,086. Wood C A, Kienle J (eds), 1990. Volcanoes of North America. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Univ Press, 354 p. Zimbelman D R, Rye R O, Landis G P, 2000. Fumaroles in ice caves on the summit of Mount Rainier--preliminary stable isotope, gas, and geochemical studies. J Volc Geotherm Res, 97: 457-473. Eruptive History Summary of Holocene eruption dates and Volcanic Explosivity Indices (VEI). Start Date Thermal Photo Gallery Mount Rainier, the highest peak in the Cascade Range, towers above the city of Tacoma and forms a prominent landmark that dominates much of central Washington. Periodic collapse of the volcano during the past ten thousand years has produced debris avalanches and mudflows that have reached the Puget Sound at the present locations of the cities of Tacoma and Seattle. Photo by Lyn Topinka (U.S. Geological Survey). A volcanologist from the U.S.

Geological Survey observes the glacier-clad NW flank of Mount Rainier during a field survey to conduct monitoring measurements on Ptarmigan Ridge. The North Mowich Glacier in the center of the photo descends to about 1500 m elevation. Photo by Lyn Topinka, 1983 (U.S. Geological Survey). Stratovolcanoes, also referred to as composite volcanoes, are constructed of sequential layers of resistant lava flows and fragmental material produced by pyroclastic eruptions. An aerial view of the glacially dissected SW flank of Mount Rainier shows the layered interior of a stratovolcano. Snow cover, which preferentially clings to less-steep layers of fragmental material, accentuates the stratified character of this composite volcano. Photo by Dan Dzurisin, 1982 (U.S. Geological Survey). Mount Rainier towers above the town of Orting, 40 km NW of the volcano. The plain underlying the town is composed of the Electron Mudflow, which formed the flat valley floor about 500 years ago.

The mudflow, which originated from collapse of part of the western flank of Mount Rainier, was about 60 m deep when it exited valleys at the mountain front and flowed onto the Puget Lowland. Photo by Dave Wieprecht, 1995 (U.S. Geological Survey). The rims of two partially overlapping cinder cones, viewed here from the NE, mark the summit of Mount Rainier volcano. The twin craters represent the latest activity of a volcano that was constructed within the large horseshoe-shaped depression formed by collapse of Mount Rainier 5700 years ago. Thermal activity continues today, forming a series of fumaroles and ice caves within the icecap filling the summit craters. Photo by Dave Wieprecht, 1995 (U.S. Geological Survey). An aerial view from near the eastern margin of Mount Rainier National Park shows the volcano rising above glacially carved terrain of the Ohanapecosh formation, composed of volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. The smooth, ice-covered upper NE flank is the location of the post-collapse cone constructed within the failure scarp left by the Osceola debris avalanche and lahar about 5700 years ago.

Photo by Dave Wieprecht, 1992 (U.S. Geological Survey). Hikers on the trail to Pinnacle Peak in the Tatoosh Range enjoy a spectacular vista of the south side of Mount Rainier. Sunlight catches the lower part of the Nisqually Glacier at the lower right-center; the glacier descends in a series of icefalls more than 3000 vertical meters from the summit icecap. Meadows and forests of the Paradise area lie immediately below and to the right of the glacier. Camp Muir, used as base for climbs of Rainier, is at the top of the snowfield below and to the right of the massive cliffs of Gibralter Rock on the right skyline. Photo by Lee Siebert (Smithsonian Institution). Mount Rainier rises above Yakima Park on the north side of the volcano. Emmons Glacier descends to the left from the summit within a broad valley between Little Tahoma Peak at the extreme left and the low ridge descending diagonally to the left at the center of the photo.

This 2.5-km-wide valley was created when Mount Rainier collapsed about 5700 years ago, forming the Osceola mudflow, which traveled all the way to the Puget Sound. The collapse was associated with an explosive eruption. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1972 (Smithsonian Institution). Flat-topped Burroughs Mountain on the NE flank of Mount Rainier is underlain by a massive andesitic lava flow. The 3.4 cu km flow is up to 350 m thick and extends 11 km from about 2350 m to 1300 m elevation. The flow was erupted about 500,000 years ago at the onset of a period initial growth of modern Mount Rainier volcano and overlies block-and-ashflow deposits. The flow is perched on a ridge top and has ice-contact features, indicative of its emplacement against the margins of a thick Pleistocene glacier. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1982 (Smithsonian Institution).

The trees in the foreground along Kautz Creek were killed by a mudflow from the SW flank of Mount Rainier in 1947, which cut the west-side access road to the park. Relatively small debris flows such as these occur relatively frequently; deposits of a half dozen or more debris flows are exposed in the valley walls of Kautz Creek. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1980 (Smithsonian Institution). New housing is under construction on a mudflow deposit that originated from Mount Rainier, partially obscured by clouds in the center background. The tree stump in the foreground, left for landscaping purposes at the entrance to the housing development, was buried by the Electron mudflow about 500 years ago. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1994 (Smithsonian Institution). Two overlapping cinder cones form the summit of Mount Rainier. Continued high heat flux has produced steam jets and fumaroles that have created a 2.5-km-long labyrinth of ice tunnels in the 100-m-deep icecap filling the eastern summit crater. Ice caves are also present in the smaller western crater, which contains a small crater lake beneath the ice.

Photo by Richard Fiske, 1958 (Smithsonian Institution). Mount Rainier is reflected in the waters of Tipsoo Lake, near Chinook Pass at the eastern end of Mount Rainier National Park. The snow-free peaks of the Cowlitz Chimneys below Mount Rainier are composed of volcanic rocks of the Ohanapecosh Formation of Tertiary age, which underlies Mount Rainier. Photo by Richard Fiske, 1959 (Smithsonian Institution). The Tahoma Glacier spills from the summit icecap of Mount Rainier between Liberty Cap (left) and Point Success (right) in this aerial view from the SW. Two young cinder cones, constructed within a scarp left by massive collapse of the summit of Mount Rainier about 5700 years ago, form the present-day summit of the volcano. Slope failure of the summit or upper flanks of the hydrothermally altered volcano has occurred several times during the Holocene, producing massive debris avalanches and mudflows that swept into the Puget lowlands. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1969 (Smithsonian Institution).

Stratovolcanoes, also known as composite volcanoes, are built up by accumulated layers of lava flows and fragmental material from explosive eruptions. Glacier-clad Mount Rainier, seen here from the NW, is the most prominent stratovolcano in the Cascade Range. Most eruptions originate from a central conduit, which produces the common conical profile of stratovolcanoes, but flank eruptions also occur. Both isolated stratovolcanoes like Mount Rainier and compound volcanoes formed by overlapping cones are common. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1983 (Smithsonian Institution). Mount Rainier, seen here across a cloud-filled valley from High Knob SW of the volcano, forms a dramatic backdrop to the Puget Sound region. Large Holocene mudflows from this massive, heavily glaciated volcano have reached as far as the Puget Sound lowlands. Several postglacial tephras have been erupted from Mount Rainier; tree-ring dating places the last recognizable tephra deposit during the 19th century. Extensive hydrothermal alteration of the upper portion of the volcano has contributed to its structural weakness. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1981 (Smithsonian Institution).

The massive 4392-m-high glacier-mantled cone of Mount Rainier forms the highest peak of the Cascade Range. This aerial view from the NW also shows neighboring Mount Adams on the right horizon. The steep cirque forming the sheer Willis Wall, named after the 19th-century geologist Bailey Willis, lies in the shadow at the left, below the Winthrop Glacier, which forms the left-hand ridge of Mount Rainier. Two young overlapping cinder cones, their rims kept free of snow by high heat flow, form the flat summit of the volcano. Photo by Lee Siebert, 1985 (Smithsonian Institution) Smithsonian Sample Collections Database The following 41 samples associated with this volcano can be found in the Smithsonian's NMNH Department of Mineral Sciences collections . Catalog number links will open a window with more information. Catalog Number Volcanoes - Mount Rainier National Park (U.S. National Park Service) Volcanoes Mount Rainier as seen from the crater rim of Mount St. Helens, overlooking Spirit Lake. USGS Photo Mount Rainier is an episodically active composite volcano, also called a stratovolcano.

Volcanic activity began between one half and one million years ago, with the most recent eruption cycle ending about 1,000 years ago. Over the past half million years, Mount Rainier has erupted again and again , alternating between quiet lava-producing eruptions and explosive debris-producing eruptions. The eruptions built up layer after layer of lava and loose rubble, eventually forming the tall cone that characterizes composite volcanoes. At one time, lava flows on opposite sides of the mountain probably projected more than 1,000 feet (305 meters) above the present summit at Columbia Crest which rises 14,410 feet (4392 meters) above sea level on the rim of the recent lava cone. The upper portion of the volcano's cone was likely removed by explosions and landslides. Mount Rainier's extensive glacier system then carved the volcano's cone into its current craggy form. Mount Rainier also sits on a subduction zone where colliding continental and oceanic plates cause regular seismic and geothermal activity. A subduction zone is an area where one continental plate is being forced underneath another into the earth's mantel.

Mount Rainier experiences about 20 small earthquakes a year, making it the second most seismically active volcano in the northern Cascade Range after Mount St. Helens. Learn more about Mount Rainier's seismicity . Volcano evacuation route sign. Hazards of Mount Rainier Mount Rainier, the highest (14,410 feet / 4392 m) volcano in the Cascade Range, towers over a population of more than 3.3 million in the Seattle Tacoma metropolitan area, and its drainage system via the Columbia River potentially impacts another 500,000 residents of southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon. Mount Rainier is the most hazardous volcano in the Cascades not only in terms of its potential for eruption, but also the risk of producing major debris flows even without eruption. The potential hazards posed by Mount Rainier led to its inclusion as one of the sixteen volcanoes worldwide to be designated Decade Volcanoes. The Decade Volcano initiative is part of a United Nations program aimed at better utilizing science and emergency management to reduce the severity of natural disasters.

Mount Rainier was chosen to be studied because it is representative of one or more volcanic hazards: it is geologically active as evidenced by surface manifestation of heat (geothermal activity), it has had recent volcanic events (last eruption was about 150 years ago), and it is likely to erupt again, based on past history; its location poses significant hazards to a heavily populated area; it is a well known volcano (a number of research publications have been written on it); it is politically and physically accessible for study; and its volcanic geology is well exposed. In 1992 National Park Service staff participated with other agencies and individuals to develop a science plan through the National Academy of Sciences, for organizing the needed research to evaluate the hazards and risks associated with Mount Rainier and for developing communication efforts of the risks for appropriate planning activities. The science plan was published in Mount Rainier Active Cascade Volcano and is available in the park library. Several studies related to geologic hazards are being conducted by the USGS , other federal and state agencies, and academic institutions.

Mount Rainier: One of Our Nation's Most Dangerous Volcanoes Home » Volcanoes » Mount Rainier - Living Safely with a Volcano Mount Rainier - Living Safely With a Volcano in Your Backyard By Carolyn L. Driedger and William E. Scott, USGS -- Republished from USGS fact sheet 2008-3062. Majestic Mount Rainier soars almost 3 miles (14,410 feet) above sea level and looms over the expanding suburbs of Seattle and Tacoma, Washington. Each year almost two million visitors come to Mount Rainier National Park to admire the volcano and its glaciers , alpine meadows, and forested ridges. However, the volcano's beauty is deceptive. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) research shows that Mount Rainier is one of our Nation's most dangerous volcanoes. It has been the source of countless eruptions and volcanic mudflows (lahars) that have surged down valleys on its flanks and buried broad areas now densely populated. To help people live more safely with the volcano, USGS scientists are working closely with local communities, emergency managers, and the National Park Service.

An Active Volcano at Rest Between Eruptions Mount Rainier, an active volcano currently at rest between eruptions, is the highest peak in the Cascade Range. Its edifice, capped by snow and 25 glaciers, has been built up by untold eruptions over the past 500,000 years. It last erupted in 1894-95, when small summit explosions were reported by observers in Seattle and Tacoma. Mount Rainier's next eruption might be of similar or larger size and could produce volcanic ash, lava flows, and avalanches of intensely hot rock and volcanic gases, called "pyroclastic flows." Some of these events swiftly melt snow and ice and could produce torrents of meltwater that pick up loose rock and become rapidly flowing slurries of mud and boulders known as "lahars." In contrast to lava flows and pyroclastic flows that are unlikely to extend farther than 10 miles from the volcano's summit and remain within Mount Rainier National Park, the largest lahars can travel for tens of miles and reach Puget Sound. Volcanic ash will be distributed downwind, most often toward the east, away from Puget Sound's large population centers.

Airborne plumes of volcanic ash can greatly endanger aircraft in flight and seriously disrupt aviation operations. Although seldom life threatening, volcanic ash fallout on the ground can be a nuisance to residents, affect utility and transportation systems, and entail substantial clean-up costs. Lahars Pose the Greatest Risk At Mount Rainier, the risk from lahars is greater than from lava flows, volcanic ash fall, or other volcanic phenomena because some pathways for future lahars are densely populated and contain important infrastructure such as highways, bridges, ports, and pipelines. Lahars look and behave like flowing concrete, and they destroy or bury most manmade structures in their paths. Past lahars probably traveled 45 to 50 miles per hour and were as much as 100 feet or more thick where confined in valleys near the volcano. They thinned and spread out in the wide valleys downstream, slowing to 15 to 25 miles per hour. Deposits of past lahars are found in all of the valleys that start on Mount Rainier's flanks. How Hazardous is Mount Rainier? Mount Rainier has erupted less often and less explosively in recent millennia than its well-known neighbor, Mount St. Helens.

However, the proximity of large population centers in valleys susceptible to lahars from Mount Rainier makes it a far greater threat to life and property than Mount St. Helens for the following reasons: Population and development at risk: About 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones. Key infrastructure such as major highways and utilities cross through these zones, which also contain economically important businesses, hydroelectric dams, and major seaports. Size and frequency of lahars: During the past several thousand years large lahars have reached the Puget Sound lowland on average at least once every 500 to 1,000 years. Smaller flows not extending as far as the lowland occurred more frequently. If future large lahars happen at rates similar to those of the past, there is roughly a 1-in-10 chance of a lahar reaching the Puget Sound lowland during an average human lifespan. There may be little or no advance warning: Studies by U.S.

Geological Survey (USGS) scientists show that at least one of Mount Rainier's recent large landslide-generated lahars may have occurred when the volcano was quiet and not providing the warning signs typical of a restless and erupting volcano. In such a rare case, the only warning could be a report that a lahar is already underway. Two Types of Lahars Mount Rainier can generate two types of lahars that can threaten surrounding valleys: Meltwater-generated lahars: Mount Rainier supports more than one cubic mile of glacial ice-as much as all other Cascade Range volcanoes combined. During past eruptive episodes, swift melting of snow and ice by pyroclastic flows and other events caused numerous lahars. Such lahars would be preceded by events that warn of an impending eruption. Landslide-generated lahars: Landslides can be triggered when molten rock (magma) intrudes into a volcano and destabilizes it, as happened at Mount St. Helens in 1980, or they may be triggered by large earthquakes. They may also be the result of the eventual failure of rocks that were weakened by the action of acidic fluids.

Magma releases gases and heat creating hot, acidic groundwater that, over time, can convert hard volcanic rock into weak, clay-rich rock by a process called hydrothermal alteration. When masses of water-saturated clay-rich rock slide away, they transform rapidly into a lahar. Although most large landslides at Mount Rainier occurred during eruptive periods and were probably triggered by magma intrusion or by explosive eruptions rocking the volcano, the origin of at least one, the 500-year-old Electron lahar, may not be related to eruptions. This lahar left deposits as much as 20 feet thick, and buried an old-growth forest in the vicinity of modern-day Orting. Are All Parts of the Volcano Susceptible to Landslides? The west flank of Mount Rainier, including the head of the Puyallup River, has the greatest potential for unleashing large landslides that become far-traveled lahars, because it has the largest amount of weakened clay-rich rock at high altitude. Therefore, the Puyallup River valley and, to a lesser extent, the Nisqually River valley, whose basin includes some of the weakened rock, are at most risk from such events.

Little Tahoma Peak on the east side of the volcano and many other cliffs and steep slopes can fail in landslides, such as one in December 1963 that traveled several miles, but such events are too small to generate lahars. In contrast to landslides, lahars generated by eruptions could descend any of the valleys originating on Mount Rainier. Long-Term Effects of Lahars Lahars fill stream channels and bury valley floors with deposits of boulders, sand, and mud a few feet to tens of feet thick. These deposits readily erode as rivers and streams reestablish their channels, shedding abundant sediment downstream over years to decades. Because of this, downstream valley floors initially unaffected by a lahar may later suffer increased flooding and progressive burial by remobilized sediment. Recent studies have revealed extensive layers of sandy sediment from Mount Rainier that extend to the Port of Seattle along the Green and Duwamish River valleys. This sediment was rapidly eroded from the deposits of lahars caused by eruptions about 1,000 years ago, even though the lahars themselves did not extend much past present-day Auburn, which lies about 20 miles south of downtown Seattle.

Debris Flows Threaten Areas in Mount Rainier National Park Almost annually, water released from glaciers or runoff from intense rainfall incorporates rocks and sediment to form "debris flows" that affect valleys on the flanks of Mount Rainier. Such debris flows behave like lahars, but are typically of such small size that they seldom travel beyond the base of the volcano and only affect vulnerable areas within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park. Summer and autumn are the seasons during which debris flows are most common-times when glaciers are producing large amounts of meltwater and intense rains can fall on littlevegetated, snow-free areas with abundant loose debris. Because debris flows pose risks to park visitors and infrastructure, especially trails, roads, and bridges, Mount Rainier National Park educates staff and visitors about hazards from debris flows and how to avoid them by moving off valley floors. Past Lahars Provide Clues About Future Hazards Lahars leave behind thick layers of boulders, mud, and logs on valley floors. Geologists use this and other evidence to assess future hazard potential and to map zones in river valleys heading on Mount Rainier that could be inundated by future lahars.

Not all valleys would necessarily be affected during a given eruption or large landslide, nor would all lahars in a valley be large enough to extend to hazard-zone boundaries. Lahar hazard zones mapped by the USGS are being used to guide the development of hazard-area regulations in comprehensive land-use plans by counties and cities that lie at the foot of Mount Rainier. Lahar Warning System Reduces Risk Because there is higher level of risk from lahars generated by landslides on the west flank of Mount Rainier, the USGS, Pierce County Department of Emergency Management, and Washington State Emergency Management Division have established a lahar warning system. A detection component consists of arrays of monitors that record the ground vibrations of a lahar. Computerized evaluation of data assesses the presence of a flowing lahar and issues an automatic alert to emergency-management agencies. Emergency managers can then initiate appropriate response measures. City, county, and State agencies design and maintain notification procedures, evacuation routes, and public-education programs. If a large lahar were generated in the upper Puyallup River valley without the precursors that typically herald volcanic unrest and eruption, it could arrive at the City of Orting as little as 40 minutes after the initial warning is sounded.

Time could be short, and successful mitigation will depend on effective notification of people at risk, public understanding of the hazard, and prompt response by citizens. This system for automatic detection and notification of a lahar reduces-but does not eliminate-risk in the lahar pathways. Monitoring and Emergency Planning Are Ongoing The USGS, in cooperation with the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network at the University of Washington, continuously monitors Mount Rainier and assesses potential hazards stemming from volcanic activity. Volcanoes often show signs of unrest, such as increased seismicity (earthquakes) and emission of volcanic gases and swelling of the volcano, days to months in advance of an eruption. When unrest is detected, scientists will notify emergency-management officials and increase monitoring efforts. The Mount Rainier Volcanic Hazards Response Plan, which was created by cooperating local, county, State, and Federal agencies, is on the Web . The plan describes the responsibilities of agencies and how they will communicate with each other and the public during a volcanic crisis. What to Do if Threatened by a Lahar or Debris Flow Know the signs of debris flows and lahars. Experience from around the world shows that moving to high ground off the valley floor is the only way to ensure safety during a lahar.

When hiking in valleys on the slopes of Mount Rainier during late summer or during intense rainfall, be alert for the signs of an approaching debris flow-ground shaking and roaring sound-and move up the valley wall to higher ground. The same is true for lahars, but, because they affect much larger areas, people need to move out of threatened areas before lahars get close. Lahars are almost always preceded by volcanic unrest, so in most instances there will be time to warn people when there is an increased risk. Obtain a NOAA weather radio to receive alerts about possible lahars, as well as other natural hazards (for further information on the Web go to weather.gov/nwr.). How to prepare for a lahar or other volcano hazard: Learn: Determine whether you live, work, or go to school in a lahar hazard zone. Learn about all volcanic processes that could affect your community. Plan: Develop an emergency plan with your family so that you are prepared for natural hazards and emergencies. Inquire: Ask public officials to advise you about how to respond during any emergency.

The flat floor of the Puyallup River valley near Orting, Washington, is formed by deposits of the 500-year-old Electron lahar, which surged down from Mount Rainier (in background). Lahars, or volcanic mudflows, are rapidly flowing slurries of mud and boulders that destroy or bury most manmade structures in their paths. Lahars from Mount Rainier can travel for tens of miles along river valleys and reach Puget Sound. (USGS photograph by D.E. Wieprecht.) Armero, Colombia, was battered in 1985 by lahars generated by an eruption of glacier-clad Nevado del Ruiz volcano. More than 20,000 people died in the city. Note empty street blocks where structures were swept away. Tragically, safety lay nearby in areas of higher ground. (USGS photograph by R.J. Janda.) This map shows areas that could be affected by debris flows, lahars, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows from Mount Rainier if events similar in size to past events occurred today.

Because small lahars are more common than large ones, most lahars would be less extensive than the hazard zone shown on the map and a few would be more extensive. The lahar hazard is not equal in all valleys. For example, the greatest hazard from lahars generated by landslides is on the west side of the volcano because it contains the largest amount of hydrothermally weakened rock. Scientists continue to reevaluate the hazard zones as they learn more about the volcano. Dams and reservoirs on several rivers could lessen the extent of future lahars by trapping all or much of the flow, but they could also increase a lahar's extent if a lahar displaced reservoir water and caused dams to fail. A zone of flooding and post-lahar sedimentation is shown only in the Green and Duwamish River valleys (see Long-Term Effects of Lahars), because in other valleys it is included in the lahar hazard zone. Darkgray shading indicates urbanized areas. (Map simplified from U.S. Geological Survey Open- File Report 98-428.). Larger Map Geologists study the deposits of past lahars to assess potential future hazards. Here a U.S.

Geological Survey geologist samples a log buried in a bouldery lahar deposit east of Enumclaw, Washington. This 5,600 year-old deposit, called the Osceola Mudflow, was formed when a massive landslide on the east side of Mount Rainier traveled north and west along the White River valley. (USGS photograph by A. Durant.) Volcano evacuation signs direct traffic to safety on higher ground in Pierce County, Washington (USGS photograph by C.L. Driedger). More Volcanoes Mount Rainier Volcano - Earth Facts and Information Mount Rainier Volcano Mount Rainier Volcano If you were ever to visit or move to Seattle you would notice the tallest peak in the Cascade Mountains and that is Mount Rainier. Though it looks like a very tall mountain it is actually an active volcano. The Mount Rainier Volcano is the 21st in the list of the most prominent mountains in the world and it stands at 13,211 feet from its low point. It is also the most prominent mountain found in the lower continental United States. From peak of the Mount Rainier Volcano you can actually see another famous volcano in the area which is Mount St.

Helens and you can also get a good look at Mount Adams, Glacier Peak, Mount Baker and Mount Hood. Activity The Mount Rainier Volcano is what is known as a giant stratovolcano and though it looks quiet it is still considered an active volcano. The last eruption from Mount Rainier took place in 1894 and it has been determined that the volcano has erupted at least a dozen times in 2,600 years. Its largest eruption took place close to 2,200 years ago. Due to the fact that the Mount Rainier Volcano is considered an active volcano there are several smaller high frequency tremors in the area. A lot of times the tremors take place every day. Each month there is a possibility of as many as five quakes taking place at the summit. According to scientists studying the mountain those earthquakes take place due to fluids which circulate inside Mount Rainier. Craters The Mount Rainier Volcano has two volcanic craters that overlap at the summit. Each one of these craters is over 1,000 feet around. There is also a small crater lake that can be found and that is 130 feet long and it has a 16 foot depth.

This lake is the highest one in the continent when it comes to crater lakes. However, that lake is underneath 100 feet of ice and you can only reach it by going through a network of caves made of ice. Dangers The main danger that the Mount Rainier Volcano presents is that it is very close to a highly populated area. The Seattle-Tacoma region could be in grave danger should the volcano erupt again. At the moment scientists do not believe that there will be an eruption anytime soon but that could change as after all it is an active volcano. The population from both Seattle and Tacoma, in addition to the surrounding areas, adds up to close to 3.2 million people and evacuation would present challenges. Another problem is that the volcano is covered with ice. Because of that the USGS (US Geological Survey) has called Mount Rainier “potentially the most dangerous” volcano in the mainland US. If an eruption took place at the Mount Rainier Volcano the ice on top could create lahars which are a volcanic mudflow that happens when rocks, lava and gas melt ice and create superheated slurry.

When an eruption took place 5,600 years ago two of these giant lahars made their way and reached Puget Sound which pushed out the shoreline several miles. That possible danger is what makes Mount Rainier one of only two Decade volcanoes in the US. Predictions One of the best tools which geologists and other scientists have to predict volcanic activity is historic data. Unfortunately the Mount Rainier Volcano has not been very predictable. In fact, it could be called erratic for at least 1,000 years. Even so there are few volcanoes in the United States that are more monitored than Mount Rainier. The monitoring of Mount Rainier is done by the United States Geological Survey together with the University of Washington. Any potential hazards from the volcano’s activity will be assessed by those two entities. There are also plans to minimize any population growth in the area wherever it is possible, especially within the hazard zones. A response plan has been developed but due to the vast amount of people in the area it can be hard to put in place. Facts About Mount Rainier The name of the Mount Rainier Volcano was given by George Vancouver and it was in honor of Admiral Peter Rainier.

There is a Native American name for Mount Rainier and that is Tahoma which means “the mountain that was God.” The peak of the mountain was not reached until August of 1870 by Hazard Stevens and by P. B. Van Trump. The area was designated a National Park in 1899 and every year 2 million people visit the area. Though it looks very close to Seattle it is actually located 87 miles away. Tacoma is a bit closer at only 65 miles and several smaller towns are even closer. Though the volcano is not considered very active at the moment other eruptions in other areas in the world are giving scientists clues about what to expect from Mount Rainier. Location Map Click here for information about Mount Rainier National Park. Sources of Information: Crandell, D.R., 1971, Postglacial lahars from Mount Rainier volcano, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 677, p. 1-75. Crandell, D.R., 1969, The geologic story of Mount Rainier: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1292, 43 p.

Driedger, C.L., 1995, Increasing public awareness of Mount Rainier volcanic hazards: Eos Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, p. F644. Fiske, R.S., Hopson, C.A., and Waters, A.C., Geology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444, p. 1-93. Hopson, C.A., Waters, C.A., Bender, V.R., and Rubin, M., 1962, The latest eruptions from Mount Rainier volcano: Journal of Geology Majors, H.M., and McCollum, R.C., 1981, Mount Rainier: the tephra eruption of 1894: Northwest Discoveries, v. 2, p. 334-381. Mullineaux, D.R., 1974, Pumice and other pyroclastic deposits in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1326, p. 1-83.

Mullineaux, D.R., Sigafoos, R.S., and Hendricks, E.L., 1969, A historic eruption of Mt. Rainier, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 650-B, p. 1-83. National Research Council, 1994, Mount Rainier Active Cascade Volcano: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, 114 p. Pringle, P.T., Driedger, C.L., Frank, D., McKenna, J., Murphy, M.T., Scott, K.M., Sisson, T.W., Vallance, J.W., Venezky, D.Y., Walder, J.S., and Zimbelman, D.R., 1994, 2G Mount Rainier, a Decade Volcano GSA field trip, in Swanson, D.A., and Haugerud, R.A. , eds., Geologic field trips in the Pacific Northwest, Volume 2, p. 2G 1-23.

Simkin, T., and Siebert, L., 1994, Volcanoes of the World: Geoscience Press, Tucson, Arizona, 349 p. Sisson, T.W., 1995, An overview of the geology of Mount Rainier's volcanic edifice: Eos Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, p. F643. Venezky, D.Y., 1995, Magma mixing: A trigger for pyroclastic eruptions at Mt. Rainier: Eos Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, p. F644. Wood, C.A., and Kienle, J., 1993, Volcanoes of North America: Cambridge University Press, New York, 354 p. Wright, T.L., and Pierson, T.C., 1992, Living with volcanoes: U.S. Geological Circular 1073, 57 p. Frequently Asked Questions - Mount Rainier National Park (U.S.

National Park Service) Explore This Park Frequently Asked Questions Visitors to Mount Rainier are generally curious about: the park , the mountain itself , activities at the park , and plants and animals . Below are answers to some of the questions that visitors to Mount Rainier most frequently ask. ABOUT THE PARK 1. When was the park established? Congress established Mount Rainier National Park on March 2, 1899, reaffirming the nation's intent to set aside certain areas of outstanding scenic and scientific value for the enjoyment of present and future generations. It is America's fifth oldest national park, after Yellowstone (established in 1872), and Yosemite, General Grant (now part of Kings Canyon), and Sequoia (all established in 1890). 2. How big is the park? Mount Rainier National Park encompasses 236,381.49 acres or 369.35 square miles within the legislative park boundary, with an additional 140 acres lying outside the boundary. Of that amount, 228,480 acres (97% of the park) has been designated by Congress as Wilderness.

The park's National Historic Landmark District includes 2.7% of the park. The park has over 260 miles of maintained trails and 147 miles of roads. 3. What is the annual visitation to Mount Rainier? Generally, 1 - 2 million people visit Mount Rainier each year, In 2015, the park had 1,858,763 visitors. 4. Is the park open all year? Yes, but some areas of the park, including Sunrise, White River, Ohanapecosh, State Routes 410 and 123, and the Stevens Canyon Road close for the season in mid-October or early-November and do not reopen until summer. Our "Road Status" page has current road conditions . You may also call 360-569-2211 for a recorded message on road conditions. Longmire is open all year. The road from Longmire to Paradise is generally open on winter days, although it is closed and gated at Longmire every evening and anytime snow, ice, or potential avalanches make travel to Paradise unsafe.

Follow MountRainierNPS on twitter for daily updates on the open/close status of the Paradise road during winter. The Longmire Information Center is open year-round. The Jackson Visitor Center at Paradise is open weekends and holidays in the winter and daily from early May through early October. The National Park Inn at Longmire is open year-round. The Paradise Inn is open from mid-May to October only. 5. I want to donate an artifact or photograph to the park. Whom should I contact? E-mail the park curator for information about donating items to the park's collection. 6. Does the park have a Lost and Found? Yes, for Lost and Found call (360) 569-6608. 1. How tall is Mount Rainier? The official measurement is 14,410 ft. above sea level. 2. How old is Mount Rainier? The volcano was built up above the surrounding country by repeated eruptions and successive flows of lava. It is a relatively young volcano, only about 500,000 years old. By contrast the mountains of the Cascade Range that Mount Rainier looks down upon are at least 12 million years old! 3.

How many people climb the mountain each year? In 2015, 10,025 people attempted to climb Mount Rainier; 4,888 of them actually reached the summit. 4. Is Mount Rainier an active volcano ? Geologists consider this mountain to be an 'episodically active' volcano, meaning one that will erupt again some time in the future even though it may be quiet now. Mount Rainier is the tallest volcano and fifth highest peak in the contiguous United States. 5. Is it safe to visit Mount Rainier? New research indicates Mount Rainier is far more active than previously believed. We now understand there are risks associated with the volcano and its glaciers that require visitors and staff to be aware and prepared. Mud flows (also known as lahars) and glacial outburst floods can occur without warning, and could damage roads, invade campgrounds, and cause enormous injury to park visitors and staff. The Longmire Historic District, Cougar Rock, Ohanapecosh, Sunshine Point, Ipsut Creek and White River campgrounds are all vulnerable to geologic hazards.

While many people believe the danger to be minimal, only you can decide if you want to spend time in this unpredictable and changing landscape. If you choose to visit, be sure to review information posted at park campgrounds and inns. 6. When did the volcano last erupt? The last estimated eruption was about 1,000 years ago . 7. How much snow and ice is on Mount Rainier? Over 35 square miles of permanent ice and snow cover Mount Rainier. Of all the glaciers in the contiguous U.S., Mount Rainier's Emmons Glacier has the largest surface area (4.3 square miles). Carbon Glacier is the longest (5.7 miles), thickest (700 feet), and has the lowest terminus elevation (3,500 feet) in the contiguous U.S. THE WEATHER 1. How is the weather at Mount Rainier? Weather patterns at Mount Rainier are strongly influenced by the Pacific Ocean, elevation, and latitude. The climate is generally cool and rainy, with summer highs in the 60s and 70s. While July and August are the sunniest months of the year, rain is possible any day, and very likely in spring, fall, and winter.

2. How much precipitation falls at Mount Rainier? The east side of the mountain is much drier than the western, wetter side. Weather stations are maintained at three locations within the national park provide averages of total precipitation (rain and snow): At Paradise (elevation 5400 feet) an average of 126 inches of precipitation falls annually. At Longmire (elevation 2761 feet) an average of 87 inches of precipitation falls annually. At Ohanapecosh (elevation 1900 feet) an average of 75 inches of precipitation falls annually. 3. How much snow falls at Paradise ? Paradise snowfall records are legendary. The snowfall year is recorded between July 1 and June 30: Maximum annual snowfall: 1,122 inches (93.5 ft/28.5 m) fell during the winter of 1971-1972 and set the record for snowfall in that year. Minimum annual snowfall: A new record was set in 2014-2015 with only 266 inches (22.2 ft/6.7 m) of snow.

The previous minimum record was 313 inches (26 ft/7.9 m) during the winter of 1939-1940. Maximum snowpack: 357 inches (30 feet) fell in March 1955. 4. Does the snow at Paradise ever melt? Although Paradise is the snowiest place on Earth where snowfall is measured regularly, it does enjoy a brief but glorious snow-free season. In most years, the area is snow-free from about mid-July through late September. October snowfall usually melts in between storms. The ground is usually completely snow covered for the winter by Thanksgiving. ACTIVITIES AT THE PARK 1. Where can I camp ? Three campgrounds are available for car camping in the summer. These campgrounds offer 480 campsites during the summer. No RV hookups or showers are available. Campgrounds may fill on summer weekends and holidays. While there are limited first-come, first-serve camp sites during summer months available at Cougar Rock and Ohanapecosh campgrounds, most camp sites require reservations.

To make reservations call (877) 444-6777; international (518) 885-3639; TDD (877) 833-6777; or visit the Recreation.gov website. Firewood is available at the campgrounds through a vendor for the summer months. Gathering firewood anywhere in the park is prohibited. Camping is only allowed at campgrounds or in the backcountry (with permit). In the winter, snowcamping may be available at Paradise with permit. 2. Where can I walk my dog? Basically, your pet can only go where your car can go: on roads, in parking lots and campgrounds. Your pet must be on a leash (not more than 6 feet long) and under your control at all times and may not be staked. Pets are not allowed on trails, snow, in any buildings or amphitheaters, or in the Wilderness. The only exceptions are service animals such as seeing-eye and hearing-ear dogs. However, dogs on a leash (not more than 6 feet) are allowed on a small portion of the Pacific Crest Trail near the park's eastern boundary. 3.

Can I fish in the park? Many of the rivers flowing off Mount Rainier contain glacial silt; fish are not abundant in park waters. Fishing with a line and hook is permitted in most lakes and rivers. No license is required. The use of live bait is prohibited; you must use artificial flies, lures, or preserved salmon eggs. 4. Where can I ride my bicycle ? Park roads are narrow with heavy summer traffic. Helmets are required. The Westside Road and the Carbon River Road, provide good bicycling opportunities. However, the Carbon River Road is very rough and caution is advised. Bicycles are not permitted on any park trails. 5. What kind of winter recreation is available in the park? As one of the snowiest places on Earth, Paradise is worthy of a winter visit. From November to late May, expect to find 10 to 20 feet of snow on the ground. Approximately 630" of snow falls in an average winter at Paradise, and snowshoeing, cross country skiing on ungroomed trails, and sledding opportunities abound. Winter requires special precautions for safety.

All vehicles are required to carry tire chains when traveling in the park during the winter season (Nov 1 - May 1). This requirement applies to all vehicles (including four-wheel drive), regardless of tire type or weather conditions. Review the Tire Chain Frequently Asked Questions for more information. Before skiing or snowshoeing, check avalanche conditions at a ranger station or visitor center. Be prepared to choose a safer activity if avalanche danger is high. 6. How long does it take to hike the Wonderland Trail? The time required to complete this 93-mile hike around the mountain varies depending on weather, snow conditions, and the abilities of each hiker. Most people require at least ten days to complete the loop and average eight miles a day without snow and six miles a day with snow. Always check current trail and weather conditions when planning any hike in the park. 7. Can I fly my drone in the park? Launching, landing, or operating an unmanned aircraft (drone) from or on lands and waters administered by the National Park services within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park is prohibited (36 CFR 1.5 (a)(1) Superintendent's Compendium). For additional information, see Laws & Policies . 8.

Can I get married in Mount Rainier National Park? Yes, for more information call (360) 569-6622 or visit the Permits page . 9. Can I spread ashes of a loved on in the park? Yes, for more information call (360) 569-6622 or visit the Permits page . GETTING AROUND THE PARK 1. What address do I use for GPS navigation? Many visitors now use GPS (Global Positioning System) units to help them navigate while driving. However, the street address for Mount Rainier National Park (55210 238th Avenue East) leads to the Mount Rainier Administration Building in Ashford, Washington, NOT to the Nisqually entrance of the park. To reach the Nisqually entrance using GPS use the address 39000 State Route 706 E, Ashford, WA 98304. This will take you on SR 706 east past the Administration Building to the Nisqually Entrance. It is recommended that visitors refer to road maps in addition to using GPS units when driving to the park. 2.

How far is it from ____ to _____ (one way)? Longmire to Paradise: 12 miles (19 km)/25 minutes Paradise to Ohanapecosh: 23 miles (37 km)/45 minutes Ohanapecosh to the Sunrise/White River turnoff: 17 miles (27 km)/30 minutes The Sunrise/White River turnoff to Sunrise: 15 miles (27 km) /45 minutes Seattle to Paradise via SR 706: 107 miles (159 km)/2.5 hours Seattle to Paradise via SR 410 and Enumclaw: 109 miles (175 km)/3 hours Yakima to Paradise: 99 miles (159 km)/2 hours 3. How far is it to Mount St. Helens? Should we visit the west side or east side of Mount St. Helens? It takes about 3 hours to drive from Paradise to the west side of Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, and about 2.5 hours to drive to the east side.

First time visitors should try to schedule a visit to the Johnston Ridge or Coldwater Ridge Visitors Centers on the west side of the monument, to learn the most about the eruption and subsequent changes to the plant and animal life. The east side of the monument has limited services and roads are closed by the Forest Service over the winter. 4. Is gas available in the park? Gas is NOT available in the park, but there are gas stations in nearby communities. Make sure you have plenty of gas before you begin your exploration of the park! 5. Where can I find food, gifts, lodging? Mount Rainier Guest Services, Inc. operates the Paradise Inn, National Park Inn, and Sunrise Day Lodge. The Paradise Inn is open late May to early October for lodging, meals, and gifts. The National Park Inn in Longmire is open year-round for food, lodging, and gifts. The Sunrise Lodge is open for meals and gifts July through September. There are no overnight accommodations at Sunrise. Lodging , groceries, and meals are also available in nearby communities including Ashford, Elbe, Packwood, Enumclaw. 6. How much does it cost to get into the park?

Information on entrance fees, including commercial bus tours, is posted on the fees & passes page. Camping fees are not included in the entrance fee. 7. Where can we park at Paradise? Parking is limited at Paradise, and finding a parking place on busy summer days can be frustrating. To minimize your frustration, visit on a weekday if possible, arrive at Paradise early in the day or in late afternoon, and carpool from Longmire or Ohanapecosh if you and friends are traveling in more than one vehicle. Resist the temptation to park unsafely or illegally. Once the Paradise parking areas are full, there is no additional parking. You can drive through Paradise but will not be able to park there. 1. How many species of plants are in the park? There are approximately 900 plant species in the park, including over 100 exotic species. 2. When will the wildflowers peak? The "peak" bloom for wildflowers is heavily dependent on weather and precipitation patterns, so accurate predictions are difficult. However, by mid-July, many flowers will be blooming in most years, and by the first of August the meadows should be very impressive.

Frost can occur by late August, but even after light frosts the meadows continue to be very beautiful, thanks to changing leaf colors and seed pod development that take the place of colorful blossoms. 3. How many animal species live in the park? Mount Rainier National Park is home to approximately 54 species of mammals, 126 species of birds, and 17 species of amphibians and reptiles. 4. What's that grayish animal with the pointy nose we see along the roadside? That's a red fox, sometimes called a 'silver phase' red fox, referring to the charcoal coloring in its fur. The gray and black fur mixed with the redder fur is normal for the red fox population here, and the coloration doesn't change from season to season. NPS: Nature & Science» Geology Resources Division Washington Mount Rainier National Park, Washington Welcome to a mountain wonderland of dense forests, dazzling wildflowers, tremendous snowfields, and rugged glaciers. Enjoy the fresh smell of trees and soil, the soothing - and sometimes deafening - sound of falling water, and the refreshing cold breezes off the glaciers.

And towering above all this scenic display is magnificent Mount Rainier This is a complex landscape, but the explanation of its origins are simplicity itself: fire and ice. The mountain is a volcano born of fire and built up above the surrounding country by repeated eruptions and successive flows of lava. It is a relatively young volcano, only about one million years old. By contrast the mountains of the Cascade Range that Mount Rainier looks down upon are at least 12 million years old, created by the folding, buckling, and uplifting of the Earth's surface. Mount Rainier is not an isolated volcano, for from Lassen Peak in California to Mount Garibaldi in British Columbia an entire line of volcanoes defines the north-south march of the Cascades. These peaks dominate the skyline, ever a reminder that they are only dormant and may at any time, like Lassen Peak in 1914-21, and Mount Saint Helens in 1980, erupt in fury and rage at the fragile world built by humans. One of the unexpected side benefits of these eruptions has been the deposition of ash and pumice layers that are rich in nutrients and support the abundance of wildflowers throughout the mountainous Pacific Northwest.

Even as volcanic forces were building up this land, the slow, inevitable power of glacial ice began to shape and form it. Glaciers come from the snow that does not melt from year to year: it accumulates to greater and greater depths. The weight of the snow presses the air out, packs it down tight, and compresses it into ice. Gravity pulls the ice down the mountainside, both scouring and smoothing the bedrock as it goes. Freezing and thawing breaks rocks from the adjacent slopes, and they fall onto the glacier's surface. More debris is picked up by the passing ice. This is an inexorable process that continues today and will alter the mountain in the tomorrows to come. Yes, the process is simple, but it deals in forces that are beyond the control, and perhaps comprehension, of humans. Take a look at this mountain; it may be gone in a million years. Geologic History The volcanoes in the north- south trending Cascade Province evolved through a history of complex plate tectonic processes and glaciation.

Different tectonic models have been proposed for the development of the Cascades, but all models include subduction, addition of exotic terranes, and oblique plate movements as important components in creating today’s . . . read more Geologic Setting Towering 1.5 miles (2.4 km) above the surrounding mountains and about 3 miles (5 km) above the lowlands to the west, Mount Rainier is the second highest peak in the conterminous United States at 14,410 ft . . . read more Geologic Features & Processes Glaciers are highly effective erosional agents, shaping mountains into picturesque landforms with such distinctive erosional features as horns (peaks), cirques (deep, bowl- shaped, steep- walled recesses in a mountain), glacial valleys (U- shaped valleys), and arêtes . . . read more TOP OF PAGE Currently, we do not have a listing for a park-specific geoscience book. The park's geology may be described in regional or state geology texts. Please visit the Geology Books and Media webpage for additional sources such as text books , theme books , CD ROMs , and technical reports .

Parks and Plates: The Geology of Our National Parks, Monuments & Seashores. Lillie, Robert J., 2005. ISBN 0-393-92407-6 9" x 10.75", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout The spectacular geology in our national parks provides the answers to many questions about the Earth. The answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. Parks and Plates is a visual and scientific voyage of discovery! Ordering from your National Park Cooperative Associations' bookstores helps to support programs in the parks. Please visit the bookstore locator for park books and much more. For information about permits that are required for conducting geologic research activities in National Parks, see the Permits Information page. The NPS maintains a searchable data base of research needs that have been identified by parks. A bibliography of geologic references is being prepared for each park through the Geologic Resources Evaluation Program (GRE). Please see the GRE website for more information and contacts.

Question: In which country is the volcano Mount Rainier?
Answer: USA