BBC - Nature UK: It's a "mast year"...of course it is I hear you say It's a "mast year"...of course it is I hear you say Jeremy Torrance web producer | 11:35 UK time, Thursday, 28 October 2010 You'd be forgiven for not knowing this, certainly judging by the sea of blank faces around the Autumnwatch production office, although there were a few smug ones too. 'Masting' refers to a natural phenomenon where exceptional amounts of forest tree fruit are produced, such as acorns and nuts. The OED defines "mast" as : a.The fruit of beech, oak, chestnut, and other woodland trees, esp. when fallen and used as food for pigs, etc. Also in extended use and (rarely) in pl. Also (in early use): pasture for pigs (obs.). And "mast year" as: n. a year in which woodland trees produce a good crop of mast. So while "mast" is usually referred to within an agricultural context, a great crop of woodland fruit means a lot to the birds, mammals, insects and fungi which live there.

Its by no means restricted to our habitats and can be seen across the globe. Good Forestry in the Granite State Good Forestry in the Granite State: Recommended Voluntary Forest Management Practices for New Hampshire BACKGROUND Mast is critical to wildlife survival. Fruits, nuts, and seeds of woody plants are called mast when referring to their use by wildlife for food. Hard mast refers to nuts and seed and soft mast refers to fruits and berries. Seeds can regenerate the forest immediately following a natural disturbance or in conjunction with a harvest, but during most of the life of the forest, the majority of the seeds don't germinate and grow into seedlings—most of the time they are eaten by wildlife as mast, the focus of this chapter. Masting cycles, insects and disease, plant species, plant age, tree diameter and dominance, weather, and genetics all affect mast production. "Masting” refers to the natural cycle in which trees and shrubs produce abundant seeds one year, followed by a year or more where mast production is moderate or low. Plant species, weather, and genetics are believed to control masting cycles. Genetics likely play the most important role in determining how much mast any individual tree or shrub is capable of producing.

Some individual plants produce regular, abundant mast crops, while others consistently produce poor crops. Few physical features of plants allow managers to identify genetically superior mast-producing plants—even these plants don’t produce superior crops every year. In general, mature plants exposed to full sunlight, with little competition from surrounding plants, will be most likely to produce abundant mast crops when all the other conditions affecting mast production are favorable. Insect damage can reduce tree vigor or damage young fruits, resulting in at least a temporary reduction in the amount of mast Hard Mast American beech, hickory, and red, white and black oak are important in the diets of white-tailed deer, black bear, wild turkey, ruffed grouse, wood duck, and more than a dozen other mammals and birds. Beechnuts are an important autumn food source for black bears in northern New England. Beech trees begin heavy nut production at about 50 years or 8 inches in diameter at breast height (DBH) and produce good crops at 2- to 8-year intervals. Red oaks bear heavy acorn crops at 2- to 5-year intervals, reaching peak production at 19 to 22 inches DBH.

White oaks bear heavy crops at 4- to 10-year intervals, and peak in production at 24 to 30 inches DBH. There is considerable variation among trees, but individual trees tend to produce consistently good or poor acorn crops. White oak acorns are more palatable than red and black oak acorns, because the former contain lower tannin levels. Ash, birches, maples, and conifers are also important sources of hard mast. Sources of hard mast have changed during the last century; most notably, when chestnut blight eliminated the American chestnut. Soft Mast Black cherry is the primary soft-mast producer and provides an important food source for bears, small mammals, and 28 bird species. While 10-year old saplings may produce fruit, peak production occurs between 30 and 100 years of age. Good crops occur at 1- to 5-year intervals, although black cherries usually produce some fruit every year. Black cherry trees may vary widely in fruit production, making the production history of individual trees an important consideration when selecting trees for harvest or retention.

Other important sources of soft mast include pin and choke cherries, wild apples, mountain ash, shadbush (also called serviceberry or juneberry), brambles (blackberries and raspberries), dogwoods, viburnums, blueberries, hackberries, elderberries, and grapes. Sources of soft mast have changed with increases in non-native invasive shrubs such as autumn olive, barberry, buckthorn, honeysuckle, and multiflora rose. Some studies suggest berries produced by non-native plants may have a lower nutritional value than those from native plants, but this depends on the species being compared. Invasives raise many other concerns regarding their impact on wildlife habitat. Landowners and forest managers are encouraged to take appropriate measures to eliminate and control the spread of these plants. OBJECTIVE Manage mast-producing trees and shrubs for a continuous source of wildlife food and quality seed for regeneration. CONSIDERATIONS The diversity and amount of mast lessens as you travel north. Individual oak, beech and black cherry trees may be poor timber quality but an invaluable source of mast. Such trees may have greater value left for wildlife than harvested for wood products. Beech bark disease may affect management decisions in infected stands.

Understory or edge shrubs such as highbush blueberry, huckleberry, maple-leaved viburnum, hazelnut, silky dogwood, and northern wild-raisin (witherod) are an important source of mast and their mast production can often be improved simply by removing overtopping trees. It is illegal to plant non-native invasive such as multiflora rose, winged euonymus, non-native honeysuckle species, autumn olive, and other species per RSA 430:51-57. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES When managing stands with multiple mast-producing species, maintain the diversity of mast sources. Manage oak and beech stands on long rotations (100 to 125 years), growing trees to greater than 18- to 20-inch diameters to maximize acorn production and timber value. Maintain oak in well-stocked stands by retaining vigorous trees with dominant crowns. Retain beech trees with bear claw marks on the trunk or clumps of broken branches in the crown. Retain beech older than 40 years in stands supporting wild turkeys. Improve mast production by leaving dominant and codominant trees with healthy crowns.

Remove neighboring trees that have crowns touching the crowns of the trees you are saving. Remove competing trees from at least three sides to provide gaps into which the trees you retain can expand their crowns When harvesting stands with black cherry, retain some trees with high fruit production or any tree that shows evidence of use by bears (e.g., clumps of broken branches in the crown). Retain wild apple trees and gradually release them from competition. Retain mountain ash when harvesting timber at high elevations. Whenever possible, avoid harvesting mast stands during spring (April through May) and fall (September through November), foraging periods favored by bears and other wildlife. Consider identifying high-quality hard-mast sites as “mast-producing areas” devoted specifically to long-term mast production for wildlife. Retain softwood “fingers” extending into mast stands and dense, brushy growth around them to provide wildlife with protective cover. This is important when managing near old apple orchards. Allow log landings to regenerate naturally to promote the growth of mast-producing shrubs such as brambles and strawberries. Encourage brambles by retaining down woody material in and around the landing. Favor the regeneration and maintenance of natives over non-natives.

When planting mast-producing shrubs, select native species. CROSS REFERENCES 2.3 Regeneration Methods; 2.4 Managing for High-Value Trees; 5.1 Insects and Diseases; 5.2 Invasive Plants; 6.4 Overstory Inclusions; 6.5 Permanent Openings; 6.9 Deer Wintering Areas; 6.10 Woodland Raptor Nest Sites. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Elliott, C.A. 1988. A Forester's Guide to Managing Wildlife Habitats in Maine. University of Maine Cooperative Extension, Orono, Maine. RSA 430:51-57. Invasive Species. Accessed May 26, 2010. Beech Tree Beech Trees (Fagus) as Ecosystems Beech trees are renown for their smooth grey bark (which lovers frequently engrave) and their massive straight and tall slightly fluted column-like trunks. Indeed, they remind one of the ancient Greek temple columns.

However, despite their massive form, resembling sentries of stone, beech trees are not usually long lived by tree standards, 200 years being their usual life-spans, though they may live for over a thousand years if pollarded. One of the main reasons for their shorter lives is that they tend to have shallow roots and coupled with their massive trunks this makes them prone to windfall, especially when they grow on chalky slopes. It avoids extremely dry or extremely wet soils, but can grow well on most soils, but is often unable to out-compete oak, except on lime-rich chalky soils, acidic flint soils and acidic sandy soils and gravels. On most clay soils, oak out-competes the beech. Many of these chalky escarpments, such as in the Cotswalds in England, have quite thin soils in any case, so the beech has adapted by having shallow roots that catch the rain before it drains away from these highly porous soils. More ancient beech trees often have hollow trunks, as do oaks and yews. Tree holes are an important part of the ecosystem since they support a variety of life.

Rot holes form when bark is damaged, either by wind, animals or lightning or by pollarding, coppicing or pruning. Often, the tree will form scar tissue (calluses) which will slowly close over the wound, over many years, preventing infection, but sometimes fungi take root and rot the dead heartwood. Even if the wound closes over, fungi may have gotten inside and will slowly rot away the heartwood. This is fine for an old thick tree, since it loses weight and so is more stable in high winds and the fungi break down the heartwood and leave a nourishing compost inside the hollow trunk, into which trees grow roots down the inside of their trunks, top absorb and recycle the valuable nutrients released. Pans are shallow depressions in the tree, lined by unbroken bark, and a result of the natural growth of the tree. They often form when overcrowding of branches distorts the trunk or its branches, perhaps as they fuse or graft together. In beech trees they are often found among the buttress roots that flare out at the base of the trunk.

Buttress roots help support a big tree that is growing in shallow soil, and they also serve to direct rain water flowing down the tree trunk to the absorbing roots - useful when one grows in thin, well-drained soils like chalk. Indeed the whole beech tree is designed to accumulate rain water, which flows down the fluted trunk, along the buttresses and straight to the young absorbing roots. Pans are less stable than rot holes, as they periodically lose water by evaporation much more easily. Rot holes and pans are found frequently in a number of hardwoods, such as beech, ash, oak and hornbeam, but are less common in conifers, since conifers produce copious resin which seals wounds very quickly and prevents their infection, though some conifers may have them, including the silver fir. Dry tree holes harbour a different ecosystem, and are frequented by centipedes, spiders and overwintering ladybirds and they make excellent homes for larger animals. Large holes may harbour owls, smaller holes starlings, blue tits, great tits, nuthatches and pied flycatchers. These birds may modify the hole by lining it with oak leaves, bark or grass, according to species.

Holes high in the tree may be the home of squirrels or bats, holes lower down may be the homes of mice, stoats and wildcats. So you see, the old belief that a hollow tree was in ill health, weak and a danger to the public and so in need of chopping down, is generally wrong on all counts. Eventually, a very old tree may become a liability if prone to collapse, especially a very old pollard which has reacted to being repeatedly cut back by sprouting more branches than its trunk can support in old age. Loss of living wood on one side of a hollow tree, such as due to fire or disease, can also make trees prone to collapse, but generally hollowness does not indicate weakness. Often removing the odd branch is all that is needed, these ancient trees are vital to the ecosystem since they support so much biodiversity. Know Your Deer Plants: American Beech - Quality Deer Management Association Know Your Deer Plants: American Beech June 25, 2013 | By Matt Ross Most white-tailed deer hunters east of the Mississippi recognize the importance of the fall acorn crop and how it directly impacts their hunting opportunities.

The majority of QDMA members also understand the effect this cyclic food source has on the overall health of the deer herd. However, too often I see hunters and quality deer managers focus all of their attention on acorn production as the saving grace to their deer management and hunting success. When managing your property for deer and other wildlife, it’s essential to realize that often the best strategy is to create a diversity of vegetative communities, which results in a variety of cover and food sources. This allows room to buffer against times of famine, and it also makes your property attractive to a wide range of deer preferences; in other words, putting all your acorns in one basket can be detrimental in the long run. American beech is another native, hard-mast source that deer will eat, and although this eastern, deciduous hardwood comes with some drawbacks, managing it correctly will offer a few benefits that you can’t get from oaks or other mast-producing trees.

American beech is a long-lived, slow-growing tree that can reach tall heights (60 to 100 feet), large diameters (3 to 4 feet) and grow massive, dense crowns; however, it is likely best known for its smooth, gray bark – a favorite for carving initials. Its leaves are simple, alternate, and oval with widely-spaced, serrated edges. The stiff, leathery leaves are also glossy and light green above, with a paler, yellow-green color below; eventually turning yellow-brown in fall and persisting late into winter. During the dormant season the buds of American beech are up to ¾-inch long and distinctly shaped like a narrow, pointed cigar. The fruits are shiny, triangular, brown nuts that are encased in a prickly bur and often found in pairs, on short stalks. The nuts are small but sweet and edible. Similar to oak species, the availability of American beech nuts is highly variable and undergoes a natural cycle called “masting.” In this cycle, bumper crops of beech nuts are typically available in the South every three to six years, while in the North the interval is only two to four years.

Production during an abundant crop year may be 80 percent higher than in a low production year. The range of American beech is shown in green in the map on the right. American beech generally begins producing seed when 40 years old (or 5 to 8 inches in diameter) and by 60 years old (greater than 14 inches) can produce its largest quantities. Beech nuts average about 1,600 per pound and most drop to the ground when ripe; a few are carried by rodents but dispersal is limited. Many, many birds and mammals feed on beech nuts, including ruffed grouse, turkeys, wood ducks, blue jays, white-breasted nuthatches, and various woodpeckers, as well as black bear, foxes, squirrels, chipmunks, mice, feral hogs and of course deer. This high level of attractiveness to a variety of wildlife is directly related to the fact that American beech nuts are high in both protein (20 percent dry matter) and fat (50 percent dry matter), something that acorns are not; with over 1/3 of its composition made up from carbohydrates.

However, beech leaves and twigs are not preferred by white-tailed deer and are only browsed when there is very little available. American beech also provides nesting habitat for a variety of birds, and cavities within older trees provide dens for owls, squirrels and other mammals. For management purposes, American beech mostly regenerates by root suckers and by stump sprouts. Unfortunately, because beech can regenerate aggressively and is slow-growing, in most uneven-aged forest management situations (typical small landowner timber management) it can gradually become the dominant species, progressively outcompeting more valuable species. To counter this, since beech is very shade tolerant, large open timber cuts can adversely affect beech production and will favor production of less shade-tolerant species, such as birches and oaks. On smaller properties, repeated clearcutting at short intervals may also reduce beech over time. Did you know? Every issue of QDMA’s Quality Whitetails magazine contains profiles of two naturally occurring plant species that are important to deer and other wildlife, helping you learn to identify and encourage quality forage and cover for whitetails. This article is reprinted from a previous issue.

To receive every issue of our magazine, become a QDMA member today! Related Posts Beech Tree Pictures Beech Tree Pictures Beech Tree Pictures Gallery contains many pictures of different varieties list of different types of beech trees , useful information and facts about the beech tree. The beech tree loses its leaves in the fall and is therefore classified as a deciduous tree. Beech Trees For each Beech Tree Picture you like, just click on the tree photo to make the beech tree image enlarge. Tree Galleries Each tree category on the left gives you info about the specific tree type and lots of great pictures of that tree. Beech Tree Forest In the Beech Tree forests of Britain, Blue Bell flowers blanket the forest floor in Spring. A majestic sight and popular family outing, View more beech forest blue bells follow to our beautiful beech forest photos page. Enjoy these beautiful pictures of Beech Trees. Beech Trees Beech Tree Scientific Name, Fagus Beech trees lose their leaves in the fall and can therefore be classified as deciduous trees. Other deciduous trees include oak trees , birch trees , elm trees, maple trees ,and most ash trees .

Beech Tree Types: Different Types of Beech Trees American Beech Tree, shade tolerant deciduous tree with golden bronze fall color Blue Beech Tree Chinese Beech Tree, native to China grows approximately 17 feet tall Copper Beech Tree, Fagus sylvatica Crimean Beech Tree European Beech Tree, also known as common beech. It is the tallest of the beech trees which loses its leaves in Spring Japanese Beech Tree, native to Japan both leaves and nuts are edible Japanese Blue Beech Tree, one of the main tree species in deciduous forests Mexican Beech Tree, commonly found in NE and Central Mexico in high altitude mountain forests Oriental Beech Tree, grows in mountainous forest regions of Turkey and Iran Purple Beech Tree Silver Beech Tree, Lophozonia menziesii South Chinese Beech Tree, found in China and Vietnam Tricolor Beech Tree Weeping Beech Tree Beech Tree Facts and Information on Beech Trees There are several types of Beech Trees, for more detailed information on other types of Beech trees just search for Beech Tree Information on Google. Feature Beech Species: American Beech Beech, American Fagus grandifolia A very formal and stately tree.

Leaves emerge in late spring, changing from shimmering green to lustrous dark green to golden bronze in the fall. Smooth bark. Plant in well-drained, aerated soil. Can be used as a hedge. Grows to 50'-70' with a 40' spread. The American Beech can be expected to grow in the zones shown in color in the arborday.org zone map. Type of Tree: The American Beech falls into the following type(s): Ornamental Trees, Shade Trees Mature Height: The American Beech grows to be 50' - 70' feet in height. Mature Spread: The American Beech has a spread of about 50' - 70' at full maturity. Growth Rate: This tree grows at a slow to medium growth rate. Sun: This beech does well in full sun. Soil: The American Beech grows in acidic, loamy, moist, sandy, silty loam, well drained, clay soils. Moisture: Well drained. The tree is very drought sensitive. Shape: This beech has oval, pyramidal shape.

Leaves: The leaves from this tree are 3 to 6 inches long, alternately arranged and marked with parallel veins that lead to sharp, incurved teeth on the margins. Glossy green color changing to copper in autumn. Flower Color: The fruit is oval, 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter, hard, brown, attractive to wildlife. Additional Information: American Beech Attributes: The American Beech tree is worth saving if it occurs on your property and one worth planting if you can meet its needs, including giving it plenty of space. Longevity compensates for its slow growth and a dense green canopy that changes to yellow-brown in autumn is reward for catering to its demanding nature. Throughout the eastern half of the United States, where this species occurs naturally, the four tiny nuts in each spiny bur are prized by a wide range of birds and mammals, including discerning humans. Description: A very formal and stately tree. Leaves emerge in late spring, changing from shimmering green to lustrous dark green to golden bronze in the fall. Smooth bark. Plant in well-drained, aerated soil. Can be used as a hedge.

Grows to 50'-70' with a 40' spread. (Zones 4-9) Wildlife Value: Beechnuts are eaten by birds and mammals and are important food for chipmunks and squirrels. History/Lore/Use: A sturdy, densely canopied tree, the American Beech was a sign of fertile soil to early settlers and was quickly removed so the plow could take over and farming for food could commence. In hilly locations, it was the home for migrating Passenger Pigeons who were so numerous that they broke off the limbs of the trees from the sheer weight of their numbers when they perched on them. There was a Beech tree on the old stage road between Blountsville and Jonesboro, Tennessee that had an inscription carved into the trunk that read "D. Boone Cilled A Bar On Tree In Year 1760." The tree fell in 1916 and had a girth of 28-1/2 feet. The Forest Service estimated the tree's age to be 365 years, fully two centuries old before Daniel Boone inscribed it.

Beech Tree Disease Beech bark disease, Nectina coccinea var, faginata Beech Tree Trivia The "mast" of a beech tree refers to the nuts which were traditionally used for pig food. A forked beech twig was traditionally used for locating underground water source. The European Beech is highly sensitive to salt and therefore does not do well near the coast or close to roads that are salted in winter. Some deciduous trees hang on to some of their leaves throughout winter. The term used to describe dead leaf retention is 'marcescence.' Beech and oak trees as well as hornbeam and witch hazel display this characteristic. The reason for this is not known but there are various theories. Beech Tree Uses Tar from the beech tree, known as creosote, is painted on fences, railway ties, and utility poles as a wood preservative Beech Tree; American Variety American Beech Tree is relatively slow-growing deciduous tree. The American Beech reaches its greatest size growing in the alluvial soil of the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys. Here the beech trees are known to be 300 to 400 years old.

Beech Tree Wood Beech tree wood is excellent hardwood great for column posts, lath turnings, house finishing trim and for steam bending. Beech tree's wood is also used for flooring, furniture, veneer as it takes a finish well and is structurally strong. Nuts from the American Beech Tree have a distinctive triangular nut shape. Some Beech nuts are eaten by people but most importantly beech nuts are an important food for wildlife in the Autumn. Tree Symbolism The symbolic meaning of the beech tree is tolerance, patience, and lightness of spirit and words. You can read more about tree symbolism by visiting symbolism.co Thank you for visiting Beech Tree Pictures, please come back soon for more great tree pictures! Maple Trees Looking for a background image of a beautiful tree to use as on your desktop computer then check out these beautiful tree pictures you can use as free tree wallpaper. Have a really beautiful tree picture that might look good on Tree-Pictures.com, just email us your image, please include if you know which type of tree it is. Looking for a background image of a beautiful tree to use as on your desktop computer then check out these beautiful tree pictures you can use as free tree wallpaper.

Have a really beautiful tree picture that might look good on Tree-Pictures.com, just email us your image, please include if you know which type of tree it is. A Modern Herbal | Beech Fagus sylvatica Click on graphic for larger image ---History--- The common name of the Beech tree, found in varying forms throughout the Teutonic dialects, means, with difference of gender, either 'a book' or 'a beech,' the Runic tablets, or early books, having been made of this wood. Fagus is from a Greek word meaning 'to eat,' referring to the edible character of the Beechmast. The Beech is one of the largest British trees, especially on chalky and sandy soil. In England it may grow to 140 feet in height, or spread to 130 feet in diameter, with a trunk 21 feet in girth. As the wood is brittle and short-grained, it is not well suited for purposes where strength and durability are required. One of the principal objections to it is that it is liable to be perforated by a small beetle.

Its chief uses are for panels for carriages, carpenter's planes, stonemason's mallets wooden bowls, granary shovels, boot-lasts, sabots, and for chair-making, small articles in turnery, also for making charcoal for colour manufacturers, and gunpowder. On the Continent Beech is used for parquet flooring, wood pavement and bentwood furniture, and very extensively as fuel for domestic heating, as its heating power surpasses that of most other timber. Owing to the capacity of its root system for assisting in the circulation of air throughout the soil, and by the amount of potash in the leaves, Beech trees conserve the productive capacity of the soil better than any other kind of tree, and improve the growth of other trees when planted with them. Fences of young Beech trees may be employed with advantage in flower gardens, as their leaves generally remain on the branches during the winter and screen the young plants . The nuts of Beech, called 'mast,' are chiefly used in England as food for park deer.

In other countries they are valued for feeding farm animals: in France for feeding swine and fattening domestic poultry, especially turkeys, and pigs which are turned into Beech woods to utilize the fallen mast. Beech mast has even been used as human food in time of distress or famine. Horses, however, should not be fed on it. Well-ripened mast yields from 17 to 20 per cent. of a non-drying oil - similar to hazel and Cotton-seed oils - and is used in European countries for cooking, as well as for burning, and in Silesia as a substitute for butter. The cake left when the oil has been pressed out may be used as a cattle food. During the War an attempt was made in Germany to use Beech leaves as a substitute for tobacco, and a mixture was served to the army, but proved a failure. [ Top ] ---Constituents--- The wood ash of the Beech affords a large proportion of potash. The oil of the nuts occupies a position in the fixed oils between the vegetable non-drying and the true drying oils.

Like the Cotton-seed oils, it forms more or less elaidin on treatment with nitrous acid or mercuric nitrate, but does not become wholly solidified. Beech tar is completely soluble in 95 per cent. acetic acid. Turpentine oil, chloroform and absolute ether do not entirely dissolve it. The petroleum ether is not coloured by copper acetate solution. Choline is present in the seeds. ---Medicinal Uses--- The tar is stimulating and antiseptic, used internally as a stimulating expectorant in chronic bronchitis, or externally as an application in various skin diseases. The oil is used in the same ways as the other fixed oils of its class. ---Other Species--- BEECH DROPS (OROBANCHE VIRGINIANA,EPIFAGUS VIRGINIANA, BROOM RAPE, CANCER ROOT), a parasite on Beech tree roots, has a bitter, nauseous, astringent taste, diminished by drying. It is given internally in bowel affections, and is reputed to cure cancer, though this is doubtful As a local application to wounds or ulcers it will arrest gangrene.

It appears to act upon the capillary system like the tincture of muriate of iron. ALBANY BEECH DROPS (Pterospora Andromeda) is a rare plant of North America valuable as a sedative diaphoretic in typhus, pleurisy and erysipelas COPPER-BEECH (F. sylvatica var. purpurea). The leaves of this species may be used like those of the Red-leaved Hazel for the extraction of anthocyan pigment. 1. – Southern beech forest – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand Mountain beech flowers The European botanists who first described plants in the southern hemisphere often named them after similar-looking northern hemisphere plants. New Zealand’s beech trees were first thought to resemble birches. Later they were described as true beech (Fagus). In 1850 a Dutch botanist recognised that southern-hemisphere beeches were distinct from northern species and named them Nothofagus, meaning false beech. The term southern beech refers to beech species native to countries south of the equator – New Zealand, Australia, New Caledonia, New Guinea and South America.

Forest profile New Zealand has two main types of native forest: conifer–broadleaf forest (including kauri forest) and beech forest. Most conifer–broadleaf forest grows at low altitudes, so has been logged and cleared for farming. Beech forest usually grows in hilly or mountainous areas, so has been left. Pure beech forest now comprises almost half (about 3 million hectares) of New Zealand’s remaining native forest. Forests of beech and other tree species make up one quarter (about 1.3 million hectares). Beech trees are found in 80–90% of native forest in the South Island, but in only 40% in the North Island. They do not grow naturally on Stewart Island. Beech forest is typically less complex than other types of native forest: There are few other species in the canopy layer. There is a sparse, open understorey mostly made up of young beeches. There are few epiphytes (perching plants) or climbers. New Zealand beeches New Zealand has four beech species and one subspecies. All are evergreen, broadleaf trees.

Most New Zealand trees and shrubs are pollinated by insects or birds, or have their seeds dispersed by birds, but beech’s dry, nut-like seeds are spread by the wind. All except silver beech will form hybrids wherever they grow together. Red beech Red beech (Nothofagus fusca) is the largest beech species in New Zealand. Trees average 24–30 metres in height, with trunks 1.4–2.0 metres in diameter. When mature they have massive crowns, large flanges at the base of the trunk, and root buttresses. Of all the beeches, red beech is least resistant to unfavourable conditions. It grows on warm, lower- to mid-slopes, and deep, fertile, well-drained soils. Hard beech Hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) can grow as tall as red beech, but its trunk is more slender, at 0.6–1.2 metres in diameter. These trees develop basal flanges and buttressed roots. A low-altitude species, hard beech grows further north than other species, and is less tolerant of low temperatures.

It can grow in poorer and more drought-prone soils than red beeches. A good year In mast years – years of exceptional flowering and seeding – the male flowers of mountain and black beech colour the entire forest canopy red. Masting may be a reproductive strategy, producing more seeds than can be eaten by birds and insects, or it may be a response to warm weather the previous summer. Mountain beech Mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides) is the smallest New Zealand beech, reaching 12–15 metres high, with a trunk diameter of 0.5–0.75 metres. It grows at higher altitudes (from about 700 metres above sea level up to the treeline), on drier sites, and tolerates poorer drainage and soils than other beeches. Mountain beech on exposed or elevated sites sometimes grows as hummocks only 45 centimetres high. Snow drifts and avalanches can make its trunks grow horizontally for several metres before turning upright. Black beech Black beech (Nothofagus solandri var.

solandri) usually reaches 20–25 metres in height, with a trunk diameter similar to that of hard beech. Its trunks do not usually form flanges or buttresses. Black beech grows in poor and drought-prone soils. Silver beech Silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) stands up to 20–25 metres high and has a trunk diameter of 0.6–1.5 metres. Its trunks can form heavy buttresses. Silver beech grows at similar altitudes to mountain beech, but needs wetter conditions and does not tolerate poor drainage or infertile soils. Like mountain beech, silver beech can grow as hummocks at high altitude, and can develop partly horizontal trunks in deep snow. Beech Bark Disease Pub Forest Pest Alert - MDARD & DNR Beech bark disease is one of the latest exotic pest problems to plague Michigan forests. Beech bark disease refers to a complex that consists of a sap-feeding scale insect and at least two species of Nectria fungi.

Beech bark disease begins when American beech (Fagus grandifolia) becomes infested with beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind) (=Cryptococcus fagi Baer.). The tiny scale insects, found on the tree trunk and branches, feed on sap in the inner bark. White wax covers the bodies of the scales. When trees are heavily infested, they appear to be covered by white wool. Minute wounds and injuries caused by the scale insects eventually enable the Nectria fungus to enter the tree. Nectria kills areas of woody tissue, sometimes creating cankers on the tree stem and large branches. If enough tissue is killed, the tree will be girdled and die. Other trees may linger for several years, eventually succumbing to Nectria or other pathogens. Some infected trees will break off in heavy winds  a condition called "beech snap". Dense thickets of root sprouts are common after trees die or break. Managing beech bark disease in Michigan will be challenging. Both the scale insects and the fungal spores can be transported in the wind. Eventually beech scale and beech bark disease will affect beech trees throughout Michigan.

The goal of this bulletin is to help you understand the biology and impacts of this new pest, and potential management options. Distribution: Beech scale was accidentally introduced into Nova Scotia in 1890 on ornamental beech imported from Europe. By the early 1930s, the scale and associated Nectria fungi were found throughout the Maritimes Provinces in eastern Canada and in localized areas of Maine. Much of New England and parts of New York were affected by 1960 and the disease had expanded into northeastern Pennsylvania by 1975. Beech bark disease has continued to spread through much of Quebec, northern Pennsylvania and most recently, northeastern West Virginia. Localized infestations of beech scale have also been found in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Ohio and Ontario. Beech scale and beech bark disease were first discovered in Michigan in 2000. To date, affected beech trees have been found in several counties in the northwestern Lower Peninsula and in areas of the eastern Upper Peninsula. As detection efforts continue, other infested areas will likely be found.

BEECH SCALE Beech scales are yellow, soft-bodied insects that are 0.5 to 1.0 mm long as adults. They feed only American and European (Fagus sylvatica) beech trees. Adult scales are legless, wingless and have only rudimentary antennae. Several glands secrete the white "wooly" wax that covers their body. Scales reproduce by parthenogenesis, which means that all beech scales are females and no mating occurs. This form of reproduction enables scale populations to build rapidly when suitable hosts are present. Life cycle: Beech scale has one generation per year. Adults lay pale yellow eggs on the bark in midsummer, then die. Eggs are attached end-to-end in strings of 4 to 7 eggs. Eggs hatch from late summer until early winter. The immature scales that hatch from eggs are called crawlers or nymphs. Unlike adults, crawlers have functional antennae and legs and can move about. When a crawler finds a suitable location on a host tree, it forces its long, tube-like stylet into the bark and begins to suck sap from the tree. Once a crawler begins to feed, it will molt to the second stage.

Second stage crawlers have no legs and are immobile. They produce the white wax that eventually covers their bodies. Second stage crawlers overwinter and molt to the adult stage the following spring. Mortality factors: Crawlers that fall from trees or are washed off during heavy rains in late summer and autumn usually die. Severely cold winter temperatures (e.g. 35oF) that persist for at least a few days may kill some overwintering crawlers, but others will be insulated by snow or protected by moss. A small, twice-stabbed ladybird beetle, Chilocorus stigma (Say), feeds on this scale and is common in Michigan. Although this predator will reduce scale numbers on some trees, it cannot control an infestation. Spread: When eggs hatch, crawlers may remain under the body of the adult or move to other areas of the same tree. Some of the wingless crawlers are blown to other trees. A small number of crawlers may be carried for long distances in air streams above forest canopies. Birds probably transport crawlers short distances and perhaps long distances during migratory flights.

In addition, the beech scale infestations in Michigan, West Virginia and Ohio all centered on campgrounds or scenic areas, suggesting that humans likely play a role in moving scales long distances. For example, transporting infested beech firewood between mid-summer and early winter could allow mobile, first stage crawlers to infest new areas. Symptoms of scale infestation: Crawlers prefer to colonize areas of the tree where the bark is rough. Newly infested trees usually have the first small spots or patches of "white wool" on the trunk around areas of rough bark. Infestations often start near old branch stubs, under large branches, or sometimes beneath mosses or certain lichens. As the scale population builds, the entire trunk and large branches of the tree may be covered with white wool. NECTRIA FUNGI Three species of Nectria fungi are associated with beech bark disease in North America. Nectria galligena is a native pathogen that causes perennial cankers on many hardwood species. It rarely affects beech, however, unless beech scale is present. Another species, Nectria coccinea var. faginata, is an exotic pathogen that was introduced from Europe.

Often, the native Nectria species is the first to invade trees infested by beech scale, followed by the exotic Nectria species. A third Nectria species, N. ochroleuca, has been found in association with beech bark disease in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ontario, Canada. The asexual form of N. ochroleuca (Gliocladium roseum) has also been found on beech trees in Michigan. Both the native and exotic fungi produce fruiting bodies called perithecia. Perithecia of N. galligena and N. coccinea var. faginatatea tiny, bright red, and occur in clusters on living or dead bark. Perithecia of N. ochroleuca are lighter in color  usually salmon or pink. Each perithecium is filled with sacs of spores. These spores are the sexual stage of the fungi. Spores are released from perithecia in the fall and can be carried in the wind. On some infected trees, perithecia are abundant, causing large areas of the bark to appear red. In Michigan and some other areas, however, perithecia can be difficult to find.

All three Nectria species can also form spores by an asexual process. Small, white or pink cushions of these asexual spores sometimes burst through the bark before perithecia appear. The asexual spores can be found from mid-summer through fall and can be mistaken for small colonies of the beech scale. These spores are also wind disseminated. Symptoms of Nectria infection: Tarry spots are often an early symptom of trees infected by Nectria. Tarry spots occur when a brownish fluid oozes from a dead spot on the trunk. Perithecia sometimes form around the tarry spots. Other injuries, however, can also cause tarry spots to form. Typically only the bark and inner bark are killed by the Nectria fungi, but occasionally dead areas may extend into the sapwood when the cankers are infected by other fungi. The Nectria fungi may infect localized areas on the tree, causing linear strips of bark to die along the tree trunk or branches. If larger or more numerous areas are infected, the tree may be girdled and killed. If the fungus invades only narrow strips of bark on vigorous trees, callus tissue often forms and the bark becomes rough.

Sometimes the tree is able to wall off these cankers if they are small. If beech scale numbers are high, however, Nectria often spreads or coalesces rapidly and is not likely to be restricted by callus formation. Scales cannot survive on tissue that has been killed by the fungus. A strip of scale-free bark running down an otherwise infested tree often indicates where bark has died. Trees dying from Nectria infection usually have a distinct appearance when viewed from a distance. Leaves that emerge in spring do not mature, causing crowns to appear thin or raggedy. Leaves remain on the trees but become yellowish later in the summer. STAGES OF BEECH BARK DISEASE INVASION Beech bark disease develops in three stages identified as the Advancing Front, the Killing Front and the Aftermath Forest. The Advancing Front refers to stands where trees are infested with beech scale but not yet infected by Nectria. Estimates from northeastern forests suggest that beech scale and the Advancing Front spread at roughly 6 miles per year.

Stands can be infested with beech scale for several years before Nectria infection is widespread, particularly when the infestation is a long distance from other affected areas. The Killing Front refers to stands where beech scale populations are high and Nectria infection is abundant. Tree mortality is heavy within the killing front. The Aftermath Forest refers to stands that have experienced the first wave of beech mortality. These stands typically have lower populations of beech scale than previous stages. Residual beech trees in the Aftermath Forest are mostly defective and declining.. Some large trees remain  many of these large trees simply escaped scale infestation or Nectria infection, but some are at least partially resistant. IMPACT OF BEECH BARK DISEASE Tree Mortality  Although high populations of beech scale can weaken a tree, beech bark disease and mortality do not occur until Nectria invades infested trees. This usually happens 3 to 6 years after scales initially infest an area. It can take longer, however, if the area is a long distance from other beeches infected with Nectria, or if the amount of Nectria inoculum in the area is low.

Once Nectria invasion begins, the largest trees and trees with heavy scale infestations (usually rough-barked trees) are most likely to be killed. The first wave of beech bark disease in northern Pennsylvania forests killed roughly 50% of the beech trees larger than 10 inches in diameter at breast height (dbh). Another 25% of the trees lived, but were infected by Nectria. These trees were weak, grew slowly and had patches of dead tissue. The remaining 25% of the trees either escaped scale infestation or Nectria infection, or are at least somewhat resistant. In Maine forests where beech bark disease has been present for more than 60 years, most large-diameter beech trees have been killed. Trees that escaped heavy scale infestation often remained alive but were highly defective. Other insects and fungal pathogens can invade wood killed by beech bark disease. These organisms can increase the severity of defects initiated by beech bark disease. Ambrosia beetles often bore into dead sapwood and their galleries weaken areas of the tree. Many trees that are partially girdled by Nectria and/or those with ambrosia beetle galleries are broken by high winds.

This breakage is called "beech snap". Live trees with areas of dead tissue are also invaded by other fungi, including Hypoxylon and Armillaria. Young beech trees that escape or regenerate after the first wave of mortality can be colonized by a second scale insect (Xylococculus betulae [Perg.] Morrison). This scale can cause rough areas to form on the stem that are attractive to the beech scale, which then leads to Nectria infection. Older trees that have decayed or broken crowns before beech bark disease invades a stand are often the first to succumb to beech bark disease. Severe drought or consecutive years of severe defoliation have also been associated with massive invasion by Nectria. Wildlife  Beech provides food and habitat for more than 40 species of birds and mammals. Many animals feed on beech nuts in the fall and winter, including black bears, gray squirrels, chipmunks, turkeys and deer. Trees begin to produce substantial numbers of nuts at about age 40. By age 60, large nut crops are produced every 2 to 8 years.

This hard mast is especially important in northern forests where oak and hickory are rare. Branching characteristics of beech trees make them attractive to raptors for perches and several species of hawks prefer to nest in beech trees. Standing beech trees that have some decay are used for nesting, roosting or insect foraging by a variety of birds, ranging from pileated woodpeckers to nuthatches. Pine martens, fishers and other mammals use cavities in beech trees for shelter or dens. Effects of beech bark disease on wildlife will depend on the density and size of beech trees in a stand, and the availability of alternative hard mast producers such as oak, hickory or hazel. Large, open-grown wolf trees and trees with decay are often most valuable to wildlife, but will be highly vulnerable to beech bark disease. Trees that die from beech bark disease will provide habitat for some wildlife species for a number of years, either as standing dead trees or as coarse woody debris. Over the long-term, however, the number of large beech trees will decrease.

Regeneration and beech thickets  In Maine, foresters found that one long-term result of beech bark disease was a shift in species composition  toward an increased number of beech stems. This resulted from heavy root sprouting after beech trees were cut (for presalvage or salvage) or killed by beech bark disease. In the northeast, foresters refer to this dense regeneration as "beech thickets". Beech thickets are often impenetrable, exclude regeneration of other species, and have little value for wildlife. Sprouts that develop from parent trees that were killed by beech bark disease will also be susceptible to the disease. If root sprouts from susceptible trees are allowed to grow, the long-term susceptibility of stands to beech bark disease will increase. Wood defects  Research in New York stands that were affected by beech bark disease for at least 10 years showed that most external defects associated with the disease were superficial. Trees with raised lesions or blocky bark (indicating that Nectria was walled off) had little or no wood defect. Most defects were removed with the bark slab at the sawmill.

Sunken lesions could cause defects over time, usually because of bark inclusions buried in wood. Defects associated with sunken bark lesions generally affected lumber grade rather than volume. Trees that were heavily infested by scale and had large patches of dead bark had extensive wood defects or, more typically, died. RESISTANCE TO BEECH BARK DISEASE Studies in northeastern states have shown that some American beech trees are resistant to beech bark disease. In stands where beech scale infestation is generally heavy, insect-free trees are occasionally observed. Even in stands that have been affected by beech bark disease for years, trees that are free of insects and disease can be found. Trials have shown that roughly 1% of American beech is truly resistant to beech scale and beech bark disease. Other trees are partially resistant and are colonized by only a few scales. Resistance probably involves bark structure and chemistry that make certain trees unsuitable as hosts for the beech scale. In eastern states where beech usually develops from root sprouts, resistant trees tend to occur in groups and are genetically related. However, beech may regenerate from seeds more often in Michigan and other areas in the western portion of its range than in eastern areas.

This could mean that resistance might exist at a slightly higher rate than in eastern states. This also suggests that resistant trees are as likely to be scattered through a stand as to occur in clumps. Obviously more experience with beech bark disease in Michigan will be needed to confirm these patterns. Efforts to identify and select resistant and partially resistant trees will be a critical part of reducing the long-term vulnerability of beech to beech bark disease. MANAGING BEECH BARK DISEASE Factors that affect development of beech bark disease include species composition and density of stands, and the size, age and vigor of trees within a stand. Selecting a proper management strategy depends on the disease status of the stand, as well as your management objectives. Management guidelines are presented here for stands that are (A) not yet infested by beech scale; (B) within the Advancing Front; (C) within the Killing Front and (D) in the Aftermath Forest. If your stand is within roughly 6 miles of a stand that is affected by beech scale or beech bark disease, treat the stand as if it were part of the Advancing Front.

Stands Free of Beech Scale If your stand is beyond the advancing front, consider the potential vulnerability of the stand when you develop plans for thinning, harvesting or other silvicultural activities. Stands that are dominated by beech (e.g. 50% or more basal area) will be highly vulnerable to damage, especially if large or decayed trees are abundant. On the other hand, if beech is a minor component of the overstory, effects on the stand will be less severe. Management guidelines are presented separately for these situations. If Beech is a minor component of the overstory: Generally, it will not be necessary to enter these stands specifically for beech bark disease control, but managers should consider the potential impacts of beech bark disease when setting up scheduled thinning or harvest operations. In this situation, mortality of beech trees may simply function like a selective thinning. Growth of other species will typically increase in response to increased availability of light, water or nutrients, especially in well-stocked stands (e.g. basal area of at least 90 ft2/ac).

Beech thickets are not likely to be a severe problem in well-stocked stands where most root sprouts will be outcompeted by other species. Mortality of scattered large beech trees may increase the habitat available for birds, mammals and other wildlife. If Beech is a major component of the overstory: If beech comprises more than 40 to 50% of the basal area in a stand, effects of beech bark disease may be severe. Preventative management can reduce the susceptibility of the stand to the eventual beech scale invasion and reduce the vulnerability of the stand to beech bark disease. Appropriate actions will depend upon the existing condition of the stand, the management objectives for the stand, and the proximity of the stand to the advancing front. Consider reducing the amount of overstory beech present in the stand. It is not necessary or desireable to eliminate beech from a stand. However, increasing tree species diversity provides more management options and may reduce rates of beech scale reproduction and spread. Beech is relatively shade tolerant and often is outcompeted by other species in large canopy gaps where the ground is exposed to sunlight during much of the day.

Birch, black cherry, red maple or other shade intolerant species will grow faster and overtop beech reproduction. Beech is avoided by browsing deer, however, which may decrease successful regeneration of more favored species in areas with high deer numbers. Leaving large snag or den trees to enhance wildlife habitat does not significantly increase the risk of tree loss from beech bark disease. Retain vigorous trees with smooth bark . Identification of potentially resistant trees is important for decreasing the long-term susceptibility and vulnerability of forests to beech bark disease. Vigorous trees and trees with smooth bark will have fewer sites suitable for beech scale establishment and may be more resistant to Nectria invasion. In contrast, large, overmature trees, trees with rough bark, and trees with wounds, broken tops or other obvious problems are most likely to be infested by beech scale and most vulnerable to Nectria infection. Use harvest systems that minimize injuries to beech root systems . Root injury can cause extensive root sprouting, especially if roots are injured in spring. Consider use of herbicides to control beech regeneration . Herbicides may be needed to control beech regeneration, especially following selection or shelterwood harvests.

Gylphosate (Roundup, Accord), tryclopyr (Garlon) or 2,4-D + tryclopyr (Crossbow) have been used effectively to control beech sprouts or advanced regeneration. Survey stands regularly to detect the arrival of beech scale . Scale infestations usually begin on the trunk of large trees, often around branch stubs or other rough areas. Favor regeneration of other tree species via selection or planting. The Advancing Front Survey stands that are infested with beech scale or considered to be within the advancing front to (1) determine the extent of the beech scale infestation; (2) identify potentially resistant trees and (3) prioritize trees for salvage. Enter stands that are infested with beech scale first. Identify, mark and retain resistant trees . In stands that are infested with beech scale, look for trees that have no beech scale or low numbers of scale, especially when these trees are growing near heavily infested trees. These trees may be resistant or at least partially resistant to beech scale. Often, resistant trees have smooth bark, but this may not always be the case. Resistant trees may occur in clumps or groups if they originated as root sprouts.

However, resistant trees that regenerated from seed may be scattered through the stand. In eastern Canada, 5 to 6 trees per acre were resistant to beech scale. Identification and retention of potentially resistant trees is an important step for conserving the beech resource over the long-term. Identify trees for salvage . Discriminate against trees that are heavily infested with beech scale. Large, overmature trees with rough bark, trees with evidence of decay, broken tops or other injuries are likely to succumb to beech bark disease. Retaining some of these trees for wildlife habitat will not affect spread or impact of beech bark disease. Generally, increasing species diversity and shifting the beech component towards smaller, more resistant size classes will reduce the impact of beech bark disease. Beech regeneration may require control with herbicides, as noted above. If left uncontrolled, root sprouting is likely to result in dense beech thickets that are aesthetically unpleasing, have little wildlife value and inhibit regeneration of other species. Dense regeneration from root sprouts will also increase susceptibility of the stand to beech bark disease over the long-term.

Maintaining some beech in the overstory is often desirable , especially where wildlife habitat is an important management objective. Beech is frequently the primary nut producer in northern hardwood stands, and this hard mast provides an important food source for many animals. In stands where oak, hickory or hazel are abundant, beech mast may be less important. Favor regeneration of other tree species via selection or planting. Do not transport beech firewood or logs from infested stands to uninfested areas between mid-summer and late fall . First stage crawlers are mobile and might move from infested wood to live beech trees. This could establish beech scale infestations in new areas. The Killing Front Tree mortality usually starts soon after Nectria invasion begins. You may find tar spots, clusters of tiny, red perithecia and patches of dead bark on infected trees. Beech scale may actually be less abundant on these trees, because the scale insects will not survive on areas of wood that have been killed by Nectria. Identify, mark and retain resistant trees as described above. Salvage dead or declining trees with thin crowns and yellowish foliage.

These trees are often invaded by secondary decay fungi that can degrade wood within 2 to 3 years. Remove trees with sunken lesions or large patches of dead wood  these trees are likely to have defects. Consider retaining some large trees to provide wildlife habitat. Prioritize harvest of trees that are heavily infested by beech scale and/or infected by Nectria. Consider control of beech regeneration with herbicides as described above. Do not transport beech firewood or logs from infested stands to uninfested areas between mid-summer and late fall to prevent beech scale infestations from becoming established in new areas. The Aftermath Forest Aftermath forests are characterized by dense stands of infested beech sprouts and seedlings, and a scattering of larger, residual trees in varying condition. Clumps of resistant or partially resistant trees may be present. Beech saplings grow quickly when overstory trees are killed and may be able to compartmentalize cankers. These trees, however, often have sunken lesions, patches of dead bark and deformities that lead to defects. Trees with convoluted bark are seldom killed outright by Nectria, but grow slowly and remain weak. These trees will have low value and volume.

Salvage dead and dying trees . Small, defective or diseased trees can often be sold for fuelwood or chips. Retain trees that are free of scales and Nectria and trees with few scales, especially if the trees have smooth bark. Resistant trees will be very obvious in the aftermath forest. BEECH TREES IN RECREATION OR URBAN AREAS Beech snap is common when trees have patches of dead bark resulting from Nectria infection. These dead patches are often invaded by other decay fungi or ambrosia beetles, further predisposing the tree to breakage. This creates a hazard to people and personal property when large beech trees occur in campgrounds or other recreation areas, or near homes. Trees posing a hazard to people or property should be removed. In areas where beech is a dominant species, planting or encouraging the regeneration of other tree species before beech scale reaches your area increases reforestation options, and can soften the impact of the eventual loss of most large beech in the area. When high value ornamental or yard trees are of concern, some protection from beech bark disease is possible by controlling the beech scale. Note that this is not a one-time treatment.

This exotic insect is now a permanent resident of our forests. Continued protection is necessary to prevent scales from re-infesting trees and creating the wounds that allow invasion of the Nectria fungi. Physical control: Scale insects can be removed by scrubbing a tree with a soft brush, using water from a high pressure nozzle on a garden hose or similar means. It is difficult, however, to remove scales from the upper part of the trunk or crown of large trees. Oils: Dormant and horticultural oils are petroleum-based products that cover and suffocate soft-bodied insects such as aphids, spider mites and scales. Oils may be useful in controlling scales but they should be applied only when trees are dormant. Insecticides: Registered insecticides can be used to control scales. Efforts are underway to identify effective products and optimal timing.

Question: The 'mast' of a beech tree refers to its?
Answer: Nuts