All Cabbage Types and Important Facts about this healthy vegetable HABIT CREATION Cabbage Types: Who is Who? When most of us think of cabbage types, we think of the one or two varieties available at our local grocery store. But, did you know that there are actually more than a hundred different varieties?! To cover each and everyone is beyond the scope of this article, but let’s look at the most common and begin exploring the world of cabbage. A Different Cabbage Every Day! Ever wonder how cole slaw got its name? Well, COLE is the old English word for cabbage. And we all know that cabbage is the main ingredient of that dish. If you are interested in growing your own COLE or cabbage types you will first need to decide on what type. It really isn’t too difficutl to grow. Plus, as any gardner will attest, homegrown cabbage will reward you with a sweeter taste than the variety purchased at a grocery store. a real cabbage diversity To truly explore the vast variety of available cabbage, one must peruse a seed catalogue. Common green and red cabbage varieties will jump out at you, but also take note of the savoury crinkled leave cabbage and even those able to withstand snow!

With all of this cabbage diversity one may wonder what makes them all cabbages. Most cabbages will have a short, broad stem and flowers that from that distinguished compact head. The Savory Cabbages Savory cabbage is distingued by its yellow-green crinkled leaves. It is also noticeable less compact than the common green cabbage. These cabbage types do well in stew, steamed or just as a garnish. Common savoury cabbages include the Salarite, Savonarch, Promasa and Wivoy. The Salarite and Savonarch grow up to 2 feet and each head weighs from 3 to 5 pounds. The Promasa and Wivoy are still savoury, but yield a more compact head. Common Napa Cabbage These popular cabbages are a light green with crinkled leaves. Their head is compact and the stems are white in color. The Nappa cabbage is one that is tasty even raw. Or more common uses are in stir-fry or steamed. You will find the Napa cabbage in almost all stir-fry dishes. If you enjoy a more delicate and milder tasting cabbage for your recipes, opt for the Nappa cabbage.

Chinese Cabbage – Bok Choy Bok Choy is recognized for its dark green leaves and white stems. And unlike traditional white cabbage, the leaves grow loosly together rather than tightly. Other Chinese cabbages include the Michihli, Pe-Tsai, Tai-sai, Lei-choi and Pakchoi. With most Chinese cabbage both the stem and leaves can be cooked. They also have a taste similar to celery. The Red Cabbage Actually, the color is more like a deep purple than that of red. And even though it looks different than the green cabbage, its taste is very similar. The most common uses for red cabbage are pickling. They are also tasty in slaws and salads. Western red cabbage varieties include Meteor, Red Rodan, Ruby Ball and Scarlet O’Hara. Each of these has a head from 7 to 10 in in diameter and weigh about 3-4 pounds. Green Cabbage Last, but not least, is the green cabbage. This is the most common cabbage variety. Pale in color and with tight leaves. It is used often in soups (especially in our beloved cabbage soups ;-))and slaws.

Familar green cabbages include Grenadier, Charmant, and January King. Named after its ability to remain hearty even in a cold environment, January King can be seen late in the year. Cabbage: Versatile and Delicious Cancer-Fighter by Alisa Rutherford-Fortunati on November 28, 2011 If you had asked me a couple of years ago what my favorite foods were, I doubt the list would have included cabbage. I have to admit I had a bit of prejudice against this crunchy fellow, but after discovering its true tastiness and health benefits, I couldn’t help but change my head on this nutritious vegetable. Health Benefits of Cabbage: Cabbage is a low calorie food rolling in antioxidant polyphenols and vitamin C, along with the important clotting agent vitamin K, but this is just the beginning. Although it has been revered for centuries for its anti-inflammatory properties and versatility in food preparation, what has really added to cabbage’s credit in the last decade is its potential as a cancer-fighting food.

Cabbage is part of the Brassica or Cruciferous family of vegetables (Kale, broccoli, collards, etc.) All vegetables in this group contain glucosinolates, which may block the growth of certain types of cancers, and boost cells’ ability to repair DNA. Cabbage has also been used to treat stomach ulcers and other cases of imbalance within the digestive system. So you can see why including this delicious veggie in your weekly salads, soups and stir-fries is a great idea. In one cup of chopped and steamed cabbage (33 calories) you receive 91% of your daily recommendation of vitamin K, over 50% of your vitamin C, and around 14% of your fiber needs. It is also a good source of manganese, B6 (pyridoxine), folate, omega 3 fatty acids, B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), calcium, potassium, vitamin A, tryptophan, protein (over 3 grams) and magnesium. Worried you might get bored with steamed cabbage? Don’t be – There are a million ways to prepare and enjoy this vegetable. I’ll be posting some of my favorite recipes soon!

And don’t be fooled by the common green cabbage; there are plenty of varieties to choose from. A Cabbage for Every Occasion: Each type of cabbage has its own unique flavor and nutrient profile, but all contain the cancer-fighting glucosinolates and good levels of vitamin C and K. 1. Green Cabbage This is the most common variety. Pale in color and with tight leaves, it is great for slaws, salads and stir-fries. Varieties include: Grenadier, Charmant, and January King. 2. Savoy (Curly Cabbage) Savoy cabbage has looser, crinkled leaves. It is a great addition to your regular green salad, or as the wrapping for a raw burrito. Varieties: Salarite, Savonarch, Promasa and Wivoy. 3. Napa (Chinese Cabbage) This popular variety has light green, narrow, crinkled leaves. The leaves are more delicate than those of its green cousin, so they cook much more quickly. It is delicious in salads, curries or just very lightly steamed. 4.

Bok Choy Bok Choy has dark green leaves and white stems and a much different shape than the cabbage you may be used to. Wonderful both raw and cooked, the stems have a sweet flavor when fresh. Other varities: Michihli, Pe-Tsai, Tai-sai, Lei-choi and Pakchoi. 5. Red Cabbage If I had named this group, I probably would have called them purple rather than red, but don’t let the color deter you. You can use red cabbage in pretty much the same way as the common green variety, and it has a higher lever of protective phytonutrients then its green counterpart. Other varieties of red cabbage: Meteor, Red Rodan, Ruby Ball and Scarlet O’Hara. 6. Brussels Sprouts Yes, Brussels Sprouts are a variety of cabbage, albeit a tiny one. Perfect for a light steam with a savory sauce. Don’t let their bad reputation among children deter you — they are delish! Aramé & Cabbage Salad* 2 cups green cabbage, shredded 1 cup red cabbage, shredded 1/2 cup cilantro, chopped 2 Tbsp.

cold-pressed olive oil sea salt or substitute, to taste 1 Tbsp. raw apple cider vinegar 2 Tbsp. tahini, mixed with 3 Tbsp. water 1/2 tsp. onion powder 1. Rinse aramé and soak in water for at least 15 minutes. Rinse and drain all water. 2. Place soaked aramé in a bowl and add the remaining ingredients. Mix well and serve. Optional ~ Add 1/4 sweet onion or scallion, diced. Look for my next post on Incredibly Delicious cabbage recipes coming soon! * This recipe (including the photograph) has been reproduced from Incredibly Delicious: Recipes for a New Paradigm by Gentle World, which includes over 500 recipes and all sorts of tips to help make the transition to veganism easy and delicious. Cool-Season Vegetables: How to Grow Cabbage Cool-Season Vegetables: How to Grow Cabbage Give soups and stews an unbeatably fresh flavor with this ever-popular fall garden favorite Marianne Lipanovich August 19, 2012 Houzz Contributor. I'm a California-based writer and editor.

While most of my projects are garden-based, you might also find me writing about home projects and classical music. Away from the computer, I'm found in the garden (naturally), on my bike, or ice-skating outdoors (yes, that is possible in California). I'm also willing to taste-test anything that's chocolate. Houzz Contributor. I'm a California-based writer and editor. While most of my projects... More Email Cloned To: FR ; Currently Featured in: US Click "Embed" to display an article on your own website or blog. When summer winds down, it's time to get cool-season vegetables like cabbage into the ground. The classic cabbage is round and green or red, but look at a garden catalog and you’ll find cabbages that end in a point or are relatively flat, savoy cabbages with their characteristic ruffled leaves, and stunning varieties with blue-green leaves and a purplish-red head. Some are more compact and can last longer into warmer weather. They’re generally divided into early, midseason and late cabbages. The early varieties are best for spring gardens; the others do better in the fall.

You’ll even find flowering cabbages, which stand out in the garden, especially after the first frost hits. These are usually grown as ornamentals, but they are edible. Jocelyn H. Chilvers When to plant: Like most cool-season crops, cabbage is happiest growing in fall or spring. For spring planting, sow the seeds of an early variety in very early spring. You can also start them indoors about six weeks before the last frost date and set out transplants three weeks later. For fall and winter crops, plant seeds of midseason and late varieties in late summer. Days to maturity: 50 to 100 Light requirement: Full sun is best; partial shade is also fine, especially if the weather heats up quickly. Water requirement: Provide ample water and keep the soil moist. Favorite cabbage varieties: Alcosa, Arrowhead, Brunswick, Early Jersey Wakefield, Gonzales, January King, Late Flat Dutch, Mammoth Red Rock, Red Drumhead, Red Express, Red Meteor, Redball, Samantha, Savoy King, Savoy Queen, Super Red 80, Winnigstadt Planting and care: Be sure your soil is fertile and well drained.

Sow seeds up to a half inch deep and an inch apart. Give them space, setting them out or thinning them to 1 to 2 feet apart with 2 feet or more between rows. They like water, so keep the bed continually moist. Feed the plants about halfway through the growing season with a complete high-nitrogen fertilizer. Weed them carefully, as the roots are shallow. Cabbage is prone to problems; what can you expect when there are bugs named cabbage loopers, cabbage root maggots and cabbage worms? They can also have problems with diseases, such as damping off and downy mildew, and these are just some of the possible problems. Solving plant problems: You can watch to see if the problem resolves itself naturally, especially if you follow the principles of integrated pest management and organic gardening. But if it gets out of hand, take steps to eradicate it, beginning with the least invasive approach and moving from there. Rotating crops in the future may help with some problems. Heads will split if they’re too old, so harvest before that happens. Harvest: Watch the cabbage heads carefully and harvest before they split. Store them in a cool spot and keep them damp to help prolong their storage life.

Different Types of Cabbage You'll Be Surprised to Know About Follow Us Different Types of Cabbage You'll Be Surprised to Know About When we say cabbage, an image of a green-yellow colored, crinkled leafy vegetable immediately conjures up in our minds. However, there are more than hundred different varieties of cabbage with different shapes and sizes. Read on to know more... Advertisement Enlarge Image Cabbage belongs to the family Brassicaceae. It is a leafy vegetable and available throughout the year. Cabbage is consumed all over the world and forms a vital ingredient of soups, salads, stews and many other recipes. Cabbage derived its name from coleslaw, a popular food item in which the main ingredient is cabbage. 'Cole' in old English means cabbage. Cabbage is easy to cook and nutritionally rich. We are only familiar with three to four variants of cabbage that are available in the market but there are around 400 varieties across the world. Different Types Of Cabbage Cabbage was brought to the New World by colonists. Cabbage is widely cultivated in Asia, with China being the largest producer of cabbage, closely followed by India.

It is cultivated in some parts of Europe and United States as well. Cabbages are classified according to their cutting season or appearance or place of origin. The following table gives a detailed description of each variety. Summer Cabbage Drumhead Harvest Month: It is sown in mid-February and kept inside the greenhouse for a couple of months. It is then transplanted outside the greenhouse and is ready for harvest after June. Appearance: Cabbages of this type are mostly round, but Greyhound and Hispi are the two varieties which are conical in shape. Spring Cabbage Collard Harvest Month: They are sown in July, transplanted in September or October and become ready for harvest in February. Appearance: These cabbages are conical in shape and their leaves are loosely held. Since the cabbages are transplanted in winter they have to be protected from the winds. Winter Cabbage None Harvest Month: They are sown in late April, transplanted in July and become ready for harvest in November. Appearance: They are perfectly round in shape or drumhead. They are hard and have a greater shelf life. Red Cabbage They are sown in spring and harvested in late fall.

Appearance: As the name suggests, it is deep red, rather purple in color. Though it is mostly used for pickling, it can be added as a coloring agent for certain recipes. Meteor, Ruby Ball, Scarlet O'Hara and Red Rodan are some red cabbage varieties. Savoy Cabbage None Harvest Month: They are sown in April and the harvest period begins after November. Some fast maturing varieties of savoy cabbage are also available. Appearance: Savoy cabbage is a variety with crinkled leaves. Crinkled-leafed cabbage is widely preferred as compared to the smoother variants. They are mostly used in stews and for garnishing purpose. Savoy cabbage varieties include Salarite, Savonarch, Promasa and Wivoy. Chinese Cabbage 'Bok Choy' Harvest Month: Best time for seeding is summer and autumn. It is ready for harvesting within 8 to 10 weeks. Appearance: It is distinguished by its dark green leaves and white stem. The leaves are loosely held and are used in cooking along with the stem. They taste very much like celery. Chinese cabbage varieties include Michihli, Pe-Tsai, Lei-choi, Tai-sai and Pakchoi.

Napa Cabbage 'Wong Bok', Celery cabbage Harvest Month: Best time for seeding is summer and autumn. It is ready for harvesting within 8 to 10 weeks. Appearance: They are light green in color with crinkled leaves that are very loosely wrapped. They have a compact head rested upon a white stem. The Napa cabbage can be consumed raw. It is also used in several stir fry or steamed recipes. It is milder in taste as compared to other varieties. Green Cabbage Fall And Winter Salads - Allrecipes Dish Fall And Winter Salads There’s plenty of cold-weather produce that you can make into delicious seasonal salads. Look for fruits such as apples, pears, cranberries, and grapes. Vegetables include fennel, cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli. Apples Apples are plentiful during the autumn months. For salads, choose varieties that are sweet and crisp. Popular salad apples include Red Delicious, Fuji, and Winesap. Buy firm apples that smell fresh and have smooth skins. Salad with apples, grapes, and citrus fruit | Photo by Meredith More Apple Salads Pears It’s also the time of year to sample all types of pears.

Select those with even color and a slight blush. Be careful when handling pears because they are delicate and bruise easily. Although there are thousands of known pear varieties in the world, there are a handful recognized especially for their superb flavor and fresh eating qualities: Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc, and Comice. Chicory Pear and blue cheese salad | Photo by Meredith Quick hint: To keep pear slices from browning, sprinkle them with lemon juice and place them in a water bath–or serve them immediately after slicing. More Pear Salads Cranberries Fresh cranberries are very tart, and are usually sweetened up before they go into a salad. Dried cranberries add gorgeous color and sweet chewiness to salads. Missy’s Candied Walnut Gorgonzola Salad | Photo by Dianne Cran-Broccoli Salad Grapes Grapes are harvested when sweet and ripe, so look for plump clusters that are firmly attached to green stems. Once at home, refrigerate grapes until ready to use, and then rinse with cold water, halve them, and toss them in your favorite salad.

Nutty Wild Rice Salad with Kiwifruit and Grapes | Photo by lutzflcat Mendocino Chicken Salad Fennel Fennel is available from fall through spring and adds a hint of fresh sweet licorice flavor to any salad. This aromatic plant is pale green with a celery-like stem and feathery foliage. Its root base and stems can be treated like a vegetable and baked, braised, or sliced and eaten raw in salads. The greenery can be used as a garnish or snipped like dill to enhance many recipes. Fennel’s licorice-like flavor is sweeter and more delicate than anise and, when cooked, becomes even lighter and softer than in its raw state. Spinach, citrus, and fennel salad | Photo by Meredith Alphabetical list of vegetables | Recipes from Nic and Chris 10th April 2015 Alphabetical list of vegetables Here is an alphabetical list of vegetables and a few related facts about each one. We hope you find it of use and maybe get to enjoy eating a few veggies you never knew existed. Artichoke – There are two vegetables with the name artichoke and they are quite different from each other.

The ‘Globe Artichoke’ is a tight head of fleshy leaves, delicious steamed or boiled and eaten with lemon butter or hollandaise sauce. The tips of the leaves are too tough to eat even after cooking and the fiberous ‘choke’ is also inedible, but the ‘heart’ is wonderfully buttery in texture with a great flavour. The ‘Jerusalem Artichoke’ is a knobbly tuber like a small malformed potato. It has a smoky flavour and is delicious and healthy but has a tendency to cause flatulence in most people so don’t eat too much of it. Asparagus – tender green tips available during a short growing season. Asparagus plants continue to produce new shoots every year and can last more than a decade, producing a crop each spring. There are two major forms; the green asparagus and the white asparagus. Both are delicious. Aubergene – A vegetable that absorbs strong flavours well.Commonly rich purple coloured skin with a white fleshy interior he aubergene is called eggplant in America. A key ingredient in moussaka. Beans – high protien seeds of legume plants. Beet – Tubers with rich, nutty, earthy flavours.

A sweet variety of beet is grown commercially in europe and asia for sugar manufacture. Red beetroot is often sold pickled. The red colour can stain almost anything and has been used in clothing dyes for centuries. ‘Borscht’ is the classic beetroot soup from eastern Europe. Broccoli – green and delicious and full of vitamins. The ‘florets’ are actually underdeveloped flowers. A versatile veg that is used across the world in many different ways. Brussels sprouts – traditionally eaten with Christmas Dinner in the UK. Brussels sprouts are small and green and look like mini-cabbages. They grow well in northern Europe and frosts do not damage the unharvested vegetables, hence their popular. Cabbage – the king of vegetables. Easy to grow almost anywhere. Cabbages generally come in white, yellow, green and red colour schemes. In Germany the pickled ‘Sauerkraut’ is pretty much a national dish and in Korea a similar but spiced ‘Kimchee’ has equal status in the national cuisine. Carrot – Introduced to most of Europe by the Romans, carrots have been popular for 2000 Years. However the orange colour is a comparitively recent addition.

The first orange carrots were cultivated in the Netherlands in the Sixteen Hundreds. Cauliflower – White relative of broccoli. Cauliflower cheese is a universal classic favourite way of serving this vegetable Celeriac – a large knotted ball-like root vegetable which makes amazing nutty soups Celery – Slightly bitter (unless blanched) european stalks with a distinctive flavour, used in salads, stews and soups. Chard – green leafy vegetable, high in iron. It grows well during british winters and is used as an alternative to spinach. Chicory – A bitter vegetable that is ‘forced’ (grown in darkness) and so has white leaves. Collards – This leafy green vegetable is also known as tree-cabbage and is rich in vitamins and minerals. Corn – North American native vegetable considered sacred by many native tribes. Confusingly corn is also the word used to describe the seeds of wheat and barley. Cress – small peppery sprouts Cucumbers – related to courgettes and traditionally used raw in salads.

The cucumber grows quickly and holds lots of water Gourds – The common name for fruits of the Cucurbitaceae family of plants (members include cucumbers, squashes, luffas, and melons). Jerusalem Artichoke – It isn’t an Artichoke and it doesn’t come from Jerusalem. The jersalem Artichoke is actually related to the sunflower. The bit we eat is an ugly little tuber (like a small thin and knobbly potato) that tastes amazing. It has a smoky taste that really excites the palette. Kales – Until the Renaissance, kale was the most common green vegetable eated by the people of northern Europe Kohlrabi – Kohlrabi is a member of the turnip family and can be either purple or white. Leek – The national vegetable of Wales. Lettuce – lots of green leaves used as a mainstay of salads. Varieties such as round, isberg, lollo rosso and radichio are popular. Melons – Wonderful fruits with a high water content. There are many farmed varieties . All have seeds surrounded by rich, watery but sweet flesh that is encased in a fairly hard shell.

Mushrooms – not technically a vegetable, but a far older member of the plant kingdom. Mushrooms do not use sunlight to produce energy, hence they have a completely different range of tastes than any other vegetable. Did you know that the largest single living organism on earth is a mushroom called Armillaria Ostoyae, the biggest of which is up to 8,500 years old and carpets nearly 10 square kilometres of forest floor in northeastern Oregon, USA. One variety was available in cultivated form for much of the 20th century, but in the 21st dozens of mushroom varieties have been successfully grown in commercial yields and can be purchased in the shops. Okra also called ‘ladies fingers’ or gumbo is a wonderful pungent vegetable from the same family as hollyhock. It probably was first cultivated in Ethiopia and is still a North African staple, but has become popular in Europe, Asia and America too. Onions Onions have been eaten for tens of thousands of years and we still aren’t bored of them. White and Red are the common colours for onions and they can vary in size from a few millimetres to almost a foot across.

Pak Choi The Pak Choi or chinese cabbage is a delicious leaf vegetable often used in Chinese cookery. It is a relative of the standard western cabbage but has a milder flavour and soft leaves. Parsnips The sweet, starchy parsnip was a very popular european vegetable before the arrival of potaoes and Sugar Cane from the Americas. Although not the prize it once was, the Parsnip is a classic root vegetable, particularly popular in more northern lattitudes. Peas – best eated within minutes of picking as the sugars rapidly turn to starch. Therefore frozen peas often taste better than ‘fresh’ peas. Peppers – These are the fruit of the Capsicum family of plants. The hotter tasting ones (due to more Capsaicinoids in the flesh) are usually refered to as chillis. Potatoes – Nothing finer than a steaming plate of mashed potatoes. An american staple crop that as been exported all over the world. Pumpkins – A popular gourd vegetable used in cooking and to make halloween jack o lanterns. Radicchio – a chicory leaf used in salads. Popular since ancient times, modern widescale cultivation of the plant began in the fifteenth century close to Venice in Italy.

Radish – rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin C), folic acid (folate), and Potassium, the raddish is a peppery vegetable popular in western and asian cookery. We usually eat the taproot, but the leaves can also be eaten in salads. Rhubarb – A plant with large leaves that grow out of thick succulent stems with a very particular floral scent. These stems are popularly eaten as a fruit once sweetened and cooked. Rhubarb was originally native to China but has been popular in Europe since Roman times. Rutabaga – Alternative name for Swede Salsify – A long thin root vegetable with a mild nutty flavour. Once common in Europe but has gone out of fashion in many countries and so is rarely grown on a commercial scale any more. Shallots – Small onions often with a more fiery bite. Spinach -large green leaves wilt easily in a pan and are often served with a little butter and nutmeg as an accompanying vegetable. Spinach contains lots of healthy trace minerals including iron Squash another generic name for fruits of the vine of the Cucurbitaceae family of plants (see also Gourds).

Butternut Squash has recently grown in popularity in the United Kingdom. Swede – Apparently a cross between cabbages and turnips swedes are a low calory root vegetable Sweetcorn – a north american native plant loved throughout the world. Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas (related to the morning glory) produces a starchy tuber. In the USA the red variety of sweet potato is often called a yam, although yams are a seperate vegetable in their own right. Tomatoes – not technically a vegetable, but a fruit. Tomatoes are best grown yourself because the uniform flavourless powdery fruits available in supermarkets are not worth eating. Turnips – Root vegetable will grow in cold climates. Watercress – very peppery small salad like leaves Watermelon – Sweet tasting gourd reaches enourmous size and definitely the most refreshing fruit there is. Yams – Sweet starchy tuber that are popular in African, Carribean and American cookery We hope this alphabetical list of vegetables is of use to you.

Share on Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Introduction The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers a large area of about 2 000 000 km2, which is about 80 percent of the total area of the Arabian peninsula. The country lies between 15.2° and 32.6° north and 34.1° and 55.5° east and the climate is generally mild in the winter and dry and hot in the summer. Rainfall occurs in the winter but never exceeds 100 mm per year in most regions except for the southwestern mountains of Asir, where it rains more often in the summer. Irrigation is mainly carried out from tube-wells, but in the Hofuf region water is derived from natural springs. Dams have been built in many areas for water conservation and aquifer recharge. To reduce dependence on oil exports as the main source of income and to produce more food for the increasing population with a high standard of living, Saudi Arabia has been making intensive efforts through its five-year development plans to develop the agricultural sector. The country is witnessing an unprecedented exploitation of its agricultural potential.

As a result of government encouragement and financial aid, cultivated land has dramatically increased from about 435 000 ha in 1980 to more than 1.5 million ha in 1990. Sophisticated technology and modern machinery were introduced, new crops and varieties were cultivated, the greenhouse industry and large agricultural projects were established, and two more colleges of agriculture were opened. Self-sufficiency and even export of some products such as wheat, dates, watermelon, poultry and fresh eggs and milk have been achieved. Major crops include cereals (wheat, sorghum, barley and millet), vegetables (tomato, watermelon, eggplant, potato, cucumber and onions), fruits (date-palm, citrus and grapes) and forage crops (alfalfa). These crops are cultivated over an area of nearly 1.1 million ha which represents about 81 percent of the total cultivated area. In 1990, wheat was cultivated over an area of about 744 422 ha (i.e. 55 percent of the total cultivated area), and production was about 3.5 million tonnes (Table 18).

The creation and management of a highly productive agrosystem in the desert represents an intrusion into the natural desert ecosystem and require careful evaluation to avoid unwelcome environmental consequences. The continuous transformation of the agrodesert to more intensive modem agriculture may trigger different forces in reaction to the change. One of the forces that might act is the population build-up of pests. Plant-parasitic nematodes, especially the root-knot group, have thrived in this newly created agro-ecosystem. In many instances, economic crop losses due to large infestations of Meloidogyne spp. on vegetables and in greenhouses are substantial. Nematology in Saudi Arabia Brief history Plant nematology in Saudi Arabia is relatively young, and it is the newest among the plant protection Disciplines. Prior to 1980 the country did not have a nematologist, apart from one or two contractors who worked for the Ministry of Agriculture and Water for short periods. The few plant pathologists were busy working on fungal and bacterial diseases. Research and education in plant nematology received very little or only occasional attention.

The first report of a plant-parasitic nematode appeared in 1957 when Talhouk reported the association of Meloidogyne spp., among other pests, with various crops in Eastern Province (Talhouk, 1957). During the 1960s and 1970s a few other reports of surveys appeared (Natour, 1963; Martin, 1971; Abu Yaman and Abu Blan, 1972; Abdu, 1972). The first extensive nematode survey was conducted by Dr Eissa who was working for the Ministry of Agriculture and Water (Eissa, 1977). This was followed by a more intensive nematode survey in the Al-Kharj region (80 km southeast of Riyadh) which the author conducted for 16 months with two other colleagues on arrival from the United States early in 1981 (Al-Hazmi, Abul-Hayja and Trabuisi, 1983).

In 1984, the author attempted to gather all available information about the occurrence and host range of the reported nematodes in the country to provide a host index of plant-parasitic nematodes (Al-Hazmi, 1984). The latter two surveys have actually produced some significant findings related to the distribution, host range and importance of plant-parasitic nematodes, especially the root-knot group, in cultivated fields. They also directed experimental works in subsequent years. TABLE 18 Cultivated area and production of major crops grown in Saudi Arabia Crop Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Water, statistical yearbooks. Relative importance of plant nematology Since 1980 plant nematology in Saudi Arabia has been growing more rapidly and gaining more importance in comparison with other traditional plant protection disciplines, especially in the fields of research and education. Officials and many growers have become more aware and concerned about the importance of plant-parasitic nematodes as major plant pests. This welcome recognition and awareness of plant nematology as a new and important discipline of plant protection has been reflected in the development of education and research programmes in plant nematology.

At present, education and research in plant nematology occupy a significant and important place among those of other plant protection disciplines. Each of the three colleges of agriculture offers a three-credit compulsory nematology course to undergraduate students majoring in plant protection. The college of agriculture at Riyadh also offers two graduate nematology courses (two plus three credits) for M.Sc. students majoring in plant pathology. It is felt that these courses offered at each level are adequate and balanced with other related disciplines. Three graduate students are now working for their Ph.D. degrees abroad. Research in plant nematology has grown from occasional and very basic surveys into more practical and problem-solving experimental research that can reduce nematode damage and improve crop yields to the benefit of commercial and small growers. These later studies include intensive and systematic surveys of nematodes on certain important crops; cultural and chemical control; screening of resistant and tolerant varieties; host-parasite relationships; and some ecological studies. Basic research, however, is minimal. Competitive funds are provided by the King Abdul Aziz City for Science and Technology for national research projects and by the Department of Plant (or crop) Protection for small projects.

During the past ten years, seven of the eight national research projects in the area of plant protection included different aspects of plant nematology. During the same period, many of the published articles in the fields of plant pathology were about plant nematodes. However, this is a long way away from accomplishing what is required. Shortage of professional nematologists is the main obstacle. In some cases, lack of trained assistants and of suitable facilities and equipment presents difficulties. Extension and services in plant nematology are rather limited. Continuous efforts, however, by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water are being made. Awareness of nematological problems among small traditional farmers is just not sufficient. Nematological problems Knowledge of nematological problems in the country is far from providing a complete picture. Probably the same situation exists in most of the developing countries. Shortage of native plant nematologists, nematode taxonomists and nematology facilities are the main factors that limit the amount of information that can be gathered on all aspects of plant nematology. Although the early general surveys and the later more extensive ones have provided important data and shed some light on the occurrence and importance of nematodes in the fields, only a fraction of the total cropped area has been sampled.

Many aspects such as accurate estimates of crop losses and their impacts on farmers and socio-economics are still to be defined. It is anticipated that the modem intensification of agriculture in the country in recent years will further increase nematological and other plant-pest problems. Continuous cropping, monoculture, greenhouse cropping, increased fertilization, continuous irrigation, light-textured soils and narrow genetic base varieties, among other components of modem agriculture, are, singly or in combination, increasing the vulnerability of crops to nematode attack. The recent significant problem caused by the cereal-cyst nematode (CCN) in many wheat fields is a good example. In the past, when traditional farming of wheat and other crops was the only available practice, CCN was not even detected. However, during the early season of 1991/92 it was found to be widespread with high infestations in many wheat fields in three major wheat-producing regions. In some fields at Hail, the population densities reached up to 67 cysts/cm3 soil. Although the initial introduction of the nematode has not been determined, probably the intensive monoculture of wheat for several years has a major role in the nematode outbreak.

At present, a research proposal is being prepared to examine the effects of different cropping systems on CCN population dynamics and wheat damage. In this review the discussion is limited to outlining briefly the nematological problems of the most important crops in the country. It should be noted that not all nematodes recorded to be associated with a given crop are necessarily pathogenic to that crop (Table 19). Cereal crops In terms of cultivated area and production, wheat has been the most important and economic crop in the country since 1980 (Table 18). Surplus wheat grain is now exported to different countries. Barley, sorghum and millet are also important cereal crops. The latter two crops are cultivated for grain, but mainly confined to the southwestern region, especially in the area around Jizan. Several genera or species of plant-parasitic nematodes have been recorded to be associated with wheat, including the cereal-cyst nematode, the seed-gall nematode, root-knot nematodes and lesion nematodes (Table 19). There are no available data on specific nematode problems.

Recently, however, CCN (Heterodera avenae) became the most important and damaging nematode in our wheat fields. The seed-gall nematode has become unimportant in recent years, as a result of the introduction of new varieties such as Yecora Rojo, the most commonly grown variety. Barley, sorghum and millet have received very little attention. Barley fields adjacent to the CCN-infested fields in Hail were also infested. The lesion, stunt, stem and bulb or needle nematodes were recorded on some of these crops (Table 19). Vegetable crops A wide range of vegetables are grown in Saudi Arabia which are very important to farmers as high-value cash crops. The major vegetable crops include tomato, cucumber, eggplant, onion, watermelon, squash and pumpkin. In recent years, large numbers of greenhouses were constructed mainly for tomato and cucumber production. Total vegetable production has increased from 756 000 tonnes in 1980 to more than 2 million tonnes in 1989. However, local demand has been increasing so rapidly that the increase of production is not enough. Only watermelon is exported to neighbouring countries.

Although many plant-parasitic nematodes have been recorded associated with most of these crops (Table 19), root-knot nematodes are by far the most important and damaging. Meloidogyne javanica, and to a lesser extent M. incognita, play a major role in limiting vegetable production, especially of tomato, cucumber, eggplant and okra. Root-knot nematodes increase rapidly to damaging levels under the country's growing conditions; susceptible crops or varieties, sandy soils, limited or unsuitable crop rotations and warm climate all favour rapid nematode development. Complete failure of production sometimes occurs especially in highly infested tomato fields or greenhouses. The root-knot nematodes on vegetables rank first in the list of nematological problems and much of the work is concentrated in this area. TABLE 19 Major plant-parasitic nematodes associated with main crops in Saudi Arabia Nematode + + Note: This table does not represent a complete list of associated nematodes on a given crop; + indicates the most important nematode(s) on that crop.

Other pest species including the lesion, stunt, stem and bulb and spiral nematodes are also important in many vegetable fields (Table 19). Potatoes Potatoes have become an important food crop in Saudi Arabia in recent years. More than 15 varieties are grown in both autumn and spring seasons. Production has increased from 6 700 tonnes in 1980 to about 47 000 tonnes in 1989. In a recent intensive survey of potato fields in six major potato-producing regions, 15 plant-parasitic nematode genera and species were recorded (Al-Hazmi, Ibrahim and Abdul-Razik, 1992). However, Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita, Ditylenchus destructor and D. dipsaci were found to be the most important nematodes on potato. Very extensive damage was often observed in sandy fields that were heavily infested with Meloidogyne javanica. Fruit-trees Date-palms, grapes, citrus, figs and peaches constitute the major fruit-trees in Saudi Arabia.

The cultivated area and production are relatively small (Table 18), except for date-palms where more than 12 million trees are widely grown and surplus production is exported every year. Although fruit-trees have received very little attention, several genera or species of plant-parasitic nematodes have been recorded associated with their roots (Table 19). The citrus nematode is widely spread and causing considerable damage in established old orchards. The root-knot nematodes, particularly Meloidogyne incognita, are very important on grapes, figs and peaches. The dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.) have been frequently recorded on grapes. Date-palms were recorded as hosts of several plant-parasitic nematodes, but their importance is unknown. However, M. incognita and Pratylenchus spp. seem to be more important than other nematodes, especially on young date-palm seedlings. Green fodder In terms of cultivated area and production, alfalfa is the major and most important forage crop in Saudi Arabia.

More than 17 genera and species of plant-parasitic nematodes were recorded associated with alfalfa but Pratylenchus penetrans and Ditylenchus dipsaci are the major nematode pathogens (Table 19). Control measures Information on control of plant-parasitic nematodes in the country is scanty and fragmentary. The economic impacts and the side-effects of different control measures have not been thoroughly investigated or reported. In the past, most of the cultivated land was worked by small farmers using traditional farming and pest-control practices. Multiple cropping or intercropping was commonly used, and a wide range of food crops were cultivated, often in the same field. Disease epidemics or insect outbreaks were very rare. However the shift from traditional farming to modem intensified agriculture in recent years has increased nematological and other pest problems. The introduction of planting materials that are infected (or infested) with nematodes represents an important source of inoculum. Once established, the nematodes can rapidly increase to damaging levels under favourable local conditions.

Root-knot nematodes, which are key pests, have undoubtedly been causing serious crop losses in vegetable fields, and, more recently, CCN has become a potential threat in wheat fields. Nematode management strategies are currently based on short-term goals. Several control measures are being used to varying extents. Use of a particular method, or a combination of methods, depends on many interacting factors, such as: availability of materials; economic feasibility; compatibility with farming practices; infestation levels; crop value; farm size and management; education level of grower; and government aid. The large variation in crop production techniques, that range from subsistence family farming to large-scale commercial agricultural companies, prevents the development of one control strategy that could be applicable to all situations. Small growers usually hesitate to follow certain recommended control measures, whereas commercial growers and agricultural companies will usually utilize expensive nematicides or resistant varieties. There are two important points: first, cultural control measures are the most commonly practised control measure by growers; and, second, root-knot nematodes on high-value vegetable crops, whether in open fields or in greenhouses, are the nematode pests on which control measures are most widely used.

Depending on the circumstances, the following control measures are being used to variable extents. The use of nematicides and resistant varieties, however, is rather limited among small growers because of the high costs or unavailability of these measures. Legislative measures The government has established more than 15 agricultural quarantine centres at international airports, sea ports and along the country's land borders. The rules and regulations are implemented and enforced through the governmental regulatory quarantine programmes. The seven regulations require that all imported planting materials must be pest-free and certified. Since large amounts of planting material are being imported it seems that a losing battle is being fought because alien nematodes will eventually be introduced and established as long as a host plant and a suitable climate are available. Imported planting materials that are infested with nematodes are still an important source of inoculum. Cultural measures As indicated above, cultural control measures are the most common control measures practised by growers, directed mainly to control root-knot nematodes in vegetable fields. These methods include: Sanitation of nurseries. Nurseries for production of seedlings are usually selected on sites that were not previously infested with nematodes and other pathogens. Soil is usually ploughed and left dry between planting seasons.

Other growers plant seedlings in plastic bags or tin containers filled with uninfested soil. Seedlings are frequently inspected for pests and if infested, they are treated or removed and destroyed. However, small farmers often do not pay enough attention to sanitation, and nematode-infested seedlings are sometimes bought and used. Summer fallow. A common practice used by most growers is summer fallow. The climate in many regions of the country is characterized by a long and hot dry summer. Fallows during the summer often help growers to reduce infestation by root-knot nematodes, especially when coupled with ploughing to expose juveniles and eggs in roots and deeper soil layers to direct sunlight. Some work has been done in this area, and the results were very encouraging. Crop rotation. Traditional crop rotations have evolved and are widely used for various reasons. Local growers usually rotate different groups of field and vegetable crops in the same field for maximum use of soil nutrients and to improve soil structure. Although some of these rotations contribute to the suppression of root-knot nematodes, in many cases they fail to give efficient or economic control.

The reasons for such failure are mainly the result of poorly designed rotations, the wide host range of Meloidogyne species, the unavailability of suitable resistant or tolerant varieties, and a lack of knowledge with regard to variation of nematode populations and to the composition of Meloidogyne species present in the field. However, increasing numbers of growers are now aware of the importance and impact of specific and well-designed crop rotations in suppressing nematode populations. Managers of greenhouses, however, hesitate to follow crop rotations and they fumigate with methyl bromide instead. Similarly, commercial wheat growers do not practise crop rotations. However, the recent problem of CCN in many wheat fields will necessitate the practice of suitable crop rotations. Incorporation of organic amendments. Most growers usually incorporate various organic amendments such as animal manure, green manure or sawdust into soil to improve its structure and to provide mineral nutrients. Although the effects of local, different manures on nematode populations have not been investigated, it is well known that incorporation of different organic amendments will influence nematodes either directly or indirectly. However, the large amount of organic matter needed for effective control limits practical application in large-scale systems. Root destruction.

Eliminating infected roots after harvest by uprooting and destruction will retard the spread of nematodes and reduce their initial populations in the next season. Growers are being encouraged to adopt and follow such a practice, but the response is not sufficient. Many of the small growers leave the stalks and roots to be removed at the beginning of the next season. This is causing great concern and efforts are being made to educate those growers to stop this practice. Burning straw. Burning of straw immediately after harvest is commonly practised by commercial wheat growers, for different reasons. We have not yet investigated the impact of such a practice on the spread and population densities of CCN in wheat fields. However, some growers believe that it helps reduce soil-borne pathogens and insects. Physical measures Soil solarization. The long hot summer in most regions of the country provides ideal conditions for soil solarization. Soil solarization of moistened soil with clear plastic tarps has been recently used in some potato and vegetable fields, and proved to be very effective in suppressing populations of root-knot nematodes. The technique is becoming more acceptable among growers, especially in small vegetable fields, greenhouses and nurseries.

Summer fallow and soil solarization are the most economic and promising non-chemical control measures of root-knot nematodes. Soil steaming. Treatment with steam to disinfest soil in heated greenhouses has been recently applied by some commercial greenhouse growers. The technique, however, is not widely used because of the high operational costs. Biological measures Resistant varieties. The use of resistant varieties is an effective, economical and environmentally safe method of nematode control. Although there are many varieties of vegetable and field crops that are resistant to Meloidogyne spp. and other nematodes, use of resistant varieties by growers is rather limited. The unavailability and high cost of such varieties make their use difficult. However, some commercial vegetable growers and greenhouse managers often use limited numbers of tomato varieties resistant to Meloidogyne spp., but they misuse such varieties by growing them in monocultures. Moderately resistant or tolerant cultivars for Meloidogyne spp., or poor hosts such as cabbage, cauliflower, onion and garlic, are sometimes used in crop rotations. Cultivation of potato is increasing in recent years, but none of the 15 potato cultivars grown was found to be resistant to M.

javanica, the most widespread and damaging nematode in our potato fields (unpublished data). The most commonly grown wheat cultivar, Yecoro Rojo, was found to be susceptible to CCN and rotations with other cultivars or crops are only minimal among wheat growers. Natural enemies. Few local isolates of fungal species were isolated from infected juveniles of Meloidogyne spp. or from the secondary treated municipal waste water used for irrigation. In greenhouse experiments, fungi were found to be parasitic or predatory on M. javanica (Al-Hazmi and Abdul-Razik, 1990). Nothing, however, is known about the role of these species or others in natural field soils in suppressing populations of root-knot and other nematodes. No attempt has been made to survey agricultural fields for nematode-antagonistic organisms. Incorporation of organic amendments into soil would definitely increase the activities of nematode-destroying fungi.

Chemical measures Use of nematicides is relatively limited because of their unavailability or scarcity in local markets, high costs, requirements for special equipment and for trained personnel for the application of fumigants, and their negative side-effects that make their use sometimes difficult, especially for small growers. However, commercial growers and large agricultural companies do use both fumigant and non-fumigant nematicides mostly to control root-knot nematodes on high-value vegetable crops in fields and in greenhouses. Use of fumigant nematicides, particularly methyl bromide, and to a lesser extent 1,3-D and metam-sodium, is confined to greenhouses and nurseries. Application rates vary depending on crop value; the potential damage; soil temperature and depth; application method; and the needs for additional control of other soil pests. Few non-fumigant nematicides such as oxamyl, carbofuran and fenamiphos are available in local markets. They are used as pre- and post-plant treatments mostly for the control of root-knot nematodes on vegetables.

Since these granular or liquid nematicides are cheaper and more suitable for use by small growers than fumigants, their use is increasing among small growers, and with crops other than vegetables, such as potato and more recently wheat, to control CCN. They are usually applied as granules or sprays, or water-mediated via drip or centre-pivot irrigation systems. Although these non-fumigants are not as effective as fumigants, they do increase yields compared with non-treated infested soils. However, their success has been restricted to short-term crops. Infrastructure and training The available facilities and number of personnel involved in research, education and extension in plant nematology are relatively small in relation to the size of the country. However, nematological research and education activities represent appreciable commitments compared with those of other plant protection disciplines. In recent years, plant nematology has been growing very rapidly. However, more facilities and professional nematologists are needed. Extension services are officially provided by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water, but the three colleges of agriculture are also helping.

Education and training Plant nematology is housed in the Departments of Plant (or crop) Protection in the three colleges of agriculture: · College of Agriculture, King Saud University, Riyadh; · College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, Hofuf; · College of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, King Saud University, Gassim Branch at Buraidah. Each college has a faculty member nematologist (Ph.D.), and one or two assistants, and offers a three-credit undergraduate nematology course, which is compulsory for students majoring in plant protection. Only the College of Agriculture at Riyadh offers M.Sc. programmes where students majoring in plant pathology have the chance to register in two advanced nematology courses (two plus three credits). At present we feel that these nematological courses at each level are adequate and balanced with other related plant protection courses. However, enrolment in both levels has been decreasing lately in spite of a greater national need for plant protectionists in general, and plant nematologists in particular. This perhaps is a reflection of reduced enrolment in agricultural sciences locally and worldwide. Scholarships for higher education in plant nematology are offered by the government, and currently three students are working for their Ph.D. degrees abroad.

The Agricultural Institute at Buraidah offers a good and practical programme in general agriculture leading to a diploma after two years of intensive training. Students are exposed to nematological problems through different related subjects. Graduate students are usually appointed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water as extension workers. Training programmes or workshops (two to three weeks) in plant protection, plant pathology or plant nematology are frequently held by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water or one of the three colleges of agriculture. Research Most of the research facilities and personnel are located within the three colleges of agriculture. Each college has a nematology research laboratory, an agricultural experiment station and a number of greenhouses and growth chambers. Two or three research assistants are usually involved, fully or partially, in nematological research activities helping the nematologist faculty member. Although relatively adequate at the present time, facilities need to be increased and improved in the near future. Research nematologists are few, and most of them are working on short-term contracts. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water has several agricultural experiment stations in various locations in the country and a National Research Centre at Riyadh. This centre has a nematology research laboratory and a number of greenhouses which are supervised by a nematologist.

Extension Extension services are provided by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water. Extension agents usually with a B.Sc. in agronomy or plant protection, work in the different agricultural regions of the country. Although they were not specifically trained as extension agents in plant nematology, they are encouraged to participate in nematology training programmes and workshops. They help farmers, as best they can, to minimize their nematological problems and also interact with their superiors in the ministry and with the professional nematologists in the three colleges of agriculture. The three colleges of agriculture also contribute to extension activities through different channels such as extension leaflets and bulletins, diagnostic services, nematode assays, control recommendations, training programmes and extension workshops. The College of Agriculture at Riyadh, for example, has also established an agricultural extension centre and a small insect and disease clinic as community services. However, extension in plant nematology as such is far behind research and education. There is a great need for a strong and efficient extension service in plant nematology. Cooperation among the above-mentioned institutions in education, research and extension exists through different formal and informal channels.

Joint research projects, technical committees, training and workshops, exchange of information and opinions, educational programmes and use of facilities and equipment are examples of the different forms of cooperation. However, we all feel that more cooperation is needed, and great efforts are being made in this direction. Support for nematology All aid programmes, whether in education, research or services, are provided by the government through different agencies and channels. No foreign financial aid has been provided. However, various forms of agricultural cooperation between national and many international institutions have been established for many years. The outcome of such cooperation is very encouraging and much appreciated. In plant nematology, scientific cooperation with institutions, societies and research centres has been established and even more cooperation is being sought. Research funds are provided by the King Abdul Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST). The impacts of governmental aid programmes, especially those provided by KACST, are well recognized and have resulted in strong research motivation and support in agricultural and other research programmes. Nematological research has benefited greatly from these funded research programmes. The results of such research programmes have provided a considerable amount of important information that can be implemented to the benefit of our growers and have directed future research programmes.

These well-funded research programmes have also helped establish some good research facilities, purchasing specialized equipment and materials and in training graduate students and research assistants. However, the efficient implementation of results still needs more effort by extension specialists to simplify and transfer such results to the direct benefit of the growers. Conclusions and recommendations Plant nematology in Saudi Arabia is very young. The first report of plant-parasitic nematodes appeared only in 1957. However, during the past decade plant nematology has been growing more rapidly than most of the other plant protection disciplines and progress has been made especially in the fields of education and research The root-knot nematodes on vegetables, the citrus nematode in established citrus orchards, and more recently the cereal-cyst nematode on wheat are the main nematological problems in the country. However, knowledge of nematological problems is far from complete. A shortage of professional nematologists and trained assistants is the main obstacle at the present time. The main recommendations which are important for alleviating the nematological problems in the country are: · Growers need to understand nematodes, their damage to crops, and how to manage them.

There is a great need for extension nematologists and the service they provide. · Demonstration plots, simple pamphlets and bulletins, preferably with coloured illustrations, will help to speed up dissemination of information among growers. · Nematological training programmes and workshops for extension agents and trained growers should be held more frequently. · Nematode diagnostic and advisory services should be established. · A national plan for strengthening and improving nematode education, research and extension programmes should be developed. · Enrolment in nematology graduate (M.Sc.) programmes should be encouraged. · Publication and/or translation of good textbooks and references in plant nematology are required. · Cooperation with national and international institutions and scientific societies should be increased. · Control of nematode introduction and spread should be a high priority. · Only nematode-free planting materials should be used. · Technical facilities and equipment and support programmes should be increased. · Easy access is needed to nematode-resistant varieties, especially for control of root-knot nematodes, as well as appropriate nematicides. · Growers should be trained in the efficient and wise use of resistant varieties and nematicides currently available.

· Efforts should be made to continue and increase identification of nematological problems, and assess the extent of plant damage they cause, including experimental work on the quantification of crop losses under local conditions. · More efforts and extra care should be made when planning crop rotations to select and develop a management approach that prevents or suppresses the build-up of large nematode populations. · Emphasis in research should be placed on the most locally promising and economical control measures. Under the country's climatic conditions, research on the efficacy of summer fallow, desiccation, soil solarization, cropping systems and other commonly used cultural practices on populations of the major plant-parasitic nematodes, such as Meloidogyne spp., should be emphasized and strengthened. · There is also a great need for an integrated pest management approach. Resistant varieties, crop rotations, judicious use of pesticides and sanitary and cultural practices should also be employed. Bibliography Abdu, B.A. 1972. A preliminary survey of plant-parasitic nematodes in the central region of Saudi Arabia. Bull. Fac. Sci., King Saud Univ., 4: 89-98.

Abul-Hayia, Z.A., Trabuisi, I.Y., Rukaiba, A. & Fathi, M. 1980. Effects of different plant covers on population density of soil nematodes with special reference to root-knot nematodes in Riyadh region, Saudi Arabia. J. Coil. Agric., King Saud Univ., 1: 115-123. Abu Yaman, I.K. & Abu Blan, H.A. 1972. Major diseases of cultivated crops in the Central Province of Saudi Arabia. 2. Diseases of vegetables. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschatz, 79: 227-231. Al-Hazmi, S.A., Abul-Hayia, A.M. & Trabuisi, I.Y. 1983. Plant-parasitic nematodes in Al-Kharj region of Saudi Arabia. Nematol. Medit., 11: 209-212. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1984.

Host-index of plant-parasitic nematodes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. J. Coil. Agric., King Saud Univ., 6: 69-85. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1985a. Interaction of Meloidogyne incognita and Macrophomina phaseolina in a root-knot disease complex of French bean. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift, 113:311-316. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1985b. Susceptibility of some cucurbit cultivars, grown in Saudi Arabia to root-knot nematodes. J. Coil. Agric., King Saud Univ., 7:439-445. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1985c. Efficacy of selected nematicides and management practices on populations of Meloidogyne javanica on eggplants. J. Coil. Agric., King Saud Univ. 7: 457-466. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1987.

Relationships between the initial population density of Meloidogyne javanica and growth of eggplant. J. Coil. Agric., King Saud Univ., 9: 285-293. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1988a. Infectivity and reproduction of Meloidogyne javanica as influenced by soil texture. J. Coil. Agric., King Saud Univ., 10:173-179. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1988b. Relative host susceptibility of corn and alfalfa cultivars to Meloidogyne javanica. Pak. J. Nematol., 6: 101-105. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1988c. Relative reproductive rate of Pratylenchus penetrans on selected cultivars of alfalfa and corn. Arab J. PI. Prot., 6: 49-52. Al-Hazmi, A.S. 1991. Introduction to plant nematology. King Saud Univ. Press. Al-Hazmi, A.S., Al-Yahya, F.A.

& El-Saedy, M.A. 1988a. Effect of sewage water on the penetration and development of Tylenchulus semipenetrans. Nematol. Medit., 16: 225. Al-Hazmi, A.S., Al-Yahya, F.A. & El-Saedy, M.A. 1988b. Effect of four fungi isolated from treated sewage water on population development of Tylenchulus penetrans. Nematropica, 18: 93-97. Al-Hazmi, A.S. & Abdul-Razik, A.T. 1990. Evaluation of some fungal species as biocontrol agents of Meloidogyne javanica. Pak. J. Nematol., 9: 39-47. Al-Hazmi, A.S., Al-Yahya, F.A. & El-Saedy, M.A. 1991. Effect of sewage water deposits retained at different depths of soil columns on population development of Tylenchulus semipenetrans. J. Agric. Sci., King Saud Univ., 1:87-94.

Al-Hazmi, A.S., Ibrahim, A.A. & Abdul-Razik, A.T. 1992. Distribution, frequency and population density of nematodes associated with potato in Saudi Arabia. African Asian J. Nematol. Al-Hazmi, A.S., El-Saedy, M.A. & Abdul-Razik, A.T. 1992. Investigations on the effects of irrigation with treated municipal waste water on soil nematode populations. Coil. Agric. Res. Bull., 22. Al-Hazmi, A.S., El-Saedy, M.A. & Abdul-Razik, A.T. 1992. Effect of treated municipal waste water on infectivity and production of Meloidogyne javanica on tomato. Fundamental and Applied J. Nematol. Al-Yahya, F.A., Al-Hazmi, A.S. & El-Saedy, M.A. 1988a. Effect of irrigation with treated sewage water on the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans. J. Coil.

Agric., King Saud Univ., 10: 317-325. Al-Yahya, F.A., Al-Hazmi, A.S. & El-Saedy, M.A. 1988b. Effect of treated sewage water on egg hatch and infectivity of Tylenchulus semipenetrans. Nematol. Medit., 16:13-15. Al-Yahya, F.A., Al-Hazmi, A.S. & El-Saedy, M.A. 1988c. Effect of soil texture on reproduction of Tylenchulus semipenetrans on lime seedlings irrigated with treated sewage water. Alex. J. Agric. Res., 33: 183-192. Eissa, M.F.M. 1977. Status of plant-parasitic nematodes and their control feasibility in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In Proc. 1st Conference on the Biological Aspects of Saudi Arabia, p. 257-263. 15-17 January, Riyadh University, Saudi Arabia. Eissa, M.F.M., Saleem, A.A.

& El-Samiraii, F.M. 1977. Susceptibility of some grape-vine cultivars to the southern root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White, 1919 Chitwood, 1949) in Saudi Arabia. In Proc. 1st Conference on the Biological Aspects of Saudi Arabia, p. 318-323. 15-17 January, Ryadh University, Saudi Arabia. Eissa, M.F.M., Mustafa, M. & Al-Kahtani, M.S. 1979. Susceptibility of some citrus rootstocks to the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb, 1913 and spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus dihystera (Cobb, 1893) Sher, 1961 in Saudi Arabia. Zool. Soc., Egypt Bull., 28: 62-65. Eissa, M.F.M., Beinhart, G. & Al-Uyayed. 1979.

Cooperation with the International Meloidogyne Project in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Regional Agricultural and Water Research Centre. In Proc. 2nd Res. Plan. Conf. on Root-knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp., p. 105-112. 26-30 November, Athens. Eissa, M.F.M., Uyayed, S. & Beinhart, G. 1980. Identification of the root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp., from four regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In Proc. 4th Symposium on the Biological Aspects of Saudi Arabia. Eissa, M.F.M. & El-Samiaraii, EH. 1980. Reactions of native and imported grape cultivars to the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) at Al-Kharj. In Proc. 4th Conference on the Biological Aspects of Saudi Arabia. Abha, Riyadh, University of Saudi Arabia. Eissa, M.F.M. 1982. Control of Pratylenchus thornei parasitizing potato under field conditions of Saudi Arabia. Research Bulletin No. 1742.

Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo. Loof, P.A.A. 1982. Two new species of Longidoridae (Dorylaimida) from Saudi Arabia. Nematologica, 28: 307-317. Lysek, G. & Kurschner, H. 1978. The nematode-capturing deuteromyete Dactylella gephyropaga Drechsler (1937) isolated from soil of a Juniperus forest in the Asir Mountains, Saudi Arabia. Nova Hedwigia, 45: 205-210. Martin, H.E. 1971. List of plant pests and diseases in Saudi Arabia. Cairo, FAO. 55 pp. Mohamed, H.M. 1981. Effect of different population densities of Meloidogyne javanica on growth and yield of cowpea. Proc. Saudi Biol. Soc., 5. Natour, R.M. 1963. Report of common plant diseases in the Saudi Arabian peninsula (in Arabic).

Report, Agricultural Research and Development Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. (unpublished) Talhouk, A.M. 1957. Report on the diseases and insect pests of crops found in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Arabian American Oil Company. Trabuisi, I.Y., Ali, M.A. & Abdel Samea, M.E. 1980. Response of soybean cultivars to infection by Meloidogyne incognita and Rhizobium japonicum alone and in combination. Nematologia, 8: 171-175. Cabbage | Tozer Seeds Tozer Seeds The creators of Cabbage Tozer Seeds have been breeding cabbages for over 50 years and have a wide range of varietiesÂ available. Our recent breeding work has focused on improving January King and savoy varieties.Â Our range of savoys are suited to cropping from late-August through to April and our great tastingÂ January Kings from January through to April. Also of note are our range of Green Ballhead types, such asÂ Hotspur and Sherwood.

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