Protective Dikes and Land Reclamation, The Netherlands | Building the World Protective Dikes and Land Reclamation, The Netherlands Protective Dikes and Land Reclamation, The Netherlands Maeslant Barrier in Rotterdam, from The Wall Street Journal, at wsj.com. WHY THE NETHERLANDS? “God created the earth but the Dutch made Holland.” – popular proverb The Dutch, living on a seacoast, save disappearing land by building protective dikes, and reclaiming marshland for agriculture, and have been doing so for a very long time. In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder described inland farmers constructing dams in tidal creeks to protect their land against high water. Today’s world is also plagued by flooding. Thailand suffered serious inundation in 2011; factories near Bangkok closed, delaying the production of Toyota automobiles whose specialized parts are manufactured in Thailand. Water disasters have impacted New Orleans on the Gulf as well as the farmlands along the Mississippi River. What of island nations disappearing due to rising oceans – the Maldives, Kiribati? Can the medieval Dutch teach us a few lessons for a safer and more productive future? IS IT ALL DUE TO A CAT?

During the Middle Ages, cats were introduced to Europe to control the rodent population that had long ravaged stored grains. As a result, agriculture became more efficient and there was throughout Europe a period of growth. The farming opportunities began to appeal to the Dutch who dug up marshes to create farmland. From 800 to 1250 AD due to a boom in farming and a growing coastal trade, the population of the Netherlands grew ten-fold. To keep up with the demand for food, the Dutch dug up the marshes and sold the peat, converting marshes to farmland. But as the marshes were drained, the groundwater was lowered and the land began to sink. It therefore became imperative to build a series of linked major dikes to protect the land from flooding. Previous to this change, the land had been 6.5 to 9.8 feet above sea level (2-3 meters). It is worth noting that while dikes are not unique to The Netherlands, they have provided the country with one undeniable distinction: it constitutes the only country in the world whose key areas were reclaimed from the sea, not from neighbors.

Additionally the thousand-year-old dike army can be regarded as an authentic progenitor of the concept of “an army enlisted against nature” as proposed by William James in the essay “The Moral Equivalent of War.” Around the year AD 1100, West-Friesland had built an enclosure dike (omringkijk). At the same time, the Frisians established a “dike peace” or strongly enforced consensus that whenever a dike was endangered, family feuds must cease forthwith so that all available manpower could be mobilized to reinforce the dikes. THE BOYS WHO SAVED HOLLAND A statue to the boy who saved Holland. Many children know the story of Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates, thinking it to be translation of a Dutch book. Hans, a valiant fifteen-year-old boy who skates very well, saves his father’s life and lets his friend win the championship skating race because his buddy needs the prize money even more. But the story, first published in 1865, was written in fact by an American who had never even been to Holland. The book captured the imaginations of many.

In addition to introducing the sport of speed skating to the United States, the book was taken up by Disney in films both in 1962 and in 1998, adapted for in-line skating set in Los Angeles. Erroneously, many people think Hans also is the boy who saved Holland by plugging a hole in the dike and staying there all night until adults checked the dikes in the morning and were able to fix the leak. It’s the kind of thing Hans Brinker would indeed have done. But actually this is a sub-story in the Hans Brinker book by Mary Mapes Dodge, who merely refers to the boy as The Hero of Haarlem. Later, Phoebe Cary, an American poet living not too far from an area of New York City that became known as Harlem, wrote a poem called “The Leak in the Dike” in which she named the boy Peter. From the Museum De Lakenhal, at lakenhal.nl. While Hans and Peter dwell in legend, Arie Evegroen is a hero of history, as are Cornelis Heuvelman and Johannes Aart van Vliet.

During the North Sea flood of 1953 when over 1,800 people died, Evegroen was asked by the mayor to use his grain barge Twee Gebroeders (Two Brothers) to plug a dike leak in the area of Nieuwerkerk aan den Ussel. Heuvelman volunteered to help hold the barge, roping the ship to the dike so the waves would help to push it into the breach and hold the water back. Soon the Mayor of the town who had summoned Evegroen saw that more was needed, so Mayor Vogelaar next asked Johannes Aart van Vliet to use his barge, Onderneming II, to bring sandbags to the dike. But Van Vliet did more than asked; he also brought hot coffee, and a portable stove so Dike Army volunteers were warm throughout the crisis. In 2009, over 50 years later, Heuvelman and Van Vliet received awards at a ceremony in the main hall of Nieuwerkerk aan den Ijssel, where the current mayor Bonthuis praised the heroes, reminding all that each individual can make a great difference in saving the world.

Earlier, a monument showing a replica of Evegroen’s barge sticking out from the dike’s shoulder had already been installed as a reminder through public art of the role of everyday people in disaster response LOCAL AND NATIONAL GOVERNMENT Another lesson to be learned from the Dutch is collective governance. Local communities came together to form water boards that had, by common consent, wide powers of inspection, discipline and governance. The aristocracy, which possessed large landholdings, supported the water boards; these local organizations called out the dike army as needed. Water boards were democratic organizations, but slowly received formal charters from the rulers of various districts. In effect, local water boards also produced revenue through self-taxation: each village contributed to the upkeep of their local dikes. What can we learn from the democratic, self-regulating and self-taxing water boards as we consider governance and maintenance of key infrastructure? Is there a role for locals in highway maintenance, canal improvement, bikeway development? Still, the seven provinces had slightly different policies on rivers and water.

The need for central coordination led, in 1789, to the establishment of a state water authority, the Rijkswaterstaat, to plan and supervise large-scale construction including reclamation of the Zuider Sea. This same effort resulted in the creation of Lake Ijssel, the largest Dutch reservoir, assuring the northern provinces of an ever-normal freshwater supply even during dry periods. Can the success of the Rijkswaterstaat serve as a model for a regionally-applied “ever-normal” water supply? While our world has plenty of water, we still suffer from floods and droughts. What can we learn from the Dutch? WINDMILLS In 1282, an unknown Dutch carpenter built the first water-pumping windmill – probably an Arab invention observed by a crusader who later returned home and reported on its design and use. Nearly three centuries later, a windmill with a rotatable top was developed; this was an important improvement because winds in northwest Europe come from different directions, so the new kind of windmill could always take advantage of prevailing winds. Windmills, from drexel.edu. Windmills helped engineer artificial drainage in embanked areas called polders.

With such innovation, it was now possible to drain large lakes. Unwanted water was dispatched into specially built drainage canals. Documents of Authorization The ruler of West-Friesland, Bishop van Zuden, commanded in April 1319: “Everybody shall come to work at the dike on instruction of the baliff or dike reeve/ende alman sal ten menen werke comen op den dijc, daers hem die Baeiliu, of die Dijcgrave vermaent.” – A.A. Beekman. Het dijk – en waterschaprecht in Nederland voor 1795. (Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1905). English translation by Pieter Huisman. The Water Board shall dig watercourses and construct sluices and bridges in the region.

The Board shall develop these works in locations that will be the most adequate and profitable for the region and in such ways that the inhabitants downstream profit equally from these works as will the inhabitants in the upstream region…all people possessing land between the Meuse and the Waal shall stand ready to pay for the cost and the maintenance of the watercourses, sluices, weirs, and bridges according to the ratio of their land ownership…the dijkgraaf will inspect the dikes between the Meuse and the Waal with the same frequency in every village. – H. van Heinigen, Tussen Maas en Waal. (Zutphen: De Walburg Pers, 1972, 440-442. English translation by Pieter Huisman. VOICES OF THE FUTURE: Discussion and Implications New Land: As world population increases, there will be more demand for land. Can we use principles and technology using water and wind to preserve our coasts? Boston Harbor and the Back Bay are examples of land reclamation and development. How can Boston, and of course Holland, serve as case studies to recommend similar actions for endangered global coastlines? Can Dutch Docklands lead the way to new floating cities?

What sovereignty issues might evolve? Shipping and global ocean environments: Coastal cities such as Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and Lagos, Nigeria prospered due to access to water. So too, Boston. Songdo, a new city in South Korea is a case in point. And would New York be the metropolis it is today without both the Atlantic Ocean and the Erie Canal ? What opportunities for economic development await land with access to global waters? What environmental provisions must be considered when planning a safe future for our oceans? RESOURCES To read the complete chapter, members of the University of Massachusetts Boston may access the e-book through Healey Library Catalog and ABC-CLIO here. Alternatively the volumes can be accessed at WorldCat , or at Amazon for purchase. Further resources are available onsite at the University of Massachusetts Boston, Healey Library , including some of the following: Building the World Collection Finding Aid (* indicates printed in notebook series) “Holland goes beyond holding back the tide: Nation endeavors to be climate-proof,” by Colin Nickerson, The Boston Globe, Monday, December 5, 2005.

Correspondence between Pieter Huisman and Frank Davidson detailing contents of four Annex documents regarding the dikes of 1456, 1611, 1500, 2000. Correspondence between Pieter Huisman and Kevin Downing of Greenwood Press regarding photo of storm surge barrier in Rotterdam Waterway in 1997. Digital files (on older formatted floppy disks – may need to be converted). “West-Friesland’s ‘Oud en Nieuw’,” Uitgegeven door het historisch genoot-schap “oud West-Friesland,” ter Drukkerij “West-Friesland” te hoorn in 1936. Text begins: “Het octrooi der bedijking van Burghorn (1456). “Water Legislation in the Netherlands,” by Pieter Huisman, DUP Satellite, 2004.

“The Dutch Windmill,” by Frederick Stokhuyzen, former chairman of “De Hollandsche Molen,” Association for the Preservation of Windmills in the Netherlands, publisher CAJ van Dishoek-Bussum-Holland, 1962, translated from the Dutch by Carry Dikshoorn. Pp. 1-17 (of 68). “Shipping Canal at Rijswij,” illustration and description of Dutch landscape painting by Hendrik Weissenbruch. From Rijksmuseum. “Water Mill,” illustration and description of painting of a water mill with three wheels by Jacob van Ruisdael. From Rijksmuseum. “Cattle Ferry,” illustration and description of painting of a Dutch river activity, the first time such a Dutch river landscape was depicted on a monumental scale. Form Rijksmueseum. Various laws concerning flood defense of Rhine and Ussel, and documents concerning the creation of the Rijkswaterstaat on 24thMay, 1789. Fax from TUDelft Water Management, February 15, 2002.

“THE NETHERLANDS: Built and Maintained by Engineering,” early draft of chapter by Frank P. Davidson, hand typed. “Planet Earth Renewed: MacroProjects and Geopolitics.” R.B. Cathcart. Excerpt on Holland from unpublished manuscript, circa 1983. Internet Illustration. “Mill Wijk-bij-Duurstede,” illustration and description of Dutch landscape painting of river Lek by Jacob van Ruisdael. “The Netherlands: Organisation and Management of Water Management,” from Water Management Journal, Year 45, No. 7-8/2002, p. 12. “Heroes of February 1953 Flood finally recognized for saving untold lives,” . GoDutch.com, February 09, 2009. For Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies: Litwin, Evan. “Climate Diaspora.” McCormack 2011 Master’s Thesis, UMB. Hans Brinker and the story of the boy who saved Holland, Wikipedia. *“Towns in Germania Inferior: Laurium (Woerden). . *Koninkliijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap. .

*“Polders and Dykes of the Netherlands: The Reclamation of Land in the Netherlands,” by Matt Rosenberg. Copyright The New York Times Company. About, Inc. . *“Welcome to Kindrtdijk,” . *“The Valour and the Horror in Desparate Battle: Normandy 1944 – Mulberry Harbour,” . *Glossary of Meteorology. *“Collection Rijksmuseum Amsterdam,” close to one million objects, details of collection summarized. . *“Choosing a Cat,” role of cats in grain storage. . *“The Moral Equivalent of War,” William James. (whole essay printed here) . *“Impact of Emerging Technologies,” Technology Review, MIT. Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License . Leave a Reply Dikes of the Netherlands By Matt Rosenberg Updated July 30, 2015. In 1986, the Netherlands proclaimed the new 12th province of Flevoland but they didn't carve out the province from already existing Dutch land nor did they annex the territory of their neighbors - Germany and Belgium.

The Netherlands actually grew larger with the aid of dikes and polders, making the old Dutch adage "While God created the Earth, the Dutch created the Netherlands" come literally true. The Netherlands The independent country of the Netherlands only dates back to 1815 but the area and its people have a much longer history. Located in northern Europe, just northeast of Belgium and west of Germany, the Netherlands contains 280 miles (451 km) of coastline along the North Sea. It also contains the mouths of three very important European rivers: the Rhine, Schelde, and Meuse. This translates into a long history of dealing with water and attempts to prevent massive, destructive flooding. The North Sea Floods The Dutch and their ancestors have been working to hold back and reclaim land from the North Sea for over 2000 years. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States Beginning around 400 BCE, the Frisians were first to settle the Netherlands. It was they who built terpen (an Old Frisian word meaning "villages"), which were earth mounds upon which they built houses or even entire villages.

These terpen were built to protect the villages from flooding. (Although there were once thousands of these, there are about a thousand terpen that still exist in the Netherlands.) Small dikes were also built around this time, usually being rather short (about 27 inches or 70 cm high) and made of natural materials found around the local area. On December 14 1287, the terpen and dikes that held back the North Sea failed, and water flooded the country. Known as the St. Lucia's Flood, this flood killed over 50,000 people and is considered one of the worst floods in history. A result of the massive St. Lucia's Flood was the creation of a new bay, called Zuiderzee ("South Sea"), formed by floodwaters that had inundated a large area of farmland. Pushing Back the North Sea For the next few centuries, the Dutch worked to slowly push back the water of the Zuiderzee, building dikes and creating polders (the term used to described any piece of land reclaimed from water). Once dikes were built, canals and pumps were used to drain the land and to keep it dry.

From the 1200s, windmills were used to pump excess water off the fertile soil -- becoming an icon of the country in the process. Today, however, most of the windmills have been replaced with electricity- and diesel-driven pumps. Reclaiming the Zuiderzee Then, storms and floods of 1916 provided the impetus for the Dutch to start a major project to reclaim the Zuiderzee. From 1927 to 1932, a 19 mile (30.5 km) long dike called Afsluitdijk (the "Closing Dike") was built, turning the Zuiderzee into the IJsselmeer, a freshwater lake. On February 1, 1953, another devastating flood hit the Netherlands. Caused by a combination of a storm over the North Sea and spring tide, waves along the sea wall rose to 15 feet (4.5 m) higher than mean sea level. In a number of areas, the water peaked above existing dikes and spilled upon unsuspecting, sleeping towns.

Just over 1,800 people in the Netherlands died, 72,000 people had to be evacuated, thousands of livestock died, and there was a huge amount of property damage. This devastation prompted the Dutch to pass the Delta Act in 1958, changing the structure and administration of the dikes in the Netherlands. This, in turn, created the collective known as the North Sea Protection Works, which included building a dam and barriers across the sea. There is no wonder that this huge engineering feat is now considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World , according to the American Society of Civil Engineers. Further protective dikes and works were built, beginning to reclaim the land of the IJsselmeer. The new land led to the creation of a the new province of Flevoland from what had been sea and water for centuries. Much of the Netherlands Is Below Sea Level Today, approximately 27 percent of the Netherlands is actually below sea level. This area is home to over 60 percent of the country's population of 15.8 million people. The Netherlands, which is approximately the size of the U.S.

states Connecticut and Massachusetts combined, has an approximate average elevation of 36 feet (11 meters). This leaves a huge part of the Netherlands highly susceptible to flooding and only time will tell if the North Sea Protection Works are strong enough to protect it. The Netherlands The Netherlands Official name: Kingdom of the Netherlands Area: 41,526 square kilometers (16,033 square miles) Highest point on mainland: Vaalserberg (321 meters/1,053 feet) Lowest point on land: Prins Alexanderpolder (7 meters/23 feet below sea level) Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern P.M.

= noon GMT Longest distances: 312 kilometers (194 miles) from north to south; 264 kilometers (164 miles) from east to west Land boundaries: 1,027 kilometers (638 miles) total boundary length; Germany 577 kilometers (359 miles); Belgium 450 kilometers (280 miles) Coastline: 451 kilometers (280 miles) Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles) 1 LOCATION AND SIZE The Netherlands (formerly also known as Holland) is located in Western Europe between Belgium and Germany, bordering the North Sea. With an area of about 41,526 square kilometers (16,033 square miles), the country is slightly less than twice the size of the state of New Jersey. The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES The two island groups of the Netherlands Antilles and the island of Aruba are dependencies of the Netherlands. All of these islands are located in the Caribbean Sea. Aruba and the Antilles islands of Curaçao and Bonaire are located just north of Venezuela.

The other group of Antilles islands—Saba, Stint, Eustatius, and Sint Maarten (the Dutch portion of Saint Martin)—are located farther north, east of the Virgin Islands. 3 CLIMATE The Netherlands shares the temperate maritime climate common in much of northern and western Europe. The average temperature ranges from 1°C to 5°C (34°F to 41°F) in January and from 13°C to 22°C (55°F to 72°F) in July. Because the Netherlands has few natural barriers, such as high mountains, the climate varies little from region to region. Annual precipitation averages 76 centimeters (30 inches). 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS The Netherlands may be divided into two main regions, one comprising areas below sea level, called the Low Netherlands, and the other including land above sea level, called the High Netherlands. These classifications are based not only on differences in elevation, but also on differences in geological formation. The High Netherlands was formed mainly in the Pleistocene Age (which began about two million years ago and ended about ten thousand years ago) and is composed chiefly of sand and gravel.

The Low Netherlands is relatively younger, having been formed in the Holocene Age (fewer than ten thousand years ago), and consists mainly of clay and peat. There are other differences as well. The High Netherlands is undulating and even hilly in places, with farms alternating with woodland and heath. The Low Netherlands is predominantly flat, and is intersected by natural and artificial waterways. Dunes and dikes protect the Low Netherlands against flooding. The western and northern regions of the country consist of about five thousand polders (plots of land reclaimed from the sea), which cover over 2,500 square kilometers (950 square miles). 5 OCEANS AND SEAS Seacoast and Undersea Features The Netherlands has a western border on the North Sea, which is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Great Britain from northwest Europe. Sea Inlets and Straits The Waddenzee is a shallow body of water that stretches along the northern coast of the country. It is separated from the North Sea by the West Frisian Islands and is protected as a popular nesting area for birds.

In the delta region at the southern coast, there are two major inlets: the Westerschelde and Oosterschelde. Islands and Archipelagos The West Frisian Islands were formed when the North Sea broke through a series of dunes along the Netherlands' ancient northern coastline. The area behind the dunes became the Waddenzee, while the tallest of the dunes remained intact, becoming the islands. From west to east, the largest of these islands are Texel, Vlieland, Terschelling, Ameland, and Schiermonnikoog. Vlieland Island is the site of a national park. Coastal Features The North Sea coastline of the Netherlands consists mostly of dunes. The low-lying sandy dunes of the northwestern coastline were created by the action of wind and water. In some areas, they are nearly 30 meters (100 feet) high. Further south, the major rivers flow into the North Sea and form the delta region. This area is characterized by islands connected by dikes or dams, and waterways connected by canals. 6 INLAND LAKES There are many small lakes located in the northern and western portions of the Netherlands.

In the northeast, more than thirty lakes are interconnected by canals. Some of the largest of these are Lake Fluessen, Lake Sloter, and Sneek Lake. Southwest of these is the nation's largest lake, IJsselmeer, a freshwater lake that was formed by the construction of the Afsluitdijk Barrier (completed in 1932). Prior to construction of the dam, this body of water was a shallow, salty arm of the North Sea known as the Zuider Zee. It now covers an area of about 1,210 square kilometers (467 square miles). South of the IJsselmeer is Marker Lake (Markermeer), another freshwater lake enclosed by a dam. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS The Rhine (Rheine) River and the Meuse (Maas) River dominate the western and central part of the country. The Rhine is considered to be the nation's longest river. With a total length of 1,319 kilometers (820 miles), the river is formed by the confluence of two tributaries in eastern Switzerland; it then flows north and northwest through Germany before reaching the Netherlands.

Inside the Netherlands, it branches out into two major arms: the Neder Rijn (called Lek in its lower course) and the Waal. They flow west, roughly parallel to each other and never farther apart than about 30 kilometers (19 miles). Both branches have many tributaries entering and leaving them before they reach the North Sea. The Meuse River is the largest tributary of the Rhine in the Netherlands. It enters the country in the far southeast and flows north to the middle of the country before curving to the west. In this part of its course it is only a few miles south of the Waal; eventually, the two rivers meet and flow into the North Sea. The IJssel River is a major branch of the Neder Rijn. It branches off from the Neder Rijn shortly after that river's beginning. The IJssel flows north, receives a number of small tributaries, and then empties into Lake IJsselmeer. The Schelde (Scheldt or Escaut) River enters the Netherlands from Belgium in the southwest. It almost immediately widens into a broad estuary and flows into the North Sea.

8 DESERTS The Netherlands’ Evolving Relationship with Water – The Dirt Jared Green Jerry Van Eyck, ASLA, of Melk! explained how the Netherland’s efforts over the past few hundred years to “control and conquer” its landscape have been driven by its “aggressive” need to create more land for dairy and agricultural production. The development of Netherlands’ system of dikes and reclaimed land has also been driven, more defensively, by its need to “keep feet dry and survive.” However, now, the country is ceding land back to the sea in a calculated retreat and creating “soft coastal engineering” systems to protect against sea level rise. The Dutch have always “controlled and conquered water” for their own economic benefit. Like colonization, which led to a massive expansion of Dutch land overseas, water management and land reclamation has been a process of domestic expansion. A few strategies have been used over the past hundred years: Terps: Since before 500 BC, early Dutch were creating “terps” or hills to escape rising sea waters. Dikes: These are systems for controlling rivers. In between summer and winter dike lines are flood plains that manage flood water.

Given more than 50 percent of the Netherlands is below sea level, a system of dikes has been in constant use for a few hundred years to reclaim and then protect land. Polders: More than 3,000 “polders” or reclaimed lands are in place across the country. Since the early 1600’s, polders have turned “swampy, peaty, warm, humid places” into land that can be farmed out. For centuries, dikes were first created in a circle around a piece of land and then windmills were used to pump out the water. Later, steam-based pumping stations made the creation of polders industrial, “enabling higher levels of reclamation.” Two major land reclamation efforts include the “Zuidersee works” along Amsterdam and the “Delta works” in the southwest corner of the country. The Zuidersee works enabled “huge land reclamations” and featured a closure dike some 20 miles long. The soils on the reclaimed land, once desalinated, were found to be particularly fertile and suited for cow grazing and agricultural production.

At the same time, they were also a disappointment in terms of population expansion — few wanted to move into these flat, desolate areas at first. The Delta works uses a pair of massive revolving doors to control water levels. “Each door is as big as the Eiffel Tower.” Storm surge barriers are something out of “Star Wars” — “They are science fiction” made real. Due to increased dairy and agriculture production efficiency, polders once used for farming are now being sold back to local governments for use as new suburbs. Some three percent of Holland’s population produces agriculture in such an efficient way that the country is one of the top three exporters of agricultural products worldwide (behind the U.S. and France). On climate change, Van Eyck says the Dutch don’t have all the answers. “Nature always fights back somehow.” Soils are shrinking, putting land back below sea levels again. Weather changes are creating monsoon-like rains, meaning some dikes won’t be able to hold the increased water flow. With increased water flow, the soil balance is also changing, “deteriorating.” The Netherlands is now going through a process of “de-polderization,” a calculated retreat where land is given back to the water.

The country’s landscape architects are also creating a new system of “soft infrastructure” along the coasts to protect the country against climate change-induced rising sea levels. “We discovered we can’t put more dikes, or ‘hard’ infrastructure in place to control against sea level rise — water seeps through the weak spots. Instead, we need to use ‘soft coastal protection.'” These soft coastal engineered systems, or “sprayland” consists of mud that has been sprayed under water for years, creating strips of coastal land. Airplanes then throw Buckthorn bush seeds out in order to vegetate these strips. Bulldozers then come in to create fire escape lines through the vegetation. Van Eyck said the world sees the Netherlands as experts in water management, but increasingly, “there’s no solution to climate change,” only combinations of engineered hard and soft protections. Image credit: Dutch Dike, Wikipedia Commons Rate this: Netherlands Provinces Buy data Donate Updates: A regional government is being planned for Flevoland, Noord-Holland, and Utrecht. Money to cover the expenses of the transition is being figured in for 2017.

ISO 3166-2 Newsletter II-3 is dated 2011-12-15. This update assigns alternate ISO codes to the territories in the Caribbean. Erratum: In "Administrative Subdivisions of Countries", the capital of Flevoland is given as Dronten. It is actually Lelystad. Apparently Dronten was the capital at an earlier period. International standard ISO 3166-2 was published on December 15, 1998. It superseded ISO/DIS 3166-2 (draft international standard). For Netherlands, the draft standard showed twelve provinces with their codes. In brackets, it also listed an administrative area (Zuidelijke IJsselmeerpolders) and two municipalities (Dronten and Lelystad). These three were redundant, because in 1986 they had been merged into the new province of Flevoland, which was one of the twelve provinces shown. The final standard has dropped the administrative area and the municipalities. It now lists only the twelve provinces, as they were in the draft standard.

Country overview: Amsterdam, The Hague The Netherlands have been independent for the whole of the 20th century. They have extended their territory by reclaiming land from the sea. Technically, Amsterdam is the capital of the country, and The Hague (Den Haag in Dutch) is its seat of government. Almost all of the governmental functions are headquartered in The Hague. The inauguration of a new king or queen takes place in Amsterdam. Other names of country: Holland and its cognates technically refer only to the provinces of North and South Holland, but they are popularly used for the whole country. Danish: Holland, Kongeriget Nederlandene (formal) Dutch: Nederland, Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (formal) English: Kingdom of the Netherlands (formal) Finnish: Alankomaat, Hollanti Area: Land area. Postal codes: Netherlands uses a system of postal codes consisting of four digits, one space, and two letters. The system made its debut in 1976. Unlike other European countries, Netherlands discourages the use of a country prefix. The borders of postal code areas do not match well with province borders.

Further subdivisions: The provinces are subdivided into gemeenten (municipalities or parishes; sing. gemeente). The number of municipalities has decreased from 1,014 in 1948 to 840 in 1976, 572 in 1997, and 418 in 2011. Territorial extent: Flevoland consists of three polders. Noord-Oost Polder is connected to the mainland; East and South Flevoland form an island in the IJsselmeer, except for some dikes which link them to shore. Friesland includes part of the Dutch mainland and the West Frisian Islands (Waddeneilanden) from Vlieland in the west to Schiermonnikoog in the east. Groningen includes a few small islands in the Frisian chain: Rottumerplaat, Rottumeroog, Zuiderstrand, and Simonszand. Noord-Holland includes the islands of Texel and Noorderhaaks, at the southwest end of the Frisian chain.

Zeeland includes a mainland part, the islands of Schouwen Duiveland, Tholen, Noord-Beveland and Sint Philipsland, and the peninsula of Walcheren and Zuid-Beveland. Note that the many dikes and canals make it hard to define what is and is not an island. Zuid-Holland includes the islands of Goeree-Overflakkee, Voorne-Putten, Beijerland-Hoekse Waard, IJsselmonde, and Dordrecht (same comment as for Zeeland). Aruba, Curaï¿½ao, Sint Maarten, and Caribbean Netherlands are associated with the Netherlands. The Caribbean Netherlands comprises Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius, which are special municipalities of the Netherlands. The other three entities are autonomous countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Since ISO 3166 assigns them separate country codes, this site treats them as separate countries. However, as of Newsletter II-3, in addition to their country codes, ISO 3166-2 has assigned alternate codes to these entities as parts of Netherlands. They are the same as the country codes with NL- prefixed.

for Netherlands lists locations in the country, some of them with their latitudes and longitudes, some with their ISO 3166-2 codes for their subdivisions. This information can be put together to approximate the territorial extent of subdivisions. Origins of names: Drenthe: Germanic ï¿½rija: three, hantja: countries Friesland: Land of the Frisii, from ethnic name Groningen: Germanic Groningja, from groni: green Gelderland: Germanic gelwa: yellow, haru: mountain Limburg: Germanic lindo: linden, burg: fort.

Noord-Brabant: Dutch Noord: north, Old High German bracha: new country, bant: region Noord-Holland: Dutch Noord: north + Old Dutch, either holt: woods or hol: hollow, land: land Overijssel: Dutch over: beyond, since the province was beyond the IJssel River from Utrecht Utrecht: corruption of Latin Trajectum: ford (ad Rhenum: on the Rhine) Zeeland: Dutch zee: sea (land in the sea) Zuid-Holland: Dutch Zuid: south + Holland Change history: The Netherlands have repeatedly reclaimed land from the sea by building polders. There have been four major polders (and some smaller ones) in the 20th century. In 1932, the Wieringen-Friesland Barrage (dike) enclosed the Zuider Zee (South Sea), whereupon its name was changed to IJsselmeer (Yssel Lake). 1930: Wieringermeer Polder completed, adding 195 sq. km. to Noord-Holland. 1942: Noord-Oost Polder completed (504 sq.

km.) as a municipality not belonging to any province. ~1954: Noord-Oost Polder annexed to Overijssel. 1957-06: East Flevoland completed. 1969: South Flevoland completed. 1986-01-01: Flevoland province formed from the municipalities of Dronten and Lelystad (East Flevoland), the administrative area of Zuidelijke IJsselmeerpolders (South Flevoland), and Noord-Oost Polder (taken from Overijssel). The ISO draft standard doesn't show this change. ISO and FIPS codes for the entities as they stood before the change were Dronten (DT, NL12), Lelystad (LE, NL14), Overijssel (OV, NL08), and Zuidelijke IJsselmeerpolders (ZI, NL13). 1993-11-01: Under the Maastricht Treaty, the European Union replaced the European Communities, of which the Netherlands was a member.

2002-01-01: Vianen municipality moved from Zuid-Holland province to Utrecht province. Also, Loosdrecht municipality moved from Utrecht province to Noord-Holland province, at the same time merging with two other municipalities to form Wijdemeren.

Other names of subdivisions: Friesland: Frise (French); Frisia (Italian, Spanish); Frï¿½sia (Portuguese); Fryslï¿½n (Frisian) Gelderland: Geldern (German); Gheldria (Portuguese); Guelders (obsolete); Gueldre (French) Groningen: Groninga (Italian, Portuguese); Groningue (French) Limburg: Limbourg (French); Limburgo (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish) Noord-Brabant: Brabante del Norte (Spanish); Brabante do Norte (Portuguese); Brabante settentrionale (Italian); Brabant-septentrional (French); Nord-Brabant (German); North Brabant (variant) Noord-Holland: Holanda do Norte (Portuguese); Hollande-septentrionale (French); North Holland (variant) Utrecht: Utreque (Portuguese) Sea Level Rise and the Future of the Netherlands I. CASE BACKGROUND 1. Abstract As an economically and socially advanced nation, the Netherlands is a low-lying nation, with a sophisticated agricultural sector and high population density.

Half of the country lies below 1 meter above sea level, with an eighth of the country lying below sea level. Without an extensive network of dams, dykes and dunes, the Netherlands would be especially prone to flooding. As a predicted outcome of Global Climate Change, sea level rise could impact the Netherlands drastically, leading to social and economic devastation. 2. Description The Zuyderzee Flood of 1916 was a defining moment in Dutch history. The Zuyderzeeworks, a series of dikes to reclaim this shallow inlet, was made in part due to the outcome of this flood. Although, this flood did cause 16 human causalities, substantial material damage instigated the reclamation of Zuyderzee from its shallow water. During the 1916 flood the island of Marken was completely engulfed with water and many levee breeches occurred near the town of Edam, which lead to the flooding of Waterland and Durgerdam. The Zuyderzeeworks designed by the Minister of Public Works, Ir. C. Lely, and approved by Queen Wilhelmina, began the reclamation of Zuyderzee.

Minister Lely's plans included a large dike, the Afsluitdijk, which in turn allowed for further reclamation of the surrounding area. Unfortunately, further flooding occurred in 1953, with devastating consequences in loss of life, agricultural ability, and economic cost. The Flood of 1953 cost the lives of 1,835 people, ruined productive agricultural lands with the salts of seawater, and was costly to repair failed flood protection system. The Zuiderzeeworks (a series of flood protection devices), reclaimed land from an inlet of the North Sea and also created the Ijsselmeer, or Lake Ijessel The Netherlands is well suited geographically and geologically to be a nation heavily involved in shipping. The nation is in the center of Europe with access to many rivers and bodies of water. Rotterdam is Europe’s largest port city with access to the sea and several large rivers nearby (Rhine, Maas and Schelde), making it an important hub in the EU economy. The low-lying lands of the Netherlands are famous for several agricultural products. The towns of Gouda and Edam, as their names suggest, are very important to cheese production.

The Netherlands supplies two-thirds of the world’s tulips, bulbs, and cut-flowers, helping the relatively small nation rank third in value of agricultural exports. For a small nation of 41,526 sq km, the Netherlands is densely populated with 486 persons per square kilometer. The threat of sea level rise due to Climate Change will test the country’s flood protection system. A breach of this system would be costly to repair, but would be even more devastating to the country’s economy and way-of-life. As its name suggests, the Netherlands, or ‘low countries,’ is and has been especially prone to flooding. Climate change has the potential to increase sea levels by 20 feet (6.1 m). The lowest city within the Netherlands lies 7 meters (23 ft.) below sea level, much lower than New Orlean's 9th Ward. The expansive system of dams, dykes, and dunes maintained by the country, may not be able to hold back the flood of Climate Change. The Netherlands is often associated with peaceful rows of spring tulips, sharp and buttery cheeses, and windmills turning in the breeze.

Yet, these popular associations with Dutch culture would not be possible without protection from the unpredictable North Sea. The North Sea is stronger and more unpredictable than the three Dutch rivers that flow through the country. Flood protection from the North sea is mandated to have a 1-in-10,000 years protection (a failure in the flood protection system would only occur once in 10,000 years). Without this level of protection, agricultural lands would often be inundated with floodwater. In most cases agricultural and pasture land lies on ‘polders,’ or land reclaimed from the sea, and the iconic windmills of the Netherlands were built to pump excess water off of agricultural soils. With 41,526 sq kilometers, the Netherlands supports a population of just under 16.5 million people, making it one of the most densely populated countries in the world. If flooding occurs on a mass scale many people will be displaced from their homes and workplaces. Rising sea levels could wreak havoc on the Dutch way of life. The people, economy, and land itself, would be swept away, costing the Dutch their livelihood and possibly their lives. It is impossible to know when or if flooding will strike the Netherlands.

The IPCC predicts that there will likely be increased incidence of extreme high sea level events in the 21st century. Global warming has caused the Earth’s polar regions to be much warmer for longer periods of time. Melting glaciers and polar ice caps 125,000 years ago increased sea levels by 4 to 6 meters. Changes in climate and weather patterns will exacerbate the already rising sea level. Storm events over the North Sea are often powerful and unpredictable. Although the Netherlands does not experience hurricanes, similarly strong events could cause major damage and loss-of-life. New Orleans, like most of the Netherlands, lies below sea level and posses a series of flood control mechanisms. Unfortunately, New Orleans sustained a direct hit from one of the worst hurricanes in U.S. history. Hurricane Katrina caused 1,833 fatalities over five states, and resulted in a total economic loss of 81 billion dollars. Over 1.2 million people in the area were under an evacuation order. Evacuation efforts were slow and resulted in long back-ups on area interstates. Although New Orleans is heavily populated, the Netherlands population density is higher over a larger area. Most people rely on public transport to get around town and surrounding areas.

Evacuation efforts in the Netherlands would have to be well planned and executed to avoid the difficulties that were seen during Hurricane Katrina in the United States. Willems Bridge, Rotterdam Hurricane Katrina impacted several U.S. states directly with flooding and storm surges, but also indirectly through migration and long-term economic damage. The Netherlands is only roughly equal to the size of twice New Jersey. If flooding should occur on a vast scale, it can be inferred that such an event would be extremely costly. Numerous lives could be lost. The Netherlands’s land area, an important resource for its aricultural economy, could be washed away. This type of event could threaten the long-term health of the Dutch people, economy, and government. Conflict Flooding on any large scale would cause evacuation and possible permanent displacement of the people living in the Netherlands. Higher socioeconomic classes are often able to adjust to environmental problems, because they can afford residence in areas with clean air, clear water, and lower chance of flooding. The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina illuminated the numerous environmental justice issues residents of the lower-ninth ward endured. Undoubtedly, similar issues will face the residents of the Netherlands.

A Dutch Ministry of Water Management advisor has noted, “society must recognize that there will be losers from adaptation, and they must be compensated” (Hertsgaard, 2007). In recent years Europe has seen an influx of immigrant populations from Africa and the Middle East. Some of these immigrants are Islamic and face cultural differences and discrimination. Many European countries have sought to ease the religious and political tension between differing cultures by implementing policies. Controversially, governments have sought out ways to integrate Islamic culture into traditional European society. France most notably banned schoolgirls from wearing headscarves in at the start of the school year in 2004, as adult women in France’s public sector were already forbidden to wear such “overt’ religious symbols. For comparison, a ban on headscarves for schoolchildren is also in effect in Turkey. But, other countries like Great Britain and the Netherlands allow headscarves in public schools. The Netherlands also subsidizes many mosques and Islamic schools throughout the country. Yet, public support for Islamic institutions is the Netherlands is controversial. The contrast between the Dutch and Muslim cultures has lead to public conflict. Pim Fortuyn, ran for public office after a series of Muslim attacks on openly gay couples.

Openly gay himself, Mr. Fortuyn was elected in 2001 for office in Rotterdam, even though he labeled Islam a “backward” religion. His platform included limiting immigration quotas for Muslim individuals. In May of 2002, Volkert van der Graaf assassinated Mr. Fortuyn for his controversial political comments. Pim Fortuyn’s assignation was the Netherlands’s first politically motivated murder in 300 years. 5.5 percent of the Dutch population is Muslim. Disproportionately however, Muslim women represent more than half the women in shelters seeking refuge from domestic disputes. Ayaan Hirsi Ali is a famous Dutch, Muslim, feminist who has focused attention on the treatment of Muslim women in the Netherlands and around the world. She has called on Muslim women in the Netherlands to claim equal rights in Dutch society, as the law allows. Hirsi Ali argues that Many Dutch Muslim women do live in segregated "parallel cities" where Islamic social codes are enforced. Often domestic disputes are not handled under Dutch law. She believes that Dutch officials and police have often turned a blind-eye the treatment of Muslim women in the Netherlands. Ayaan Hirsi Ali was a member of the house of Dutch parliament.

She also collaborated with Dutch filmmaker, Theo Van Gogh, on the film, Submission. Submission depicted discriminatory practices toward Muslim women. in the Islamic region. On November 2, 2004 Mohammed Bouyeri, upset with the film, brutally murdered Theo Van Gogh and threatened the life of Hirsi Ali. Van Gogh’s murder made international headlines and focused the world’s attention on European-Muslim conflict. 3. Duration: 1916 - Present Sea level rise could be drastic and sudden or slow and gradual. The IPCC predicts an number of outcomes, based on the global community’s response to Climate Change. The best outcome for lowering sea level rise would be a drastic cut in greenhouse gas emissions. However, even under the best case scenario, the sea level will rise by about 0.4 meters at the turn of the century. North Sea storms could worsen, and further threaten the Netherlands. The IPCC further predicts that long-term climatic patterns around the world will change. It is difficult to predict how the specific climate of the Netherlands will be impacted by climate change. 4. Location 6.

Type of Environmental Problem: GLOBAL PROBLEMS: Global Warming [GWARM] The government of the Netherlands has recognized the threat of sea level rise and climate change. Current proposals in Dutch parliament call for upgrades in flood protection. If this proposal passes North Sea flood protection will be upgraded to 1-in-100,000 years status. Such a large commitment is part of the Netherlands’s “Living with Water/We are Here to Stay” campaign. This upgrade will be a costly and time-consuming project. It is estimated that this plan will cost 0.2% of the Netherlands yearly GDP to build and maintain. 7. Type of Habitat: Temperate As a flat, low-lying country near the sea, the Netherlands’s temperature is fairly consistent and does not change drastically. Because of its proximity to open water and flat terrain, the sky is often cloudy and the wind is strong. 13 mph winds are the average, which the country utilizes for wind turbine generated power and traditional windmills use to pump water. Summers are cool and winters are not extreme. Severe weather events occasionally occur when high pressure areas over the Azores and low pressure areas centered around Iceland meet around the Netherlands. 8.

Act and Harm Sites: Global and Netherlands Global climate change will increase sea level and cause drastic changes in climatic weather patterns. Half of the Netherlands lies below sea level. Currently, these areas face the most serious threat of flooding. Presumably as sea levels rise, more areas will become below sea level, and face the same threat form flooding. 9. Type of Conflict: Regional 10. Level of Conflict: Threat 11. Fatality Level of Dispute: (1,833) New Orleans Sea level rise combined with the potential for even more powerful North Sea storms could to impact the entire nation. Migration from such an event would affect the surrounding region. Loss of lives from Hurricane Katrina totaled 1,833. If a drastic flooding event were to occur, many more lives could be lost in the Netherlands. 12. Environment-Conflict Link and Dynamics a. Direct (i.e., Resource) A Typical Dutch Farm Future environmental conditions will directly impact the Netherlands land mass. Its people, economy, and government will have to adapt to rising sea levels, by building higher dams and dykes. Directly, people will have to relocate at least until the waters recede.

Migration of individuals could turn into a long-term issue if flood control technologies cannot keep up with climate change. Often, low lying areas are important modes of production in agricultural productivity. In the short-term crops could be lost, causing temporary economic shocks. Yet, larger flood events could cause substantial damage to agricultural infrastructure (rail, shipping lanes and ports, and processing facilities) important in delivering those goods to the proper markets, undiminished. No more than 2% of the Netherlands’s population is devoted to agricultural production. Yet, this country produces a large surplus in food-products for the surrounding region. Rising sea levels could prove too difficult to handle, along with changing climate and weather patterns. The government may plan and implement the most advanced system of flood protection. Yet, the government and climate scientists cannot predict the future climate of the Netherlands. b. Indirect (i.e. Scarcity) If flooding should occur, land will become scarce. Scarcity increases price and indirectly causes conflict between differing demographics in the Netherlands and surrounding countries. After a flood event, higher socioeconomic classes will be able to maintain a lifestyle that closely resembles the one they had prior to the event.

Some Dutch citizens may also choose to move to other areas, further spreading land scarcity to other countries. As the Netherlands is a large shipping hub, ports and the transport of consumer goods will change with a large flood event. The high storm surges and receding waters of Hurricane Katrina changed shipping lanes and damaged equipment dedicated to the safe passage of ships in the Mississippi river and Gulf of Mexico. If a similiar extreme weather event were to flood the Netherlands, a devastating disaster could occur. Causal Diagram A causal loop diagram relating the possible future outcome of a climatic flooding event on the Netherlands. Climate change causes sea levels to rise while also affecting traditional patterns and strengths of storm events. A large flood would decrease the land area of the Netherlands which will effect its ability to directly (housing, employment, agricultural goods) and indirectly (scarcity leads to higher prices and more competition) support its population. Scarcity of land in the Netherlands will cause internal and regional tension as housing prices in the surrounding areas would be expected to increase. 13. Level of Strategic Interest: Regional 14. Outcome of Dispute In Progress/Stalemate Policymakers within the Netherlands are addressing climate change with plans to heighten flood protection efforts throughout the country.

They have asserted that, “We are here to Stay,” by committing their time and financial resources to the “Living with Water” strategy. The Netherlands and surrounding countries have also sought to mitigate the tension and climate of conflict between secular Europeans and immigrant Muslims. Policies throughout Europe have been controversial and mixed on success. A flooding event could exacerbate regional conflict with European Muslims. As an environmental justice issue, immigrant populations often are hit hardest with environmental problems. Muslim immigrants currently face discrimination in Europe. If land suddenly becomes scarce due to climate caused flooding events, immigrant populations may face a high cost, both pencuniary and discriminatory, to be able to live in the Netherlands, 15. Related ICE and TED Cases Windmill in the Town of Gouda 25. Danube - Danube River Dispute 64. Ogonioil - Ogoni and Nigeria conflict over Oil 142. Malacca - The Impact of Transportation on Wildlife in the Malacca Straits 145. James - James Bay Project 160. Katrina - Hurrican Katrina 171. Mohenjo - Daro, Aryan Invasions and Shifting Environments 185.

Northwest Passage - Canadian Sovereignty at the Northwest Passage 206. Maldvives - The Maldives and Rising Sea Levels 210. Tuvalu - Tuvalu and Rising Sea Levels 16. Relevant Websites and Literature BBC News. Q&A: Muslim Headscarves. Posted August 31, 2004. Access date: 10 April 2007. < >. Britannica Encyclopedia: The Netherlands Climate. Access date: 10 April 2007. < >. The CIA World Factbook: The Netherlands. Access date: 27 January 2007. < >. Climate Crisis: What is Global Warming? Access date: 27 January 2007. < >. Deltawerken Online: Floods. Access date: 27 January 2007. < >. Encarta Encyclopedia: The Netherlands. Access date: 27 January 2007. < >. Hertsgaard, Mark. (2007). On the Front Lines of Climate Change, Time, April 9, 2007. The Nation.

The Dutch Muslim Culture War. Posted June 9, 2005. Access date: 10 April 2007. < 627&s=scroggins >. National Hurricane Center. Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina. Published Decemeber, 20, 2005. Access date: 10 April 2007. < >. National Public Radio. Dutch-Muslim View of Europe’s Future. Talk of the Nation, Aired May 5, 2005. Access date: 10 April 2007. < >. Images: "Zuyderzeeworks" < >. "Map of Netherlands" < >. "Willems Bridge," "Dutch Farm," "Gouda Windmill," and "Amsterdam Canal" with permission from photographer, Nicholas McKinney. < >. A Canal in Amsterdam

Question: What name is given to areas of land in Holland that have been reclaimed from the sea?
Answer: Polders