Nigeria: Ushafa, Others - Living By Usuma Dam, Yet Lacking Potable Water - allAfrica.com Nigeria: Ushafa, Others - Living By Usuma Dam, Yet Lacking Potable Water more By Nasir Imam And Joshua Odeyemi When the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was moved to Abuja from Lagos on February 3, 1976, there was an immediate plan to construct water dams to serve the water needs of residents of the new area. The need to provide infrastructure, most importantly, water for this large population, became a serious challenge for the FCT authorities, hence, the construction of Usuma Dam in 1982. The Gurara Dam Water Project is a multipurpose project for water supply, hydropower, irrigation and ancillary uses. It is Nigeria's largest and pioneer water transfer scheme. The project is fully developed by the Federal Government of Nigeria. It comprises a large dam, and a 75km tunnel through the Kaduna and Usuma basins of Kaduna State and the Federal FCT. The dam is built on the Gurara River near Abuja, the capital of Nigeria.

The purpose of the project is to enhance the use of the Gurara River by storing, regulating and controlling the flow of the river and its main effluent. This is expected to deliver specified quantities of water to designated outlet points for the FCT water supply. The Lower Usuma Dam is sited 26 kilometres from the Abuja city centre, along the Dutse-Bwari road, and 10 kilometres away from Bwari. It is built across the River Usuma. The River Usuma, the second largest in the FCT after River Gurara, is a perennial stream with a relatively large network of tributaries. The Usuma drainage basin is the largest of the six drainage basins in the FCT, draining more than two-thirds of the waste water in the FCT. It flows majestically through the Aso-Bwari hill ranges, running across the north-eastern part of the FCT. The Lower Usuma Dam has a reservoir capacity of 120 million m³ of raw, untreated water. The sources of its water are the Usuma River from Nasarawa, River Gidna from Kaduna, and the Gurara Dam.

The data on volume of water provided in the FCT puts daily production at 8,000 x 24 = 192,000 m3; monthly production 192,000 x 30 = 5,760,000 m3 while annual production is 5,760,000 x 2 = 69,120,000 m3. Project for the construction of Tanks 1 & 6, and associated trunk mains is an integral part of the Abuja water supply scheme. It consists of six concrete water reservoirs with varying capacities, ranging from 12,000 m3 to 45,000 m3. Awarded in August 2006 to Sarplast (WA) Limited and billed for completion in 2013, the scope of the project entails building twin concrete tanks of 20,000 m3, each totalling 40,000 m3 reinforced concrete. It also involves laying about 58 kilometres ductile iron pipes of different sizes of 1400mm and 1000mm in diameter.

The pipes connect the Lower Usuma Dam water treatment plants to Tanks 1 & 6 at Dawaki and Aso Sefyi. These, according to Engr. Jiniya Bidda Anto, the Director, FCT Water Board, has been completed. According to him, "The Gurara water project has been completed. The trunk line has been completed and released from Gurara to Usuma Dam, and water is being supplied from the dam to the Gurara project. But it is raw water and, therefore, has to be treated through two stages of engineering project to produce potable water that is suitable for human consumption. "To do that, you need additional treatment plants. For the past years we have been having two treatment plants; that is Phases 1 & 2, with the capacity of 5,000 cubic meters of water per hour each. Now we have additional treatment plants that have just been completed about a month ago, and the two treatment plants now have a capacity of producing 10,000 cubic litres of water per hour each and these are ready. "So we have about 30,000 cubic litres ready for supply.

Abuja is expanding and the pipes are being laid, there is water that will be supplied to these areas and Phases 3 & 4, which are new, will soon be commissioned by the president." The Head of Department, Reservoir and Production of the FCT Water Board, Engr. Usman Aliyu told Sunday Trust that the distribution of water within the FCT is tailored in line with the Abuja master plan. "All the water that is coming from Usuma Dam is meant to be channeled into treatment plants. The first treatment plant was phase 1 which is treating 5000 cubic litres per hour. It literarily means that it is treating 5,000,000 gallons per hour to the city uninterruptedly." He added that the phase 1 plant is being channeled into tanks 3 and 4 which serve Garki and part of Maitama. "Eventually, when the pressure was too much, the federal government, through the Federal Capital Territory Administration (FCTA), was forced to put additional treatment plant of another 5, 000 cubic litres, which is the phase II.

It was done during the Obasanjo regime and was commissioned in 2000. It is designed to carry water into tanks 2 and 5. "Tank 2 is serving Utako, Jabi, Life Camp and other places in the Central Area. Tank 5 is to serve Apo, Lokongoma and other parts of the city too. These have already been completed and the trunk line and the tanks are already in place," Anto explained. Sunday Trust gathered that water supply to the FCT is concentrated in the city centre while the suburbs and emerging communities within the Abuja city suffer untold hardship in getting drinking water. Most residents in these areas turn to the water vendors, popularly called 'Mai ruwa' for succour while those with financial muscles drill boreholes and sell water to neighbours. Musa Abdul, who resides in Nyanya, told Sunday Trust that he has never seen a Water Board pipe in his neighborhood for about eight years of his stay there. "You should ask me if their water pipeline runs through this neighborhood and not how frequently we receive water supply," he said. He went ahead to note that he buys water from water vendors for his daily use.

In the same vein, Hassan Mohammed, who lives in Aleita, along Airport Road, said the community had only three sources of water supply, but none of them was from the government. He quipped, "We get water from rainfall, wells and boreholes." Pointing to the direction of a major borehole in the community, Mohammed said, "That's where most of us living close buy our water at N10 or more per jerry-can, but those who live afar buy from 'Mai ruwa' for N20.00 or N30.00 per jerry-can, depending on the distance." Most places visited in Lugbe, a large settlement along the airport road do not have tap water. Also, the communities that house the Usuma Dam - Ushafa, Jigo, Kwambara and Payi-do not have water supply. The Hakimi Ushafa (Chief of Ushafa), Alhaji Muhammadu Baba said only his palace enjoys water supply in the whole Ushafa community.

He said that about 30 years ago, when the government started the project, pipelines were run through the community to provide water in public areas, but the pipes are all rusty now as the government no longer supplies water to the community. Alhaji Baba stressed that Ushafa has not been benefiting anything from the siting of the dam in the community. "Since they made this dam, we have not been enjoying water supply. The dam belongs to Ushafa, yet we don't get water." A walk around the community, presents a vivid representation of Baba's claim as most modern houses have boreholes drilled in the compounds, with outlets that enable the owners sell water to the community. Those who are impoverished still trek all the way to the river to fetch water for their daily use. He pleaded with the government to extend water supply to the community. "We have been pleading with the government to extend water supply to us since 1999, but there has not been any response till date." Similarly, Sunday Trust spoke with the head of Payi community, Mr Jonah Jami, who lamented the total government neglect, saying the well remains their only source of water supply. "We don't have water," he said. Engr.

Anto, the FCT Water Board director, in his reaction, said, "Where we are facing challenges are where the Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA) have not laid their pipes. The city centre like Wuse, Garki, Maitama, Asokoro and satellite towns like Nnanya, Kubwa, Bwari have constant water supply. In fact, places like Gudu have received tremendous increase in supply, but in other areas we are waiting for the FCDA to finish laying the pipes." Despite government's efforts, many houses in the FCT are still not getting access to potable water, but the Head of Department, Reservoir and Production, Engr. Aliyu believes the reasons are not far-fetched. "There are enormous challenges in the Abuja water supply plan. Some developers build houses in areas that are not yet covered by the water board," he said, maintaining that the distribution of potable water within the FCT is tailored through the Abuja master plan. "The major problem we are having now, even in the Abuja city is that people develop beyond the infrastructural facilities that have been provided.

You will find out that there are private property developers who keep on building estates where the water supply has not reached according to the plan. "From here in Lower Usuma Dam, we have a trunk line that goes straight to Gwagwalada, Karu, Nyanya. There are provisions as well for Abaji. There's a complete package of water supply system for them, which has already been constructed and completed and is only waiting for commissioning." Engr. Aliyu said places like Karshi and Kuje were also a complete package, but quickly added that a dam would be needed in the area for proper coverage. Anto also said some of the major challenges include lots of vandalism and tampering. "We also discovered that some residents are bypassing the metres. They cut into places where water is being taken to the metre before the metre reading device; and this has been giving us headache, so we are now waiting for the FCT Water Board Act to enable us take people to court. This Act is before the National Assembly." The Water Board director said, "There are cases whereby customers get double billing.

Some years ago, when there was a flat water billing rate, the computerised system would indicate that you were getting water, when in reality you were not. There is also the issue of non-reflection of payment on your bill. These are issues that have been bedevilling the Board for years, but we are trying to solve them." He also mentioned the problem of water metres. "We have three types of water metres: conventional, pre-paid (where you buy credit card and load the numbers), and the AMR, which is the automated metre reading device. We discovered that most of our staff members don't actually go to read the metres; and this has been giving us a lot of headache. Concerning the pre-paid metre, we have been having the problem of spare parts. Some of the parts, such as batteries, cannot be imported because of terrorist activities. There is also the issue of vandalism on the AMR. Other challenges, according to him, include the issue of fund. "No matter what you plan, lack of fund will hinder it, so we are trying to look inwards and make use of those things we can manufacture locally." Copyright © 2013 Daily Trust. All rights reserved.

Distributed by AllAfrica Global Media ( allAfrica.com ). To contact the copyright holder directly for corrections — or for permission to republish or make other authorized use of this material, click here. AllAfrica publishes around 800 reports a day from more than 140 news organizations and over 500 other institutions and individuals , representing a diversity of positions on every topic. We publish news and views ranging from vigorous opponents of governments to government publications and spokespersons. Publishers named above each report are responsible for their own content, which AllAfrica does not have the legal right to edit or correct. Articles and commentaries that identify allAfrica.com as the publisher are produced or commissioned by AllAfrica . To address comments or complaints, please Contact us . Biwater Abuja Water Supply System Construction of Lower Usuma Dam Treatment Plant, nigeria Key features: Design and simultaneous construction of two 240 Mld water treatment plants (Phase 3 and Phase 4). Phase 3 and 4 of the water treatment plant incorporates a sludge treatment plant to treat the clarifier sludge from the existing Phase 1 & 2 works and the new Phase 3 & 4 works. The works are being constructed using local labour.

Training will be provided by Biwater to the Client's staff on the operation and maintenance of the works. Intake Tower The project involves the process design, supply and erection of all the civil and electro-mechanical equipment for the final production of Phase 3 (240 Mld) and Phase 4 (240 Mld) water treatment plants. The new treatment plants will be located next to the existing Phase 1 & 2 water treatment plants. Water will be sourced from the existing Lower Usuma Dam reservoir, which supplies existing Phase 1 & 2 water treatment plants and the new Gurara dam reservoir. Biwater's scope is to connect into the newly laid Dia 3 metre Gurara feed pipeline to supply water to the existing Phase 1 & 2 and Phase 3 & 4 water treatment plants. This Dia 3 metre pipeline is also used to augment the Lower Usuma dam reservoir. A new Dia 1.8 metre raw water feed pipeline from Lower Usuma dam is also incorporated to supply the new Phase 3 & 4 water treatment plants.

Top 10 Largest Dams in the World | Most Interesting Facts Top 10 Largest Dams in the World Here’s the list of largest dam in the world. Dams is very essential in human life. It’s used for farming and power generation. It’s also a tourist attraction that attract lot of people to enjoy the beauty of the dam. But dam is also can be a disaster if doesn’t build properly. There are a number of accident because of dam leaked and perforated. Disaster effect vary from just people have to do flooded basement cleanup as well as doing water damage cleanup on some parts of the house because of the flood from the dams, to the very bad effect that cause a number of victims. So dams have to be carefully made. People around the world creating largest dam for the sake of prestige of the country as well as the need of large power generation. Here’s the largest dams in the world. We just count the already made one. 10. Oahe Dam, South Dakota, US: 70,339 cubic meters The Oahe Dam is a large dam along the Missouri River, just north of Pierre, South Dakota in the United States.

It creates Lake Oahe, the fourth largest artificial reservoir in the United States, which stretches 231 miles (372 km) up the course of the Missouri to Bismarck, North Dakota. The dam’s powerplant provides electricity for much of the north-central United States. It is named for the Oahe Indian Mission established among the Lakota Sioux in 1874. The project provides flood control, electric power, irrigation, and navigation benefits, estimated by the Corps of Engineers at $150,000,000 per year. Oahe Dam 9. Guri (Raúl Leoni), Venezuela: 78,000 cubic meters The Guri Dam is a large dam in Bolívar State, Venezuela on the Caroni River. It is 1300 meters long and 162 m high. Construction began in 1963; the first part concluded in 1978 and the second in 1986. The Hydroelectric Power station Guri was constructed in the Necuima Canyon, 100 kilometers waters above of the mouth of the Caroní River in the Orinoco.

There are two machine rooms with ten generators each, producing a total of 87 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. As of 2009, the hydroelectric plant is the third-largest in the world, with 10,200 MW capacity. Guri Dam 8. Yacyretá-Apipe, Paraguay/Argentina: 81,000 cubic meter The dam was built over the waterfalls of Jasyretâ-Apipé in the Paraná River, between the Argentine Province of Corrientes and the Paraguayan department of Misiones. The dam is named for Yacyretâ Island just upstream, much of which the dam submerged. The dam is 808 meters long, and its installed equipment has a maximum power output of 4,050 MW, with an annual maximum power output of 19,080 GWh, and a maximum water flow rate of 55,000 cubic meters per second. However, because its reservoir is seven meters below its planned water level, the dam currently operates at only 60% capacity. Yacyretá Apipe Dam 7.

Atatürk Dam, Turkey: 84,500 cubic meters The Atatürk Dam is a zoned rock-fill dam with a central core on the Euphrates River on the border of Ad?yaman Province and ?anl?urfa Province in Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Built both to generate electricity and to irrigate the plains in the region. The construction began in 1983 and was completed in 1990. The dam embankment is 169 m (554 ft) high and 1,820 m (5,970 ft) long. The hydroelectric power plant (HEPP) has a total installed power capacity of 2,400 MW generating 8,900 GWh electricity annually. Ataturk Dam 6. Tucurui Dam, Brazil: 85,200 cubic meters The Tucuruí Dam is a hydroelectric dam on the Tocantins River located on the Tucuruí County in Brazil.

The name “Tucuruí” was taken from a little city that existed near the construction site; there is now a city of the same name just downstream of the dam. The installed generation capacity of the plant is 8,370 MW, with 24 generating units. The Tucuruí spillway was the largest in the world with 120,000m3/s of capacity of discharge, until it was edged out in 2008 by the 120,600m3/s maximum discharge of the Three Gorges complex in China. Tucurui Dam 5. Lower Usuma, Nigeria: 93,000 cubic meters Lower Usuma is the name of a dam on the Usuma river in Nigeria. It was built in 1990 near Abuja, the new capital of Nigeria, and supplied the city with drinking water. The dam holds 93 million cubic meters of raw water, the water flow to five water plants, where the water is treated before it is passed to Abuja. The total capacity of the water is 10,000 cubic meters per hour. Lower Usuma Dam 4.

Fort Peck, Montana: 96,049 cubic meters The Fort Peck Dam is the highest of six major dams along the Missouri River, located in northeast Montana in the United States, near Glasgow, and adjacent to the community of Fort Peck. At 21,026 feet (6,409 m) in length and over 250 feet (76 m) in height, it is the largest hydraulically filled dam in the United States, and creates Fort Peck Lake, the fifth largest man-made lake in the U.S. It lies within the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge. The dam and 134-mile (216 km) long lake exist for the purposes of hydroelectric power generation, flood control, and water quality management. The dam presently has a nameplate capacity of 185,250 kilowatts, divided among 5 generating units. Three units in powerhouse number one, completed in 1951, generate a total of 105,000 kilowatts.

Completed in 1961, the two remaining generating units in powerhouse number 2, have a nameplate capacity of 80,000 kilowatts. Fort Peck Dam 3. Tarbela, Pakistan: 121,720 cubic meters Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located in Haripur District, Hazara Division, Khyber pakhtunkhwa, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) northwest of Islamabad. The dam is 485 feet (148 m) high above the riverbed. The dam forms the Tarbela Reservoir, with a surface area of approximately 250-square-kilometre (97 sq mi). The dam was completed in 1974 and was designed to store water from the Indus River for irrigation, flood control, and the generation of hydroelectric power. Tarbela Dam 2.

Samara / Zhiguli Dam,Russia: 169,000,000 cubic meters Samara Dam is a large dam and hydroelectric station on the Volga River, located near Zhigulyovsk and Tolyatti in Samara Oblast of Russia. It is the sixth stage of the Volga-Kama Cascade of dams, and the second of them by installed power. Samara Dam 1. Three Gorges, China: 39,300,000 cubic meters The Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric river dam that spans the Yangtze River in the town of Sandouping, located in the Yiling District of Yichang, in the Hubei province, China. It is the world’s largest electricity-generating plant of any kind. The dam body was completed in 2006. Except for a ship lift, all of the originally planned components of the project were completed on October 30, 2008 when the 26th generator was brought into commercial operation. Currently, it contains 26 completed generators in the shore power plant, each with a capacity of 700 MW.

Six additional generators in the underground power plant are being installed and are not expected to become fully operational until around 2011. Three Gorges Dam Those dams is one of the proof of human achievements. As a major need but also a disaster potential, dams have to be carefully planned. All people in the world don’t want to get bad effect of dam even it’s just drying wet basement as the impact of flood leaked dams. Some of the future larger dams is under development. Noted like Syncrude Tailings in Canada and Chapetón in Argentina that will be larger than New Cornelia Tailing when done. Have You ever visited one of those largest dams in the world? Popular Search Terms largest dam in the world biggest dam in the world world largest dam Top 10 Largest Dams in the World Home Dams Top 10 Largest Dams in the World Top 10 Largest Dams in the World Print Dams are barriers that impounds water in them selves. Dams actually serve the purpose of retaining water . They are used as a primary objective to generate hydroelectricity. It can also be used to collect water for storage to evenly distribute it in the fields for irrigation.

According to an estimation there is thought to have more than 850,000 Dams in the world. Hydroelectricity is the most cheapest and easily generated form of electricity, thus it is primarily used for electricity generation. Many countries have started constructing Dams to save the wasted water and to get some thing useful from this flowing water. All across the world there are hundreds of thousands of dams on hilly areas near rivers and canals thus to make the country strong. China has always been topping the world in getting the top position in everything. And it has also grabbed position No.1 in Largest Dams too. Lets have a look at The Top 10 Largest Dams in the World. Cipasang Dam Cipasang Dam is one of largest Dam in the world and is located in Indonesia and the dam is primarily used for power generation purpose. The height of the dam is about 660 feet and total length is 2110 feet. It has the 90,000 storage capacity for water . The dam is situated on River Cimanuk in Indonesia. 9.

Lower Usuma Dam Lower Usuma Dam The Lowe Usuma Dam is located in Nigeria and was completed in 1990. The expansion of the dam is still ongoing and is considered to be one of the largest dam in the world.. The water capacity storage of the Lower Usuma Dam is 93,000 Cubic Meter. 8. Fort Peck Dam Fort Peck Dam Fort Peck Dam is one of the oldest yet still largest Dam in 2012. With over 96,000 storage capacity in total to store water, the dam is located in Motana which is not very famous and renowned place but it is popular to be the 8th Largest Dam in the world. 7. Kambaratinsk Dam Kambaratinsk Dam The Kambaratinsk Dam situated in the Kyrgyzstan which is known as one of the hardest and rough hilly area with lot of inflictions. This is indeed a great success to make such a large dam in that vicinity. The Dam is operational and generating more than 2000 Megawatt of energy. The total storage capacity of water of this dam is approximately 112,200 cubic meter.

The dam is located on the bank of Naryan River. 6. Terbala Dam Terbala Dam Terbala Dam is on the Indus River of Pakistan and remained the World’s Largest Dam in the world for many years. The dam was completed in 1974 and is operational since its completion. It is still the second biggest dam by structure after Three Gorges Dam of China. The dam has been really useful for Pakistan in preventing floods in the country and generating most of the power needs of the country. The total storage capacity of 121,000 cubic meters. 5. Newcorinelia Dam Newcorinelia Dam The newcorinelia Dam in United States of America is really a unique kind of Dam. Amazingly the dam constructed here is not used for storage of water. The dam is used for storage of mining and the main source of electricity power generation by this largest Dam is coal. The coal storage capacity of the coal dam is 7.4 Billion Cubic feet. 4. Pati Dam Pati Dam Pati Dam is located in Argentina and this dam was built for the reserve of water and power generation. It has one of the biggest water reservoir and lake.

The size of the dam is 0.8 kilometers and a part of its operational. Some side of this dam is still under construction. The total claimed water storage capacity of this dam is 238,180 cubic meter. 3. Chapeton Dam Chapeton Dam This is another dam from Argentina and is under construction yet but is said to be the third largest dam in the world. The volume of the dam is 296,200 cubic meter. About having the water lake of 30 km in the area, it is one of the world’s largest reservoir in the world. 2. Syncrude Tailing dam Syncrude Tailing dam The Syncrude Tailing Dam in Canada is the 2nd world’s largest Dam which was started in 1976. The dam which more than 540,000 Cubic meter storage capacity of water is strangely built on the Mildred Lake. The Tailing Dam is 11.3 long with the most of the power generation to different areas in Canada. It is the third largest dam by volume of construction too. 1.

Three gorges dam Three Gorges Dam Three Gorges Dam is the World’s No.1 Largest Dam and is in China. The Dam was recently completed and is working have given China a really strong economical back. The dam is used for generation of electricity and according to the government of China, the Dam is able to generate 25GW of power. Interestingly the world’s largest power station is also located on this Three Gorges Dam. You can easily imagine the dam that the water reservoir of this dam is more than 600km long. Three Gorges Dam has a storage capacity of 39,300,300 cubic meter and is indeed one of the largest dam ever built on this planet. The Influence of Dams on Malaria Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa | SpringerLink The Influence of Dams on Malaria Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa Authors 257 Downloads Abstract The construction of dams in sub-Saharan Africa is pivotal for food security and alleviating poverty in the region. However, the unintended adverse public health implications of extending the spatial distribution of water infrastructure are poorly documented and may minimize the intended benefits of securing water supplies.

This paper reviews existing studies on the influence of dams on the spatial distribution of malaria parasites and vectors in sub-Saharan Africa. Common themes emerging from the literature were that dams intensified malaria transmission in semi-arid and highland areas with unstable malaria transmission but had little or no impact in areas with perennial transmission. Differences in the impacts of dams resulted from the types and characteristics of malaria vectors and their breeding habitats in different settings of sub-Saharan Africa. A higher abundance of a less anthropophilic Anopheles arabiensis than a highly efficient vector A. gambiae explains why dams did not increase malaria in stable areas. In unstable areas where transmission is limited by availability of water bodies for vector breeding, dams generally increase malaria by providing breeding habitats for prominent malaria vector species. Integrated vector control measures that include reservoir management, coupled with conventional malaria control strategies, could optimize a reduction of the risk of malaria transmission around dams in the region. Keywords malaria vector ecologywater resource developmentmosquito breedingmalaria controldam management Introduction With an increasing population and emerging climate change threats, demands for water storage are expected to increase, particularly in developing countries where water infrastructures are limited (World Bank 2004 ; McCartney 2007 ; Gleick et al.

2009 ; Biswas 2012 ). Although construction of dams is a key to ensuring food security and alleviating poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, the negative public health effects of dams could undermine the intended benefit (McCartney and King 2011 ). The public health challenges linked with water infrastructures have been mostly neglected or poorly addressed. The prominent public health problem associated with water impoundment includes malaria and other vector-borne diseases (e.g., schistosomiasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis, and rift valley fever) (Hunter et al. 1993 ; Jobin 1999 ). Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease causing between 300 and 500 million infections and over 1 million deaths globally each year (WHO 2012 ). Strikingly, over 90% of the global malaria burden occurs in sub-Saharan Africa. The presence of most efficient vector species, Anopheles gambiae, A. funestus, and A. arabiensis, contributes to the prevailing high malaria transmission in the region.

There is a growing body of evidence indicating that dams influence malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa (Jobin 1999 ; Keiser et al. 2005 ; Sanchez-Ribas et al. 2012 ). One of the major factors that determine availability of vector mosquitoes in the semi-arid areas of the tropics is the presence of areas of standing water for mosquito breeding (Bruce-Chwatt 1980 ; Coetzee et al. 2000 ). The two major African malaria vectors, A. gambiae and A. arabiensis, breed in permanent and temporary shallow standing water bodies (Coetzee et al. 2000 ). Damming rivers creates stagnant shallow shoreline puddles that bring opportunities for mosquito vector breeding that could lead to increased malaria transmission in communities living adjacent to these structures (Jobin 1999 ; Keiser et al. 2005 ). However, malaria transmission is a complex issue, affected by various environmental and entomological variables as well as mosquito behavior (Lindsay and Martens 1998 ). Although studies at the locality scale have demonstrated impacts of dams on malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa (Atangana et al.

1979 ; Oomen 1981 ; Ripert and Raccurt 1987 ; King 1996 ; Ghebreyesus et al. 1999 ; Lautze et al. 2007 ; Kibret et al. 2012 ; Yewhalaw et al. 2009 ), only one attempt (Keiser et al. 2005 ) has so far been made to review the impact of dams on malaria at a regional level. It is thus important to bring together all available information for decision-makers and dam designers, so that an emphasis may be given to reduce the impact of dams on malaria while planning and designing dams. This paper reviews the available evidence on the influence of dams on malaria transmission across sub-Saharan Africa, recommending potential environmental management options in different eco-epidemiological settings. Data Sources We systematically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature, dissertations, and technical reports with an emphasis on published research findings from assessments of the impact of dams (large or small) on malaria transmission.

We searched for articles mostly through PubMed using the combination of key words such as “malaria,” “Anopheles vector,” “dams,” “mosquito breeding,” “reservoir shoreline,” and “sub-Saharan Africa.” Relevant references cited by each reviewed study were also examined. Pertinent book chapters and websites (e.g., ) were also consulted. Only those studies that assessed epidemiological (malaria prevalence or incidence) and/or entomological (malaria mosquito bionomics, density, and vectorial capacity) variables before and after the construction of a dam, or compared dam/reservoir villages and non-dam/reservoir settings with similar social and eco-epidemiological settings except for the presence or absence of dams/reservoirs were included (Fig. 1 ). Studies without a control comparison design were not included in this review to ensure causality in the environmental factors responsible for changes in malaria transmission in nearby villages. Figure 1 Literature review approach used in the present study, indicating inclusion and exclusion criteria for previous published studies (n refers to the number of studies).

We placed emphasis on factors associated with malaria transmission such as mosquito breeding sites, malaria vector bionomics, vectorial capacity (i.e., biological features that determine the ability of mosquitoes to transmit Plasmodium), human-biting tendency, and entomological inoculation rate (i.e., a measure of exposure to infectious mosquitoes) in sub-Saharan Africa. This region was selected for two main reasons. First, sub-Saharan Africa has the highest malaria burden in the world, with over 90% of the global malaria cases and deaths occurring in this region (WHO 2012 ). Second, this region is considered to be under-developed in terms of water infrastructures and currently is the focus for extensive further water infrastructure development (McCartney and King 2011 ). To better understand the impact of dams on malaria, information on how dams in different eco-epidemiological settings affect malariologic variables is critical. We found a total of 27 journal articles and 3 books showing the effects of dams on malaria incidence and/or vector breeding and vectorial capacity in sub-Saharan Africa.

We then analyzed the impact of dams on malaria in two major eco-epidemiological settings: unstable/seasonal (i.e., highland fringes and lowland areas with seasonal malaria transmission) and stable (i.e., lowland humid areas with perennial transmission) transmission. In addition, we developed a map to show the distribution of dams in countries across sub-Saharan Africa. We obtained the geo-referenced location of 1268 dams in sub-Saharan Africa from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) database (FAO 2007 ) and World Register of Dams (ICOD 2003 ). Raster data showing malaria stability in the region were obtained from Gething et al. ( 2011 ) and Malaria Atlas Project ( ). We then overlaid the location of dams over the malaria stability map using ArcView Geographical Information System (GIS) software version 10.1. Results Impact of Dams on Malaria in Areas with Unstable Malaria Transmission A total of 15 studies around 11 dams investigated the impact of dams on malaria in semi-arid areas and highland fringes with seasonal malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa (Table 1 ).

These studies generally indicated that malaria prevalence was higher in dam villages than non-dam villages (Table 2 ). In Kenya, the malaria parasite rate in dam communities increased from 4.5% before Kamburu Dam’s construction to 55.3% after construction (Oomen 1981 ). The main malaria vectors in the region are A. arabiensis that prefer breeding along the shorelines in temporary puddles. The same vector species also flourished in shallow reservoir shoreline puddles in the semi-arid Bamendjin Dam in Cameroon (Atangana et al. 1979 ). Similarly, microdams (i.e., dams with less than 1 million cubic meter water holding capacity) in northern Ethiopia (Ghebreyesus et al. 1999 ) and large dams (Yewhalaw et al. 2009 , 2013 ; Lautze et al. 2007 ; Kibret et al. 2012 ) in semi-arid parts of the country with seasonal malaria were found to significantly increase malaria prevalence in adjacent (<3 km) human populations when compared with those further away (8–10 km) from the dams. A.

arabiensis was indicated as the primary malaria vector, breeding in shallow sunlit reservoir-shoreline and irrigation canals, and seepages under the dam (Yohannes et al. 2005 ; Kibret et al. 2012 ). Lautze et al. ( 2007 ) used a model that included virtually all major variables (including climate variables) that might affect malaria risk. Proximity to the reservoir appeared as a highly significant explanatory variable. Table 1 Characteristics of Dam Study Areas with Unstable Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa Country Atangana et al. ( 1979 ) and Ripert and Raccurt ( 1987 ) Ethiopia Semi-arid; mean temp 24°C Lautze et al. ( 2007 ) and Kibret et al. ( 2009 , 2012 ) Koga Dam Mai Nigus, Mai Sessela and Mai Seye microdams 0.5–4.5 Dejene et al.

( 2011 , 2012 ) Tigray microdams Semi-arid; mean temp 20°C Ghebreyesus et al. ( 1999 ) and Yohannes et al. ( 2005 ) Ghana 123 1671 Semi-arid area; annual rainfall between 550 and 750 mm; annual min temperature between 14 and 18°C; annual max temperature between 26 and 30°C Documented Impact of Dams on Malaria in Areas with Unstable Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa Name of the dam and location Malaria situation Primary malaria vector species and breeding Source Bamendjin Dam, Cameroon Malaria prevalence was 36 and 25% in communities at close proximity and farther away (14 km) from the reservoir, respectively A. funestus flourished in shallow vegetation-covered waters Atangana et al. ( 1979 ) and Ripert and Raccurt ( 1987 ) Gilgel-Gibe Dam, Ethiopia The P.

vivax prevalence was significantly higher in communities within 3 km from the dam as compared to those 5–8 km from the dam (OR 2.00, 95% CI 1.38–2.92) A. arabiensis; shoreline puddles Yewhalaw et al. ( 2009 ) Tigray microdams, Ethiopia Malaria incidence was 14.0 episodes/1000 child months in communities within 3 km radius from dams as compared to 1.9 in villages 8–10 km from the dams A. arabiensis and A. pharoensis; shoreline puddles and seepage below the dam Ghebreyesus et al. ( 1999 ) and Yohannes et al. ( 2005 ) Koka Dam, Ethiopia Malaria infection rate was 90.4 cases/1000 person in communities within 1 km from the reservoir compared to 5.3 at a distance 5–9 km away A. arabiensis and A. pharoensis; shoreline puddles and seepage below the dam Lautze et al.

( 2007 ) and Kibret et al. ( 2009 , 2012 ) Koga Dam, Ethiopia Malaria prevalence was significantly higher (9.5%) in dam villages than the non-dam villages (0.5%) Larvae of A. arabiensis were found around the reservoir shoreline Mai Nigus, Mai Sessela and Mai Seye microdams, Ethiopia The dams did not result in significant increase in malaria incidence Twofold increase in A. arabiensis density in dam communities following dam construction Dejene et al. ( 2011 , 2012 ) Akosombo Dam, Ghana The dam resulted in perennial malaria transmission A. gambiae breeds on the shorelines of the reservoir (Lake Volta) Sam ( 1993 ) Kamburu Dam, Kenya Before dam construction = 4.5% and 1.8% malaria prevalence in children living within 4 km from the dam and Inland (4–11 km from the dam) communities, respectively A. gambiae (principal vector) After dam construction = 55.3 and 22.2%, respectively A.

funestus (secondary vector) 80–85% of all cases are due to P. falciparum and 10–15% are due to P. malariae A. gambiae was found breeding in almost all water collections examined while A. funestus preferred permanent vegetation-covered pools Malaria prevalence was higher in the dam villages when compared to non-dam villages A. gambiae Malaria prevalence increased from 23.5% before construction to 50.4% after construction of the dam Adult densities of A. gambiae were higher after construction of the dam Njunwa ( 2000 ) Manyuchi dam, Zimbabwe The area used to be malaria free but surrounded by malarious districts before dam construction. The dam was blamed for malaria epidemics (35 deaths & 5804 P. falciparum clinical cases) in 1994 A. arabiensis Freeman ( 1994 ) Human-induced environmental modifications normally exert a great impact on vector population dynamics, which could possibly lead to malaria epidemics in areas where people have low immunity to the disease.

For malaria epidemics to occur, both people and the parasite and the vector mosquito must come into frequent contact (Smith and McKenzie 2004 ). In Zimbabwe, malaria epidemics occurred in 1991 following construction of Manyuchi Dam in the Mwenezi district that was once considered to be free of malaria (Freeman 1994 ). The author believed that movement of people and vectors carrying malaria parasites from neighboring endemic areas could have contributed to the establishment of malaria transmission around Manyuchi Dam. While the Koga Dam (2000 m above sea level) in northwestern Ethiopia intensified malaria transmission (Zeleke 2007 ), at least three microdams in the northern highlands of Ethiopia (>2000 m above sea level) did not result in increased malaria prevalence despite an increased density of A. arabiensis (Dejene et al. 2011 , 2012 ). Air temperature was indicated as a limiting factor to support malaria transmission in the latter studies. Generally, malaria vector species distribution seems to influence the nature of the interaction between dams and malaria across sub-Saharan Africa. A. arabiensis was the predominant species followed by A.

pharoensis around the dams in Ethiopia (Yohannes et al. 2005 ; Zeleke 2007 ; Kibret et al. 2012 ), Kenya (Oomen 1981 ), and Zimbabwe (Freeman 1994 ), while A. gambiae was the most common malaria vector found around dams in Ghana (Sam 1993 ), Nigeria (Ujoh et al. 2012 ) and Tanzania (Njunwa 2000 ). A. funestus was the dominant species around the Bamendjin Dam of Cameroon (Atangana et al. 1979 ). While A. arabiensis was predominantly found in sunlit temporary breeding habitats created by water-level changes (Oomen 1981 ; Yohannes et al. 2005 ; Kibret et al. 2012 ), A. gambiae and A. funestus were common in wetlands created by receding reservoir water (Atangana et al. 1979 ; King 1996 ). A. gambiae and A. funestus are highly anthropophilic and endophagic, while A.

arabiensis exhibits partial zoophilic and exophagic behavior (Coetzee et al. 2000 ). Impact of Dams on Malaria in Areas with Perennial Transmission There have been only three studies that have assessed the impact of dams in areas where malaria transmission occurs throughout the year (Table 3 ). Malaria prevalence was not enhanced following the construction of the Foum Gleita Dam in Mauritania (Baudon et al. 1986 ). A. pharoensis, with a short longevity and thus poor vectorial capacity, is the main vector around Foum Gleita Dam (Table 4 ). Although the density of this vector increased due to abundant breeding grounds associated with the reservoir, its short lifespan appeared to limit its role in malaria transmission. The Diama Dam in Senegal was also found to have had no impact on malaria transmission rates, despite an increase in vector abundance (Sow et al. 2002 ; Sanchez-Ribas et al. 2012 ). A. gambiae, a highly anthropophilic species with high vectorial capacity, was replaced by the less anthropophilic A. pharoensis with its lower vectorial capacity following dam constructions in semi-arid areas.

Table 3 Characteristics of Dam Study Areas with Stable Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa Country 250 Semi-arid A. pharoensis breeds in brackish water but has a low survival rate which limits its role in malaria transmission. Even in some villages where A. gambiae and A. arabiensis are common, they prefer irrigated areas and their anthropophilic index remains low Sow et al. ( 2002 ) 500 Area of reservoir is 10 by 15 km; Sahelian climate between humid area and desert; A. gambiae; While there were several puddles formed, it was suggested that harsh winds and high temperatures negatively affected larval development Baudon et al. ( 1986 ) 11,300 Dry sahelian climate with annual rainfall of 360 mm and mean temperatures ranging 28°C A. arabiensis and A. gambiae and vector densities were correlated with ditches, but not the river Ndiath et al.

( 2012 ) Impact of Dam on Malaria in Areas with Perennial Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa Location Source Diama Dam, Senegal No significant change in malaria due to the dam; Malaria was the most prevalent waterborne disease before and after construction of the dam.; A. pharoensis dominated Sow et al. ( 2002 ) Foum Gleita Dam, Mauritania No significant change in malaria due to the dam; A. arabiensis predominated, but A. gambiae and A. funestus were also present Baudon et al. ( 1986 ) Manantali Dam, Mali Malaria transmission was extremely low and seasonal; A. gambiae with higher vectorial capacity substituted by A. arabiensis with a lower vectorial capacity Ndiath et al. ( 2012 ) Distribution of Dams Related to Malaria Stability in Sub-Saharan Africa The location of a total of 1268 dams was examined in relation to malaria stability across sub-Saharan Africa (Fig. 2 ).

Over half of these dams were located in areas with either unstable or stable malaria, while 43% (n = 545) were located in areas where malaria transmission does not exist (mainly in South Africa). Of the dams located in malarious areas, 33% (n = 416) and 24% (n = 307) were located in areas with unstable and stable malaria, respectively. The majority of the dams in stable malarious areas were located in western Africa, while the majority of dams in unstable areas were situated in southern and eastern Africa. Figure 2 Map showing spatial distribution of dams in the sub-Saharan Africa related to the 2010 malaria stability indexing and locations of study sites used in the review. Discussion This review indicated that the effects of dams on malaria transmission vary depending on the ecology of the vector mosquito and malaria endemicity of a given area. While dams could increase malaria in semi-arid areas where the transmission is seasonal, dams built in stable areas (i.e., areas with year-round malaria transmission) showed no effect of enhanced malaria intensity. This is mainly attributed to the differences in larval breeding habitat preferences and distribution of A. arabiensis and A.

gambiae across sub-Saharan Africa (Gillies and De Meillon 1968 ). Anopheles arabiensis predominately occurs in semi-arid areas with limited rainfall while A. gambiae commonly exists in tropical rainforest regions and prefers permanent breeding sites unlike A. arabiensis that flourishes in sunlit shallow temporary breeding habitats such as reservoir shoreline puddles (Coetzee et al. 2000 ). In semi-arid unstable malarious areas, availability of water for mosquito vector breeding is the key environmental variable that determines the force of malaria transmission (Craig et al. 1999 ; Teklehaimanot et al. 2004 ). In these settings, dams result in a proliferation of A. arabiensis, leading to intensified malaria transmission. On the other hand, in stable areas with perennial transmission, A. arabiensis and A. pharoensis with lesser anthropophilic behavior thrive much better than the highly anthropophilic A. gambiae and A. funestus around water reservoirs, resulting in insignificant change in local malaria prevalence. This scenario was documented in studies of Malian and Senegalese villages near Manantali Dam.

Interestingly, the dam increased malaria in the Senegalese villages (King 1996 ) but not at those in Mali (Ndiath et al. 2012 ). The explanation for this difference was that A. arabiensis was the major vector along the Senegalese shoreline of the reservoir with unstable malaria while A. arabiensis displaced the more efficient vector A. gambiae in the Malian villages adjacent to the reservoir shoreline where stable malaria exists. Similarly, Ijumba and Lindsay ( 2001 ) reported displacement of the most endophilic and anthropophilic malaria vector A. funestus by A. arabiensis with lower vectorial capacity, as the latter thrives more than the former in puddles associated with water impoundments in stable areas. In a previous global review, Keiser et al. ( 2005 ) indicated that whether an individual water project triggers an increase in malaria transmission depends on the contextual determinants of malaria including the epidemiologic setting, socioeconomic factors, vector management, and health-seeking behavior. Dams also attract people for farming, fishing, and domestic water use resulting in higher human density around them.

With higher vector abundance and increased availability of blood meal for the vector, dams could intensify malaria in such highly populated dam communities (Hunter et al. 1993 ). Moreover, the distribution and ecology of malaria vector species are among the important factors that determine the potential influence of dams on malaria. Increased malaria in unstable areas following dam construction was also documented elsewhere (Keiser et al. 2005 ); for example, at the Bargi Dam (Singh et al. 1999 ) and Sathanur Reservoir (Hyma and Ramesh 1980 ) of India, the Three Gorges Reservoir in China (Quan et al. 2013 ), and the Itapu Dam in Brazil (Flavigna-Gulmerme et al. 2005 ). These studies indicated that ecological changes due to water storage led to the formation of suitable mosquito vector breeding grounds. In contrast, construction of small dams in the Sundergarh district of India has led to a decrease in malaria prevalence in dam communities (Sharma et al. 2008 ). This was due to altered flow conditions in the river downstream of the dams that resulted in unfavorable breeding conditions for A.

fluviatilis which requires slow-flowing streams. The link between dams and malaria is thus generally associated with environmental changes that influence mosquito vector species abundance. Anthropogenic conditions may modify the malaria stability index by influencing the distribution, survival rate, and feeding habits of vectors (Kiszewski et al. 2004 ). Insecticide use, improved house construction, and land-use changes could reduce the force of transmission. Anthropogenic changes that increase transmission would include the accumulation of ground puddles and enhanced mosquito resting sites that affect mosquito longevity. Irrigation has been indicated to exacerbate dam impacts on malaria (Keiser et al. 2005 ) and rice irrigation has led to increased malaria in unstable areas of sub-Saharan Africa (Ijumba and Lindsay 2001 ). Lindsay et al. ( 2000 ) indicated that both minimum and maximum air temperatures were higher in irrigated villages than non-irrigated villages in the highlands of Uganda. Similar microclimate change may contribute to an increase in malaria in the irrigation dams in the highlands of sub-Saharan Africa.

Temperature is a key determinant of several malaria transmission parameters, including the rate of parasite and mosquito development and mosquito biting rates (Zhou et al. 2004 ; Beck-Johnson et al. 2013 ; Christiansen-Jucht et al. 2014 ). Around Lake Bunyonyi in the highlands of Uganda, Lindblade et al. ( 2000 ) found that temperatures were significantly higher in villages close to the lake than in those further away, and that A. gambiae was abundant around the lake. This explains why A. arabiensis appears to have become abundant around the highland dams. Lindblade et al. ( 2000 ) also demonstrated that malaria parasite development was reduced by 17.3 days (from 55.5 to 38.2 days) when mean temperatures increased from 18.0 to 18.9°C. A similar relationship with temperature exists for larval mosquito development (Beck-Johnson et al. 2013 ) and adult biting rate (Lindsay and Birley 1996 ).

Further studies are necessary to understand the existing microclimate changes that favor malaria transmission around highland dams in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 20 million people live around dams in sub-Saharan Africa (Kibret et al. unpublished report). Keiser et al. ( 2005 ) found that over 9.4 million people live in close proximity (within 2 km radius) to large dams (i.e., dams with a height of 15 m or more) in sub-Saharan Africa. Several new dams have been proposed for irrigation and hydropower generation in this region (FAO 2007 ; Dumas et al. 2010 ). Yet, the risk of malaria could compromise the intended benefits of these dams. There is no doubt that integrated malaria interventions are necessary in order for the reservoir communities to enjoy the intended benefits derived from water infrastructures (Brewster 1999 ; Russell et al. 2011 ).

Among the most common malaria intervention strategies, vector control measures (using insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying), coupled with environmental control through disrupting mosquito larval breeding sites, have been advocated as a cost-effective measure in water resources development schemes such as large dams (Utzinger et al. 2001 ; Walker 2002 ). Dam management protocols using water-level manipulation during peak malaria transmission seasons have been shown to suppress mosquito larval breeding and malaria around dam communities in the United States (Kitchens 2013 ). With recent intensive dam construction activities in sub-Saharan Africa, it is essential to explore such water management options to mitigate malaria around large water impoundments. Recent studies in Ethiopia found that faster drawdown of the Koka reservoir during the main malaria transmission season could reduce malaria vector abundance and improve downstream flood control (Kibret et al. 2009 ; Reis et al. 2011 ). Future studies should focus on developing dam operation tools that incorporate malaria control to suppress vector mosquito breeding and malaria transmission in unstable regions of sub-Saharan Africa. In conclusion, water storage infrastructures are essential to ensure food security and address the development needs.

However, poor consideration of the negative public health effects of such structures could compromise the intended outcomes. This study indicates the negative impact of dams on malaria particularly in areas with unstable/seasonal transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. The effects of dams on malaria should be well understood before implementing such projects, and appropriate mitigation measures should be taken during operation. Research is required to further assess environmental factors that lead to intensified malaria transmission in unstable malaria areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Integrated vector control measures that include protocols for reservoir management, coupled with conventional malaria control strategies, will reduce the risk of malaria transmission in dam communities across the region. Acknowledgments This study was financially supported by the University of New England, Australia. We thank the Malaria Atlas Project (MAP) for provision of African malaria stability map, and Dr. Luxon Nhamo (International Water Management Institute) and Dr. Sarah Mika (University of New England) for developing the dam distribution malaria map. The anonymous reviewers are thanked for their comments on an earlier version of the paper.

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Question: The Lower Usuma Dam is in which African country?
Answer: Nigeria