Panama declares independence - Nov 03, 1903 - HISTORY.com Panama declares independence Publisher A+E Networks With the support of the U.S. government, Panama issues a declaration of independence from Colombia. The revolution was engineered by a Panamanian faction backed by the Panama Canal Company, a French-U.S. corporation that hoped to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans with a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama. In 1903, the Hay-Herrán Treaty was signed with Colombia, granting the United States use of the Isthmus of Panama in exchange for financial compensation. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, but the Colombian Senate, fearing a loss of sovereignty, refused. In response, President Theodore Roosevelt gave tacit approval to a rebellion by Panamanian nationalists, which began on November 3, 1903. To aid the rebels, the U.S.-administered railroad in Panama removed its trains from the northern terminus of Colón, thus stranding Colombian troops sent to crush the insurrection. Other Colombian forces were discouraged from marching on Panama by the arrival of the U.S. warship Nashville.

On November 6, the United States recognized the Republic of Panama, and on November 18 the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed with Panama, granting the United States exclusive and permanent possession of the Panama Canal Zone. In exchange, Panama received $10 million and an annuity of $250,000 beginning nine years later. The treaty was negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay and the owner of the Panama Canal Company. Almost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country’s new national sovereignty. On August 15, 1914, the Panama Canal was inaugurated with the passage of the U.S. vessel Ancon, a cargo and passenger ship. After decades of protest and negotiations, the Panama Canal passed to Panamanian control in December 1999. Related Videos Panama - The 1903 Treaty and Qualified Independence The 1903 Treaty and Qualified Independence Panama Table of Contents Naval operations during the Spanish-American War (1898-1901) served to convince President Theodore Roosevelt that the United States needed to control a canal somewhere in the Western Hemisphere.

This interest culminated in the Spooner Bill of June 29, 1902, providing for a canal through the isthmus of Panama, and the Hay-Herr�n Treaty of January 22, 1903, under which Colombia gave consent to such a project in the form of a 100-year lease on an area 10 kilometers wide. This treaty, however, was not ratified in Bogot�, and the United States, determined to construct a canal across the isthmus, intensively encouraged the Panamanian separatist movement. By July 1903, when the course of internal Colombian opposition to the Hay-Herr�n Treaty became obvious, a revolutionary junta had been created in Panama. Jos� Augustin Arango, an attorney for the Panama Railroad Company, headed the junta. Manuel Amador Guerrero and Carlos C. Arosemena served on the junta from the start, and five other members, all from prominent Panamanian families, were added. Arango was considered the brains of the revolution, and Amador was the junta's active leader.

With financial assistance arranged by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a French national representing the interests of de Lesseps's company, the native Panamanian leaders conspired to take advantage of United States interest in a new regime on the isthmus. In October and November 1903, the revolutionary junta, with the protection of United States naval forces, carried out a successful uprising against the Colombian government. Acting, paradoxically, under the Bidlack-Mallarino Treaty of 1846 between the United States and Colombia--which provided that United States forces could intervene in the event of disorder on the isthmus to guarantee Colombian sovereignty and open transit across the isthmus --the United States prevented a Colombian force from moving across the isthmus to Panama City to suppress the insurrection. President Roosevelt recognized the new Panamanian junta as the de facto government on November 6, 1903; de jure recognition came on November 13. Five days later Bunau-Varilla, as the diplomatic representative of Panama (a role he had purchased through financial assistance to the rebels) concluded the Isthmian Canal Convention with Secretary of State John Hay in Washington.

Bunau-Varilla had not lived in Panama for seventeen years before the incident, and he never returned. Nevertheless, while residing in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City, he wrote the Panamanian declaration of independence and constitution and designed the Panamanian flag. Isthmian patriots particularly resented the haste with which BunauVarilla concluded the treaty, an effort partially designed to preclude any objections an arriving Panamanian delegation might raise. Nonetheless, the Panamanians, having no apparent alternative, ratified the treaty on December 2, and approval by the United States Senate came on February 23, 1904. The rights granted to the United States in the so-called HayBunau -Varilla Treaty were extensive. They included a grant "in perpetuity of the use, occupation, and control" of a sixteenkilometer -wide strip of territory and extensions of three nautical miles into the sea from each terminal "for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation, and protection" of an isthmian canal. Furthermore, the United States was entitled to acquire additional areas of land or water necessary for canal operations and held the option of exercising eminent domain in Panama City.

Within this territory Washington gained "all the rights, power, and authority . . . which the United States would possess and exercise if it were the sovereign . . . to the entire exclusion" of Panama. The Republic of Panama became a de facto protectorate of the larger country through two provisions whereby the United States guaranteed the independence of Panama and received in return the right to intervene in Panama's domestic affairs. For the rights it obtained, the United States was to pay the sum of US$10 million and an annuity, beginning 9 years after ratification, of US$250,000 in gold coin. The United States also purchased the rights and properties of the French canal company for US$40 million. Colombia was the harshest critic of United States policy at the time. A reconciliatory treaty with the United States providing an indemnity of US$25 million was finally concluded between these two countries in 1921. Ironically, however, friction resulting from the events of 1903 was greatest between the United States and Panama.

Major disagreements arose concerning the rights granted to the United States by the treaty of 1903 and the Panamanian constitution of 1904. The United States government subsequently interpreted these rights to mean that the United States could exercise complete sovereignty over all matters in the Canal Zone. Panama, although admitting that the clauses were vague and obscure, later held that the original concession of authority related only to the construction, operation, and defense of the canal and that rights and privileges not necessary to these functions had never been relinquished. Custom Search Panama US Military Facilities in Panama Panama - 1903 When the Colombian legislature in 1903 refused to ratify a treaty giving the United States the right to build and manage a canal, a group of impatient Panamanians, with the support of US Marines, rose in rebellion and declared Panamanian independence. The breakaway country was immediately recognized by President Theodore Roosevelt. Under the terms of a treaty signed that November, Panama granted the United States a perpetual lease to a 16-kilometer-wide strip of land (the Panama Canal Zone) between the Atlantic and the Pacific.

By far the most important action Theodoer Roosevelt took in foreign affairs during the time he was President related to the Panama Canal. There was much accusation about having acted in an "unconstitutional" manner -- a position which can be upheld only if Jefferson's action in acquiring Louisiana be also treated as unconstitutional; and at different stages of the affair believers in a do-nothing policy denounced him as having "usurped authority" -- which meant, that when nobody else could or would exercise efficient authority, he exercised it. During the nearly four hundred years that had elapsed since Balboa crossed the Isthmus, there had been a good deal of talk about building an Isthmus canal, and there had been various discussions of the subject and negotiations about it in Washington for the previous half century. So far it had all resulted merely in conversation; and the time had come when unless somebody was prepared to act with decision the US would have to be resigned to at least half a century of further conversation. Under the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty signed shortly after Roosevelt became President, and thanks to negotiations with the French Panama Company, the United States at last acquired a possession, so far as Europe was concerned, which warranted her in immediately undertaking the task.

It remained to decide where the canal should be, whether along the line already pioneered by the French company in Panama, or in Nicaragua. Panama belonged to the Republic of Colombia. Nicaragua bid eagerly for the privilege of having the United States build the canal through her territory. As long as it was doubtful which route the US would decide upon, Colombia extended every promise of friendly cooperation; at the Pan-American Congress in Mexico her delegate joined in the unanimous vote which requested the United States forthwith to build the canal; and at her eager request the US negotiated the Hay-Herran Treaty with her, which gave us the right to build the canal across Panama. A board of experts sent to the Isthmus had reported that this route was better than the Nicaragua route, and that it would be well to build the canal over it provided the US could purchase the rights of the French company for forty million dollars; but that otherwise they would advise taking the Nicaragua route.

Ever since 1846 the US had had a treaty with the power then in control of the Isthmus, the Republic of New Granada, the predecessor of the Republic of Colombia and of the present Republic of Panama, by which treaty the United States was guaranteed free and open right of way across the Isthmus of Panama by any mode of communication that might be constructed, while in return the American Government guaranteed the perfect neutrality of the Isthmus with a view to the preservation of free transit. The United States had again and again been forced to intervene to protect the transit across the Isthmus, and the intervention was frequently at the request of Colombia herself. The effort to build a canal by private capital had been made under De Lesseps and had resulted in lamentable failure. Every serious proposal to build the canal in such manner had been abandoned. The United States had repeatedly announced that it would not permit it to be built or controlled by any old-world government. Colombia was utterly impotent to build it herself. Under these circumstances it had become a matter of imperative obligation that the US should build it ourselves without further delay.

Under the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, it was explicitly provided that the United States should build the canal, should control, police and protect it, and keep it open to the vessels of all nations on equal terms. The US had assumed the position of guarantor of the canal, including, of course, the building of the canal, and of its peaceful use by all the world. The enterprise was recognized everywhere as responding to an international need. It was a mere travesty on justice, according to Roosevelt, to treat the government in possession of the Isthmus as having the right to close the gates of intercourse on one of the great highways of the world. Naval operations during the Spanish-American War (1898-1901) served to convince President Theodore Roosevelt that the United States needed to control a canal somewhere in the Western Hemisphere.

This interest culminated in the Spooner Bill of June 29, 1902, providing for a canal through the isthmus of Panama, and the Hay-Herrï¿½n Treaty of January 22, 1903, under which Colombia gave consent to such a project in the form of a 100-year lease on an area 10 kilometers wide. This treaty, however, was not ratified in Bogotï¿½, and the United States, determined to construct a canal across the isthmus, intensively encouraged the Panamanian separatist movement. In 1898 M. A. Sanclamente was elected President, and J. M. Maroquin Vice-President, of the Republic of Colombia. On July 31, 1900, the Vice-President, Maroquin, executed a "coup d'etat" by seizing the person of the President, Sanclamente, and imprisoning him at a place a few miles out of Bogota. Maroquin thereupon declared himself possessed of the executive power because of "the absence of the President"--a delightful touch of unconscious humor.

He then issued a decree that public order was disturbed, and, upon that ground, assumed to himself legislative power under another provision of the constitution; that is, having himself disturbed the public order, he alleged the disturbance as a justification for seizing absolute power. Thenceforth Maroquin, without the aid of any legislative body, ruled as a dictator, combining the supreme executive, legislative, civil, and military authorities, in the so-called Republic of Colombia. The "absence" of Sanclamente from the capital became permanent by his death in prison in the year 1902. When the people of Panama declared their independence in November, 1903, no Congress had sat in Colombia since the year 1898, except the special Congress called by Maroquin to reject the canal treaty, and which did reject it by a unanimous vote, and adjourned without legislating on any other subject. The constitution of 1886 had taken away from Panama the power of self- government and vested it in Columbia. The coup d'etat of Maroquin took away from Colombia herself the power of government and vested it in an irresponsible dictator.

President Maroquin, through his Minister, had agreed to the Hay-Herran Treaty in January, 1903. He had the absolute power of an unconstitutional dictator to keep his promise or break it. He determined to break it. To furnish himself an excuse for breaking it he devised the plan of summoning a Congress especially called to reject the canal treaty. This the Congress -- a Congress of mere puppets --did, without a dissenting vote; and the puppets adjourned forthwith without legislating on any other subject.

The fact that this was a mere sham, and that the President had entire power to confirm his own treaty and act on it if he desired, was shown as soon as the revolution took place, for on November 6 General Reyes of Colombia addressed the American Minister at Bogota, on behalf of President Maroquin, saying that "if the Government of the United States would land troops and restore the Colombian sovereignty" the Colombian President would "declare martial law; and, by virtue of vested constitutional authority, when public order is disturbed, would approve by decree the ratification of the canal treaty as signed; or, if the Government of the United States prefers, would call an extra session of the Congress -- with new and friendly members -- next May to approve the treaty." By July 1903, when the course of internal Colombian opposition to the Hay-Herrï¿½n Treaty became obvious, a revolutionary junta had been created in Panama. Josï¿½ Augustin Arango, an attorney for the Panama Railroad Company, headed the junta. Manuel Amador Guerrero and Carlos C. Arosemena served on the junta from the start, and five other members, all from prominent Panamanian families, were added.

Arango was considered the brains of the revolution, and Amador was the junta's active leader. With financial assistance arranged by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a French national representing the interests of de Lesseps's company, the native Panamanian leaders conspired to take advantage of United States interest in a new regime on the isthmus. When, in August, 1903, Roosevelt became convinced that Colombia intended to repudiate the treaty made the preceding January, under cover of securing its rejection by the Colombian Legislature, he began carefully to consider what should be done. By Roosevelt's direction, Secretary Hay, personally and through the Minister at Bogota, repeatedly warned Colombia that grave consequences might follow her rejection of the treaty. The possibility of ratification did not wholly pass away until the close of the session of the Colombian Congress on the last day of October. There would then be two possibilities. One was that Panama would remain quiet. In that case Roosevelt was prepared to recommend to Congress that the US should at once occupy the Isthmus anyhow, and proceed to dig the canal.

But it seemed likely that there would be a revolution in Panama as soon as the Colombian Congress adjourned without ratifying the treaty, for the entire population of Panama felt that the immediate building of the canal was of vital concern to their well-being. On October 16, at the request of Lieutenant-General Young, Captain Humphrey, and Lieutenant Murphy, two army officers who had returned from the Isthmus, saw President Roosevelt and told him that there would unquestionably be a revolution on the Isthmus, that the people were unanimous in their criticism of the Bogota Government and their disgust over the failure of that Government to ratify the treaty; and that the revolution would probably take place immediately after the adjournment of the Colombian Congress. They did not believe that it would be before October 20, but they were confident that it would certainly come at the end of October or immediately afterwards, when the Colombian Congress had adjourned. Accordingly President Roosevelt directed the Navy Department to station various ships within easy reach of the Isthmus, to be ready to act in the event of need arising. These ships were barely in time. On November 3 the revolution occurred.

Practically everybody on the Isthmus, including all the Colombian troops that were already stationed there, joined in the revolution, and there was no bloodshed. But on that same day four hundred new Colombian troops were landed at Colon. Fortunately, the gunboat Nashville, under Commander Hubbard, reached Colon almost immediately afterwards, and when the commander of the Colombian forces threatened the lives and property of the American citizens, including women and children, in Colon, Commander Hubbard landed a few score sailors and marines to protect them. Acting, paradoxically, under the Bidlack-Mallarino Treaty of 1846 between the United States and Colombia -- which provided that United States forces could intervene in the event of disorder on the isthmus to guarantee Colombian sovereignty and open transit across the isthmus -- the United States prevented a Colombian force from moving across the isthmus to Panama City to suppress the insurrection. By a mixture of firmness and tact Commander Hubbard not only prevented any assault on Americanr citizens, but persuaded the Colombian commander to reembark his troops for Cartagena. On the Pacific side a Colombian gunboat shelled the City of Panama, with the result of killing one man -- the only life lost in the whole affair.

President Roosevelt said "No one connected with the American Government had any part in preparing, inciting, or encouraging the revolution, and except for the reports of our military and naval officers, which I forwarded to Congress, no one connected with the Government had any previous knowledge concerning the proposed revolution, except such as was accessible to any person who read the newspapers and kept abreast of current questions and current affairs. By the unanimous action of its people, and without the firing of a shot, the state of Panama declared themselves an independent republic. The time for hesitation on our part had passed." President Roosevelt recognized the new Panamanian junta as the de facto government on November 6, 1903; de jure recognition came on November 13. Five days later Bunau-Varilla, as the diplomatic representative of Panama (a role he had purchased through financial assistance to the rebels) concluded the Isthmian Canal Convention with Secretary of State John Hay in Washington. Bunau-Varilla had not lived in Panama for seventeen years before the incident, and he never returned.

Nevertheless, while residing in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City, he wrote the Panamanian declaration of independence and constitution and designed the Panamanian flag. Isthmian patriots particularly resented the haste with which BunauVarilla concluded the treaty, an effort partially designed to preclude any objections an arriving Panamanian delegation might raise. Nonetheless, the Panamanians, having no apparent alternative, ratified the treaty on December 2, and approval by the United States Senate came on February 23, 1904. The rights granted to the United States in the so-called HayBunau-Varilla Treaty were extensive. They included a grant "in perpetuity of the use, occupation, and control" of a sixteenkilometer -wide strip of territory and extensions of three nautical miles into the sea from each terminal "for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation, and protection" of an isthmian canal. Furthermore, the United States was entitled to acquire additional areas of land or water necessary for canal operations and held the option of exercising eminent domain in Panama City. Within this territory Washington gained "all the rights, power, and authority . . .

which the United States would possess and exercise if it were the sovereign . . . to the entire exclusion" of Panama. The Republic of Panama became a de facto protectorate of the larger country through two provisions whereby the United States guaranteed the independence of Panama and received in return the right to intervene in Panama's domestic affairs. For the rights it obtained, the United States was to pay the sum of US$10 million and an annuity, beginning 9 years after ratification, of US$250,000 in gold coin. The United States also purchased the rights and properties of the French canal company for US$40 million. Colombia was the harshest critic of United States policy at the time. A reconciliatory treaty with the United States providing an indemnity of US$25 million was finally concluded between these two countries in 1921. Ironically, however, friction resulting from the events of 1903 was greatest between the United States and Panama. Major disagreements arose concerning the rights granted to the United States by the treaty of 1903 and the Panamanian constitution of 1904.

The United States government subsequently interpreted these rights to mean that the United States could exercise complete sovereignty over all matters in the Canal Zone. Panama, although admitting that the clauses were vague and obscure, later held that the original concession of authority related only to the construction, operation, and defense of the canal and that rights and privileges not necessary to these functions had never been relinquished. NEWSLETTER Panama History - History of Panama History of Panama History Of Panama PRE-COLOMBIAN AND COLONIAL HISTORY Panama’s history doesn’t begin in 1501 with the arrival of the first European. The country has a rich pre-Columbian heritage going back over 11,000 years. Some of the first pottery-making villages in the Americas took root in Central Panama. This includes the Monagrillo culture (2500 – 1700 BC). These evolved into other groups, referred to by their pottery style, such as the La Mula, Tonosi and Cubita, each of whom settled in the Coclé province on the country’s southern coast. Before the Europeans arrived, Panam was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan and Cueva peoples.

Some experts estimate the total indigenous population prior to the conquest as being as high as 2,000,000 people. However, the vast majority of these were decimated by disease and warfare once the Spaniards arrived. Rodrigo de Bastidas inadvertently discovered Panama in 1501 while sailing from Venezuela in search of gold. He was the first European to explore the Isthmus of Panama. A year later Christopher Columbus himself visited Bocas del Toro, Veragua, the Chagres River and Porto Belo. In 1509 Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa were given the go-ahead to colonize territories between the west-side of the Gulf of Uraba to Cabo Gracias a Dios in modern-day Honduras. The first settlement in Panama was La Guardia. Founded in 1510, the city was later renamed Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien and became part of a province governed by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. Balboa, who waged war against the natives, was executed in 1519. In 1521 the city of Panama received royal acknowledgement and became the first European trading post on the Pacific.

For more than 300 years, Panama was part of the Spanish Empire. The country’s fortunes fluctuated with its geopolitical importance to the Spanish Crown. As Spain’s standing in the world declined, so too did Panama’s relationship with the former world power. On November 28, 1821 Panama declared independence from Spain. The country became part of Gran Colombia along with Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The Panamanians sent a force of over 700 to join Simon Bolivar’s forces in Peru, where the war of liberation was still being waged. COLOMBIAN PANAMA: 1821 - 1903 After years of neglect by the declining world power, Spain, Panamanians declared their intention to seek independence from the European nation on November 10, 1821. 18 days later on the 28th of the month, Panama declared its independence from Spain. At this point, the Panamanians were unsure as to whether they should remain a part of the Republic of Colombia, as they had been under Spanish control, or join forces with Peru.

Under the 1821 Constitution of Cúcuta, Panama became an official part of the Republic of Colombia, along with Venezuela and New Granada (modern-day Colombia) under the leadership of Simon Bolivar. In 1822 Ecuador would also become a part of this Republic, which came to be known as Gran Colombia. In 1826, Bolivar honored Panama by making it the site of a special congress featuring all the newly liberated Latin American countries. However, not all was rosy with this new arrangement. In September of 1830, under the guidance of General Jose Domingo Espinar, upset because he was ordered to transfer to another command by the centralized government, Panama separated from the Republic of Colombia only to return shortly thereafter after Bólivar called for the country’s return to the republic. This was accomplished by early 1831. In July of that year, General Alzuru became supreme military commander of the Isthmus of Panama and declared its independence from New Granada (Colombia). However, Alzuru’s administration lasted only one month.

The general was assassinated and the country, this time under the leadership of Colonel Tomas Herrera, reestablished its ties with Bolivar’s liberated nations. However, Herrera would separate from Colombia in 1840 after a civil war. The country, reunified with New Granada on December 31, 1841. A few years later - in 1846 - Colombia and the United States signed the Bidlack Mallarino Treaty which granted the US rights to build railroads through Panam. This also granted the USA the right to intervene militarily if Panama tried to secede again. By 1855 the United States had completed the world’s first transcontinental railroad, the Panama Railway. During the years of 1850 to 1903, when the Bidlack Mallarino Treaty expired, the US government quelled a plethora of social disturbances in Panama including the Watermelon War of 1856. During the 1880s, the first attempts to build a sea-level canal were undertaken by the French. However, due to illness and engineering challenges, these were abandoned.

In 1902, Theodore Roosevelt, then President of the United States, convinced Congress to take the project on. At this time Colombia was in the midst of the Thousand Days War. During that conflict, Panamaians struggled to attain independence from Colombia, which had become Gran Colombia by this time. The US, which had originally supported Colombia’s claim to keep Panama part of Gran Colombia, switched sides and backed the Panamanians in their quest for independence. In November of 1903, the United States helped Panama take its first step to sovereignty. A few weeks later, the two countries signed the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty allowing for construction of a canal and U.S. sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the Panama Canal Zone. The United States would build the canal, administer, fortify and defend it “in perpetuity.” REPUBLIC, DICTATORSHIP, NORIEGA AND MODERNITY: 1903 – Present From 1903 to 1968 Panama was a republic. The power in the newly formed nation rested in the hands of a precious and wealthy few.

During the 1950s the Panamanian military began to challenge the hegemony of this commercially-oriented oligarchy. On January 9, 1964 Martyrs’ Day riots, which protested the United States’ involvement with the Panama Canal, saw twenty rioters killed. 500 other Panamanians were wounded. In October 1968, Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid was elected president for the third time. He was ousted twice prior by the Panamanian military. The third time, the military established a junta under the commander of National Guard, Brigardier General Omar Torrijos. A charismatic leader despite running a corrupt and harsh regime, Torrijos enjoyed great support among rural and urban constituencies that had been long ignored by the oligarchy. In 1977, Torrijos and US President Jimmy Carter signed a treaty which would transfer the Panama Canal and the US army bases in the country to Panamanian control in 1999. The US would retain a perpetual right to intervene militarily, however. Torrijos died in a plane crash under mysterious circumstances in August of 1981.

By 1983 General Manuel Noriega took control of the nation although he never held the title of president. Initially an ally of the United States – he was put on the CIA payroll in the late 60s – Noriega became implicated in various illegal activities including drug trafficking and selling U.S. secrets to Fidel Castro. In 1989, Noriega was captured after the United States, under the leadership of President George W. Bush, invaded the country. In 1992 he was convicted under various federal charges in the United States and was sentenced to 40 years in prison. Currently, he is serving a reduced sentence of 30 years at the Federal Correctional Institution in Miami, Florida. A brutal dictator, Noriega also received a long-term jail sentence in absentia by the Panamanian courts. With Noriega’s departure from the nation, Guillermo Endara became president of Panama. In May of 1994, Ernesto Perez Balladares took over the presidency. Under his leadership, Panama entered the World Trade Organization and privatized both the electric and telephone companies.

In 1998, Mireya Moscoso, Arnulfo Arias’ widow, was elected to the highest office in Panama. She became the first woman to hold that position. During her administration, Moscoso oversaw the handover of control of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama. In 2004 Martin Torrijos, the son of former military dictator Omar Torrijos, became Panama’s president. He currently remains in office. Brief History of Panama Brief History of Panama Panama had a rich Pre-Colombian history with its native populations who have lived here over 12,000 years. Central Panama was the site of some of the first pottery-making villages in the Americas. The Monagrillo culture dates from 2500-1700 BC. These populations are best known from the spectacular burials of the Conte site (dating to c. AD 500-900) and the beautiful polychrome pottery of the Coclé style. At the time of European conquest, the indigenous population was said to be between one and two million people.

In 1501, Rodrigo de Bastidas from Seville, who had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage to the Americas, reached La Punta de Manzanillo on Panama's upper Caribbean coast. He is the first European to have claimed that part of the isthmus. Panama at that time was settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, and Cueva peoples, among whom the largest group were the Cueva. A year after de Bastidas, Christopher Columbus sailed south from the Costa Rica. Columbus produced maps of Panama's coastline. He landed at Almirante and continued to Portobelo (Beautiful Port). Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who had been on de Bastidas's ship in 1501, trekked from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 and was able to verify that the isthmus had another coast and that there was another ocean, the Pacific. Balboa's discovery of another ocean led to Panama's use by colonial Spain as a route for Peruvian treasures to be taken from the Pacific to the Atlantic. The Spanish effectively removed most native cultures by looting and enslavement of the indians.

By the late 17th century, Cueva culture had disappeared. Indian cemeteries were looted for the pre-Colombian gold treasures they contained. The route that the Spanish created across the isthmus was called Camino Real, or Royal Road, although was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces. In 1698, Panama was the site of the ill-fated, Darién scheme, whose aim was to set up a Scottish trading colony. This scheme and the resulting financial losses played a significant part in influencing the eventual union of Scotland with England in 1707. Panama was part of the Spanish Empire for 300 years (1538-1821). Panama's importance to Spain declined towards the end of the 17th century and fade almost altogether by the middle of the 18th as Spanish ships began to go round Cape Horn to reach the Atlantic, in order to avoid being ambushed by enemy ships in the Caribbean. In 1821 Pamana joined with present day Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador to form 'Gran' or Greater Colombia.

In September 1830, General José Domingo Espinar, the local military commander rebelled against the country's central government, and Panama separated from Greater Colombia and requested that general Simón Bolívar take direct command of the isthmus department. By early 1831 Panama had reincorporated itself to what was left of Greater Colombia, which had adopted the name of Republic of New Granada. By July 1831, as the new countries of the Venezuela and Ecuador were being established, Panama again declared its independence, but by August had re-united with New Granada. In November 1840, General Tomás Herrera, declared its independence, but again re-united with Columbia on December 31, 1841. In 1846, the United States and Colombia signed the Bidlack Mallarino Treaty, granting the U.S. rights to build railroads through Panama, and also gave the USA the power to intervene by force to guarantee Colombian control of the isthmus. Between 1850 and 1903, the USA used troops to suppress independence revolts several times.

The first such conflict was known as the Watermelon War of 1856. In 1855, the first Transcontinental railway of the New World, the Panama Railway, was built across the isthmus from Colón to Panama City to transport gold prospectors wanting to access the gold fields of California. Modern Panamanian history has been shaped by the possibility of a canal to replace the difficult overland route. In the 1520s , the Spanish crown ordered surveys of the isthmus to determine the feasibility of such a canal, but never progressed the idea. . From 1880 to 1889, the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had built the Suez Canal, attempted to construct a sea-level canal. Eventually yellow fever and malaria as well as engineering problems caused this project to be abandoned. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt convinced U.S. Congress to take on the abandoned works in 1902. The US encouraged a handful of Conservative Panamanian landholding families to demand a Panama independent from Colombia.

The USS Nashville was dispatched to Colón to deter any resistance from Bogotà and so, on November 3, 1903, with United States' encouragement and French financial support, Panama proclaimed its independence. Less than three weeks later, the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty was signed between the French and the United States, without a Panamanian in the room. The treaty allowed for the construction of a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land 10 miles wide and 50 miles long, (16 kilometers by 80 kilometers) on either side of the Panama Canal Zone. In that zone, the U.S. would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it "in perpetuity." The Panama Canal was built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914; the existing 83-kilometer (50-mi.) lock canal is considered one of the world's greatest engineering triumphs. From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a constitutional republic dominated by a commercially-oriented oligarchy.

During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony. In 1968, a Coup toppled the government of the recently elected Arnulfo Arias Madrid. Gen. Omar Torrijos became head of a governing military Junta until his death in an apparent airplane accident in 1981. After Torrijos's death, power was obtained by Gen. Manuel Noriega. Noriega was implicated in drug trafficking by the United States. To remove Gen. Manuel Noriega, on December 20, 1989, the United States invaded Panama in a large military operation involving 25,000 United States troops. A few hours after the invasion, inside a U.S. military base in the former Panama Canal Zone, Guillermo Endara, the winning candidate in the May 1989 elections, was sworn in as the new president of Panama. The invasion occurred just days before the Panama Canal administration was to be turned over to Panamanian control, according to the timetable set up by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties.

After the invasion, Noriega sought asylum in the Vatican diplomatic mission. After a few days, Noriega surrendered to the American military, and was taken to Florida to be formally arrested and charged U.S. federal authorities. He will be eligible for parole in 2007. Under the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, the United States returned all canal-related lands to Panama on December 31, 1999, but reserves the right to military intervention in the interest of its national security. Panama also gained control of canal-related buildings and infrastructure as well as full administration of the canal. Panama Canal Turns 100 Amid Growing Competition Panama Canal Turns 100 Amid Growing Competition August 15, 2014 Copy and paste the embed code below. The code changes based on your selection. The code has been copied to your clipboard. Video size Panama Canal Turns 100 Amid Growing Pains, Competition Share Email to a Friend Print Editor's Note: The Panama Canal opened 100 years ago, on August 15, 1914. It is 77 kilometers long. It joins the Atlantic and Pacific oceans at Panama.

It made the world smaller -- cargo ships no longer had to sail around South America. A century after it opened, the canal is dealing with the demands of expanding global trade and competition. The following story was originally published on August 18, 2010. Copy and paste the embed code below. The code has been copied to your clipboard. Pop-out player BOB DOUGHTY: Welcome to the MAKING OF A NATION – American history in VOA Special English. Theodore Roosevelt became president of the United States at the beginning of the 1900s. He firmly believed in expanding American power in the world. To do this, he wanted a strong navy. And he wanted a waterway that would let the navy sail quickly between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Roosevelt decided to build that waterway. This week in our series, Richard Rael and Maurice Joyce tell the story of the Panama Canal. RICHARD RAEL: For many years, people had dreamed of building a canal across Central America to link the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The most likely place was at the thinnest point of land: Panama. Another possible place was to the north: Nicaragua.

President Roosevelt appointed a committee to decide which place would be better. Engineers said it would cost less to complete a canal that had been started in the 1880s in Panama. But, the United States would have to buy the land and building rights from a French company. The price was high: more than 100 million dollars. So, the committee decided it would be less costly, overall, to build a canal in Nicaragua. The proposal went to the United States Congress for approval. MAURICE JOYCE: The House of Representatives quickly passed a bill to build the Nicaragua canal. Then the French company reduced its price for the land and building rights in Panama. It decided some money was better than no money at all. President Roosevelt was pleased. He gave his support to the Panama plan. When the Senate began debate, however, it appeared the Nicaragua plan would win. Then a volcano exploded in the Caribbean area. A city was destroyed. Thirty-thousand people were killed. Soon, reports said another volcano had become active and was threatening a town. The volcano was in Nicaragua. Nicaragua's president denied there were any active volcanoes in his country. But one of Nicaragua's postal stamps showed a picture of an exploding volcano.

A photo dated 1902 shows smoke coming from the Momotombo volcano, the "smoking terror" in Nicaragua That little stamp weakened support for the Nicaragua canal. The Senate passed a bill for a Panama canal instead. The House of Representatives changed its earlier decision. It approved the Senate bill. RICHARD RAEL: At that time, Panama was a state of Colombia. Canal negotiations between America and Colombia did not go smoothly. After nine months, the United States threatened to end the talks and begin negotiations with Nicaragua. The threat worked. In January 1903, Colombia signed a treaty to permit the United States to build the Panama Canal. The treaty gave the United States a canal zone. This was a piece of land ten kilometers wide across Panama. The United States could use the canal zone for one hundred years. In exchange, it would pay Colombia ten million dollars, plus 250,000 dollars a year. The United States Senate passed the treaty within two months. The Colombian Senate rejected it. The Colombian government demanded more money. MAURICE JOYCE: President Roosevelt was furious. He saw the issue in terms of world politics, not simply Colombia's sovereignty.

He said: "I do not think Colombia should be permitted to bar permanently one of the future highways of civilization." Roosevelt was ready to take over Panama to build the canal. That was not necessary. A revolt was being planned in Panama to gain independence from Colombia. The United States made no promises to support the rebels. But it wanted the rebels to succeed. Under an old treaty, Colombia had given the United States the right to prevent interference with travel across Panama. Now, the United States used the old treaty to prevent interference from Colombian troops. Several American warships were sent to Panama. RICHARD RAEL: The local leader of the Panamanian revolt was Manuel Amador. Amador had the support of the French company that still owned the rights to build the Panama Canal. The chief representative of the company was Philippe Bunau-Varilla. He worked closely with an American lawyer, William Cromwell. Bunau-Varilla and Cromwell provided Manuel Amador with a declaration of independence, a constitution, and money. Amador used the money to buy the support of the Colombian military commander in Panama City, the capital. He also got the support of the governor, who agreed to let himself be arrested on the day of the revolt.

Amador formed a small army of railroad workers and fire fighters. The rebel army planned to take over Panama City on November fourth, nineteen-oh-three. Just before that date, 500 Colombian soldiers landed at Colon, 80 kilometers away. The soldiers could not get to Panama City, however. All but one railroad car had been moved to the capital. MAURICE JOYCE: Manuel Amador gave a signal. The revolution began. There was a little shooting, but no one was hurt. Most of the shots were fired into the air to celebrate the call for Panama's independence. Colombian officials were arrested quickly. Then Amador made a speech. He said: Theodore Roosevelt, left, stands with Manuel Amador, center "Yesterday, we were slaves of Colombia. Today, we are free. President Theodore Roosevelt has kept his word. Long live the Republic of Panama! Long live President Roosevelt!" Colombia asked the United States to help it re-gain control of Panama. The United States refused. It said it would oppose any attempt by Colombia to send more forces there. The United States also recognized Panama's independence. And, almost immediately, it started negotiations with the new government on a canal treaty.

RICHARD RAEL: The two sides reached agreement quickly. The treaty was almost the same as the one the Colombian Senate had rejected earlier. This time, however, the canal zone would be sixteen kilometers wide, instead of ten. And the United States would get permanent control of the canal zone. The treaty was signed on November 18, 1903. That was just fifteen days after Panama declared its independence. MAURICE JOYCE: Colombia protested. It said the United States had acted illegally in Panama. Many American citizens protested, too. They called President Roosevelt a pirate. They said he had acted shamefully. Some members of Congress questioned the administration's deal with the French canal company in Panama. Several investigations examined the deal. Theodore Roosevelt did not care. He was proud of his success in getting the canal started. He said: "I took the canal zone and let Congress debate. And while the debate goes on, so does work on the canal." RICHARD RAEL: It took ten years for the United States to complete the Panama Canal. The first ship passed through it in August, 1914.

A ship entering the completed Gatun Lock on the Panama Canal In that same year, the United States signed an agreement with Colombia. The agreement expressed America's regret for its part in the Panamanian revolution. And it provided a payment of twenty-five million dollars to Colombia. Theodore Roosevelt was no longer president when the agreement was signed. But he still had many friends in the Senate. He got them to reject it. After Roosevelt's death, the United States signed another agreement with Colombia. The new agreement included the payment of twenty-five million dollars. It did not include the statement of regret. The Senate approved the new agreement. MAURICE JOYCE: The issue of America's involvement in Panama caused much bitterness in other countries of Latin America. Some did not feel safe from American interference. President Roosevelt said the United States would not interfere with any nation that kept order and paid what it owed. Roosevelt was worried because some Latin American countries were having difficulty re-paying loans from European banks. He did not want the issue of non-payment used as an excuse for European countries to seize new territory in the western hemisphere. Roosevelt said the United States was responsible for making sure the debts were paid. His policy led to further United States involvement in Latin America.

That will be our story next week. (MUSIC) BOB DOUGHTY: Our program was written by Frank Beardsley. The narrators were Richard Rael and Maurice Joyce. You can find our series online with transcripts, MP3s, podcasts and images at voaspecialenglish.com. You can also follow us on Facebook and Twitter at VOA Learning English. Join us again next week for THE MAKING OF A NATION -- an American history series in VOA Special English. Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian Milestones: 1899–1913 Building the Panama Canal, 1903–1914 President Theodore Roosevelt oversaw the realization of a long-term United States goal—a trans-isthmian canal. Throughout the 1800s, American and British leaders and businessmen wanted to ship goods quickly and cheaply between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Roosevelt on a digging machine during construction of the Panama Canal, circa 1908.

(Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division) To that end, in 1850 the United States and Great Britain negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to reign in rivalry over a proposed canal through the Central American Republic of Nicaragua. The Anglo-American canal, however, never went beyond the planning stages. French attempts to build a canal through Panama (province of Colombia) advanced further. Led by Ferdinand de Lesseps—the builder of the Suez Canal in Egypt—the French began excavating in 1880. Malaria, yellow fever, and other tropical diseases conspired against the de Lesseps campaign and after 9 years and a loss of approximately 20,000 lives, the French attempt went bankrupt. In spite of such setbacks, American interest in a canal continued unabated. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 abrogated the earlier Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and licensed the United States to build and manage its own canal. Following heated debate over the location of the proposed canal, on June 19, 1902, the U.S. Senate voted in favor of building the canal through Panama.

Within 6 months, Secretary of State John Hay signed a treaty with Colombian Foreign Minister Tomás Herrán to build the new canal. The financial terms were unacceptable to Colombia’s congress, and it rejected the offer. President Roosevelt responded by dispatching U.S. warships to Panama City (on the Pacific) and Colón (on the Atlantic) in support of Panamanian independence. Colombian troops were unable to negotiate the jungles of the Darien Strait and Panama declared independence on November 3, 1903. The newly declared Republic of Panama immediately named Philippe Bunau-Varilla (a French engineer who had been involved in the earlier de Lesseps canal attempt) as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. In his new role, Bunau-Varilla negotiated the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, which provided the United States with a 10-mile wide strip of land for the canal, a one-time $10 million payment to Panama, and an annual annuity of $250,000. The United States also agreed to guarantee the independence of Panama. Completed in 1914, the Panama Canal symbolized U.S.

technological prowess and economic power. Although U.S. control of the canal eventually became an irritant to U.S.-Panamanian relations, at the time it was heralded as a major foreign policy achievement. Timeline . Panama Canal . American Experience . WGBH | PBS Other Timelines Page 1 of 2 Forty five years after the U.S. first considered building a canal through Central America, the Panama Canal opened to the public. Thousands lost their lives in the effort to construct the canal, one of the most daring and innovative accomplishments of its time, and it remains integral to worldwide shipping today. Library of Congress Charles de Lesseps November 17, 1869 French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps completes work on the Suez Canal in Egypt. The canal allows a direct line of transportation and trade between Europe and Asia. Also this year, President Ulysses S. Grant establishes the Inter-Oceanic Canal Commission (IOCC) and sends out an expedition to investigate possible routes for a canal. The idea of a canal will continue to be a priority for Grant throughout his presidency as he seeks a faster shipping route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

January 1875 A 100-man investigatory team from the U.S. surveys Panama -- then a part of the Republic of Colombia -- for a feasible canal route. They deem a Panama canal too expensive and propose a canal in Nicaragua with 12 locks at either end and 10 miles of aqueducts to supply water to the summit level. May 29, 1879: The French Attempt Two years after a French team completes their own survey of Panama, their government approves Ferdinand de Lesseps' plan for a sea-level canal. The cost is estimated at 1.2 billion francs ($240 million). December 30, 1879 With exclusive rights from Colombia, De Lesseps arrives in the Panama region and begins construction. The plan includes constructing a 40-meter high dam at Gamboa to hold back the Chagres River and a 24-meter wide path through the Culebra Cut. August 1881 In Havana, Cuba, Dr. Carlos Finlay identifies the mosquito as the carrier of yellow fever . This theory, however, will not catch on widely until the early 20th century.

January 1882 French workers complete surveys and build accommodations and work yards as excavation begins. March 1883 Waylaid by flooding and landslides, the French team is behind schedule; only 660,000 cubic meters of earth have been excavated thus far, though de Lesseps had promised over 5 million cubic meters by this time. Library of Congress French laborers Early 1884 An epidemic of yellow fever panics the workers. In 1883, an estimated 400 workers died of disease, compared with only 126 the year before. More than 300 French engineers ask to return home and are denied. July 1884 An outbreak of dysentery cripples the already largely incapacitated workforce, affecting about 30% of workers. International press begins to openly doubt the French team's ability to complete the canal project. The Library, U.S. Military Academy, West Point NY A man stands in front of overturned equipment March 1885 Civil war in Colombia spreads to Panama and overwhelms French troops who have been enforcing order in the region. Taking advantage of the confusion, a U.S.

Navy ship docks in Colón and enforces order. May 3, 1885 Racial tensions between native and Jamaican workers lead to a violent confrontation. Panamanian soldiers kill 25 Jamaicans and wound 20 others. The incident causes scores of Jamaicans to return home, and the canal becomes devoid of its primary source of manual laborers. That summer, only 8 million cubic meters of earth will be excavated, out of the 120 required for the canal. National Archives A French excavator works in Culebra Cut February 17, 1886 De Lesseps and a party from France and the United States visit Panama. De Lesseps predicts that the canal will be finished by July 1889. Two months later, French engineer Armand Rousseau will submit a report to the French government concluding that the canal's completion is possible but a government lottery bill would do much to help fund the project. His report also hints at the unfeasibility of a sea-level canal. De Lesseps refuses to adopt the idea of a lock-canal plan.

Summer 1886 After four years of excavations, only a few feet have been removed from the top of Culebra Cut out of the hundreds necessary to reach sea level. January 1888 Frustrated by the inefficiency of the excavation, De Lesseps hires Gustav Eiffel (who will become famous after the construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889) to construct locks for the canal as a temporary solution while sea-level excavation continues. December 15, 1888 After a nine-month fundraising campaign that included borrowing 30 million francs from friends and selling lottery tickets, de Lesseps runs out of money. His company, Compagnie Nouvelle, collapses, ruining the fortunes of 800,000 private investors. January 10, 1893 Ferdinand de Lesseps and his son Charles are found guilty of fraud and maladministration of the Canal project. De Lesseps will die within two years, at the age of 89. Library of Congress Theodore Roosevelt September 14, 1901: The U.S.

Attempt Vice President Theodore Roosevelt takes the oath of office after President William McKinley is assassinated. Roosevelt immediately declares the need to build a canal in Central America. Library of Congress French machinery abandoned in Panama July 25, 1903 The stirring of a movement for Panama's independence begins with a meeting between Senator Arango, employees of the Panama Railroad, and American Army officers. The idea will take hold over the course of the summer with the encouragement of U.S. conspirators. November 2, 1903 A U.S. ship, the Nashville, arrives in Panama to provide support for the Panamanian revolution. Soon after, a Colombian ship named the Cartagena arrives in the port of Colón, filled with troops ordered to stop the rumors of Panamanian independence. November 4, 1903 Panama claims its independence from Colombia a day after capturing the Colombian general Valencia Tovar and bribing troops remaining in Colón to leave the isthmus. The United States formally recognizes the Republic of Panama two days later, and deploys Navy ships to protect the new country's autonomy and instill a sense of order. The Library, U.S.

Military Academy, West Point NY Christening the Panamanian flag November 18, 1903 The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, or Canal Treaty, is signed in the newly independent republic of Panama, giving the United States rights to build a canal on the Panamanian isthmus for an annual payment of $250,000. March 3, 1904: The U.S. Arrives in Panama - The Wallace Years President Roosevelt establishes the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC) to see through the construction of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt orders them to "make the dirt fly" -- to start work on the canal as soon as possible. May 2, 1904 The U.S. government purchases what is left of the French canal construction company, Compagnie Nouvelle, for $40 million. Scots and Scot's Descendants in America John Findley Wallace June 28, 1904 A small U.S. workforce arrives in Panama to survey, plan, and continue the excavation begun by the French. They are led by Chief Engineer John Findley Wallace . Chief Medical Officer Colonel William C.

Gorgas arrives in Panama with a team of seven men. He immediately focuses on the staggering death rate the French had come across during their time on the isthmus, looking for possible causes. His studies on the local population will show that over 70% of the local Panamanian population has malaria. July 1904 Fearful of repeating the mistakes of corruption and ineptitude that plagued the French attempt, the ICC compulsively checks and rechecks requests. Every decision on canal construction must be cleared with each member of the Commission, a process that is laborious and time consuming. November 1904 The workforce in the canal zone swells to 3,500 men. At the end of the month, the U.S. attempts to recruit Jamaican workers but finds them hostile to the idea after a disastrous experience with the French. November 12, 1904 The first Bucyrus steam shovel arrives in Colón, able to excavate five cubic yards of spoil in a single scoop. Despite the efficiency of the steam shovel, the 50-year old rail system proves incapable of carrying that amount of spoil away.

November 21, 1904 The first worker during the American effort in Panama contracts yellow fever. Six more will get the disease in December and eight more in January. As panic sets in, many engineers and workers resign and return to the U.S. December 31, 1904 The U.S. sets up a recruiting agency in Barbados, and unskilled laborers flock to the Isthmus. June 28, 1905 Frustrated by the ICC's bureaucratic red tape and the low productivity of a disease-ridden work force, Wallace resigns as chief engineer. July 3, 1905 A Barbadian worker dies of bubonic plague, and the "Great Scare" begins. Despite the doubts of U.S. politicians, William Gorgas stays committed to his theory that mosquitoes are transmitting malaria and yellow fever. Finally, with Roosevelt's backing, Gorgas' sanitation workforce is increased from 200 to 2,000 men this month.

He begins a complete eradication effort of the Aëdes aegypti mosquito, fumigating homes with his "mosquito brigades." July 26, 1905: The Stevens Years New Chief Engineer John Stevens arrives in Panama stressing the importance of satisfactory accommodations and sanitation before construction can be continued. He immediately places an order for new, state-of-the-art equipment to improve the rate of excavation. August 1, 1905 With the rusty and decrepit Panama Railroad now 60 years old, Stevens realizes he is unable to cart out the spoil at the same furious rate the canal is being dug. Stevens orders all excavation in Culebra Cut to be temporarily halted and turns his attention toward the repair of the railroad. September 1905 Three thousand Barbadian workers are now in Panama. By the following month, the rapid inflation of food prices will lead to the malnutrition of many West Indian workers. Twenty-six catch pneumonia. November 11, 1905 The last death from yellow fever is reported in Panama City after Gorgas orders $90,000 worth of copper screening to protect workers from mosquito bites.

National Archives Workers paving Arosamena Street November 18, 1905 Despite considerable progress with excavation, U.S. engineers still have not decided on the best way to build the canal. A minority report titled Report of the Consulting Engineers for the Panama Canal sways the ICC toward the idea of a lock plan by outlining the excessive time and cost of digging down to sea level. By the end of this year, 22,500 West Indians will be working on the canal. January 1, 1906 A Senate Committee Inquiry is established to look into rumors of mismanagement and corruption in the Panama canal zone. Bill McLaughlin January 1906 The first school for children in the canal zone opens. In the next month, John Stevens will set up more than 50 mess kitchens to provide cooked food to West Indian workers. White workers are fed in "hotels," and within a year over 12,500 workers live in ICC-built barracks. Workmen begin to create clubs and societies to pass the time. The Independent Order of Panamanian Kangaroos will become the largest club among Panama workers with over a thousand members.

February 5, 1906 The ICC backs a plan that would construct massive locks at Gatún and create the largest man-made lake in history. Spring 1906 After journalist Poultney Bigelow blasts the working conditions at the Canal as inhumane and unsanitary, workers pave the streets of Panama City and build a sewer system. The price of food drops. June 1906 Three hundred fifty additional miles of track have been built along the Panama Railroad. Double tracks now allow for two-way train traffic, and additional track routes allow more spoil to be transferred around the clock. June 28, 1906 Construction with a crowd of workers by the train Mid-1906 The ICC sets up recruiting agencies in Spain and Italy, which will result in over 12,000 contracts with European workers in unskilled labor positions. Spanish men, in particular, develop a reputation for working hard. July 1906 Despite the strides made in fighting yellow fever, disease is still a problem. Daily, over 75 workers come to the Ancón hospital suffering from malaria. Over 80 die of pneumonia this month alone.

Library of Congress Many workers saw Roosevelt's trip as a turning point November 15, 1906 President Roosevelt visits Panama to see the progress. This marks the first time a sitting president leaves the U.S. While in Panama, Roosevelt signs an executive order to rework the ICC commission yet again. This streamlines the process for Stevens', who is no longer required to get ICC clearances for every decision. December 17, 1906 Roosevelt updates Congress on the successes and challenges in Panama. He lauds Stevens' leadership and announces a Medal as an incentive to keep workers from abandoning their posts. National Archives Laborers work on new tracks January 1907 After the railroad system is overhauled and worker accommodations are improved, excavation begins again. Sixty-three more Bucyrus shovels arrive in Panama and are immediately put to work. By the end of the month, over 500,000 cubic yards of spoil are excavated out of Culebra Cut. February 12, 1907 Despite a tremendous leap in the engineering of the canal, Stevens has reached a breaking point.

His expertise in railroad engineering, he realizes, is no longer needed, and the massive canal he faces is, as he writes in a letter to President Roosevelt, "to me… only a big ditch." Roosevelt accepts the note as Steven's resignation. February 26, 1907: The Goethals Years Roosevelt selects Lieutenant Colonel George Goethals to be the third Chief Engineer of the canal. March 1907 Over 800,000 cubic yards are excavated this month alone. The Library, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY George W. Goethals May 1907 The new Chief Engineer Goethals' leadership is tested in the first weeks of his tenure. In response to a U.S. Steam Shovel Workers strike, Goethals replaces the workers with strikebreakers. Mid-1907 The Panama Railroad is now completely double-tracked, allowing simultaneous two-way transportation in and out of construction sites.

September 4, 1907 A landslide in Culebra Cut October 4, 1907 A landslide at Cucaracha moves 500,000 cubic yards into a slope in the Culebra Cut, delaying progress. December 1907 Construction on the Sosa locks is halted after it is decided that Miraflores would provide a better site for the Pacific-side locks. Excavation at Miraflores begins. Six hundred acres of jungle are cleared and construction begins on the Gatún Dam. The workforce at the canal is at its height, with 46,000 men. Four separate YMCA-run clubs are open around the canal zone, offering bowling, billiards, a gym, and a library to employees. By the end of the month, 2,000 men will be let go due to the winding down of major excavation work. January 1908 This month, 2,712,568 cubic yards are excavated, over half a million cubic yards more than the previous month.

National Archives Waiting for the train to the construction site May 1908 The improvements throughout the canal zone bring unprecedented numbers of wives and children to Panama. Over 1,000 workers' families now live in the canal zone. December 12, 1908 Twenty-two tons of dynamite are accidentally detonated, killing 23 people and injuring 40 others. By the end of the year, over 37 million cubic yards of earth have been excavated, half the amount the French accomplished in 17 years. Early 1909 The ICC recruiting agency in Spain is banned after reports from laborers about the irrepressible climate and unfavorable working conditions make their way to Europe. This year the student-teacher ratio in the canal zone's white schools averages 17:1, where in black schools the ratio is 115:1. National Archives Workers in the water help blast through the Culebra Cut March 4, 1909 William Taft is inaugurated as President of the United States. This month, production in the Culebra Cut reaches a high. More than 68 shovels excavate two million cubic yards within the month.

August 1909 Construction begins on the Gatún Locks' upper basin. September 1909 Assembly of the locks at Pedro Miguel begins. 1

Question: In November 1903, Panama declared its independence from which country to enable a treaty to be signed with the USA?
Answer: Colombia