Seas of Turkey - All About Turkey Home > Tourist Info > Seas of Turkey Seas of Turkey Black Sea Black Sea (Karadeniz in Turkish ) lies to the north of Turkey , bordering with two regions ; Marmara and Black Sea . Besides Turkey , other countries that circle the Black Sea are; Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Georgia. It's connected to the Sea of Marmara with the Bosphorus Strait in the southwest. Some of the important ports on the Black Sea are; Istanbul , Trabzon , Samsun , Sinop , Burgas, Varna, Constanza, Yalta, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kerch, Novorossiysk, Sochi, Sukhumi, Poti, and Batumi. Black Sea is an inland sea covering an area of about 420 thousand square kilometers reaching at 2206 meters in its deepest point. Below 200 meters the oxygen level in the water is very low so marine life is very limited below this depth. Most known fish they catch in the Black Sea are; Black Sea turbot, gurnard, and small sharks.

Its waters are warm in the summer, very cold in the winter. Its salinity is around 0,18% because of a constant inflow of fresh water from rivers surrounding it, the excess water flows on the surface through the Bosphorus meanwhile the warm and salty waters of the Mediterranean reach the Black Sea with deep water currents, maintaining the stratification and salinity levels. The most important rivers flowing into the Black Sea are Danube from north east, Kizilirmak, Sakarya and Yesilirmak from Anatolia in the south. Black Sea is one of the youngest seas on the Earth, its used to be a big fresh water lake some 8000 years ago. The name is probably derived from the color of its deep waters. Sea of Marmara Sea of Marmara (Marmara Denizi in Turkish ) is an inland sea within the Marmara region connecting to the Black Sea with the Bosphorus Strait in the northeast, and to the Aegean with the Dardanelles Strait in the southwest. It lies between Thrace and Anatolia parts of Turkey , covering an area of over 11thousand square kilometers.

It is approximately 280 km long from northeast to southwest and about 80 km wide at its greatest width. Its maximum depth reaches 1355 meters near the center. There are many marble sources on its islands which gave its name to the Sea; marble is Marmaros in Greek and Mermer in Turkish . Some of the main islands in the Sea of Marmara are; Avsa, Marmara, Imrali, and Princes Islands near Istanbul (Buyukada, Heybeli, Burgaz, Kinali, and Sedef). The salinity level is little bit over that of the Black Sea , but much less than the oceans. However, sea-bottom waters are much more saline almost as of the Mediterranean , but like in the Black Sea these two layers do not get combined. Aegean Sea Aegean Sea (Ege Denizi in Turkish ) is a part of Mediterranean Sea lying between Turkey and Greece. There is Mediterranean Sea to the south, Greek Peninsula to the west, Anatolia and part of Thrace to the east. It's connected to the Sea of Marmara by Dardanelles Strait to the northeast.

It covers an area of 214thousand square kilometers, stretching for about 660 kilometers from north to south, and reaching at a maximum depth of 3543 meters. Tides are very limited in the Aegean Sea. Aegean Sea gave its name to the Aegean region and shows a typical Mediterranean climate characteristics; summers are dry and winters are rainy but not much cold. The water temperature during summer months reaches 23-24 degrees Celsius, and usually northern part of the Sea is a little bit cooler than its southern part. In contrary, northern part is abundant about the fish than its southern part. There were many ancient civilizations who settled on its shores in the past, such as Minoans, Mycenaean, Trojans , Persians , Romans , Byzantines , Seljuks , Ottomans and so on. It's said that its name is coming either from Aegea, an Amazonian queen who died in the sea, or from Aegeus, the father of Theseus , who drowned himself in the sea. There are approximately 3000 big and small islands in the Aegean Sea, most of them belong to Greece today.

Some of the most famous Greek islands in the Aegean are; Crete, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Santorini, Mykonos, Patmos, Delos, Paros, Kos, Symi, Samos and so on. Turkey has very few small islands and only two mid-size islands in front of the Dardanelles ; Bozcaada and Gokceada. Because of this high concentration of islands and rockies, there are also many gulfs and bays in the Aegean which attracts many people for sailing in this crystal clear waters. Aegean Sea and some of the Aegean islands brought several controversial issues between Turkey and Greece, both NATO countries, regarding mostly sovereignty and related rights in the area. Relations between Turkey and Greece were very sour between 1970's and mid 1990's because of these disputes on territorial waters, national airspace and FIR lines, military flights, demilitarization of some of the islands, and islets that had an unknown status of sovereignty. But in the last 10 years both countries are working hard to improve bilateral relations reducing tensions and holding diplomatic lines always open.

Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea (Akdeniz in Turkish ) is surrounded by Asia to the east, Europe to the north and Africa to the south. It's connected to the Atlantic Ocean to the west with Gibraltar Strait. It's also connected to the Red Sea in the southeast with the Suez Canal in Egypt, a man-made canal built in 1869. And to the east it's connected to the Sea of Marmara by Dardanelles Strait . Aegean and Marmara Seas are often considered as a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The sea gave also its name to the Mediterranean region of Turkey . Mediterranean covers about 2,5million square kilometers, its shores were home to many ancient civilizations in the history, such as Phoenicians, Egyptians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Lycians , Arabs, Persians , Romans , Byzantines , Seljuks , Ottomans and so on. The name comes from Latin; Medi means middle, Terra means land or place. The Romans called it Mare Nostrum, Our Sea. In Turkish it's called Akdeniz, White Sea. There aren't much tides in the Mediterranean because of its narrow connection with the Atlantic.

The average depth is about 1500 meters and the deepest point reaches at 5267 meters. The coastline is approximately 46,000 kilometers long. Countries that border with the Mediterranean are; In Europe, from west to east; Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Greece, and European shores of Turkey . In Asia, from north to south; Asian shores of Turkey , Syria, Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Egypt. In Africa, from east to west; Egypt, Libya, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco. Biggest islands in the Mediterranean are; Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Corfu in the eastern Mediterranean; Sardegna, Corsica, Sicily, Malta in the central Mediterranean; Ibiza, Majorca, Minorca in the western Mediterranean. All About Turkey © Burak Sansal 1996–2016, a certified professional tour guide in Turkey. Contact Burak at info@allaboutturkey.com for all kinds of regular and/or private travel services throughout the country.

Black Sea | Article about Black Sea by The Free Dictionary Black Sea | Article about Black Sea by The Free Dictionary Related to Black Sea: Black Sea Fleet Black Sea, inland sea, c.159,600 sq mi (413,360 sq km), between SE Europe and Asia, connected with the Mediterranean Sea by the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. It is c.750 mi (1,210 km) from east to west, up to 350 mi (560 km) wide, and has a maximum depth of 7,364 ft (2,245 m). Its largest arm is the Sea of Azov Azov, Sea of, Gr. Maiotis, Lat. Palus Maeotis, ancient Rus. Surozhskoye, northern arm of the Black Sea, c.14,000 sq mi (36,300 sq km), shared by S European Russia and E Ukraine. ..... Click the link for more information. , which joins it through the Kerch Strait.

The Black Sea is enclosed by Ukraine and Crimea on the north, Russia on the northeast, Georgia on the east, Turkey on the south, and Bulgaria and Romania on the west. The Dnieper, Southern Buh, Dniester, and Danube rivers are its principal feeders; the Don and Kuban rivers flow into the Sea of Azov. The rivers flowing into the northern part of the Black Sea carry much silt and form deltas, sandbars, and lagoons along the generally low and sandy northern coast. The southern coast is steep and rocky. The Black Sea has two layers of water of different densities. The heavily saline bottom layer has little movement and contains hydrogen sulfide; it has no marine life. The top layer, much less saline and richer in fish, flows in a counterclockwise direction around the sea. There is little tidal action. Pollution in the Black Sea has spurred surrounding nations to cooperate in instituting environmental safeguards; overfishing is also a significant problem and has altered the sea's ecosystem. The sea is subject to severe winter storms, and waterspouts are common in summer. Ice-free, it is the chief shipping outlet of the Ukraine and Russia; Odessa Odessa , Ukr.

Odesa, city (1989 pop. 1,115,000), capital of Odessa region, in Ukraine, a port on Odessa Bay of the Black Sea. The third largest Ukrainian city after Kiev and Kharkiv, Odessa is an important rail junction and highway hub and is a major industrial, cultural, ..... Click the link for more information. in Ukraine, Sevastopol Sevastopol , formerly spelled Sebastopol, city (1989 pop. 355,000), on the Crimean peninsula and the Bay of Sevastopol, an inlet of the Black Sea. From 1954 part of Ukraine (then the Ukrainian SSR), it passed to Russian control in 2014 after the occupation and annexation of ..... Click the link for more information. in Crimea, and Novorossiysk Novorossiysk or Novorossiisk , city (1989 pop. 186,000), Krasnodar Territory, SE European Russia, on the Black Sea.

A major port and a naval base, it exports grain and oil, has shipyards, and is a major center of the Russian cement industry. ..... Click the link for more information. in Russia are major ports. Other important ports are Constanţa Constanţa , city (1990 pop. 355,402), SE Romania, on the Black Sea. It is the administrative center of Dobruja and a major railroad junction and industrial city, but its chief importance derives from its role as Romania's main seaport. ..... Click the link for more information. in Romania; Varna Varna , city (1993 pop. 307,200), E Bulgaria, on the Black Sea. It is a major port and an industrial center. Manufactures include ships and boats, chemicals, electrical equipment, and textiles. Varna is also an international summer resort. ..... Click the link for more information. and Burgas Burgas , city (1993 pop. 198,439), SE Bulgaria, on the Black Sea. It rivals Varna as the chief export port of Bulgaria and is an important commercial center.

Food processing is the chief industry in Burgas, which also has engineering works and an oil refinery. ..... Click the link for more information. in Bulgaria; and Trabzon Trabzon or Trebizond , city (1990 pop. 144,805), capital of Trabzon prov., NE Turkey, a port on the Black Sea. A commercial and transportation center with renovated port facilities, it exports food products and tobacco. Iron, lead, and copper are found nearby. ..... Click the link for more information. , Samsun Samsun , city (1990 pop. 301,412), capital of Samsun prov., N Turkey, on the Black Sea. The most important Turkish port on the Black Sea, it is also a major tobacco-processing center and an agricultural market. Textiles, tobacco, and fertilizer are exported. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Zonguldak Zonguldak , city (1990 pop. 120,300), capital of Zonguldak prov., N Turkey, a port on the Black Sea. It is the center of the major coal-producing region of Turkey. .....

Click the link for more information. in Turkey. The Black Sea region, especially in the S Crimea and W Caucasus, is a popular resort area. History The Black Sea was once part of a larger body that included the Caspian Caspian Sea , Lat. Mare Caspium or Mare Hyrcanium, salt lake, c.144,000 sq mi (373,000 sq km), between Europe and Asia; the largest lake in the world. It is bordered on the northeast by Kazakhstan, on the southeast by Turkmenistan, on the south by Iran, on the ..... Click the link for more information. and Aral Aral Sea , salt lake, SW Kazakhstan and NW Uzbekistan, E of the Caspian Sea in an area of interior drainage. To the north and west are the edges of the arid Ustyurt Plateau; the Kyzyl Kum desert stretches to the southeast. ..... Click the link for more information. seas. In the Tertiary period, it was separated from the Caspian Sea and was linked to the Mediterranean Sea.

Evidence suggests that more recently, about 7,600 years ago, at the end of a long dry period, it was flooded when the Mediterranean, having again become separate, broke through at the Bosporus, an event that may have scattered farmers from its shores into Europe and Asia. Some scientists have hypothesized that this event happened catastrophically and is the source of the biblical story of the Deluge Deluge , in the Bible, the overwhelming flood that covered the earth and destroyed every living thing except the family of Noah and the creatures in his ark. Archaeology has yielded little trace of the biblical flood, but some oceanographers and geophysicists have speculated ..... Click the link for more information. . The Pontus Euxinus [hospitable sea] of the ancients, the Black Sea was navigated and its shores colonized by the Greeks (8th–6th cent. B.C.) and later by the Romans (3d–1st cent. B.C.). Its importance increased with the founding of Constantinople Constantinople , former capital of the Byzantine Empire and of the Ottoman Empire, since 1930 officially called İstanbul (for location and description, see İstanbul). It was founded (A.D. .....

Click the link for more information. (A.D. 330). In the 13th cent. the Genoese established colonies on the Black Sea, and from the 15th to the 18th cent. it was a Turkish "lake." The rise of Russia led to protracted dispute with the Ottoman Empire over control and use of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. In 1783, Russia annexed the Tatar Khanate of Crimea Crimea , Rus. and Ukr. Krym, peninsula and republic (1991 est. pop. 2,363,000), c.10,000 sq mi (25,900 sq km), SE Europe, linked with the mainland by the Perekop Isthmus. The peninsula is bounded on the S and W by the Black Sea. ..... Click the link for more information. , which blocked its access to the sea, but the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Crimean War Crimean War , 1853–56, war between Russia on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire, Great Britain, France, and Sardinia on the other.

The causes of the conflict were inherent in the unsolved Eastern Question. ..... Click the link for more information. of 1856, frustrated Russia's expansionist ambitions, and Russia and its successor, the Soviet Union, retained limited influence in the region. In 1992, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation was established by nations surrounding the sea (not all members actually border the sea); it became a formal international organization in 1998. The six nations bordering the sea established the Black Sea Naval Cooperation Task Group in 2001 to promote cooperation on naval and environmental issues. Bibliography See N. Ascherson, Black Sea (1995). Black Sea an inland sea of the Atlantic Ocean, between Europe and Asia Minor. Physical geographic description. GENERAL INFORMATION . The Black Sea is bounded by the USSR, Rumania, Bulgaria, and Turkey. In the northeast it is connected with the Sea of Azov by way of Kerch’ Strait, and in the southwest it is connected with the Sea of Marmara by way of the Bosporus and then with the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea by way of the Dardanelles.

The Black Sea’s greatest east-west length is 1,150 km, and the greatest north-south length, 580 km. At its narrowest point, the sea is 265 km wide. It has an area of 420,300 sq km and a water volume of 547,000 cu km. Its average depth is 1,300 m. The chief rivers that empty into the Black Sea are the Danube, Dnestr, Iuzhnyi Bug, Dnieper, Rioni, and Kizil (Kyzyl Irmak). COASTLINE . The Black Sea coastline, which measures a total of 3,400 km, is relatively smooth, with only one major peninsula—the Crimean Peninsula. Some of its segments have their own name, for example, the Southern Coast (Iuzhnyi Bereg) of the Crimea and the Black Sea Coast (Chernomorskii Bereg) of the Caucasus in the USSR and the Rumelian and Anatolian coasts in Turkey.

In the west and northwest the shores are low and, in places, steep; limans are characteristic of the shores in the northwest. The northern coast of the Crimean Peninsula is flat, while the southern coast is mountainous. In the east and south the mountains of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and the Pontic Mountains extend to the very edge of the sea; there are a few low-lying areas here, formed by river deltas jutting out into the sea near the capes of Pitsunda and Kodor in Georgia and Civa and Bafra in eastern Anatolia. The largest bays and gulfs are Karkinitskii, Kalamitskii, Dnieper-Bug, Dnestr, Varna, and Burgas in the northwest and west and Sinop and Samsun in the south. Islands are few, the most important being Berezan’ and Zmeinyi. TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BOTTOM AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE . Three parts are identified in the topography of the bottom: the shelf, the continental slope, and the deep sea basin.

The shelf extends to a depth of 110–160 m and reaches its greatest width, more than 200 km, in the northwest; elsewhere it usually extends to depths less than 110 m and ranges in width from 2.5 km (along the coast of Turkey) to 10–15 km. The continental slope is strongly dissected by underwater valleys and canyons. Its average inclination is 5°–8°, but in the northwest and near Kerch’ Strait, the inclination is 1°–3°. Some parts reach a steepness of 20°–30°. A system of underwater ridges measuring more than 150 km in length stretches almost parallel to the shore between Sinop and Samsun. The floor of the deep sea basin is a flat aggradation plain, whose depth gradually increases to more than 2,000 m at the center; the maximum depth is 2,211 m. Geologically, the bottom comprises parts of different type and age. Most of the Black Sea is located within the Alpide geosynclinal (folded) region.

The earth’s crust beneath the deep sea basin consists of two layers: the sedimentary and “basalt” layers. The sedimentary layer is 10–16 km thick, and its upper part, at least 3–4 km thick, lies almost horizontally. In the central parts of the deep sea basin, the crust is 22–25 km thick, reaching 30–35 km along the periphery, where a granite layer appears above the “basalt” layer. In the northwest, the shelf encompasses the southern edge of the East European Platform and the Epipaleozoic Scythian Platform. The formation of the Black Sea basin is linked with either the processes of “oceanization” of the continental crust or with the relict nature of the Black Sea basin as a remnant of the basin of the ancient ocean Tethys. The outlines of the modern basin had formed during the Oligocene, when uplifts in Asia Minor gradually separated the Black and Caspian seas from the ocean. During the Upper Miocene, the Black Sea was one of a chain of freshwater lake-seas (the Sarmatian Basin).

After a short-lived connection with the Mediterranean Sea, during the Meotian stage, the freshwater Lake Pontus formed. In the late Pontian stage, the connection between the Black Sea and the Caspian was closed. During the Middle and Upper Pliocene, the Black Sea was probably a freshwater lake with an outlet. In the Middle Pleistocene, the Black Sea was twice connected with the Mediterranean for short periods and had more saline water. During the last glaciation, the New Euxine lake-sea formed, with relatively fresh water; 6,000–7,000 years ago, it was connected to the Mediterranean Sea by way of straits, giving rise to the modern Black Sea. Tectonic activity is manifested by earthquakes, whose epicenters are located along the margins of the basin and in the adjoining regions. In the littoral zone, coarse deposits—pebbles, gravel, and sand—predominate. Farther out to sea, they are replaced quite rapidly by fine-grained sand and aleurites. In the northwest, coquinas and latter-day shell mounds inhabited by mytilids, oysters, and other mollusks are widespread.

The continental slope and sea floor are characterized by pelitic oozes, whose carbonate content increases toward the open sea, exceeding 50 percent in some places; coccolithophores play a significant role in the carbonate material. At depths to 2,000 m in the southeast, aleuritic and sandy sediments deposited by turbidity currents are found. The chief useful minerals in the Black Sea are petroleum and gas, found in the northwestern part of the basin, and titanomagnetite sands, found in the coastal waters off Taman’ and the Caucasus. CLIMATE . In the course of the year, the Black Sea is affected primarily by continental polar, marine polar, and marine tropical air masses. Continental polar air predominates. In the winter its intrusion is accompanied by strong northerly and northeasterly winds, a drop in temperature, and frequent precipitation; the winds are especially strong in the vicinity of the city of Novorossiisk, where they are called boras. When marine polar air intrudes from the Atlantic Ocean, considerable cyclonic activity develops, accompanied by squalls and precipitation.

The marine tropical air, which is always warm and has higher humidity, is brought in by southwesterly winds from the Mediterranean Sea basin. Most of the Black Sea has warm, humid winters and hot, dry summers. The average air temperature in January is about 8°C in the central part of the sea, 6°C along the eastern coast, –3°C in the northwest, and 6°–9°C in the southeast and south. The temperatures in the northern part of the Black Sea may drop to as low as –30°C, and in the southern part, to –10°C. Snowfalls occur everywhere during the winter; Sochi and Khost have up to eight days of snow a year. In the summer, part of the Azores high extends over the Black Sea, bringing consistently clear and warm weather. The average air temperature in July is 22°–24°C; temperatures sometimes reach 30–35°C. Average annual cloudiness is 60 percent, with a maximum in the winter and a minimum in the summer.

Annual precipitation is 300–500 mm in the west and northwest, 750–800 mm in the south, and 1,800–2,500 mm in the east. Waterspouts occur in the fall. HYDROLOGICAL REGIME . The sea’s water balance is governed by atmospheric precipitation (230 cu km per year), continental runoff (310 cu km per year), and the influx of water from the Sea of Azov (30 cu km per year), on the one hand, and evaporation from the surface of the sea (360 cu km per year) and outflow through the Bosporus (210 cu km per year), on the other. The general cyclonic atmospheric circulation over the Black Sea and continental runoff lead to the development of cyclonic circulation of water, moving counterclockwise along the shores at the surface. Internal cyclonic circulations develop deep within this cycle in the west, central part, and east. The surface currents have velocities up to 1 km/hr; in some areas, they increase to 5–6 km/hr as a result of strong winds.

The excess fresh water flowing into the Black Sea causes the water to be steadily discharged through the Bosporus into the Sea of Marmara by the upper (to a depth of 40 m) current, while the lower current carries transformed salt water from the Mediterranean Sea, by way of the Bosporus, to fill the deep layers of the Black Sea. As a result, the vertical exchange of water in the Black Sea is impeded. The surface and deep waters intermix as a result of vertical flows of water in the centers of the circulations and along the continental slope. Water-level fluctuations as a result of wind-driven currents vary from 40–60 cm in the Crimea to 1.5 m in the northwest. Changes in level caused by tides do not exceed 10 cm, while seiches do not exceed 60 cm. Wind-driven currents can cause the temperature of the coastal surface water in the summer to drop from 25°C to 10° or less in a few hours as a result of the rising of the deep waters to the surface. During the winter, the water temperature at depths of 60 m drops to 6°–7°C.

In the northwest it reaches 0.5°C, and the inlets usually freeze at temperatures below zero. In the southeast the water temperature is higher, reaching 9°-H°C. In the summer, the surface water warms up to 24°–26°C, reaching 29°C along the shore. The temperature remains at about 7°C year-round at depths below 60–80 m. The abundant continental runoff, the influx of relatively fresh water from the Sea of Azov, and atmospheric precipitation determine the salinity. The salinity of the surface water is 17–18‰ in the open sea and 3–9‰ near the mouths of rivers. At depths of 60–80 m it is 19–20‰, and at the bottom, 22–22.5‰. The water density at the surface is 1.013–1.015 g/cm3 in the winter and 1.0085–1.0120 g/cm3 in the summer. Dissolved oxygen is found only in the top layer of water; its content is 8–9 ml/l at the surface.

Below depths of 150–200 m, the water is “contaminated” by hydrogen sulfide, which reaches a concentration of 11–14 ml/l at the bottom. It is believed that hydrogen sulfide forms in the Black Sea primarily as a result of the vital activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria, the sharply delineated water stratification, and weak vertical exchange. The color of the water differs in different parts of the sea. It is greenish blue in the central and eastern parts and bluish green in the northwest. The transparency of the water averages 16–22 m; in the western and eastern parts it is 20–27 m, decreasing to 6–8 m in the coastal regions and even to 2–3 m in some areas. L. M. F OMIN PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE . A characteristic feature of the Black Sea is the almost total absence of life at depths greater than 150–200 m, where the hydrogen sulfide zone begins, with the exception of anaerobic bacteria, primarily Microspira.

Of the plants, 350 species of unicellular phytoplankton algae are known, including about 150 species of diatoms and 150 of peridinians, and about 280 species of benthic macrophytes, including 129 species of red algae, 71 of brown algae, 77 of green algae, and several species of marine grasses, primarily Zostera. The brown algae Cystoseira and the red algae Phyllophora are especially numerous, forming enormous accumulations at depths of 20–50 m in the northwestern part of the sea; they are commercially important, with estimated reserves of more than 5 million tons. The fauna of the Black Sea is approximately one-third as rich as that of the Mediterranean Sea. Benthic species predominate, numbering about 1,700. The most typical biocenoses are the mytilid oozes and phaseoline (named for the mollusk Modiola phaseolina) oozes, the former occurring primarily at depths of 30–70 m, and the latter, at 50–200 m.

With respect to origin, immigrant species from the Mediterranean Sea predominate, constituting more than 30 percent of all the species. Of lesser importance are relicts of the Pliocene brackish Pontic Basin and freshwater immigrant species that inhabit the parts with less saline water. Endemic species constitute about 12 percent. More than 2,000 species of animals are known, including about 300 species of protozoans, 650 of various types of worms (including 190 species of marine polychaetes), 640 of crustaceans, more than 200 of mollusks, 160 of fishes, and about 150 of animals of other groups, including four mammalian species—seals—and three species of dolphins. Because of the lowered salinity, many groups of stenohaline marine animals are represented by only a small number of species (for example, there are only 14 species of echinoderms and one species of radiolarian) or are completely absent (there are no cephalopod mollusks or brachiopods).

Many fish (about 20 percent of the species) are commercially important, among them the anchovy, horse mackerel, Atlantic mackerel, bonito, sprat, and sturgeon. G. M. B ELIAEV Economic geography. The Black Sea is an important artery, linking the USSR with foreign countries; one-fourth of all USSR imports and one-half of all exports are shipped by way of the sea. The Black Sea merchant fleet accounts for a significant share of USSR marine shipping. Considerable domestic cargo is also shipped on the Black Sea, often by way of the V. I. Lenin Volga-Don Ship Canal, which links the Black Sea with the Volga River and Caspian Sea. The largest port on the Black Sea is Odessa, which, together with the nearby port of Il’ichevsk, accounts for one-third of the total freight turnover on the Black Sea. Virtually all types of raw materials and industrial products pass through Odessa. Petroleum is shipped from Novorossiisk, Tuapse, and Batumi. Cement is shipped from Novorossiisk and manganese ore from Poti.

Other large ports are Nikolaev, Kherson, Kerch’, Feodosiia, Sevastopol’, and Izmail. The Black Sea is also very important for the economies of Bulgaria, Rumania, and Turkey. The main ports in Bulgaria are Burgas and Varna, and in Rumania, Constanfa. A large part of the cargo from the Balkan countries is transported to the Black Sea along the Danube. The most important Turkish ports are Trabzon, Samsun, and Zonguldak. The Black Sea is a major commercial source of fish, algae, and mollusks. The favorable climate of the Black Sea has favored the development of resorts and tourism. In the USSR, the Southern Coast of the Crimea, with its center in Yalta, is a major climatic resort area, as are the cities of Sochi, Pitsunda, Gagra, Sukhumi, Batumi, Anapa, and Gelendzhik on the Caucasian coast. The chief resorts in Bulgaria are Golden Sands and Sunny Coast; the main resort in Rumania is Mamaia. An important problem is the protection of the Black Sea from pollution.

The main pollutants are petroleum, petroleum products, phenols, and detergents. Especially polluted by petroleum are the coastal waters and the western part of the sea, site of shipping lanes from Odessa, to the mouth of the Danube, and then to Istanbul or Varna. Measures have been undertaken to prevent the discharge of untreated industrial and household wastes into the sea; the dumping of petroleum, petroleum products, and other substances that pollute the water has been prohibited. History of study. Opinions differ regarding the source of the modern name Black Sea. Greek navigators of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. called the sea Pontus Axeinus, literally “inhospitable sea”; in the early part of the Common Era, it was called Pontus Euxinus, or “hospitable sea.” In the ninth and tenth centuries the Arabs called it the Russian Sea. In the 15th century the Turkish named it Karadeniz, literally “black sea” or “bad sea.” Another explanation links the word “black” to the color designation used by some peoples for the countries of the world: “black” signified the north.

In Slavic, chermnoe means “bleak” or “stormy”; the ancient Persian name Achshaena literally means “dark sea,” which signifies a harsh sea. Since ancient times the Black Sea has been an active sea route, well known to the Phoenicians and Greeks. In the third century B.C. , the Greeks made the first map of the Black Sea. In the late ninth century A.D. , Russians began using the sea to sail from the Baltic to Byzantium, the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The study and scientific development of the Black Sea began in the early 19th century. The first Russian expedition, led by G. P. Manganara, surveyed the coastline, took depth measurements, and studied the soil, and the results obtained were used to draw navigation charts and a map of the Black Sea. Similar studies were later carried out by numerous hydrographic expeditions, which also studied water temperature and currents. The first atlas of depths (down to 180 m), sediments, and currents was published in Russia in 1842. Important studies of the Bosporus were conducted in 1881–82 by S. O.

Makarov. He established the two-layer current, the upper current flowing from the Sea of Marmara into the Black Sea and the lower from the Black Sea into the Sea of Marmara. In 1890–91 an expedition led by I. B. Shpindler on the ships Donets and Zaporozhets made the first deep-water observations and established the “contamination” of the deep sea waters by hydrogen sulfide. After the founding of the Sevastopol’ Biological Station in 1871, extensive biological research developed under the direction of A. O. Kovalevskii. In the 1920’s, the Sevastopol’ Biological Station and the Marine Observatory embarked on a planned, coordinated study of the Black Sea. The largest expeditions were N. M. Knipovich’s scientific-commercial expedition of 1922–27, Iu. M. Shokal’skii’s hydrologic and hydrographic expedition of 1923–27, and the Marine Observatory expedition of 1928–38, headed by V. A. Snezhinskii.

These expeditions contributed much to the study of the topography of the bottom and to the study of sediments, the vertical structure of the water, and the ichthiofauna of the Black Sea. The material they gathered enabled A. D. Arkhangel’skii and N. M. Strakhov to advance the first generalization of the stratigraphy and geological history of the Black Sea in the Cenozoic. With the introduction of observations on standard cross sections in the 1930’s, the study of the Black Sea became systematic. The Hydrometeorological Observatory and the Azov–Black Sea Scientific Research Institute of Fishing and Oceanography became involved in studying the sea. In the late 1940’s and subsequent years observations on cross sections expanded greatly; hydrologic and hydrochemical observations are now made once a month or every ten days on standard cross sections. Since the late 1950’s, a systematic study of the geology and geophysics of the Black Sea, the geomorphology of the bottom, bottom sediments, and other aspects has been conducted. Regular seismic investigations of the structure of the earth’s crust beneath the Black Sea was begun in 1957.

In 1975 a deep-sea drilling project that went down to a depth of 1 km was carried out by scientists from various countries on the ship Glomar Challenger. The State Oceanographic Institute has been systematically monitoring the pollution of the Black Sea since the mid-1960’s. The following institutions are engaged in the study of the Black Sea: the Institute of the Biology of the Southern Seas (the former Sevastopol’ Biological Station), the Marine Hydrophysical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, the Azov-Black Sea Scientific Research Institute of Fishing and Oceanography, the Sevastopol’ division of the State Oceanographic Institute, the Black Sea division of the Institute of Oceanography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Marine Geology, and the Marine Observatory. A. M. M What Connects the Mediterranean to the Black Sea? | eHow What Connects the Mediterranean to the Black Sea?

Photos.com/Photos.com/Getty Images The Mediterranean Sea is a large body of saltwater, about 2,500 miles long and 500 miles wide, which touches several different countries, including Italy, Turkey and Greece, in both Asia and Europe. On the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea lies the Sea of Crete. This sea in turn flows into the Aegean Sea, which flows into the Dardanelles Strait. This strait joins the Sea of Marmara with the Bosporus Strait, which finally flows into the Black Sea. Sea of Crete The Sea of Crete is part of both the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea. The Mediterranean Sea is at the southwestern edge of the Sea of Crete, while the Aegean Sea is just north. The Sea of Crete lies between the island of Crete, which is south of the sea, and the Cyclades islands in the north. This sea is about 10,000 feet deep at its deepest, making it the deepest part of the Aegean Sea.

Aegean Sea The Aegean Sea has a number of islands scattered throughout it, and is often associated with the legend of Atlantis, the ancient island that is thought to have sunk into the sea. Aside from its legendary status, the Aegean Sea is of import in both scientific and historical ways. The islands throughout the sea allowed for travel and communication in ancient times. The sea's unique bay-like shape is often studied for its unusual characteristics. The Aegean Sea is 380 miles long and approximately 186 miles wide. It is north of the Mediterranean Sea. Dardanelles Strait The Dardanelles Strait cuts through Asian Turkey, to the south, and European Turkey, to the north, separating both the country and the Asian and European continents. This narrow strait connects the Aegean Sea, to the southwest, to the Marmara Sea in the northeast. The Dardanelles strait also provides an important route of transportation between the regions surrounding the two seas. Sea of Marmara The Sea of Marmara is completely surrounded by the country of Turkey and, like the Dardanelles Strait, separates both the Turkish country and the continents of Asia and Europe.

The Sea of Marmara is an important trade route from western Asia to Russia and Europe. The Sea of Marmara is home to the Princes' Islands, the Marmara Islands and Imrali Island, on which a prison stands. This prison houses only one inmate, a Kurdish terrorist. Bosporus Strait The Bosporus Strait is the final link in the chain between the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. This strait connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea. The strait is about 20 miles long and approximately 2 miles wide at its widest. It is bordered at its southern end by Istanbul, a large city in Turkey. Again, this strait is an important link in the trade route from Asia to Russia and Europe. Turkey Turkey Official name: Republic of Turkey Area: 780,580 square kilometers (301,382 square miles) Highest point on mainland: Mount Ararat (5,166 meters/16,949 feet) Lowest point on land: Sea level Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern P.M.

= noon GMT Longest distances: 1,600 kilometers (994 miles) from southeast to northwest; 650 kilometers (404 miles) from northeast to southwest Land boundaries: 2,627 kilometers (1,632 miles) total boundary length; Armenia 268 kilometers (167 miles); Azerbaijan 9 kilometers (6 miles); Bulgaria 240 kilometers (149 miles); Georgia 252 kilometers (157 miles); Greece 206 kilometers (128 miles); Iran 499 kilometers (310 miles); Iraq 331 kilometers (206 miles); Syria 822 kilometers (511 miles) Coastline: 7,200 kilometers (4,474 miles) Territorial sea limits: 11 kilometers (6 nautical miles) in the Aegean Sea, 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles) in the Black and Mediterranean Seas 1 LOCATION AND SIZE Turkey is located in the Middle East, with territory in both Europe and Asia. The country shares borders with Bulgaria, Greece, Iraq, Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Georgia.

It also has coastal borders on the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea. With a total area of about 780,580 square kilometers (301,382 square miles), the country is slightly larger than the state of Texas. Turkey is administratively divided into eighty provinces. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES Turkey has no outside territories or dependencies. 3 CLIMATE The southern part of Turkey enjoys a Mediterranean climate, with a mean annual temperature of 17°C to 20°C (63°F to 68°F). In Istanbul, temperatures average 4°C (40°F) in winter and 27°C (81°F) in summer. The northern area along the Black Sea is slightly cooler, with a mean annual temperature range from 14°C to 16°C (57°F to 60°F). In the north, winter temperatures average about 7°C (45°F) and summer temperatures average 23°C (69°F).

The central plateau region experiences wider daily and seasonal temperature variation, with cold winters and hot summers; annual mean temperatures range from 8°C to 12°C (46°F to 54°F). The eastern region has higher elevations and temperatures there are cooler, with the yearly mean between 4°C to 9°C (39°F to 48°F). Winters can be severe in the east, with 120 days of snow cover and minimum temperatures of -30°C to -38°C (-4°F to 3°F). The average winter temperature in the east is -13°C (21°F) and in summer, the average is 17°C (63°F). Adequate rainfall of about 58 to 130 centimeters (23 to 51 inches) occurs along the Mediterranean coast and the western coast of the Aegean Sea. The region bordering the Black Sea is also well watered, with annual rainfall in the range of 71 to 220 centimeters (28 to 87 inches).

The Taurus Mountains along the Mediterranean prevent rain from reaching the heart of the country, which is therefore much drier, with annual rainfall between 56 to 71 centimeters (22 to 28 inches). 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS About 3 percent of the territory in Turkey belongs to the European region known as Thrace. This region shares borders with Greece and Bulgaria. It is separated from the Asian portion of Turkey by a series of waterways that connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea. The rest of the country is located in Asia, mostly on the peninsula of Asia Minor, which is the westernmost extension of the continent. This region is also called Anatolia, or simply Asiatic Turkey. Turkey's terrain is structurally complex and divides into five regions: the Black Sea region in the north; the Sea of Marmara region in the northwest; the Aegean Sea region in the far west; the Mediterranean Sea region in the south; and the Anatolian Plateau region in the country's center. All of the regions share a generally mountainous terrain, and many large lakes and rivers appear throughout the country.

Turkey is located on the Eurasian Tec-tonic Plate; however, the southern borders of the country rest atop the boundaries with the Arabian Tectonic Plate and the African Tectonic Plate. There is also a major fault line beneath the northern part of Asia Minor. As a result of its geological location, the country is subject to a very high level of seismic activity. The tremors cause massive damage to buildings and numerous deaths and injuries, especially if they occur at night during the winter months. The most earthquake-prone region centers on an arc that stretches from the general vicinity of the Sea of Marmara to the area north of Lake Van (Van Gölü), on the border with Georgia and Armenia. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS Seacoast and Undersea Features Turkey has coastlines on four different seas: the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. The northern coast of Turkey is on the Black Sea, an inland body of water that separates Europe from Asia. The Black Sea contains calm waters that are free of tides and dangerous marine life.

Called the "Hospitable Sea" by the ancient Greeks, the Black Sea is only half as saline as the Mediterranean Sea and has gentle sandy slopes, making it ideal for swimming. The Mediterranean Sea, which lies on Turkey's southern coast, is an almost completely landlocked sea. It links to the Atlantic Ocean at its western point through the Strait of Gibraltar and to the Red Sea at its southeastern shore though the Suez Canal. The Aegean Sea to the west of Turkey is an extension of the Mediterranean. The Sea of Marmara (Marmara Denizi) is a small inland sea that is situated between Asiatic and European Turkey. It has a surface area of about 11,350 square kilometers (4,382 square miles). DID YOU KNOW? The term "Middle East" was coined by western Europeans as a geographic designation for those countries of southwest Asia and northeast Africa that stretch from the Mediterranean Sea to the borders of Pakistan and Afghanistan, including nations on the Arabian Peninsula. This area was considered to be the midpoint between Europe and East Asia, which was usually called the Far East. In a cultural sense, the term sometimes includes all the countries in the region that are primarily Islamic.

In this sense, the Middle East includes the countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as some of the North African countries that border the Arabian Peninsula. Sea Inlets and Straits The Dardanelles Strait (also known as Çanakkale Boğazi) connects the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean Sea in the west, while the Bosporus Strait (also known as Istanbul Boğazi or Karadeniz Bogazi) connects it to the Black Sea in the northeast. The great city of Istanbul (formerly known as Constantinople and Byzantium) is located on the Golden Horn (Haliç) estuary of the Bosporus. These two straits and the Sea of Marmara itself are what separate Europe and Asia. Along the Aegean Sea coast are a number of inlets, including the Gulf of Edremit. This protected gulf encloses clear Aegean waters. The shores lining the gulf feature sandy beaches surrounded by olive groves. The Gulf of Antalya indents the middle of the southern coast and the Gulf of Ịskenderun marks the southeastern edge of Asia Minor.

Islands and Archipelagos There are numerous islands off the western coast in the Aegean Sea, but almost all of them belong to Greece. One of the few exceptions is the island of Gökçeada (Ịmroz). Turkey's largest island, located not far from the Dardanelles, is covered with pine and olive trees and surrounded by sparkling clear water. There is also an archipelago of nine small islands in the Sea of Marmara, where wealthy Turks have summer homes. Coastal Features There are narrow coastal lowlands along the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts. The Aegean coastline is extremely irregular, with dramatic mountain faces rising perpendicularly from the sea and many islands just off shore (most of which belong to Greece). The Gallipoli Peninsula extends southwest from Thrace to form the northern side of the Dardanelles. 6 INLAND LAKES The largest lake in the country, Lake Van (Van Gölü), is situated near the border with Iran. It covers an area of about 3,713 square kilometers (2,545 square miles). Other lakes in this eastern region include Ercek, Cildir, and Hazar.

Turkey's second-largest lake, the shallow and salty Lake Tuz (Tuz Gölü), lies in central Anatolia directly south of Ankara. Lakes Akşehir and Eber lie west of Lake Tuz. Further to the southwest, in the Taurus Mountains west of Konya, are Lakes Beyşehir and Eğridir. Lying around the Sea of Marmara are numerous small lakes, the largest of which are Kuş, Ulubat, and Iznik. DID YOU KNOW? but it was later rebuilt on the same site; this second temple also burned in 262 A.D. Sculptures and other surviving artifacts are currently owned by the British Museum in London. The foundation site still remains mostly intact. Along with the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, also located in Turkey, the Temple of Artemis is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Turkey has extensive wetlands, most of which provide protected habitat for birds. The most important wetland area forms part of Kuscenneti National Park near Lake Kuz, where the habitat supports more than 225 bird species and an estimated three million individual migratory birds.

Kuscenneti was established as a national park in 1959. Eleven other parks protect wetland bird habitats. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS The Euphrates (Firat) River has its source in eastern central Turkey. With a total length of about 2,800 kilometers (1,750 miles), it is the longest river in Turkey and in all of the Middle East. The Euphrates flows west initially, then curves south, crosses the Taurus Mountains, and enters Syria. It eventually flows southeast through Iraq and into the Persian Gulf. There are two large reservoirs on the Euphrates in Turkey, the Keban and the Atatürk. The Tigris (Dicle) river also has its source in Turkey, somewhat farther south and west than that of the Euphrates in the Taurus Mountains. It follows a southeasterly path and soon exits Turkey for Iraq, where, hundreds of miles later, it joins the Euphrates shortly before reaching the Persian Gulf.

The longest river that flows completely within Turkey is the Kizil (Kizilirmak, Halys) with a length of about 1,355 kilometers (847 miles). It follows a twisting path through central Anatolia. It forms a broad half-circle just east of Ankara, first flowing southwest and then curving all the way to the northeast to empty into the Black Sea at the headland of Bafra. Other rivers that empty into the Black Sea are the Yeşil in the east and the Sakarya in the west. The Çoruh River, renowned for its whitewater rafting, rises in the mountains of eastern Turkey and reaches the Black Sea through neighboring Georgia. The Gediz and Büyükmenderes Rivers flow westward to the Aegean Sea in Anatolia. The Maritsa River also empties into the Aegean in Europe and marks most of Turkey's border with Greece. The Seyhan, Ceyhan, and Göksu rivers flow southward into the Mediterranean Sea.

Lying 76 kilometers (47 miles) south of Kayseri is the Kapuzbasi waterfall, which features a 70-meter (230-feet) cascade that is fed by seven underground springs. Southwest of the Sea of Marmara region lies Gönen, where hot springs bubble from deep underground, reaching the earth's surface at about 82°C (180°F). Gönen has been the site of therapeutic mineral baths since the fifth century. In and around Bursa, thermal springs and therapeutic baths may also be found. 8 DESERTS There are no desert regions in Turkey. 9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN The Ergene Plain is a lowland region in Thrace that extends along rivers that discharge into the Aegean Sea or the Sea of Marmara. There are many grassland areas in Anatolia. To the east and south of the Sea of Marmara, fertile plains stretch from west to east, following the flow of the Gediz and Bakir Rivers. Grassland plains reach an elevation of about 899 meters (2,967 feet) around Lake Tuz (Tuz Gölü).

Relatively flat land is also found to the east of Konya and south of Ankara. A fertile broad valley lies west of Lake Van, centered on Mus. Slightly more than 10 percent of Turkey is covered by forest, most of which lies in protected national reserves or parks. Forests are found in the mountainous areas near the Black Sea, Sea of Marmara, Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. Small pine forests are found in central Anatolia, but the most common forest type is oak. There are regions of moderate hills in Thrace and in the region along the eastern border with Syria. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES Except for a relatively small segment along the Syrian border that is a continuation of the Arabian Platform, Turkey is part of the great Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt. The intensive folding and uplifting of this mountain belt during the Tertiary Period was accompanied by strong volcanic activity and intrusions of igneous rock material, followed by extensive faulting in the Quaternary Period. As a result, mountain ranges can be found throughout most of the country. The most important mountain range in the south is that of the Taurus Mountains (Toros Dağlari).

They run along the entire Mediterranean coast and extend far inland to the border with Iran. They also include many peaks of over 3,048 meters (10,000 feet). Smaller mountain ranges surround the Taurus on all sides, including the Aydin, Nur, Tahtali, Karagöl, and Mardin Mountains. Another series of mountain ranges runs along the northern coast on the Black Sea. Principal among these are the Köroğlu, Küre, and Pontic Mountains. In the Marmara region of the northwest, the highest peak is Mount Olympus (Ulu Dağ), which rises to 2,543 meters (8,392 feet) and provides a center for winter sports. Further east, the mountains rise as high as 3,931 meters (12,897 feet) at Mount Kaçkar (Kaçkar Dagi). The nation's highest peak is the extinct volcano Mount Ararat (Buyuk Agri Dagi), which rises to 5,166 meters (16,949 feet) in the far east near the border with Iran.

To its southwest is a 3,896-meter- (12,857-feet-) high peak known as Little Mount Ararat. A plateau of lava covers the territory between the two peaks. DID YOU KNOW? In about 353 B.C. , the Greek architects Satyrus and Pythius built a huge white marble tomb in the ancient city of Halicarnassus to hold the remains of King Mausolus (a ruler of the Persian Empire) and his wife Artemisia. It was designed and built to stand about 135 feet tall with a beautiful ornamental frieze (a decorative band or border) sculpted around the top. The grandeur and beauty of Mausolus's tomb became so well known throughout the ancient world that the word "mausoleum" began to be used to indicate any large decorative tomb. In the fifteenth century, an earthquake caused serious damage to the tomb. The structure was eventually dismantled and several of its sculptures are now installed in the British Museum in London. The foundation of the building remains near the modern city of Bodrum, Turkey.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. 11 CANYONS AND CAVES In the central Anatolian region, the Melendiz River has eroded the Ihlara Valley to produce a deep canyon. The walls of the canyon have been carved to form Byzantine chapels, featuring many frescoes. Dwellings and tombs have also been found hewn into the rock. In a nearby region known as Cappadocia, early Christians chiseled villages into the canyons and lived there in hiding to avoid persecution. Archaeologists have uncovered five complete underground settlements here, all of which have been preserved and are open to the public. These rock sites of Cappadocia have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS The large, central Anatolian Plateau is wedged between the northern and southern mountain ranges. It is composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain.

This plateau is the heartland of the country, with altitudes rising from west to east from 600 to 1,200 meters (1,980 to 3,960 feet). Except in the northwest, the mountains act as formidable barriers between the coastal regions and the plateau. The plateau is crossed by many rivers and also contains several large lakes. In the tourist center of Ügrüp, between Lake Tuz and Kayseri, exposed rock has eroded into strange monolithic formations called fairy chimneys. These resemble mushrooms, inverted cones, and obelisks; various civilizations throughout history have further shaped the fairy chimneys to provide living space. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES Twenty-two dams and nineteen hydroelectric stations along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers distribute irrigation and electricity throughout the country. The largest is the Atatürk Dam, which stands at 184 meters (604 feet) high and 1,820 meters (5,971 feet) long. The Atatürk is one of the tallest dams in the world, as well as one of the largest earth and rock fill dams.

The Bosporus Bridge, which crosses the Bosporus Strait at Istanbul and connects the continents of Europe and Asia, is one of the world's longest suspension bridges. Completed in 1973, the bridge spans 1,074 meters (3,524 feet). Ancient writings indicate that there may have been a type of bridge constructed at this same crossing as early as 512 B.C. ; if this is true, that structure would have been the first intercontinental bridge in the world. In 1988 a second bridge, Bosporus II, was built at a narrower point on the strait, north of the first bridge. 14 FURTHER READING Facaros, Dana. Turkey. London: Cadogan, 2000. Karpat, Kermit H., ed . Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey. Boston: Brill, 2000. Kinzer, Stephen. Crescent and Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. Periodicals Allen, Thomas B.

"Turkey Struggles for Balance." National Geographic , May 1994, 2-36. Web Sites

Question: Which stretch of water joins the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmera?
Answer: THE DARDANELLES