ADW: Uncia uncia: INFORMATION References Geographic Range Snow leopards inhabit a large geographic range of approximately 2.3 million square kilometers and are widely but sporadically distributed throughout the high mountain ranges of Central Asia. This includes the entire Himalayan mountain system, as well as areas in Bhutan, Nepal and the Siberian region of Russia. Snow leopards are found anywhere from the Himalayas to southern and western Mongolia and South Russia, however 60% of the range occurs in China, particularly in the Xinjiang and Tibet autonomous regions, as well as in the Sichuan, Qinghai and Gansu provinces. ( Fox, 1994 ; Hussain, 2003 ; Schaller, et al., 1988 ) Biogeographic Regions native Habitat Steep, rocky and broken terrain are the preferred bedding areas for snow leopards, specifically on or nearby to a landform edge close to natural vegetation. Cliffs and major ridgelines are preferred for daytime resting.

Snow leopards live in alpine and subalpine zones from elevations of 900 to 5,500 meters or higher, but generally at altitudes between 3,000 and 4,500 meters. In the winter they may migrate to lower elevations of 900 meters, following their preferred prey. Snow leopards generally avoid dense forest cover and cultivated fields, but are associated with open coniferous forest, as well as arid and semi-arid shrubland, grassland, alpine meadows and barren habitats. ( Jackson, 1996 ; Lovari, et al., 2013 ; Schaller, et al., 1994 ) Habitat Regions 2952.76 to ft Physical Description Measuring from nose to tail, the length of an average adult snow leopard is 1000 to 1300 mm, with a tail length of 800 to 1000 mm equaling roughly 75% to 90% of total body length.

This extremely long tail is used specifically for balance in the steep and rocky terrain they inhabit, but can also be used to cover their extremities during harsh winter weather. In general, the average mass for an adult is 35 to 45 kg with a total range of 25 to 75 kg across the species. There is no pronounced sexual dimorphism in the species, however males may be slightly larger than females in general. A characteristic of snow leopards is the extremely large size of their paws in comparison to other felids, which are an adaptation for walking on snow. The front paws are slightly larger than the hind paws, with an average footpad size of 90 to 100 mm in length and 70 to 80 mm in width. Snow leopards also have relatively long hind legs that are adapted for increased agility and jumping ability in their rugged habitat. ( Hemmer, 1972 ; Jackson, 1996 ; Rieger, 1984 ) The base fur color can range anywhere from light gray to smoke gray to cream-yellow, with a white tint generally found on the underbody.

The entire body is covered with greyish black spots and rosettes. Rosettes are larger rings encircling smaller spots and are only found on the body and tail, whereas the solid spots are found on the head, neck and lower limbs. Juvenile snow leopards have longitudinal black stripes across the middle of their back extending from the base of their head to their tail. As they grow and mature, these stripes break up into large spots forming two lateral rows of elongated rings along the center of the back. ( Fox, 1989 ; Hemmer, 1972 ) Snow leopards have long and thick coats that molt twice per year, yielding a longer and thicker coat during the winter. In the summer, fur length is roughly 25 mm on the sides of the snow leopard, and roughly 50 mm on the belly and tail. In winter, fur on the sides is roughly 50 mm, 30 to 55 mm on the back, 60 mm on the tail, and up to 120 mm on the belly. In addition to thick fur, they have small rounded ears that help to minimize heat loss in their cold, mountainous environments.

In comparison to other closely related felids , snow leopards have much larger nasal cavities, as well as smaller and broader heads relative to their body size. ( Hemmer, 1972 ) Distinguishable skull features from other large felids are: an overall shortness of the skull, an elevation of the frontal area, more rounded orbits, longer postorbital and zygomatic processes, longer and smaller infraorbital foraman, wider mesopterygoid fossa, flatter osseous bullae, and a marked shortness of palate. In males, the mean anteroposterior width of the upper canine at alveolus is slightly larger than in the females. However, the mean lateromedial width across postorbital constriction and across braincase is slightly larger in females. ( Christiansen and Harris, 2012 ; Ognev, 1935 ) The dental formula of adult snow leopards is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/2, M 1/1.

( Marma and Yunchis, 1968 ; Pocock, 1916 ) Other Physical Features 39.37 to 51.18 in Reproduction Snow leopards are solitary and do not associate with mates unless it is mating season. Due to the long time spent rearing cubs, snow leopard females mate every second year. They are polygynous in the wild, but some snow leopards in captivity are known to have become monogamous. ( Freeman, 1982 ) Mating System polygynous Breeding in wild snow leopards is strongly seasonal, occurring during late winter from January to March. When females are in estrus, they make a continuous yowling sound that is required to attract males. There is also a significant increase in allogrooming and prusten (chuffing) by the female during this period. The female presents herself to the male by raising her tail and walking in front of him, ensuring her anal region is clearly visible.

Copulation of snow leopards occurs in both ventral/dorsal and dorsal/dorsal postures, and the male generally grips the fur on the female’s neck as he is mounting her. Gestation period is roughly 90 to 105 days, and the cubs are born sometime between April and June. Generally the litter consists of 2 to 3 cubs, but in rare cases can range anywhere from 1 to 5. They are born in a rocky shelter, where the mother makes a warm nest of fur from her underbelly. At birth, snow leopard cubs weigh 300 to 600g. ( Blomqvist and Sten, 1982 ; Fox, 1989 ; Freeman, 1983 ; Hemmer, 1972 ; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ) Lactation is five-months however the young can begin to eat solid food at two months of age, and are weaned at about 5 months. For roughly the first year of life, snow leopards are dependent upon their mother.

Female snow leopards reach sexual maturity at about 2 to 3 years of age while males may take up to 4 years. ( Fox, 1989 ; Petzsch, 1968 ) Key Reproductive Features Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male) 3 to 4 years Snow leopards are solitary and the only prolonged social contact occurs while females are raising their cubs. The cubs are altricial when born, do not open their eyes until they are about one week of age, and are entirely dependent on their mother for the first year of their life. ( Fox, 1989 ; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1989 ) Reproductive success is higher in areas where females can find secluded denning as well as a large abundance and availability of prey nearby. It is imperative for the safety of their young that these denning sites are inaccessible and secure so they can hide their cubs from other carnivores while the mother searches for food. At about three months of age, the cubs begin to follow their mother in order to learn basic survival skills such as hunting.

The mother is solely responsible for supplying the cubs with food, protection, resources and learning for their first year of life. ( Jackson, 1996 ) Parental Investment Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research Behavior Snow leopards are primarily crepuscular, meaning that they are most active during dawn and dusk. They are also highly mobile and move from one location to another on a daily basis and shift their bedding site multiple times during a day. Generally, snow leopards remain in one specific area of their home range for several weeks before relocating to another part of their home range. ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ) Snow leopards are solitary but pair during mating season as well as share each other’s home ranges. Snow leopards that share a home range maintain a distance of roughly 2 kilometers from the nearest other individual. They actively avoid one another by marking travel lanes with scrapes, feces and pungent scent sprays, which discloses details about the sex and reproductive status of individuals. Snow leopard males are intolerant of conspecific males, suggesting that they are territorial.

( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ; Jackson, 1996 ; Lovari, et al., 2013 ) Due to their large paws and elongated hind legs, the ability of snow leopards to jump is highly developed, as well as their ability to climb. They prefer to rest upon elevated structures, especially when they are kept in captivity. The rarity of sightings of snow leopards in the wild suggests that they reduce their activity around areas where humans are present. ( Hemmer, 1972 ; Wolf and Ale, 2009 ) The preferred method of hunting is to stalk and then ambush their prey from above, using rocky terrain and shrubby vegetation to conceal themselves. ( Jackson, 1996 ) Key Behaviors solitary Home Range In western Nepal, in an area of high prey density, the average home range size for a snow leopard is 12 to 39 square kilometers. However with the large amount of topographic relief, the actual home range size is probably 20 to 30% larger.

( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ) Communication and Perception Unlike other large felids , snow leopards do not roar. Instead, they emit a high-pitched yowl, especially when females are in heat. This call allows females to alert males of their whereabouts and usually occurs in the late evening. Another vocalization is a nonaggressive “chuffing” that is emitted through the nostrils. The arrival of one snow leopard in the immediate proximity of another elicits this chuffing sound, and could be described as their means of greeting. ( Hemmer, 1972 ; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ) Snow leopards emit high pitched yowling sounds to communicate and advertise their location. Their long tail is also used in a number of communication functions and can indicate their current mood to other individuals. Snow leopards also use tactile means to communicate and will rub their heads and necks against a social partner to indicate that they are being amicable. ( Hemmer, 1972 ; Rieger, 1984 ) Another way snow leopards communicate is via facial expressions.

For example, when they are being defensive they open their mandible quite wide and raise their lips to bare the canine teeth, however when they are excited the mouth opens as well but the canines do not show and the lips and nose wrinkle depending on intensity. ( Hemmer, 1972 ) Snow leopards also communicate using scents and other chemicals. The marking behavior of snow leopards is fairly extensive and includes everything from scraping, spraying urine, head rubbing and even claw raking along the trunks of trees. Marking occurs more frequently during breeding season. They mark specific trees or surfaces in travel lanes to ensure that another snow leopard does not venture into their home area. ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ) Communication Channels chemical Food Habits Snow leopards are carnivorous and actively hunt their prey. They are also opportunistic predators and will take any kind of meat and prey to ensure that they meet their overall energy requirements. They are capable of killing animals more than three to four times their own weight but also readily settle for much smaller prey in times of need.

( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1988 ) The primary prey species of snow leopards are blue sheep ( Pseudois nayaur ). Other prey species include ibex (Capra ibex sibrica), markhors (Capra failconeri), argali sheep ( Ovis ammon ), urials (Ovis orientalis), Himalayan tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus ), serows ( Capricornis sumatraensis ), gorals (Naemorhaedus goral), musk deer ( Moschus chrysogaster ), wild boars ( Sus scrofa ), Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonf), Tibetan gazelles ( Procapra picticaudata ), goitered gazelles ( Gazella subgutturosa ), wild donkeys ( Equus hemionus ), and wild yaks (Bos grunninus). Smaller prey include marmots ( Marmota ), hares ( Lepus ), pikas ( Ochotona ), voles ( Microtus ), mice and birds.

( Chundawat, 1990 ; Fox, 1989 ) Due to over-hunting by humans the population of wild ungulates in certain areas has been depleted and snow leopards have turned to prey upon domestic livestock. ( Anwar, et al., 2011 ) Primary Diet mammals Predation Snow leopards are top predators, they have few natural predators other than humans. However, interspecific killing between leopards ( Panthera pardus ) and snow leopards can occur when competition for resources between these sympatric carnivores increases. Adult snow leopards are also potential predators of younger cubs. ( Lovari, et al., 2013 ) Known Predators leopards ( Panthera pardus ) Ecosystem Roles Snow leopards are apex predators, meaning they play a key role in maintaining the biodiversity in an ecosystem. Through population dynamics and trophic cascades, snow leopards are an important indicator of the health of the environment and help regulate the populations of species lower on the food chain.

( Shehzad, et al., 2012 ) Snow leopards can also be recognized as an indicator or flagship species, and this is important because they can help motivate the general public to support the conservation of high-altitude ecosystems. If snow leopard habitats are protected, the habitats for many other species become protected as well. Top predators promote and are associated with species richness through resource facilitation, trophic cascades, ecosystem productivity, sensitivity to dysfunctions, and more. Therefore, to help maintain biodiversity, predator-centered conservation is key. ( Jackson, 1996 ; Lovari, et al., 2009 ; Sergio, et al., 2008 ) controls pest population Economic Importance for Humans: Negative Due to their shy and elusive behavior, snow leopards generally avoid humans and are not known to have ever attacked a human in the wild. The only major negative impact of snow leopards on humans is their predation upon domestic livestock. ( Hussain, 2003 ) Conservation Status Snow leopards are listed as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

The global population of snow leopards is estimated to be anywhere between 4,080 to 6,590 individuals. In the past two decades, populations of snow leopards are suspected to have declined by at least 20% due to habitat loss, prey loss, poaching and persecution. The main factor affecting the population decline of the snow leopard is human activity. Whether the cats are impacted directly by poaching for fur, bones and other body parts, they are also being affected indirectly by base prey loss due to human overhunting. Snow leopard pelts appear to be the main product demand for poachers, but recently their bones have become a popular substitute for tiger bones in Chinese medicine. Many farmers are also responsible for illegally killing snow leopards as a response to predation upon their livestock. ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1984 ; Jackson, et al., 2008 ; Lovari, et al., 2009 ) Through habitat shifts, loss, and fragmentation, climate change is now emerging as another threat to this space-requiring species.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the average annual temperature in South Asia and Tibet will increase by 3 to 4 degrees Celsius by 2080 to 2099, along with an annual increase in precipitation. Due to these warmer and wetter conditions, the forest treeline is expected to ascend into alpine areas, which is the snow leopards preferred habitat. Results indicate that roughly 30% of their habitat in the Himalaya may be lost because of this shifting treeline. This will cause overlap in species range, where the snow leopard will then have to contend for resources with species better adapted to forest habitats such as leopards ( Panthera pardus ), wild dogs ( Cuon alpinus ) and, in Bhutan, tigers ( Panthera tigris ). ( Christensen, et al., 2007 ; Forrest, et al., 2012 ) Anthropogenic threats to snow leopards may also intensify through climate change. With shrinking and fragmented alpine habitat, snow leopard prey species are being displaced and causing snow leopards to increase predation upon livestock.

This results in increased retaliatory killing by local farmers, placing snow leopards at great risk. ( Forrest, et al., 2012 ) There is a general lack of awareness across the globe on the importance of this species to its ecosystem. The Snow Leopard Network has developed a plan uniting individuals and organizations such as the Snow Leopard Conservancy and the International Snow Leopard Trust to try and educate the public on the importance of conservation of snow leopards. ( Jackson, et al., 2008 ) uses sight to communicate viviparous reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female. References Anwar, M., R. Jackson, M. Nadeem, J. Janecka, S. Hussain, M. Beg, G. Muhammad, M. Qayyum. 2011. Food habits of the snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) in Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 57(5): 1077-1083. Blomqvist, L., I. Sten. 1982.

Reproductive biology of the snow leopard, Panthera uncia. Int. Ped. Book of Snow Leopards, 3: 71-79. Christensen, J., B. Hewitson, A. Busuioc, A. Chen X Gao, I. Held, R. Jones, R. Kolli, W. Kwon, R. Laprise, V. Magana Rueda, L. Mearns, C. Menendez, J. Raisanen, A. Rinke, A. Sarr, P. Whetton. 2007. Regional Climate Projections. Climate Change, 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, University Press, Cambridge, Chapter 11, 4: 847-940. Christiansen, P., J. Harris. 2012. Variation in craniomandibular morphology and sexual dimorphism in Pantherines and the sabercat Smilodon fatalis.

PLoS One, 7(10): e48352. Chundawat, R. 1990. Habitat selection by a snow leopard in Hemis National Park, India. Int.Ped.Book of Snow leopards, 6: 85-92. Forrest, J., E. Wikramanayake, R. Shrestha, G. Areendran, K. Gyeltshen, A. Maheshwari, S. Mazumdar, R. Naidoo, G. Thapa, K. Thapa. 2012. Conservation and climate change: assessing the vulnerability of snow leopard habitat to treeline shift in the Himalaya. Biological Conservation, 150(1): 129-135. Fox, J. 1989. A review of the status and ecology of the snow leopard Panthera uncia. International Snow Leopard Trust, 1: 1-38. Fox, J. 1994. Snow leopard conservation in the wild - a comprehensive perspective on a low density and highly fragmented population. Proc. of Seventh Int.

Snow Leopard Symposium, 1: 3-15. Freeman, H. 1983. Behavior in adult pairs of captive snow leopards Panthera uncia. Zoo Biology, 2: 1-22. Freeman, H. 1982. Characteristics of the social behavior in the snow leopard. Int. Ped. Book of Snow Leopards, 3: 117-120. Geraghty, V., J. Mooney, K. Pike. 1981. A study of parasitic infections in mammals and birds at the Dublin Zoological Gardens. Veterinary Research Communications, 5(1): 343-348. Hemmer, H. 1972. Uncia uncia. Mammalian Species, 20: 1-5. Hill, N., J. Dubey, L. Vogelnest, M. Power, E. Deane. 2008. Do free-ranging common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) play a role in the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii within a zoo environment?.

Veterinary Parasitology, 152(3-4): 202-209. Hussain, S. 2003. The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx, 37(1): 26-33. Jackson, R. 1996. Home range, movements and habitat use of snow leopard (Uncia uncia) in Nepal. Diss. University of London, 1: 1-255. Jackson, R., G. Ahlborn. 1988. Observations on the ecology of snow leopard in west Nepal. Proceedings of the 5th International Snow Leopard Symposium, ed. H. Freeman, 1: 65-87. Jackson, R., G. Ahlborn. 1989. Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Nepal – home range and movements. National Geographic Research, 5(2): 161-175. Jackson, R., D. Mallon, T. McCarthy, R. Chundaway, B. Habib. 2008.

"Panthera uncia" (On-line). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed October 28, 2013 at . Jackson, R., G. Ahlborn. 1984. A preliminary habitat suitability model for the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, in West Nepal. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, 4: 43-52. Lovari, S., R. Boesi, I. Minder, N. Mucci, E. Randi, A. Dematteis, S. Ale. 2009. Restoring a keystone predator may endanger a prey species in a human-altered ecosystem: the return of the snow leopard to Sagarmatha National Park. Animal Conservation, 12: 559-570. Lovari, S., J. Minder, F. Ferretti, N. Mucci, E. Randi, B. Pellizzi. 2013. Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators?. Journal of Zoology, 291(2): 127-135.

Macri, A., E. Patterson-Kane. 2011. Behavioural analysis of solitary versus socially housed snow leopards (Panthera uncia), with the provision of simulated social contact. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 130(3-4): 115-123. Marma, B., V. Yunchis. 1968. Observations on the breeding, management and physiology of Snow leopards. International Zoo Yearbook. Zoology Society of London, 8: 66-73. Murata, K., T. Yanai, T. Agatsuma, S. Uni. 2003. Dirofilaria immitis Infection of a Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) in a Japanese Zoo with Mitochondrial DNA Analysis. Journal of Vet. Med. Science, 65(8): 945-947. Ognev, S. 1935. Mammals of U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries. Vol III Carnivora (English translation 1962, Israel Program for Scientific Translations), 1: 1-656.

Petzsch, H. 1968. Die katzen. Urania-Verlag, 1: 1-182. Pocock, R. 1916. On the tooth-change, cranial characters and classification of the snow leopard or ounce (Felis uncia). Ann. Mag. Natural History, Series 8, 18: 306-316. Rieger, I. 1984. Tail functions in ounces, Uncia uncia. Intl. Ped. Book of Snow Leopards, 4: 85-97. Ruedi, P., A. Helstab, H. Wiesner, P. Keller. 1978. Liver Cirrhosis in the Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia). International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, 1: 113-129. Schaller, G., R. Junrang, Q. Mingjiang. 1988. Status of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in Qinghai and Gansu provinces, China. Biological Conservation, 45(3): 179-194.

Schaller, G., J. Tserendeleg, G. Amarsanaa. 1994. Observations on snow leopards in Mongolia. Proc. Int. Snow Leopard Symposium, 7: 33-42. Sergio, F., T. Caro, D. Brown, B. Clucas, J. Hunter, J. Ketchum, K. McHugh, F. Hiraldo. 2008. Top Predators as Conservation Tools: Ecological Rationale, Assumptions, and Efficacy. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 39: 1-19. Shehzad, W., T. McCarthy, F. Pompanon, L. Purevjav, E. Coissac, T. Riaz, P. Taberlet. 2012. Prey preference of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in South Gobi, Mongolia. PLoS One, 7(2): e32104. Wharton, D., H. Freeman. 1988. The snow leopard in North America: captive breeding under the Species Survival Plan. Proc. Intl.

Snow Leopard Symposium, 5: 131-136. Wharton, D., S. Mainka. 1997. Management and husbandry of the Snow Leopard. International Zoo Yearbook, 35(1): 139-147. Wolf, M., S. Ale. 2009. Signs at the top: habitat features influencing snow leopard Uncia uncia activity in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Journal of Mammalogy, 90(3): 604-611. Snow Leopard: The Animal Files Up to 21 Yrs Main Characteristics Snow Leopards are exceptional athletes and they can bring down prey almost three times their own size. They have a body length between 1 and 1.3 m (3.25 - 4.25 ft), a tail length between 80 and 100 cms (32 - 39 inches) and they weigh between 25 and 75 Kgs (55 - 165 lbs). Their fur is very thick and it is grey in colour with brown/black markings.

Their markings consist of spots around their neck and lower limbs and rosettes on other parts of their body. These markings help to camouflage them on the rocky slopes so they can sneak up on their prey. They have large paws which act like snow shoes, short forelimbs and long hind limbs. Their tail is exceptionally long and they sometimes wrap it around themselves while resting to help keep warm. Male Snow Leopards are larger than females but apart from that they are visually difficult to tell apart. Habitat Snow Leopards are found in Central, South and East Asia. They inhabit areas of mountain steppes and forest scrub at altitudes of 2000 - 6000 metres. The climate in these areas is harsh, cold and dry. They are solitary animals, except mothers with cubs, and males and females have been known to hunt together during the breeding season. They each occupy a home range and this will overlap those of other Snow Leopards. They do not defend their ranges like other big cats.

Where prey is abundant their ranges will be between 30 and 65 Kms (19 - 40 miles) but where there is less prey their ranges could be larger than 1000 Kms (620 miles). Diet A Snow Leopards diet is mainly made up of wild sheep and goats but it also consists of yak, asses, pikas, marmots, hares, musk deer, birds and domestic livestock. They are opportunistic predators and they mainly stalk or ambush their prey. Breeding After a gestation period of 98 - 104 days 1 - 5 cubs , commonly 2 - 3, are born in a den. They are born helpless and with their eyes closed , opening their eyes within 7 days. At 2 months old the cubs are eating solid food and at 3 months old they begin to follow their mother around. The cubs stay in the company of their mother until they are between 1 and 2 years of age after which they leave to find their own territory . Females become sexually mature at 2 - 3 years of age while males reach sexual maturity at approximately 4 years of age.

Snow Leopards mate between January and March and after mating the pair go their separate ways, with the female preferring to do all of the parenting herself. Due to the length of time the cubs stay with their mother, Snow Leopards mate every other year. Predators Their primary predator is man, but they are also preyed upon by wolves. Subspecies There are two subspecies of Snow Leopard: Uncia uncia uncia Panthera uncia (Ounce, Snow Leopard) Home » Panthera uncia (Ounce, Snow Leopard) Panthera uncia Once, Léopard des neiges, Panthère des neiges Spanish Felis uncia Schreiber, 1775 Uncia uncia (Schreber, 1775) Taxonomic Notes: Placed in the genus Panthera according to genetic analysis (Johnson et al. 2006, Eizirik et al. submitted). It is most closely related to the Tiger Panthera tigris, having diverged over 2 million years ago (O'Brien and Johnson 2007), although the relative positions of these two species within Panthera have not yet been established with confidence (Eizirik et al.

submitted). Two subspecies have been classically described (McCarthy et al. 2003), but genetic analysis of intraspecific variation in the Snow Leopard has not yet been done. Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. & Habib, B. Reviewer(s): Nowell, K., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Breitenmoser, U. (Cat Red List Authority) & Schipper, J. (Global Mammal Assessment Team) Justification: Listed as Endangered under C1. Snow Leopards are suspected to have declined by at least 20% over the past two generations (16 years) due to habitat and prey base loss, and poaching and persecution. Losses to poaching were most severe in the former Russian republics in the 1990s (Koshkarev and Vyrypaev 2000, McCarthy et al. 2003, Theile 2003). While conditions have improved there (T. McCarthy pers. comm.

2008), poaching and illegal trade is likely to continue in large parts of snow leopard range given growing demand from China. Over-stocking of the fragile high-altitude grasslands with livestock is widespread throughout snow leopard range, leading to declines in the wild prey base, and an increase in retributive killing when snow leopards turn to livestock (McCarthy et al. 2003, Jackson et al. in press). The global Snow Leopard population is estimated at 4,080-6,590 (McCarthy et al. 2003: Table II).

IUCN Guidelines (IUCN 2006) define population as the number of mature individuals, defined as “individuals known, estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction.” While in general this refers to all reproductive-age adults in the population, the Guidelines also “stress that the intention of the definition of mature individuals is to allow the estimate of the number of mature individuals to take account of all the factors that may make a taxon more vulnerable than otherwise might be expected.” Two factors which increase felid vulnerability to extinction are their low densities (relative to other mammals, including their prey species) and relatively low recruitment rates (where few animals raise offspring which survive to join the breeding population, which has been documented in a number of felid populations). Low densities means that relatively large areas are required for conservation of viable populations; it has long been recognized that many protected areas are too small to conserve viable snow leopard populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Jackson and Hunter 1997, McCarthy et al. 2003). Low recruitment rates also require larger populations and larger areas to conserve viable populations, as well as mortality reduction in non-protected areas to maintain population size through connectivity.

The IUCN Guidelines advise that “mature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted.” Low recruitment rates indicate that fewer adults than would be expected produce new recruits. Defining population size as the total estimated number of reproductive age adults in the taxon would also not take into account that many occur in subpopulations which are too small or too threatened for long-term viability. Instead, the number of mature individuals is defined as equivalent to the estimated effective population size. Effective population size (Ne) is an estimator of the genetic size of the population, and is generally considered representative of the proportion of the total adult population (N) which reproduces itself through offspring which themselves survive and reproduce. Ne is usually smaller than N, and based on four felid demographic studies, it is roughly estimated at 50% (Nowell et al. 2007). The global snow leopard effective population size is suspected to be fewer than 2,500 (50% of the total population, or 2,040-3,295).

Previously published Red List assessments: 2002 – Endangered (EN) Geographic Range [top] Range Description: The Snow Leopard is restricted to the high mountains of Central Asia, with core areas including the Altai, Tian Shan, Kun Lun, Pamir, Hindu Kush, Karakorum and Himalayan ranges. (McCarthy et al. 2003). Ecological regions were defined in a workshop as Altai-Sayan, Trans-Altai Alashan Gobi, Tian Shan, Pamir, Hindu-Kush, Karakorum Mountains , and Tibetan Plateau (Williams 2008). Based on elevational analysis, Hunter and Jackson (1997) estimated potential range at over 3 million km, with much of this in Mongolia and the Tibetan plateau of China, although it is unclear to what extent snow leopards use much of the flatter parts of the plateau (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2008). There was evidence of snow leopard occupation in 1.83 million km, and only about 550,000 km was considered to be good habitat (Hunter and Jackson 1997, McCarthy et al. 2003).

Williams (2006) used historical data to improve mapping of potential range, but there remains a significant lack lack of information about current snow leopard status across much of its known and potential distribution. In an attempt to improve knowledge of Snow Leopard distribution and status, a conservation planning conference held in Beijing in March 2008 brought together experts from 11 of the 12 range countries. The conference was able to map specific and local knowledge about snow leopard range and determine Snow Leopard Conservation Units, areas which are the most important for conserving Snow Leopards over the long-term. The process highlighted areas where knowledge of Snow Leopard status is strong and where it is lacking, and resulting maps now provide biologists and conservationists with a more strategic approach to Snow Leopard conservation and research (Williams 2008).

Countries occurrence: Native: Afghanistan; Bhutan; China (Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Tibet [or Xizang], Xinjiang, Yunnan - Regionally Extinct); India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu-Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttaranchal); Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Nepal; Pakistan; Russian Federation; Tajikistan; Uzbekistan Additional data: Population [top] Population: The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy et al. 2003, Table II) compiled national snow leopard population estimates, updating the work of Fox (1994). Many of the estimates are acknowledged to be rough and out of date, but the total estimated population is 4,080-6,590, as follows: Afghanistan: 100-200? Habitat and Ecology [top] Habitat and Ecology: Snow Leopards are closely associated with the alpine and sub-alpine ecological zones, favoring steep terrain well broken by cliffs, ridges, gullies, and rocky outcrops (McCarthy et al. 2003).

However, in Mongolia and Tibet they may occupy relatively flat or rolling terrain as long as there is sufficient hiding cover (Jackson et al. in press) In the Sayan mountains of Russia and parts of the Tien Shan range of China, they are found in open coniferous forest, but usually avoid dense forest. They generally occur at elevations of 3,000-4,500 m, except for at their northern range limit, where they are found at lower elevations (900-2,500 m) (McCarthy et al. 2003). Low temperatures and high aridity makes its habitat among the least productive rangeland systems in terms of graminoid biomass, with prey populations consequently occurring at relatively low densities (Jackson et al. in press). The cat’s principal natural prey species are bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and ibex (Capra sibirica) whose distribution coincides closely with snow leopard range. Snow leopards also prey on marmot (Marmota spp), pika (Ochotona spp.), hares (Lepus spp.), small rodents, and game birds.

Considerable predation is reported on domestic livestock. Annual prey requirements are estimated at 20 to 30 adult blue sheep, with radio-tracking data indicating such a kill every 10 to 15 days. A solitary leopard may remain on a kill for up to a week (Jackson et al. in press) Snow Leopard home ranges overlap widely between the sexes, and are reported to vary from 10 to 40 km² in relatively productive habitat in Nepal (Jackson and Ahlborn 1989). By comparison, home ranges are considerably larger (140 km² or greater) in Mongolia, where terrain is relatively open and ungulate prey densities lower (McCarthy et al. 2005). Densities range from 0.1 to 10 or more individuals per 100 km² (Jackson et al. in press). Systems: Threats [top] Major Threat(s): Major threats to the Snow Leopard include prey base depletion, illegal trade, conflict with local people, and lack of conservation capacity, policy and awareness. The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy assessed primary threats by region as follows (McCarthy et al.

2003): Himalayan region (Tibetan Plateau and other southern China, India, Nepal and Bhutan): reduction of natural prey due to competition with livestock, killing of snow leopards in retribution for livestock depredation, lack of trans-boundary cooperation, military activity, and human population growth or poverty. Karakhorum and Hindu Kush (Afghanistan, Pakistan and southwest China): habitat degradation and fragmentation, reduction of natural prey due to illegal hunting, killing of snow leopards in retribution for livestock depredation, lack of effective law enforcement, lack of institutional capacity and awareness among local people and policy makers, and human population growth or poverty. Commonwealth of Independent States and western China (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang province of China): reduction of natural prey due to illegal hunting, poaching snow leopards for trade in hides or bones, lack of trans-boundary cooperation, military activity, and human population growth or poverty.

Northern range (Russia, Mongolia, and Altai and Tien Shan ranges of China): poaching snow leopards for trade in hides or bones, lack of appropriate policy and effective enforcement, lack of institutional capacity and awareness among local people and policy makers, and human population growth or poverty. Snow Leopard habitat undergoes extensive agro-pastoral land use, both within and outside protected areas. Conflict with local communities over livestock depredation is amongst the most important threats to the species its range. The inherently low wild ungulate density in the snow leopard’s range, owing to relatively low primary productivity, is further exacerbated by prey declines due to hunting for meat and competition with livestock. A declining prey base reduces habitat quality for snow leopards and escalates livestock depredation. Competition with livestock for forage is one of the most widespread causes of prey base decline (Jackson et al. in press); reduction of the wild prey base because of hunting by people is also significant in parts of snow leopard range (McCarthy et al. 2003). Snow Leopards are capable of killing all domestic animals except perhaps for fully-grown male yak. Although herders take steps to reduce the risk of depredation (Jackson et al.

in press), livestock populations are a locally abundant food source for snow leopards and make up to 58% of their diet in some areas. The relative abundance of livestock vs. wild prey is a reasonable predictor of the level of livestock depredation by snow leopards (Bagchi and Mishra 2006). Snow Leopards are killed in retribution for livestock depredation, but also for commercial purposes, and poaching for illegal trade represents a significant threat. Pelts appear to be the main snow leopard produce in demand, but there is also evidence of demand for live animals for zoos and circuses. Other body parts found in trade include bones (used especially in Chinese medicine as a substitute for tiger bone), as well as claws, meat and sexual organs of male cats (Theile 2003). Illegal trade increased in the 1990s in the economically depressed, newly independent Central Asian states that emerged from dissolution of the Soviet Union (Koshkarev 1994, Koshkarev and Vyrypaev 2000).

Illegal trade appears to be increasing rapidly with China’s growing economic power, for example, in neighbouring Mongolia (Wingard and Zahler 2006). In Afghanistan, a new market has emerged which is difficult to police due to ongoing military conflict (Habibi 2004). The general lack of awareness at both local and national levels for the need to conserve wildlife and especially predators, further hinders conservation efforts. Up to a third of the snow leopard’s range falls along politically sensitive international borders, complicating trans-boundary conservation initiatives. Military conflict is taking place across much of the snow leopard's range, causing immense damage to wildlife through direct loss of species and destruction of habitat, losses to landmines, the demands of displaced peoples for food and fuel, and the encouragement of trade in wildlife (Jackson et al. in press). Conservation Actions [top] Conservation Actions: Included on CITES Appendix I (as Uncia uncia). Is legally protected from hunting by national legislation across most of its 12 range states (McCarthy et al. 2003). Afghanistan has recently afforded the Snow Leopard legal protection, after listing the species on the country’s first Protected Species List in 2009.

This bans all hunting and trading of Snow Leopards within Afghanistan. The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy et al. 2003) recommends the following conservation measures: Grazing management and livestock husbandry: promote livestock grazing practices that reduce impacts on native wildlife, especially large ungulates; promote husbandry practices which reduce livestock vulnerability to snow leopard predation and improve efficiency and yield; Financial incentives for communities to conserve snow leopards (Mishra et al. 2003): including wildlife-based ecotourism (e.g., snow leopard treks: Snow Leopard Conservancy 2008), cottage industry (e.g., village-made handicrafts: Snow Leopard Trust 2008), and well-structured ungulate trophy hunting programs; Improve conservation education and awareness among a variety of stakeholders, from local communities to national governments to an international audience.

Theile (2003) recommends the following measures to reduce the threats of poaching and illegal trade: Strengthen national legislation and conservation policies by filling gaps in range state legislation to prohibit the hunting, killing, possession, sale and trade of Snow Leopards, including all body parts and derivatives, at local regional and national levels; offering legal assistance and advice to governments; mete out sufficient deterrent penalties to law-breakers, and consider "whistle-blower" policies to provide incentives to report illegal activities; Strengthen law enforcement capacity by tightening controls along known trade routes, and at markets and border crossings; improve inter-agency cooperation and intelligence sharing; establish anti-poaching teams to detect and deter illegal killing; carry out regular monitoring of major markets and trade centres; and improve technical capacity through training; Strengthen international cooperation to enforce trade bans through adherence to CITES resolutions (e.g., Res. Conf. 12.5) (Nowell 2007). The Snow Leopard Network (SLN 2008) unites individuals and organizations (including the International Snow Leopard Trust, the Snow Leopard Conservancy, and others) for coordination, cooperation and information sharing.

An International Conference on Range-wide Conservation Planning for Snow Leopards held in Beijing, China in March 2008 identified important areas for Snow Leopard conservation (Snow Leopard Conservation Units) and provided a framework for the development of national action plans. Four countries have existing national action plans (Mongolia, Pakistan, Nepal and Russia: McCarthy et al. 2003), and India has developed Project Snow Leopard, a national governmental program for Snow Leopard conservation, although it has not been adequately funded (Anonymous 2007). Citation: Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. & Habib, B. 2008. Panthera uncia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T22732A9381126. . Downloaded on 19 January 2017.

Disclaimer: The Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia/Uncia uncia) The Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia/Uncia uncia) Posted on by Mr Journalist Mysterious and believed by some to be magical, the snow leopard is a powerful hunter which inhabits some of the harshest regions on the planet. With no record of unprovoked attacks on humans and a majestic appearance, this fascinating feline has proved an enigma to scientists for hundreds of years. The Discovery & Naming of the Snow Leopard The Snow Leopard was given its first scientific name in 1775 by naturalist Johann von Schreber. Schreber chose the name Felis uncia based on a 1761 description by the influential French author Georges Buffon, who called the animal ounce. The naming of animals can be a tricky business, and with time, two schools of thought evolved regarding which taxonomic group the snow leopard really fits into. Some believe that the snow leopard is a member of the big cat family, which would make its name Panthera uncia.Others feel that the snow leopard is set apart from felines and call it Uncia uncia.

By Macpedia According to the latest genetic research into the snow leopard, its closest relative is the tiger with evolutionary divergence occurring around 2 million years ago although fossil evidence of snow leopards from this period is minimal. In the meantime, those who feel that the snow leopard deserves its own category say that it cannot be classified as a Panthera because all of the other felines in that group have something important in common – they can roar, while the snow leopard does not. What is evident is that we still know very little about the snow leopard. It was as recently as 1970 when George Schaller became the first person to photograph a wild snow leopard in it’s natural habitat. Eleven years later, Rodney Jackson was to perform some ground-breaking studies into this species by fitting radio tracking devices to snow leopards in Nepal, for which he was awarded the Rolex Award for Enterprise. Searching for the snow leopard is challenging and today there are still reliability few photos and records of the snow leopard’s behaviour. The Habitat & Behaviour of the Snow Leopard by Eric Kilby One of the most significant difficulties faced by those wishing to learn more about the snow leopard and its behaviour is the inhospitable climate and terrain of their preferred habitats.

Snow leopards inhabit a 2 million square mile range in the mountainous region of central Asia. Their range stretches through Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kygyztan, Pakistan, Russia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, the Northern Himalyas in India, Bhutan , China and Mongolia. These mountain highlands are rugged with rocky crags and cliffs, and rough scrub-land with some open land, providing a perfect setting for the carnivorous snow leopard to stalk its prey. During the summer months, snow leopards stay altitudes of around 5,000m above sea level, while in the harsher cold of winter, they move down to approximately 3,400m above sea level. While life in the mountains is a struggle for humans, the snow leopard has physical adaptations which make it possible for it to survive the bitter cold of the peaks. As the top predator of this region, the snow leopard is a built to handle the harsh conditions and to successfully ambush and kill prey species. The snow leopard has a short but broad nasal cavity, which warms icy air to prevent strain on the lungs while rounded ears prevent heat loss and the one meter long tail is used both to aid balance and like a blanket when sleeping.

Standing at around 60cm at the shoulder and between measuring 90 – 115cm from head to rump, the snow leopard weighs in at around 35 – 55kg, slightly smaller than other big cats. Distinction in size between male and females is minimal, with males generally being a little larger than females. The snow leopard’s famously exquisite thick fur is white on the under-body, while its back is grey, tinged with a hint of yellow and patterned with grey spots which form rosettes while its belly is covered with long white fur. Not only does the snow leopard’s fur provide camouflage, but it also insulates against the cold. The snow leopard’s large paws are also covered in fur to preserve body heat, while the large pads help to distribute the animal’s weight more evenly when travelling across snow. Photo By Land Rover Our Planet What really turns this animal into a flawless hunter though, are its long, muscular hind legs and strong chest muscles which make it possible for the snow leopard to jump distances of up to 15 metres. Masters of stalking and attack, snow leopards are capable of taking down prey of as much as three times their own body weight.

Blue sheep, marmot, ibex, game birds such as partridge, and hare are all staples of the snow leopards diet, and as opportunistic killers, they have also been known to kill domesticated livestock. Feeding on a large kill over the course of three to four days, and making a kill roughly every week and a half, these big cats have also been found to supplement their diet with large amounts of plant material. No one is entirely sure why they do this, although it has been suggested that grasses and other foliage may provide vital nutrients, aid digestion or eliminate internal parasites. As mentioned previously, knowledge about the behaviour of the snow leopard is limited. Additionally, much of the data available is from studies on captive snow leopards, which may have altered their behaviour due to their close proximity and interaction of humans. It is clear that snow leopards are a solitary species and radio tracking studies have shown that they are capable of travelling immense distances. Active throughout the day, but with peaks at dawn and dusk, snow leopards have extensive home territories. It is thought that snow leopards are not intensely territorial, and these ranges may overlap.

Urine scent marking is used by both males and females to identify their presence to other individuals and to attract the other sex during the mating season (January). After mating, females and males go their separate ways with the cubs being born in March and staying with the mother until the follow mating season. Persecution & Protection of the Snow Leopard Witnessing a snow leopard in the wild is a rare sight and one that would leave anyone in awe. However, the glamorous beauty of this species is one of the factors which has led to its downfall. According to the IUCN Red List, there are between 4,000 and 6,000 snow leopards remaining in the wild, and they are classified as Endangered. Other experts are less optimistic and figure that there could be as few as 2,000 adult snow leopards left. The unfortunate truth is, that like much of the world’s fascinating fauna, the snow leopard has been persecuted to a point which will be difficult to return from. Traditional Eastern medicine has long prescribed snow leopard body parts as a cure for joint pain, kidney problems and impotency, while in the Western world, snow leopard fur was once considered the height of luxury and elegance.

Today, illegal trade in snow leopard parts and fur is still at a critical point, with 60 skulls confiscated in Chinese markets between 2003-2008. Prosecutions for these crimes are often muddied by the fact that traders may claim that the items are antiquities, meaning that charges cannot be brought against them. Photo By Land Rover Our Planet Another major threats faced by the snow leopard is habitat loss, as the human population grows and once open plains are transformed into farm and herd-lands. This loss of habitat impacts on prey species, diminishing their numbers and forcing the snow leopard to seek other sources of food. Livestock become the victims of the snow leopard’s voracious hunger, and struggling farmers seek retribution by hunting the hunter and killing them. The growing mining industry has also created new issues as chemicals and explosives used to extract minerals cause environmental disturbance effecting both the snow leopards and their prey. The situation for the snow leopard seems bleak, however there are a number of conservation agencies who are working hard to change the conclusion of the so-called mountain ghost’s story.

The snow leopard’s unique position in the ecosystem of the Central Asian Highlands means that the survival of this species will have a beneficial effect on other fauna in the region. This means that the snow leopard is considered to be a “flagship species” – an iconic animal which can be used to draw people’s attention to the bigger picture in terms of conservation. As more people learn about the work that can be done to save the snow leopard, by protecting its habitat and helping those who live in the region, there is hope that we will not have to say goodbye to this species. Snow Leopard - The Wildcat Sanctuary Snow Leopard Common Name(s): Snow Leopard, Ounce Scientific Name: Panthera [Uncia] Uncia Weight: 150 pounds Head/Body: 41 inches Tail: 35 inches Status: Endangered Estimated World Population: ~10,000 Although sharing its name with the common leopard, the snow leopard is not believed to be closely related to the leopard or the other members of the Pantherine group and is classified as the sole member of the genus Uncia uncia.

Due to the underdevelopment of the fibro-elastic tissue that forms part of the vocal apparatus the Snow Leopard cannot give a full, deep roar and this along with differences in skull characteristics help to separate it from its fellow big cats. In appearance, the snow leopard is strikingly different from the common leopard. Although it has similar rosettes and broken-spot markings, they appear less well defined and are spaced further apart. The fur is long and woolly and helps protect the cat from the extreme cold of its generally mountainous habitat. The general ground coloration of the cat is predominantly grey with brownish/yellow tinges on its flanks and lighter, often white fur on its belly, chest and chin. The head, which sports small ears and a distinctive heavy brow, is rounded and comparatively small for its body size, which can be up to 1.3 meters length and weigh up to around 70kg. The long tail, which can measure as much as 900cm, helps the cat balance as it moves over rugged and often snowy terrain. The powerful limbs of the snow leopard are relatively short for its body size and are supported by large, powerful paws.

The snow leopard is found in the mountainous regions of central Asia, ranging in the north from Russia and Mongolia down through China and Tibet into the Himalayan regions of Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Although the total area of its range is extremely large the actual areas in which the cat is found are relatively small and notably fragmented. This has led to disagreements amongst experts as to the subspeciation of the snow leopard. The cats found in the north of the range are generally classified as Uncia uncia uncia, whilst those in the south, Uncia uncia uncioides. However some suggest that due to the fragmentation of the species within those broad areas, genetic differences may exist and further subspeciation may well be necessary. The snow leopard generally inhabits elevations between 2000-4000 meters although it can occasionally be found at lower altitudes to the north of its range and as high as 5500 meters in Himalayan regions. The cat is generally associated with generally rocky terrain such as high valley ridges, rocky outcrops and mountain passes.

As summer gives way to winter, the snow leopard will follow its migrating prey down below the tree line to the lowland forests that cover much of its habitat, however the cat is rarely associated with dense forestation. Generally crepuscular in its hunting activities, the snow leopards main prey is that of wild sheep such as Bharal (Blue Sheep) and Argali, goats, including Markhor and Ibex. Other prey taken includes Musk Deer, marmots, various species of hare and birds. The cat often uses the natural protection of the terrain to stalk its prey, keeping low below the skyline and pouncing down onto its victim. Commonly the animal is a solitary hunter but may share the task with its mate during its breeding season. It has been know that one animal will stalk the prey while the other lies in wait to make the kill. With larger prey, it is common that the snow leopard will remain close to its kill and return over a period of three to four days to feed. This well built, muscular cat can bring down prey more than two to three times its size, as is the case with the native Yak. However, unlike its distant neighbors the tiger and leopard, the snow leopard is generally not aggressive toward man.

Where human habitation does come close to the range of the snow leopard, it is common, during the harsh winter months for the cat to take domestic livestock. Some conservation organizations are now working with local inhabitants to help educate in the need for conservation management and to supply financial reparation for the loss of domestic stock. Due to the often-harsh weather conditions that prevail, cubs are always born in the spring, with mating taking place some three months earlier in late winter. This ensures that a food source is abundant and less effort is needed to secure a kill. The litter size is usually between 1-4 (typically two) cubs and they are born after a gestation period of approximately 98 days. The cubs weigh between 320-708g at birth – have a daily average weight gain of approximately 48g per day and stay with their mothers until they are over 18 months old. Because of the inaccessibility of much of the snow leopards habitat the exact numbers left in the wild is unknown, but some estimates place the figure as low as 4,500 to 5000.

The decline in population has, in the past, been mainly due to the snow leopards much sought after fur and although the animal is protected in most areas, local hunting and trapping still remains a threat. As with the tiger, the snow leopard is still hunted for its bones, which are commonly used in many Chinese medicines and this, along with the enforced decline of many of the cats larger prey species, places continuing pressure on the remaining numbers of snow leopard left in the wild. Because of this, the snow leopard is listed in the IUCN, The Red List of Threatened Animals as Endangered and it is probable that without continuing action by many of the world’s conservation organizations they may become extinct in the wild. Get our eNewsletter! ADW: Uncia uncia: PICTURES Uncia uncia Uncia uncia: information (1) Uncia uncia: pictures (7) Uncia uncia: specimens (7) To cite this page: Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2016. The Animal Diversity Web (online).

Accessed at Disclaimer: The Animal Diversity Web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students. ADW doesn't cover all species in the world, nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe. Though we edit our accounts for accuracy, we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts. While ADW staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable, we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control.

Question: Uncia Uncia is the Latin name for which animal?
Answer: SNOW LEOPARD