About Fungi | Discover The Fungi Kingdom At Kew Fungi Kingdom About fungi Fungi are important organisms and so distinct from plants and animals that they have been allotted a 'kingdom' of their own in our classifications of life on earth. Fungi v fungi First, let’s be clear: fungi and Fungi mean different things. The lower case 'fungi' is a general word that refers to organisms that all look and act the same, but are not all related. This group is artificial and includes moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, slime moulds, and water moulds (like Phytophthora, the cause of the Irish potato famine and Sudden Oak Death). On the other hand, 'Fungi', with a capital 'F', refers to the evolutionary group that includes most of the best known 'fungi': moulds, yeasts, and mushrooms, but not slime moulds or water moulds. Because all of these organisms superficially resemble each other and all do similar things, they were grouped together within the lower plants, including mosses, liverworts, and ferns, for a very long time.

Fungi are not plants Well, at least since 1969 when they were first officially recognized as a distinct group. And more recently, using DNA sequences and comparisons of cell structure, we have learned that Fungi are in fact more closely related to animals than they are to plants. Superficially, they remind us more of plants than animals because they don’t move, but scratch the biological surface just a little and that’s just about the only thing they have in common. Hygrocybe conica How do Fungi eat? Unlike plants, which make their own food, Fungi are like miniature versions of our stomachs, turned inside-out. Fungi 'eat' by releasing enzymes outside of their bodies that break down nutrients into smaller pieces that they can then absorb. This feeding strategy means that Fungi always live in and on their food. How is a fungus built? Fungi come in many different sizes and shapes. Some are single cells called yeasts, while most are built from masses of tiny filaments. During reproduction, portions of these masses of filaments will differentiate from each other to make complex structures that are sometimes called fruiting bodies.

These are best known from the mushrooms, like the iconic fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), but many other types of fruiting bodies are made by Fungi. Fungal sex Reproduction happens by self-cloning or through sex with compatible partners. Mostly this is accomplished by producing lots and lots of spores, which can disperse far and wide and, with luck, find a mate. But fungi don’t have just two sexes (like male and female), instead they have what are called 'mating types', and there can be as many as 20,000 different ones. Not only that but sometimes the filaments that make up the bodies of two individuals will fuse and merge their DNA – an extraordinary way of having sex that neither plants or animals can achieve. Where does a fungus live? Everywhere: Antarctica, the Amazon jungle, the Gobi desert, and even all over (and inside) you, just to name a few locations. Fungi are amazingly well adapted to just about any condition on Earth. But maybe that’s not so surprising – they have had over one billion years to figure it out. The importance of Fungi Where to begin?

Fungi are tremendously important to human society and the planet we live on. They provide fundamental products including foods, medicines, and enzymes important to industry. They are also the unsung heroes of nearly all terrestrial ecosystems, hidden from view but inseparable from the processes that sustain life on the planet. Fungi Spores Safety Do not eat any mushrooms that you find growing in the wild. *Note: This is an abbreviated Project Idea, without notes to start your background research, a specific list of materials, or a procedure for how to do the experiment. You can identify abbreviated Project Ideas by the asterisk at the end of the title. If you want a Project Idea with full instructions, please pick one without an asterisk. Abstract Mushrooms are not plants, but are fungi. Fungi include mushrooms, molds, and lichen. They do not produce seeds to reproduce like some plants. Fungi produce spores, like more primitive plants do. The spores of a mushroom are contained in the tiny folds around the stem underneath the mushroom cap. Different species of mushrooms have different types of spores, with different colors and different patterns of folds.

You can make mushroom prints by removing the stem from a mushroom and placing the cap on a white piece of paper, leaving it undisturbed overnight. In the morning you can carefully lift the cap to see a design left by the release of the tiny spores. What do the spore patterns from different species of mushrooms look like? You can collect the spores from different species and try to propagate them in a nutrient rich humus or manure. Which species are easiest to propagate? Do mushrooms need the same things as plants to grow? (Gardner & Webster, 1987, 42) Cite This Page MLA Style Science Buddies Staff. "Fungi Spores" Science Buddies. Science Buddies, 27 June 2014. Web. 20 Jan. 2017 < APA Style Science Buddies Staff. (2014, June 27). Fungi Spores. Retrieved January 20, 2017 from Share your story with Science Buddies! I Did This Project! Please log in and let us know how things went. Last edit date: 2014-06-27 Bibliography Gardner, R. and Webster, D.

1987. Science in Your Backyard. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc. News Feed on This Topic , , Note: A computerized matching algorithm suggests the above articles. It's not as smart as you are, and it may occasionally give humorous, ridiculous, or even annoying results! Learn more about the News Feed Share your story with Science Buddies! I Did This Project! Please log in and let us know how things went. Ask an Expert The Ask an Expert Forum is intended to be a place where students can go to find answers to science questions that they have been unable to find using other resources. If you have specific questions about your science fair project or science fair, our team of volunteer scientists can help. Our Experts won't do the work for you, but they will make suggestions, offer guidance, and help you troubleshoot. Mushroom Prints Mushroom Prints This lesson contributed by Cheryl Saam of the Leslie Science Center in Ann Arbor Guiding Question Organisms reproduce in different ways Mushrooms ( fungi ) reproduce asexually , needing the spores from only one parent to reproduce Facts: Mushrooms grow from fungi that live mostly underground. A fungus does not have chlorophyll, as plants do.

Other fungi you may know are molds, rusts, mildews and yeasts. Mushrooms are saprophytes and, often, parasites . Fungi are neither plants nor animals, but instead are members of their own separate Kingdom of living things. Mushroom-producing fungi are not plants. They have no chlorophyll and can’t make their own food directly from sunlight. They do consume both live and dead plants for food. Many fungi live in symbiosis with other organisms, such as algae (lichens), plant roots (mycorrhizae), or insects such as ants. Instead of seeds, mushrooms have spores that drop to the ground from their gills . When the spores land on the ground they sprout mycelia the same way a plant seed sprouts roots. Skills: 1 fresh mushroom, either store bought or picked 1 glass, cup or bowl large enough to fit over the mushroom 1 sheet of plain white paper Clear acrylic spray if you want to save the experiment design (optional) Room Preparation Everyone will need flat surfaces for their mushrooms and papers. This area must remain undisturbed for at least one hour. Safety Precautions Some mushrooms are poisonous! If you picked the mushroom outside, do not eat it.

Procedures and Activity Introduction Ask students what they think a mushroom is. Explain that mushrooms are not plants: they don’t have chlorophyll and can’t use the sun for energy. Go over the parts and life cycle of a mushroom. This experiment demonstrates the spore liberation phase in the life cycle. Activity Pass out a mushroom, a piece of white paper, and a cup to each person. Break off the mushroom stem so that the cap can be laid down fairly flat. Lay the mushroom gill-side-down on the piece of paper. Carefully cover the mushroom cap with the open end of the glass or bowl. Let the mushroom sit for at least an hour, preferably overnight. GENTLY lift the glass or bowl from the mushroom and VERY GENTLY lift the mushroom cap from the paper. You should see a beautiful radial design. If you want to save the design, spray the paper with clear acrylic. Closing - Original Question Ask again “How does a mushroom reproduce?” Evaluation Ask students to share and compare their mushroom prints with each other. Ask questions to show that they know the parts and life cycle of a mushroom. Extension Ideas Research how organisms reproduce from both spores and seeds.

In what ways are these two processes similar and how are they different? Research the role that mushrooms and other fungi play in the overall ecosystem. Check out some of these related web sites: Fungi FUNGI FUNGI Fungi that obtains nutrients from non-living organic matter are called saprobes. Other fungi obtain nutrients directly from a living host, these are parasites. In either case, the fungi secretes enzymes that allow digestion to take place outside of the fungal body. Nutrients are then absorbed across the cell membranes. Together with bacteria, fungi are the decomposers of the earth. Fungi include yeast, bread mold, and mushrooms. Fungus itself is made up of a fungal body or what is called mycelium. The mycelium is a mesh of filaments that branch out in any direction living over or within the organic matter. Each filament is a hypha. Hypha are transparent thin walled tubes. Fungi reproduce asexually through the formation of spores, through fragmentation of the mycelium or by budding. Some reproduce sexually through the formation of male and female gametes. How many times have you looked for an orange to eat and found that the last one left had grown soft, blue-green fuzz?

Have you ever left a wet towel at the bottom of your clothes hamper and at the time of washing you found that it had green "freckles" all over it? Or how many times have you found bread that has gone stale and has grown black "whiskers?" The green fuzz on the orange, the green freckles on the towel and the black whiskers on the bread are all known as molds. Molds are really tiny fungi belonging to one of the 5 kingdoms. "Molds" are a term that is not really a natural grouping, but until scientists figure out exactly where they belong, we will consider them fungi. Molds are so tiny that we cannot see them unless there are many of them bunched together. To see just one mold you need a microscope. There are many kinds of molds. One of the most common molds is the one which turns oranges into green fuzzy balls. It is called penicillium. This is where the drug penicillin comes from. Plants use sunlight to make food in their leaves. The green coloring matter acts as a kind of food factory. Molds have no food factories, so they take the food they need from their host. All molds are food robbers.

Foods will eventually rot if not kept cool or not eaten within a certain time unless frozen. The more time food stays around the more of a chance spores from a mold have of landing on it and growing. A spore is the reproductive part of the fungi. Wherever there is food, air, and moisture, some mold spores will find their way there to settle and begin to grow. If a spore doesn't find the food, air or moisture it needs to grow it does not die. It just waits. It can remain alive for years in its case, waiting for the right conditions to burst open and grow. here is a world of tiny living things called microbes, which live all around us. They are almost everywhere and on almost everything you can think of. They're in the air, the water, the soil, your food, your clothes, on your hands, even on your desk and pencil! Microbes are small, too small for us to see with our eyes. People who study microbes use microscopes to see them. Certain microbes cause disease, but they make up a very small part of the whole microbe population. Most are harmless, in fact, about one in every thirty thousand are likely to cause disease.

Two of our most common drugs, penicillin and streptomycin are from the activity of certain microbes. The word microbe comes from two Greek words Mikros meaning small and Bios meaning life. This lab will focus on molds, which belong to the Fungi Kingdom. Molds can grow in both hot and cold places but they grow best in warm places. The colder it is the slower they grow. This is why foods get moldy more in the summer than in the winter. Molds also like damp places such as a damp towel left at the bottom of the clothes hamper. Molds also grow well on damp wood or soggy paper. Ask students why we put food into a refrigerator. To keep the food from spoiling we must put it where molds don't like to grow, in the coldness of a refrigerator. To keep foods fresh for a longer period of time we put them in the freezer, where molds do not like to live. Students should observe different stages of mold growth. Thin, transparent threads growing all over the slice of bread are a mold garden. The cluster will look like a tangled spider web. If you single out one of the threads and observe it with a microscope you will see many branches of threads.

At the ends of some of these branches are little round balls. These balls are hollow round cases and each one is filled with tiny seeds called spores. The spores are the mold's seeds. In a 2-3 day old mold you will begin to see the spores on the garden. The spores are the black substances sitting on top of the threads. Each black ball or spore contains more than 20,000 smaller spores of their own. The threads and their cases have no color but the spores within the cases are all colored. So mold plants have no color, their spores make them appear to have different colors. The 3-4 day old mold should have produced hundreds of millions of new spores. Later they may fall on moist food left out somewhere, sprout threads of their own, and give rise to new spores. MATERIALS: Spore dispersal of fungi Spore dispersal: The big gamble Sulfur shelf Fungi and plants are sessile (immobile). Unlike animals, they cannot walk or fly to new habitats.

Their immobility generally leaves only two ways for fungi and plants to extend their range: they can grow into an adjoining area, or disperse spores or seeds. Most fungal spores are single cells. They can travel beyond the physical limits of their parent into more distant territory. An organism's physical growth for a single season usually limits yearly dispersal by growth to short distances. The maximum outward growth rate of fairy rings in the soil is only 8 inches (20 cm) per year. In plants, outward growth is also slow. Aspen clones, for example, are created by the roots of the parent trees sending up new stems on the edge of the clone. This type of growth results in a dome-shaped cluster of trees because the older trees in the center are taller. Fairy rings and aspen clones can become enormous, but it takes hundreds to many thousands of years. An aspen clone in Utah covers 17.2 acres (43 hectares) and is estimated to be one million years old. Many plant seeds depend upon wind to increase the range of dispersal. Some seeds are modified to increase the chances of long range dispersal. If the seeds are heavy, or the wind light, the seeds will land close to the parent.

Seeds with "wings" (maples) or "parachutes" (milkweed) will stay aloft longer and be dispersed farther from the parent. The spores of fungi are smaller and lighter than all plant seeds, but fungi encounter more barriers than plants do in achieving successful dispersal. A major problem is that many fungi do not grow tall enough to clear the "boundary layer" of still air next to the ground. Most plants grow through the boundary layer. Fungi have adapted to the problem posed by the boundary layer by either shooting their spores through it, or evading it entirely by utilizing vectors (animals or water or wind) for dispersal. Once spores are caught by the wind they can be carried very long distances. Spores of a wheat rust have been reported to have been dispersed 1,243 miles (2000 km) by the wind. Fairy Ring Spore dispersal is a two-step process. The first step is spore discharge or release. The second step is dispersal away from the parent. Fungi have evolved a number of different mechanisms for spore discharge and dispersal. Solutions for dispersal can be grouped into passive and active mechanisms.

Passive mechanisms for dispersal include Wind Water Animals The giant puffball is an example of passive spore dispersal by wind. The puffball cracks open to allow the wind to carry away its spores. This is not an energy-efficient way to disperse spores. Giant puffballs produce trillions of spores because the chance of a spore landing in a habitat suitable for germination is extremely small. Passive wind dispersal is sometimes called "sweepstakes dispersal" because its chance of success is so low, just like a lottery or horse race sweepstakes. Another problem with this method is that most of the spores land close to the parent fungus, as shown in the figure. Note that the density of the spore cloud decreases in relation to its distance from the puffball. The cereal plant parasite Tilletia drops its spores into the wind. The second figure shows actual measurements of the sharp decrease over distance in the density of its drifting spore cloud. Nearly all the spores (99%) land within 325 feet (100 m) of their parent. . Puffball spore dispersal The spores of some fungi are dispersed in water or on the surface of water.

The chemical composition of the wall of these spores makes them "non-wettable" so they won't sink. The spores are carried along on the surface of the water like little boats. Water in the form of raindrops can disperse spores in a different way. In earthstars and other leathery puffballs, a raindrop depresses the sack containing spores. When the sack rebounds, spores are puffed out. The inelastic spore sack acts like a bellows. "Bird's nest" fungi produce spore-containing "eggs" in a "splash cup". When raindrops hit the cup, its shape causes the spores to be splashed out and away from it. Truffles are an example of passive dispersal by animals. Truffles are produced below ground, so they have to be unearthed to be dispersed. As truffle spores mature, they develop an aroma which attracts animals, who dig up the truffles for food. The spores are not digested and eventually pass through the animal at some distance from where the truffle was dug up. Stinkhorns also use an animal vector to disperse spores. Stinkhorn spores are contained in a slime that smells like rotten meat.

The odor attracts flies, which become coated with the spore-containing slime as they feed on it, and carry away the spores Animal vectors greatly improve the chance that a spore will be deposited in a site favorable for germination and growth. This method allows the fungi that rely on animals for germination to produce fewer spores, because each has a greater chance of success. The spores are deposited as a unit in distant, favorable habitats. The sweepstakes method requires a fungus to produce a huge number of spores, but results in relatively few new fungal organisms, and very little long-range dispersal. Active spore release mechanisms solutions include: Bursting Cell Rounding off Ballistospore discharge Some cup fungi use a bursting cell to "shoot" spores through the boundary layer. In cup fungi, the spores are contained within a special cell called the ascus. Fungi whose spores are contained in an ascus are known as Ascomycetes. When the spores are mature the ascus absorbs water. Insoluble materials in the cell are converted to soluble materials, causing internal pressure to build. When the pressure is high enough, the spores and the cytoplasm are explosively discharged.

Spore release is explosive because of a weak point at the tip of the ascus that ruptures suddenly. The weak point can be a small circular "lid" (operculum) or an elastic ring. Humidity changes cause some cup fungi to discharge large numbers of asci (plural of ascus) all at once, "puffing out" a visible spore cloud. More air turbulence is created by discharging all the spores at once than when a single ascus explodes. The spores have a better chance of escaping the boundary layer and being dispersed farther if the air is turbulent. The range of spore dispersal depends on size of the projectile. Larger spores, or clumps of spores, are shot farther. Podospora fimicola discharges all 8 of its spores as a single projectile as far as 20 inches (50 cm). Pilobolus Spore release in Pilobolus is also explosive discharge by a bursting cell. Instead of a single spore being discharged, a sticky mass containing many spores is discharged as a single unit.

The spore mass shoots away at 35 feet per second (10.8 m per second) to a height of six feet (2 m), and lands as far away as 8 feet (2.5 m) "Rounding off" utilizes the rapid motion that results when the force keeping a deformed surface under stress is suddenly released. Once the stress is removed the surface rapidly regains its shape and catapults any attached objects. The spore mass of the bird's nest fungus Sphaerobolus sits on a cup. When an inner deformed layer absorbs water the pressure builds until the layer supporting the spore mass suddenly splits away from the lower layer and tries to turn inside out. An audible "pop" can be heard as Sphaerobolus catapults its spore mass to a height of 6 feet (2 m) and up to 13 feet (4 m) away. The spore producing structures mentioned so far in these pages are not the familiar mushrooms . Spore release in mushrooms is not completely understood. Cells called basidia produce spores, which cover the surface of the gills or pores on the underside of a mushroom's cap.

Mushrooms and other fungi that possess basidia are known as Basidiomycetes. The spores are produced on the tips of "pegs" (sterigmata) projecting from the basidia. The spores are off-center (asymmetric) on the pegs. Mycologists have discovered that spores are discharged 0.5 to 1 mm from basidia. A mushroom's discharge range is related to the spacing between its gills or the diameter of its tubes. If the range were greater spores would hit, and perhaps stick to, adjacent gills or the opposite wall of a tube. How the spores are discharged is debated. Theories about spore discharge have included rounding off of the spore base, jet propulsion by liquid, surface tension, explosive discharge of a bubble of gas at the base of the spore, and electrostatic repulsion, where the spore and the cell have the same electric charge and repel each other, like the north poles of two magnets held close together. Further Resources: Ingold, C. T. 1965. Spore liberation. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 210 pp. Kendrick, B. 2002.

The fifth kingdom, 3rd edition. Focus Publ., Newburyport, MA. ISBN 1-58510-022-6. Fungi Fungi Fungi are heterotrophic - they obtain their organic material from external sources, their environment. They have no chlorophyll; they are not green in color. In comparison, most plants are autotrophic, they are able to manufacture their food from solar radiation and water. As heterotrophs, they may exist as: a. parasites - obtaining nutrientsï¿½ from a living host and ultimately harming that host. An example of another parasite is mistletoe, parasitizing mesquite trees or catclaws. b. mutualistic symbionts - obtaining their nutrients from a living host while providing some benefit to that host. An example \would ï¿½be lichens: an algal-fungal partnership. The fungi that lie in association with algae, obtain sugars and other compounds from the photosynthetic forms and, in return, provide water and minerals to the algae. c. saprobes - obtaining nutrients from nonliving organic material or the remains and by-products of organisms.

The mycelium surrounding a dead fly on a windowpane or the fungi that cause rot in wood are examples of this saprophytic mode of nutrition. Body plan 1. The absorptive lifestyle of fungi is intimately associated with 2 important characteristics: production of spores and hypha (mycelial growth). 2. A spore is a tiny, usually haploid, cell that disperses the fungus to new habitats, usually by floating thru the air. The production of many tiny spores increases the chance that at least a few will fall onto a suitable food source, germinate, and start absorbing food, and then growing into a thread-like hypha. a. the hyphae, which develops right after spore germination, puts out powerful enzymes needed to digest food for the fungus. ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b.

at the same time, mycotoxins, fungal by-products poisonous to animals, or antibiotics, metabolites that inhibit growth of microbes, may also permeate the substrate. ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. the purpose of these productsï¿½ is apparently to discourage potential competitors from getting more than their share of available food. 3. Hypha ï¿½ thread-like structure of very fine, colorless threads, that makes up the body of a fungus. They are usually hidden from view ï¿½ deep within the soil, assorted food sources, rotting matter, wood, decaying animals ï¿½ and remains undetected until it develops one or more fruiting bodies containing reproductive spores. The fruiting body is usually the only indication that a fungus is present. Hyphae grow until resembling a tangled mass of threads.

The body of a fungus, made up of many hyphae, is called a mycelium. 4. The mycelium is well-suited to absorbing food. It has a high surface-volume ration permitting the surface exposed to the external food source to absorb enough food to nourish the enclosed body of cytoplasm. Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from the body fluids of its host, and parasites of plants may produce specialized hyphae called haustoria that penetrate a plantï¿½s cell wall and lie against the plasma membrane, where they can both absorb food. Mushroom body plan 1. cap - apical surface; on edible fungi usu. rounded and smooth. Poisonous pp. May have warts (patches of fungal tissue that canï¿½t be removed without tearing the cap surface). 2. gills - flat-sided, blade-like radial structures on the underside of the cap, covered with microscopic basidia, which holds the mushroomï¿½s spores. Gills are important in identifying mushrooms: density of gills, color of gills, whether they bruise of injure easily, etc. 3.

stalk - typically a cylindrical structure that lifts the cap above the soil surface, like a stem or shoot in seed-bearing plant. 4. veil - a layer of fungal tissue that covers all or part of some immature mushrooms. The universal veilï¿½ completely encloses immature specimens of some mushrooms. The tissue encloses the entire button mushroom; servews to protect the immature mushroom, and makes it look rather like an egg. The UV is ruptured by the growing mushroom and may disappear entirely or leave warts or patches on the caps of the mature mushroom and/or fragments at the base of the stalk. Partial veil covers gills or pores of an immature gilled mushroom, protecting spore-bearing surfaces until the spores mature. volva - a cuplike sac that remains around the base of a mushroom stalk when the universal veil ruptures. It results from the mushroom pushing thru the universal veil. Many of the deadliest mushrooms have volvas. ring (annulus) ï¿½ ring of tissue around the upper part of mushroom stalk, resulting from the collapse of the partial veil. It is quite variable, ranging from ephemeral and quickly disintegrating to sturdy and prominent.

warts ï¿½ pieces of tissue adorning mushroomï¿½s cap, resulting from the deterioration of universal veil. Similar to patches, but more of them. Frequently washed off with rains, making them a difficult feature to be sure of. Divisions of the Kingdom Fungi 1. Fungi are divided into true fungi and slime molds. 2. The kingdom consists of 7 divisions, 5 divisions in true fungi, 2 divisions in slime molds. 3. Iï¿½d like to confine my talk to 2 divisions: Ascomycota (ca. 30,000 spp.) and Basidiomycota (ca. 25,000 spp.) Ascomycota (Ascomycetes or sac fungi) ï¿½asci = sac 1. Largest class of fungi 2. Included within the 30,000 or so spp. are the unicellular yeasts, as well as many multicellular forms. 3. In some species, the hyphae have been organized into definite, often fleshy bodies; in others, hyphae form cottony growths of indefinite extent. 4.

They reproduce asexually by budding conidiospores, and by fragmentation. a. the characteristic reproductive structures are sacs, or asci, formed at the ends of specialized hyphae. 5. They may be parasites or saprophytes. 6. Importance to humans a. cause many familiar diseases of economic plants: peach leaf curl, Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight. Produces the largest number of plant diseases. b. industrial uses - manufacture of alcoholic beverages, cheese, the ï¿½raisingï¿½ of bread dough, c. food spoilage d. human food: truffles and morels e. decay of dead organisms and their wastes f. commercial production of organic chemicals g. production of antibiotics. 7. Common representatives a. Yeasts - one-celled, non-filamentous. Reproduces chiefly by budding, less frequently by ascospores. Important in brewing and baking. Secretes a number of enzymes which convert glucose to alcohol and CO2. b. Cup fungi - hyphae organized into fleshy, cup-shaped ascocarps, inside of which the asci are formed. Chiefly saprophytes in rich soil, decaying wood, etc. c.

Powdery mildews - parasites, chiefly on leaves of green plants (euonymous, roses, lilac). Forms whitish patches of hyphae on leaves. d. Blue and green molds - saprophytes on old leather, jellies, spoiling fruit, potatoes, etc. Hyphae form indefinite growths, producing conidiospores and ascospores in large numbers. Penicillium is a common blue mold, Aspergillus produces blue or black spores. Some Penicillia are important in cheese manufacture and production of penicillin. Basidiomycota (Basidiomycetes): mushrooms, bracket fungi, smuts. 1. The most familiar basidiomycetes are the mushrooms. a. In these fungi, a well-fed mycelium forms an underground mass of hyphae that differentiates into a bulbous base, a stalk, and a knob-like cap. b. ï¿½Some mornings after a rain we awake to find that the hyphae composing that stalk have swelled with moisture and elongated, carrying the cap above ground. c.

The cap opens like an umbrella after the rain has ceased, and numerous basidia along the edges of the gills or pores beneath the cap prepare to lose their spores. (the gills or pores on the underside of a mushroom increase the surface area where spores can be formed and discharged). 2. Bracket fungi, birdï¿½s nest fungi, coral fungi are also fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes; they are often found on rotting wood. 1. Edible species - some mushrooms and puffballs 2. Plant diseases - rusts, smuts 3. Facilitatesï¿½ the rotting of wood 4. Causes decay of dead organisms and the wastes of other organisms. Common representatives 1. Smut fungi - parasites on cereal grains, especially damaging to oats, corn, and wheat. (Formaldehyde treatment of seeds kills smut spores). Black-colored spores. 2. Rust fungi - causes serious diseases on oats, wheat, and rye. Called rust because of reddish spores formed on the surface of diseased tissues. 3. Gill fungi - mushrooms.

Mycelium grows saprophytically undeground or in decaying wood, and peridically forms fleshy sporophores (mushrooms) of characteristic size and shape. A mushroom consists of a stalk and an umbrella-ahaped cap, on underside of which are radiating gills, which bear basidia and numerous basidiospores 4. Puffballs - spherical, pear-shaped. Basidiospores borne internally. The covering ruptures or has a pore for escape of spores. Most puffballs are edible when young. Mostly saprophytic. Lichens 1. Lichens are associations of certain algae (blue-greens and greens) with fungi (chiefly sac fungi: ascomycetes) in a state of symbiosis (mutual benefit). An obvious reproductive structure visible on many lichens is a cup-shaped ascocarp typical of certain ascomycetes. symbiosis or fungus may be a weak parasite on algae, or algae may be held as slave to fungus. 2. The association of fungi and algae are so complete that lichens are given scientific names as if they were a single organism. There about 18,000 spp.

of lichen. (The algae in 90% of these species are comprised of only 3 genera). 3.The fungi obtain food from the photosynthetic algal cells, and absorbs and retain water and minerals, some of which the algae use in the process of photosynthesis. a. the physical mass of fungus protects algae from ultra violet radiation of the sun. 4. Algae comprises about 5-10% of the lichen, fungi about 90%. 5. Lichens are common on rocks, tree bark, fence posts, etc, and are able to colonize some of the most inhospitable habitats on earth. They can survive in extremely cold areas (high mountain tops, the arctic), and may be the only plant form surviving some of these areas providing vitally important sources of food for some animals. In arctic, caribou and reindeer feed on lichen (reindeer moss), the dominant vegetation in some areas. Hot deserts, bare rock. 6. Three types of lichen: a. Foliose - flat, leafy or thallus lichens. b. Crustose - thin, hard crusts, especially common on rocks. c.

Fruticose (shrublike) - erect, branched growths. 7. Lichens have incredibly slow growth rates: a few millimeters each year. Great longevity, some believed to be 4,555 years old. 8. Sensitive to air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide: the disappearance of certain lichen species may be a means of measuring the extent of air pollution within an area. a. Lichen absorb water and minerals from rainwater and directly from the atmosphere over their entire surface. b. This makes them extremely sensitive to atmospheric pollution. c. As a result, there are few lichen in or near industrialized centers and towns. 9. Extracts from certain lichen have been used medicinally as antibiotics. 10. Many lichens are brightly colored and Native peoples used them as sources of dyes. They contain alum (potassium aluminumï¿½ sulfate), a mordant used since antiquity. (mordant = do not impart their color immediately, as direct dyes do. Fibers must be treated with a chemical agent, a mordant. The mordant fixes the dye to the fabric). 11. Ancient Egyptians used lichen as packing material for mummies.

Mycorrhizae: root-fungal partnershipï¿½ (literally: fungus root) 1. Many fungi grow associated with plant roots in a symbiosis called mycorrhiza. In fact, there are estimates that 90% of all vascular plants posses fungi in mutualistic associations with their roots. 2. The plant furnishes the fungus with sugars and amino acids (products of photosynthesis), while the fungus aids in the absorption in minerals and water form the soil. Fungal hyphae are highly branched and extends thru a relatively large volume of soil. 4. Their ecological role and importance in forestry and agriculture have become clearer with revegetation efforts. Some mycorrhizae are necessary for transplants of trees. a. When pine trees were introduced into new areas, as in Puerto Rico and Australia , they grew very poorly until supplied with soil from pine forests., containing the appropriate mycorrhizal fungi; after this they grew rapidly. 5.ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ Even when a species may grow without mycorrhizae, the same species with mycorrhizae may be more tolerant of pollution, need less fertilizer, or grow in marginal soils. a.

Acid rain, caused by industrial pollution, promotes 2 changes in the soil unfavorable to plants: leaching (washing away) of required nutrients, making them unavailable to plants; and increased solubility of toxic materials such as zinc, copper, aluminum, and manganese. The appropriate mycorrhizal fungus can absorb nutrients from depleted soil water and make them available to the plant. It is also known that mycorrhiza can protect a plant from toxic substances in the soil, such as slagheaps of mines. 6. (From Oliver Sacks', Oaxaca Journal): Most of the world's plants - more than 90% of the known species - are connected by a vast subterranean network of fungal filaments, in a symbiotic association that goes back to the very origin of land plants, 400 million years ago. these fungal filaments are essential for the plants' well-being, acting as living conduits for the transmission of water and essential minerals (and perhaps organic compounds as well) not only between the plants and fungi but from plant to plant.

Without this fragile gossamer-like net of fungal filaments the towering redwoods, oaks, pines, and eucalyptus of our forests would collapse during hard times. And so too would much of agriculture, for thee fungal filaments often provide links between very different species - between legumes and cereals, for instance, or between alders and pine. thus nitrogen-rich legumes and alders do not merely enrich the soil as they die and decompose, but can directly donate, thru the fungal network, a good portion of their nitrogen to nearby plants. United by these multifarious underground channels (and also by the chemicals they secrete in the air to signal sexual readiness or news of predator attack, etc.) plants are not as solitary as one might imagine, but form complex interactive, mutually supportive communities. Role of fungi in the environment 1. Decomposers (Natureï¿½s recyclers: the degradation of organic material and the recycling of its nutrients).As decomposers, the fungi are vitally important members to the plant and animal kingdoms. When a dead leaf drifts to the forest floor or an animal dies of disease, fungal and bacterial spores floating in the air have already settled on it.

These spores quickly germinate and begin to break down the dead organism, releasing small organic molecules that can be used as food, as well as minerals that may be absorbed by the decomposer or by nearby plants. 2. Fungi, together with bacteria, are responsible for most of the recycling which returns dead material to the soil in a form in which it can be reused. Without fungi, these recycling activities would be seriously reduced. We would effectively be lost under piles, many meters thick, of dead plant and animal remains. 3. The fungi which make our bread and fruit go moldy are only recycling organic matter, even tho in this case we would probably prefer it didnï¿½t happen. Fungal damage can be responsible for large losses of stored food, particularly food which contains any moisture. Dry grains can usually be stored successfully, but the minute they become damp, molds are likely to render them inedible. 4. Bioremediation of toxic materials ï¿½ use of microorganisms to reclaim soil and water that have become contaminated with hazardous materials. a. Inexpensive compared with conventional physical or chemical methods of decontamination. b.

Typically performed on-site, requiring only the addition of nutrients in the soil to stimulate the growth of microorganisms in the immediate environment. c. Some of the bracket fungi (they can degrade lignin and cellulose) have been proposed as bio-remediators in the pulp and paper industry to reduce the use of hazardous chemicals. 5. Many fungi tolerate extreme acidity: acid foods pickles and jam (fruit is acid) are safe from attack by bacteria but not by fungi. Their ability to absorb water from damp air permits fungi (unlike bacteria) to grow in environments where there is no liquid water. Bacteria survive anaerobic conditions better than fungi: altho yeasts can survive anaerobic conditions using fermentation, no fungus can grow and reproduce in the absence of oxygen. Fungi for food 1. Fungi are eaten directly as a type of vegetable or used as a fermentative agent to convert foods into alternative forms. 2. Human being have long known that most fermented foods keep better than food from which they are made. This was a compelling motive for producing beer, wine, cheeses, sauerkraut, pickles, yoghurt, and bread before refrigerators were invented.

Fermented foods are also often more nutritious, flavorful, less apt to spoil, and digestible than their raw counterparts. (protein values are often enhanced in fermented foods thru the enzymatic release of amino acids, and many of the microbial agents synthesize vitamins, further improving nutritional quality). 3. In east Asian countries, soybeans mixed with cereals have been fermented by various bacteria and fungi to yield an impressive array of flavoring agents and protein sources such as tofu, soy sauce, miso, tempeh a. good soy sauce (shoyu) is made by fermenting boiled soybeans and wheat with the ascomycete Aspergillus oryzae for about a year. Chinese invented this thousands of years ago; it added flavor and vital amino acids, produced by fungus and bacteria, to a low-protein diet of rice. (Most soy sauce is made by hydrolyzing soybeans with hydrochloric acid). 4. Edible mushrooms a. The most commonly eaten mushrooms are the basidiomycetes. The basidiocarp (fruiting body) is the part that is eaten. The 2 popular exceptions are the morels and truffles, fruiting bodies of ascomycetes. b.

Agaricus bisporus (button or field mushroom) is the mushroom most often purchased in grocery stores in North America : they have the advantage of the ease of cultivation and ready recognition, yet they are the least tasty. Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) has also been domesticated and cultivated for some time. c. Shiitake is cultivated on oak logs or synthetic logs created from sawdust and other organic materials, and placed in the forest. In addition to eating shiitakes, the Japanese also use it medicinally: it is prescribed in cancer therapy for its anti-tumor action as well as counteracting undesirable effects of conventional chemotherapy. Shiitake tea, made from soaking the dried mushrooms in boiling water, is claimed to boost the immune system, lower blood cholesterol, and promote weight loss. d. Nutritionally, fresh mushrooms have a high water content (85-92% of fresh wt.). Complete source of protein, with appreciable amts of Vit C, D, and some Bs. Naturally low in calories, high in fiber. e. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast fungus) used in fermentation process in production of beer, wine, spirits, and bread.

f. Aspergillus niger ï¿½(mold fungus) is fermented to produce the citric acid used in soft drinks, candies, baked goods, etc. g. Blue mould, Penicillium, is used in the ripening process to prepare specialty cheeses such as blue cheese, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Camembert, and Brie. Poisonous mushrooms 1. There is no simple or universal way to distinguish an edible from a poisonous mushroom without precisely identifying the species. 2. Latin saying ï¿½If you awaken in the morning after an evening meal of wild mushrooms, you know they were good onesï¿½ 3. Mushrooms of the genus Amanita should be avoided. They account for most of the fatal accidents of mushroom poisoning. 4. Before picking any of the gilled mushrooms to eat, examine the specimen to rule out the presence of a saclike cup, or volva, around the base of the stalk. 5. Beware also of an annulus or ring on the stalk. Types of mushroom poisoning: 1. Gastrointestinal ï¿½ nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; symptoms terminate rapidly and normal health returns in one or two days. 2.

Cerebral ï¿½ exhilaration, staggering gait, weird disturbance of vision; normalcy returns soon. 3. Blood-dissolvingï¿½ -ï¿½ abdominal distress with ensuing jaundice; blood transfusion needed. About 200 recorded deaths. 4. Nerve-affecting ï¿½ early gastrointestinal symptoms, followed by hallucinations; lethal cases rare because mushrooms must be eaten. 5. Choleriform ï¿½ gastrointestinal reactions rapidly develop accompanied by violent pains; rapid loss of strength with cardiac muscle damage and coma before death; death rate 60% or more depending on amount eaten. E.g. Amanita. Note: in some members of Amanita, both volva and annulus are prominent structures that aid in identification, but either one or both of these structures may weather away. Amanita virosa (the destroying angel) and A. phalloides (the death cap) are the most notorious killers of the Amanita group.

Chemical defenses of fungi Fungal toxins fall into two groupings: mycotoxins (formed by the hyphae of common molds growing under a variety of conditions) and mushroom toxins (formed in the fleshy fruiting bodies of some fungi). Mycotoxins 1. Mycotoxins are commonly produced by fungi growing in contaminated foods. 2. These toxins have profound direct chronic and acute effects on humans and livestock when contaminated foods are eaten. In addition to direct toxic effects, mycotoxins are among the most potent known carcinogens. 3. The fungal contaminant, Aspergillus flavus, has given rise to the toxin aflatoxin, a toxic and carcinogenic toxin, that is found contaminating peanut butter and grain products. 4. The ascomycete Claviceps purpurea infects the flowers of rye and other cereals and produces a structure called an ergot (dark sclerotia or hardened mycelial masses: looks like the spur on a roosterï¿½s leg) where a seed would normally be found in the head of the grain. 5.

Because of the way the sclerotia are lodged in the seed head, it is easy for them to get mixed in with good grain during the harvest. If not culled in the field or in storage, the sclerotia would be ground into flour and eventually find their way into foods eaten by people and livestock. a. Humans may be poisoned by ergots when they eat bread made from infected rye, and ergotism, also known as St. Anthonyï¿½s Fire, caused the death of thousands in medieval Europe . Ergot also supplied the chemicals from which lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was first synthesized. 1. LSD was first synthesized by the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938. LSD is a very potent psychoactive drug. 2. It affects the midbrain activity by interfering with the action of the neurotransmitter serotonin. In small amounts LSD mimics the action of the neurotransmitter, but in larger amounts it is antagonistic to the action of serotonin. 3. The hallucinations and changes in perception are due to the disruptions in the normal pathways of sensory stimulation. 4.

LSD also produces increased blood pressure, respiration, and perspiration, often accompanied by heart palpitations. b. Ergotism was known as ï¿½sacred fireï¿½ because of the burning sensation common in the extremities of afflicted individuals. Later, it was associated with St. Anthony, a 4th century Christian monk who was thought to have power over fire. c. Ergot was also used medically: for centuries midwives employed ergot to induce abortions and aid in childbirth because it caused uterine contractions and hastened birth. d. Today the purified alkaloid ergometrine is used medicinally to reduce postpartum bleeding. e. The alkaloid ergotamine is an effective treatment for migraine. By constricting the diameter of the cranial arteries, the pulsating pressure and resulting headaches are relieved. f. Fields of rye are deliberately inoculated with spores of Claviceps purpurea to produce the ergot needed for the pharmaceutical industry. 1. Other species of the genus Amanita are known for their psychoactive properties. a. Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) has a long history of use as an intoxicant.

Its orange-red cap and white scales make it easily identifiable. The common name arises because flies are attracted to the mushroom and then killed (or stunned) from its insecticidal properties. b. It contains ibotenic acid. Many of its symptoms are similar to alcohol intoxication, but may progress into epileptic-type seizures. c. This mushroom may have been used in ancient India to prepare the intoxicant Divine Soma described 4,000 years ago in the sacred book of Hindu psalms, Rig Veda. d. Some tribal peoples in Siberia used the dried Amanita muscaria mushroom as an intoxicant. The toxin is apparently excreted in the urine intact (unaltered), which was then collected and used for a second dose. It was known that intoxication would occur for up to 4 or 5 passages through the kidneys. 6. Psilocybe, or the sacred mushroom to the indigenous tribes of Mexico Central America , was used for its hallucinogenic properties and deeply religious experience. a. The major toxic compounds in this mushroom are the alkaloids, psilocybin and psilocin (in the body psilocybin is converted to psilocyn, the biologically active element). b.

Psilocyn is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin and, like LSD, interferes with the action of this substance in the brain. Hallucinations usually begin within 30-60 minutes of ingestion and last for several hours. The toxins produced by Claviceps, Amanita, Psilocybe,ï¿½ and the notorious poisons of some of the other mushrooms, protect these fungi from predators and parasites. Fungi, like many of the plants weï¿½ve already discussed, produce a wide array of secondary compounds, and thousands of these compounds from fungi have been studied. Included in this group are alkaloids, as well as other compounds that may serve as antibiotics or toxins. Antibiotics 1. These are compounds that are toxic to microorganisms. 2. In the natural environment, these substances give the producing organisms an advantage over competing microorganisms for available resources. 3. Antibiotics have been one of the recent mainstays of the pharmaceutical industry and one of the primary weapons for fighting bacterial infections. Penicillin 1. Penicillin is a by-product of certain Penicillium spp. of fungi from the Ascomycota. 2.

The antibiotic works by blocking cell wall synthesis in the bacterium, and results in the death of the bacterial cell by lysis (disintegration or dissolution). 3. It is particularly effective because, unlike other know therapeutic agents, penicillin suppresses bacterial growth without being toxic to animals or humans. 4. The discovery of Penicillium was made by Alexander Fleming, a British physician, in 1928. a. He found that the mold had contaminated some of his bacterial cultures, and killed the culture of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria growing in a petri dish. b. Altho initially attracting little attention, the beginnings of WWII led to the investigations of naturally occurring antibacterial compounds, and Flemingï¿½s work (of 11 years earlier) came under the attention of 2 scientists from the Oxford U. c. Penicillium was then analyzed and its bacteria-destroying properties were demonstrated and confirmed in laboratory test tubes. 5. The success of Penicillium notatum led to further investigations for more high-yielding sources for the drug, now known as penicillin. a.

Penicillium chrysogenum was found on a contaminated cantaloupe, and the isolated fungus was found to produce 200 times more penicillin than Flemingï¿½s isolate. b. Soon after the war, the pharmaceutical industry developed chemically altered versions of the penicillin molecule. These modified penicillins provided for greater stability, broader antibacterial activity, and also oral administration of the drug, which would then permit home use of antibiotics. c. Through further induce mutations ofï¿½ P. chrysogenum, the antibiotic now produces 10,000 times more penicillin than Flemingï¿½s original isolate. 6. Drawbacks to penicillin a. Penicillin was over-prescribed by both physicians and veterinarians, andï¿½ the antibiotics were routinely incorporated into animal feed for use in feedlots: this widespread use led to the evolution of penicillin-resistant bacteria. (Some bacteria spp. can reproduce every 20 minutes, so the evolution of new strains may be considerably faster than for other organisms). b. A small percentage of the population is allergic to penicillin, often resulting in severe or even fatal anaphylactic reactions.

(anaphylaxis is a rapid and dramatic allergic reaction that may result in death thru airway obstruction or irreversible vascular collapse). Several hundred people die each year from anaphylaxis due to penicillin allergy. (Other spp of Penicillium are widespread indoor contaminants, some are found on moldy fruits and vegetables, others are the source of the moldy smell from the basement, wt carpets, or old shoes. Some fungi which parasitize caterpillars have also been traditionally used as medicines. The Chinese have used a particular caterpillar fungus as a tonic for hundreds of years. Certain chemical compounds isolated from the fungus may prove to be useful for treating certain types of cancer. The shelf-like, woody, reishi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum) is the Taoist ï¿½elixir of lifeï¿½. It is associated with longevity and spiritual energy. It is said to improve circulation, reduce cholesterol, lower blood pressure, boost immune system, and has anti-tumor properties. Cordyceps - the fungus attaches itself to an insectï¿½s exoskeleton as it wanders past. It then secretes a chemical that burns a hole in the insectï¿½s armor.

Next, Cordyceps inserts itself into the insect body and proceeds to devour all of the hosts nonvital organs, all the while preventing the insect from dying of infection by secreting an antibiotic and a fungicide (as well as an insecticide to deter other predators). Once the nonvital organs are consumed, the fungus eats part of the insectï¿½s brain, causing the insect to ascend to the top of a tall tree in the forest. There, Cordyceps devours the rest of the bugï¿½s brain. At that point the fungus can release its spores a hundred feet above the forest floor. Chagasï¿½disease is a leading cause of death in some of the drier regions of South America . It is caused by a microorganism transmitted by the bite of the assassin beetle, which thrive in thatch huts. Chagasï¿½ is almost always fatal, although it can take decades after the initial infection. A species of Cordyceps is being studied which will invade and destroy the assassin beetle, thereby mitigating the transmission of the disease. Chinese Olympic runners attribute their record-breaking performances in recent Olympics to a special diet including Cordyceps.

Ancient Chinese have employed Cordyceps for everything from impotence to backache; in the early 1700s, it was worth more than 4 x its weight in silver. Recent clinical studies have confirmed its effectiveness in treating loss of sexual drive among the elderly, making Cordyceps a fungal version of Viagra. The Swiss pharmaceutical giant, Sandoz, has isolated a compound in Cordyceps (NIM-811) that chemically resembles cyclosporin (the immuno-suppressant drug) in terms of its molecular structure but does not suppress the immune system. However, it exhibits anti-HIV activity. Like ATZ (azidothymidine), it interferes with the virusï¿½ ability to replicate. However, it disrupts the virusï¿½ reproduction at a different stage in the pathogenï¿½s reproductive cycle than does AZT. Used together, then, they may exhibit a synergistic level of inhibition. Inkcap mushroom - yields coprine which, when mixed with alcohol induces nausea. This has been given to alcoholics to dissuade them from drinking. (Remember Clockwork Orange

Question: Fungi do not have seeds – what do they have?
Answer: Spores