Athena Review, 3,3: Minoan Crete: Sir Arthur Evans and the Excavation of the Palace at Knossos Athena Review, Vol.3, no.3: Minoan Crete Sir Arthur Evans and the Excavation of the Palace at Knossos Before work began in Crete by the British archaeologist Evans at Knossos (1900), and his American contemporary Harriet Boyd at Gournia (1901-1904; see Box 1), knowledge of the Bronze Age Minoan culture was only faintly reflected in a few Classical Greek myths. By the time this pioneering work was finished several decades later, the Minoan periods on Crete had been defined well enough to identify them as a major civilization from ca. 1900-1300 BC. Evans was born in 1851 in Nash Mills, Hertfordshire, England. Studying history at the Universities of Oxford and Göttingen, Evans later became Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.

During this period (1884-1908), he became interested in seals (tiny carved stones) as sources of inscriptions from ancient, pre-Classical Mediterranean civilizations. [Fig.1: Arthur Evans holding Minoan vase.] Evans was particularly drawn to Crete as one such source of seals containing undeciphered early inscriptions. The ancient town site of Kafala (Knossos) on the northern coast of Crete, next to the capital city of Herakleion, was well-known to local inhabitants, who plowed up ancient objects, including pottery, coins, and seals, as they cultivated their fields. Knossos had been occupied up through the Roman period, and during the Classical and Hellenistic eras (500-200 BC) had issued its own coinage, which interestingly showed pictures of labyrinths, Minotaurs, and Ariadne, the stuff of later interpretations (fig.2). First to excavate at Knossos was an Herakleion merchant and antiquarian, aptly named Minos Kalokairinos, who in 1878 uncovered foundations of store rooms filled with large pithos jars.

Documentation of Kalokairinos' work by William Stillman, US Consul in Crete at the time, identifies the finds as being from the west magazine of the palace. Stillman also (somewhat prophetically) provides a sketch of the "Labyrinth of Daedelus," a portion of the foundations also dug up by Kalokairinos, and later identified as the Throne Room (Shaw 1990). [fig.2: Classic-era silver coin from Knossos (425-330 BC). At left, the obverse shows a Minotaur, while the reverse at right shows the head of Ariadne, surrounded by a meander pattern representing the labyrinth (CNG; SG-3211).] Turkish landowners, however, soon stopped the Kalokairinos investigations. Shortly thereafter, the famed German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, excavator of Troy and Mycenae, attempted to purchase the "Kefala hill" - actually a "tell," or artificial, mound caused by long-term occupations at Knossos since the Neolithic (see Macdonald , this issue) - but refused to pay prices he considered exorbitant.

Evans first visited Crete in 1894 to study and decipher two types of unknown scripts appearing on Cretan seals. A year later he published the results in the Ashmolean publication Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script (Evans 1895), therein identifying both the enigmatic Minoan hieroglyphs ("Pictographs"), and the syllabic or pre-alphabetic ("Prae-Phoenician") scripts, now called Linear A and B. Political fortunes then played a part in assisting Evans to excavate in Crete, after the island had won its independence from Turkey. In 1899, Evans used money from a family inheritance to buy the site at Kefala. Using a sizable local work force, Evans began large-scale, systematic excavations at Knossos in 1900, and by the end of 1903 had uncovered many of the foundations of the large, sprawling structures he designated as the Palace. Restorations and reconstructions of portions of the walls and foundations often used reinforced concrete (fig.3), with reconstructed timber frames and other wooden structures painted in a pink or buff color.

Numerous examples of the now famous frescoes, discovered mainly as small fragments, were boldly restored. Evans is also responsible for restoring many of the now famous rooms within the palace, such as the Throne Room, with its pair of griffins in a fresco flanking a gypsum stone seat. These restoration methods have been often criticized for both over-interpretation of sometimes scanty remains, and for using materials foreign to Minoan architecture. [Fig.3: Reconstructed pillars and shield fresco at Knossos (photo: Athena Review). In his decisive (and highly controversial) site interpretations, Evans drew heavily from post-Bronze Age, ancient Greek mythology to postulate the site as the palace of the legendary King Minos. This conclusion is now much disputed (as suggested in several of the articles in this section), but early on gained solid footing among many archaeologists as well as in the popular imagination (cf. Cottrell 1962). In legends from sources varying from Herodotus to Hellenistic coins, Knossos was thought to be the palace site of Minos, king of the Cretan Minoans whose labyrinth contained the mythic Minotaur.

Evans interpreted the complex layout of the palace at Knossos as "labyrinthine," and connected this with the double-axe symbol or labrys found engraved on columns at the palace. Thus, his identification of Knossos' civilization as Minoan made a compelling if (at times) somewhat strained metaphor, given the associated myths of King Minos, the labyrinth, and the Minotaur. Besides his pioneering work in excavating the main palace site, among Evans' most significant discoveries at Knossos was the recovery of about 3000 ancient Linear A and B writing tablets . Linear B eventually proved to be an early form of ancient Greek from a later, Mycenaean occupation of the site. Linear A, a script representing the language of the Minoans, still remains largely undeciphered. Evans continued his research until 1931, with an interruption for the First World War. He published his monumental work in four volumes entitled The Palace of Minos at Knossos (1921-1935).

When Arthur Evans died in 1941, the British School of Archaeology took up further investigations at Knossos, continued to this day (see Macdonald , this issue). Despite many detractors, Evans stands as a major archaeologist whose creative imagination, motivation, and scholarship led him from an initial interest in inscriptions on tiny, carved seals to the discovery and documentation of Knossos, largest site of the Minoan civilization. [Note: This is article appears in the printed issue of Vol.3, no.3 of Athena Review (p.19). Copyright 2003, Athena Publications, Inc.] Evans at Knossos Evans at Knossos Biography of Arthur Evans Arthur Evans (1851-1941) was born into a well-to-do family; his father was an eminent archaeologist and collector. After taking a degree in Modern History at Oxford, Evans travelled widely in northern and eastern Europe. In 1877, Evans became Balkan correspondent for the Manchester Guardian. When he married Margaret Freeman, the following year he and his wife set up house in Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik) on the Dalmatian coast.

In 1883 Evans and his wife went to Greece, where they met Schliemann and heard about his work at Mycenae and other Mycenaean sites. When Evans became Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum (Oxford) in 1884, he announced that his goals were to broaden archaeology beyond the classical period, and to collect and display a wider variety of ancient material. Federico Halbherr on a horse (1984). ï¿½ De Luca In 1892 Evans visited Rome, where he met Federico Halbherr, who had been working on ancient inscriptions in Crete (see Unit 3 Session 2 for further detail). Evans' wife died prematurely in 1893 and it was not until 1894 that Evans made his first momentous visit to Crete. He had become interested in Aegean writing systems, through collecting engraved gems and seals for the Ashmolean. Evans visited the site of Knossos, and proposed to the local Cretan Archaeological Council that he would buy the land and excavate the site himself.

Drawing by the American diplomat William Stillman of part of Kalokairinos’ excavation, with a drawing of the Labyrinth on a later coin of Knossos (1881). Knossos was already known to be a rich source of archaeological information. Pococke had seen the (scanty) standing remains (see Unit 2 Session 1 Lesson 2), and in 1878 Minos Kalokairinos, from the nearby city of Herakleion, had dug trenches in what was later identified as the west wing of the palace (identifying the remains as those of the ancient Labyrinth). Portrait of Sir Arthur Evans by Sir William Blake Richmond. Courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford. Schliemann too had wanted to dig at Knossos and had made some soundings there in the 1880s. He had obtained an excavation permit from the Turkish authorities in Crete, but had not been able to make a suitable financial arrangement with the landowner. In Evans' case it was the political situation on Crete that prevented the start of his own work at Knossos. The Cretans were still waging their own War of Independence against the Ottoman Turks.

The Turks left the island in 1898 and new Cretan government was established (see also Unit 1 Session 3 Lesson 4 for the history; Unit 2 Session 3 Lesson 3 for further information on a massacre outside Herakleion in 1898). But by early 1900, Evans had acquired both the Knossos site and an excavation permit, and work began on 23 March. Photo of Iosiph Hadjidakis on a horse (1984). ï¿½ De Luca Iosiph Hadjidakis began excavating Minoan villas at Tylissos near Herakleion, while Stylianos Xanthoudides excavated Minoan tombs at Koumasa in the Mesara plain to the south. The Italians under Halbherr and Pernier began work at the Minoan palace of Phaistos and the villa at Hagia Triadha. Americans Harriet Boyd, Edith Hall and Richard Seager dug in east Crete at sites such as Kavousi, Gournia and Pseira.

The French worked at the Graeco-Roman site of Lato, and eventually started excavating the Minoan palace at Malia in 1915. Other British archaeologists, such as D. G. Hogarth, R. M. Dawkins, and R. C. Bosanquet, dug at sites in central and eastern Crete, such as the cave of Psychro, the Minoan peak sanctuary of Petsopha, Palaikastro, and Kato Zakro. By the time Evans began work at Knossos, he had already realised from the finds that had come his way that the culture of prehistoric Crete was different from that of the Mycenaean mainland, so different as to be 'non-Hellenic' in his eyes. He had therefore coined the term 'Minoan' to describe early Cretan culture. What Evans found at Knossos confirmed this view. The monumental structure, which he called the Palace of Minos, with its elegant architecture; the bright, exuberant wall-paintings and pottery; the 'engraved tablets' in what came to be called Linear B - all these were different from anything that had been seen before.

Evans worked hard to complete the excavations (1900-1905), and to publish them, chiefly in the six volumes called The Palace of Minos at Knossos. Page from Evans’ 1900 notebook showing drawings of some of the objects found beneath the floor of Magazine III (1983). Manolis Akoumianakis, Evans’ local foreman at Knossos. His local foreman, Manolis Akoumianakis, was an important part of the work. Caricature of Sir Arthur Evans by Piet de Jong (1924). From R. Hood, Faces of Archaeology in Greece. R. Hood notes that ‘the background to this cartoon was occasioned by the finding of the House of the Frescoes in 1923 with its great stack of painted wall plaster … Piet somewhat wickedly has placed the raised forepaw [of the monkey] to echo the position of Evans’ own right hand.’ Evans was referred to by his right-hand man behind his back as ‘that monkey’.

It is easy to criticise Evans now, and indeed he was wrong about some important issues - he could never accept that the relationship between Minoan Crete and the Mycenaean mainland changed from Minoan cultural pre-eminence of the Aegean to Mycenaean administration of Crete including Knossos. He also made mistakes in some of the restorations he undertook at Knossos - but he made them not to aggrandise himself and his work, but to make the structures safe to excavate and visit. Evans remains the major figure in the prehistoric archaeology of Crete, for his vision and for his determination to bring the results of his work into the public arena. Further Reading Title: The Discovery of the Greek Bronze Age Year: 1995 Knossos Knossos In this website I will explore the discovery of Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans and his controversial reconstructions. I will analyze Sir Arthur Evans influences, sources, and motivations. Then I will examine three frescos which he had reconstructed according to his interpretation of the rooms they were found in and the site as a whole.

I will refer to Knossos complex" since the theory of Knossos being a palace is only one interpretation of the site. The story of King Minos and his palace at Knossos have been around since ancient times. According to myth Minos was the son of Europa and Zeus, Minos and his two brothers (Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon) were adopted by Asterios the King of Crete (Castleden 1990). While Minos was reigning as king of Crete he was given a beautiful white bull by the god Poseidon which Minos did not give back, to Poseidon’s great wrath (Castleden 1990). In one version the Wife of Minos, named Pasiphae, was struck by Poseidon with an insatiable lust for the bull (Castleden 1990). She turned to the inventor Daedalus who created the frame of a female cow so that she could consummate her lust for the beast (Castleden 1990).

From this union a horrifying beast a half-man, half-bull with a hunger for human flesh known to us as the Minotaur, was born (Castleden 1990). An artists' depiction of the Minotaur. To conceal the deed, Daedalus was commissioned to build a labyrinth under the palace (Castleden 1990). According to one version of the myth, Athens was required to pay a tribute to Crete by surrendering seven young men and seven young women every nine years to be offered to the Minotaur in the labyrinth (Farnoux 1996). Theseus, son of the Athenian king, volunteered to be sacrificed to the Minotaur, but he caught the eye of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, who gave Theseus thread and a magic sword (Farnoux 1996). With these items Theseus was able to overcome the monstrous beast and escape (Farnoux 1996).

It was these stories, in addition to references by other sources (such as Homer, Plutarch, Diodorus, Thucydides, and Herodotus) which drew Sir Arthur Evans to search for this legendary palace at the beginning of the twentieth century (Castleden 1990). Evans was also living in the wake of Heinrich Schliemann’s discovery of Troy , which may have inspired him to search for more evidence of a Mycenaean presence in the Mediterranean . These myths would be both the strength and the weakness of Sir Arthur Evans’ excavation and reconstruction. Photograph of Sir Arthur Evans. Sir Arthur Evans, the discoverer of the site of Knossos , although he did not conform to today’s standards of archaeology did implement some important techniques for retrieving evidence. In fact his biographer, Sylvia Horwitz, says that he was the first archaeologist to run debris through a sieve to prevent small artifacts from being lost (Horwitz 1981). We also need to remember that archaeology was still a very young science in this period and Evans should be given credit for his much gentler care of the evidence and excavation than earlier archaeologists like Schliemann.

Sir Arthur Evans was born into a “rising middle class” English family in 1851 and was the heir to a sizeable fortune (Horwitz 1981). Evans’ father was a brilliant man who studied numismatics and paleontology (Horwitz 1981). Evans received his education at Harrow , Oxford , and Göttingen (Castleden 1990). He was also well traveled and at one point he was a special correspondent for the Manchester Guardian (Castleden 1990). Evans was even knighted for his work in 1911 ( Vaughan 1959). Furthermore, he bought the land which the Palace of Minos was found on and paid nearly all the expenses of the ensuing three decades of excavation with his own money (Horwitz 1981). He set out to find the site keeping in mind the ancient sources he had read. He was intimately involved with his work and admitted to being a micro-manager (Horwitz 1981).

I do not believe that he purposefully tried to give incorrect information, but his presuppositions caused him to make decisions which greatly affect our view of Minoan history and perhaps give us a partially incorrect view of the Knossos complex. He assumed that the complex was a palace and based his reconstructions off of that assumption, labeling each room based on what he found and what he believed the function of the room was. Because of these presuppositions some of his “reconstructions” strayed into the realm of fancy and have sparked decades of controversy about what is genuine Minoan and what is a modern with a few flakes of ancient fresco put in. Aerial view of the Knossos site. Crete is located southeast of mainland Greece , the island consisted of fertile land broken up by mountain ranges, Mount Ida is the central range (Biers 1996). Crete in relation to the Mediterranean. Evans and his team began digging on March twenty-third 1900 , within one week they found the level of Knossos which corresponded to its’ golden years, around 1700 B.C. (Horwitz 1981). Knossos site on the island of Crete.

The site is a “large architectural complex, traditionally called a ‘palace’ and considered to be the living quarters of rulers” (Biers 1996, 26). The foundation of the site covers six and a half acres ( Vaughan 1959). The ground floor of the palace alone had three hundred rooms, with at least one upper story, which means that it could have had as many as one thousand rooms (Horowitz 1981). The building complex had a paved, rectangular, central courtyard with the other rooms grouped around it (Biers 1996). The Minoans used a wooden post-and-lintel system, in addition to stone blocks, rubble, and mud brick, to form the walls (Biers 1996). The “basement” consisted of many long thin storage areas called magazines which held food and valuables (Biers 1996). We know that the “palace” was at least one story because of the thickening of the walls and heavy pier foundations (Biers 1996).

The three locations I will be focusing on are the “Queen’s apartment,” the “Procession Corridor” and the “Great Goddess Sanctuary.” The complex was assumed by Sir Arthur Evans to be the palace of King Minos , but there are at least two other possibilities, it could have been a necropolis (city of the dead) or a temple complex (Castleden 1990). However, since Evans assumed that the texts were mostly literal he assumed when he found this large complex that it had to be the legendary palace. This will be an issue in the interpretation of the frescos in the following section. There are many things which could be debated about the findings at Knossos , but I am going to discuss several controversial frescos. First off, a fresco is a painting on fresh plaster where the colors are fixed by carbonization of lime in the background (Morgan 2005). The frescos at Knossos were usually found as tiny broken fragments on the floor. Sir Arthur Evans had to do something to preserve the delicate fresco fragments and so he began the process which he called “reconstitution” (Castleden 1990).

It was a common practice at that time for the restoration to be “painted on a panel made of plaster of paris, in which were also embedded the actual plaster fragments” (Shaw 2004, 65). Evans employed Emile Gilliéron, a talented Swiss artist who specialized in archaeological drawings, to “reconstruct” the frescos (Horwitz 1981). Evans admits that he was very involved in how the reconstructions should look, he said that the frescos were put together “in accordance with my own suggestions” (Horwitz 1981, 115). His biographer Sylvia Horwitz says “[he found] incredibly tiny relics and drawing from them, with his visionary intuition, conclusions which might have eluded a less imaginative man” (Horwitz 1981, 105). This makes archaeologists apprehensive about Evans’ findings, is it really a good quality that he made mountains out of molehills?

There was a large number of frescos fragments found and each have their own set of issues, but I will focus on three: the “Priest-King Fresco,” the “Dolphin Fresco,” and the “Bull-Leaping” or “Toreador Fresco.” The Priest king This fresco was located in the southern portion of the complex with the remains of the “procession” fresco (Castleden 1990). The remains were found in fragments in the basement. First, the “Priest-King” fresco (also called “Prince of the Lilies”) was interpreted by Evans as being a depiction of king Minos (Castleden 1990). Evans found this to be completely logical because it agreed with the ancient sources and his own preconceptions about the site (Castleden 1990). However, there are several problems with his conclusion. Notice that the rough portions are the original fragments. First, the “priest-king” fragments found were part of a procession fresco with many human figures, so Evans was very much reading into this one male figure (Castleden 1990).

Second, there were only a few scattered fragments left to even guess at a reconstruction (Castleden 1990). Third, Evans had the “priest-king” placed at the head of the procession when there may have actually been several figures in front of it (Castleden 1990). Fourth, the headdress which signified his kingship, in Evans’ mind, may have belonged to another figure all together (it may have actually belonged to a griffin) (Castleden 1990). This fresco was Evans’ best piece of evidence supporting his assumption that the Knossos complex was indeed a palace and had been ruled by a king (Castleden 1990). Evans also assumed that the “priest-king” figure was holding a rope which tied* to a magical animal, but Shaw argues that there is no solid evidence that a rope was in the figures hand (Shaw 2004). This figure could have been a boxer, a bull-leaper of a groom (Shaw 2004).

In the 1980’s independent articles published by Jean Coulomb and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier they argued that “the separate fragments of [the] relief must belong to more than one individual, particularly since the crown was of a type normally worn by female figures (Shaw 2004, 65). As you can see in the figure above the fragments are very small, in poor condition and could be interpreted in several ways. The interpretation of this figure as King Minos does not rest on solid archaeological evidence. An artistic recreation of the “Queen’s Apartments.” The second fresco to discuss is the “Dolphin Fresco” found in what Evans called the “Queen’s apartments”. The fresco was reconstructed on the wall, but it may actually have been a floor-fresco from an upper floor which collapsed during a fire (Biers 1996). Evans believed the area where it was found to be the Queen’s private area and assumed that it was decoration for her private apartments.

However, Sinclair Hood a friend of Evan’s said that it might symbolize the “soul’s liberation from the earthly body” and this room might actually have served as a sanctuary (Castleden 1990, 92). Evans, in reference to the “dolphin fresco,” admitted that “the most that could be done was to place the figured pieces together in a certain relation to one another ac-cording to a tentative scheme of my own” (Koehl 1986, 414). Evans said he wanted it reconstructed to give a sense of the original and a “spirited amplification” (Koehl 1986, 414). Evans assumed that this portion of the complex was the “Queen’s apartments” and from that, inferred that these were the decorations for her personal space, even though there is a host of different interpretations. Notice that it is only the dark blotches which are the original portions of the fresco.

Bull-Leaping The third fresco to discuss is the “bull-leaping” or “Toreador” fresco which was found in the “Great Goddess Sanctuary” (the destroyed remains fell to the basement) in the east wing of the complex (Castleden 1990). “Great Goddess Sanctuary” in relation to the rest of the palace. Close up view of the “Great Goddess Sanctuary.” The prominent appearance of bulls at Knossos reinforced Evans’ view of the myths’ faithfulness to the material remains. This fresco pictures a bull charging and either one figure in several stages of leaping over the bull, or three separate figures interacting with it (Castleden 1990). Evans believed this to be a sport practiced by the Minoans.

Evans says this about bull-leaping: “The graceful fling of the legs and arms, the backward bend of the head and body give a sense of untrammeled motion…These youthful figures are athletic-not to say acrobatic-in their nature, and certain parallels presented by the palace wall-paintings, as well as by a series of gem impressions, seems to connect them in the most unmistakable way with the favourite [sic] sport of the Minoan arena-the bull-grappling scenes” (MacGillivray, “Minotaur” 2000, 220). However, there are several other theories as to what this fresco illustrates. Some skeptics say that leaping over a bull in the manner depicted is physically impossible (Castleden 1990). MacGillivray says it is impossible, because bulls twist their necks while charging (MacGillivray “Labyrinths” 20000). Others interpret the scenes of bull-leaping as a religious ritual, part of a bull cult (Castleden 1990).

In any case we should be careful about treating this scene as realistic (Castleden 1990). The bull is very stylized, its’ neck is very disproportionate to its small stubby legs, showing power and swift motion (Biers 1996). MacGillivray argues that instead this scene depicts constellations: “Orion confronts Taurus, composed of the Hyades and Pleiades (the seven sisters), while Perseus somersaults with both arms extended over the bull's back to rescue Andromeda, recognizable by the rope (not shown in all representations) that extends from her hand” (MacGillivray “Labyrinths” 2000). We are left to wonder what these scenes (which are found in many other places in the Knossos complex) actually mean and we should not necessarily jump to the conclusion that it is being realistic. <> Discussion Questions: 1. Should mythology and oral tradition be used as evidence for interpreting artifacts and sites? Answer: I think that mythology can be a helpful starting point for finding a site and perhaps understanding the evidence, but other interpretations need to be carefully examined. 2.

Was Sir Arthur Evans trying to mislead people through his reconstructions? Answer: I believe that he sincerely believed in what he was doing, but I think he was too quick to assume that Knossos was a palace. His bias is especially noticeable in his instructions on how to “reconstitute” the “Priest-King” fresco. 3. Can we trust Evan’s interpretation of Knossos ? Answer: We need to take Evan’s interpretation with “a grain of salt.” There are many scholarly articles listed in my bibliography which propose alternative explanations for the Knossos site and many of its’ frescos. As you can see the Knossos complex is anything but simplistic and it may take many years before we can construct a fuller view of Minoan life. This site highlights many of the problems and controversies at archaeological sites with which we might never be familiar with unless we take the time to investigate further. Name of Web Site: theio.com Sponsor/Author: Aaron J. Atsma Authoritative?: Yes in that it uses ancient sources. New Information?: No Date Published: 2000-2008 This webpage is devoted to the sources (both literary and material) we have about the Minotaur.

It includes references by ancient sources about the Minotaur and links to more characters in the myth. It also has a short name comparison and images from pottery and frescos. This is a great site for students to look directly at what the ancient sources said about the Minotaur and how that might have influenced Sir Arthur Evans. Bibliography Conservation and reconstruction at the Palace of Minos at Knossos: Seminar at the University of York, 1996. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, 2, 121-124. ALBERTI, B. 2001. Faience Goddesses and Ivory Bull-Leapers: The Aesthetics of Sexual Difference at Late Bronze Age Knossos. World Archaeology, 33, 189-205. BIERS, W. R. 1996. The Archaeology of Greece an Introduction [Online]. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. Available: [Accessed]. BRIAULT, C. 2007. Making Mountains Out of Molehills in the Bronze Age Aegean: Visibility, Ritual Kits, and the Idea of a Peak Sanctuary.

World Archaeology, 39, 122-141. CAMERON, M. A. S. 1968. Unpublished Paintings from the 'House of the Frescoes' at Knossos. The Annual of the British School at Athens, 63, 1-31. __________, JONES, R. E. & PHILIPPAKIS, S. E. 1977. Scientific Analyses of Minoan Fresco Samples from Knossos. The Annual of the British School at Athens, 72, 121-184. CASTLEDEN, R. 1990. The Knossos Labyrinth: A New View of the "Palace of Minos" at Knosos, London; New York, Routledge. CHADWICK, J, KILLEN, J. T. & OLIVIER, J. P. 1971. The Knossos tablets, London, Cambridge University Press. CHAPIN, A. P. 1997. A Re-Examination of the Floral Fresco from the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos.

The Annual of the British School at Athens, 92, 1-24. __________. 2004. Power, Privilege, and Landscape in Minoan Art. Hesperia Supplements, 33, 47-64. COFFEY, M. 1991. A Cretan cycle: fragments unearthed from Knossos, Santa Barbara, Calif, Bandanna Books. COLE, K. 2000. Places in Time: The Ancient Mediterranean - Ancient Crete, Fresco from the Palace at Knossos: Bull Leaping. School arts, 100, 27. DAVARAS, K. 1980. The Palace of Knossos: Brief Illustrated Archaeological Guide, Athens, Editions Hannibal. DOUGLAS, C. 2004. Architecture and the Archaeology of Excess: Sir Arthur Evans' Reconstructions at Knossos. DOXTATER, D. 2009. Rethinking the Sacred Landscape: Minoan Palaces in a Georitual Framework of Natural Features on Crete. Landscape journal, 28, 1. EVANS, A.

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& MOMIGLIANO, N. 1994. Knossos, A Labyrinth of History: Papers Presented in Honour of Sinclair Hood, [London, England]; Bloomington, IN, USA, British School at Athens; David Brown Book Co. [distributor]. __________. & SMYTH, D. 1981. Archaeological Survey of the Knossos area, [Athens]; [London], British School at Athens; Thames and Hudson. ___________. & TAYLOR, B. 1981. The Bronze Age Palace at Knossos: Plan and Sections, [London], British School at Athens. HORWITZ, S. L. 1981. The Find of a Lifetime: Sir Arthur Evans and the Discovery of Knossos, New York, Viking Press. ISAAKIDOU, V. & TOMKINS, P. Year. Escaping the Labyrinth: the Cretan Neolithic in Context. In, 2008 Oxford; Oakville, CT. Oxbow Books; David Brown Book Co., [distributor]. KENNER, H. 2002.

Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth (review). Common Knowledge, 8, 205. KLYNNE, A. 1998. Reconstructions of Knossos: Artists' Impressions, Archaeological Evidence and Wishful Thinking. JOURNAL OF MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY, 11, 206-229. KOEHL, R. B. 1986. A Marinescape Floor from the Palace at Knossos. American Journal of Archaeology, 90, 407-417. LEAPING, B. & COLE, K. 2000. Places in Time: The Ancient Mediterranean Ancient Crete, Fresco from the Palace at Knossos. SCHOOL ARTS, 100, 27. LOGIADOU-PLATONOS, S. 1980. Knossos: The Palace of Minos, a Survey of the Minoan Civilization; Mythology, Archaeology, History, Museum, Excavations, Athens, Greece, I. Mathioulakis & Co. MACENROE, J.

1995. Sir Arthur Evans and Edwardian Archaeology, Wauconda, IL, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. MACGILLIVRAY, J. A. 2000a. Features - Labyrinths and Bull-Leapers - In Judging Everything He Found at Knossos to be Indigenous, the British Antiquarian Sir Arthur Evans Misguided Generations of Minoan Scholars. Archaeology, 53, 53. __________. 2000b. Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth, New York, Hill and Wang. MACKENZIE, D. & MOMIGLIANO, N. 1996. Evans, Mackenzie, and the History of the Palace at Knossos. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 116, 166-169. MATHIOULAKIS, C. Z. & GOUVOUSSIS, N. 1973.

Knossos: The Palace of Minos, With Its Dependent Builndings [sic], the Minoan Civilization, and the Museum of Heraklion: Mythology, Archaeology, Excavations, Explanatory Text of Map, Athens, The Authors. MICHAILIDOU, A. 1981. Knossos, A Complete Guide to the Palace of Minos, Athens, Ekdotike Athenon. MOMIGLIANO, N. 1999. Duncan Mackenzie: A Cautious Canny Highlander & the Palace of Minos at Knossos, London, Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London. MORGAN, L, CAMERON, M. & BRITISH SCHOOL AT, A. 2005. Aegean Wall Painting: A Tribute to Mark Cameron, London, British School at Athens. PALMER, L. R. 1969. A New Guide to the Palace of Knossos, New York, Praeger. POPHAM, M. R. 1964. The Palace at Knossos: A Matter of Definition and A Question of Fact, s.l, s.n.

SBARGE, S. 1978. Palace of King Minos Interior. Throne room. SELDEN, G. 1964. Sir Arthur Evans, Discoverer of Knossos, New York, Macmillan. SHAW, M. C. 1996. The Bull-Leaping Fresco From Below the Ramp House at Mycenae: A Study in Iconography and Artistic Transmission. The Annual of the British School at Athens, 91, 167-190. _________. 2004. The "Priest-King" Fresco from Knossos: Man, Woman, Priest, King, or Someone Else? Hesperia Supplements, 33, 65-84. SHERRATT, S. & ASHMOLEAN, M. 2000. Arthur Evans, Knossos and the Priest-King, Oxford, Ashmolean Museum. SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. FINE ARTS DEPT. SLIDE, C. Palace of Minos Knossos, Crete. Bull-Leaping Fresco [Online]. Available: [Accessed]. VASSILAKIS, A.

1990. Knossos: Mythology, History, Guide to the Archaeological Site, Athens, Greece, Adam Editions. VAUGHAN, A. C. 1959. The House of the Double Axe; The Palace at Knossos, Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday. WARREN, P. 2000. Sir Arthur Evans and His Achievement. WHITLEY, J. 1998. Knossos without Minos. American Journal of Archaeology: The Journal of the Archaeological Institute of America., 102, 611. WOOD, M., LYONS, B., ADAMS, C. & BRITISH BROADCASTING, C. 1985. The Legend under Siege. Wilmette, Ill.: British Broadcasting Corp: Films Distributed [distributor]. WUNDERLICH, H.-G. 1974. The secret of Crete, New York, Macmillan. Ancient History/Greece/Minoan Civilization - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Ancient History/Greece/Minoan Civilization Jump to: navigation , search The location of the island of Crete within modern Greece.

The Minoans were a Bronze Age civilization that flourished on the Greek Aegean island of Crete from around 3000 to 1100 BCE. By around 1450 BCE the Minoan palace culture had collapsed and the vacuum was filled by the Greek mainland Mycenaean culture whose ascendancy is mythologized in the story of King Agamemnon who led the Greek expedition to Troy. The name Minoan was coined by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, who from 1900 to 1906 excavated the palace at Knossos, which he believed to be the capital of the empire of the mythical King Minos. Contents History[ edit ] The controversial restoration by Sir Arthur Evans of the ruins of the palace of Knossos. Greek archeologist Nikolaos Platon devised a chronology of the civilization based on excavations of Minoan palaces. He divides the civilization into the following eras: Prepalatial period for girls (3000-1900)[ edit ] Archaeological evidence shows that Crete may have been inhabited as early as the seventh millennium BCE.

New settlers skilled in metallurgy arrived by the end of the fourth millennium BCE, and replaced the earlier Neolithic peoples. Protopalatial period (1900-1700)[ edit ] The first large palaces, most notably at Knossos and Phaistos, were built during the Protopalatial period, leading to more urbanized life and centralized political authority. Around 1700 BCE the major palaces were all destroyed perhaps due to natural causes, such as an earthquake, or perhaps an invasion from Anatolia. Neopalatial period (1700-1450)[ edit ] After their destruction, the palaces soon were rebuilt, giving rise to the Neopalatial period. This period represents the apex of Minoan civilization. Population increased, new settlements were built, and impressive art, architecture, and technologies (such as plumbing) were developed. Despite these many advances, the Minoans suffered some sort of catastrophe around 1450. Final Palace period (1450-1380 BCE)[ edit ] Many theories have been put forth to the cause of this sudden and rapid decline. Theories include a massive volcanic eruption of Mt.

Thera on the nearby island of Santorini, internal strife, or an invasion of the Myceneans from mainland Greece. A combination of these factors may be reason for the Minoan collapse. Minoan power and influence in the region had effectively ended by 1420 BCE supplanted by the Myceneans. Excavations reveal that pottery and writings from Crete after 1450 resemble those of mainland Greece more so than those of pre-1450 Crete. Knossos then served as the administrative center of Mycenean Crete, until it was destroyed by fire in 1380. Postpalatial period (1380-1100 BCE)[ edit ] After the destruction of Knossos, economic and political influence shifted to the town of Khaniá. Despite this, Cretan civilization began to further decline, and many Minoan sites were abandoned. Khondros is one of few new sites to be settled during this period. The last Minoan site to fall was the isolated mountain town of Karfi, which was able to resist assimilation into the Mycenean culture until the early Iron Age.

The widespread use of iron tools (brought by the Myceneans) rather than bronze ones (used by Minoans) is one of the main indications archaeologists used to determine the date of the final Minoan collapse. Culture[ edit ] Bull-leaping, featured in this famous fresco from Knossos, was a religious ritual. The Minoan culture featured a very distinctive religion, art style, and language. The Minoans were also pioneers in naval exploration, establishing several colonies on the Greek mainland and other Aegean islands, such as Akrotiri on Thera. Minoan cultural influence spread throughout the region, including over the Mycenean culture. Religion[ edit ] Many conclude there to be evidence of animal and human sacrifice in Minoan Crete during the palatial period. Recent Minoan scholars have disputed the ideas and the focus’ of past Scholars. However, these sources are blurred and we should not come to any conclusions as yet, to whether sacrificial rituals did exist in Minoan Crete. Although the Minoan religious system had come under much consideration and debate, it had never been fully explored, or written about in much depth.

That is until 1921 when Sir Arthur Evans wrote his works on Minoan religion. Evans portrayed Crete as having an interconnection and a oneness. This was sustained by the idea of them all worshiping one god and this “culture as a whole…shows an essential unity,” (Arthur Evans PM 1:13) portraying the culture as a whole was more important than sacrificial rituals. Evans is known as the advocator to this idea of unity and worship of a sole God. However, Minoan Crete was the perfect example for one to take and write about as it was secluded from other cultures as a lone island. However, though you could infer this there is evidence of them having a key trading port as in the ‘flotilla fresco,’ it clearly shows many boats leaving from Crete. You could infer there to be evidence of them only worshiping one God, as there is a what looks like a Neolithic figurine of a goddess. This source is provided to us by the Spartan Museum. It portrays a woman holding two snakes suggeting her divineness, as it is believed to be a godess.

The significance of the snakes around the arms is widely unknown however, they have survived for decades and in great numbers which shows the significance of it. The importace to sarcaficial rituals is collosally important to link with them only worshiping one god. This is due to polothestic cultures utilising sacrifce for example rome to get good with the gods and get them in there favour. However, this is not evidance to lure us into any conclusion. This is due to her coming across as if shes in an altrered state, holding in both hands snakes which highlights the unrealiablity of this theory. In the temple there were also many objects and another woman in the surrounding picture. One object shows a bowl/vase suggesting libation either from or to one or the other woman. However, in this image we see no evidance of any type of animal sacrafice. In the Toreador Fresco currently placed in the Palace of Knossos there is what looks like an image of three men and a bull. We should assume that “every depiction of a bull on a seal or fresco is to be associated with a supposed sacrificial ritual,” (Cromarty, 2008,).

However, it could also be a depiction of a sequence in changing a young boy into a man. This is due to the end figure being more pronounced than the others suggesting adult hood. Another example of sacrifice is labeled a sacrifice by the Agia Triada sarcophagus. This pictorial image shows a slaughtered bull in the middle with two terrified animals under it. We should take into account the double axe which is normally associated with bull sacrifice. Another interesting aspect is the appearance of a woman in this image as well. This has become a reoccurring theme throughout Minion Crete. We see her hovering her hands over the what appears to be an animal of the bovine variety which suggests prayer and worship. It also presents her as a priestess rather than a goddess which proves controversy towards the Neolithic figurine of a goddess we believed we previously saw. Of late it is to be believed that Aarcheologists have found evidence of a sacrificial ritual, which included the sacrifice of animals, whose broken bones were found under a deposit of rubble. This was along with a woman’s bones being found which links back to the priestess’s conduction of the religious ceremonies and rituals.

However, I quote from Maria Andreadaki Vlazaki “We have yet to reach a final conclusion, since the bones need to be studied further, especially as the latest finds, which include the woman’s skull, were found only recently.” This causes problems due to the unknown fact of what time these people lived in and as to whether it was around the time period being studied. Though sacrificial rituals were an important part of the religious system there where many other important parts to it as well. Many outdoor shrines have been discovered some in caves, others on hill tops. There are depictions of women dancing around the trees, shaking the branches suggesting a sort of religious ceremony, further highlighting the role woman played. Household shrines and shrines at tombs have also been discovered and this presents a real religious background to Minoan Crete. Artifacts indicate that religious practice involved dance, procession, sacrifice and offerings, which where all key factors of the religious system. To further the theory of processions occurring or ceremonial events we gain and insight in the Saffron Gatherers fresco. This pictorial image shows two clear woman dancing around a monkey (cannot be confirmed) type figure.

This further amplifies their role as they have appeared numerous times in sources. Art[ edit ] An example of pottery from Knossos. Excavations have revealed frescoes, statues, and pottery. Pottery was the dominant art form of the Minoans from their arrival on Crete up until the Neopalatial period, when pottery-making technology allowed for a standardization of design. Fresco-painting soon rose in prominence, and focused heavily on religious and naturalistic themes. Bulls and snakes, both religious symbols, featured prominently in many works of art, as do other non-religious animals. Perhaps the most famous of the Minoan frescoes is one depicting the religious ritual of bull-leaping, which was found in the palace of Minos. Interestingly, no frescoes depict any of the many gods. Architecture[ edit ] Minoans also pioneered many architectural methods. Cities featured roads paved with stone, sewers, and plumbing. The most-recognized type of Minoan architecture is the palace. The construction of the first palaces (the famous palace at Knossos was one of the first) ended the Prepalatial period. Palaces were centers of government, allowing the dozens of individual communities to come under centralized political authority.

Palaces also were used to store crop surpluses, and house shrines to goddesses. Economy[ edit ] The Minoan economy was very diverse. Several crops were cultivated, such as wheat, barley, grapes, olives, and figs. They raised several animals, including cattle, goats, and pigs. Bees were kept for honey production, as were donkeys and oxen for plowing purposes. The Minoans also had an established shipping industry, as evidenced by the many colonies they established throughout the eastern Mediterranean. They were involved in the tin trade. As bronze tools and weapons made from tin and copper were replaced by superior iron ones the Minoan economy in trading tin declined. Their trade network extended from Mesopotamia and Egypt all the way to Spain. Language[ edit ] A tablet with Minoan script. Minoan civilization featured several written languages. During the Prepalatial period, a primitive hieroglyphic script was used, but fell out of use by 1700. A writing system called Linear A developed during the Protopalatial period, and continued to be used through the Neopalatial period.

Linear A featured many symbols, each of which represented a syllable, word, or number. Linear A was used for record-keeping, and some religious functions. Linear B was the script used for government records. After the Mycenean conquest, Linear A was replaced by Linear B, which would eventually evolve into what is now the modern Greek language. Linear B was deciphered in the 1950s, but Linear A and the hieroglyphic texts have yet to have been completely translated. Knossos | ancient city, Crete | Britannica.com ancient city, Crete Crete Knossos, also spelled Cnossus, city in ancient Crete , capital of the legendary king Minos , and the principal centre of the Minoan, the earliest of the Aegean civilizations (see Minoan civilization ). The site of Knossos stands on a knoll between the confluence of two streams and is located about 5 miles (8 km) inland from Crete’s northern coast.

Excavations were begun at Knossos under Sir Arthur Evans in 1900 and revealed a palace and surrounding buildings that were the centre of a sophisticated Bronze Age culture that dominated the Aegean between about 1600 and 1400 bc. Portion of the reconstructed Minoan palace, Knossos, Crete, Greece. Peterak The first human inhabitants of Knossos probably came there from Anatolia in the 7th millennium bc and established an agricultural society based on wheat and livestock raising. At the beginning of the Early Minoan period (3000–2000 bc) they began using bronze and making glazed pottery, engraved seals, and gold jewelry. A hieroglyphic script was invented, and trade with the Egyptians was undertaken. The first palace at Knossos was built at the beginning of the Middle Minoan period (2000–1580 bc). It consisted of isolated structures built around a rectangular court. Knossos produced fine polychrome pottery on a black glazed ground during this period. About 1720 bc a destructive earthquake leveled most of Knossos.

The palace was rebuilt, this time with extensive colonnades and flights of stairs connecting the different buildings on the hilly site. The remains of this palace occupy the excavated site in the present day. The administrative and ceremonial quarters of the palace were on the west side of the central court, and the throne room in this area still contains the gypsum chair in which sat the kings of Knossos. This area of the palace also had long narrow basement rooms that served as storage magazines for wheat, oil, and treasure. Workshops were located on the northeast side of the central court, while residences were situated in the southeastern section. An elaborate system of drains, conduits , and pipes provided water and sanitation for the palace, and the whole urban complex was connected to other Cretan towns and ports by paved roads. The art of Minoan fresco painting reached its zenith at this time, with scenes of dancing, sports, and dolphins done in a naturalistic style. The Minoans also replaced their hieroglyphic script with a linear script known as Linear A .

Similar Topics 1000+ images about Sir Arthur Evans on Pinterest | Ancient greece, The western and Illustrations Pinterest • The world’s catalog of ideas Sir Arthur Evans Sir Arthur John Evans (8 July 1851 – 11 July 1941) was an English archaeologist most famous for unearthing the palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete and for developing the concept of Minoan civilization from the structures and artifacts found there and elsewhere throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Evans was the first to define Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B, as well as an earlier pictographic writing. 22 Pins100 Followers Knossos Encyclopedia > History > Ancient Greece and Rome > Ancient History, Greece Knossos Knossos or Cnossus (both: nŏsˈəs) [ key ], ancient city of Crete, on the north coast, near modern Iráklion. The site was occupied long before 3000 B.C., and it was the center of an important Bronze Age culture. It is from a study of the great palace, as well as other sites in Crete, that knowledge of the Minoan civilization has been drawn.

The city was destroyed c.1700 B.C. (possibly by earthquake, perhaps by invasion) and was splendidly rebuilt only to be destroyed again c.1400 B.C., possibly by an earthquake, by invaders from the Greek mainland, or both. This marked the end of Minoan culture. The palace was restored by Sir Arthur Evans , the English archaeologist who excavated (1900–35) the site. Based on fragmentary evidence, his reconstructions have proved to be controversial, as have the celebrated Knossos frescoes whose fragmentary remains were extensively restored by artists in the 1920s. Knossos later became an ordinary but flourishing Greek city, and it continued to exist through the Roman period until the 4th cent. A.D. In Greek legend it was the capital of King Minos and the site of the labyrinth. The name also appears as Cnosus and Knossus. See Sir A. J. Evans, Palace of Minos (4 vol., 1921–35); L. Cottrell, Bull of Minos (1953); L. R.

Palmer, A New Guide to the Palace of Knossos (1969); C. Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism (2009). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. Science: Truth About Knossos? - TIME Science: Truth About Knossos? Google+ One of the most fascinating chapters of ancient history tells about the fabled island of Crete, whose rulers were thalassocrats (lords of the sea) and whose beautiful, bare-breasted priestesses romped in arenas with sacred bulls. Most history books state that the Cretan sea-kingdom, whose capital was Knossos, brought Egyptian and Asian civilization to the then-savage shores of Greece. This theory was largely the work of Oxford Professor Sir Arthur Evans, who excavated Knossos in 1900-05. Sir Arthur died in 1941 at the age of 90, a revered figure in archaeology, but last week...

To continue reading: Minoan and Mycenaean Art Minoan and Mycenaean Art Homer, The Iliad, 2. 466-649, presents the following description of the Greek armies massed outside the walls of Troy: Clan after clan poured out from the ship and huts onto the plain...innumerable as the leaves and blossoms in their season...the Athenians...the men of Argos and Tiryns of the Great Walls...troops from the great stronghold of Mycenae, from wealthy Corinth...from Knossos...Phaistos..and the other troops that had their homes in Crete of the Hundred Towns. Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) published Troy and Her Ruins in 1875. He also excavated Mycenae. Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941), excavated the site of Knossos from 1900-1905. Map of the Greek World Bronze Age Chronology (from Richard Neer, Greek Art and Archaeology, p.

19) Map of Principal Sites of Minoan and Mycenaean Art Minoan Palaces on the Island of Crete, from the Second Palace Period, c. 1750-1450 BCE. Plan of the Palace of Knossos, c. 1700-1400 B.C. Comparison of the plans of Knossos and Phaistos. Ceremonial "labrys" (symmetrical double headed axe) Central Court of Phaistos with Mt. Ida in the background. So-called "King's Throne" from the Palace of Knossos. Heavily restored fresco with griffins. "Queen's Megaron" from Knossos. "Kamares" Ware Jug from Phaistos (MM IIB) Octopus Vase (Marine Style), c. 1500 B.C. Naval Fresco from Akrotiri, Thera, c. 1650-1500 B.C. "Spring" fresco from Thera, c. 1650. "Boxer" and "Antelope" frescoes, from Thera.

"Toreador Fresco" from Knossos, c. 1450-1400B.C. "Snake Goddess" c. 1600 B.C. from Knossos. Faïence (glazed earthenware). Aerial view of Mycenae Reconstruction of Mycenae, c. 1400-1200 Plan of Tiryns, c.1400-1200B.C. Plan of the Palace of Pylos, c. 1300-1200 BCE. Reconstruction of the Interior of a Megaron The Lions (Lioness) Gate, Mycenae, c. 1250 Lions Gate, detail. Royal Grave Circle A, c. 1600- 1500 B.C. Funerary Mask (Mask of Agamemnon) c. 1600-1500 B.C. Inlaid Dagger with lion hunt from Grave Circle A. c. 1600-1500 BCE. Royal Tomb (Tholos) so-called Treasury of Atreus, c. 1300-1250.

Interior of "Treasury of Atreus" (corbeled arch) Vaphio Cup, c. 1500 B.C.

Question: Which ancient site was excavated by Sir Arthur Evans from 1900 to 1925?
Answer: Knossos