Woomera Spear on emaze Why would Aboriginals use this device? What does increased velocity mean? How does this device increases spear velocity? How do you use a woomera spear? Woomera Spear Woomera is a wooden Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device. It is an extension of the human arm that enables a spear to travel at a greater speed and force than possible with the unaided arm. Records show that the implement began to be used about 5000 years ago! Did you know? How the woomera is used The woomera doubles the length of the throwers arm, greatly increasing the velocity of the spear. The extra energy gained from the woomera's use has been calculated as four times the power from a compound bow. Why did the Indigenous Australians use this device? All about the Woomera Spear Characteristics The woomera spear is normally 61-91 cm long. One end is 8 centimetres wide and possessing a hollow, curved cross-section, while the other is more pointed and has a hook. The woomera was traditionally decorated with incised or painted designs that indicated belonging to a particular linguistic group that it may be returned to if found abandoned.

The spear is attached to the top end like a ball and socket joint (spear attaches into a little socket) and then is held as can be seen in the top picture. All about levers There are three different types of levers: First class - these levers have the fulcrum placed between the load and the effort. (i.e. seesaw) Second class - these levers have the load between the effort or applied force and the fulcrum. (i.e. wheelbarrow) Third class - these levers have the effort which can be applied in any direction in between the load and fulcrum. (i.e. human forearm) Question: Which kind of lever is the woomera spear? The woomera spear is what's known as a first class lever. This is because the axis is situated between the force and resistance, this lever is best utilised when the lever is longer to increase the spear's velocity. Velocity is: the rate at which an object changes its position. So for the woomera to increase the spears velocity is needs to make the spear travel a further distance through the air towards the target.

Effectively the woomera spear is used to extend the length of the arm when compared to throwing with just the arm. Because there is a greater build up of force and a whipping action the spear will travel at a greater velocity when using the woomera when compared to throwing just with the normal human arm. Velocity How it is increased using the woomera The device in the picture is one you may have seen before, it is called a woomera ball thrower. We have provided one for your use so you can go outside and try it for yourself! You will throw a ball the normal way with your arm/hand motion and record how far the ball was displaced from its original position (velocity). Then throw again with the woomera thrower and record again, see how the thrower facilitates increased spear velocity. Now time to put the woomera into action! What is an Aboriginal woomera? What are levers and what type of lever is the woomera? How is using the woomera better than throwing normally? How does the woomera facilitate increased spear velocity?

1 Atlatls, Spear Throwers, and Woomeras Atlatls, Spear Throwers, and Woomeras Atlatls, Spear Throwers, and Woomeras known as the Woomera in Australia An atlatl or spear-thrower is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in dart-throwing. It consists of a shaft with a cup or a spur at the end that supports and propels the butt of the dart. The atlatl is held in one hand, gripped near the end farthest from the cup. The dart is thrown by the action of the upper arm and wrist. The throwing arm together with the atlatl acts as a lever. The atlatl is a low-mass, fast-moving extension of the throwing arm, increasing the length of the lever. This extra length allows the thrower to impart force to the dart over a longer distance, thus imparting more energy and ultimately higher speeds. A traditional atlatl is a long-range weapon and can readily impart to a projectile speeds of over 150 km/h (93 mph).

Atlatl designs may include improvements such as thong loops to fit the fingers, the use of flexible shafts, stone balance weights, and thinner, highly flexible darts for added power and range. Darts resemble large arrows or thin spears and are typically from 120 cm to 270 cm (4' to 9') in length and 9 to 16 mm (3/8 inch to 5/8 inch) in diameter. Another important improvement to the atlatl's design was the introduction of a small weight (between 60 and 80 grams) strapped to its midsection. Some atlatlists maintain that stone weights add mass to the shaft of the device, causing resistance to acceleration when swung and resulting in a more forceful and accurate launch of the dart. Others claim that atlatl weights add only stability to a cast, resulting in greater accuracy. Text above: Wikipedia The Basketmaker II atlatl a) Basketmaker II atlatl viewed from side, top, and bottom from Cist 1, Broken Roof Cave, Apache Co., Ariz. Made of smoothly finished oak with a spur and groove (front view) to position dart.

Finger loops made of 3-ply dressed skin and secured with sinew. A small black nut, a light coloured moonstone, and dark red stone, possibly charms rather than for balance, have been fastened to the back of the shaft with sinew. The shaft is shorter and thinner than average and the present curved shape is due to warping. Length about 534 mm. b) Method of use of atlatl for throwing dart and relative proportions of atlatl and dart. Photo and text: Sturtevant (1978) In 1921 a Harvard Peabody museum excavation team, led by Samuel James Guernsey made its way up the wash of the Chinle Creek in Northeastern Arizona. A twisting stream passing through flats and quicksand, the Chinle wash and it’s side-canyons stretch 65 miles from Apache county Arizona until it reaches the San Juan river in southern Utah. Along the flanks of this valley system can be found alcoves and caves, one of which, not far up a side canyon near the Utah border, came to be called 'Broken Roof Cave'.

Named for the frequent rock falls from the cave roof which threatened Guernsey’s team, Broken Roof Cave is a rockshelter 75 feet tall, 75 feet deep and 150 feet in length. The cave is situated atop a talus slope composed of rockslide debris which periodically ushers forth from the cave mouth. Following one such devastating rock fall and rockslide, the Peabody team decided to move on, as to continue excavations would be too dangerous to be worthwhile. Diggings at Broken Roof Cave yielded many artifacts in exceptional states of preservation. The human burials dated to Basketmaker II, and were accompanied by typical grave goods - in cist 1, that of a ~40 year old male and four infants, were found three atlatl dart foreshafts with stone points in place, and the atlatl which is the subject of this article. The atlatl was described by Guernsey in his site report as being the finest yet (in 1931) recovered by the Harvard Peabody Museum in their excavations. This is still true - the Broken Roof Cave atlatl is one of the finest preserved Basketmaker atlatls known.

In the summer of 2010 I personally examined the weapon, and would feel confident in it’s ability to cast darts even today. The wood is oak (Likely Gambel oak, Quercus gambelii ) still hard, well polished and nearly unstained by time-even the hide of the finger loops is still pliable and soft to the touch. Text above: Justin Garnett, 2012, This superb replica of the Broken Roof Cave atlatl has both a small moonstone charm just above the loops, and larger, ground and polished weight attached above the mid-point of the shaft. Replica by Devin Pettigrew Photo: An Australian woomera. This one is unusual in that it serves no purpose except that of throwing a spear. Most woomeras were a swiss army knife, wide enough to carry things, to serve as a mixing bowl, or as an aid to fire lighting. Some carried a flint blade on the end opposite the peg so that they could be used in wood shaping, cutting meat or for any other purpose. In addition, this example is made entirely of wood, without a marsupial tooth as a peg.

(Australian sources tend to refer to the hook of a spear thrower as a peg.) Photo: Don Hitchcock 2009 Source: Display at Lake Mungo NP, southern NSW Central Australian, western desert origin. Ovoid leaf shaped body. The front with incised decoration, the back adzed finished and has the original gum mounted peg. 85 cm (note that this is an Australian woomera of the normal, broad type. Note also the knob on the right hand end to provide purchase, and the hook or spur on the left, possibly made from a kangaroo tooth - Don ) Photo and text: An Aboriginal spear thrower, Woomera, Australia, of oblong shape, with both ends covered with resin, incised decoration of chevron on one side; aged brown patina, length 67 cm (26 1/4 in) Condition: some resin missing, one chip on the side. (note that the peg or spur or hook appears to be missing in this example - Don ) Photo and text: The back of this piece, undecorated.

(note the battered appearance of the back of the piece, as well as the shape of the wood underneath the partially resin covered handle - Don ) Photo: Carved woomera, 63 cm long. (note that this is woomera is beautifully decorated with a zig-zag (snake?) pattern, and has a flint cutting tool on the handle end, making it a multi-purpose tool. - Don ) Photo: Australian spear, head section. The shaft was made from straightened canes of spearwood, (Pandorea doratoxylon ) while the head and barb were carved from mulga wood and tied on with kangaroo sinew. By using two different woods, Aboriginal toolmakers had the respective advantages of hardness and flexibility where it was needed in the weapon. Photo and text: Clarke (2012) Source: Western Desert Aboriginal Collection, South Australian Museum Archives Lardil man demonstrating the grip of a spearthrower for launching 3-piece spears. Skilled use of spearthrowers gave greater force to thrown spears, while maintaining accuracy. (Note the thickness, length, and resultant weight of this huge spear. It was presumably for large game such as Dugong.

Dugongs are large grey mammals which spend their entire lives in the sea. Fully grown, they may be three metres long and weigh 400 kilograms - Don ) Photo and text: Clarke (2012) Source: Ursula H. McConnel collection, Archer River, northwest Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, 1930s. AA191/23/2002, South Australian Museum Archives Propulseur 'au faon' (moulage) Le Mas d'Azil (Ariège), Magdalénien supérieur. This atlatl or spearthrower or propulseur appears to have been carved from a single piece of antler. It shows a young ibex or chamois with an emerging turd (or possibly a birth sac) on which two birds are perched, found around 1940 in the cave of Le Mas d'Azil, Ariege. Photo: Don Hitchcock 2008 Source: Facsimile on display at Le Musée National de Préhistoire, Les Eyzies-de-Tayac A North American atlatl and dart. Note the loops for thumb and finger on the atlatl.

Photo: Don Hitchcock 2012 Source: Display at Regina Museum, Saskatchewan, Canada At Laugerie Basse in France you sign up for a tour, which is quite informative, though pretty much only in French. After the tour, the guide allowed all who wished a try with throwing a spear, or dart, using an atlatl, at a target he had set up. The photograph on the right shows the hook or crochet or spur on the propulseur, made of bone or reindeer antler. Photo: Don Hitchcock 2008 I don't know whether the original atlatls / propulseurs had this little stand for the dart, but it is a great invention. It makes the throwing of the dart easy, and requires very little skill to get a good result. Photo: Don Hitchcock 2008 Carvings from La Madeleine in the Dordogne. These stunning pieces of art were used as decorations on propulseurs. A bison licking its shoulder on the left, a hyena in the centre, bison on the right. Photo: Don Hitchcock 2008 Source: Originals (?

the hyena looks like a facsimile) on display at Le Musée National de Préhistoire, Les Eyzies-de-Tayac Another version of the hyena above: This is a large, high quality, in focus version of this very important work, and I am grateful to the uploader of the image. I have flipped it horizontally to agree with reality. Wikipedia text: Part of a spear thrower made ​​of reindeer antler, found in the Abri La Madeleine (Tursac in the Dordogne, France). Exhibit of the National Prehistoric Museum in Eyzies-de-Tayac. Photo: Klaus D. Peter, Wiehl, Germany Permission: Creative Commons License Attribution 3.0 Germany This is an excellent recreation of what the propulseur with the hyena above as a part of the atlatl may have looked like, by Michael R. Frank. Note that the craftsman has used the hyena as a decoration, with the hook below. This is the best and most believable recreation of these sorts of propulseurs or atlatls that I have seen.

Photo: Photo: Raymond (1986) The following is by far the best explanation of atlatl throwing that I have ever seen. Raymond (1986) has created a tour de force of explanation of many aspects of the atlatl and the dart, which I will summarise. (Left) At time 0, the marksman takes aim with the atlatl by stretching his throwing arm behind his head. He arranges his shoulders parallel to the projected line of fire with his body weight on the rear leg. The fingers of the hand hold the atlatl grip and secure the dart to the atlatl spur. (Right) At 0.48 seconds the marksman has rocked forward from the rear leg. He has stepped forward with his front leg towards the target and plants his heel. The upper body, shoulders, arms, and atlati have moved forward but have not changed their basic position from that in Figure 2.

Photo and text: Raymond (1986) However the following diagram is very instructive indeed, since it shows that the blunt end of the dart travels in almost a straight line, which is not something I would have realised, but would add to the power and accuracy of the throw when the technique is used by an experienced hunter. Superposition of all these diagrams shows that the point defined by the junction of the atlatl spur with the dart nock travels essentially in a straight line through space. Photo and text: Raymond (1986) This article makes the point that spears thrown by a woomera or spear thrower or atlatl need to be thin and flexible to work well. From New Scientist 15 May 1999 pp 40-43 Stone Age Kalashnikov It launches projectiles at high speeds, kills at 40 metres and can even be fitted with a silencer. Kurt Kleiner reveals the surprising sophistication of a 25 000 year old weapon. William Robert Perkins notches the long, flexible spear onto a spur on the end of the stick in his hand. He draws back his arm, and throws.

The spear flies away from the stick, an atlatl, towards the hay bales 30 metres away and thunks into the flattened cardboard beer carton that serves as a target. Never mind that a few of the missiles miss the target and sail off into the Arizona desert beyond; everyone agrees that the atlatl can be tricky to use. Besides, Perkins, a former competition winner, has been so busy making and selling atlatls that he hasn't had much time lately to practise. The reason he's so busy is that the atlatl - a weapon that most hunters abandoned 10 000 years ago - is enjoying a renaissance. Thousands of people in America and Europe are making atlatls, competing in international tournaments, and even hunting with them. Perkins, or Atlatl Bob as he's known, is no ordinary craftsman. Trained as an engineer, he is one of a group of people who have been studying the mechanics of this primitive weapon and found it to be surprisingly sophisticated. Using modern engineering concepts and experimental techniques, they are rediscovering ancient construction methods that make subtle but important improvements to the weapon's performance.

Armour piercing 'The physics and math is all in here,' Perkins says, weighing an atlatl in his hand at a recent workshop on primitive technology held near Phoenix, Arizona. 'It really impresses me, the ability of these ancient people to be able to do this. They certainly didn't have calculus. Wave mechanics, they didn't know that. But they knew intuitively.' Atlatl is an Aztec word for what's also called a throwing board or spear thrower. But most enthusiasts object to the term 'spear', since it suggests a rigid shaft. An atlatl actually throws a flexible shaft that's more like a 150 centimetre long arrow and is properly called a dart. The atlatl itself is about 60 centimetres long, with a handle at one end and the small, sharp spur at the other. A dart thrown with an atlatl can kill a deer at 40 metres and will fly more than 200 metres. For comparison, the world record for throwing the, admittedly heavier, javelin is just under 100 metres.

According to archaeological evidence, the atlatl first made its appearance between 25 000 and 40 000 years ago in the region that today encompasses Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. From here, it radiated outwards to Europe, Australia, Asia, and eventually the New World. Then, about 15 000 years ago, the bow and arrow began to displace the atlatl. The power and range of the two weapons are comparable but the bow and arrow is easier to aim. The atlatl's extravagant throwing action makes it more prone to wild shots, and can startle the prey. Still, in some places atlatls survived until more modern times. Aztec warriors greeted the invasion by Cortes in the 16th century with atlatl darts capable of penetrating Spanish armour, and Australian Aborigines still use them. Today, many other people are rediscovering the atlatl, thanks largely to the trend for archaeologists to try to recreate the artifacts they find. Some modern enthusiasts also seem to stumble across the atlatl for themselves. 'People call up and say, 'I didn't know anyone knew about atlatls but me.

I've been making these since I was eight years old',' says Leni Clubb, president of the World Atlatl Association, which is based in Ocotillo, California, and sponsors contests and demonstrations. Perkins discovered the atlatl while studying engineering at Montana State University. He took a course in replicative archaeology and decided to make it the focus of his study. Kickdown One reason Perkins objects to the term 'spear thrower' is that it gets in the way of understanding how the atlatl really works. Some of the first archaeologists to experiment with atlatls tried to throw rigid spears, and managed only poorly aimed shots that flew just 45 metres. They concluded that only constant practice from childhood would have allowed any one to use the weapon effectively. In fact, a beginner can start to hit targets, large ones at least, after just an hour's practice. So how does the atlatl work? The thrower holds the atlatl and dart parallel to one another and horizontal, with elbow bent and the hand just beside the ear.

There's an initial forward motion with the shoulder, then the elbow straightens and finally the wrist flicks the atlatl forward with an action not unlike that of an overexuberant fly fisherman trying to lure a trout. The atlatl accelerates the rear of the dart through an arc, with a movement similar to that of an ancient ballista flinging boulders against the enemy. That's the obvious part. What isn't so obvious is how the projectile springs away from the tip of the atlatl. In the early tests, the rigid spears were reluctant to part company with the atlatl. So, all too often, at the end of the throw, as the atlatl tip began to move downwards it would drag the back end of the spear down too, ruining accuracy - an effect called kickdown. (Some Inuits use atlatl like sticks to launch rigid harpoons. But these are launched downward from boats, and the kickdown effect doesn't make much difference.) A flexible dart, by comparison, springs away from the atlatl tip. You can think of the dart as a spring, which is compressed by the initial force of the throw.

The dart releases this stored energy at the end of the throw by pushing off the atlatl tip before the tip begins moving downwards. Perkins also analyses the dart in terms of wave mechanics (see Diagram). At the start of the throw, the dart bends as the acceleration pushes against the mass of the stone tip. A wave propagates from the rear of the dart to its tip. When the wave reaches the tip, it is reflected back again. At the rear, the force generated by the still accelerating atlatl rein forces this wave and sends it once more towards the dart tip, where it reflects again. When the wave reaches the rear this time, however, the atlatl has stopped accelerating, and the wave's energy strikes the atlatl tip and propels the dart forward. 'The wave goes through a cycle of harmonic oscillations, gaining a tremendous amount of energy as the dart's speed is increased,' Perkins explains. It's this energy, he argues, that makes most of the difference between the 45 metres that a rigid spear will travel and the 200 metre flight of a flexible dart. But energy is not stored just in the dart. Atlatls also bend, and release their stored energy just as the dart launches.

The atlatl's stored energy is more modest in size than that stored in the dart, and can probably account for increases in distance of about 10 per cent, reckons Perkins. Looked at this way, the atlatl works very much like a bow and arrow. When an archer draws back the bowstring, the bow stores up energy which it releases very quickly to push the arrow forward. 'This is really the same weapon system as a bow and arrow,' says Perkins. 'It's a flexible shaft accelerator. The only difference is that a bow is a linear accelerator. It's accelerating a flexible shaft in a straight line. And the atlatl is doing it in an arc.' For an ideal combination, the dart and atlatl have to be the right lengths, with the atlatl about one third as long as the dart. They also need to be made of the right stuff. Atlatls can be made from the same strong, springy wood that bows are made from, says Perkins. He uses an American hardwood called osage orange. Authentic darts he usually makes from red osier dogwood, but if you want a modern dart he supplies them in aluminium. The dart also has to be properly tuned.

It must have the proper amount of flexibility for its mass, and needs a mass at the tip of the dart to aid compression. Perkins finds that a 7 gram stone point optimises his 100 gram wooden darts. Perkins also thinks he has solved the mystery of atlatl weights - small, shaped stones which were often attached to North American atlatls. One suggestion was that they served a ritual purpose. But Perkins thinks the weights have a function. Mounted about halfway down the rear of the atlatl shaft, the weight helps to tune the flex of the atlatl. 'The atlatl weight improves the performance of the system in terms of efficiency,' he argues. 'Smoother, more controlled and powerful launches make for better accuracy.' He also thinks a specific type of oddly shaped weight, called a banner stone, served as a kind of silencer, stopping a hunter's prey from being startled by the sound of the throw. Normally, an atlatl makes a distinctive 'zip' sound when the dart is thrown. But a banner stone, extending sideways like wings on an aeroplane, again about halfway down the atlatl, seems to muffle this sound.

To test his theory, Perkins threw a number of darts over the head of a very brave engineer who measured the noise made by the launches. He found that, sure enough, atlatls with a banner stone made less noise than those without. But could primitive atlatl makers really have taken advantage of all of these subtleties? Perkins believes they did. If the atlatl weights and banner stones aren't convincing enough evidence, there's also the mass of the stone points. For any dart, there is an optimum weight for the stone tip, and the tolerance is fairly narrow. One day while at the Smithsonian Institution examining weapons left by native Americans from North and South Dakota, Perkins found three stone heads from the same site that had never been used. Two were made from chert, the third from much denser flint. All were made in the same way, but the one made of the denser stone was a centimetre shorter than the others. They weighed 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8 grams. If the maker had designed them by size alone, the denser point would have weighed much more. Perkins argues that this shows the maker had a standard weight which worked best with the darts.

Perkins hasn't proved his ideas, but archaeologists take them seriously. 'There's considerable difference of opinion among professional archaeologists. Folks like Bob are doing a real service by engaging in the actualistic research of these weapons,' says Leslie B. Davis, an archaeologist and curator at the Museum of the Rockies in Bozeman, Montana. Others are more critical. Dick Baugh, another engineer turned atlatl maker, published a paper in Lithic Technology (Spring 1998) to counter the 'extravagant claims [that] have been made regarding the increased dart velocity achieved with a flexible atlatl'. Baugh created a computer model of a person using an atlatl, then changed the length and flexibility of the atlatl and removed the atlatl weights. He concludes that atlatl flexibility makes little difference to performance, and atlatl weights make even less. He also argues that while the dart's flexibility is important for launching it off the atlatl, it makes little impact on the distance the dart actually flies. Ray Strischek of Athens, Ohio, who tied last year for best shot in the world, thinks the flex in the atlatl does make a difference.

But rather than increasing velocity, he thinks it acts as a sort of shock absorber, buffering the jerkiness of the throw and creating a smoother, more accurate launch. 'The debate goes on,' says Strischek. 'No one has been able to quite pin it down.' Until a machine with a perfect throwing action reveals the importance of all the various parameters, the experiments and controversy will continue as people continue to be fascinated by the atlatl. 'What separates us from other predators is our ability to throw a projectile at a prey,' says Perkins. 'No other animal on Earth can do that. This is just our supreme expression of using that natural ability.' **N.B. Charlie Seljos writes to say: 'It is a common mis-conception that the ballista is identical to the catapult and onager -- ancient seige engines which used slings to hurl stones in an arc. However, Greek and Roman ballista did not actually do this. The ballista was more of a direct-fire weapon.

They were the progenitors of the crossbow, having a set of moment-arms that pulled a stone along a trough to throw it.' Further reading: Information about Atlatl Bob and his company can be found at References Clarke, P., 2012, Australian Plants as Aboriginal tools Rosenberg Raymond, A., 1986, Experiments in the Function and Performance of the Weighted Atlatl World Archaeology Vol. 18, No. 2, Weaponry and Warfare (Oct., 1986), pp. 153-177 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Sturtevant, W., 1978, Handbook of North American Indians Volume 9: Southwest, Volumes 9-10, Government Printing Office, 1978 - 701 pages IN THEIR FOOTSTEPS - Australia AUSTRALIA The whole of Australia was called New South Wales until 1825 when Western Australia was formed TRANSPORTATION Punishment at the discretion of the Judges and Magistrates was transportation of convicted prisoners to colonies abroad.

As the many hangings at Tyburn increased and became abhorrent even to some of the authorities, sentences were lowered and many a prisoner escaped hanging by having his or her sentence commuted to this penalty of transportation. After prisoners were sentenced they were either sent off to gaols such as Newgate or, as the prisons became over populated, to the ï¿½hulksï¿½. Hulks were ï¿½man oï¿½ warï¿½ ships. No longer in use, they were stripped down and used as prison ships. Originally this was intended to be a short-term measure. However, when the war with the American colonies started in 1775, the option of transportation to America ceased and the authorities did not know where to send the awaiting prisoners. As a result, the hulks became desperately overcrowded and of all the places of confinement in England, they were regarded as the most brutal. Hardened criminals lived cheek - by - jowl with first time offenders, many of whom were children, guilty of petty crimes. Despite the continued use of prisons and hulks, the sheer number of convicts made it essential to find an alternative location to where they could be transported.

In 1786, after examining a range of ideas and overseas destinations, the authorities fixed on the idea of transporting to ï¿½Botany Bayï¿½ in Australia. The idea of using ï¿½Botany Bayï¿½ had been influenced by accounts given earlier by both Captain James Cook who captained the ï¿½Endeavourï¿½ and Joseph Banks - a passenger and botanist - after their discovery of the east coast of Australia in 1770. They concluded that the land they had seen was fertile, largely covered in wood, enjoying a mild climate and a plentiful supply of fish and game birds. It was confirmed that New South Wales would be a very difficult place from which to escape. THE LOCAL INHABITANTS It was also reported that there were no hostile inhabitants to speak of. In fact the convicts encountered the indigenous peoples from the outset. The Aborigines assembled near the beaches as the First Fleet arrived waving their spears and gesturing to ï¿½go awayï¿½. The new arrivals did not leave and the relationship between the two groups was addressed by the authorities with dreadful consequences in the years to come.

The Dharuk and Gandangara peoples arrived on the Australian continent about 30,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of these early people in Western Sydney, New South Wales, dates from 28,000 years ago. According to physical evidence found in the gravels of the Penrith-Castlereagh area, they were the first ethnic group to take possession of Western Sydney. Mungo Man was discovered at Lake Mungo, New South Wales, in 1974. Shifting sands exposed his remains. The body was sprinkled with red ochre in what is the earliest incidence of such a sophisticated and artistic burial practice. He was buried lying on his back with his hands interlocked over his groin. Based on evidence of osteoarthritis in the lumbar vertebrae and severe wear on the teeth, it seems likely that Mungo Man was quite old when he died. It has been possible to estimate his height as six foot four inches. His age has been accepted as being forty thousand years old. Mungo Lady was also discovered, her age being about twenty to twenty six thousand years old. She is considered to be the oldest Australian modern human being.

Modern research has shown that the earliest inhabitants of Australia came from Africa -one of the migrations of early man who, with their families and descendants, spread over many parts of the world. An interesting and enjoyable series about this was produced by Dr. Alice Roberts - ï¿½The Incredible Human Journeyï¿½ - on BBC 2. These first settlers in Australia utilised a range of tools to manage the landscape to their advantage. These included spears of a number of varieties for different purposes - woomeras, stone axes and boomerangs, as well as fishing gear. They made use of fire to increase open areas suitable for game, to smoke game out of trees, scare away bees from hives and keep the scrub down for ease of movement. Traditionally they caught large game but population increase meant that they had to rely less upon game such as kangaroo and wallabies and more upon small game such as possums. Yams grew along the Hawkesbury River and were an important source of food. Fish, shellfish and eels were a part of their diet. A typical wooden returning boomerang A boomerang is a simple implement primarily associated with Australian Aborigines but has been found amongst people of other countries.

Boomerangs are probably the first heavier-than-air flying machines ever invented by human beings. The oldest Australian boomerangs are ten thousand years old and hunting sticks have been discovered in Europe where they appear to have formed part of the Stone Age arsenal of weapons. Interestingly, King Tutankhamen of ancient Egypt who died over three thousand years ago owned a collection of boomerangs of both the straight flying (hunting) and returning variety. Boomerangs could be variously used as hunting weapons, percussive musical instruments, battle clubs and fire starters and as recreational play toys. They can range in size between 10cm. to over two metres in length. Tribal boomerangs may be inscribed or painted with designs meaningful to its maker. As hunting weapons they were used to frighten birds which would then fall into nets strung up between the trees, or for hunting prey such as kangaroo or smaller animals. These 'throwsticks' flew in a nearly straight path when thrown horizontally and were heavy enough to take down a kangaroo on impact to its legs or knees. For hunting emu the ï¿½throwstickï¿½ was thrown towards the neck, breaking it.

Most boomerangs seen today are of the returning type. Cousin Allen Maunder sent an article which is perhaps a warning to would be boomerang throwers! ï¿½Charlie Drakeï¿½s famous song, ï¿½My Boomerang Wonï¿½t Come Backï¿½ did not apply to nine year old Max Maunder in Scotland ï¿½ on his first attempt his boomerang did come back and whacked him full in the face severing part of his nose from his face. After surgery he recovered. His Dad, Nick, decided he would not stop his sons throwing boomerangs in the future but would like them to wear helmets!ï¿½ A woomera is an Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device usually used for larger prey or when there is a greater distance to be overcome. It enables a spear to travel much further than by arm strength alone. Some woomeras were multi-purpose tools often shaped like long narrow bowls that could be used for carrying water-soaked vegetable matter (very welcome in the hot dry weather) as well as small food items such as little lizards or seeds.

Many woomeras had a sharp stone cutting edge attached which was commonly used for cutting up game or other food or cutting wood and so on. For hunting purposes spears, boomerang and woomeras were traditionally used only by men. Statue of an aborigine with spear and woomera - another woomera lies at his feet The Dharuk, Gandangara and other Aboriginal people occupied caves and ledges and made camp in open areas. Their transport consisted of walking and canoeing on the rivers. Leisure was bound up with cultural practices and group activities and play for the children was simple - fostering hand-eye co-ordination, developing the body and having fun. Religious belief was closely interwoven into all aspects of life with a great reverence and respect for the land and nature. ï¿½Warfareï¿½ was at times necessary for defence but often a form of entertainment in a society with few other means for young men to vent their energies! This ï¿½entertainmentï¿½ escalated in a more serious way by the arrival of the white settlers.

Rock Painting at Ubirr in Kakadu National Park Some years ago Nat and June Jaggers (who you will hear about later) took a trip around the Gulf from Darwin to Borroloola. They followed bush tracks to Roper Bar, Hells Gate and back to civilisation at Burketown. At Roper Barï¿½s tiny shop they were given directions on how to find an Aboriginal art site ï¿½about half a dayï¿½s deviationï¿½ through virtually unmapped country. Nat relates that the last part of the directions went something like this: ï¿½When you come to a patch of pandanus palms on the left and a spring flowing from the middle of the road proceed about a hundred yards to a small clearing on the right. Park your car and go off to the left until you reach a cliff, climb to the top and you will see below you a level depressed area of about a couple of acres surrounded by cliffs. There are a few pinnacles near the edges and one has a formation on its top shaped like a skull.

Climb down and you will find a cave at the base of that pinnacle.ï¿½ Nat goes on to say that it was a burial cave - the floor strewn with skeletons and the ceiling covered with the most intricate paintings. Paintings on the ceiling of the ancient cave Photograph by Nat Jaggers After the first landing of convicts together with Governor Arthur Phillip at Botany Bay, New South Wales on the 26th January 1788, occupation of the new colony was officially proclaimed. On the 7th February 1788 ï¿½all land westwards as far as 135 degrees Eastï¿½ was officially taken into the control of the Governor for Britain. It was proclaimed that the land was not ï¿½inhabitedï¿½ or was ï¿½not being actively utilisedï¿½. Thus, all land belonged to the Crown and it was in the power of the Governor to grant land. Prior occupation by the Dharuk, Gandangara and other indigenous groups was not recognised.

Arthur Phillip was appointed First Governor of New South Wales in October 1786 arriving in the colony on 26th January 1788 Dependants in England left to fend for themselves as best they could, often had no alternative but to turn to crime or throw themselves on the mercy of the Parishes. Parishes and other organisations struggled to help those in need and unfortunately many men, women and children were sent to the appalling workhouses. Usually transportation of loved ones meant the end of existing marriages and relationships - as final as death itself. Many of the convicts would have been overwhelmed with understandable misery as they were wrenched away from their homes and family and friends - the latest in a series of raw deals that life had dealt them. But many would have been relieved to know that they had been spared from hanging. A number of cases in the Judges Reports on Criminals testify to petitions for clemency. Granted by the Kingï¿½s prerogative for mercy these prisoners were transported and not hanged. By 1861 only treason, piracy, mutiny and murder were capital offences.

Transportation to New South Wales was eventually abolished in 1840 but continued to other areas in Australia until 1868 when the last transported convict arrived in Western Australia. There was not much the convicts could do whilst they were at sea. Some of the more hardened criminals, no doubt, thought up plans to escape once they had landed (some thought they could reach China!) whilst others may have seen transportation as an opportunity to put the past behind them. Against this background in England and New South Wales towards the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, we find William Moore, Eleanor Wise, Edward Fuller and Elizabeth Pendegrass. For these four young people transportation was indeed their ï¿½big breakï¿½ - albeit a very difficult one. Many of us are descended from these four remarkable people - Pioneers of Australia - our grandparents. Australian Indigenous tools and technology | australia.gov.au Australian Indigenous tools and technology European discovery and the colonisation of Australia Australian Indigenous tools and technology Warning. Australian Stories may contain the names and images of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people now deceased. Australian Stories also contain links to sites that may use images of Aboriginal and Islander people now deceased.

The key to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander technologies is both their intimate understanding of the natural environment as well as their skills in designing artefacts that were flexible and adaptable. Tools and technology implements Ludo Kuipers, Louis Jupurrula making a 'karli' or boomerang in Lajamanu, a Warlpiri Aboriginal community in the Northern Territory, 1981. Courtesy of OzOutback Internet Services. Tools and implements reflect the geographical location of different groups. For example, coastal tribes used fishbone to tip their weapons, whereas desert tribes used stone tips. While tools varied by group and location, Aboriginal people all had implements such as knives, scrapers, axe-heads, spears, various vessels for eating and drinking, and digging sticks. Aboriginal people achieved two world firsts with stone technology. They were the first to introduce ground edges on cutting tools and to grind seed. They used stone tools for many things including: to make other tools, to get and prepare food, to chop wood, and to prepare animal skins. Stone fish traps are used in rivers where water levels rise and fall. Stone fish traps on the Darling River at Brewarrina are used to catch fish after rain.

The Budj Bim National Heritage Landscape in south-west Victoria contains the remains of one of Australia's largest aquaculture systems and the only remaining permanent houses built by an Indigenous community in Australia. After European discovery and English colonisation, Aboriginal people quickly realised the advantages of incorporating metal, glass and ceramics. They were easier to work with, gave a very sharp edge, and needed less resharpening. While stone tools have survived well, the great majority of technological items were made of perishable material such as wood and fibre. Boomerangs, clubs and spears were the most common weapons. Weapons Spears Claude-Marie-Francois Dien, 1787-1865, Terre de Diemen, armes et ornemens, 1824, engraving, hand col. Courtesy of National Library of Australia. Spears are used for hunting, fishing and fighting. Some are made from single pieces of wood. Tasmanian Aborigines had very long spears, about six metres in length. Many spears have to be made from light wood. Oyster Bay pine saplings grow tall and straight.

With the lightness, tallness and straightness of them, you rarely had to work them over a fire. We used to bind the spear shafts with yacca [grass tree, Xanthorrhoea] gum sap and kangaroo sinews. Apart from fighting spears, we had six-metre-long canoe spears, and short stumpy spears for spearing seals. Brendan Brown, Rocky Point, Cape Barren Island, 2000 Other spears are made from one or more parts attached to a wooden shaft. Composite spears with stone heads are found mostly in the centre, north and Kimberley regions of Australia. Detachable barbed spears are common across the continent, from the south-west through the centre to Cape York Peninsula. Multi-pronged spears are generally used for fishing and are mostly found in the north and south-east of Australia. Boomerangs Credited with inventing the boomerang, many Aboriginal groups used this tool mainly for hunting but also in ceremonies. The weapon can easily kill a small animal or knock down a larger one. The way that boomerangs work is very complex.

Part of the explanation is that boomerangs are flatter on the lower side and more curved on top in a shape called an aerofoil. Aborigines had boomerangs to suit different purposes. For instance, in desert areas, heavy wood from the mulga tree was used to make boomerangs for hunting kangaroos, whereas lighter boomerangs were made on the New South Wales coast from mangrove trees, where they were used for duck hunting. In 1914, inventor David Unaipon (1872–1967) used the principles of boomerang flight to anticipate the helicopter. A Ngarrindjeri man, from South Australia, Unaipon was fascinated by the idea of perpetual motion and invented such things as an improved handpiece for sheepshearing, a centrifugal motor and a multi-radial wheel. David Unaipon is commemorated on Australia's $50 note. Spearthrowers Ludo Kuipers, George Manyita about to throw a 3-pronged fish spear, Mukarrmuli billabong near Wuymol/Bulman, an Aboriginal community in the south of Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, 1983.

Courtesy of OzOutback Internet Services. Hunters all over the world have used spears. The 'woomera', a type of spearthrower, is an Aboriginal invention. A woomera is a simple lever that acts to increase the speed at which a spear is thrown, and thus increase the distance it travels. Made of wood, a woomera acts as an extension of the thrower's arm. A woomera and spear were the fastest weapons in the world before the invention of the self-loading rifle (Eric Willmot). Woomeras were multipurpose tools that could be fitted with a stone cutting tool or an axe-like attachment. If you had a good woomera, you could hunt, chop firewood, cut down branches to make a shelter or chop up meat. It was lightweight and easy to carry around, which was really important in a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Message sticks Throughout Australia, Aboriginals had over 200 different languages and 600 dialects, yet no written language. Communication of information to all these different groups was often through a message stick. Each stick was carved in a way that would help the carrier remember the message and prove to the recipient that the information was genuine.

Message sticks meant that a complex or very long message could be communicated between people. This was supported by people who acted as 'diplomats' and others who were multilingual and used as translators. Nets, baskets and bags Elizabeth Djuttarra, Batjparra, traditional sieve. Elizabeth Djuttarra. Licensed by VISCOPY, Australia, 2007. Fibrework nets, traps, baskets and bags are used extensively for fishing and hunting. In earlier time, fibre objects were crucial for the sustenance of family groups. Some baskets and bags are so tightly woven that they can carry honey or liquids. Bags are generally collapsible and sometimes, expandable. They are mainly used for carrying food and sometimes babies. Bags are made from bush string, cordyline and knotted grass stalks. String bags are also used to sift seeds. Looped or twined fibre nets are used to catch kangaroos and emus, as well as ducks, fish and eels. In central Arnhem Land, men use hinged nets to scoop up the fish. In Tasmania, mollusc carry baskets made from twined bark fibres are used for collecting oysters, mussels and other shellfish.

Aboriginal women use swamp reeds, native flax, sedge grasses, water vine and sea grasses to make baskets. Most fibrework is made from coiling, twining and looping. In South Australia, the Ngarrindjeri people of the Murray River and Coorong regions never lost their basic fibre techniques despite their experiences of colonisation. The coiling of rushes into baskets was then passed onto women of Goulbourn and Croker Islands through missionary activities. This technique soon spread across Arnhem Land. In Arnhem Land, fibrework and containers is associated very closely with major Dreaming stories. Weaving baskets and bags helps define the knowledge and status of women in communities as women have to earn the right to that knowledge. In south-eastern coastal communities, Aboriginal women's basket work has benefited from a significant amount of knowledge being sourced, collected and passed back to them. Highly regarded basket makers, women from Lake Tyers, Victoria, and the Coorang, South Australia, have demonstrated methods of collecting materials and different weaving techniques which they shared with the women of the south-eastern coast of New South Wales. Basket making for the south coastal women revives and continues a tradition of women's work.

Watercraft and canoes Rolf de Heer, Still from 'Ten Canoes', 2006. Courtesy of Vertigo Productions and the National Film and Sound Archive. Early watercraft were relatively fragile, often made from bark and usually left to rot when their use was finished. Canoes provided an easy means of travelling through the lagoons and into reed beds, providing a plentiful supply of fish, eels and birds' eggs. A river was a means of navigation and Aborigines used canoes and rafts to travel extensively through their lands. The film Ten Canoes, the first feature-length movie in an Australian Indigenous language, tells the story of ten men going onto the swamp in canoes to hunt the eggs of Gumang, the magpie goose. The bark canoes and artefacts used in the film were based on historical Donald Thomson photographs, loaned from Bula'bula Arts. Tied bark canoes were used along the south-east coast of Australia. 'Canoe trees' are relatively common within the Murray-Darling Basin. The clearly visible canoe scars seen on the trees result from the removal of a large slab of bark, destined for shaping as a crude canoe.

A Wurundjeri canoe from the Melbourne region survives and is held by the Museum of Victoria. Three types of rope have been used to tie the canoe into shape; two of these are handmade, but the third is machine-made European twine. Most striking are the three metal straps (taken from a wooden barrel) that maintain the canoe's shape. Museum Victoria, Bark canoe Ludo Kuipers, Galiliwa Nunggarrgalug getting turtle eggs on the beach at Almalamig Point, Malagayangu, near Numbulwar at the west coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria, 1995. Courtesy of OzOutback Internet Services. Bush food implements Carrying dishes and digging sticks were important tools used in food gathering. Most Aboriginal communities harvested seeds of native millet, which only grows in the summer months. Some groups overcame the problem by gathering grass seeds while they were green and stacking them in heaps until they ripened. Seed-grinding stones were larger and flatter than stones used to grind other plants.

Along the Murray, from the river red gums along the river banks, Aboriginal people could use the bark for making buckets or coolamons of paperbark stitched together and which carried food and water. From the plentiful sheoaks of Maribyrnong came the useful hard wood which Aboriginal people used for making implements such as digging sticks. Shelter The design and technology of shelters differed according to differing seasons and climates. Ceremonial function and family grouping size also effect the diversity of Australian shelters. Meriam house of the Torres Strait Islands. Courtesy of Queensland Museum and Aboriginal Environments Research Centre. On the Atherton Tablelands, shelters, or wiltjas, were made from pliable cane or branches lashed together. The covering was of grass, leaves or bark. In the Torres Strait Islands, houses were a distinctive 'beehive shape' constructed of thatched grass over a framework of bamboo poles lashed together. In Arnhem Land, shelters ranged from simple peg-supported paperbark windbreaks used in the dry season, to poles that supported sheets of stringybark. Shelters also included raised platforms to protect from heavy rains and flooding.

In southern Australia, materials and shapes of shelters recorded by Europeans varied from a whalebone hut on the shores of Encounter Bay, South Australia in 1847 through stone shelters in western Victoria to 'complex house structure with several interconnecting spaces constructed of sheets of rigid bark and poles' at Corranderrk in 1878. Trade in material culture and technology Many of these items of material culture were traded from one location to another across the continent and down to Tasmania. Trade was vital to Aboriginal existence in some areas as it improved the quality of life for family groups. Stones, ochres, tools, ceremonial items and other resources not normally available in one area could be obtained through trade in another. Trading routes followed permanent waterholes, and goods were traded over long distances. From the north came sea shells, from the south came grinding stones and ochre, and from the east and north-east came shields, axeheads, boomerangs and spears. Useful links Aboriginal Weapons Aboriginal Weapons Aboriginal Weapons Hunting Spears Hunting spears used by the Aboriginal people are usually made from Tecoma vine. These vines are not straight but in fact curly.

To straighten them the maker dries out the moisture by heating the branch over a small fire while it is still green. While doing this he shapes it into the form that he wants. A wooden barb is attached to the spearhead by using kangaroo (sometimes emu) sinew. The opposite end is then tapered to fit onto a spearthrower. On completion the spear is usually around 270 centimetres (9 feet) long. In Aboriginal Art the spear is usually depicted as a straight line with a triangle at one end. Spearthrower/Woomera Spearthrowers are also commonly known as Woomera or Miru. The spearthrower is usually made from mulga wood and has a multi- function purpose. It is however primarily designed to launch a spear. The thrower grips the end covered with Spinifex resin and places the end of the spear into the small peg on the opposite end of the spearthrower. The spear can then be launched with substantial power at an enemy or prey. Inserted into the Spinifex resin of the handle of many spearthrowers is very sharp piece of quartz rock. This is used for cutting, shaping or sharpening.

The spearthrower was also used as a fire making saw, as a receptacle of mixing ochre, in ceremonies and to deflect spears in battle. In Aboriginal Art the Spear Thrower/Woomera is depicted as what can be seen in this image.... Shields Shields are usually made from the bloodwood of Mulga trees. Aboriginal men using very basic tools make these. They are designed to be mainly used in battle but are also used in ceremonies. Like other weapons, design varies from region to region. Many shields have traditional designs or fluting on them whilst others are just smooth. In Aboriginal art the Shield is depicted as an oval shape with two small oval circles for hand holds. See here.... Boomerangs Boomerangs are also a very multi functional instrument of the Aboriginal people. Their uses include warfare, hunting prey, rituals and ceremonies, musical instruments, digging sticks and also as a hammer. Boomerangs made in the desert are non-returning and when thrown correctly can reach distances of 160 metres (175 yards). This is nearly three times the distance a fighting club could be thrown.

They are usually made from mulga wood and can be smoothed or incised with various designs purporting to that maker or family group. In Aboriginal Art the boomerang is depicted as a 'V' shape or the 'killer boomerang' as a Number 7. See here..... Clubs Clubs are usually always made from mulga wood and can vary in shapes and sizes. Many are fire hardened and some have razor sharp quartz set into the handle with Spinifex resin. They are used in ceremonies, in battle, for digging, for grooving tools, for decorating weapons and for many other purposes. In Aboriginal art paintings fighting clubs are usually depicted the same as digging sticks. See here... Traditional Aboriginal games & activities - Creative Spirits Creative Spirits Traditional Aboriginal games have many benefits and enjoy growing interest. Here’s a collection and brief description of many traditional games. Last updated: 3 September 2015 Traditional Aboriginal games were almost lost after colonisation. Today extensive consultation with Aboriginal elders is necessary to re-establish the traditional Aboriginal games and their rules. They are now creatively adapted—for safety reasons—by using tennis balls instead of spears and soft pool noodles instead of waddies (Aboriginal heavy-wood war club) [1].

Traditional Aboriginal games are inclusive games and not competitive. For example, if a player gets ‘out’ in some games they can immediately rejoin the game once leaving the field [4]. Traditional Aboriginal games. Today it takes a lot of work to uncover traditional games played by Aboriginal people before white colonisation of Australia. Illustration from ‘Yulunga - Traditional Indigenous Games’ Benefits of traditional Aboriginal games Traditional Aboriginal games are not dead as this newspaper article shows, but a feature of an Aboriginal family day [5]. Benefits of bringing traditional Indigenous games back to life include bringing-together of Indigenous and non-Indigenous people help reconnect urban Indigenous youth to their culture boost education retention (i.e. attendance at school) promote reconciliation provide essential training in social interaction enhance physical health Many Aboriginal people see the traditional Indigenous games as a strong indicator that their culture can survive. In this way traditional games are not only helping Aboriginal youth to get physically fit but also inspiring older members of the Indigenous community. Traditional Aboriginal games were not only played by children. Some games involved only men and boys, even old men, while in other games everyone was allowed to participate. It's possible to see elements of our modern games in these [traditional Aboriginal] games.

Keentan is like basketball, and Wana is much like French cricket, Kokan is a hockey game and Koolchee is like 10-pin bowling.—Sharon Louth, education lecturer at the University of Southern Queensland [3] Background to some Traditional Indigenous Games (TIGs) Watch this video to learn how some traditional games prepared hunters while others were simply entertaining. Guide to traditional Aboriginal games Here are some traditional Aboriginal [2,4,5,6,8,9]: Battendi This Aboriginal game was set up to enhance both a spear-thrower’s accuracy and distance. Points are awarded on both bases, with the target throws making for a particularly entertaining contest. Battendi was played in areas of South Australia. Brambahl A traditional Indigenous game where two men hold a long rope at each end to swing it. When it is in full swing in goes the skipper and performs several activities while skipping. Boogalah A game where a ball, made of sewn-up kangaroo skin, is thrown in the air. Whoever catches it goes with all of their totem group into a group in the middle, the others are circling around.

The ball is thrown into the air until one of the circle outside catches it. Then both groups change positions. The totem keeping it longest wins. Bubberah A game about come-back boomerang throwing. The boomerang which returns closest wins. Buroinjin A ball game similar to basketball played with a ball made up of kangaroo skin (called a buroijin and stuffed with grass) by the Kabi Kabi people of southern Queensland Goomboobooddoo A traditional wrestling game. Bodies are greased to make them slippery, then family clans compete against each other. The side that finally throws the most men wins. Gorri, Wungoolay A game in which Aboriginal boys and men throw or roll a small object (a tennis ball or a disc) along a line at a moving target. Players are required to try and strike the moving object with spears from a distance of about 15m to score points for their team. This kind of game has historical references to hunting wildlife and helped children learn accuracy of the eye and speed in casting the spear, improving physical fitness and focus. It appears to be common to Western Australia and Victoria.

Gurril Boodthul Players in this Aboriginal game throw boodthuls, or miniature war clubs, towards a bush. The clubs have to skim through the top of the bush which accelerates them beyond the bush. Winner is whose boodthul travelled furthest. Kai In this traditional game from the Torres Strait a number of players stood in a circle and sang the ‘kai wed’ (ball song) as they hit a ball and tried to keep it up in the air with the palm of one hand at a time. This Indigenous game was played using the thick, oval, deep red fruit of the kai tree which is quite light when dry. Kalq A traditional Indigenous game where men used a throwing stick (‘woomera’) to project a big killing spear (‘kalq’) towards the next player. They used their woomeras to deflect the spear to the next player. Boys used spears with blunted ends when they played this game. The game is traditional to the Cape York Peninsula in North Queensland. Kee’an A game in which competitors throw a large animal bone with twine attached to it (acting like a comet ball) over a net into a pit or hole.

The aim was for the bone and twine not to touch the net which required great skill and prepared for hunting. North Queensland was home to this traditional game. Keentan A keep-away game of catch ball played by both genders. The game was also called the ‘kangaroo-play’ because the players jumping up to catch the ball resembled the movements of a kangaroo. Keentan was known by the Kalkadoon nation in north-west central districts of Queensland. Kolap An object throwing game using beans of the Kolap tree. Common on Mer Island in the Torres Strait late last century. Kokan A traditional hockey type game using a small ball (‘kokan’) played on a long stretch of sandy beach. The ball was struck with a bat or club made from bamboo. A popular game in many areas of the Torres Strait and Papua and New Guinea where various types of this game were known. Koolche A ball throwing and hitting game traditionally played by Aboriginal people in the Lake Eyre district of South Australia. The balls were made of any material that could be easily worked and had the size of bowling balls.

Two teams lined up on opposite ends of a dry claypan rolling their balls to the other end and trying to break the other team’s balls. This traditional Aboriginal game ended when almost all balls were used and takes its name from the word ‘kolchee’ for the balls. Traditional Aboriginal ball made from possum or kangaroo skin. The ball was made in various sizes to fit the game it was used in. Image source: [2] Marngrook, Marn Grook A traditional game from the Gunditjmara people in Victoria. The name comes from a corroboree by the Djabwurrung and Jardwadjali clans in Victoria’s Western District [6]. Marngrook is said to be the Aboriginal game that provided the first lawmakers of football with some of the fundamentals of the game millions know and love as Australian Rules (Aussie Rules) Football [2], a view which is not totally undisputed. ‘Marngrook’ means ‘Game Ball’. The National Indigenous Television (NITV) turned the radio program The Marngrook Footy Show into a TV show in 2007.

The show came to be due to a lack of Indigenous people in any of the other football shows. Jim Poulter wrote the book Marn-Grook, Original Australian Rules in 1985. Mer Kai In Mer Kai a ball is kept in the air for as long as possible, similar to hacky sack. Muhanganing A running game children of Arnhem Land in northern Australia played in the flickering lights from the firebrands of the grown-ups sitting about a camp site. Parndo This traditional Aboriginal ball game was played in South Australia near Adelaide (Kaurna nation). The parndo (ball) was made with a piece of opossum skin, flattish in shape and about the size of a tennis ball. This is a kicking and hand passing game. Puloga Puloga was played in the Cardwell and Tully River regions of North Queensland and is played like dodge ball. Pulyugge A keepings-off style of game traditionally played throughout Australia. Players prevent themselves from being tagged while in possession of a ball which can vary in size but is normally made of bound animal skin with either grass or charcoal filling.

The game doesn’t have a point system, but is more of an engaging game aimed to enhance life skills. Purlja Purlja is a game like football that the Warlpiri Aboriginal people (north-west of Alice Springs) played for thousands of years. Taktyerrain A mock combat game like ‘poison ball’ or ‘brandy’. Toy spears made from grasses, reeds and rushes were thrown, sometimes with a toy throwing stick (woomera). This traditional Aboriginal game was played by both girls and boys. Tarnambai Children collected the seed heads of the spring rolling grass (Spinifex) and took them to the beach where they tossed them into the air. The wind blew them along and the children tried to catch them running at full speed. A common game on Bathurst Island, 100 kms north-west of Darwin in the Northern Territory. Wana This traditional game was played by girls only. A short piece of stick was placed on the ground to represent a baby. Each girl had to defend her child from the digging sticks of the other girls who pretended to try to kill the baby by throwing the sticks at the ‘mother’.

The mother tried to fend them off using her own digging stick (‘wana’). Wana taught girls to defend their young children. Sometimes adult women stood by the side of their men to ward off the attack of a rival tribe. This traditional game was known in Western Australia. Weme A stone bowling game where one player threw a stone which was then used as a target by the next player. Players alternated turns. This traditional game was known to the Walbiri people of Central Australia. Whagoo The popular hide and seek game was also known to Aboriginal people. Wimberoo A fireside game. Each player warmed a dry Coolabah leaf until it bent a little, then hit it into the hot current of air of a fire. Winner is whose leaf travelled highest. Woggabaliri A traditional kind of football game that involved ball made of possum fur. The ball was spun by the women and only about five centimetres in diameter. The game trained agility and required suppleness of limbs. Wulijini A traditional game of hand hitting or handball played with a zamia (Cycas media) seed by the people of Bathurst Island in northern Australia.

In the Meda district of north-western Australia players used flat pieces of wood. Yahweerh A sort of sham trial fight. One man has a bark shield, and he has to defend himself with it from the bark toy boomerangs the others throw. Yiri A traditional aiming or accuracy game. The general idea is to aim a spear at a moving target which could be pieces of wood or bark placed in running water. In modern versions competitors throw tennis balls at a moving tyre. The game was recorded being played by the boys at Ulladulla in New South Wales. Traditional Aboriginal games resource In July 2008 the Australian Sports Commission published a comprehensive resource of traditional Aboriginal games. It covers the following types of games: Ball and top spinning games Ball games

Question: What is the name for an Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device used to increase the power of a throw?
Answer: Woomera