polyphemus moth - Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) Introduction (Back to Top) The polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer), is one of our largest and most beautiful silk moths. It is named after Polyphemus, the giant cyclops from Greek mythology who had a single large, round, eye in the middle of his forehead (Himmelman 2002). The name is because of the large eyespots in the middle of the hind wings. The polyphemus moth also has been known by the genus name Telea but it and the Old World species in the genus Antheraea are not considered to be sufficiently different to warrant different generic names. Because the name Antheraea has been used more often in the literature, Ferguson (1972) recommended using that name rather than Telea to avoid confusion. Both genus names were published in the same year. For a historical account of the polyphemus moth’s taxonomy see Ferguson (1972) or Tuskes et al. (1996). Figure 1. Adult male polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer)(dorsal view). Photograph by Donald W.

Hall , University of Florida. The family name Saturniidae is based on the eyespots of some members of the family that contain concentric rings reminiscent of the planet Saturn (Powell 2003). Because of their ease of rearing (Collins and Weast 1961, Villiard 1975) and large size, polyphemus moths are often reared by amateur enthusiasts and also have been used for numerous physiological studies - particularly for studies on molecular mechanisms of sex pheromone action. Description (Back to Top) Adults: The adult wingspan is 10 to 15 cm (approximately 4 to 6 inches) (Covell 2005). The upper surface of the wings is various shades of reddish brown, gray, light brown or yellow-brown with transparent eyespots. There is considerable variation in color of the wings even in specimens from the same locality (Holland 1968). The large hind wing eyespots are ringed with prominent yellow, white (partial) and black rings.

On the upper surface, there are pink-edged white ante-medial and post-medial lines on the forewing and a pinkish white-edged, black post-medial line on the hind wing. The undersides of the wings have areas with pinkish-white and others with various shades of brown. Figure 2. Adult male polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer)(ventral view). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Figure 3. Adult female polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer)(dorsal view). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Figure 4. Adult female polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer)(ventral). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Polyphemus antennae are quadripectinate (comb-like on four sides) with those of males being larger than those of females. Figure 5. Male and female polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) antennae. Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida.

Eggs: The slightly oval flattened eggs are white with two broad brown rings and are cemented to the substrate with a dark brown adhesive. Maximum reported dimensions in millimeters are 2.4 × 2 × 1.52 (length × width × height) (Peterson 1965). Figure 6. Eggs of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Larvae: Packard (1914) provided detailed descriptions of the eggs and each of the five larval instars and color drawings of instars 1 to 4. He gave the following lengths for the five instars: 1st instar: 5 to 6 mm, 2nd instar: 14 to 15 mm, 3rd instar: 20 to 25 mm, 4th instar: 40 to 45 mm, 5th instar: 60 mm. First instar larvae are white with two black transverse bars on the tops and sides of each segment. Figure 7.

First instar larva of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Older instars are yellow-green, and the setae become relatively less prominent with each molt. The translucent yellowish-green to green, full-grown (fifth instar) caterpillars are 60 to 75 mm in length (Godfrey et al. 1987). They have yellow mid-segmental lines that run from the sub-dorsal scoli (setae-bearing, wart-like bumps) touching the spiracles and to the lateral scoli on abdominal segments 2 to 7. The scoli are orange to red, and the lateral aspects of the dorsal and sub-dorsal scoli are silver. The dark area of the anal plate extends as a line part way across abdominal segment nine. Fifth instars have a yellow band that extends around the dorsal and lateral areas directly behind the head, yellow bands laterally at the bases of the thoracic legs and a yellow mid-ventral line that extends the length of the abdomen.

Fifth instar male larvae can be differentiated from female larvae by the presence of a black pit on the ventral aspect of the ninth abdominal segment of males that is lacking in females (Miller and Machotka 1980). Figure 8. Late instar larva of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Figure 9. Fifth instar larva of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Cocoon and Pupa: The single-layered cocoon is thicker and more elliptical than the cocoon of the luna moth (Wagner 2005). Figure 10. Cocoon of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. The pupa is obtect (wings and appendages are appressed to the body). Female pupae may be distinguished from males by the presence of a longitudinal notch on the ventral surface of the fourth totally exposed abdominal segment. This notch is lacking in males.

Also, the much larger developing antennae of male pupae touch each other at the mid-ventral line while those of female pupae do not. Figure 11. Male and female pupae of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. The pupa is anchored to a loosely spun pad of silk at the rear of the cocoon by a cremaster (spines at the tip of the abdomen) that facilitates emergence of the adult from the pupal exoskeleton. Figure 12. Cremaster on posterior end of pupa of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Life Cycle (Back to Top) The polyphemus moth is univoltine (one brood per year) from Pennsylvania northward (Holland 1968) and bivoltine (two broods per year) from the Ohio Valley southward (Tuskes et al. 1996). However, due to staggered emergence, adults may be found during every month of the year in Florida (Heppner 2003).

The adult moth escapes the pupal case by splitting it at the anterior end and pushing the top up. Unlike the other large silk moths, the polyphemus and luna moths lack an escape “valve” in the cocoon to aid their emergence. Therefore, in order to escape their cocoons they secrete a trypsin-like cocoonase enzyme to digest the sericin component of the silk at the anterior end of the cocoon to soften it (Kafatos and Williams 1964, Hruska et al. 1973). The cocoonase is produced and released from the highly modified maxillary galeae (the structures that form the tongue or proboscis of moths and butterflies that feed as adults). The moths then tear their way from the cocoon by the use of chitinous spurs on the thorax near the bases of the front wings while moving about the cocoon in a circular pattern (Hilton 1965). Actually, there are two spurs on each side - a large spur and a smaller spur immediately anterior to it (see photo). Figure 13.

Thoracic spurs on thorax of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Figure 14. Cocoon of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) with emergence hole. Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Adult eclosion (emergence from pupa) typically occurs in the afternoon with males usually beginning emergence several days before females from the same brood. Afternoon emergence allows time for expansion and drying of the wings prior to the evening flight period. Also, during the first day after emergence, the moth voids the liquid meconium which is composed of the breakdown waste products of the old larval tissues. The adults are strongly attracted to light - particularly UV wavelengths. There has been some concern that light pollution from man-made sources (particularly mercury vapor street lights) may deter silk moths from mating and have a negative impact on their populations in urban areas (Worth and Muller 1979). Fortunately, mercury vapor lamps are not used as commonly as they once were for street lights.

Females release a sex-attractant pheromone and may attract males from a distance beginning late evening of the day of emergence. The sex pheromone has been characterized as a 90:10 mixture, respectively, of trans-6,cis-11-hexadecadienyl acetate and trans-6,cis-11-hexadecadienal (Kochansky et al. 1975). While males are attracted all night long, maximal attractiveness is during the last two hours before sunrise (Kochansky et al. 1977). Mating pairs remain coupled throughout the day and separate at dusk. Either caged or tethered females can be used to attract wild males. Worth (1980) has designed a tether for this purpose that prevents the tethered moth from escaping or twisting the tethering line around its body. Females begin laying eggs the evening after mating and continue for several nights. Eggs are laid singly or in groups of two or three on leaves of the host plant (Opler et al. 2012 ). In captivity, they will lay their eggs on any substrate.

Adults have vestigial mouthparts and do not feed. Therefore, they are short-lived. Caterpillars are solitary and develop through five instars. Immediately after hatching, caterpillars eat their egg shells (Opler et al. 2012 ). Older instars eat whole leaves and then sever the petioles to drop them to the ground (Tuskes et al. 1996) - possibly to obscure their presence from predators The presence of large larvae on branches overhead may often be detected by the presence of frass (caterpillar droppings) on pavement of driveways or parking lots. Figure 15. Frass (fecal pellets) of larva of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Caterpillars exposed to short photoperiods (8-12 hours) produce diapausing (overwintering) pupae while those exposed to long photoperiods ( >17 hours) produce non-diapausing pupae (Mansingh and Smallman 1967).

Both induction and termination of diapause also may be influenced by temperature (Mansingh and Smallman 1971). Polyphemus caterpillars are polyphagous and have been reported in nature from over 50 species of broad-leaved plants (Ferguson 1972, Heppner 2003, Tietz 1972, Tuskes et al. 1996) and will feed on a wide variety of species in captivity. Polyphemus caterpillars use the full range of cocoon placement behaviors found in the subfamily Saturniinae as described by Wagner and Mayfield (1980): 1) Attached longitudinally and permanently to a twig so that the cocoon does not fall to the ground during the winter. 2) Attached apically by a silk peduncle (occasionally by a double peduncle) to a twig. Peduncle may be weak allowing cocoon to fall to ground during winter or strong so that cocoon remains on tree all winter. Attachment by a peduncle may be more common in the South (Wagner 2005).

3) Attached among leaves on trees but with no peduncle so that most fall to ground during winter. 4) Spun on ground among fallen leaves, grasses or herbs. In the West, Native Americans sometimes fill the cocoons of polyphemus and other silk moths with sand or pebbles to make rattles by tying them to sticks or to their ankles for use as musical instruments (Himmelman 2002). Defenses and Natural Enemies (Back to Top) Polyphemus caterpillars are never sufficiently common to cause significant damage to their host trees except occasionally in California where they may be pests of commercial plums (Tuskes et al. 1996). Their populations are regulated by natural enemies - including insect parasitoids and generalist predators. Polyphemus caterpillars gain protection from predators by their cryptic green coloration. When threatened they often rear the front part of the body in a "Sphinx" pose - possibly to make them less caterpillar-like to a predator.

If attacked, polyphemus caterpillars as well as those of many other bombycoid moths make a clicking noise with the mandibles - sometimes as a prelude to or accompanied by defensive regurgitation of distasteful fluids. Brown et al. (2007) found that ants and mice were deterred by the regurgitant of the polyphemus caterpillars and suggested that the clicking is a warning of the impending regurgitation. Figure 16. Caterpillar of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) displaying the characteristic “Sphinx” pose. Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Cocoons hanging in trees are susceptible to attack by squirrels (Young 1982) and woodpeckers (Waldbauer 1970). Cocoons falling with the leaves in the fall or being spun among leaves or grasses on the ground. may be more susceptible to attack by mice in the leaf litter, but Waldbauer (1996) believes that these cocoons gain protection from their random scattering in the litter and that the majority of cocoons that remain suspended in trees are attacked by woodpeckers.

Figure 17. Cocoon of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) with 2.0 mm diameter hole in top. The cocoon contained a hollow pupal exoskeleton with a hole of identical size, shape, and location as that in the cocoon. The hole is like those reported by Waldbauer et al. (1970) that were caused by hairy and downy woodpeckers. Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. When threatened, adult polyphemus flip the front wings forward and also often flap the wings exposing the large hind wing eyespots -- possibly to startle potential predators. Cryan (1973) reported an incident in which display of the eyespots appeared to protect a polyphemus in flight from blue jays. Tuskes et al. (1996) listed the following insect parasitoids (with references) of polyphemus: ten species of tachinid flies (Arnaud 1978, O’Hara and Wood 2004), four species of chalcidoid wasps (Krombein et al.

1979, Peck 1963), one species of braconid wasp (Krombein et al. 1979), five species of ichneumonid wasps (Krombein et al. 1979, Townes 1944), and one species of proctotrupoid wasp (Collins and Weast 1961). Old cocoons made by caterpillars that were parasitized by ichneumon wasps have an exit hole made by the wasp that is similar to that made by woodpeckers. However, they can be differentiated from cocoons attacked by woodpeckers by the presence inside of the cocoon of the ichneumon and the cadaver of the polyphemus caterpillar. Figure 18. Cocoon of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) with exit hole made by an ichneumon wasp parasitoid. The cocoon contained an ichneumon wasp cocoon. Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida. Figure 19.

Cocoon of polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) with an ichneumon wasp cocoon. Photograph by Donald W. Hall , University of Florida.

Order Lepidoptera - Butterflies and Moths - BugGuide.Net Home » Guide » Arthropods (Arthropoda) » Hexapods (Hexapoda) » Insects (Insecta) » Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera) Order Lepidoptera - Butterflies and Moths Show images of: caterpillars · adults · both Classification Order Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) Other Common Names pupal case, when covered in silk, commonly called a cocoon the typically pupa of a butterfly is called a chrysalis Spanish: polilla (referring mostly to clothes moth), mariposa de la noche, mariposa nocturna (night butterfly), paloma (literally, dove) French: mite (referring mostly to clothes moth), papillon de nuit (night butterfly, as in Spanish) Pronunciation Leh-pih-DOP-ter-ra Synonyms and other taxonomic changes As of 2016, BugGuide follows with caution the Pohl, et al. 2016 provisional checklist ( 1 ) which is the updated version of the checklist list at MPG.

This is a working paper and not yet peer reviewed, however it is based on peer reviewed work. It can be viewed or downloaded here . Notes prior to 2016: BugGuide currently follows the classification found at ZooKeys . An updated list can be found in the "Latin Name Index" at MPG here . (Click on "Download current MPG checklist file" near the middle of the page.) See discussion on forum here which is an update to the discussion here for more information. Markku Savela's Lepidoptera site is invaluable for synonyms, links to original literature, distributions south of the border, and numbers of spp. Search by genus or genus species. Explanation of Names Lepidoptera means "scale wing", from Greek: lepis (λεπις / genitive form λεπιδος)- "scale" + ptera (πτερα)- "wing" The related word "motte" in German shows that "moth" was inherited from the ancestral language that gave rise to both German and English. The Old English form was "moþþe" ("moththe" after converting the Old English letter thorn ).

The original meaning is unclear; mothhthe is perhaps related to maggot (older Germanic forms mado, made) and/or midge (Patridge, 1958; Wiktionary-- moth ; Wikipedia-- Moth-etymology ). It seems likely that the original meaning referred to moth caterpillars, and it may have referred, in particular, to human commensals such as Tineola bisselliella, the Webbing Clothes Moth . Numbers 89 families and 12,766+ species in North America ( 1 ), although there may be many unidentified species (mostly micromoths) ( Lepidoptera Bar Code of Life ) At least a couple of hundreds are introduced species.

Bugguide lists 191 non-natives as of 12/6/2016 About 165,000 described moth species in the world Size Wingspan of North American species ranges from about 2-3 mm in the tiniest micromoths, to more than 150 mm in the largest silk, sphinx, and owlet moths; some tropical species have wingspans of more than 250 mm (see Largest Lepidopteran Wing Span ) Identification Adults ( imagos ) have four membranous wings (rarely wingless); hindwings are usually smaller than forewings, both largely or entirely covered with scales. Adult mouthparts adapted for sucking, the proboscis is usually in the form of a coiled tube (adults of some species lack mouthparts and do not feed as adults). Images showing the characteristics of the order Lepidoptera: Common practice is to divide the Lepidoptera into two (or three) groups, though this is not, strictly speaking, a taxonomic division.

(Butterflies and skippers are monophyletic groups within the Lepidoptera, but "moths" are a paraphyletic group.) Moths usually have feathery antennae and most are active at night. They generally rest with their wings open, either flat or "tented" over the body. Rarely, the wings are held together vertically above the body as with butterflies. When they pupate above ground they generally form a protective cocoon around the pupa. This is made of silk, often combined with other natural materials such as leaves or their own body hair. The caterpillars of many species dig into the ground to pupate. Butterflies have thin antennae with "knobs" on the end and are generally active during the day. They rest with their wings closed above their bodies, and make a naked pupa also known as a chrysalis . Skippers are a separate group of butterflies, with many distinctive features. They are (mostly) day-flying, have knobbed antennae, and rest with wings folded or spread, depending on the group. Date/time-of-year and foodplant (for caterpillars) are sometimes helpful in determining the species.

Key to the superfamilies Larvae ( caterpillars ) have a hardened head capsule and a fleshy body composed of a thorax bearing three pairs of legs , and an elongated cylindrical abdomen bearing from zero to five pairs of prolegs (short fleshy ventral projections used for clinging or walking). The body may be either uniformly colored or patterned with stripes, bands, or spots; the surface may be smooth, or may be sparsely or densely covered with short or long hairs, tufts of hair, spines, knobs, or other features. For a start on identification of moth families, see: Superfamily Yponomeutoidea : Ermine Moths and kin Superfamily Zygaenoidea : Flannel, Slug Caterpillar, Leaf Skeletonizer Moths and kin Range Please report significant date, location and/or species records to your local LepSoc Zone Coordinator Habitat Caterpillars are found in the habitat where their food is.

Adults tend to be in the general area of their larval foodplants, Larvae may be found anywhere on their host plant, from underground on or inside the roots, to the highest leaves of tall trees; a few species are aquatic, developing on or in standing or running water Adults are generally found near the larval host plant, but many migrate over great distances. Many species are attracted to artificial light. Moths are essentially a group of nocturnal insects but butterflies and some moths are diurnal; see Internet Reference (TT). Season Caterpillars are active when their hostplants are plentiful, which is often spring and summer. Adults are usually seen when there are flowers to feed on. Because they over-winter, though, there are individuals of some species to be found any time of the year, even in cold climates. Seasonal patterns are usually species-specific, and some species can only be distinguished in the field by their season of activity. Species considered household pests may be active all year indoors. Food Most adult moths and butterflies use their coiled mouthparts to suck nectar from flowers of a great variety of woody and herbaceous plants.

In the process they may transfer pollen from one flower to another, and many plants depend on moths or butterflies for pollination. Secondary foods include sugary secretions (honeydew) from insects, juices of decaying fruit, tree sap, and manure liquids; adult moths in several families have either no mouthparts or non-functional mouthparts, and therefore do not feed as adults. Depending on species, larvae may feed on all parts of herbaceous plants, roots/twigs/stems/leaves of trees and shrubs, fungi, lichens, dead or decaying plant material, stored food products, fabrics made of cotton or wool, or generally any organic material; many species are very host-specific, and can be identified by the plant they are feeding on; larvae of a few species are known to eat other caterpillars, and a few other species eat soft-bodied insects such as aphids. See: Carnivorous Lepidoptera World's Database of caterpillar hostplants . Life Cycle These insects undergo complete metamorphosis ; that is, each individual goes through four stages: egg, larva (the caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis), and adult.

The larval stage does most of the eating and growing, with the adults often staying alive just long enough to mate and lay eggs. Many species have one generation per year; others may have from two to several generations; a few species take more than one year to develop. Depending on species, moths may overwinter as an egg, larva, pupa, or adult. Adult lifespan ranges from as short as a few days (in ghost moths) up to several months in species that overwinter as an adult. Remarks Contrary to popular belief, butterflies and moths will not die if the scales are rubbed off their wings. Modern cladistic analysis using DNA evidence shows that butterflies probably evolved from within the moths, most likely in or near the Superfamily Geometroidea. See Also Trichoptera (caddisflies) tend to have hairs rather than scales on their wings; no coiled proboscis larvae of sawflies (Hymenoptera)--often mistaken for caterpillars but have more than five pairs of prolegs , whereas caterpillars always have five or fewer pairs.

larvae of some lady beetles --have waxy white tufts may be mistaken for hairy caterpillars, but have no prolegs and always consume living insects. various other insects are sometimes mistaken for small moths--see moth flies , whiteflies , pleasing lacewings , and derbid planthoppers in the genus Otiocerus Print References Covell, Peterson Field Guides: Eastern Moths ( 2 ), Field Guide to Moths of Eastern North America (reprint) ( 3 ) Himmelman, Discovering Moths: Nighttime Jewels in Your Own Backyard ( 4 ) McFarland, N. 1964. Notes on collecting, rearing, and preserving larvae of macrolepidoptera. Jl. Lep. Soc. 18(4): 201-210 ; additional notes, 1965, vol. 19(4): 233-236 Miller, J. C. & P. C. Hammond 2003. Lepidoptera of the Pacific Northwest: caterpillars and adults.

FHTET-03-11: 1-323 ( PDF )( 5 ) Patridge, 1958. Origins: A short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: MacMillan, 972 pp. Internet References Moth Photographers Group - Main Menu (covers United States and Canada) (Bob Patterson [Webmaster], hosted by Mississippi State U.) Moth Photographers Group Plates - several thousand pinned and live adult photos of all types of moths by many individuals and a few organizations Butterflies of America - Intro (covers all of North and South America) Lepidoptera - Butterflies, Moths, Skippers, Caterpillars, Borers, Webworms, Cankerworms, Bagworms -- Discover Life Overview Butterflies and moths are in the order Lepidoptera. They can be readily identified from other insects by the scales on their wings. Lepidoptera, being derived from Greek, means "wings of scale." Their life cycle has four stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis) and adult. Most butterflies fly during the day; most moths fly at night.

In terms of species numbers, Lepidoptera is among the four largest insect orders, the others being the Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies) and Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps & sawflies). Worldwide there are probably about 300,000 species of Lepidoptera, of which only an estimated 14,500 or about 5% are butterflies. With an estimated 6,000 species, the New World is rich in butterflies. In North America, there are over 11,000 described Lepidoptera species, including 679 butterflies. Lepidoptera Insect identification > Lepidoptera Lepidoptera The Lepidoptera are the moths and butterflies, which form one of the largest and most noticeable groups of insects. Its members are found in all countries and their large size in many cases, their brilliant colors and the habits of their larvae as well as the injuries they cause, have attracted much attention.

The adults have four large, membranous wings in most cases (a few have lost their wings), more or less completely covered by overlapping scales, making the wings opaque where these are present. Colors of the wings are due either to the presence of pigments in the scales; to optical colors caused by the surfaces of the scales breaking up the light striking them; or to both factors together. The mouth-parts of the adult are greatly modified from those of chewing insects, though enough remains to show that the ancestors of the group must have fed by chewing. The development of the parts varies in different species, some of the lower forms having, as a whole, a much closer resemblance to the condition in chewing insects than is the case with most of them. In one group, the mouth-parts are sufficiently of the mandibulate type to enable the insects In general a labrum or front lip is evident, but the mandibles are practically lost. The maxillae are extremely modified, a portion of each contributing its half to the formation of a proboscis or tongue. This is a flexible organ varying greatly in length, its two halves so interlocking as to form a tube between them, through which, when completely developed, fluids may be drawn into the mouth.

The degree of development of the proboscis differs greatly in different Lepidoptera, and while it is functional in perhaps the majority of the group it is only partly developed or even rudimentary and useless in others. Such Lepidoptera evidently do not feed while adult. In some cases the maxillary palpus is developed; in others it is nearly or wholly lacking. The labium or hinder lip is also practically absent except for the labial palpi which are usually large, thickly covered by hairs or scales, and project forward at the sides of the head, often turning upward somewhat, and partially or wholly concealing the proboscis when this is coiled up under the head, the place where it is carried when not in use. The mouth-parts of the larva (or caterpillar as it is usually called) are entirely different. In this stage they are chewing structures, similar to those of a grasshopper in a general way, and no special description is needed. In the center of the end of the labium, however, is a slender projection called the spinneret, which at its tip has the external opening of the duct leading to the silk glands.

The antennae of adult Lepidoptera are usually quite long but vary greatly in their form in different species. In the butterflies they are slender but enlarged near the tip forming a club, or with this enlarged part bent into a sort of hook. These forms of antennae are almost never found in the moths, where they may be simple and thread-like; with small hair-like projections at the side; bristles in place of the hairs; clusters of the bristles; with tooth-like or saw-like side projections; with long projections on one or both sides, in the latter case giving the antennae a feather-like appearance; and other forms also occur. The eyes are large, though in some cases partly concealed by hairs or scales, which as a rule thickly clothe the entire body. Ocelli are also sometimes present. On the top of the prothorax a pair of projections or lobes often occurs, called patagia, sometimes very large and capable of some movement, at other times smaller or even reduced to mere traces. On the large mesothorax is a somewhat similar pair of structures, called the tegulae, which extend backward over the point where each forewing articulates with the body.

The abdomen may be long or short, stout or slender, connected with the thorax by either a broad or a rather constricted attachment. The legs are quite long and slender. Characters by which the members of this group may be distinguished are Insects which as adults have (with a few exceptions) four membranous wings more or less completely covered by overlapping scales; mouth-parts for sucking. The larvae have chewing mouth-parts. Metamorphosis complete. The Lepidoptera is such a large order that great differences in its members are very common. The smallest ones are almost microscopic, while the largest one known may measure about a foot between the tips of its expanded wings. The wings of each side, to obtain their greatest efficiency, are more or less completely coordinated for flight by one of three methods. In the butterflies and some of the moths, the basal portion of the costal region of the hind wing is enlarged, forming a sort of shoulder over which the hind margin of the forewing lies, thus enabling the two to a large extent to function as a single wing.

In most moths, however, instead of a shoulder, a rather long, curved bristle or cluster of bristles, called a frenulum, arises near the base of the hind wing and runs forward and outward, passing under a small flap or through a tuft of scales on the underside of the forewing, so that, as the two wings move in flight, this frenulum slides backward and forward in its track under the forewing and holds the two together. A third type of connection, found in only a few moths, is a small lobe near the base of the hind margin of the forewing, which extends backward toward the hind wing. This lobe is called a jugum and is also probably more or less effective in producing coordination in the use of the wings. The number and arrangement of the wing veins are of great importance in the Lepidoptera, much of the classification in this order being based upon these structures. The main veins are, of course, longitudinal, starting at the point of attachment of the wing to the body and diverging toward its outer margin, some of them branching several times.

Cross veins are very few, however, and consequently there are only a few closed cells, and some at least (perhaps all) of these are produced by the fusion of branches of longitudinal veins, rather than by true cross veins. Various ways of designating the veins and their branches have been offered, but these are best comprehended in connection with laboratory work on the insects themselves and are therefore not given here. The eggs of Lepidoptera vary greatly in form and also in color. They may be elongate, spherical, flattened, scale-like or of other forms, and the shell or chorion may be smooth or sculptured with ridges and reticulations. The eggs may be laid singly or in clusters and may or may not be covered with hairs from the body of the parent moth or with a secretion which conceals them from view. They may hatch in a few days or after longer periods, in some cases many months. The adults have no ovipositor so the eggs are always laid on the surface of the place of deposition; though if the abdomen of the insect be small, this may be in a small crack or other opening.

The larvae produced by the hatching of the eggs are called caterpillars and have no resemblance whatever to the adults they are to become. They are usually rather worm-like animals, with a generally recognizable head and a body consisting of a series of rather similar seg�ments, the first three of which correspond to the thorax of the adult and almost always bear six legs. Some of the following segments will also have legs but these are totally different in structure from the others and are merely temporary in their nature, designed to support this portion of the body. The internal structures of the caterpillar do not differ greatly in their arrangement from those of an adult insect, except that the reproductive organs are only slightly developed at this time, and that there is present, along each side of the body, a silk gland, large in those which will later need large quantities of silk, but present in all. A duct from each gland runs forward to the mouth where the two unite and open to the exterior through the spinneret already referred to. Most caterpillars feed on plants or vegetable material. Their work is noticed chiefly by their stripping plants of their leaves, though some bore in stems, roots, fruit, seeds or other parts.

A few attack feathers, silk, etc., but this is not the general habit. The larval stage may last only a few days for some species but is generally a month or more, and some feed during the fall, become quiet during the winter and complete their feeding the following spring. A large majority of the caterpillars are termed naked, having only a few tiny spines or hairs, not large enough to be noticeable. From this condition every grade of density of covering occurs, to species entirely covered by long, thickly placed hairs which give the animal a hairy or "woolly" appearance. Some have large warts or horns on the thorax or a sort of horn above, near the hinder end of the body. Their colors also vary greatly, some being brightly colored while others-green-either with or without white streaks, appear to seek concealment by their resemblance to the leaves on which they feed. Those living in protected situations, such as in plant stalks, are nearly white; cutworms which pass the day in the ground are dark as a rule, with rather faint markings.

When the caterpillar has become full-grown, it generally leaves the place where it was feeding and in some satisfactory location spins a cocoon around itself, using for this purpose the silk produced by its silk glands. In some species the cocoon is very complete, thick, tough, and entirely conceals the larva within. On the other hand, there are cocoons where only sufficient silk is used to attach the insect and hold it in place; and between these extremes all degrees of cocoon con�struction occur. Sometimes leaves, hairs from the body of the caterpillar or dirt when the insect enters the ground at this stage are incorporated in the cocoon. Within the cocoon the caterpillar molts, leaving its cast-off skin at one end. The result of this molt is a pupa, its form showing through its new skin, which is generally brown. The outlines of the adult body and its appendages including the wings are evident, these last, however, being very small as there would be no room for the full-sized wings of the adult within the cocoon. Internal changes and the completion of such external ones as are necessary now proceed until the adult insect has been entirely formed and is ready to escape.

When this happens, another molt releases the insect from the brown outer pupa skin and, either before or after this, an opening in the cocoon is made and the adult emerges. It then crawls up on something and remains quiet for a while; its wings, being free to expand, increase rapidly till of their full size; the surplus fluids in the body are expelled, and after an hour or two the insect is ready for flight. While for most Lepidoptera this outline of development is in general correct, in the butterflies we find that cocoon making is limited to attaching the hinder end of the body by silk to the object on which it is to pupate, and the formation of a silken loop around its body to hold it up. Such a pupa, producing a butterfly, is usually given the special name "chrysalis". Besides the names "butterflies" (Rhopalocera) and "moths" (Heterocera) used to distinguish different sections of the Lepidoptera, we also have the terms "Microlepidoptera," or small moths, and "Macro�lepidoptera," or large ones.

These are wholly relative and rather indefinite but are, nevertheless, convenient in spite of the fact that it would be doubtful under which head to designate many species of the order. The latest list of the insects of this order found in North America places them in about 70 families, but there are more of these divisions in other parts of the world. Some of the families include many species and insects of much economic importance, while others have only a very few. Only the more important families, either in size or because of the pests they contain, are included here. Over 100,000 species of Lepidoptera are known. Butterfly Life Cycle, Butterfly Metamorphosis, Egg, Larva, Pupa : Gardens With Wings Articles - Information About Butterflies, Caterpillars & Plants The Mysteries of Life November 2008 by Regina Cutter Edwards Butterflies go through four stages in life that are considered to be great mysteries. They are real survivors even with life’s many twists and turns. Butterflies have been able to adapt and make it through unimaginable obstacles. Butterflies are holometabolous, experiencing a complete metamorphosis, or in other words, a complete change in body form.

They begin life as a larva and pupate into an immobile state and emerge as a butterfly, looking nothing like their pre-pupated state. Read on to learn more about these complicated yet fascinating stages of a butterfly’s life! Butterfly Egg The butterfly egg is spherical or ovate shaped, varying in color and size. It is covered by chorion, a hard shell that protects the egg, and is lined with a waxy layer that prevents dehydration. It is full of nutrients and is commonly the first meal for the newly hatched larva. There is a small opening called a micropyle which allows sperm to enter the egg for fertilization while inside the female. To protect the egg and embryo that is forming, the eggs are attached to a leaf by the butterfly using an adhesive-like substance that glues the egg to the plant leaf. The nature of the “glue” is still fairly unknown in the scientific community. For protection, the eggs are often laid on the underneath side of the leaf so as not to be visible to predators. It is essential for the eggs to be laid on the host plant for that particular butterfly species. Eggs are sometimes laid in groups, although many butterflies such as the Monarch lay their eggs singly.

The average time for the embryo to develop is 7-14 days but in instances where the egg is the overwintering stage, the embryo may take months to develop. Butterfly Larva (Caterpillar) The larva stage of the butterfly’s life cycle is a time for growth. The larva, also known as a caterpillar, spends its time eating and growing. The caterpillars feed on their host plants, which can range from a single species to many different species. As caterpillars grow, they shed their exoskeleton. The exoskeleton is their support and protective structure outside their body. This process is called molting or ecdysis and is triggered primarily by hormones. The caterpillar forms a new cuticle underneath the old cuticle. Enzymes are secreted between the layers dissolving the muscle attachments to the old cuticle so the new cuticle can form without being exposed and the old cuticle can be shed. Each stage between molts is called an instar. Caterpillars usually have five instars before pupating, in which the same molting process occurs. Caterpillars have developed some interesting techniques to protect themselves. A common characteristic is camouflaging.

Many caterpillars resemble plant parts, bird droppings, or may just look frightening to scare off predators. Many swallowtail caterpillars have huge ‘eye spots’ on their thorax regions and are able to inflate their body so that they appear snake-like. Swallowtail caterpillars also have an osmeterium, an interesting looking Y-shaped gland that protrudes out from above their head producing a smelly scent. A few caterpillars are brightly colored and they usually are able to save plant toxin in their bodies, making them poisonous to predators. Or, they may mimic other poisonous caterpillars while being completely harmless. The same is true for caterpillars that are covered in body hairs - some have stinging body hairs to prevent getting eaten. As the caterpillar reaches the final instar, the wing pads have already begun developing. Right before the pupa stage the pads are forced out by the hemolymph, insect ‘blood,’ and by the time the larva has shed the exoskeleton to form the pupa, the wings are strongly attached to the body. This is why you can see the shape of the wings on the chrysalis.

Pupa (Chrysalis) The pupa stage of the butterfly’s life cycle is a time for complete change. The pupa is also known as a chrysalis and is a vessel in which the slow moving caterpillar changes into a winged butterfly. The process begins with the prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) triggering the caterpillar to quit eating and start wandering to a place to pupate, which is usually on twigs or other safe areas around their host plants but not necessarily on the host plants. Some butterfly species that over winter as a chrysalis may pupate in the leaf litter close to the ground. The chrysalis is immobile so it is important that it be camouflaged into the environment. For example, the Spicebush Swallowtail’s chrysalis takes on a brown or green color depending on the color of the environment. Many chrysalides are leaf shaped and vary in color from yellow, brown, green to silver and gold. Some chrysalides have the ability to wiggle and make a hissing sound in order to frighten predators. Butterflies go through a really amazing metamorphosis when being transformed from a caterpillar to an adult.

The process inside the chrysalis is very intense. The insect’s body basically is liquefied by digestive fluids and the body is restructured using specialized formative cells. This process is called histogenesis, in which undifferentiated cells are used to build different body tissues. This is similar to the building of tissues that can be done with stem cells in other animals. Adult Butterfly The adult stage of the butterfly’s life cycle is a time for reproduction. The adult is also known as an imago, they have fully developed wings and are sexually mature. When the adult first emerges from the chrysalis, their wings are wet and crinkled. They are able to pump fluid through their bodies into the wings to help them expand. Once their wings are fully expanded, they may take 30 minutes up to a couple hours to dry. They are then ready to fly. Many times right after the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis there will be a colored fluid that is released from the chrysalis, this is meconium, excess fluid the butterfly did not need. The adult butterfly’s primary instinctive behavior in life is to search for a mate of the same species and produce viable offspring to carry on their genes.

This includes making sure the eggs are laid on the correct host plant. Some butterflies lay their eggs in groups, while others lay them singly because the first instar caterpillars can be cannibalistic and will eat the other eggs. Predictability of Life Butterflies have been around for millions of years. They have evolved to withstand many obstacles they have encountered throughout the years, including predators and environmental occurrences. The dramatic differences in their life stages have given them the extra benefit of the larva and adult not having to compete with one another for resources, such as food. These mysteries to us have proven over time to be the predictable life for a butterfly. View an illustration of the life cycle of a Black Swallowtail as it transforms from egg to larva (caterpillar) to pupa (chrysalis) to adult. Photo Credits: Fred Miller and Diane P. Brooks References: Borror, D. J., Triplehorn C.A., Johnson, N.F. 1992. An Introduction to the Study of Insects (6th Ed). New York: Saunders College Publishing. Powell, J.A. 2003. Lepidoptera (Moths, Butterflies). Encyclopedia of insects. Ed.

Vincent H. Resh, Ring T. Cardé. New York: Academic Press. p 631-664. Riddiford, L.M. 2003. Molting. Encyclopedia of insects. Ed. Vincent H. Resh, Ring T. Cardé. New York: Academic Press. p 733-738. Enter your zip code: household casebearer - Phereoeca uterella Walsingham Introduction (Back to Top) The household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella, is a moth in the Tineidae family of Lepidoptera. Many species in this family are casebearers and a few are indoor pests of hairfibers, woolens, silks, felt and similar materials. Most people know this species by the name "plaster bagworm." However, bagworms are moths in the family Psychidae. Perhaps for this reason, the accepted common name of Phereoeca uterella is now listed as the household casebearer, instead of "plaster bagworm" (Bosik JJ, et al. 1997). Figure 1.

A larva of the household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham, which is partially emerged from its case and using its true legs to walk on a surface. Photograph by Lyle J. Buss, University of Florida. The cases are constructed by the larval (caterpillar) stage and often attract attention when found in Florida homes. However, we usually see only the empty larval or pupal cases of the household casebearer on walls of houses in south and central Florida. Taxonomy (Back to Top) The first record of this species came from Lord Walsingham in 1897 (Busck, 1933). However, the specimens that he collected from the Virgin Islands were misidentified. In 1933, August Busck proposed the name Tineola walsinghami for the Virgin Island insects of Walsingham. The same year Kea wrote about the food habits of the species present in Florida, using the name given by Walsingham (Tineola uterella). After a while, the species in the peninsula was recognized as Tineola walsinghami.

In 1956, Hinton and Bradley described the new genus Phereoeca, in order to separate the true Tineola from this and other species of flat case-bearing moths. Finally, an early 'synonym' established by Meyrick was recognized as the most appropriate name, and the species was named Phereoeca dubitatrix (Meyrick 1932). However, another name change occurred and the current official common and scientific names for this species are the household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham. Distribution (Back to Top) The household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella, requires high humidity to complete its development, a limiting factor for its dispersion throughout the rest of the country. Hetrick (1957) observed the insect in many parts of Florida and Louisiana, as well as USDA records of the household casebearer from Mississippi and North Carolina. He also assumed that this species might be present in the coastal areas of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, Texas and Virginia. However, proper identification by a specialist is advised, because case-bearing species other than Phereoeca uterella might be in those states.

In South America, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham is known to be present in Brazil (state of Para) and Guyana. Another related species of case-bearing moths is Praececodes atomosella (tecophora) (Walker 1863). It was found in Gainesville, Florida, and has been recorded as present in the southern USA, Hawaii, Mexico, Bermuda, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, Europe, Africa, Malaya, Australia and other localities. It is possible that records of Phereoeca uterella might be misidentified as this species or vice versa. Due to the active international exchange of goods, other case-bearing moths may occur in Florida in the future. For example, Phereoeca allutella (Rebel) has been recorded in Hawaii, Panama, Canary Islands, Madeira, Sierra Leone, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, India, Java and Samoa. Description (Back to Top) Egg: After mating, females lay their eggs on crevices and the junction of walls and floors, cementing them on debris. Two hundred eggs may be oviposited by a single female over a period of a week, after which she dies.

Eggs are soft, pale bluish, and about 0.4 mm in diameter. Larva: The larva is not usually seen by most people. The case that it carries around wherever it feeds is what is immediately recognized. It can be found under spiderwebs, in bathrooms, bedrooms and garages. Cases can be found on wool rugs and wool carpets, hanging on curtains, or underneath buildings, hanging from subflooring, joists, sills and foundations; on the exterior of buildings in shaded places, under farm sheds, under lawn furniture, on stored farm machinery and on tree trunks. The larval case is a slender flat fusiform or spindle-shape case which resembles a cantaloupe or pumpkin seed. It is silk-lined inside and open at both ends. Most of the biology described here was taken from Aiello's (1979) description of Phereoeca allutella, a closely related case-bearing moth species from Panama. Specific information of Phereoeca uterella biology is limited. The case is constructed by the earliest larval stage (1st instar) before it hatches, and is enlarged by each successive instar.

In constructing the case, the larva secretes silk to build an arch attached at both ends to the substrate. Very small particles of sand, soil, iron rust, insect droppings, arthropod remains, hairs and other fibers are added on the outside. The inside of the arch is lined exclusively by silk, and is gradually extended to form a tunnel, while the larva stays inside. The tunnel is closed beneath by the larva to form a tube free from the substrate, and open at both ends. After the first case is completed, the larva starts moving around, pulling its case behind. With each molt, the larva enlarges its case. Later cases are flattened and widest in the middle, allowing the larva to turn around inside. A fully developed larva has a case 8 to 14 mm long and 3 to 5 mm wide. Figure 2. Case of household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham. Photograph by Lyle J. Buss University of Florida. Both ends of the case are identical, and are used by the larva to hide. When disturbed, it encloses itself in the case by pulling the bottom-most side up.

This closing mechanism is very difficult to open from the outside. The fully developed larva is about 7 mm long. It has a dark brown head, and the rest of the body is white, except for the lateral and dorsal plates on the three thoracic segments close to the head, which are hardened and dark. Aiello (1979) believes the plates protect the larva from natural enemies when it reaches out of its case for locomotion. The larva has three pair of well-developed, brown legs. The ventral prolegs are white, and are located in abdominal segments 3 to 6 and 10. At the tip of each proleg there is an ellipse formed by 23 to 25 very small crochets (a small hooklike organ). The anterior crochets are bigger and broader than posterior ones by one third, which is a good detail for identification. The crochets are used to walk inside the case, and also to grab the case when the larva pulls its head and thorax out and uses its true legs to walk on the floor or walls. Pupa: Pupation occurs inside the case.

The larva walks up a vertical surface and attaches the case at both ends with silk. One end of the case is then modified. The larva cuts a short slit along both edges to make that end flatter, which acts as a valve. Before eclosion the pupa pulls itself halfway through the valve. The new moth emerges around noon, leaving the pupal case exposed on the outer case. Adult: Adult females have a wing span 10 to 13 mm long. They are gray with up to four spots on the fore wings, and a brush of long, lighter gray hair-like scales along the posterior margin of the hind wings. Males are smaller (wing span: 7 to 9 mm) and thinner than the female, with a less distinctive wing pattern. Figure 3. Adult female household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham. Photograph by Lyle J. Buss University of Florida. Figure 4. Adult male household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham. Photograph by Juan A. Villanueva-Jiménez, University of Florida. The heads of both sexes are uniformly clothed with dense, rough hairs.

There are two pairs of buccal appendages called palps. The maxillary palps are smaller than the labial palps, and are folded inwards. The labial palps extend a little beyond the head vestiture (dense covering of hairs). The remaining mouth parts are reduced and adults do not feed. The antennae are filiform (threadlike), as long as the wings, and are held back over the body. The compound eyes are prominent. Figure 5. Head of adult household casebearer, Phereoeca uterella Walsingham. Photograph by Juan A. Villanueva-Jiménez, University of Florida. Wing venation is very important for genera identification, and was described by Hinton and Bradley in 1956. Adults at rest hold their wings tented over the body. They fly fairly well, but usually rest on walls, floor edges, or on webs of house spiders (theridiids) (Aiello 1979).

Life Cycle (Back to Top) At non-air-conditioned room temperature in Panama, the life cycle of Phereoeca uterella (a close relative of Phereoeca dubitatrix) was reported by Aiello (1979) as follows: Eggs require more than 10 days to hatch. There are six to seven larval instars that require about 50 days to mature. They remain in the pupal stage an average of 15.6 days (range of 11 to 23 days). The entire cycle from egg to adult averages 74.2 days (62 to 86 days). Aiello (1979) indicates that the number of instars may vary among individuals of both sexes. Economic Significance (Back to Top) Hetrick (1957) found that the most common and abundant food of the household casebearer in Florida is old spider webs, consumed in large quantities. Webs of insects such as booklice (Psocoptera) and webspinners (Embioptera) from tree trunks were also suitable food. Old cases of its own species were chewed as well.

Kea (1933) could not observe this insect feeding on dried insects in the laboratory, even though small portions of dried insects were found attached to its case. Furthermore, household casebearer larvae did not eat cotton products offered by Kea. But when woolen threads and woolen cloth were offered to the larvae "they ate eagerly". Watson (1939) corroborated the preference of Phereoeca uterella for woolen goods of all kinds. Aiello (1979) succeeded in rearing specimens of the related species Phereoeca allutella by offering them dead mosquitoes and her own hair. Management (Back to Top) Due to its food habits the household casebearer is a potential household pest. However, regular cleaning practices, increased use of air conditioning in houses, and reduced number of woolen goods in this part of the country, along with pesticide application in cracks and crevices for household pest control, have decreased the incidence of the household casebearer. Manual picking or vacuuming of cases and spider web removal should be enough to keep this species under control.

A braconid wasp, Apanteles carpatus (Say), parasitizes larvae of case-bearing moths, killing the larva before pupation. In Florida, this braconid and an ichneumonid wasp, Lymeon orbum (Say) were reared from the household casebearer (Hetrick 1957).

Question: What is the common name for a lepidoptera pupa and its silky cocoon?
Answer: Chrysalis