BBC NEWS | In Depth | Euro-glossary | Maastricht Treaty Monday, 30 April, 2001, 11:51 GMT 12:51 UK Maastricht Treaty Jacques Delors said "oui" but not everyone agreed Maastricht is perhaps the best known and most controversial of the European treaties. It became renowned not only for the long and fractious negotiations and baffling terminology involved in drafting it, but also for the difficulties many member states had in ratifying it. Maastricht is officially known as the Treaty of the European Union and with it the EU came into existence for the first time. By adding two new areas - justice and home affairs and a common foreign and security policy - to the existing European Community, the so-called three pillars of the Union were established. The people of the 12 member states were also given European citizenship. They now have the right to move and live in any EU state and may vote in European and local elections in any country. Maastricht was also the blueprint for what was to be Europe's biggest project for the next decade - economic and monetary union.

It defined the three stages of EMU which eventually led to the single currency, and set out the convergence criteria or economic tests that member states have to pass. The treaty also introduced integration in employment and social issues - at least for some members. The UK negotiated an opt-out of the so-called social chapter - a part of the treaty which was eventually adopted as a protocol and which covered issues such as workers' pay and health and safety. Although, after a change of government, the UK did finally sign up to the social chapter, another aspect of Maastricht - subsidiarity - has remained a bugbear for Europe. Subsidiarity is the principle whereby the Union does not take action (except in the areas which fall within its exclusive competence) unless it is more effective than action taken at national, regional or local level. The treaty explicitly recognised the principle of subsidiarity for the first time, but while some have interpreted this as prioritising the rights of national and local governments, others see it as giving more power to the EU. But even once all this had been thrashed out at the summit in 1991, the treaty had a tough time coming into force.

It was first rejected by a Danish referendum, and then after some alterations scraped through. France also gave Maastricht a less than enthusiastic response - its referendum approved the treaty by a tiny margin. In Germany it was sent to the constitutional court, which in the end voted for it. In the UK, it squeezed through parliament under unprecedented pressure. It finally came into force in November 1993. The Treaty of Maastricht or the European Union (1992) - The history of the European Union and European Citizenship The institution of a Citizenship of the Union . The great step ahead: the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The introduction of an European currency, the Euro, was decided. It would take place following a three phase scheme: From 1990 to 31 December 1993. Its objective would be a completely free circulation of capitals. From 1 January 1994 to 1 January 1999.

The member countries must coordinate their economic policies in order to achieve some objectives, fixed quantitatively and known as convergence criteria : reduction of inflation and interest rates, control of government deficit and debt and respect of normal fluctuation margins provided for by the exchange-rate mechanism on the European Monetary system. The countries that reached those objectives could pass on to the third phase. During this phase, in the European Council held in December 1995 in Madrid, a definitive name was given to the new European unique currency, the euro. From 1 January 1999 to 1 January 2002. Establishment of a European Central Bank (ECB) , fixing of exchange rates and introduction of a single currency. The so called Euroland, countries that went through to the third phase in 1999, consisted of eleven countries: Spain, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Austria, Ireland and Finland. Four countries: Greece, United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden remained for different reasons out of Euro area. Euro notes, the new European currency The Treaty of the Union instituted as one of the objectives of the Union the search of social and economic cohesion among the diverse regions and countries of the community.

To achieve it, it was agreed that a denominated Cohesion Fund , created in 1994, would provide less developed regions and countries with financial aid focused on sectors as environment or transport infrastructures. The member States eligible to receive this aid were those whose GDP per capita was inferior to 90% of the Union average and comply with convergence criteria . The Cohesion countries were Spain, the most benefited state, Greece, Portugal and Ireland. The TEU has also meant a noticeable advancement in the EU competences in fields as economic and monetary policy, industrial policy, Transeuropean networks and transport policy, educational networks, etc. In spite of this reforms, the common agricultural policy (CAP) still absorbed more than a half of the whole Union budget. As regards educational affairs, the TEU limited the Union role to promote intergovernmental cooperation. The European Union launched different programmes (Socrates, Erasmus, Leonardo da Vinci) to facilitate contacts and combined work among Euroepan students and teachers.

Regarding the European Union institutions, the TEU introduced important changes: the Parliament increased its competences, the Ministers Council was denominated henceforth Council of the European Union , the Commission received the official name of Commission of the European Communities, the Court of Justice , the Court of Auditors and the Economic and Social Committee reinforce their competences, a Committee of the Regions was established, and, the founding of the European Central Bank was foreseen at the beginning of the third phase of the economic and monetary union. As far as the second pillar is concerned, the Common foreign and security policy (CFSP) allows to undertake common actions in foreign policy. The European Council , where decisions must be adopted unanimously, agrees the principles and general orientations of the CFSP. The Treaty on European Union raised Western European Union (WEU) to the rank of an integral part of the development of the Union and commissioned it the mission of elaborating and implementing decisions and actions with defence implications. The raw reality, in the form of the conflict in former Yugoslavia (Croatia, Bosnia, Kosovo) has shown that, unfortunately, the construction of a UE Common Foreign and Security Policy was still a long term objective.

USA and NATO went on being the main actors in defence affairs, and the European States have still a very weak political will and capacity to carry out their own policy. Albanians slaughtered by Serbian troops in Kosovo The third pillar is based on Police and judicial cooperation (PJC) in criminal matters as terrorism, illegal immigration, asylum policy, drugs traffic, international crime, etc. The foundation of the Europol (European Police Office) , embryo of a future European police, was one of the most outstanding changes in this sphere. It is also necessary to point out that in 1990 the denominated Schengen Convention , that developed the Schengen Agreement, was signed so as to build an European Union without frontiers. The difficult ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht The ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht by the national parliaments was brimmed with difficulties.

The symbolic year of 1992 was gloomed by three crisis that braked the pro-Europe impulse brought about by the signing in Maastricht of the TUE on 7 February 1992: Firstly, Europe went through a serious and deep economic crisis that caused governments and public opinion to focus on economic problems, seting aside the European construction; Secondly, there were serious monetary tensions that challenged the European Monetary System and the objective of the economic and monetary union (EMU); Thirdly, the EU appeared unable to implement a common foreign and security policy in the crisis of Yugoslavia, and kept powerless observing how war came back to our continent after many years of peace. In this conditions, the first ratification process took place in Denmark. The NO to the Treaty of Maastricht won in a referendum for a scarce difference of 50.000 votes. A eurosceptical wave extended to the other member countries. However, the ratifications of the Treaty were gradually taking place in the rest of the countries. In France, the YES won with a scarce 51.4% of the votes in favour of the TEU.

Negotiation with Denmark started and the Copenhague government was granted with a special protocol, known, in the EU parlance, as opting out clause, that is to say, the possibility of not following the other members when the third phase of the EMU began -a similar clause got United Kingdom when TEU was signed- and in all defence matters. On 20 May 1993, Danish people approved in a referendum this agreement with 53.8% of YES votes. Celebrating the Treaty of Maastricht The Treaty of Maastricht came into force on 2 November 1993. The Treaty forsaw their own future revision in view of the successive enlargements of the Union. The development of the European Union (1993-1996) and the new enlargement to the "Europe of the Fifteen" (1995) In Decembe 1994, the mandate of Jacques Delors , as president of the European Commission concluded. His substitute was the former Luxembourg prime minister , Jacques Santer .

Jacques Santer, president of the European Commission (1996-1999) In spite of the difficulties that the Union was going through and the dramatic transformation of the world in those years, the candidatures to accesion to the EU continued being submitted to Brussels: Austria in 1989, Malta and Cyprus in 1991, Finland, Norway and Switzerland in 1992. This last country retired its candidature a few months later after a referendum. Negotiations with Austria, Sweden, Finland and Norway began in 1993 and were quite easy due to the high economic development of those countries. The ratification of the Treaties was accomplished in 1994. However, Norwegian people rejected again the accession to the EU. The NO to the European Union won in a referendum with 52.2% of the votes. It was the second time that Norway refused to join the community. On 1 January 1995, the fourth enlargement of the EU took place with the accession of Austria, Finland and Sweden. The Europe of the Fifteen was born.

The Europe of the Fifteen (1995) In early 1996, in the European Council of Turin, an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) commenced with the purpose of elaborating a new treaty that reformed the Treaty of Maastricht. The objectives were focused on developing the Europe of citizens, fomenting the EU role in international politics, reforming the institutions and tackling a new enlargement to the the applicant countries of Central and Eastern Europe. After a long and intricate negotiation, the member States governments reach an agreement in the European Council held in Amsterdam on 16-17 June 1997. The Treaty of Amsterdam was born. Search WWW Treaty on the European Union - Council on Foreign Relations Council on Foreign Relations Treaty on the European Union Connect With Us: Treaty on the European Union Published November 1, 1993 This treaty, also called the Maastricht Treaty, integrated several European countries, establishing the European Union. It was signed on February 7, 1992 and entered into force on November 1, 1993.

Excerpt from treaty: "By this Treaty, the High Contracting Parties establish among themselves a European Union, hereinafter called "the Union." This Treaty marks a new stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen. The Union shall be founded on the European Communities, supplemented by the policies and forms of cooperation established by this Treaty. Its task shall be to organize, in a manner demonstrating consistency and solidarity, relations between the Member States and between their peoples." Why is the Maastricht Treaty considered to be so significant? Why is the Maastricht Treaty considered to be so significant? Andrei Rogobete , Feb 26 2011, 9690 views This content was written by a student and assessed as part of a university degree. E-IR publishes student essays & dissertations to allow our readers to broaden their understanding of what is possible when answering similar questions in their own studies. In the immediate post World War II period the European continent found itself in a state of ruin, both politically and economically. To put things into perspective, Europe was involved in two World Wars within only half a century.

The need for securing peace and economic development in the post – 1945 era was immense. Arguably the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established in 1951 sparked the chain of events that would eventually lead to modern day European Union. Over the entire span of this period the “European” project fluctuated from periods of rapid development (ex. mid-80’s to early 90’s) to times of almost complete stagnation (ex. Eurosclerosis in the 70’s and early 80’s). The events within the larger chain of events work together as buckles in creating the Europe we witness today. More importantly, they influence one another and provoke new ideas for further developments within the continent. Throughout this essay we will focus on the significance of one such crucial event leading to the contemporary European Union, namely the 1992 Treaty of Maastricht. The Treaty of Maastricht marks a crucial milestone in the process of European development and integration due to a number of reasons. Seen from a chronological perspective, it elaborated and implemented concepts discussed in the previous Single European Act of 1986.

Perhaps most importantly, it established the European Monetary Union (EMU) and the Treaty on European Union (TEU) which lead to the construction of the main pillars of the European Union and the introduction of the single currency. Last but not least, it paved the way for further developments such as the Treaty of Amsterdam, the Treaty of Nice, and others that were to follow. The primary aim of this essay is therefore to assess the question of the significance of the Maastricht Treaty by unpacking the points noted above and by showing their relevance to the ongoing process of European construction and development. The Single European Act (SEA) of 1986 and the context created by the collapse of the Iron Curtain paved the way for the Maastricht Treaty to take place in 1992. A key player in this period was the French economist and politician Jacques Delors. Delors, who became president of the Commission in 1985 and who was commissioned in 1988 to present a report on the concrete steps to be taken towards reaching economic union, “sought to infuse the Commission with a renewed sense of purpose and to deepen political and economic integration” (Dinan. 2005: 97).

In terms of economic policy, the Single European Act was based on the 1957 Treaty of Rome that established the foundations of the European Economic Community. Nonetheless, the SEA resulted in two major political and economic conclusions further developed by the Maastricht Treaty. Baring in mind the Cold War context of the mid-80’s, the first important conclusion the SEA had reached was “that member states [should] coordinate their positions more closely on the political and economic aspects of security…and endeavour jointly to formulate and implement a European foreign policy” (Dinan 2005: 108). This matter is highly reminiscent of what we will soon see within the Maastricht Treaty. Another important goal of the SEA members picked up by the Maastricht Treaty was to develop an internal market that could be summed up as “an area without internal frontiers in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital is ensured” (Dinan. 2005: 109).

Moreover, Delors went one step further to argue that the SEA needed “a certain monetary capacity [that would bring about] an alignment of economic policies [within the EC] and outside would enable Europe to make its voice heard more strongly in the world of economic, financial and monetary matters” (Delors in Dinan. 2005; 109-10). Both of these aspects were going to be highly advanced by the establishment of the European Monetary Union and the Treaty on European Union within the Maastricht Treaty. Let us begin by briefly looking at the socio-political and economic context of the Treaty. The period between the completion of the Single European Act in 1986 and the Maastricht Treaty ratification in 1993 marked seven years of dramatic changes, both regionally and globally. The late 1980’s were the final culminating years of the Cold War era. Events such as the fall of communism in former Soviet satellite states and more importantly the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 sparked major changes within the perspectives of European integration. The reunification of Germany brought back the nostalgic feeling of the brutal war years.

In an effort of refuting any sense of fear the first German Chancellor of the newly reunified Germany, Helmut Kohl assured the people of Europe that “the future architecture of Germany must be fitted into the future architecture of Europe as a whole” (Kohl in Dinan. 2005: 115). Democratisation processes begun in all the former communist states, offering new perspectives for closer cooperation in an ‘extended’ Europe. Furthermore, the growing enthusiasm for a common market was justified by numerous European companies expanding beyond their conventional state borders. As noted by Dinan, “sixty-eight major mergers and acquisitions took place in 1986; by contrast 300 happened the following year” (2005: 112). This, for instance, lead Delors to conduct and organise a series of meetings composed of mainly bankers and professionals to assess the possibility of the European Monetary Union. All the events presented above collectively set the stage for the Treaty of Maastricht in the early 1990’s – one may even go as far as saying that without these developments the Treaty of Maastricht would not have ever occurred.

In the following part of the essay we will take a look at the Treaty of Maastricht itself. In order to find out why it is considered so significant, we will have to see what exactly was established within the Treaty. Due to its complexity, in order to unpack its content one reasonable approach is to use Andrew Moravcsik’s ‘Liberal Intergovernmentalism’ theory. This theory can be broadly summed up in three core characteristics: “First there is an assumption of rational state behaviour, which means that the actions of states are assumed to be based on utilising what are judged to be the most appropriate means of achieving their goals. Second there is a liberal theory of national preference formation. This draws on a domestic politics approach to explain how state goals can be shaped by domestic pressures and interactions, which in turn are often conditioned by the constraints and opportunities that derive from economic interdependence. Third, there is an intergovernmentalist interpretation of inter-state relations, which emphasises the key role of governments in determining the relations between states and sees the outcome of negotiations between governments as essentially being determined by their relative bargaining powers and the advantages that accrue to them by striking agreements” (Nugent.

2006: 565-66). Given the context of the European Community at that particular time, the Liberal Intergovernmentalist approach is suited for our study providing, as Nugent again noted, “a reminder of the role of states and governments in the EU and [doing] so in a much more nuanced and sophisticated manner that did early intergovernmentalism” (2006: 567). With this in mind, let us discuss the content of the Maastricht Treaty and its achievements, whilst observing the vital role played by individual states. The first major achievement of the Maastricht Treaty is the establishment of the EMU, arguably the most important economic development in the post-Maastricht era. As mentioned earlier, Jacques Delors was a strong advocate for this ambitious project. In 1989 he set up what is now known as the Delors Report, where he outlined three major phases of economic integration and offered an outline for the EMU. Furthermore, it discussed the ‘convergence criteria’ that every country must undertake in order to achieve monetary unification and proposed the establishment of a European Central Bank (Dinan in Bomberg, Peterson & Stubb.

2008: 36). In broad terms, the three main phases can be summed up as follows: the first phase includes free movement of capital between member states, closer coordination of economic policies and cooperation amongst the national central banks. The second phase ensures the convergence of monetary and economical policies and lastly, the third phase introduces the single currency and establishes the European Central Bank (Verdun in Cini & Borragan. 2009: 329). This process took over a decade to implement (considering the replacement of national notes with the EURO in 2002) and is still expanding at present. Any given state that wants to join the EMU must first pass the requirements set by the ‘convergence criteria’; these include: “Inflation rates no more than 1.5 per cent above the average of the three EU countries with the lowest inflation rates. Long-term interest rates should be no more than 2 per cent above the average of the three countries with the lowest rates. National currencies…must have remained within the normal (15 per cent) bands of the EMS for the previous two years.

National budget deficits must be less than 3 per cent of GDP and lastly, the national debt must be less than 60 per cent of GDP” (McDonald & Dearden. 1999: 110). Unless put into perspective, such economic details defeat the purpose of this essay. Therefore, baring in mind the Liberal Intergovernmentalist theory and in particular its assumption that states act rationally in achieving their goals, we will take a brief look at the stances of Germany, France and the United Kingdom on this matter. As mentioned earlier, first Chancellor of a unified Germany Helmut Kohl sought that, “Germany must be fitted into the future architecture of Europe as a whole” (Kohl in Dinan. 2004: 115). Kohl strongly acknowledged the popular demand and the economic benefits of the EMU. Furthermore, Germany’s geopolitical position at the heart of the continent made the “German Mark [as] the system’s de facto anchor currency, and other central banks followed the German Central Bank’s anti-inflationary policies” (Dinan. 2004: 234).

Similarly, France’s president Francois Mitterrand had a strong pro-integration stance, “he favoured the EMU and, in the mid-1980’s, nudged Kohl to take a stronger stand on the issue…Mitterrand spoke growingly of a common Franco-German destiny” (Dinan. 2004: 236). France and Germany saw the mutual economic and political benefits of the EMU and therefore represented a powerful partnership in advancing the greater European cause. The United Kingdom however, had a far more eurosceptical approach. Margaret Thatcher opposed these developments, despite a good deal of popular demand within the UK and her own conservative party. She perceived Delors as “the root of all evil: a French Socialist determined to establish an undemocratic European superstate” (Dinan. 2004: 233). The UK maintained, through Thatcher, its historically prudent and even isolationist approach towards European affairs. [1] Based on our theory mentioned above, the overall conclusion here is clear: states behave rationally in achieving their goals, but at the same time such goals are determined by domestic pressures and interaction.

Hence, governments play a key role in determining inter-state relations and common agreements on economic and political developments. The British isolationist approach contributed to the creation of the pillar system within the EU, whereby instead of renaming the European Economic Community as the European Union, the treaty had to establish a legally separate European Union comprising the renamed European Economic Community and the inter-governmental policy areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice and judicial cooperation. The first pillar was the European Communities, while the second and third pillars were related to foreign policy and military matters (the CFSP pillar) and criminal justice and cooperation in home affairs (the JHA pillar). To an assessment of the significance of these pillars we will turn next, but not before having a concluding remark at this stage. Hence, the EMU, one may conclude, made the Maastricht Treaty significant in the fact that it created an entirely new interstate economy, opened up new opportunities for economic development and therefore represented a major step forward for the European integration process. Moreover, it created the premises for the introduction of the singular currency with all its benefits. The second major achievement of the Maastricht Treaty is the Treaty on European Union (TEU).

The most important significance of the TEU is that it created the foundation of modern day European Union. Despite its legislative complexity, we will take a broad overview of the main composing parts. The TEU, as mentioned above, was divided into three main pillars. The first pillar is known as the European Communities pillar (the EMU was also included in this pillar). Briefly, this pillar was primarily concerned with giving EU institutions more legitimacy and to some extent more power. However, the European Parliament is widely regarded as a victorious institution within this particular pillar, while the Commission and the European Court of Justice seem to have lost some of their prerogatives. The reason for this is that the Treaty “extended significantly the parliament’s oversight role by giving Parliament a right of inquiry, a more formal right of petition, and the right to appoint an ombudsman to field complaints about maladministration in the EU’s institutions. Finally, the treaty obliged member states to consult the Parliament before nominating a new Commission president…” (Dinan. 2004: 252).

Another important concept within this pillar was the rather vague ‘principle of subsidiarity’ – the claim that the “EU should only involve itself in issues that could best be dealt with at the European rather than the national level” (Dinan. 2004: 252). In fact, this ended up in giving more powers to EU institutions over the national parliaments of member states. Yet another significant aspect of the first pillar is the introduction of the notion of EU citizenship. Not only were new opportunities opening for travelling and/or living in any of the EU states, but Felipe Gonzalez, then Prime Minister of Spain who pushed for this notion also advocated for aid and redistribution of money to the poorer EU member states. This led to another major contribution of the Treaty, namely the birth of a policy known as ‘cohesion’ (Dinan. 2004: 253). All the above certainly attributed more significance to the Treaty, particularly seen within the context of EU enlargement and with the need for integrating the poorer, former communist economies. If the first pillar primarily deals with the domestic structural character of the EU and its member states, the second pillar deals with the need for a more unified voice of the EU in external affairs and security matters.

It is called the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), which attempted to achieve exactly what it says – a common foreign and security policy. However, the CFSP was not greeted with the euroenthusiasm that the EMU enjoyed. Liberal Intergovernmentalism tells us that states behave rationally in achieving their goals – a complete common foreign and security policy was not amongst them. As a result, the treaty only proposed, “the eventual framing of a common defence policy, which might in time lead to a common defence” (Dinan. 2004: 254). Perhaps one reason behind such weak result was that historically different states had different foreign goals and were therefore, not willing to refute them over night just in the name of achieving a common European goal, which was not even in the broadest forms defined. [2] The third and last pillar is known as Justice and Home Affairs (the Schengen agreement was a major catalyser in these developments). It dealt with just about anything that could be associated with the title.

From issues such as immigration, political asylum, control of external borders and customs cooperation to police cooperation in combating drugs and fraud, and judicial cooperation in criminal and civil matters – all were debated in the third pillar (Dinan. 2004:257). In all that has been presented above we merely skimmed the surface of the complex Maastricht Treaty. However, dwelling into details goes beyond the purpose of this paper. One last and very important aspect worth mentioning is the ‘Copenhagen Criteria’- the criteria by which any given state is granted access into the EU. Interestingly enough, these vital criteria are surprisingly broad and vague as compared to most of the content that comprises the Maastricht Treaty, “Membership requires that [any] candidate country has achieved stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, respect for and protection of minorities, the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union. Membership presupposes the candidate’s ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union.” (Copenhagen European Council. 1993: 7 A-iii).

Bearing in mind the content that has been discussed above, one can see the vast changes the Maastricht Treaty has brought into the scene of European affairs: it implemented the EMU, created the EU and further developed on a wide range of internal and external policies. Although Maastricht is only one event in a larger chain of European events, the immense changes that took place make it one of the most significant milestones in post-1945 European history. In the last section of this paper we will take a brief look at two further developments that amended and elaborated upon the Treaty of Maastricht which in turn are proof of its ongoing significance. The first treaty to make substantial changes and updates on Maastricht (more precisely the TEU) was the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam. Without going into details, we shall only note that, as Hug & Konig correctly stated, “The Amsterdam Treaty provides a powerful illustration of the influence ratification constraints on the bargaining process of international treaties” (2002: 447-448).

As we can see, the final outcome often heavily influences the negotiation/elaboration process of international treaties – a key evidence of sovereign state power (considering liberal intergovernmentalism). The second amending treaty, directly related to the first, is the Treaty of Nice in 2001. Considering that all the treaties affect and influence each other, “The Treaty of Nice was essentially devoted to the “leftovers” of Amsterdam, i.e. the institutional problems linked to enlargement which were not resolved in 1997” (Europa: 2007). As a result, the treaty enabled European Union expansion, especially eastward expansion. The BBC reported at the time that “without it, the European Union would not be able to add 10 new members to its ranks on 1 May next year. What Nice does is to set out the institutional arrangements which will govern the new, enlarged EU” (Morris: 2003). Therefore The Treaty of Nice completed the Treaty of Amsterdam and, to some extent, amended the TEU, while still following in its ethos and therefore re-emphasizing its significance.

Considering all that has been argued in this paper, we can conclude with certainty that the Maastricht Treaty marks an important milestone in the process of European integration and development. It is consequentially considered to be so significant due to a number of reasons. From a theoretical and conceptual perspective, it firstly elaborated and implemented concepts discussed in the previous Single European Act of 1986. Secondly, and most importantly, it established the European Monetary Union (EMU) and the Treaty on European Union (TEU). Lastly, it paved the way for further developments such as the Treaty of Amsterdam, the Treaty of Nice, and others that were to follow. In practical terms, the Treaty created the notion of European Citizenship with all its benefits and responsibilities, including the freedom to travel and work, the notion of solidarity, the question of social cohesion, etc. It also created the framework for unprecedented possibilities of economic exchange and development, the single currency market, again with all its privileges and responsibilities. All these matters put together make the Maastricht Treaty one of the most (if not the most) significant intergovernmental treaties in post-1945 European history. It is now the duty of citizens and future generations to continue the chain of events.

As for what the future holds – only time will tell. EU Treaties - Treaty on European Union - Maastricht - Treaty of Nice - Lisbon Treaty - Treaties - EU Information - European Law Monitor CIC Search ... A brief history of the EU Treaties The European Economic Community (EEC) was established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The purpose behind the EEC was to create a union of European States which had common economic goals. By joining together in this way, the Member States sought to achieve: 1. the development of economic activities 2. economic expansion 3. a rise the standard of living Whilst the " Common Market" or EEC is often portrayed as being an economic club with no political agenda, this is in fact incorrect. One of the primary motivations behind both the EEC and the European Coal and Steel Community, was to bind together the Member States through trade, so that the carnage that had occurred from 1939-1945 could not be repeated. At that time, many countries were struggling to recover economically from 6 years of war, and this is reflected in the objectives of the original Treaty.

However, by 1986, all of the countries that had suffered economically in the 2nd World War had recovered, and the next Treaty, the Single European Act (SEA), marked a shift away from dealing with the effects of the past, to driving "Europe" in a particular direction. The SEA was signed in 1986, and its primary purpose was the creation of the Single Market, an area without frontiers, in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital could occur. This was radical, and a major policy shift away from the crisis management objectives of the Treaty of Rome. Treaty On European Union, Maastricht Treaty The next big Treaty change was the Treaty on European Union (TEU) commonly known as the Maastricht Treaty. This was signed in February 1992, and came into force on the 1st November 1993. It was this Treaty that marked the changeover from the European Economic Community (EEC) to the European Union.

It introduced a number of significant changes including: a) it established economic and monetary union b) it established the implementation of a common foreign and security policy c) it started to give the European Parliament teeth, by introducing the co decision procedure d) it enshrined the principle of proportionality and subsidiarity. e) It provided a mechanism for developing cooperation between Member States on justice and home affairs issues. f) It introduced the concept of being a "citizen of the Union" To view the Treaty on the European Union ["Maastricht Treaty"] click here The Maastricht Treaty was only ever intended to be a stop-gap Treaty, as it was clear that a number of changes were likely to occur in the very near future. One fundamental change that had to be planned for was the potential accession to the EU of up to 12 countries, and the Amsterdam Treaty, which was signed in 1997, started the reform process which was needed to take account of the changes that enlargement would bring. Amsterdam Treaty, Nice and the Constitution for Europe The Amsterdam Treaty amended and updated the other Treaties, and made a number of politically significant changes, particularly in the areas of fundamental rights, employment, and the free movement of persons.

A month after the Treaty of Amsterdam had come into force the Treaty of Nice was being negotiated. The pure purpose of the Nice Treaty was to prepare for enlargement, and to deal with the "Amsterdam leftovers". This was primarily concerned with changing the structure and decision making processes, to allow for the fact that the EU was now going to be an EU of 25 rather than 6, and it was no longer practical to carry on using the same systems that had been in place since the Treaty of Rome. The Amsterdam Treaty introduced a consolidated version of the Community Treaties. The consolidated versions are linked below, and include the changes introduced by the Treaty of Nice. The next proposed EU Treaty was the Constitution for Europe. The version put forward suggested one model for the future of Europe, which was rejected by the French and Dutch voters. Lisbon Treaty Europe has always swung between the trade model, where the EU is an economic and trading club, and a social model, where the EU involvement is deeper into everyday affairs. Following on from the No votes by the Dutch and the French in relation to the Constitutional Treaty, a new Treaty was proposed, commonly known as the Lisbon Treaty or Reform Treaty.

This Treaty amended both the Treaty on the European Union, and also created the Treaty on the Functioning of the Union. Despite being initially rejected by Irish voters in a referendum, the Lisbon Treaty eventually came into force in 2010 and is the current ruling treaty. Consolidated texts of the Treaties may be found here: EU Treaties What Was The Maastricht Treaty? - WorldAtlas.com What Was The Maastricht Treaty? The treaty forming the European Union was signed on February 7th, 1992 in the Netherlands. Stone memorial in front of the site of the signing of treaty froming the European Union in the Dutch city of Maastricht. 6. Historical Background For more than two millennia, Europe has been a continent of different nationalities and ethnicities, and many of these different neighboring peoples living in almost perpetual conflict with each other. While the Middle Ages brought about somewhat of a cultural unification under the banner of Christendom, and the consciousness of a European Civilization was formed, events such as the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and, much later, the World Wars, effectively destroyed all pretensions of there being a unified Europe.

Still, Count Coudenhove Kalergi of Austria founded the Pan-European Movement in 1923, and brought together diverse political personages in the First Pan-European Congress of Vienna in 1926. 5. Signatory Countries The European Community has enlarged six times since the Treaty of Paris. The U.K., Denmark, and Ireland joined in 1973, and Greece joined in 1981. Then came Portugal and Spain, followed by Austria, Finland, and Sweden in 1995. The fifth enlargement in 2004 included the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Malta, and Cyprus. When Bulgaria and Romania came to the fold in 2007, they had joined what was now the present shape of the community, the European Union (EU). The original signatory nations of the Maastricht Treaty included Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal, Greece, and Denmark. 4. Terms And Accomplishments The Maastricht Treaty grants EU citizenship to citizens of each member state.

It also defines the geographical extent to which EU citizens can travel, work, and live freely to include any other member country without the need for any restrictions and permits. The Maastricht Treaty also unified the monetary and foreign policies of states of the European Union. The central banking system which it established led to the creation of a common, multinational European currency: the Euro. The European Union was built around three ‘pillars’. The first pillar is the institutional structure of the EU and every organization involved within it. It provides for the resolutions of disputes, and is a standard for all nations in areas of environmental protection, agricultural production, socialized medicine, education, transportation, and highway infrastructure. The second pillar of the treaty is the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the official Foreign Policy agenda of the European Union. It relates to such areas as trade, commercial issues, security, and dealings with third party nations. The third pillar of the European Union is the Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters (PJCCM). It deals with law enforcement and the prevention of such major crimes as terrorism, drugs, arms and human trafficking, crimes against children, and corruption and fraud in businesses and governments within the EU. 3.

Challenges and Controversies World War II put a definitive end to European dominance of the world, and Europeans came to realize many of their own weaknesses. The two new superpowers of the world (the United States and the Soviet Union) were extremely superior to European nations economically, politically, and militarily. The USA promoted a centralized European organization that could organize the delivery of the resources of the Marshall Plan (meant to restore and rebuild war-torn Europe). Towards this goal, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established in 1948, which became the first institution that fostered Western European cooperation in important multilateral areas. The constitution of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) meant that now European countries would be fighting together against a common Communist enemy instead of amongst themselves. 2. Economic Significance The 1951 Treaty of Paris established the first European Community bound by common political and economic interests. It included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, who also made up the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and allowed all of these countries to pool their respective economic resources.

Foreign ministers of these countries met in Messina, Italy in 1995, and signed the Treaties of Rome. There they established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). 1. Historical Legacy After the reunification of Germany, Europe suddenly had a new major economic power which could undermine the fledgling cooperation among the member states. The collapse of the Soviet Union contributed to the creation of several new eastern European states as well. A need was felt by all to create a European Political Union by building on common historical traditions and present economic contingencies. The result was the European Union: a supranational community bound by common political, economic, and social interests. The EU came into being with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty on February 7th, 1992, in the Limburg governmental buildings in Maastricht, the Netherlands. This page was last modified on June 6, 2016.

On WorldAtlas.com European Union (EU) | European organization | Britannica.com European organization Alternative Titles: EU, Europäische Union, Union Européenne, Unione Europea Related Topics France European Union (EU), international organization comprising 28 European countries and governing common economic, social, and security policies. Originally confined to western Europe , the EU undertook a robust expansion into central and eastern Europe in the early 21st century. The EU’s members are Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , Cyprus , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Malta , the Netherlands , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the United Kingdom . The EU was created by the Maastricht Treaty , which entered into force on November 1, 1993. The treaty was designed to enhance European political and economic integration by creating a single currency (the euro ), a unified foreign and security policy, and common citizenship rights and by advancing cooperation in the areas of immigration, asylum, and judicial affairs.

The EU was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2012, in recognition of the organization’s efforts to promote peace and democracy in Europe. Flag of the European Union. Composition of the European Union. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. An overview of the European Union’s history. © Open University (A Britannica Publishing Partner) Origins The EU represents one in a series of efforts to integrate Europe since World War II . At the end of the war, several western European countries sought closer economic, social, and political ties to achieve economic growth and military security and to promote a lasting reconciliation between France and Germany. To this end, in 1951 the leaders of six countries—Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany—signed the Treaty of Paris , thereby, when it took effect in 1952, founding the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

(The United Kingdom had been invited to join the ECSC and in 1955 sent a representative to observe discussions about its ongoing development, but the Labour government of Clement Attlee declined membership, owing perhaps to a variety of factors, including the illness of key ministers, a desire to maintain economic independence, and a failure to grasp the community’s impending significance.) The ECSC created a free-trade area for several key economic and military resources: coal, coke, steel, scrap, and iron ore. To manage the ECSC, the treaty established several supranational institutions: a High Authority to administrate, a Council of Ministers to legislate, a Common Assembly to formulate policy, and a Court of Justice to interpret the treaty and to resolve related disputes. A series of further international treaties and treaty revisions based largely on this model led eventually to the creation of the EU. Creation of the European Economic Community Similar Topics League of Nations On March 25, 1957, the six ECSC members signed the two Treaties of Rome that established the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)—which was designed to facilitate cooperation in atomic energy development, research, and utilization—and the European Economic Community (EEC).

The EEC created a common market that featured the elimination of most barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital, and labour, the prohibition of most public policies or private agreements that inhibit market competition, a common agricultural policy (CAP), and a common external trade policy. Signing of the Treaty of Rome, March 25, 1957. AP Images The treaty establishing the EEC required members to eliminate or revise important national laws and regulations. In particular, it fundamentally reformed tariff and trade policy by abolishing all internal tariffs by July 1968. It also required that governments eliminate national regulations favouring domestic industries and cooperate in areas in which they traditionally had acted independently, such as international trade (i.e., trade with countries outside the EEC). The treaty called for common rules on anticompetitive and monopolistic behaviour and for common inland transportation and regulatory standards. Recognizing social policy as a fundamental component of economic integration , the treaty also created the European Social Fund, which was designed to enhance job opportunities by facilitating workers’ geographic and occupational mobility. Map showing the composition of the European Economic Community (EEC) from 1957, when it was formed … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent Significantly, the treaty’s common market reforms did not extend to agriculture. The CAP, which was implemented in 1962 and which became the costliest and most controversial element of the EEC and later the EU, relied on state intervention to protect the living standards of farmers, to promote agricultural self-sufficiency, and to ensure a reliable supply of products at reasonable prices. British Culture and Politics Like the ECSC, the EEC established four major governing institutions: a commission, a ministerial council, an assembly, and a court. To advise the Commission and the Council of Ministers on a broad range of social and economic policies, the treaty created an Economic and Social Committee. In 1965 members of the EEC signed the Brussels Treaty , which merged the commissions of the EEC and Euratom and the High Authority of the ECSC into a single commission. It also combined the councils of the three organizations into a common Council of Ministers. The EEC, Euratom, and the ECSC—collectively referred to as the European Communities—later became the principal institutions of the EU. The Commission (officially known as the European Commission ) consists of a permanent civil service directed by commissioners.

It has had three primary functions: to formulate community policies, to monitor compliance with community decisions, and to oversee the execution of community law. Initially, commissioners were appointed by members to renewable four-year terms, which were later extended to five years. The Commission is headed by a president, who is selected by the heads of state or heads of government of the organization’s members. In consultation with member governments, the president appoints the heads of the Directorate-Generals, which manage specific areas such as agriculture, competition, the environment , and regional policy. The Commission has shared its agenda-setting role with the European Council (not to be confused with the Council of Europe , an organization that is not an EU body), which consists of the leaders of all member countries. Established in 1974, the European Council meets at least twice a year to define the long-term agenda for European political and economic integration. The European Council is led by a president, an office that originally rotated among the heads of state or heads of government of member countries every six months. Upon the adoption of the Lisbon Treaty in 2009, the presidency was made permanent, with the officeholder being selected by European Council members.

The president of the European Council serves a term of two and a half years—renewable once—and functions as the “face” of the EU in policy matters. The first “president of the EU,” as the office came to be known, was former Belgian prime minister Herman Van Rompuy . Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest The main decision-making institution of the EEC and the European Community (as the EEC was renamed in 1993) and the EU has been the Council of the European Union (originally the Council of Ministers), which consists of ministerial representatives. The composition of the council changes frequently, as governments send different representatives depending on the policy area under discussion. All community legislation requires the approval of the council. The president of the council, whose office rotates among council members every six months, manages the legislative agenda. Council meetings are chaired by a minister from the country that currently holds the presidency. The exception to this rule is the Foreign Affairs Council, which, since the ratification of the Lisbon Treaty, is under the permanent supervision of the EU high representative for foreign affairs and security policy. The Common Assembly, renamed the European Parliament in 1962, originally consisted of delegates from national parliaments.

Beginning in 1979, members were elected directly to five-year terms. The size of members’ delegations varies depending on population. The Parliament is organized into transnational party groups based on political ideology—e.g., the Party of European Socialists , the European People’s Party , the European Federation of Green Parties, and the European Liberal, Democrat and Reform Party . Until 1987 the legislature served only as a consultative body, though in 1970 it was given joint decision-making power (with the Council of Ministers) over community expenditures. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) interprets community law, settles conflicts between the organization’s institutions, and determines whether members have fulfilled their treaty obligations. Each member selects one judge, who serves a renewable six-year term; to increase efficiency , after the accession of 10 additional countries in 2004 the ECJ was allowed to sit in a “grand chamber” of only 13 judges. Eight impartial advocates-general assist the ECJ by presenting opinions on cases before the court. In 1989 an additional court, the Court of First Instance, was established to assist with the community’s increasing caseload.

The ECJ has established two important legal doctrines. First, European law has “direct effect,” which means that treaty provisions and legislation are directly binding on individual citizens, regardless of whether their governments have modified national laws accordingly. Second, community law has “supremacy” over national law in cases where the two conflict. The promulgation of the Lisbon Treaty signaled the acceptance of these legal doctrines by national courts, and the ECJ has acquired a supranational legal authority. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies Throughout the 1970s and ’80s the EEC gradually expanded both its membership and its scope. In 1973 the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland were admitted, followed by Greece in 1981 and Portugal and Spain in 1986. (The United Kingdom had applied for membership in the EEC in 1963 and in 1966, but its application was vetoed by French Pres.

Charles de Gaulle.) The community’s common external trade policy generated pressure for common foreign and development policies, and in the early 1970s the European Political Cooperation (EPC; renamed the Common Foreign and Security Policy by the Maastricht Treaty), consisting of regular meetings of the foreign ministers of each country, was established to coordinate foreign policy. In 1975 the European Regional Development Fund was created to address regional economic disparities and to provide additional resources to Europe’s most deprived areas. In the same year, members endorsed the Lomé Convention , a development-assistance package and preferential-trade agreement with numerous African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries. Members also made several attempts to manage their exchange rates collectively, resulting in the establishment of the European Monetary System in 1979. Single European Act The Single European Act (SEA), which entered into force on July 1, 1987, significantly expanded the EEC’s scope. It gave the meetings of the EPC a legal basis, and it called for more intensive coordination of foreign policy among members, though foreign policy decisions were made outside community institutions.

The agreement brought the European Regional Development Fund formally into the community’s treaties as part of a new section on economic and social cohesion that aimed to encourage the development of economically depressed areas. As a result of the act, there was a substantial increase in funding for social and regional programs. The SEA also required the community’s economic policies to incorporate provisions for the protection of the environment, and it provided for a common research and technological-development policy, which was aimed primarily at funding transnational research efforts. Trending Topics Opium Wars More generally, the SEA set out a timetable for the completion of a common market. A variety of legal, technical, fiscal, and physical barriers continued to limit the free movement of goods, labour, capital, and services. For example, differences in national health and safety standards for consumer goods were a potential impediment to trade. To facilitate the completion of the common market by 1992, the community’s legislative process was modified. Originally, the Commission proposed legislation, the Parliament was consulted, and the Council of Ministers made a final decision. The council’s decisions generally needed unanimity, a requirement that gave each member a veto over all legislation. The SEA introduced qualified majority voting for all legislation related to the completion of the common market.

Under this system, each member was given multiple votes, the number of which depended on national population, and approval of legislation required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all members. The new procedure also increased the role of the European Parliament. Specifically, legislative proposals that were rejected by the Parliament could be adopted by the Council of Ministers only by a unanimous vote. The Maastricht Treaty The Maastricht Treaty (formally known as the Treaty on European Union), which was signed on February 7, 1992, created the European Union. The treaty met with substantial resistance in some countries. In Denmark, for example, voters who were worried about infringements upon their country’s sovereignty defeated a referendum on the original treaty in June 1992, though a revised treaty was approved the following May. Voters in France narrowly approved the treaty in September, and in July 1993 British Prime Minister John Major was forced to call a vote of confidence in order to secure its passage. An amended version of the treaty officially took effect on November 1, 1993.

The treaty consisted of three main pillars: the European Communities , a common foreign and security policy, and enhanced cooperation in home (domestic) affairs and justice. The treaty changed the name of the European Economic Community to the European Community (EC), which became the primary component of the new European Union. The agreement gave the EC broader authority, including formal control of community policies on development, education, public health, and consumer protection and an increased role in environmental protection, social and economic cohesion, and technological research. It also established EU citizenship, which entailed the right of EU citizens to vote and to run for office in local and European Parliament elections in their country of residence, regardless of national citizenship. The Maastricht Treaty specified an agenda for incorporating monetary policy into the EC and formalized planning that had begun in the late 1980s to replace national currencies with a common currency managed by common monetary institutions. The treaty defined a set of “convergence criteria” that specified the conditions under which a member would qualify for participation in the common currency.

Countries were required to have annual budget deficits not exceeding 3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), public debt under 60 percent of GDP, inflation rates within 1.5 percent of the three lowest inflation rates in the EU, and exchange-rate stability. The members that qualified were to decide whether to proceed to the final stage—the adoption of a single currency. The decision required the establishment of permanent exchange rates and, after a transition period, the replacement of national currencies with the common currency, called the euro. Although several countries failed to meet the convergence criteria (e.g., in Italy and Belgium public debt exceeded 120 percent of GDP), the Commission qualified nearly all members for monetary union, and on January 1, 1999, 11 countries—Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain—adopted the currency and relinquished control over their exchange rates. Greece failed to qualify, and Denmark, Sweden, and the United Kingdom chose not to apply for membership. Greece was admitted to the euro beginning in 2001.

Initially used only by financial markets and businesses, the euro was introduced for use by the general public on January 1, 2002. The Maastricht Treaty significantly modified the EEC’s institutions and decision-making processes. The Commission was reformed to increase its accountability to the Parliament. Beginning in 1995, the term of office for commissioners, who now had to be approved by the Parliament, was lengthened to five years to correspond to the terms served by members of the Parliament. The ECJ was granted the authority to impose fines on members for noncompliance. Several new institutions were created, including the European Central Bank , the European System of Central Banks, and the European Monetary Institute. The treaty also created a regional committee, which served as an advisory body for commissioners and the Council of Ministers on issues relevant to subnational, regional, or local constituencies . One of the most radical changes was the reform of the legislative process. The range of policies subject to qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministers was broadened. The treaty also endowed the Parliament with a limited right of rejection over legislation in most of the areas subject to qualified majority voting, and in a few areas, including citizenship, it was given veto power.

The treaty formally incorporated the Court of Auditors, which was created in the 1970s to monitor revenue and expenditures, into the EC. As part of the treaty’s second pillar, members undertook to define and implement common foreign and security policies. Members agreed that, where possible, they would adopt common defense policies, which would be implemented through the Western European Union , a security organization that includes many EU members. Joint actions—which were not subject to monitoring or enforcement by the Commission or the ECJ—required unanimity. The EU’s third pillar included several areas of common concern related to the free movement of people within the EU’s borders. The elimination of border controls conflicted with some national immigration, asylum, and residency policies and made it difficult to combat crime and to apply national civil codes uniformly, thus creating the need for new Europe-wide policies. For example, national asylum policies that treated third-country nationals differently could not, in practice, endure once people were allowed to move freely across national borders. Enlargement and post-Maastricht reforms On January 1, 1995, Sweden, Austria, and Finland joined the EU, leaving Iceland , Norway , and Switzerland as the only major western European countries outside the organization.

Norway’s government twice (1972 and 1994) attempted to join, but its voters rejected membership on each occasion. Switzerland tabled its application in the early 1990s. Norway, Iceland, and the members of the EU (along with Liechtenstein) are members of a free trade area called the European Economic Area , which allows freedom of movement for goods, services, capital, and people. Two subsequent treaties revised the policies and institutions of the EU. The first, the Treaty of Amsterdam , was signed in 1997 and entered into force on May 1, 1999. Building on the social protocol of the Maastricht Treaty, it identified as EU objectives the promotion of employment, improved living and working conditions, and proper social protection; added sex-discrimination protections and transferred asylum, immigration, and civil judicial policy to the community’s jurisdiction; granted the Council of Ministers the power to penalize members for serious violations of fundamental human rights; and gave the Parliament veto power over a broad range of EC policies as well as the power to reject the European Council’s nominee for president of the Commission.

A second treaty, the Treaty of Nice, was signed in 2001 and entered into force on February 1, 2003. Negotiated in preparation for the admission of new members from eastern Europe, it contained major reforms. The maximum number of seats on the Commission was set at 27, the number of commissioners appointed by members was made the same at one each, and the president of the Commission was given greater independence from national governments. Qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministers was extended to several new areas. Approval of legislation by qualified voting required the support of members representing at least 62 percent of the EU population and either the support of a majority of members or a supermajority of votes cast. Although national vetoes remained in areas such as taxation and social policy, countries choosing to pursue further integration in limited areas were not precluded from doing so. After the end of Cold War , many of the former communist countries of eastern and central Europe applied for EU membership. However, their relative lack of economic development threatened to hinder their full integration into EU institutions.

To address this problem, the EU considered a stratified system under which subsets of countries would participate in some components of economic integration (e.g., a free trade area) but not in others (e.g., the single currency). Turkey , at the periphery of Europe, also applied for membership, though its application was controversial because it was a predominantly Islamic country, because it was widely accused of human rights violations, and because it had historically tense relations with Greece (especially over Cyprus). Despite opposition from those who feared that expansion of the EU would stifle consensus and inhibit the development of Europe-wide foreign and security policies, the EU in 2004 admitted 10 countries (Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia), all but two of which (Cyprus and Malta) were former communist states; Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007. Negotiations on Turkey’s membership application began in 2005 but faced numerous difficulties. Composition of the European Union. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Building on the limited economic and political goals of the ECSC, the countries of western Europe have achieved an unprecedented level of integration and cooperation.

The degree of legal integration, supranational political authority, and economic integration in the EU greatly surpasses that of other international organizations. Indeed, although the EU has not replaced the nation-state, its institutions have increasingly resembled a parliamentary democratic political system at the supranational level. In 2002 the Convention on the Future of Europe, chaired by former French president Valéry Giscard d’Estaing , was established to draft a constitution for the enlarged EU. Among the most difficult problems confronting the framers of the document was how to distribute power within the EU between large and small members and how to adapt the organization’s institutions to accommodate a membership that would be more than four times larger than that of the original EEC. The framers also needed to balance the ideal of deeper integration against the goal of protecting members’ national traditions. The drafting process evoked considerable controversy, particularly over the question of whether the constitution should mention God and the Christian heritage of much of European society (the final version did not).

The proposed constitution was signed in 2004 but required ratification by all EU members to take effect; voters in France and the Netherlands rejected it in 2005, thereby scuttling the constitution at least in the short term. It would have created a full-time president, a European foreign minister, a public prosecutor, and a charter of fundamental rights. Under the constitution the powers of the European Parliament would have been greatly expanded and the EU given a “legal personality” that entailed the sole right to negotiate most treaties on its members’ behalf. Under the leadership of Germany, work began in early 2007 on a reform treaty intended to replace the failed constitution. The resulting Lisbon Treaty , signed in December 2007, required approval by all 27 EU member countries in order to take effect. The treaty, which retained portions of the draft constitution, would establish an EU presidency, consolidate foreign policy representation for the EU, and devolve additional powers to the European Commission, the European Court of Justice, and the European Parliament. Unlike the draft constitution, the Lisbon Treaty would amend rather than replace existing treaties.

The treaty failed, at least in the short term, in June 2008 after it was rejected by voters in a national referendum in Ireland. However, in a second referendum, in October 2009, Irish voters—apparently concerned that another “no” vote would imperil Ireland’s ailing economy—overwhelmingly approved the treaty. A week after the Irish vote, Poland completed its ratification of the treaty as well. At that time the treaty remained to be ratified by only one country, the Czech Republic. Although the Czech Parliament already had approved the treaty, Czech Pres. Václav Klaus expressed concern that it would threaten Czech sovereignty and refused to sign it. In early November, after the Czech Constitutional Court ruled that the treaty did not imperil the Czech constitution, Klaus reluctantly endorsed the document, completing the country’s ratification process. Having been approved by all 27 member countries, the treaty entered into force on December 1, 2009. Page 1 of 2 European Union - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) The organization for the economic and political integration of Europe known as the European Union (EU) was officially created on November 1, 1993.

In practice, however, the union traces its origins back to 1950, and it has continued to grow in the 21st century. EU members are sovereign countries that have control over their own basic economic and political affairs, yet they have agreed to follow several EU laws and standards, including treaties regulating regional and world trade, the free movement of citizens within the EU, environmental regulations, and security and law enforcement agreements. Article Contributors

Question: What was established by the Maastricht Treaty?
Answer: The European Union