Pope Clement VII and Henry VIII of England previous | next Pope Clement VII and Henry VIII of England The power of the Roman Catholic Church was largely cultural and diminished by kings whose power derived from their military. This diminished power was evident during the reign of Pope Clement VII, who became pope in 1523 at the age of forty-five, while Lutheranism was spreading in central Europe. Clement was the second pope from Florence's most wealthy and powerful Medici family. He looked after the interests of the papacy and the Medici and was aligned with Charles V, who was both King of Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor. With warring in Italy between France and and Charles V, Clement changed his alliance from Charles to France and Venice (Roman Catholics all), believing that Charles had become too powerful in Italy. The French force was driven back to France and Pope Clement became a prisoner in the Castle of St. Angelo in Rome, from which he could hear the screams of his flock as men, women and children were butchered. After six months he bought off some Imperial officers and escaped disguised as a peddler. He returned to a depopulated and devastated Rome within a year, in October 1528.

The Papacy and Henry VIII William Tyndale Pope Paul III had the power of excommunication. Henry VIII a different power. England's King Henry VIII had reigned since 1509 at the age of eighteen. Loyal to Catholicism he suppressed Protestantism with his standard brutality – while making his court a center of Renaissance erudition. By the time he had turned forty-two he had come into conflict with Pope Clement regarding marriage. His queen, Catherine of Aragon, had not given him a son who had survived, and Henry, who was accustomed to having mistresses was smitten by Catherine's unusually intelligent and fascinating lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn. Henry wanted his twenty-four years of marriage to Catherine annulled. Pope Clement refused to annul the marriage, and Henry responded by assuming supremacy in his realm over religious matters. Henry I believed he was competent enough in theology to head the Church of England and he made himself the "Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England." In 1533 Henry declared his marriage to Catherine invalid and he married Anne on the judgment of the clergy in England. Henry stayed with Catholic doctrine and ceremony.

In 1534, the Parliament of England accommodated him with the Treasons Act, which made it high treason, punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as head of the Church of England. His old friend Thomas More, another of Europe’s famous humanist scholars, refused to sign the document that made Henry head of the Church of England, and Henry had More beheaded. Clement died in September 1534 and was succeeded by Paul III, and Paul used his power of excommunication against Henry, followed by his rescinding Henry's title as "Defender of the Faith." England's parliament declared that title still valid. Pope Paul had to watch – powerless – as Henry "nationalized" all Roman Church property in England into his personal ownership and sold off these properties to the highest bidders among the aristocracy and the gentry. Roman priests in England were dismissed unless they swore an oath of conformity to Henry's new Church. Those who would not were dispossessed of their positions and livelihood, or if they made too much political noise they executed as "recusants" – dissidents.

The brilliant Anne Boleyn, from a commoner family and ambitious, in becoming Henry's queen, had stepped into trouble. Henry was genuinely religious, including superstitions common to the sixteenth century, and when Anne miscarried a deformed male fetus it was seen as God's punishment for a terrible sin. Henry got rid of Anne. Torture and a confession led the case against her. She was charged with high treason, incest and adultery, with having slept with numerous men, including her brother – charges that one might expect with the circumstances. Four men and her brother were executed. Before Anne's execution she made her confession to a priest, saying: I solemnly swear on the damnation of my soul that I have never been unfaithful to my lord and husband, nor ever offended my body against him. She was executed on 19 May 1536," a victim of the husband she chose to marry and the age in which she lived. (Queens in Europe by the 21st century had reason to feel more secure.) The day after Anne's execution, Henry became engaged to Jane Seymour, who had been one of Anne's ladies-in-waiting.

Anne was survived by a daughter, Elizabeth, born to her in 1543, eight months after she had married Henry. Henry executed various Catholics and Protestants, and among them, on October 6, 1536, was the gifted linguist William Tyndale. Tyndale, in addition to creating the Bible into modern English and gaining the wrath of the Catholic Church, had gained the wrath of Henry regarding his marriages. Tyndale was tied to a stake and, given his popularity, he was strangled as an act of mercy before being set afire. He is said to have regained consciousness and to have uttered the final words: "Oh Lord, open the King of England's eyes." Clement VII | pope | Britannica.com Clement VII Alternative Title: Giulio de’ Medici Clement VII Clement VII, original name Giulio de’ Medici (born May 26, 1478, Florence [Italy]—died Sept. 25, 1534, Rome ), pope from 1523 to 1534.

Clement VII, detail from a portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo; in the National Museum and Galleries … Alinari/Art Resource, New York An illegitimate son of Giuliano de’ Medici, he was reared by his uncle Lorenzo the Magnificent . He was made archbishop of Florence and cardinal in 1513 by his cousin Pope Leo X , whose political policies he influenced. As cardinal he commissioned Raphael to paint the huge altarpiece the “Transfiguration” for his cathedral at Narbonne, France. He planned an impressive group of monuments to members of his family for the New Sacristy (Sagrestia Nuova) in San Lorenzo , Florence, and in 1520 Michelangelo began the designs, which were to rank among the finest of his sculptures. In 1523 he was elected to succeed Adrian VI. His reign was dominated by the spread of the Protestant Reformation, the conflict between France and the Empire, and the divorce of Henry VIII of England.

A weak, vacillating figure in the political struggles between King Francis I of France and the Holy Roman emperor Charles V for the domination of Europe, Clement shifted his support from one to the other while attempting to maintain control of Italy . He supported Charles in the fighting that ended in the Battle of Pavia (Feb. 24, 1525), during which Francis was taken prisoner. The following year, however, he joined Francis in founding the League of Cognac , a treaty opposing Charles. Clement’s anti-imperial policy increased Charles’s difficulties in Germany, especially his battle against the growing Reformation . Clement’s alliance with France led to the emperor’s sack of Rome in May 1527. During the attack, Clement sought refuge in the Castel Sant’Angelo in Rome and then lived outside Rome for almost one year. Clement’s incapacitation complicated the English king Henry VIII’s request for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon .

In 1528 France invaded Italy, and Clement delegated Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio as co-legate with Cardinal Wolsey to try Henry’s case in England, but on May 31, 1529, Catherine denied their jurisdiction and appealed to Rome to sustain a validation of her marriage. A few weeks later, the French were defeated in Italy; Clement brought the revocation of Catherine’s cause to Rome (July 1529) and in March 1530 forbade Henry to remarry until the papal verdict was pronounced. The Reformation in Germany worsened when Charles released Clement without attempting to secure a guarantee that ecclesiastical reform would commence or that a general council would be convened to solve the problem raised by the Lutheran movement. Francis opposed such a council, and Clement was continually prevented from action on the urgent need for reform. His indecisiveness allowed the Protestant revolt to grow, which was nurtured further by Henry’s eventual split from Rome. Britannica Stories CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope Clement VII Home > Catholic Encyclopedia > C > Pope Clement VII Pope Clement VII Help support New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download .

Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more  all for only $19.99... (GIULIO DE’ MEDICI). Born 1478; died 25 September, 1534. Giulio de' Medici was born a few months after the death of his father , Giuliano, who was slain at Florence in the disturbances which followed the Pazzi conspiracy. Although his parents had not been properly married, they had, it was alleged, been betrothed per sponsalia de presenti, and Giulio, in virtue of a well-known principle of canon law, was subsequently declared legitimate. The youth was educated by his uncle, Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was made a Knight of Rhodes and Grand Prior of Capua , and, upon the election of his cousin Giovanni de' Medici to the papacy as Leo X , he at once became a person of great consequence. On 28 September, 1513, he was made cardinal , and he had the credit of being the prime mover of the papal policy during the whole of Leo's pontificate.

He was one of the most favoured candidates in the protracted conclave which resulted in the election of Adrian VI ; neither did the Cardinal de' Medici, in spite of his close connection with the luxurious regime of Leo X , altogether lose influence under his austere successor. Giulio, in the words of a modern historian, was "learned, clever, respectable and industrious, though he had little enterprise and less decision" (Armstrong, Charles V, I, 166). After Adrian's death (14 September, 1523) the Cardinal de' Medici was eventually chosen pope , 18 November, 1523, and his election was hailed at Rome with enthusiastic rejoicing. But the temper of the Roman people was only one element in the complex problem which Clement VII had to face. The whole political and religious situation was one of extreme delicacy, and it may be doubted if there was one man in ten thousand who would have succeeded by natural tact and human prudence in guiding the Bark of Peter through such tempestuous waters. Clement was certainly not such a man.

He had unfortunately been brought up in all the bad traditions of Italian diplomacy, and over and above this a certain fatal irresolution of character seemed to impel him, when any decision had been arrived at, to hark back upon the course agreed on and to try to make terms with the other side. The early years of his pontificate were occupied with the negotiations which culminated in the League of Cognac. When Clement was crowned , Francis I and the Emperor Charles V were at war . Charles had supported Clement's candidature and hoped much from his friendship with the Medici , but barely a year had elapsed after his election before the new pope concluded a secret treaty with France . The pitched battle which was fought between Francis and the imperial commanders at Pavia in February, 1525, ending in the defeat and captivity of the French king, put into Charles' hands the means of avenging himself. Still he used his victory with moderation. The terms of the Treaty of Madrid (14 January, 1526) were not really extravagant, but Francis seems to have signed with the deliberate intention of breaking his promises, though confirmed by the most solemn of oaths .

That Clement, instead of accepting Charles' overtures, should have made himself a party to the French king's perfidy and should have organized a league with France , Venice , and Florence, signed at Cognac, 22 May, 1526, must certainly have been regarded by the emperor as almost unpardonable provocation. No doubt Clement was moved by genuine patriotism in his distrust of imperial influence in Italy and especially by anxiety for his native Florence. Moreover, he chafed under dictation which seemed to him to threaten the freedom of the Church . But though he probably feared that the bonds might be drawn tighter, it is hard to see that he had at that time any serious ground of complaint. We cannot be much surprised at what followed. Charles' envoys, obtaining no satisfaction from the pope , allied themselves with the disaffected Colonna who had been raiding the papal territory. These last pretended reconciliation until the papal commanders were lulled into a sense of security. Then the Colonna made a sudden attack upon Rome and shut up Clement in the Castle of Sant’ Angelo while their followers plundered the Vatican (20 September, 1526).

Charles disavowed the action of the Colonna but took advantage of the situation created by their success. A period of vacillation followed. At one time Clement concluded a truce with the emperor, at another he turned again despairingly to the League, at another, under the encouragement of a slight success, he broke off negotiations with the imperial representatives and resumed active hostilities, and then again, still later, he signed a truce with Charles for eight months, promising the immediate payment of an indemnity of 60,000 ducats. In the mean time the German mercenaries in the north of Italy were fast being reduced to the last extremities for lack of provisions and pay. On hearing of the indemnity of 60,000 ducats they threatened mutiny, and the imperial commissioners extracted from the pope the payment of 100,000 ducats instead of the sum first agreed upon. But the sacrifice was ineffectual. It seems probable that the Landsknechte, a very large proportion of whom were Lutherans , had really got completely out of hand, and that they practically forced the Constable Bourbon, now in supreme command, to lead them against Rome .

On the 5th of May they reached the walls, which, owing to the pope's confidence in the truce he had concluded, were almost undefended. Clement had barely time to take refuge in the Castle of Sant’ Angelo, and for eight days the "Sack of Rome " continued amid horrors almost unexampled in the history of war . "The Lutherans", says an impartial authority, "rejoiced to burn and to defile what all the world had adored. Churches were desecrated , women , even the religious, violated, ambassadors pillaged, cardinals put to ransom, ecclesiastical dignitaries and ceremonies made a mockery, and the soldiers fought among themselves for the spoil" (Leathes in "Camb. Mod. History", II, 55). It seems probable that Charles V was really not implicated in the horrors which then took place. Still he had no objection against the pope bearing the full consequences of his shifty diplomacy, and he allowed him to remain a virtual prisoner in the Castle of Sant’ Angelo for more than seven months. Clement's pliability had already given offence to the other members of the League, and his appeals were not responded to very warmly.

Besides this, he was sorely in need of the imperial support both to make head against the Lutherans in Germany and to reinstate the Medici in the government of Florence from which they had been driven out. The combined effect of these various considerations and of the failure of the French attempts upon Naples was to throw Clement into the emperor's arms. After a sojourn in Orvieto and Viterbo , Clement returned to Rome , and there, before the end of July, 1529, terms favourable to the Holy See were definitely arranged with Charles. The seal was set upon the compact by the meeting of the emperor and the pope at Bologna, where, on 24 February, 1530, Charles was solemnly crowned . By whatever motives the pontiff was swayed, this settlement certainly had the effect of restoring to Italy a much-needed peace. Meanwhile events, the momentous consequence of which were not then fully foreseen, had been taking place in England .

Henry VIII , tired of Queen Catherine, by whom he had no heir to the throne, but only one surviving daughter, Mary, and passionately enamoured of Anne Boleyn, had made known to Wolsey in May, 1527, that he wished to be divorced . He pretended that his conscience was uneasy at the marriage contracted under papal dispensation with his brother's widow . As his first act was to solicit from the Holy See contingently upon the granting of the divorce , a dispensation from the impediment of affinity in the first degree (an impediment which stood between him and any legal marriage with Anne on account of his previous carnal intercourse with Anne's sister Mary), the scruple of conscience cannot have been very sincere. Moreover, as Queen Catherine solemnly swore that the marriage between herself and Henry's elder brother Arthur had never been consummated, there had consequently never been any real affinity between her and Henry but only the impedimentum publicæ honestatis. The king's impatience, however, was such that, without giving his full confidence to Wolsey , he sent his envoy, Knight, at once to Rome to treat with the pope about getting the marriage annulled.

Knight found the pope a prisoner in Sant’ Angelo and could do little until he visited Clement, after his escape, at Orvieto . Clement was anxious to gratify Henry, and he did not make much difficulty about the contingent dispensation from affinity, judging, no doubt, that, as it would only take effect when the marriage with Catherine was cancelled, it was of no practical consequence. On being pressed, however, to issue a commission to Wolsey to try the divorce case, he made a more determined stand, and Cardinal Pucci, to whom was submitted a draft instrument for the purpose, declared that such a document would reflect discredit upon all concerned. A second mission to Rome organized by Wolsey , and consisting of Gardiner and Foxe, was at first not much more successful. A commission was indeed granted and taken back to England by Foxe, but it was safeguarded in ways which rendered it practically innocuous. The bullying attitude which Gardiner adopted towards the pope seems to have passed all limits of decency, but Wolsey , fearful of losing the royal favour, egged him on to new exertions and implored him to obtain at any cost a "decretal commission".

This was an instrument which decided the points of law beforehand, secure from appeal, and left only the issue of fact to be determined in England . Against this Clement seems honestly to have striven, but he at last yielded so far as to issue a secret commission to Cardinal Wolsey and Cardinal Campeggio jointly to try the case in England . The commission was to be shown to no one, and was never to leave Compeggio's hands. We do not know its exact terms; but if it followed the drafts prepared in England for the purpose, it pronounced that the Bull of dispensation granted by Julius for the marriage of Henry with his deceased brother's wife must be declared obreptitious and consequently void, if the commissioners found that the motives alleged by Julius were insufficient and contrary to the facts. For example, it had been pretended that the dispensation was necessary to cement the friendship between England and Spain , also that the young Henry himself desired the marriage, etc. Campeggio reached England by the end of September, 1528, but the proceedings of the legatine court were at once brought to a standstill by the production of a second dispensation granted by Pope Julius in the form of a Brief . This had a double importance.

Clement's commission empowered Wolsey and Campeggio to pronounce upon the sufficiency of the motives alleged in a certain specified document, viz., the Bull ; but the Brief was not contemplated by, and lay outside, their commission. Moreover, the Brief did not limit the motives for granting the dispensation to certain specified allegations, but spoke of "aliis causis animam nostram moventibus". The production of the Brief , now commonly admitted to be quite authentic, though the king's party declared it a forgery , arrested the proceedings of the commission for eight months, and in the end, under pressure from Charles V , to whom his Aunt Catherine had vehemently appealed for support as well as to the pope , the cause was revoked to Rome . There can be no doubt that Clement showed much weakness in the concessions he had made to the English demands; but it must also be remembered, first, that in the decision of this point of law, the technical grounds for treating the dispensation as obreptitious were in themselves serious and, secondly, that in committing the honour of the Holy See to Campeggio's keeping, Clement had known that he had to do with a man of exceptionally high principle.

How far the pope was influenced by Charles V in his resistance, it is difficult to say; but it is clear that his own sense of justice disposed him entirely in favour of Queen Catherine. Henry in consequence shifted his ground, and showed how deep was the rift which separated him from the Holy See , by now urging that a marriage with a deceased husband's brother lay beyond the papal powers of dispensation . Clement retaliated by pronouncing censure against those who threatened to have the king's divorce suit decided by an English tribunal, and forbade Henry to proceed to a new marriage before a decision was given in Rome . The king on his side (1531) extorted a vast sum of money from the English clergy upon the pretext that the penalties of præmunire had been incurred by them through their recognition of the papal legate , and soon afterwards he prevailed upon Parliament to prohibit under certain conditions the payment of annates to Rome . Other developments followed. The death of Archbishop Warham (22 August, 1532) allowed Henry to press for the institution of Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury , and through the intervention of the King of France this was conceded, the pallium being granted to him by Clement.

Almost immediately after his consecration Cranmer proceeded to pronounce judgment upon the divorce , while Henry had previously contracted a secret marriage with Anne Boleyn, which marriage Cranmer, in May, 1533, declared to be valid. Anne Boleyn was consequently crowned on June the 1st. Meanwhile the Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of præmunire against all who introduced papal Bulls into England . It was only then that Clement at last took the step of launching a sentence of excommunication against the king, declaring at the same time Cranmer's pretended decree of divorce to be invalid and the marriage with Anne Boleyn null and void. The papal nuncio was withdrawn from England and diplomatic relations with Rome broken off. Henry appealed from the pope to a general council , and in January, 1534, the Parliament pressed on further legislation abolishing all ecclesiastical dependence on Rome . But it was only in March, 1534, that the papal tribunal finally pronounced its verdict upon the original issue raised by the king and declared the marriage between Henry and Catherine to be unquestionably valid.

Clement has been much blamed for this delay and for his various concessions in the matter of the divorce ; indeed he has been accused of losing England to the Catholic Faith on account of the encouragement thus given to Henry, but it is extremely doubtful whether a firmer attitude would have had a more beneficial result. The king was determined to effect his purpose, and Clement had sufficient principle not to yield the one vital point upon which all turned. With regard to Germany , though Clement never broke away from his friendship with Charles V , which was cemented by the coronation at Bologna in 1530, he never lent to the emperor that cordial co-operation which could alone have coped with a situation the extreme difficulty and danger of which Clement probably never understood. In particular, the pope seems to have had a horror of the idea of convoking a general council , foreseeing, no doubt, grave difficulties with France in any such attempt. Things were not improved when Henry, through his envoy Bonner , who found Clement visiting the French king at Marseilles , lodged his appeal to a future general council on the divorce question. In the more ecclesiastical aspects of his pontificate Clement was free from reproach.

Two Franciscan reforms, that of the Capuchins and that of the Recollects, found in him a sufficiently sympathetic patron. He was genuinely in earnest over the crusade against the Turks , and he gave much encouragement to foreign missions. As a patron of art, he was much hampered by the sack of Rome and the other disastrous events of his pontificate. But he was keenly interested in such matters, and according to Benvenuto Cellini he had excellent taste. By the commission given to the last-named artist for the famous cope-clasp of which we hear so much in the autobiography, he became the founder of Benvenuto's fortunes. (See CELLINI, BENVENUTO.) Clement also continued to be the patron of Raphael and of Michelangelo , whose great fresco of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel was undertaken by his orders. In their verdict upon the character of Pope Clement VII almost all historians are agreed. He was an Italian prince, a de’ Medici , and a diplomat first, and a spiritual ruler afterwards. His intelligence was of a high order, though his diplomacy was feeble and irresolute.

On the other hand, his private life was free from reproach, and he had many excellent impulses, but despite good intention, all qualities of heroism and greatness must emphatically be denied him. Clement VII facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Clement VII COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Clement VII Elected pope of the Catholic Church in times of religious and political turmoil, the reign of Clement VII (1478-1534) was marked by a brutal attack on Rome and the defection of King Henry VIII of England. Pope Clement VII began his life as Giulio de' Medici on May 26, 1478, in Florence, Italy. He was the illegitimate son of Giuliano de' Medici, of the famed Medici family of Florence, who was murdered about a month before his birth. Historians disagree on who his mother was, and what her relationship was with Giuliano. No matter what her social status was, after the murder, she gave her infant son to Lorenzo de' Medici (known as Lorenzo the Magnificent), the older brother of Giuliano. She would have no role in her son's life.

Lorenzo de' Medici had been injured in the attack (an attempt to overthrow Medici power in Florence) that had killed his brother. Deeply saddened by his brother's death, he raised young Giulio in his household, treated him as his son, and planned a military career for him. The boy was very close to his cousin, Lorenzo's son Giovanni (who later became Pope Leo X). As noted by E.R. Chamberlin in The Bad Popes, "The positive, articulate Giovanni, naturally earned and enjoyed the hero worship of the withdrawn, rather shy Giulio." Cardinal and Papal Advisor Although his uncle had planned a military career for him, Giulio de' Medici was interested in a life in the clergy. Matthew Bunson, author of The Pope Encyclopedia, wrote that his cousin, now Pope Leo X, ignored the tradition of illegitimate men not being able to be serve as bishops. He named his cousin Archbishop of Florence and a Cardinal in 1513. The future Clement VII was a well-respected man in Rome. Bunson noted that he served as an advisor to both his cousin, Pope Leo X, and to his successor, Pope Adrian VI.

He was a patron of literature, culture, and the arts, and was an admirer of Michelangelo. In 1519, when his uncle, Lorenzo de' Medici died, he was sent to oversee Florence. In his book Saints and Sinners-A History of the Popes, Eamon Duffy noted that the future pope was a well-regarded diplomat. As a cardinal, he was a supporter of Emperor Charles against the French, and took the lead in arranging an alliance between Pope Leo X and Charles. However, in The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, J.N.D. Kelly added that he was "narrow in outlook and interests" and "acted mainly as an Italian prince and a Medici." Elected Pope In the fall of 1523, the unpopular Pope Adrian VI (who was Dutch, and the only non-Italian pope until John Paul II was elected in 1978) died. Chamberlin commented that there was a great deal of political maneuvering to see who would be the next pope. Time dragged on, and the conclave of cardinals failed to elect a successor. The Roman citizens complained and the cardinals grew frustrated.

After almost 50 days, Chamberlin wrote that the cardinals were switched to a diet of just bread and water. This prompted more political maneuvering, which resulted in Giulio de' Medici's election as pope on November 19, 1523. He took Clement as his papal name. Bunson wrote that people expected that he would be a great pope and leader, as he had been a highly regarded advisor to the two previous popes. Unfortunately, as Pope Clement VII, he would prove to be unequal to the task. In his book, Duffy described Pope Clement VII as a "Renaissance aristocrat … universally respected … immensely hard-working and efficient … pious … and free of sexual scandal." However, the changing climate of Europe challenged Clement. Duffy added that "the nations of Europe increasingly went their own way." These countries were led by "assertive monarchs … powerful rulers such as Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England, and Charles V of Spain." Bunson recalled that although Clement VII was genuinely concerned with the state of his Church, he was easily distracted, and was indecisive.

Chamberlin added, "Clement's inability to inspire loyalty was as nothing compared with his main defect: his inability to make up his mind." This indecisiveness would lead to major problems in his reign. Caught Between Two Monarchs During his reign as pontiff, Clement switched allegiance between King Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V, several times. Duffy wrote that to a point, his indecisiveness was understandable. Even though Charles was a more devout Catholic than Francis, he was also a bigger threat. Duffy called Charles was "the most powerful man in Europe," as he controlled Spain, Naples, the Netherlands, Austria, Germany, and the Spanish New World. Chamberlin added that ultimately, Clement owed his election as pope to the support of Charles. Clement's cousin, Pope Leo X, had some success at controlling Charles and Francis, usually by threatening one with the other. Chamberlin noted that Clement would proclaim to be neutral, but did not play the game as well as his cousin had. In the fall of 1524, Chamberlin wrote, two armies were converging on Milan. Francis came from the north, and soldiers loyal to Charles came from the southwest.

Francis ended up with control of the city, and Clement made a treaty with him. Chamberlin recounted that the treaty included protection of the Church as well as Medici rule in Florence. In return, Clement recognized Francis as the duke of Milan, and allowed the French army to pass through to attack the Spaniards in Naples. In the next major battle, however, the French failed. Chamberlin wrote, "The French army was destroyed, the king was taken captive, and the balance of power in Italy-in all Europe-tilted toward the emperor." Rome was vulnerable to an attack, and many blamed Clement for this. However, rather than destroying Rome, Charles proposed a treaty. Chamberlin recounted that Charles believed that "the pope must have learned his lesson." They signed a treaty on April 1, 1525, just three months after Clement had signed the treaty with Francis. Chamberlin noted that Charles was now given control of Milan, agreed to protect the States of the Church, and promised that Florence would remain under Medici control, for a price. The king of France was a prisoner for a year before Charles offered him a deal for his release. Francis took it, but did not intend to keep his word.

Once again switching his allegiance, Chamberlin noted that Clement met with Francis on May 22, 1526, and the Treaty of Cognac was signed. Chamberlin called it "an alliance consisting of the Papacy, Venice, Milan, and France, directed against Emperor Charles." This alliance would prove to be a disaster for Clement. On September 20, 1526, raiders, led by Cardinal Colonna, one of Clement's rivals during the conclave and a supporter of Charles, invaded Rome. The next day, the panic-stricken Clement VII signed yet another treaty with Charles. Chamberlin noted that the pope agreed to pardon Cardinal Colonna for his actions, and to abandon his allies. The raiders withdrew and Rome was relieved. However, peace would not last. The Sack of Rome Several things led up to the sack of Rome. Duffy noted that Cardinal Colonna wanted to overthrow Clement and become pope. There was also a rebellion in Florence. In Rome, families were taking sides and fighting each other. Protestantism was also growing across Europe. As noted by Duffy, the renegade French duke, Charles of Bourbon was pushing his army south, hoping to gain control of central Italy.

He planned to attack Florence, but because of the rebellion, the Florentines were angry and prepared to do battle with anyone. Bourbon decided to bypass Florence and pushed his army, made up of angry German, Spanish, and even Italian soldiers, towards Rome. Early on the morning of May 6, 1527, the soldiers attacked Rome. Their leader, Bourbon, was killed early in the battle. Chaos and destruction followed. As Bunson noted, Clement barely survived the attack. The Swiss Guard gave their lives to save him. He made it to the safety of the Castel Sant' Angelo. As noted on the New Advent website, from the Castel, Clement "had to listen to the agonized screams of his poor flock" and watch as "the glory of Renaissance Rome was extinguished in blood." He would remain a prisoner there until December. As noted by Duffy, Rome was being desecrated and destroyed. Horses were stabled in St. Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel. The soldiers got drunk and paraded around Rome in cardinal and papal robes. They also stood under the Castel Sant' Angelo and threatened to eat Clement.

Chamberlin added that priests were tortured to death, and nuns were raped and killed. "The German taste inclined toward drunkenness rather than cruelty," but they also "excelled at religious desecration." He noted that the Spaniards and some of the Italians would take everything from a victim, before sending him to a cruel death. Summer came. With thousands of bodies all over the city, the stench was awful and a plague started. Chamberlin noted that in June, Clement signed a treaty that put him at the mercy of Charles. He remained a prisoner in Castel Sant' Angelo. After the Sack of Rome The people of Europe were shocked by the events in Rome. Chamberlin noted that Charles was also horrified by the destruction in Rome, and was debating what to do with Clement and the papacy. Clement, for his part, lived away from Rome over the next two years. Eventually, he made an uneasy peace with Charles, and crowned him as Holy Roman Emperor in 1530. It was the last papal coronation of an emperor. Duffy added that in return, papal states were returned to the Pope, Florence was returned to Medici rule, and Clement finally returned to Rome.

Rome lay in destruction. Duffy noted that it would take years for the city to recover. The population had dwindled, the artists had fled, and building and growth had stopped. There was also a spiritual change in the air. The Reformation was no longer a rumor from Germany. Protestant teachings now spread west to the Netherlands, France, Spain, and Italy. King Henry Sought an Annulment While Clement and Rome were being attacked, England was firmly on the side of the Catholic Church. England's king, Henry VIII, wrote an attack on Luther's teachings. That support disappeared when Henry wanted to be rid of his first wife. He intended to marry another woman, in the hopes of having a son and heir to the throne. Thus began, as Antonia Fraser noted in The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England, the "king's great matter." The marriage of Henry to Catherine of Aragon had been an attempt to unite Spain and England. His wife was the widow of his elder brother, which was prohibited by Church law. Duffy noted that Henry had gotten papal dispensation from Pope Julius II so that they could marry.

Citing conflicting biblical text (and the lack of a son), Henry asked for an annulment of this "sinful" union. In the past, Duffy noted, men with less to stand on had such rulings go in their favor. However, there was a major complication: Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of Emperor Charles. As Fraser wrote, the sack of Rome in 1527 "made Pope Clement VII a puppet of Charles V, who would never consent to his aunt being cast aside." Clement resisted making a decision for quite a while, and finally refused to grant the king's request. Henry then broke away from the Catholic Church, and started the Church of England. Clement was blamed for the defection of England. However, as the Catholic Community Forum website, stated that "later canon lawyers maintain that, whether he was influenced by Charles V or not, Clement followed the only course possible on legal grounds." In the meantime, Bunson noted, Protestantism was sweeping across Europe, and Clement failed to reform the Church, which was what his fellow Catholic leaders wanted. Later Years Later in life, Clement did have two small triumphs.

Emperor Charles agreed to allow Clement's ward and great niece, Catherine de' Medici, to marry the son of the king of France. Clement traveled to France and performed the wedding in October of 1533. She would eventually become queen of France. Charles also agreed to allow his daughter to marry Clement's nephew (some say his son). A few months after his niece's marriage, Clement became ill and never recovered. He died on September 25, 1534, hated by the people of Rome, who never forgave him for the destruction of 1527. Three weeks after his death, his rival, Alessandro Farnese, became Pope Paul III. In general, historians have not been kind to Pope Clement VII. He is remembered because of the historical events that happened during his papal reign, not because of his accomplishments. Duffy simply called him "a disastrous pope." Chamberlin however, did give him some minimal credit, writing "where Medici interests were at stake, Clement proved himself a statesman of the first rank." Books The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.

Copyright The Columbia University Press Clement VII, c.1475–1534, pope (1523–34), a Florentine named Giulio de' Medici; successor of Adrian VI. He was the nephew of Lorenzo de' Medici and was therefore first cousin of Pope Leo X. In 1513 he became a cardinal and as archbishop of Florence was noted as a reformer. He was a chief supporter and adviser of Adrian in his attempts to reform the church. As pope, however, he proved to be unaware of the menace of Lutheranism to the church and was certainly not the man for the opening battles of the Reformation. His relations with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V were never very cordial, since Clement allied himself with Francis I of France in the League of Cognac (1526). As a result of his hostility to the emperor, the imperial troops attacked Rome in 1527, sacked the city, and held the pope for some months. Eventually (1529) peace was achieved and Clement crowned Charles emperor. About 1527 the first stage of the struggle of Henry VIII of England against the church began.

Clement's behavior in the matter of the divorce and the dispensations for a new marriage has been called vacillating, but when the situation became critical, he put the irreproachable Cardinal Campeggio in charge of the case with Cardinal Wolsey. Later canon lawyers have steadily maintained that, whether he was influenced by Charles V or not, Clement followed the only course possible on legal grounds. He was a patron of Raphael, Michelangelo, and Benvenuto Cellini. He was succeeded by Paul III. Cite this article COPYRIGHT 2008 Greenhaven Clement VII (1342–1394) “Antipope” whose election brought about the Great Western Schism. Born Robert of Geneva, the son of the Count of Geneva, he was appointed bishop of Therouanne in 1361 and of the city of Cambrai in 1368. In 1371 he became a member of the College of Cardinals, the body that elects the pope. As a cardinal he led a brutal campaign against the town of Cesena, where the townspeople were resisting direct control of the pope.

He put down the rebellion but a massacre he ordered of several thousand inhabitants earned him the nickname of “Butcher of Cesena.” After this event, he was elected pope by a committee of French cardinals after the death of Gregory XI, but the election was contested by another candidate, Urban VI. Allied to the French king, Clement left Rome to establish a rival papal court and administration in Avignon , in what is now southern France . This commenced the Great Schism that did lasting damage to the church. With rival popes enthroned at Avignon and Rome, all of Christendom was forced to choose sides. The authority of the church hierarchy was thrown into doubt, inspiring the first stirrings of a movement for reformation of the church. Clement had the support of France, Scotland , Spain , and the Kingdom of Naples , as well as several states in the Holy Roman Empire , but he was unable to heal the breach in the church that continued for another generation after his death.

Cite this article Dissecting a Divorce: King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon | Perspectives on Tudor & Stuart History Perspectives on Tudor & Stuart History Perspectives on Tudor & Stuart History Menu Home Dissecting a Divorce: King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon Dissecting a Divorce: King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon jj1470 Politics , Religion Catherine of Aragon , Charles V , Clement VII , England , Foreign Policy , Henry VIII , Holy Roman Empire , Rome , Wives of Henry VIII A pivotal period in the history of the early modern world was King Henry VIII’s schism with the Roman Catholic Church and the English Reformation it sparked. These events led to England’s formation as a Protestant nation, isolated from the influence of Rome. It is believed that King Henry VIII’s request to Pope Clement VII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon was largely based on his desire to marry a suitable woman of child-bearing age capable of producing a male heir. Although the union of Henry and Catherine had produced a daughter, Mary, the king required a son in order to ensure succession of the Tudor dynasty.

King Henry feared a foreign monarch or prince’s marriage to his daughter would result in a foreign power effectively controlling his realm. Catherine’s child-bearing days were nearing an end and many experts declared that she would not survive an additional birth. The question remains: why would Pope Clement VII refuse to annul Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon? Henry VIII was a seemingly loyal, earthly representative of Christ. Henry had been granted the title “Defender of the Faith” for his opposition to the rise of Lutheranism on continental Europe and had understandable concerns for the future of his crown and realm. Over the nearly five centuries, many theories have been discussed as to why the Holy See, at a time when the influence and long-held prestige of the one true faith was threatened by reformists and dissidents such as Martin Luther and later John Calvin, would risk isolating and offending a monarch and by extension his entire nation by refusing to stamp the seal of Saint Peter on a piece of papal parchment. I find myself agreeing with the popular view that Pope Clement VII had little say in the matter.

Events in Europe, such as the imminent Ottoman threat and the sacking of Rome made the approval of King Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon politically impossible for the papacy. These pressing concerns closer to home were foremost on the mind of the pope leaving the needs of a king on the periphery of western Christendom unheard. In order to understand Henry’s need for a recognized divorce and why his request was rejected, one must understand who Catherine of Aragon was, how she and Henry came to be, and most importantly, who Catherine counted among her relatives. Catherine was the daughter of “historic power couple” King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile, the same duo who sponsored the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Ferdinand and Isabella had one unadulterated goal: the continued growth of their realm and influence. The prominence and political maneuvers orchestrated by the sacrament of matrimony in medieval times is well known and perhaps overplayed in our contemporary culture. George R.R. Martin’s, Game of Thrones, accurately portrays the practice of marrying offspring to foreign rulers as a means to strengthen ties and develop influence within foreign realms.

As the daughter of a dominant ruling dynasty of the period, Catherine was clearly one of these cases. Catherine was betrothed at infancy to Prince Arthur of Wales, the first born son of King Henry VII. King Henry VII recognized the need for peace and the necessity of maintaining good relations with the Spanish kingdom especially in light of threats posed by the Kingdom of France. Henry VII strongly advocated for the marriage of both of his sons, Arthur and then Henry, to Catherine. When Arthur died leaving Catherine a widow, it was politically expedient for Prince Henry to marry Catherine. Although their marriage was considered ‘happy’, Henry did not love Catherine. Their union was soured by stillborn sons and only one daughter, the aforementioned Mary. By the time Henry had consolidated his power, he clearly wanted to be rid of Catherine. However, there was one man standing in the way of this divorce: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Catherine’s nephew. Charles V was perhaps the richest and most powerful man of his time. He was a grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella and his control spanned present-day Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, the Low-Countries, and all colonial possessions in the Americas.

A staunch Catholic who worked to resist Luther in his German dominions, Charles V’s realm was something akin to an American or Soviet superpower in the fifteenth century. The papacy heavily relied on Charles V’s patronage and protection. Catholicism, at this time, was under tremendous threat not only from rebelling imperial lords incensed by Martin Luther but by a resistant France and the equally as large Ottoman Empire led by Suleyman the Magnificent. Suleyman made no secret of his intentions to conquer Europe and destroy the Roman Catholic Church. Although at this point in time the Ottoman incursion was still very far away and the main invasion and defense waged by Charles V would not be fought until years later after Henry’s split with Rome, the threat was serious enough that the papacy had to take preventative measures. France’s dispute and campaigns were not helping the situation and Henry VIII was also involved in a semi French alliance due to his courting of Anne Boleyn and Norman ties. Additionally, Henry was not in a geographic position to assist the Papacy directly. Charles V was in such a position. Charles’s enhanced power and proximity made it more likely that Clement would heed his words over Henry’s.

The dramatic event that perhaps solidified the Pope’s rejection of Henry VIII’s divorce request was the sacking of Rome in 1527. Mutinous soldiers of the Holy Roman Empire, believing that they had not been properly compensated for their services, attacked the city and imprisoned the pope with threats of bodily harm. It has been disputed that their actions were motivated by the lack of compensation and also to ensure that the Pope would listen to their emperor who prior to the sacking had requested a private audience with the Pope. This was due to Pope Clement seemingly switching sides by engaging in discussions of alliance with France and desiring not to be completely dependent on the Hapsburg dynasty despite needing them for protection. From this point in time, the Pope would become a perpetual prisoner of Charles V and had almost no choice but do what he demanded lest the emperor find some pretext to execute him and replace Clement with a more pliable representative of Saint Peter. These events and the political climate of continental Europe all contributed to Clement VII’s decision to deny Henry’s request for an annulment.

Claims were brought forth by Henry that the injunction written in the bible passages of Leviticus made his marriage to Catherine invalid in the eyes of God and no male heir was born due to God’s wrath at this “unlawful” union. Although the marriage had the approval of Pope Julius II and was declared valid when it occurred alongside knowledge of the consummation of the marriages, England still pressed that Henry’s union to Catherine was invalid. Henry VIII and his council had no chance of convincing Pope Clement VII. The pope had become a prisoner of Charles V. The papal response that marriage is sacred and for life should not be surprising. Charles V would never allow his aunt Catherine to be dishonored, exiled or kept confined in the tower of London, if not out of love, but simply to protect the prestige of his family. To conclude, King Henry VIII could not get his divorce from Catherine of Aragon because the state of affairs was not amenable to such and consequently England embarked on a dramatically different path from the rest of the European early modern community. -James Venia “Catherine of Aragon.” BBC News/History. Accessed October 1, 2015. .

“Charles V | Holy Roman Emperor.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed October 3, 2015. . “Henry VIII Biography.” Biography.com Website. Accessed October 2, 2015. . “The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon Book Chapter One.” English History. March 6, 2015. Accessed October 2, 2015. . Trueman, Chris. “Henry’s Divorce from Catherine – History Learning Site.” History Learning Site. Accessed October 2, 2015. . Vallely, Paul. “The Big Question: What Would Have Happpened If Henvy VIII Had Obtained His Divorce?” The Independent. June 25, 2009. Accessed October 1, 2015. . Share this: EWTN.com - Excommunication of Henry VIII Excommunication of Henry VIII Question from Charles on 3/31/2003: Dear Matthew, I sent this question a couple of weeks ago, don't know if you got it, so here it is again.

The papal bull which excommunicated the English queen Elizabeth I ('Regnans in Excelsis' of 1570) is well known and can be found in lots of places on the net such as here But I have been searching on the net for the bull which excommunicated Henry VIII and I canï¿½t find it. Then I came across this - Cranmer granted the annulment, and in 1533 Henry married Anne Boleyn. The pope drew up a bull of excommunicating of Henry, but it was never issued. But then on the Catholic Encyclopaedia there is this - Clement VII, who had previously sent to Henry more than one monition upon his desertion of Catherine, issued a Bull of excommunication on 11 July 1533, declaring, also, his divorce and remarriage null. Then I have read elsewhere that he was excommunicated by Paul III in 1538. Can you please confirm when Henry was excommunicated and what was the name of the bull and do you know where I can find the text of the bull, preferably on the net but if not in a book.

Thanks v much Charles Answer by Matthew Bunson on 4/9/2003: My apologies, but I did not receive your question. In July 1533, Pope Clement VII threatened English King Henry VIII with ex-communication if he did not resume his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The date that the pope gave to Henry was September of that year. For the English at the royal court, the decree all but marked the formal excommunication of the king as it was clear that Henry had no intention of abandoning his schemes with Anne Boleyn. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, subsequently annulled the marriage in May 1533. The pope still did not issue the bull as he remained hopeful of an eventual solution to the problem and that Henry might at last come to his senses. This, of course, never happened, and Clement died the next year in September. It is a testament to the patience of the Holy See that Pope Paul III, pontiff since October 1534, waited until 1538 to issue the bull. Significantly, he did not promulgate a new one but merely issued the longstanding one first drafted by Clement in 1533.

I believe that some of the confusion may stem from this fact. The excommunication was issued because of Henryï¿½s demolition of the Church in England and his determination to execute anyone who stood in his way. Speaking personally, I have not read the bull of excommunication, although a copy should exist in the Vatican Archives. The reasons for its lack of publicity at the tiem stems perhaps in part from the political situation, especially when compared to the circumstances surrounding Regnans in Excelsis. By 1570, the English Reformation had destroyed the ecclesiastical structure in England, and Elizabeth was able to use the bull as a cudgel against her Catholic enemies and as a propaganda device. In 1538, Henryï¿½s political situation was far more precarious, and he long considered the threat of excommunication to be a serious one as it isolated him from the Holy Roman Emperor and from the King of France, both of whom remained in the Catholic camp. The Protestant states were still unsettled, so the scale of potential enemies was considerable. As it turned out, Henry broke definitively from the Church, and the oppressive years for the Catholics in England only grew worse.

COPYRIGHT 2017 Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church? | Reference.com Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church? A: Quick Answer Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church so that he could divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry his lover Anne Boleyn. Full Answer The year was 1527, and Henry VIII wanted a male heir. Unfortunately, his wife was too old to bear a child, so he needed a new wife. At the time, divorce was not allowed in the Catholic Church, and if Henry got a divorce without the pope's permission, he could be excommunicated or kicked out of the church – a fate that would ultimately lead to an eternity in hell. Henry asked the pope for a dispensation to get a divorce, but the pope would not grant him that. In response, Henry asked the archbishop of Canterbury to grant him a divorce, and the bishop had no choice but to comply. The pope was appalled, but Henry just used the occasion to split away from the Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England. The break away from the Catholic Church had far reaching consequences, and it subverted the current world order.

Prior to the break from the Catholic Church, the commonly accepted hierarchy was God, pope, king, but Henry thrust himself between the pope and God in a move that was unprecedented. Ultimately, the break opened the door for the Protestant Reformation to enter England, but that movement did not gain speed in the country until after Henry's death during the reign of Edward VII. The Mad Monarchist: Papal Profile: Pope Clement VII Monday, July 9, 2012 Papal Profile: Pope Clement VII Pope Clement VII must be one of the most maligned pontiffs the Catholic Church has had, and almost always unjustly so. His reputation suffers, not simply from his own actions, but from the time of his reign, at the end of the famous Italian Renaissance. The misdeeds (largely exaggerated) of some of the pontiffs of this era have caused many people to dismiss all of the “Renaissance Popes” as corrupt and worldly when, in fact, their ranks included men who were personally upright, modest and virtuous.

Clement VII, however, was often criticized for his virtues rather than vices and suffered the misfortune of reigning at a time of great political danger for the Papacy under circumstances that few, if any, could have successfully mastered. However, he was diligent and did the best he could and while the threats he faced forced him to take actions which infuriated many world leaders, he also became an important and respected symbol and, for a time, a champion of Italian unity and freedom. He was born Giulio di Giuliano de’ Medici in Florence on May 26, 1478, the natural son of Giuliano de’ Medici and thus the nephew of the famous Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was always serious, studious, intelligent and loved learning and intellectual conversation. In his youth he was made a Knight of Rhodes but his real rise began after his cousin, Giovanni de’ Medici, was elected to the Throne of St Peter as Pope Leo X. He was a very close and trusted advisor to the Pope and became Archbishop of Florence, the Medici stronghold that was always first in their hearts.

In 1513 he was created Giulio Cardinal de’ Medici and was widely praised for his good judgment and sound advice to Leo X. The Medici Pope was himself very popular with the Romans for his elaborate ceremonies, numerous celebrations and lavish style, all of which provided people with much gainful employment. When Leo X was succeeded by the Dutch Pope Hadrian VI things were different and much more strict and austere. Needless to say, Hadrian VI was a very pious man but very unpopular with the Romans who longed for another Medici on the papal throne. The next conclave was a long and hard one with the mob becoming increasingly impatient for a new Bishop of Rome. Finally, an agreement was reached and on November 19, 1523 Giulio de’ Medici was elected, taking the name of Pope Clement VII. He enjoyed a high reputation as a diplomat and statesman and must have seemed like just the right man for the job. Yet, giving advice and being responsible for making decisions are very different things and the new Pope was confronted with a world of dangers and would be faced by problems on almost every side. Still, none doubted his personal faith.

He cut back papal spectacles and worked hard to save money (which was essential as the Papacy he inherited was nearly bankrupt) but rather than praise his frugality and good sense, he was criticized for being stingy. Instead of court entertainers, he preferred long discussions with imminent scholars and would even have the latest intellectual works read to him as he took his meals. He was a patron of the arts and building, at least as much as his limited finances would allow, and he could discuss aqueducts with an engineer as well as doctrine with a theologian. Political concerns dominated the papacy of Clement VII, though that is certainly not what he wanted. An early example was the effort of King Henry VIII of England to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon. Clement VII valued the King of England for his hitherto staunch support of the Church, his condemnation of Lutheranism and his cooperation with Rome on the world stage. The last thing the Pope wanted was to see England lost to the Church over a marriage. What Henry was seeking was also not entirely unprecedented.

However, Queen Catherine was a spotless figure and she was also the aunt of the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V who had supported the election of Clement VII (who had been pro-Spanish as a cardinal) and the Emperor was prepared to put all the pressure at his disposal on the Pope to find in favor of Catherine. The Pope put off a decision as long as possible but in the end, the combination of imperial pressure and the personal case of Catherine herself, meant that Henry VIII was denied his annulment and the offended King took his country out of the Catholic Church. Everything in his reign was exacerbated by the conflict between King Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V, ruler of Spain, the Low Countries and Germany. Everyone expected Clement to support the Emperor but despite his own history, the Pope feared the imperial domination of Italy and made an alliance with France. Unfortunately for the Pope, King Francis I was defeated by the imperial forces at the battle of Pavia and taken prisoner which forced the Pope to hastily come to terms with Charles V. The Emperor was not a man to trifle with.

When he first learned that Clement had allied with the French, he was so infuriated that he wondered for a moment if Luther might have been correct about the papacy after all. However, he was also a practical man and once France was defeated and northern Italy was under his direct control, he preferred to have the Pope on his side instead of making him a defeated, embittered enemy. Clement VII signed a treaty of alliance with the Emperor that was practically identical to the one he had negotiated with France. But the threat of imperial domination over Italy, and thus Rome and the Papal States as well, remained the paramount concern of Clement VII. An effort was made to get the imperial commander on side by offering him the Crown of Naples but the general reported this to the Emperor immediately and the result was that the Sforza family lost their duchy, Spanish troops occupied Milan and the region came even more tightly under imperial control. Pope Clement was desperate to undo this situation. The threat posed by the Emperor was real enough to Clement VII. Charles V was genuinely concerned about the new Protestant movement in Germany and also annoyed that the Pope would support the French against him.

He made thinly veiled threats about calling a council, ostensibly to deal with the Lutheran problem, but which Clement and most others believed would result in Clement being deposed and replaced by a Pope who would be a loyal supporter of the Emperor. A council would be needed to deal with the Protestant question and reform in the Church was very much in need but by making such a council a threat to the Pope himself, Clement VII was determined to avoid a council at any cost. When King Francis I of France was released from captivity, Pope Clement VII quickly arranged another alliance with him against the Emperor. It was to be France, Milan, Venice and Papal Rome against the combined Spanish-German forces of the Holy Roman Empire. Even the “Warrior Pope” Julius II, who fought throughout his reign to drive the “barbarians” out of Italy, never attempted so ambitious a campaign and, unfortunately for the Church, Clement was no Julius II. Still, this became a popular and patriotic cause throughout Italy as Clement VII had taken leadership of a movement to expel the foreign conquerors and, it seemed very possible, to unite the various states of the Italian peninsula under papal leadership so that their country would no longer be the battleground for German, Spanish and French armies.

It was an early version of an ideal for an independent Italy consisting of the Italian states joining in common cause under the leadership of the Pope. Machiavelli suggested calling up a pan-Italian militia to replace the usual armies of foreign mercenaries to cement the people together in the coming struggle but Clement VII held back from such action, not wishing to provoke a fight with the Emperor if it could be avoided. Instead, he urged Machiavelli to look to improving the fortifications of his beloved Florence. What was hoped to be a great papal-led war for the liberation of Italy quickly turned into a disaster. Under pressure from Venice, Clement VII appointed the Duke of Urbino commander of the papal armies, a man who held a grudge against the Medici family and did nothing while Milan was devastated, weakening the alliance. Then, Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, a long-time rival of the Medici and a supporter of the Emperor, marched on Rome. Some urged Clement to flee but he was determined to ‘die on the throne’ if necessary and called upon the Romans to defend him.

No one seemed to care but they were soon sorry because the Colonna family army pillaged and ransacked the Leonine City, finally forcing the Pope to agree to a cease-fire. So, for four months the Pope was obliged to take no action while the armies Emperor Charles V marched down the Italian peninsula from Germany, most of whom were Lutheran landsknechts, and an imperial fleet crowded with Spanish troops landed on the coast. Giovanni de’ Medici and his “Black Bands” offered determined resistance in the north but the vital promised help from France was not forthcoming. The Italian forces may have been able to stop the Germans on their own had not a lucky shot killed Giovanni. The Pope began to be abandoned by his allies who looked to their own interests rather than staying united together. After some last minute attempts at negotiation, the situation fell apart and the imperial troops, who were enraged at their lack of payment, mutinied and on May 6, 1527 fell upon Rome in a savage attack.

The hasty defenses fell quickly and the imperial forces stormed into the city while Pope Clement VII, who was nearly killed, was rushed over to Castel Sant’Angelo while his Swiss Guards fought to the death, buying time for his escape. The Pope and as many Roman citizens as possible took shelter on the fortress while outside the most horrific and savage devastation in history took place. The tales of murder, torture, rape and sacrilege are truly too awful to even repeat. The fact that the Christians had surpassed even the pagans of old in their cruelty toward the Eternal City was not lost on even those at the time. Such barbaric cruelty had not been seen since the sacking of Constantinople, another Christian-on-Christian atrocity. A veteran of the wars against the Muslims in the south, even with all the fervor of a crusader, noted that the Turks never behaved with such viciousness toward a conquered enemy. Tens of thousands were slaughtered and the acts of disgusting cruelty were truly unspeakable. Even the Emperor, who had condemned the Pope in the harshest language, was shocked. Naturally, for the rest of his reign Clement VII had no choice but to be as agreeable as possible with Charles V.

At times he tried to induce the Emperor to take a firm hand against the Protestants but all the Emperor had to do was mention calling a council and the Pope would retreat into silence. Clement VII wore a beard for the rest of his reign as a sign of his mourning for the horrific sack of Rome. Emperor Charles V was not nearly as harsh with the Pope as he might have been, he restored most of the Papal States to the Church and used his armies to put the Medici back in control of Florence but there was no doubt that a power-shift had occurred and while the troops who perpetrated the sack of Rome had acted on their own, the Emperor had sent them to Italy to make war and subjugate the Pope, no doubt about it. In a famous painting showing the Emperor flanked by his defeated enemies, included among them is a portrayal of Pope Clement VII. Needless to say, it was after this that the Pope formally found against King Henry VIII of England and excommunicated the monarch along with Father Thomas Cranmer. The Pope also officially crowned Charles V "Emperor of the Romans" in the last such ceremony ever held. Pope Clement VII died not long after on September 25, 1534.

Pope Clement VII is often listed amongst the “bad popes” of Catholic history and this is really quite unfair. He was a very upright man, devout and not at all licentious, lavish or cruel as so many of his fellow “Renaissance Popes” are often thought of as being. He was simply caught in a terrible position and where his actions were often accused of being deceptive and himself untrustworthy, in each case it was because the Pontiff was trying to spare his people the suffering of war and to ensure his own freedom, which was the freedom of the Church. Even in his final days there were signs that he was contemplating another alliance with France to free Rome and the Italian states from the imperial grip. He was a patron of Raphael and Michelangelo (one of the few things he spent money on) and while Rome suffered more terribly during his reign than in any other period, it was precisely to avoid such a catastrophe that he had done everything in his power to keep foreign armies out of Italy. He also saw the Medici restored in Florence, joined to the great powers through marriage alliances and, despite all the misfortunes of his reign, he would not be the last Medici to occupy the papal throne. Posted by

Question: With which English king did Pope Clement VII have a dispute?
Answer: HENRY VIII