Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) - History of Spain | don Quijote Read the Spanish version The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) broke out when the Spanish army in Morocco when a few of the most influent generals of the Spanish Army, led by General Francisco Franco, rose up against the democratically elected Republican government , presided over by Manuel Azaña. Allegiances were not always clear-cut during this conflict. Essentially, the ranks of the Left (also known as Loyalist and Republican) comprised workers, peasants and trade unions, but also the Spanish government, Socialists, Communists and Anarchists. The Right (also known as Nationalist), was supported by rebellious factions of the army, industry, landowners, the middle classes and the Catholic Church. For various and somewhat contradictory reasons, the Loyalists received the support of the Soviet Union and European democracies, while the Nationalists were armed and equipped by the Fascist governments of Germany and Italy. The Spanish Civil War would prove to be both fierce and bloody. Although the resources of the two sides were not that unequal, the Nationalists were better organized and received extensive material aid from Germany.

The Loyalists received very little assistance from the Soviet Union and, moreover, were divided by internal conflicts between Communist, Socialist and Anarchist factions. While European and North American volunteers fought for the Republic in the framework of the International Brigades, and a number of foreign artists and intellectuals supported the Loyalist cause, including Ernest Hemingway (who was working as a reporter and photographer) and George Orwell (who fought on the Republican side only to be prosecuted later on and thus becoming profoundly disillusioned by the rivalry in the ranks of the Left), the Nationalists were finally triumphant. General Franco's victory marked the beginning of a forty-year dictatorship in Spain (1939-1975). In the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, Hitler sought Franco's support for his own military campaign, but Spain was in no position to provide either financial or human aid. Although the Spanish Civil War had been a training field for the battles to be waged in the Second World War, Spain would play no part in the latter but agred to sponsor a small army of volunteers known as La División Azul. Under the Franco regime Spain suffered international isolation, although in varying degrees.

In 1955 the country was accepted as a member of the United Nations, and in 1970 General Franco named prince Juan Carlos his successor as the future king of Spain, thereby re-establishing the monarchy. Upon the dictator's death in 1975 King Juan Carlos I was crowned and the country set out on the long journey back to full democracy in Spain . Fascism in Spain | Self-Publishing at GRIN 2. Political and social developments in Spain from 1923- 2.1 The Dictatorship of Primo de Riviera 2.2 The Second Republic 3. The Spanish Civil war and Franco`s rise to power 3.1 The Franco Regime (1939-1975) 3.2 Resistance against the regime 4. Conclusion References 1. Introduction The First Spanish Republic was founded in 1873. Its establishment began to launch tendencies in the Spanish concept of the state, which along with other causes, would later culminate in the Civil War of 1936. There were several reasons for the war, many of them long-term tensions that had escalated over the years.

In this paper I would like to discuss the events that led to the establishment of the fascist regime of Francisco Franco that lasted from 1939 - 1975. Section 2 of the text will briefly summarize the political and social developments in Spain from 1923 to 1939 including the dictatorship of Primo de Riviera and the Second Republic that followed and was governed by a coalition of the left and the center. In section three, I will focus on the Spanish Civil War and Franco`s rise to power, furthermore Franco`s dictatorship and resistance against the regime will be examined. Section four concludes. 2. Political and social developments in Spain from 1923-1939 Spain had undergone a number of different systems of rule following the Napoleonic wars of the early 19th Century.1 A monarchy under Alfonso XIII lasted from 1887 to 1931; but from 1923 was held in place by the military dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.

It had never been possible to calm down tensions in the Spanish part of northern Morocco, a zone that had been established in 1913, and by 1921 the insurrection had caused major losses for the Spanish army. King Alfonso XIII, who was leading the country, had not been able to reunite the Liberal Party; furthermore reforms were prevented by the established elites who did not see their interests represented by the Liberal government. 2.1 The Dictatorship of Primo de Riviera Primo de Rivera took over power in 1923 and, with the consent of the king, set up “the first direct military dictatorship in Spanish history”2. De Riviera did not consider himself to be a dictator; he claimed to be a supporter of constitutional Liberalism instead. However, the government was replaced by a Military Directory and public order was put under control by martial law. For a number of years, Riviera enjoyed the support of the public and he had many admirers because of his unofficial way of behavior and cunning character.3 Despite sporadic references to Liberalism, de Rivera had a high regard for Mussolini whom he visited in Italy and even asked for advice regarding political questions.

In Rome, he expressed his strong support for Fascism in an interview with the Fascist journal Impero, claiming that “”Spain should follow in the footsteps of Italian Fascism””4. Although de Riviera allegedly was a Liberalist, he was lacking a consistent ideology that could have stabilized his regime. Bernecker states that the visit in Italy caused De Riviera to look for an ideological alternative that could incorporate the interests of the military, in particular of the “middle-class Catalan militia of the Somatén”.5 In 1924, the Asociación Católica Nacional de Propagandistas (ACNP) formed an organization named Unión Patriótica (UP) that supported the dictatorship. The UP was joined by a number of smaller groups and quickly implemented a political foundation of the regime. Far from being a political party, the UP`s main motives were patriotism, religion and the opposition of genuine political parties.6 Its doctrine included the revitalization of the Spanish Catholic ideology and a positive nationalism. Furthermore it gave emphasis to the hierarchical and totalitarian leadership of de Riviera. The members of the UP were for the most part catholic, conservative and belonged to the middle-class.

In contrast to the liberal constitution from 1876, the UP’s doctrines were heading towards a right-wing authoritarian regime and it was soon “expand[ing] into a national organization […] and (…) quickly adopted as the new political front of the regime.”7 Payne points out that the UP can be viewed as the first considerable force for nationalism in the 20th century Spain.8 However, differences to Italian fascism were obvious. Unlike the “”armed force”” of Italian Fascism, the “apolitical” UP considered itself to be a Christian movement. In addition, the dictatorship was closely connected to the Catholic Church and religion was the main force for legitimizing the civilian government that had replaced the military rule in 1925.9 In 1929, an attempt to reform the constitution had failed and - partly due to the interventionist policies of the government - the financial situation of the country was deteriorating. Resistance against the Dictatorship was developing among the growing group of students and other intellectuals. Since it was incapable to create a legitimizing ideology, the dictatorship eventually failed and de Riviera resigned in 1930, putting an end to the parliamentary monarchy as well as to moderate Liberalism.

[...] 2 Payne, 1999, p. 25. 3 Ibid., p. 27. Spain in World War II | World War II Database World War II Database Contributor: C. Peter Chen ww2dbaseIn 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was established. Although social progress was made under this government, political instability led to the Spanish Civil War which began in 1936. The right-wing Nationalists sparked off their rebellion on 17 Jul 1936, taking Seville, Pamplona, Cï¿½diz, Jerez de la Frontera, Cï¿½rdoba, Zaragoza, and Oviedo very quickly. On the third day of the rebellion, General Francisco Franco took over after the death of Josï¿½ Sanjurjo in a plane crash. The rebellion was widely supported by nationalists, fascists, monarchists and a portion of the religious right who felt threatened by the Spanish Republic. While the United Kingdom fought hard to remain neutral, which actually hurt the Republicans, Germany, Italy, and Russia jumped into the conflict.

Italy sent 60,000 men into the fight as volunteers for the Nationalists, while Germany took the chance to evaluate new artillery, armor, and aircraft in combat situations also on the side of Franco. The Russians, on the other hand, sent in their supplies for the Republicans. On foreign soil, the Germans realized the usefulness of the 88mm anti-aircraft guns against ground units, while the Russians developed tactics for I-15 and I-16 aircraft; all those weapons played important roles in the upcoming European War. The conduct of the war was brutal with both sides committing massacres of civilians and prisoners. In the end, as Franco emerged victorious and established his Spanish State. An estimated 300,000 to 1,000,000 people lost their lives. With the Nationalists now in control, deep hatred was felt against the atrocities committed by the Russians. Many Spaniards simplied the reason for the Civil War, blaming communism for the prolonged conflict that killed so many. This hatred was joined by Catholics and monarchists who might not necessarily be the Nationalists' political allies, which created an unified anti-communist front on the Spanish socio-political stage.

ww2dbaseFranco established a fascist government in Spain, aiming to use Germany and Italy as a model to establish a modern Spain that would once again be a world power. This led to the fear in United Kingdom and France that Spain would join the Axis alliance. Should open hostilities began, France would then be in a very vulnerable position, fighting a two-front war; meanwhile, the United Kingdom understood that her strategic garrison at Gibraltar would be in danger. Adolf Hitler remained on friendly terms with Franco after the Spanish Civil War, and after Sep 1940, actively courted Franco to join him in his cause. To the relief of the Western Allies, however, Franco remained non-belligerent. Franco stalled Hitler's requests draw Spain directly into war, in part by making demands of large quantities of German war supplies (so much that Hitler would not easily agree) and in part by secretly approving Spanish volunteers to fight under German command and approving German intelligence agents to operate in Spain (so to slightly appease Hitler's needs). At the same time, Franco knew Hitler's ambitions well, and he secretly manned the French border and the southern coasts of his country to counter any potential show of force by Germany.

By the end of 1940, Germany's need for Spain to openly join the conflict largely subsided, but Hitler continued to press for Franco's cooperation. In Dec 1940, Germany requested the right of passage so that German troops could strike Gibraltar via land; Franco refused, and that was largely the end of active negotiations between Germany and Spain. ww2dbaseWhen Germany invaded Russia in Jun 1941, the anti-communist sentiment in Spain was resurfaced. Knowing the recent event of Germany relatively easily toppling Poland and France, the Spanish thought Germany would be able to do the same to the Soviet Union. A large-scale demonstration broke out in the capital city of Madrid in support of the invasion, followed by demonstrations in other cities. The Spaniards were shocked when the United Kingdom befriended communist Russia, realizing that an Allied victory would mean the expansion of communism. Thus, Spanish volunteers began to be organized. On 20 Aug 1941, German Army 250th Division was officially formed with the nickname of "Blue Division"; the division consisted of Spanish volunteers and was commanded by General Agustï¿½n Muï¿½oz Grandes of the Spanish Army.

The Blue Division fought exclusively on the Eastern Front against Russia, and suffered as much as other German units when the tide turned against Germany. On 29 Jul 1943, the United States ambassador in Madrid demanded that Spain withdrew this military force from Russia. Franco, seeing that the Allies had just begun the invasion of Italy and sensed that the Allies started to gain the upper hand, largely yielded to this demand, leaving only a regiment-sized unit (nicknamed "Blue Legion") on the Eastern Front. On 20 Feb 1944, The Blue Legion, too, began to be withdrawn. A total of 45,000 Spanish volunteers fought under the German banner during the war. Prior to the Blue Legion being withdrawn, Germany already sensed that it would happen some time in the future. Germany began secretly recruiting Spaniards to fight under the German banner, using anti-communism as an effective recruitment tool. These German-recruited volunteers fought for both the German Army as well as the Waffen-SS, and most of them served as anti-partisan forces in Romania, Croatia, Pomerania, Slovenia, and Southern France.

ww2dbaseAlthough on a smaller scale, many thousands of Spaniards also fought on the Allied side, most of them being former Republicans. Most of them joined the Free French forces aboard, while others sneaked across the Spanish-French border and joined the French Resistance. Spanish soldiers under the French banner were among some of the first Allied troops to enter Paris in Aug 1944. Finally, at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939, a small number of Republicans fled to Russia; some of them served in the Russian military during the European War. ww2dbaseAs the European War raged on, Franco purged his political opponents on a large scale. Between 1939 and 1943, many were exiled while thousands died as a result. Although he had sent the Blue Division to aid the German military, Franco's decision to steer clear of German political influence benefited Spain by avoiding the devastations of another war. In terms of the Holocaust, despite Spain's anti-Semitic history (which was by no means uncommon across any European nation), Spain became a haven for Jewish refugees; in fact, Spain helped more Jews during the Holocaust than any other neutral European nation during the WW2 era.

25,000 Jews passed through Spain to escape from Europe, while a few thousand remained in Spain under Spanish protection. ww2dbaseAlthough Spanish politics was characterized by isolationism between 1943 and 1955, after that period Spain quickly emerged as an influential European nation again. Franco held dictatorial powers until his death in Nov 1975. King Juan Carlos I took power after Franco's death, and restored Spanish monarchy in 1978 as a constitutional monarchy. ww2dbaseSources: Blue Division Soldier 1941-1945, Wikipedia. People 25 Feb 2009 10:24:50 AM no help at all....this information didnt tell me anything! 2. Anonymous says: 11 Mar 2009 05:34:48 PM this was very helpful 4 me. 3. Donzel51 says: 29 Dec 2009 03:03:49 AM Yes!! Very helpful !! 13 Jan 2010 05:51:44 PM BORING!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

You should try to make it more interesting somehow cause I had a hard time ready it. IT made me tired. 5. Anonymous says: 26 Jan 2010 06:03:38 AM Boring!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Make it more interesting. Reading this page made me go to sleep. 6. Anonymous says: 15 Feb 2010 01:35:56 PM this looks helpful but it's not what I'm looking for. Does anyone know where I can find some information on the size and technology of Spain's army in 1940? 7. Anonymous says: 6 Apr 2010 09:02:50 AM thanks for taking the time to post this information....people should at least be polite while being critical, I'm sure if they were face to face with you (whoever spent the time to produce this page) they would not speak in such derrogatory terms. 8. Anonymous says: 30 Apr 2010 11:03:48 AM umm i have not read it yet but it looks sooo boring i dont want to 9.

Anonymous says: 24 Jun 2010 04:37:32 PM very good. i never knew that spaniards fought in wwII. 10. Anonymous says: 25 Apr 2011 04:32:56 AM thanks for taking the time to nproduce the page but it was a bit boring 11. Anonymous says: 12 Jun 2011 01:15:38 PM ok this thing is too ong. put in the basics and eave it @ that 12. Anonymous says: 10 Jan 2012 01:37:58 PM it didnt help me 3 Feb 2012 06:38:22 AM thank you for helping me w/ my research paper. 14. Anonymous says: 18 Feb 2012 05:05:13 AM "Although Spanish politics was characterized by isolationism between 1943 and 1955, after that period Spain quickly emerged as an influential European nation again.

"" Spain, since the lost of America, has never ever again been a military or nation power, just a bystander, even in NATO times. 15. Anonymous says: 29 Mar 2012 11:18:28 PM This was not very useful to me, but i appreciate you taking the time to gather the info -&& put on this website. Thank you! 16. john larry says: 29 Apr 2012 12:38:35 AM this was very helpfull thx! 17. BchyBlonde says: 30 Apr 2012 09:18:07 PM Thanks..... But I need more on like, situations of WW2 in Spain :3 I only got like one or two things ;) And my speach is due tomorrow.. I hate history Im sorry 18.

Anonymous says: Fear and Progress: Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain, 1939-1975 | Reviews in History Fear and Progress: Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain, 1939-1975 Book: Fear and Progress: Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain, 1939-1975 Antonio Cazorla Sánchez Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, ISBN: 9781405133166; 304pp.; Price: £55.00 Reviewer: Lancaster University Citation: Dr Chris Grocott, review of Fear and Progress: Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain, 1939-1975, (review no. 936) Date accessed: 19 January, 2017 In Fear and Progress, Antonio Cazorla Sánchez has produced a first-class survey of life in the years of the Franco regime (1939–75). His compelling narrative is supported by insightful analysis into the nature of the regime and a welcome abundance of source material including oral history interviews and government documents.

This volume forms the first in a series of monographs dedicated to ‘Ordinary Lives’ and is soon to be followed by works examining Nazi Germany and Stalin’s Russia. The rationale for the focus on ordinary lives in Spain, and one can assume that such reasoning will be extended to subsequent works in the series, is to demonstrate what happened to those people who ‘make’ history, and experience it, in very different ways to elites. Cazorla Sánchez sets out to highlight the ‘prospects and aspirations of ordinary Spaniards’ and ‘what they were thinking and expecting from the future’ (p.1). Fear and Progress is, however, more than simply an attempt to tell the history of Spain from a fresh perspective. Cazorla Sánchez’s first vignette is of the poverty experienced by an ordinary family in Almeria. Both parents and their son-in-law are described as illiterate, whilst the children (seven of them) had received only a basic education. Of the eldest daughter’s four children, the fourth (you may already have guessed) is Cazorla Sánchez.

This volume is, therefore, much more than a history of Spain; it is also a personal condemnation of the regime by the author whose own experiences of Francoism have shaped his thinking. The author’s contempt for Franco’s regime is palpable. In part, this is why this analysis of the Franco regime is so compelling – Fear and Progress is not an abstract work, but one that is riven with both personal and political feeling. For this reviewer, whose politics are left wing and whose analytical approach is Marxist, this is fine. For others there may be points in the text where the literary flourishes of condemnation may be too much. Either way, they are undoubtedly heart-felt. Of a similarly controversial nature (depending on one’s preferences) is one of Cazorla Sánchez’s conclusions regarding the effect that the regime had on Spanish values. He argues that the ‘hostile and repressive’ institutions of the regime served to make Spaniards ‘pessimistic in social and collective matters’. Moreover, he goes further to add that the result of Francoism was to make Spaniards ‘individualistic’ (p. 4).

As an outsider, this reviewer feels unable to comment but it is obvious that this analysis will divide opinion between those who do feel equipped to engage with this judgement. Cazorla Sánchez sets out his argument over five chapters: ‘The Politics of Fear‘, ‘The Social Cost of the Dictatorship’, ‘Migration’, ‘A Changing Society’, and ‘Roads to Citizenship’. The central thesis that is demonstrated is that contrary to much of the literature, particularly that which has attempted to rehabilitate Franco, Spain’s transition to an economically successful and modern nation happened in spite of, rather than because of, Francoism. Indeed all that Cazorla Sánchez is prepared to concede to the regime is its decision to abandon the self-destructive policy of autarky in the 1950s and the way in which its apparatus of repression prevented concerted industrial action and thus served to suppress wage levels. He therefore contrasts MacMillan’s ‘you’ve never had it so good’ with the notion that in Franco’s Spain once autarky had been abandoned ‘capital … never had it so good’ (p. 15).

Behind the terrible effects on the lives of ordinary Spaniards lies, of course, their story and it is this story that Cazorla Sánchez sets out to tell. Chapter one deals with the establishment of a regime whose control was based on repression and fear. It did this, Cazorla Sánchez argues, by publicly praising the virtues of ‘Franco’s peace’ through events such as the public celebration of the anniversary of 18 July (the official starting date of the Civil War) or through monuments such as El Valle de los Caídos. He convincingly argues that the state also solidified its control over the population at large by co-opting interest groups (for example the Church, army, and landowners) and using these to aid the creation of oppression in the regime. Such repression was not targeted solely at former republicans, however; Cazorla Sánchez argues that this was the repression of elites against the poor, no matter which side the latter had given preference to during the Civil War. Cazorla Sánchez argues that as the regime became more entrenched, its repressive policies served to turn people away from political thought, this despite the regime’s claim to popular and active support.

This lack of desire for political involvement of any variety goes a long way towards explaining the lack of success of the Falange as a fascist party. Chapter two examines the regime’s incompetent approach to economics. Franco’s policy of autarky caused enormous hardship for the Spanish people and this chapter not only gives a detailed examination of the failure at policy level, but also the consequences on the ground. One British diplomat reported, for example, that in Andalucia many workers could not perform their jobs due to starvation (p. 60) whilst in Jaen during 1951 even the Falange recognised the fact that around 60,000 families spent most of the year simply aspiring to have enough food to stave off death (p. 61). Even those with work were subject to shocking conditions in the work place and excessively lengthy working weeks for little pay. Poverty and misery of course had a dramatic effect on ordinary Spaniards but, so too did the inadequate educational system of Franco’s Spain.

Interestingly Cazorla Sánchez points out that things got worse before they got better – the stabilisation plan might well have brought an economic boom in the long-term, but at the end of the 1950s and in the short-term the repeal of state intervention and adoption of international capitalism caused a recession that still further affected ordinary lives. Chapter three handles the massive migrations caused by the regime’s economic and repressive policies. This migration was of course both to urban areas in Spain and abroad, mainly to Europe and in particular to Germany. Migrations to the city might begin with one or two young men seeking work in urban areas, but should they be even modestly successful they would be followed by others from their village. One example that Cazorla Sánchez gives is that of the village of Matian which between 1963 and 1975 all but disappeared whilst the nearby town of Ibi, a manufacturing town, tripled its population from 6,000 to nearly 19,000 (p. 103).

For those who went outside of Spain to work there was a comparatively greater amount of money to be earned but even this was taxed by the state and drawn upon by the banks when it was changed into pesetas – nevertheless, this money played a vital role in keeping the Spanish economy buoyant. Wherever migrants ended up, and in particular if they moved within Spain, they were subject to appalling housing conditions. And yet, for all of these deprivations, people began to break down their identities and adopt new ones in the places to which they moved; for Cazorla Sánchez it is this process that heralded a break between the views of ordinary people and the regime. Chapter four looks at the various socio-economic forces that altered the views of those living under the regime. Crucial amongst this was the changing role of the Church. Ironically because the regime had come to depend on the Catholic Church to such a great extent for ideological validation, backed-up by spiritual oppression, its shift away from support of the regime and in many cases of priests on the ground into opposition, posted a quandary.

Despite the Church becoming a focal-point for dissidents the regime could do little to use repression, the Francoist’s usual response to challenges, against it due to the Church’s central position, at least in theory, in providing support to the regime. Similarly, the regime relied upon the introduction of capitalism into Spain to distract its poverty-stricken citizens but the introduction of consumer goods along with radio and television sets, washing machines, and refrigerators (and less impressively, but perhaps no less importantly, deodorant) all served to give people aspirations for the good life. Ironically, this good life could not be sustained by Spain’s economy and, as Cazorla Sánchez argues, with the onset of the 1974 global economic crisis these ‘just tasted, sweet fruit[s]’ were taken away (p. 155). Inevitably, perhaps, people would want them back. The economic changes over the 1960s had dramatic social consequences and, for Cazorla Sánchez, it was the move towards a more urban and tolerant outlook by many Spaniards that spelt trouble for a regime based on fear and hatred.

Finally, chapter five examines the various forces that acted on the end of the regime and how the debates about how the regime might continue or collapse after Franco’s death affected ordinary people. Cazorla Sánchez argues that for ordinary Spaniards the future was uncertain. Whilst many felt that the regime could not survive Franco, they were not entirely sure what would follow his death (p. 175). He argues, persuasively, that the regime faced difficulties because increasingly it focussed on the prestige of Franco whilst ignoring the wide-spread dissatisfaction with the regime. Thus whilst popular support for Franco might be genuinely discerned amongst the population, the same could not be said for the regime as a whole. ETA violence and industrial unrest stimulated the usual state repression but, Cazorla Sánchez argues, this was unable to force the kind of acceptance of the regime which it had hitherto. As the Governor of Gerona put it in 1975 ‘phrases and concepts were appearing, many of which were considered extinct. We witness the first signs of distress in the labour world and in some student circles where hitherto there had been little political activity’ (p. 212).

The regime had, by 1975, undermined itself and without the figure of Franco to hold it together ordinary people were clear in expressing that they had had enough. Two things are not new about Cazorla Sánchez’s approach, though I will demonstrate that they have been used in fresh ways to shed new light upon the dictatorship. The first is the use of the concept of fear and of the role of the Church, army, Falange, and monarchy in the support of the regime. These were, of course, explored at length in Paul Preston’s The Politics of Revenge. (1) What Cazorla Sánchez does successfully achieve is giving the reader an insight into not how these politics were conceived or played out in Madrid, but rather how they affected everyday Spanish life. Taken together, therefore, these two works provide an invaluable insight into Spanish life under the dictatorship. The second approach that is not new is the use of oral history, which supports much of Cazorla Sánchez’s research. Most famously, certainly for English language scholars, this was an approach used in the works of Ronald Fraser and perhaps most notably in his Blood of Spain and The Pueblo.

(1) But Cazorla Sánchez’s work is much more than an oral history even in its methodology. The use of Spanish archival sources to support the testimony provided in oral evidence is impressive and gives the analysis a tremendous depth. It is also the use of oral history testimony that allows for the persuasive analysis of the lives of ordinary Spaniards in the regime to come to the fore. And it is also this approach which has another, no doubt intended result – the avoidance of the positing of a teleological economic development of the regime and its transition to democracy. As Cazorla Sánchez argues, ordinary Spaniards did not know when they were experiencing Franco’s dictatorship that it would necessarily end, they certainly did not know when he might die, and even when they might reasonably have expected that such an event was only just around the corner they could not have necessarily known what would happen to the regime. It is the portrayal of this aspect of every day life for those Spaniards who stopped to consider the regime, their place within it, and its future that made life such drudgery. And such drudgery, and at times hopelessness on the part of ordinary people, is presented in Cazorla Sánchez’s work with almost Orwellian mastery.

These two methodological devices, the politics of fear as a concept and the use of oral history, are refreshed by Carzola Sánchez and give the reader a new insight into the regime. Seemingly more old-hat at first glance is the combative way in which Fear and Progress sets out to disprove and dispel the claims of the right that Franco’s rule was benevolent and that, for all the regime’s ills, it heralded the birth of modern, economically developed Spain. To English language readers used to works that are sympathetic to the left (such as those of Paul Preston, Sebastian Balfour, and Gabriel Jackson) the case has already been made. But it should be remembered, and Cazorla Sánchez actively reminds us, that there are plenty of rightists, particularly in Spain, who do give a sympathetic view of the regime. Even if Cazorla Sánchez’s analysis of the regime does little more than confirm what those on the left already think about Franco’s regime it is important to sustain the case with new evidence (and Fear and Progress gives enormous succour to this) and to challenge those who cling uncritically to the Caudillo as a talisman.

Finally, and in the view of this reviewer most importantly, Fear and Progress stakes a more solid place in the contemporary literature on Franco’s Spain: it is a good solid history. Of late research methods into, and insights from, the Franco regime have drawn considerably from postmodern theory and from literature. Much of this work is consumed by a privileged consideration of theory that often relegates lived experience to a secondary position and sometimes considers it irrelevant. Of course literature is a useful source, not least of all because it is evocative but here, in Fear and Progress, the real-life stories of real-life people are presented and it is to these bread-and-butter issues that historians should be listening. Notes Paul Preston, The Politics of Revenge (London, 1995). Back to (1) R. Fraser, Blood of Spain (London, 1979); R. Fraser, The Pueblo (London, 1973). Back to (2) The author is happy to accept this review and does not wish to comment further. July 2010 Franco's Spain Franco's Spain The title, Franco's Spain,what are the implications of this description?

Franciso Franco To be "Spanish"=To be Catholic during the years of 1939-1975 is usually referred to as "Franco's Spain ." During these thirty six years Spain was controlled by the dictator Francisco Franco. For some Spaniards this time in history was the best thing that happened to Spain , for others the worst. After the civil war in Spain (1936-1939) Franco took over as dictator. His dictatorship held close relations with the Catholic Church. Catholicism in Spain was nothing new at this time. If one is to take a look at the history of Catholicism concerning Spain in the late fifteenth century, one would find great similarities between the two. Isabel and Fernando, known as the catholic monarchs “los reyes catholicos,” reigned from 1474-1516. They had undertaken the reconquest of Spain , the conquest of the new world, and the inquisition. These three elements all include Catholicism. The reconquest was the retaking of Muslim Spain to Catholic Spain. In the new world Spain incorporated Christianity, and the inquisition mainly expelled or converted the Jews. Unity was the goal among the monarchs, unity by religion.

This theme of unity is the same theme that coincides with the reign of Francisco Franco during middle twentieth century Spain . When Franco took power he converted Spain into the past. He outlawed anything that did not agree with catholic beliefs; this included contraceptives, homosexuality, practice of any other religion, prostitution, and divorce(all are presently legal). Franco even went as far has outlawing any other language than Spanish and took away all rights given to the autonomous regions of Spain . At this time church and state of Spain were one body and it was the responsibility of both to enforce the change towards unity. All forms of education and censorship were directed by the church. Franco was given the power from the Vatican to elect church officials, a rare privilege given by the Vatican . Isolation was another concept that described Spain . Franco did not want outside ideas to influence the society of Spain . Not until the late 1950’s did he become more open to the rest of the world by making a military agreement with the United States . Tourism began in 1960, which created a positive economical boom for Spain . Germans, British, and Scandinavian cultures began to influence the Spaniards.

The year of 1975, the year of Franco’s death, set the stage for the reconstruction of Spain Spain > Barcelona > History > Rule of Franc0 Spain History - Rule of Franco (1939 - 1975) With no opposition left to his leadership General Francisco Franco immediately set about ruthlessly removing from both army and political scene any possible future opponents. The Law of Political Responsibilities introduced in 1939 gave such wide powers to his rule that in the first three months 250,000 people were arrested. Thousands died before firing squads, tortured and languished for years in prisons. Most intellectuals and artists had to flee to other countries and it can be said that Spain temporary lost its soul. One winner was the Catholic Church and Pope Pius XII was quick to congratulate General Franco for his defence of the ideals of faith and Christian civilization. The Jesuits returned and once again took over the education of students. Bishops took their place in Parliament and new laws were always made to be in step with Catholic doctrine. Social standards overnight became ultra conservative to the point that holding hands in public was banned. The Falangelist Party was not left out of the act and was considered as one with the Catholic faith.

It was a matter of pride for party members to appear at Mass in their uniform and give the Fascist salute. General Franco instructed the party to create new Unions which combined workers and management into one unit without any real power. The government used propaganda together with the press to also control the Party. The Monarchists were in some ways were also winners from the Civil War in that Spain started to return to a conservative controlled social state. Monarchist values, if not views, were to return and preparing for the eventual day when a king was once again to occupy their throne. King Alfonso XIII continued in his comfortable exile until his death in Rome in 1941. His son Don Juan sought unsuccessfully Monarchist support from within Spain. His main contender was General Franco who was not necessarily an anti-Monarchists but who was firmly of the opinion that Spain needed nobody other than himself - Francisco Franco. At the outbreak of the World War II, Germany made overtures for Spain to join them but General Franco proved to be elusive and kept his country neutral. Germany planned on taking Gibraltar as the an important door to the Mediterranean by marching an army down through Spain.

This was known as Operation Felix and General Franco remained firm stating that a German army n Spanish soil would be resisted. This stand by him was to prove a great asset when later the Anglo-American invasion of North Africa (1942) used Gibraltar as its naval base. In 1941 Hitler tried once more to enlist General Franco's aid and for the last time when he travelled to Hendaye for a meeting. The General again proved so determined to keep Spain from becoming actively involved that Hitler had to instead accept an offering of troops and the supportive production of the Basque Iron Industry. General Franco realised that Spain was in no economic condition to be trapped into a costly war as it was still trying to recover from the results of its own Civil War. History records that he played all sides at once, assisting Jews to escape from Nazi persecution and at the same time sending the crack fighting Blue Division of 20,000 Spanish men to fight for Germany on the Russian front, in particular Stalingrad. At the end of the World War II, Spain's situation was still economically strained and due to its governing strong right wing politics it was left out in the cold by the rest of democratically inclined Europe.

In 1945 the newly formed United Nations (known previously as the League of Nations), formally voted against Spanish membership. The following year Franco closed Spanish borders to foreign powers and concentrated in the consolidation of his power within his own country. He adopted a now typical policy of strong rulers by never allowing people to become too close or persons in positions of power and to become too comfortable or too secure. General Muï¿½oz Grandes of the famed Blue Division only learnt he had been relieved of his post as Vice-President of the government when the official gazette was delivered to his office. One of the few exceptions and one man to influence General Franco was Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco and was one of the few peole earmarked as a possible successor. During his rule there were 19 major shakeups that in total affected over 120 different ministers in his government - this is besides the changes made in other political power points. He had only one rule and that was his, and always ready to back him were his generals and the equally important army of the Guarda Civil. Also, to establish control administration was all channelled through Madrid which involved considerable delays in any decision.

Soon the country was to be by necessity run on corruption as this became the only manner to achieve the simplest of things. In 1953 General Franco signed a treaty with the USA that in return for considerable financial aid ($ 1.8 billion by 1965), the Americans had use of Spanish military bases in their defence plans for dealing with the Cold War with Russia. The influx of dollars was soon felt in the Spanish economy and subsequently brought about a relaxation of the some of the political control of the Fascist inclined organizations. General Franco made peace with the Catholic Church for any past wrong-doings by placing priests on the state payroll but at the same time he negotiated with the Vatican that in return he had the right to approve or negate any new Bishop. The economic boom resulting from this badly needed money injection also helped to prepare the path for the late 50s and 60s insurgence of the tourist industry. This was to bring at the urban level a powerful exposure to other cultures that began to slowly influence the long established traditional way of thinking.

Power slowly moved into the hands of a new breed of youngish ambitious technocrats and when in 1955 Spain's application to United Nations was accepted the doors of Spain were opened to foreign interests. One sad note for Spain was in 1956 when France withdrew its control on Morocco General Franco was forced at accept that he had to follow suit retaining just the ports of Ceuta and Melilla. They were also to lose possession of the phosphate rich Spanish Sahara in 1975. The 1960's became the boom time for Spain with industry and commerce finding international markets. In 1965 their shipbuilding industry ranked sixth in the world and the foreign income from tourism was put to good use improving rundown communications. Unfortunately, rural workers now looked to earn decent wages by moving into urban areas which resulted in the agriculture industry being the first to suffer. Not all Spaniards were prepared to accept this new style of control and demanded more liberty. The left fractions continued with their active discontent whilst mainly waiting for Franco to disappear from the political stage.

As recorded throughout its history the inhabitants of the Basque region maintained an attitude of independence from Madrid and when a group of intellectuals in 1959 created a movement named ETA it gained serious local support. However, by 1967 this organization had passed into the hands of a group of extremists who adopted a terrorist policy. In 1973 they made a public showing of the sincerity of their intentions by dramatically killing Admiral Carrero Blanco who was at that time Franco's most powerful aide and next in line for the leadership of Spain. This secretive ETA continues with a its same policy for independence with less of the killings and many efforts have been made to find a solution acceptable to all sides. In 1969 General Franco made the announcement that the throne would one day be occupied by a Bourbon, but not to the waiting in line Dom Juan, but passing by him to his 31 year old son Juan Carlos. The Prince had been born in Rome, educated in Spain, and then married in 1962 Princess Sofia the sister of the future-king Constantine of Greece. By 1968 much to the chagrin of diehard monarchists Juan Carlos accepted the throne in name but without any powers.

For the next seven years he appeared at all ceremonial occasions standing close to Franco without expressing any thoughts and waiting for his moment. By the mid 70s there were serious rumblings of rebellion with a plot discovered amongst junior army officers, student unrest, strikes amongst workers, and a lot of ETA terrorism. Also, Basque and Catalan young priests wanted their flocks to enjoy more civil freedom in line with the liberal minded Pope John XXIII. Many priests ended up in prison for becoming involved and actively assisting the various rebel groups. Apparently even the Bishop of Bilbao fell into disgrace with General Franco for publicly supporting the Basque language to be used as their regional language. In June of 1973 General Franco stepped to one side naming Admiral Carrero as the future defender of Francoism. ETA responded on the 20th of December by blowing Carrero and his car into the sky. In 1975 General Francisco Franco died and Spain held its breath as Dom Juan Carlos steped up to take the throne.

Dictators and Tyrants in World History Dictators and Tyrants in World History Hitler and Mussolini: Fascist Dictators and Partners in Tyranny Dictators and tyrants are rulers who control a country with absolute authority and are not restricted by a constitution or by laws. Dictators work in a governmental system in which the citizens do not possess the right to choose their own leaders. This type of system is called a Dictatorship. Below are some of the worst dictators in recent history.. Fidel Castro--Founder of Communist Cuba, Castro took power (1959-2008) through a revolution. He transferred power to his brother in 2008 and died on November 25, 2016. The Castro brothers ruled through force and have driven hundreds of thousands of people to flee Cuba for a better life in the United States. Castro involved Cuba in multiple wars and revolutions throughout Latin America and Africa. See also Wars of Cuba Raul Castro--Became leader of Cuba (2008-Present) upon the illness of his brother, Fidel Castro. Raul worked with Fidel to establish their Communist dictatorship and to suppress basic freedoms for the Cuban people.

Nicolae Ceausescu--Communist dictator of Rumania (1965-1989). Ruled on the Stalinist model and through a cult of personality. Considered one of the more ruthless Communist rulers in Eastern Europe. Ceausescu was overthrown and executed in a national uprising in 1989. Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier --Haitian dictator (1971-1986). Baby Doc Duvalier assumed leadership in Haiti following the death of his father, Papa Doc Duvalier. The younger Duvalier fled Haiti following a popular uprising in 1986. Franï¿½ois "Papa Doc" Duvalier--Haitian dictator (1957-1971). Upon his death, his son became ruler of Haiti. Francisco Franco-Dictator of Spain (1939-1975) who took power after a long and bloody civil war. Muamar el-Gadhafi--(1969-2011)--Eccentric, crazy, and increasingly desperate dictator of Libya.

Gadhafi went into hiding after rebels seized most of the capital city of Tripoli. He was found by the rebels hiding in a ditch, and killed. See also Libyan War 2011 . Also spelled Khaddafy, Qaddafi, Gaddafi. Adolf Hitler --Dictator of Germany (1933-1945) who originally took office through the German electoral system but quickly threw out the constitution and ruled through force. Responsible for millions of deaths by starting the European portion of World War Two and thorugh the Holocaust, which was an attempt to destroy all Jews in Europe. Saddam Hussein --Dictator of Iraq (1979-2003). Committed genocidal acts against minority Kurds and Shiites in Iraq, began the Iraq-Iran War, the Gulf War by invading Kuwait, and was finally overthrown in the U.S.-led invasion generally known as the Iraq War .

Mao Zedong (also spelled Mao Tse-tung)-Founder and ruler of Communist China (1949-1976), Mao led the Chinese Communist Party through a very long civil war, which he won in 1949, and founded the People's Republic of China. Mao's rule included several purges and bloody repression, inlcuding the so-called Cultural Revolution, which resulted in millions of deaths of people considered to be threats to Communist Party rule. Mao also involved China in the Korean War , hostilities with Taiwan, the invasion and occupation of Tibet , a border war with India, border clashes with the Soviet Union, and significant support for the communist side in both the Indochina War and the followup Vietnam War . Benito Mussolini--Ruler of Italy (1922-1943). Took power through the threat of force and dominated Italy as a Fascist dictator until forced from power as a result of World War Two. After his fall from power, he was captured by Partisan guerrillas and executed along with his mistress. Their dead bodies were then hung upside down in front of a gas station. A good example of what should happen to all dictators.

Video footage the execution of Benito Mussolini in World War Two Augusto Pinochet--Dictator of Chile (1973-1990). Seized power in a very bloody military coup in 1973, in which the elected president was overthrown and killed. Pinochet is one of the very few dicators who voluntarily gave up power. Joseph Stalin --Soviet dictaor (1924-1953). Set up the first Communist cult of personality. Responsible for the deaths of millions in his purges and genocidal policies against his political opponents. Kim Il-Sung--Founder of Communist North Korea. Ruled (1948-1994) on the Stalinist model and set up a cult of personality. Passed power on to his son in the first hereditary transfer of power in a Communist system. Started the bloody Korean War in 1950. Kim Jong-Il--Communist dictator of North Korea (1994-2011) Inherited power from his father. Attempted to set up one of his sons to inherit the country upon his passing.

Under the Kim Jong-Il, North Korea developed nuclear weapons and engaged in dangerous nuclear diplomacy with the U.S. and neighboring nations, and has engaged in occassional military skirmishes with South Korea , including the bloody attack on Yeonpyeong Island in 2010. Kim Jong-Il died on December 17, 2011 Kim Jong-Un --New Communist dictator of North Korea (2011-Present) Inherited power from his father, who died in December, 2011. Upon his introduction as "The Great Successor," Kim Jong-Un was in his 20s, is known to have been educated in a German boarding school, and is a fan of the Los Angeles Lakers National Basketball Association (NBA) team. It is unknown what the North Korean military thinks of their young, new leader. Josip Broz Tito--Founder and leader of Communist Yugoslavia (1945-1980), Tito led Yugoslavia out of Soviet domination and established himself as an independent Communist leader outside of Soviet or Chinese domination.

Tito kept Yugoslavia's bickering ethnic groups under control, and after his death in 1980, the country began to unravel, finally disintigrating in the Yugoslav Civil War which literally destroyed the nation. A Brief History of Spain - The 20th Century A Brief History of Spain The 20th Century 1912 Women�s Chair Law. Every factory and establishment in Spain was henceforth obliged to give a place of rest to any woman worker and the Law of Gradual Suspension of night work for women was declared. 1923 Miguel Primo de Rivera. Spain's troubles continued during the early 20th century. With the country on the brink of civil war; Rivera declared himself military dictator and ruled until 1930. 1931 The Second Republic. King Alfonso XIII fled the country and the Second Republic was declared. However the country soon became victim to internal conflict.

The 1936 elections saw the country split into two with the Republican Government and its supporters on one side (an uneasy alliance of communists, socialists and anarchists, who favoured a more equitable civil society and a diminished role for the church) and on the other side the opposition Nationalists (a right-wing alliance of the army, the church, the monarchy and the fascist-style Falange Party). 1931 Equal Pay Law. The Spanish Constitution of the Republic formally recognised the equality between men and women. This law was supposed to establish equal salary for the same work regardless of gender. 1936 - July Republican Police Officers assassinated the Opposition Leader Jos� Calvo Sotelo and this gave the army an excuse to overthrow the government. 1936 - 1939 Civil War During the subsequent Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists led by General Franco received extensive military and financial support from Hitler's Nazi Germany, Mussolini's Fascist Italy and the Catholic Church. This gave Hitler the opportunity to try out Air Marshal Goring�s Air Power Blitzkrieg strategy and gave his new modern fighter and bomber squadrons real combat experience with minimal risk against the poorly equipped Republican Airforce.

Regretfully England and France refused to give the Republicans support, other than blockading Franco's ports. Had they given that support, some argue, the Second World War may have been averted. This early acclimatisation of German aircrews and testing of the new German war planes was to give England much stress and many casualties in the early days of WW2. The elected Republican Government received support only from Russia and, to a lesser degree, from the International Brigades. These Brigades were made up of 140,000 foreign idealists, a volunteer army of artists, intellectuals and workers. The Volunteer International Brigades lost many thousands of people in the republican cause. 1939 - 1975 General Franco's 35-year dictatorship. The Nationalists, led by Franco won the war. More than 350,000 Spaniards had died in the fighting. General Franco as head of the army then made himself Chief of State and Head of Government and continued to crush any possible opposition. More bloodletting ensued and an estimated 100,000 Republicans were executed or died in prison after the war.

Franco's 35-year dictatorship saw Spain isolated by economic blockades, excluded from both NATO and the UN and crippled by economic recession. 1950s The Start of Tourism. It wasn't until the early 1950s when the rise in tourism and a treaty with the USA combined to provide much needed funds that enabled the country to begin to recover. By the 1970ss Spain had the fastest growing economy in Europe. 1960s Franco allowed some relaxation of his hard line policies. Trades Unions were allowed a measure of freedom and censorship of the press was eased. The extremist hardcore military clique lost much influence. 1961 Women's Rights in the Workplace. Although women were supposed to have been given equal pay under the 1931 pay law, the new Government has again amended the Spanish Constitution to ensure equal rights for women, with the same salary for the same work, irrespective of gender. 1962 Royal Wedding. Don Juan Carlos of Spain married Princess Sophia of Greece on May 14th. 1965 January 20th Re-legalization of Jewish communities in Spain; Generalissimo Franco met with Jewish communities to commence the legal processes.

1969 Martial Law. Strikes were held demanding major reforms which, although justified, the country could not afford. Martial Law was invoked and many political leaders were arrested and thrown into prison. Universities and militant students were treated with harsh repression. 1970 Education Law. A law was passed establishing equal rights and a co-education system giving free and compulsory schooling to children of both sexes until the age of 14 years. 1973 Prime Minister Carrero Blanco assassinated. Franco�s prot�g� (schooled to carry on his policies) was succeeded by Carlos Arias Navarro who brought forward policies which lead to relaxation of the many harsh laws of the previous administration and lead the country towards full democracy. Fortunately for Spain, Franco was too ill to interfere. 1975 22nd November Dictator Francisco Franco died. 1975 23rd November The Spanish Parliament pronounced Prince Juan Carlos Head of State and the reigning King of Spain after his grandfather, King Alfonso X111, according to the Law of Succession promulgated by General Franco. One of the King�s earliest political actions was to declare an amnesty for many of the political prisoners held by the state.

This was followed by a law establishing political reform which was upheld by the Spanish Parliament (the Cortes) in November 1976. 1975 A Woman�s Right to Work Law. (This outdated law which stated that if a woman wishing to take up employment she must first obtain her husband�s, or if single, her father�s written permission to be able to work) was repealed releasing Spanish women from one of the last restraints on their rights to emancipation. 1976 November 18th. Spanish Democracy re-established. With King Juan Carlos on the throne, Spain made the transition from dictatorship to democracy. 1976 December As the transformation to democracy changed so many laws and principles of the old Franco constitution, a national referendum was held during December resulting in a massive vote of confidence in the King and Government. A new constitution was drafted. Freedom to form and join political parties and trades unions was made lawful; censorship was greatly relaxed. 1977 June 15th The first free elections were held leading to a sweeping victory for centre and leftist parties.

Results were Centre Party 166 seats, Socialists 118 seats and even the newly legalised Communists held 19 seats; leaving the old rightist Franco supporters out in the cold. 1977 Equal civil and political rights for women were recognised by the new Spanish Constitution and the law which made adultery by women a criminal offence punishable by imprisonment was abolished. 1978 The right of all Spaniards to Religious Freedom was confirmed by the Constitution. 1978 Birth Control. The right for pharmaceutical companies to advertise and sell contraceptive products was legalised. 1981 Matrimony and Divorce Act. Men and women are to be judged equal partners in Law in relation to matrimonial matters. 1981 An attempted military coupe in Madrid by 200 Civil Guards failed. These forces led by Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero Molina invaded the lower house of the parliament building taking the lawmakers hostage. His forces also took over the radio and TV stations for 90 minutes but dispersed when riot police arrived on the scene. The coupe was planned and commanded by Lieutenant General Jaime Milan del Bosch, commander of Spain�s Eastern Forces who declared a state of emergency and ordered tanks onto the streets of Valencia.

It was an attempt to put back the clock and reinstate a Franco style authoritarian Government. King Juan Carlos made an appeal to the nation on behalf of democracy and some 18 hours later the coupe failed. 1982 Spain�s first Socialist Government. Spain made a final break with the past by voting in a Socialist Government with a sizeable majority. ETA - the only major blemish on the domestic front was the terrorist campaign waged by separatist militant group ETA which continues trying to secure an independent Basque homeland (although not, it seems, with a mandate from the majority of the region�s electorate). During 30 years of terrorist activity ETA has killed over 800 people. 1985 Abortion Act passed by Spanish parliament 1986 Spain joined the EC (now the EU). 1987 The Spanish tax laws were changed so that taxpayers could choose between giving 0.52 percent of their income tax to the church or allocating it to the Government's welfare and culture budgets. 1987 June 2nd Andres Segovia died. He was born in 1896 and started studying music at the age of 4 and gave his first concert in Spain at 14.

It is said that he felt he had a mission in life to bring musical studies of the guitar to every university in the world and to have the guitar appreciated as much as any other major orchestral instrument. That he succeeded beyond his early dreams is proven in the wonderful repertoire he left to posterity. This world famous and most popular Spanish classical guitarist and composer died at the age of 94. 1988 Professional Women�s Act. This allowed the incorporation of women into the professional and security bodies of the state. The IRIS NET was created to promote the vocational training of women. 1992 Spain hosted the 25th Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona. It was an excellent performance with Spanish contestants winning 22 medals. Statistically, the Barcelona Olympiad dwarfed all those before it, with some 9,367 athletes (6659 male and 2,708 women) from 169 nations competing in the 257 events. It was reported that these Games were less commercial than recent ultra modern US Games and better organised. The Barcelona games outperformed previous Olympics in almost every aspect of both the games and the accompanying Cultural Program. 1992 An excellent year for Spain.

In addition to the Olympic Games, Seville hosted Expo 92 and Madrid was declared The European Cultural Capital. 1996 Spaniards voted in a Conservative Party under the leadership of the uncharismatic Jos� Mar�a Aznar, an Elton John fan and former Tax Inspector. In March 2000 he was re-elected with an absolute majority. His success has been attributed to the buoyant state of the Spanish economy. Spain experienced a 4% annual growth during the years Sr Aznar was Prime Minister. 1997 April 1st The first Spanish space satellite was launched named MINISAT 01 � its purpose was to investigate the development of lower cost space operating systems. 1997 May 29th A 780,000-year-old humanoid fossil (to be called Homo Antecessor) was found by scientist Bermudez de Castro and a group of Spanish paleo anthropologists during excavations in caves of the central Atapuerca mountains. A total of six fossilised body remains together with a selection of tools were found. One body, a boy, had a remarkably different facial structure from the adults, more similar to an extinct Neanderthal.

Antonio Rosas, a paleoanthropologist at the National Museum of Natural Sciences, stated that he felt there was enough information to define the boy�s fossilised body as a new species in the true sense. 1999 Jan 1st Birth of the EURO. Spain, together with ten other European Union nations, transferred their currency structures over to the Euro monetary system and bid farewell to the Peseta 1999 Jan 16th Chocolate Supreme. The European Union�s Court of Justice ordered that Italy and Spain must drop their national rules as to what constitutes chocolate. It ordered that chocolate is chocolate, regardless of whether it is manufactured from coco butter or vegetable fats, and as such no country may bar the import of these confectionaries from England or Ireland. Site Map Franco’s Spain 1939 – 1975 | The Taste of Spain The Taste of Spain Blog Franco’s Spain 1939 – 1975 Ask any Spaniard what they think of Franco, and they are sure to have an opinion. The Generalissimo held Spain under conservative dictatorship between 1939 and 1975, changing the face of the nation forever.

Francisco Franco was born on 4 December 1892 in Ferrol. His family had a strong naval history, and it was understood that he would take a career as a sailor. However, the Spanish Naval Academy closed before Franco came of age, so, in 1907 he joined the army instead. Franco’s early military career was successful and by 1926 he was the youngest general in Europe, with his ability and dedication making him popular. After the Spanish General Elections of 1933 which had resulted in a right wing majority, Spanish Civil War broke out between the right wing Nationalists and left wing Republicans. Franco led the Nationalists to victory in 1939 and was officially recognised as head of state in 1945. The key to Franco’s rule involved silencing any who chose to rebel against the Nationalists and his law making reflected his strong Catholic beliefs. Spain saw many changes under Franco’s rule – Castilian was named as the official language and local dialects were banned from public use. Parents were made to give their children approved Catholic names and women were expected to make home-making and obedience to their husbands a priority.

Those who followed non-Catholic religions were scapegoated, and any person who spoke out would be severely punished, often by death. It is estimated that over 200,00 people died under Franco’s regime, although the true figure will probably never be known. Franco held his position until his death in 1975, despite having suffered from Parkinson’s Disease for several years. He was succeeded by his chosen monarch Juan Carlos, who began to re-introduce democracy to Spain within the first years of coming into power. Franco was interred in the Valle de los Caidos, a monument which is considered to be controversial due to the fact that much of the construction work was done by political prisoners. Although nearly 45 years have passed since Franco’s death, many people still feel that the shadow of his dictatorship still hangs over Spain. The last Franco statue, which depicted the former head of state riding a horse, was removed from its location in Madrid in 2005, yet for many families, the story is far from over as they seek to identify the remains of their loved ones, in the thousands of unmarked graves throughout the country.

Question: Who led Spain from 1939 to 1975?
Answer: Francisco Franco