handprint : light and the eye how watercolor papers are made The technology for making paper from hemp fibers began to standardize in China around the first century BCE. The first true sheets of paper are said to have been the experimental papers made with a variety of materials  bark, hemp, rag and fishnet pulp  by the Chinese court eunuch Ts'ai Lun in 105 CE. Chinese papermaking techniques migrated along the Asian silk routes in the 8th century CE, reaching Samarkind in 751 and Arab northern Africa shortly after. The Arabs innovated the wire mold and standard paper sizes before papermaking entered Moorish Spain around 1036. From Spain, paper mills were established in Fabriano, Italy around 1270, in Germany by 1320, and in England in 1495. Prior to this time, most European books and illuminated documents were made on a thin calf's skin called vellum. the paper furnish The materials and chemical additives in a paper constitute the furnish or ingredients of the paper. All paper manufacture uses the fibrous plant material cellulose, which plants use to build the cell walls in stems and leaves.

Cellulose is extracted for European and American papers from cotton, flax (linen) or (from around 1860) from wood pulp, and for traditional Asian papers from jute, kozo, salago or mitsumata. A sheet of paper is basically a thin mat of tangled cellulose fibers. Types of Cellulose. Chemically, cellulose is a polymeric carbohydrate (C6H10O5), differing from starch or glucose only in the way the atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are linked together. The grade or quality of cellulose is determined by how much of the plant material dissolves in different chemical solutions. For example, the portion of plant material that does not dissolve in a moderate (18%) solution of sodium hydroxide at room temperature is termed alpha cellulose; the dissolved portion that solidifies (precipitates) when an acid is added to the solution is known as beta cellulose. Alpha cellulose is the most stable and permanent part of extracted plant material. papers how paper is sold Cotton cellulose fibers are the long seed hairs removed from cotton seeds through ginning, a process of mechanical shredding and combing.

These fibers are called cotton rag, as are any remaindered (used) threads, fabrics or clothing made from them. Cotton rag fibers are flexible and strong, and because they are naturally long, they produce papers that resist tearing. They are also almost 100% alpha cellulose, naturally white and already separated, which means little or no bleaching or chemical treatments are necessary. The shorter fibers and lint left attached to the seeds after ginning are culled by crushing and boiling the pulp in an alkali solution; the separated fibers are then washed and formed into soft, blotterlike sheets called cotton linters. Linters are commonly used in the production of cellulose derived chemicals, but if washed they are also used in the manufacture of paper. Linters can replace up to one third of the rag content of paper without loss of strength, and they can improve the consistency, bulk, dimensional stability and whiteness of the sheet. Linen cellulose fibers (from flax) are longer and stronger than cotton, which makes linen papers harder and more translucent. As with cotton, either the unspun flax fibers or discarded linen threads or fabrics can be used in paper manufacture.

By far the most common source of cellulose in machinemade papers is wood pulp. Wood from domestic hardwoods (including eucalyptus) provides short fibers with good bulk; wood from coniferous softwoods (pine or cedar) provides longer fibers for paper strength. Cellulose is extracted from wood pulp using either mechanical or chemical methods. The mechanical processes involve successive cutting, grinding, soaking and screening of wood chips or sawdust, which is then bleached in a sulfite or peroxide solution. This results in a coarse, brownish paper commonly used in wrapping papers, packaging, newsprint and paperboard. Mechanical methods can leave a considerable residue of lignin, a kind of glue that binds together the cellulose fibers of a living plant and represents up to 30% of the bulk of wood pulp. Lignin repels water, causes clumping in the paper pulp during manufacture, and becomes acidic and turns a yellow or brown color with age, so it is necessary to remove it completely in quality paper production.

There are various chemical methods of cellulose extraction, but most involve cooking the wood chips in an acid (sulfite) or alkaline (sulfate) bath, which dissolves the lignin so that it can be washed away. Quality Designations of Paper. Several different designations are used to describe the quality of cellulose in paper, and these can be somewhat misleading. At the very top of the quality scale, the term 100% cotton affirms that the paper is made entirely of cotton (usually from both linters and rag) and includes no linen or wood cellulose. The term rag paper only means that some rag content is included in the paper, often mixed with linters or wood cellulose. (The label can also refer to papers made with a cotton and linen mix.) In fact, the amount of cotton cellulose in rag paper may be anywhere from 100% to as little as 20%! Gresham's law ensures that "rag paper" is therefore almost always of lower cotton content than 100% cotton, though this quality difference may not be noticeable or important for artistic uses. Finally, wood pulp treated chemically is called woodfree paper or wood sulfite paper.

The highest grade of wood pulp paper (which may contain as much as 93% cellulose) is labeled high alpha cellulose. Confusingly, this is often abbreviated to alpha cellulose in trade publications, where it still denotes cellulose derived from wood  even though (as described above) alpha cellulose actually refers to "pure" cellulose of any origin. Cotton cellulose is up to 10 times stronger than wood cellulose and naturally lignin free and acid free. Some residual lignin and chemicals remain in chemically extracted wood cellulose, which cause embrittlement and acidification over time. For this reason, wood pulp ("alpha cellulose") papers should generally be avoided for archival or museum quality artwork. Papers made from 100% cotton, 100% linen, or pure cotton/linen rag are all suitable for artistic use. Many seasoned artists and art dealers swear the quality of most watercolor papers has declined noticeably since the 1960's, and some attribute it to a reduction in the linen content.

However, the shift to cotton has also followed painters' preferences: linen creates a harder and less absorbent paper than cotton, which makes smooth washes trickier to execute; and because of the much longer fiber length, 100% linen papers tend to cockle or warp excessively when wet. Acidity of Paper. The ideal paper should last for centuries under normal storage conditions, and papers that can meet this standard are referred to as archival quality. Acids are the most pervasive and destructive hazard to paper permenancy. Acidic papers such as newsprint can embrittle and discolor in a very short time, can degrade acid sensitive pigments such as ultramarine blue, and can release acidic vapors that will degrade papers or mats placed next to them. The pH scale, used in chemistry to measure acidity or alkalinity, is neutral at around 7.5; pure water has a pH value of 7, and a substance is considered acidic at a pH value of 5 or lower and alkalinic at values of 8 or more. All newsprint and most magazine papers are made from wood that has been mechanically pulverized to the desired consistency, a process called mechanical pulping.

However fine book and art papers are made from shredded wood that has been digested or broken down through wet mixture under heat and pressure with enzymes or pulping chemicals, which is called chemical pulping. The main choice is between the alkalescent kraft or sulphate process, or the sulphite process (which can vary from acid to alkaline). When carefully controlled, these processes break down the lignin content of the wood without significantly affecting the cellulose fibers. Enzymes are also used to increase the effectiveness of the bleaching agents (preferably chlorine dioxide or hydrogen peroxide) used to whiten the lignen residues, and to dissolve the ink residues that contaminate recycled paper stocks. Thoroughly rinsing away all the chemicals used to pulp and bleach wood cellulose requires a significant amount of water, so pulp mills reduce water demand by chemically neutralizing the pulp during the final steps of manufacture. This is done by adding a sufficient amount of a base (such as calcium carbonate) to the paper furnish, creating papers that are usually designated pH neutral.

In contrast, the designation acid free usually means the paper furnish was made using only cotton linter, cotton rag or linen rag; the pulp was not chemically bleached during manufacture; and the paper contains no rosin or aluminum sulfate (alum) as sizing. Neutralizing an acidic pulp is separate from the practice at paper mills of adding the neutralizing chemical to create an alkali reserve that counteracts any acidic pollutants the papers may be exposed to in the future from the painting process, cheap mat boards, or the atmosphere. In fact, an alkali reserve added to acid free paper is a good thing and is mandated by many archival standards. Paradoxically, if they are not adjusted at all, additive free papers can have a slightly lower (more acidic) pH than chemically pulped "pH neutral" papers, so "pure cellulose" by itself is no guarantee of archival quality. In addition, it's now believed that the more buffering there is in the paper the better, and an adequate calcium carbonate content can even protect against lignin degredation. So pH neutral papers are less desirable than pH alkalinic papers (up to pH 10).

As far as I can discover, chemically neutralized papers are believed to be less stable than papers that were never exposed to harsh chemicals in the first place. The most prudent course for watercolor painters is to prefer the explicit designation of acid free, buffered, 100% cotton papers to any other kind, and to prefer pH neutral cotton or linen papers to any "pH neutral, high alpha cellulose" or wood pulp papers. The label "100% cotton" by itself is no assurance either way, as recycled fabrics may be harshly bleached before use in paper pulp. Chemical tests for pH are somewhat inconvenient but not difficult to do by the artist at home, and it is not unheard of for libraries to discover through their own pH testing that papers have a higher acidity than was guaranteed by the manufacturer. In addition, burning a small piece of your watercolor paper can be revealing. Ash from pure cellulose paper is white, fragile and wispy. Ash that is stiff, black or brittle indicates the presence of residual lignin, noncellulose (synthetic) fibers picked up from recycled consumer clothing, and/or large amounts of chemicals added as sizing or buffering.

The global population of large apes manufactures and consumes roughly 300 million tons of paper annually, under rising economic and resource constraints and demand that increases at about 3% per year. This dictates continuous innovation in manufacturing processes, recycling and productivity, which will only increase the diversity and complexity of modern paper stocks. It's worth noting that handmade papers were traditionally bleached without chemicals by exposing the sheets to sunlight, just as linens are bleached by hanging them to dry on a clothesline; buffering was introduced by pulping and rinsing with "hard" spring water from limestone aquafers and by coating the papers with milk. Optical Brightening Agents or OBAs. It is not usually possible to assess the furnish of a paper from its color alone. The color of a sheet is influenced by the quality and amount of internal sizing, the purity of water used in manufacture, and the temperature and amount of time that the pulp was cooked. The wood cellulose fibers used in paper have a natural yellow tint that is partially bleached out during manufacturing, giving the paper a warm but slightly dull finished color.

To counteract this, many paper brands add a "bluing" agent to the paper, which nowadays are ultraviolet dyes that absorb UV light and fluoresce in the visible (violet and blue) wavelengths. The presence of OBAs can usually be confirmed by examining the sheet under an ultraviolet ("black") light: it will appear much brighter than an ordinary sheet of typing paper. The consensus is that that OBAs impair paper permanency: they break down over time and can cause patchy yellowing or increased acidity in the paper. In the USA, pressure from librarians resulted in standards for paper permanency, described in the ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 Permanent Paper Standard . Under this rule, fine art or archival quality papers should have a neutral to alkaline pH (7.5 or greater), be made entirely of high alpha cellulose (containing less than 1% lignin) or preferably 100% "rag" fibers, contain a reserve of calcium carbonate or equivalent buffer of 2.0% or more of total pulp mass, and contain no optical brighteners.

(Other specifications include the paper's resistance to tearing.) Based on tests conducted by the ASTM, these papers have an estimated life expectancy of 500 years or more. how paper is made Whatever source of plant cellulose is used, the raw pulp is rinsed, screened, sometimes bleached, and mixed with water and pH adjusting chemicals to form a mulchy goop. Each batch of pulp and other ingredients, and all the papers that are made from it, represent a single making. Manufacturing Methods. The pulp is thoroughly pounded to macerate and separate the individual cellulose fibers. Traditionally this was done by pounding the pulp in a stone trough with a large wooden pile or hammer; modern shops use a Hollander beater. This pounding bruises, cuts, folds and tangles the fibers in ways that alter the finished paper's character. the tangle of cellulose fibers in a sheet of paper As the pulp is beaten longer the finished pulp becomes denser and less porous: as a result the paper's "rattle" becomes brighter and more metallic, the paper translucency increases, the paper absorbs more water and cockles more extensively; the stretch resistance or tensile strength of the paper increases but paradoxically it also becomes easier to tear.

Different types of fibers or raw pulp may be mixed in a making to adjust the qualities of the paper being made. After the pulp has been thoroughly macerated, it is diluted with roughly nine times its bulk in water. Various chemicals, fillers and binders are added at this stage and the soup is energetically stirred in a vat, which may be as small as a bathtub or as large as a swimming pool. This milky liquid is the pulp actually drawn off in papermaking. Most commercial art papers are manufactured by machine, though the term machinemade applies specifically to papers made with a Fourdrinier machine, which injects the pulp onto a running wire mesh, or between two meshes (depending on the machine type). The water is drained from the mesh, then the wet sheet is wicked between two felts and finally dried against heated cylinders. The finished sheet is extruded in a continuous roll or web. The web is torn or cut into sheets which are mechanically dried. A Fourdrinier machine can produce upwards of 23,000 sheets of paper in an hour. Moldmade papers are manufactured with a cylinder mold machine. The pulp is poured over wire mesh cylinders operating at very low speed.

The pulp adheres to the rotating cylinders in a continuous thin sheet. This web is pressed into a belt of wet felt, which lifts the web of paper away from the screen. A second felt is placed on top of the sheet and this sandwich is passed through a series of rollers that extrude the water and dry the sheet with forced air. Finally the bare sheet is run through a stack of heavy iron rollers (called a calender) that refines the surface texture. A cylinder mold machine can make about 200 sheets in an hour. The variety and novelty of handmade papers has increased, part of a resurgence of interest in the papermaking craft. In America, this was due largely to the influence of artist, papermaker and historian Dard Hunter (1883-1966), and to the preservationist efforts of small, exclusively handmaking mills such as Dieu Donné (New York), Larroque-Duchêne (France), Twinrocker (Illinois), and St. Armand (Montréal). Handmade papers are also made with a mold, though not the cylindrical kind. Usually the processes of pounding and mixing the pulp are also done by hand.

The mold is an open rectangular frame slightly larger than the dimensions of the finished sheet, with a woven or laid wire screen stretched across the top. A second frame, the deckle, is placed over the screen to define the sheet's horizontal dimensions and (by the depth of the deckle) the paper's thickness. The vatman dips the entire frame into the pulp vat and by "throwing the weave" sloshes any excess pulp off the mold, then spreads the pulp into an even sheet by gentle horizontal shaking. This hand spreading of the pulp imparts many tiny variations to the paper surface and a slightly irregular thickness to the sheet, especially along the edges where excess pulp is cast away. The sheet drains in place, and when it is firm enough the deckle is removed and the couchman inverts the frame on a thin sheet of moist felt, dislodging or couching (pronounced "cooching") the paper onto the felt. About 80 sheets of handmade paper can be shaken and couched in an hour; drying can take days or weeks. Drying the Sheets. Methods of drying vary, and the different methods affect both the paper finish or surface texture, and its dimensional stability (resistance to cockling) when wet.

As explained by Sylvie Turner , a freshly couched sheet of paper contains water trapped between and absorbed inside the cellulose fibers. The water between the fibers can be mechanically pressed or blotted out, or evaporates early in the paper drying. As the remaining water inside the cellulose fibers evaporates, the fibers shrink along their length and form hydrogen bonds where they contact other fibers. This causes the sheet to cockle or distort as it dries, which can be minimized by slowing the drying process or restraining the sheet as it dries. Traditionally, the highest quality handmade or moldmade sheets were hung individually over poles or horsehair ropes in specially built lofts that encouraged a gentle flow of clean air (loft drying); this is still done today for the highest quality handmade or moldmade papers. Because they dry unrestrained, these sheets can have a beautifully textured and unique surface. More often, a half dozen or so sheets of paper are gathered in spurs that are hung vertically or laid horizontally on racks or stretched canvas tarps (called "sails"), which tends to produce a slightly smoother finish. After two or more weeks of drying, the papers are stacked under weighted boards and allowed to stretch out flat.

Because these sheets have been allowed to dry slowly, the gradual shrinkage of the cellulose fibers can balance out across the entire sheet, which produces a puckering around naturally occurring irregularities in the pulp that results in a unique, minutely pebbled finish. These sheets tend to regain their original cockles when rewetted. The more common and economical industrial method is restraint drying the sheet: removing water from the cellulose fibers while the sheet is held flat. The ancient methods were to let the sheet dry in the mold, or to spread the sheet against a wall or on a board that was left to dry in the sun (the traditional method in Japan). Various other methods exist in modern industrial production of book papers and less expensive grades of art papers. These include using a mechanical press to express water from a post or very large stack of paper sheets alternating with thin felts, or calendering the paper web between heated metal rollers. The Deckle. Handmade papers will usually have a deckle edge on all four sides, a feathery thinning of the sheet caused when small amounts of pulp flow between the mold and deckle.

These (and the mealy or pulpy variations in the sheet thickness and texture) create a unique material artifact, a presence that is very attractive in paintings that emphasize the object's surface rather than a representational illusion. However, this is a matter of taste: throughout the 19th and much of the 20th century, painters considered the deckle a manufacturing defect and always trimmed it away, usually when cutting the sheet from the board on which the paper had been stretched for painting. As machine manufacture became dominant in the 19th century, the deckle acquired a crafts cachet. Today many watercolor painters retain it as the sign of a handmade product. Well, not quite. Deckle edges are sometimes simulated in moldmade papers by cutting or trimming a larger sheet with a dull blade or jet of pressurized water, which produces a frayed, irregular edge. Moldmade papers often have two genuine deckles on the long sides of the web, and smaller imitation deckle edges on the short sides where the sheet has been cut lengthwise from the web. A large amount of water is required to manufacture paper. The quality of the paper is heavily dependent on the purity and alkalinity of the water.

The best mills are always located near copious fresh water supplies, and frequently refresh the water in use. The best way to learn about paper is to make some yourself! You can buy a papermaking kit with all the supplies and equipment included, or by reading books such as Arnold Grummer's Complete Guide to Easy Papermaking . You can also explore online at the Robert C. Williams American Museum of Papermaking , located in Atlanta, Georgia (USA); or through many online resources such as the site by Hand Papermaking, Inc. in Washington, D.C. (USA). paper finishes There are two types of paper texture, created by the weave of the wire screen in the mold. The more primitive laid texture results when the screen is formed of closely spaced parallel wires that are held in place by more widely spaced transverse wires (or crosswires) woven between them (image right); this gives the sheet a characteristic ribbed or corduroy appearance. The wove texture, invented in England around 1755, results from wires woven evenly in both directions (like a window screen, image below). This gives the sheet a uniform texture in all dimensions, whether it is rough or smooth.

The felt side of the sheet faced away from the mold and only received texture from the felts used in rollers or drying. The wire side of the sheet settled onto the wire screen of the mold, and received texture both from the mold and any felts used in rollers or drying. Textures often differ between the two sides; the quality and amount of difference depends on the type of papermaking machine, the quality of the pulp, and the drying process. The wire side usually has a more assertive and complex texture (both the screen and felt textures are visible), is more consistently flat (because the pulp settles against the taut screen), and also reveals any inclusions (impurities or bits of decorative fiber) that are heavier than the pulp and sink toward the wire during draining. The Watermark. The watermark is a visible mark in the sheet, usually the name or an identifying symbol of the paper manufacturer, most easily seen by holding the sheet up to the light.

Watermarks were introduced by the Fabriano Mill (Italy) in around 1282, and rapidly became a way for papermakers to assert the authenticity and quality of manufacture of their product, and to signal specific paper sizes, furnishes (100% cotton), customs declarations, and so on. In handmade papers the watermark is usually created by a small copper wire image fixed to the wire screen of the mold (image at right); this creates a slight thinness in the pulp directly over the pattern, which appears as a more transparent area in the finished sheet. In machine moldmade papers the watermark is typically embossed on the still wet sheet with a rubber roller. Some manufacturers emboss the sheet with a logo or trademark, instead of or in addition to using a watermark. This chopmark is usually small and placed unobtrusively along the margin of the sheet, as watercolor paints will not cover it.

Painters are usually taught that the watermark (and chopmark, if present) in handmade sheets is historically oriented to "read right" (is legible rather than mirror reversed) from the felt side of the sheet, considered the better side to paint on because the finish is often more consistent and inclusions (pulp impurities) show less readily (they usually sink to the wire side). But some manufacturers  especially in England  place the watermark or chop to read correctly from the wire side, which makes the manufacturer lettering less obtrusive to the eye. They did this because 19th century papermakers would sometimes shave away lint or clumps of pulp that protruded on the felt side of the sheet, and these cuts damaged the finish and surface sizing and would show up under washes. As a result the wire side became the "right" side to use. This concern is no longer relevant, as paper sheets are no longer trimmed in that way. In nearly all modern papers, the quality, sizing and handling of the felt and wire sides are essentially the same; in fact, the texture of the felt side may be more desirable in some sheets. The watermark orientation varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, sometimes even within the same manufacturer.

For example, I have before me two sheets of Arches CP 640GSM watercolor paper: in the full sheet (22" x30") the watermark "reads right" from the felt side (opposite the watermark embossing), while in the double elephant sheet (30" x 40") the watermark "reads right" from the wire side! To make matters worse, the rubber roller used to emboss the watermark on moldmade sheets may be placed on the felt side (above the web), not on the wire side, so you cannot use the watermark indentation as a reliable guide. However, on one side of the sheet the watermark will appear as a shallow embossing or indentation in the paper surface: that is usually the wire side. As a rule, you should put the watermark indentation on the back of the sheet, because watercolor paint will often make it more visible. The most reliable method is to examine the watermark from both sides of the sheet, then evaluate the finish on both sides for surface texture and visible impurities. Then use the side you prefer.

There is incidentally no reason at all to discard a sheet if you've botched a painting on the wire side, because both sides are usable: just flip the paper over, whistle a happy tune, and get cracking. The Finish. Watercolor papers are supplied in three types of finish or surface texture: rough, cold pressed, and hot pressed. The finish is affected both by the mold screen and the texture of the felts or rollers used (or not used) in drying the paper . Rough watercolor papers are dried as they are couched from the mold. Handmade papers are dried without pressing; the pebbly rough texture results from the shrinking of the paper around the natural irregularities in the pulp. (For this reason, the texture becomes rougher in thicker, heavier weight sheets.) Moldmade papers are pressed between rough felts on the paper machine as the first step in drying, which embosses the roughness of the felt fabric into the wet sheet. Because they have not been compressed, rough sheets often expand and cockle more than other types of finishes when wet. Rough sheets are usually the most absorbent, and therefore produce the smoothest washes even with granulating pigments.

However, if a juicy wash solution is applied thickly and the sheet is "rocked" or swirled slightly, the pigment will settle into the hollows of the paper, creating one of the most characteristic, expressive watercolor pigment textures. And texturing can also be produced with a brush charged with dry or thick paint lightly or quickly stroked over the surface: paint will only color the "peaks" of the paper, leaving sparkling white pinholes in the "valleys." Cold pressed paper (in the UK called "NOT" paper, meaning "not hot pressed") is made by hanging the sheets to loft dry in spurs (clusters) or by pressing the posts under a mechanical press (for handmade papers), or by calendering the sheet with light pressure through felt covered metal rollers (moldmade papers). This cold pressing gives the sheet a subdued texture that is relatively easy to use, can tolerate a certain amount of corrections or lifting, and is congenial to almost any style of painting. The sheets are more dimensionally stable when wet, and (depending on manufacturer) are usually less absorbent than rough sheets.

Hot pressed sheets (both moldmade and handmade) are calendered at high pressure between heated glazing rollers or highly polished cold metal rollers, which creates a smooth, almost polished finish. These sheets show a high degree of brush detail and tend to show pigment color more brightly: the surface sizing and fiber density resist paint absorption so more of the paint stays on the surface; the drawback is that the lack of absorption tends to produce uneven and blotchy washes (especially in unstretched sheets that can cockle or buckle), and to amplify even minor variations in pigment granularity or flocculation. Hot pressed papers are often the most congenial to lifting dried paint by moistening and blotting, though the smooth surface reveals any abrasions more clearly. These papers are especially suited to painting styles that want to accent the watery irregularities of the paint, or styles (such as botanical illustration) where precise pen and ink outlines or drawings, or fine brush textures, are essential to the desired effect. Sizing. In addition to these mechanical variations in surface texture, watercolor paper is also chemically treated to alter its absorbency. Internal sizing is added to the paper pulp before the sheet is formed and chemically bonds to the paper fibers.

External sizing is applied to the surface of the finished sheet of paper after it has dried, sometimes by dipping the entire sheet into a tub of sizing solution (known as tub sizing). (Waterleaf papers are unsized.) In the 19th century, a pine rosin sizing was added to the paper pulp to reduce the capillary action of the fibers and prevent inks or paints from blotting when applied; this also kept watercolors on the surface of the paper, making them appear as bright as possible. However, acidic chemicals had to be added to the pulp to bind the rosin to the cellulose, and all rosins yellow with age. Animal gelatin sizing was (and still is) the preferred external sizing: it is naturally transparent, slightly water soluble, gives a hard surface that can be scraped or sponged away without damaging the paper itself, and imparts a warm tint to the sheet.

However, gelatin is not the most common internal sizing for watercolor papers  for this there are modern substitutes often used instead of animal gelatin sizing, such as carboxymethylcellulose (a common food thickener derived from cellulose, trade name Aquaplast) or alkyl-ketene dimers (AKDs or "dimers", trade name Aquapel). These add qualities of external sizing to a sheet  but gelatin sized sheets are preferred by many artists and gelatin usually mentioned by name whenever it is used. a laid screen (with part of the watermark visible near the edge) a wove screen The paper finish varies widely from one manufacturer to the next; papers labeled "rough" in one brand line may be equivalent to a "cold pressed" in another line. In general heavier weight papers have a more assertive finish than lighter papers, and handmade papers have a more assertive, irregular finish than moldmade papers. ( Fabriano Uno papers also come in a soft pressed surface, with a finish midway between hot and cold pressed.) Some manufacturing methods will align the paper fibers in the same direction, and these biases form the grain of the paper.

In machinemade and to a lesser degree in some moldmade papers, the grain runs the length of the web (parallel to the deckle and perpendicular to the path of molds or rollers). There is no grain in handmade or roughshake papers (the alignment of the fibers is random). Papers are easier to tear or fold in the direction parallel to rather than across the grain. Cellulose fibers expand in width when wet, which causes machinemade papers to return to the curl of the mold cylinder that made them, or to produce cockles that lie in parallel ribs; in most moldmade and all handmade papers, the pattern of cockling is random. paper formats Because variations in paper manufacture can produce variations in the dimensions of finished sheets, the British Imperial system of paper dimensions and weights standardized existing paper formats in 1836. Since then artists have referred to paper sheets by the Imperial standard names: watercolor paper formats Source: Sylvie Turner, The Book of Fine Paper (1998). Note: Paper measurements are always taken on the mold dimensions (excluding the deckles, if any). Handmade and/or loft dried papers often shrink as they are dried, causing them to be slightly smaller than the nominal (mold measured) dimensions.

To assist your visualization of the various sizes and proportions, the dimensions of these sheets are shown below. common watercolor paper formats in the imperial system Larger sheets, up to 30' wide and 4' high, can be cut from watercolor paper rolls , and smaller sheets can be torn from any convenient sized larger sheet. Some artists prefer to paint on these smaller torn formats, as the tear makes an interesting contrast to the deckle. The ratio of long to short dimensions in watercolor sheets varies widely. The super royal and USA "double elephant" sheets are close to 1 to 1.41; when a sheet in this ratio is torn in half across its width, the proportion of the half sheets is again 1 to 1.41.

(Only the USA "single elephant" sheet is close to the "golden section" dimensions of 1 to 1.618.) In general, the sheets with a higher ratio of length to width (the antiquarian at 1.71, the double elephant at 1.52 and the half sheet at 1.47) are especially pleasing in landscape format for landscape paintings and reclining nudes or figure portraits, or in portrait format for standing nudes or figure portraits. The sheets with lower ratios (the royal at 1.25 and the demi at 1.29) are more effective in portrait orientation for bust or head portraits and in landscape orientation for still lifes. The beautifully proportioned imperial sheet or full sheet (22" x 30", a ratio of 1.36) strikes a balance between those two extremes, and it has been the standard large format watercolor for almost two centuries. Smaller sheets are often created by tearing the full sheet across its width to produce the half sheet (15" x 22"), and if needed torn again to produce the quarter sheet (11" x 15").

Note that the imperial sheet is itself roughly a quarter sheet of the huge emperor sheet (called "double elephant" in some watercolor books I have seen). In the manufacture of machinemade papers and mass printing trades, a new metric system is now standard, based on the A0 sheet (84 x 119cm, or 33" x 47", a ratio of 1 to 1.41) and successive half sheets from it (designated A1, A2, A3, etc.), or the B0 sheet (100 x 141cm, or 40" x 56", also a ratio of 1 to 1.41) and successive half sheets (designated B1, B2, etc.). In the manufacture of artist papers, particularly handmade papers, the traditional Imperial system remains common, especially for the half sheet, full sheet and USA double elephant. Sylvie Turner comments that one reason for the enduring popularity of the Imperial sizes is that they seem ideally suited for handmade production methods  in papermaking, painting and printing  rather than machine production.

Unfortunately, even reliable authors give different dimensions for the different Imperial sizes (the "elephant" series is especially muddled), perhaps because variations in manufacturing methods or an increasing variety of paper sizes have outstripped the standards. The artists' confusion is likely to get worse before it gets better. All the art suppliers I know of list watercolor sheets by actual dimensions rather than by the Imperial standard names. And many artists I have spoken with respond to terms like "double elephant" with an amused or uncomprehending look. The prevailing workshop and retail practice is simply to give the sheet dimensions, in inches or centimeters. weights of paper More confusion arises in measures of the basis weight or thickness of the paper. The lightest art papers are translucent, while the heaviest papers are as stiff as finely milled sheets of wood  the rattle sounds as bright as sheet metal! The problem is finding a way to describe these differences. The traditional specification (from the British Imperial system) has been the weight in pounds of a ream (500 sheets) of the paper.

The imperial or full sheet (22" x 30") was taken as the standard size to define the weight of smaller sheets, as smaller sheets were typically torn from it. (The imperial equivalent weight is still used to describe the paper used in watercolor blocks, for example.) Unfortunately larger sheets can make this measure confusing if not useless, because these are also measured by the ream in their actual dimensions rather than scaled to approximate the imperial size. So a sheet of 1114 lb. 40" x 60" paper is exactly the same basis weight as a sheet of 300 lb. 22" x 30" paper! The new and improved metric method is to measure the weight (in grams) of a single sheet of paper calculated to be exactly one meter square (grams per square meter or GSM). The following weights are most common: paper basis weights What Does A Paper's Weight Mean? Baby Steps To Print Purchasing Know How The Printing Crash Course - Printing School What Does a Paper's Weight Mean? Paper is measured in pounds per 500 sheets (one Ream of paper) of a standard size of sheet based on the group or category of papers the grade.

The different types of grades are Bond, Book, Text, Cover etc. Each group of the grade of paper is assigned a standard size that all weights are referred to. The basics of this standard are as follows: Bond has a standard size of 17 x 22" and this is the size that is measured for 500 sheets. If 500 sheets of this size weigh 20lbs., then the paper is classified as a 20lb. bond. Heavier and lighter stocks will obviously be thicker or thinner than the 20lb. Therefore 16lb. Bond or 24lb. Bond will be the variations on this. Now the confusion... the weight of 500 sheets of the standard sheet size (also known as the basis size) is commonly known as the paper's basis weight and is always noted as a weight in lbs. Seeing that the above only offers a vague indication to the thickness or the weight of the actual size, further confusion awaits ! A sheet size different than the above is calculated as a fraction or multiple of the basis weight and is normally noted for 1,000 sheets rather than 500.

The weight thus calculated of the acutal sheet size is always noted in weight per thousand (M in roman numerals) and therefore said to be 19 X 25" - 100M meaning that 1,000 sheets of 19 x 25" will weigh 100 lbs. Bond Bond stocks (often referred to as "Writing") traditionally are uncoated stocks and are normally used around the office such as letterheads, photo copier and laser printer paper. The standard weight utilized is 20lb., with 24lb. being the heavier alternative, and 16lb. being the lighter alternative. Writing is a grade similar to bond, but made with a shorter fiber, yielding a softer sheet which can be made with a variety of finishes and which accepts ink more readily. Writing is generally more expensive than bond and is used for higher end applications like company stationery. Some bond and writing papers have distinctive watermarks in the sheet. Uncoated offset is made specifically for the rigors of commercial offset presses and is often used for the same applications as bond.

The basis size of bond/writing papers is 17 x 22", whereas offset papers is 25 x 38". Equivalent bond/writing and offset weights: 16# bond or writing 80# offset Book Both Coated and Uncoated stocks are available under the category of Book Papers. Weights vary from 30lb. bible stock (very thin - mostly utilized for bibles) to a maximum around 115lbs. This classification is the most common for posters, catalogues, booklets and publication magazines. The basis size of Book papers is 25 x 38" Text Gaining on quality above the book grades, Text stocks are utilized in projects requiring a better grade of paper and usually range from a low of around 60lb to a high of 100lb. The basis size of Text papers is 25 x 38" Cover Cover papers, as the name denotes, is heavier and is utilized for post cards, business cards, rack cards, door hangers etc. The ranges of weights for Cover are from a low of 60lb. to a high of just over 100lb.

The basis size of Cover papers is 24 x 36" Paper Paper For centuries, people tried to discover better surfaces on which to record their thoughts. Almost everything imaginable was tried. Wood, stone, ceramics, cloth, bark, metal, silk, bamboo, and tree leaves were all used as a writing surface at one time or another. The word "paper" is derived from the word "papyrus," which was a plant found in Egypt along the lower Nile River. Paper is made of pulped cellulose fibres (usually cotton, flax, or wood), whereas papyrus is made of sliced sections of the inner pithy body of the flower stem of the papyrus plant, laid in two layers at right angles, pressed together and dried. A major drawback to papyrus was that ink would not penetrate the surface. In the second century BC, the Greeks were using parchment made from goat or sheep- skin. The skins were wetted, stretched on a frame and repeatedly scraped. This was a labor- intensive process that did not produce many sheets of writing material, quickly.

237 BC Coptic manuscript on vellum 10th Century AD parchment leaf from a small codex 5th Century AD The Torah (scroll) must be written on gevil of klaf..... only hides of kosher animals are permitted. The most preferable quality parchment is Shlil, the hide of the embryo or a newborn calf. The surface of the Klaf should not be coated or glazed. Approximately sixty-two hides are needed for a complete Torah. The average size of a newly written Torah is between 17 to 20 inches INK The one overriding halacha of the dyo (soferï¿½s ink) is that it must be absolutely black, through and through. No other color can be mixed in, nor can it have any composite colors. Black ï¿½ pure and simple.

Although there are several ink recipes, everyone today makes ink from three basic ingredients: Kuma = Gum Arabic, acts as a binder to keep the ink attached to the klaf Kankantum = Iron Sulfate (although the Mishna Berura 32:8 seems to identify this a copper sulfate; Iï¿½ve seen this in other places too) Mei Afatzim = Gall Nut Juice The most curious ingredient of the lot is Gall Nut juice. ï¿½What is a gall nut?ï¿½ you may askï¿½ Some species of wasps (the Marble wasp, for example) lay their eggs in oak tree branches and twigs. When the tree identifies a possible parasite has having moved in, it quickly grows a large knot, a ï¿½gall nut,ï¿½ around the foreign body to isolate it from doing more damage. Gall nuts are important because they are rich in tannic acid The pure black tint of the ink results from the reaction between the tannic acid and iron sulfate. There are a LOT of ink recipes out there.

This is the most basic one and is from the sefer Chasdei Dovid: 3 g Gum Arabic 0.25 liters filtered or distilled water Crush the galls as finely as possible. Mix all the ingredients together into a sturdy pot. Cook the mixture for a long time on low to medium heat until you have only a gloopy sort of residue left. Strain out all the solid material using a fine mesh. Pour the strained residue into a clear glass bottle and seal it tightly. Let it sit for about 6 months until it turns jet black. If a Sofer doesnï¿½t have 6 months to wait, the alternative is to buy ready-made ink. We see the real explosion of writing when the Chinese, in the second century BC, invent a paper from pounded Mulberry bark and bamboo. This produced thin sheets that could be produced quickly and that ink penetrated. Because of the latter property, ink could not be erased from this paper. For approximately 500 years the art of papermaking was confined to China, but in 610 it was introduced into Japan, and into Central Asia about 750. In 793, there was a factory working in Baghdad.

Paper made its appearance in Egypt about 800 but was not manufactured there until 900, and from there the knowledge was taken to Morocco, and from Morocco to Europe by the Moors. Early paper was at first disfavored by the Christian world as a manifestation of Moslem culture, and a 1221 decree from Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II declared all official documents to be written on paper invalid. With the invention of the printing press in 1448 by Johannes Gutenberg, there was an explosion in the use of paper. Rag Paper The most commonly used fibre, or rag, is cotton. Because the length of fabric fibres is longer than that of wood, rag-based papers are stronger and tend to take more 'wear', such as scrubbing with a brush. Rag-based papers are also more archival in quality; cotton, for instance, is naturally PH-neutral. Money People know what money feels like. People who handle money constantly, like bank tellers, cashiers and wait staff, can feel a counterfeit bill instantly if the paper is wrong.

That "feel of money" comes from at least three different things that make the paper in paper bills unique: Normal paper that you use on a day-to-day basis (newspaper, notebook paper, paper in books, etc.) is made from the cellulose found in trees. Paper used for money, on the other hand, is made from rag paper. One big advantage of using rag paper is the fact that it does not disintegrate if you accidentally run it through a washing machine. The paper used for money is thin compared to normal paper. The paper used for money is squeezed with thousands of pounds of pressure during the printing process. This makes it even thinner and gives newly made bills a special crispness. All Early paper was made of rags, and rags were hard to come by. Ironically, when the Plague killed millions of people in Europe, tons of clothing and rags became available at just about the time the printing press was invented. Technical progress and an upsurge in papermaking continued in the 17th Century and soon led to a shortage of raw materials and to regulations governing the trade in rags.

Rene de Rï¿½aumur who, in the 1700s, watched a species of wasp we now call the paper wasp. These insects were munching on wood. Not eating it, exactly, but chewing it up, spitting the mush back out and forming nests with it. It seemed to him that the wasps were making paper out of wood. By the 1860's rag pulp paper was replaced with wood pulp due to the introduction of wood grinders. Bond Paper Bond paper is a strong, durable paper especially suitable to office machines including copiers and desktop printers. Bond paper has a basic size of 17" x 22" and a basic weight of 13 to 24 lbs. It is characterized by erasability, good absorption, and rigidity. Bristol board Bristol paper is a heavyweight paper with a bulk thickness of .006" or higher. Bristol paper may be made by layering or laminating papers together to the desired thickness. The basic size is 22.5" x 28.5". The name comes because this type of paper, originally made from rags, came from Bristol, England.

Bristol paper is used for paperback book or catalog covers, file folders, tags, and tickets. Engravers or Wedding bristol paper may be used for formal engraved wedding invitations. Parchment or Vellom Once made from animal skins, the parchment paper look is now achieved by treating paper from cellulose fibers with sulfuric acid. Parchment paper is characterized by a hard surface, high wet-strength, resistance to grease and dirt. Some imitation parchment paper has the mottled parchment look printed onto the paper. May be used for certificates and diplomas or anytime an "old-fashioned" look is desired. Bible Bible paper is a thin, lightweight, opaque printing paper. Generally made from 25% cotton and linen rags or flax in combination with chemical wood pulp, bible paper typically has a long life. Typical uses for Bible paper, in addition to Bibles: dictionaries, encyclopedias, insurance rate books or other deluxe guides, and multi-fold package inserts. Book Book paper is a general term to describe a type of paper suitable for printing, (except newsprint and bristol), especially offset printing. Book paper can have many different finishes and may be coated or uncoated.

More opaque than Bond paper and good for 2-sided printing, book paper is also characterized by excellent folding qualities and durability. Book paper has a basic size of 25" x 38" and the basis weights range from 22 to 150 lbs. Newsprint Inexpensive paper made primarily of mechanically ground wood pulp rather than chemical pulp is known as newsprint. Has a shorter lifespan than other papers but is cheap to produce in bulk and is the least expensive paper that can withstand normal printing processes. Typically used for newspapers and may also still be used for comic books, some newsletters and trade magazines and buy/sell/trade classified ad weeklies. Inkjet Paper Cheap papers are suitable for normal printing for pictures to share with friends and family, and also have their use for proofing pictures you intend to print for sale or display on more expensive materials. Opacity How see-through is the paper? The higher the opacity, the less that printed text and images will bleed through to the other side. This is especially important for double-sided printing. Inkjet photo papers have a relatively high opacity (94-97 usually) compared to ordinary inkjet or laser papers so bleed-through is less of a problem with these papers.

Brightness The brightness of a paper is normally determined by how rough the surface of the paper is. A course or rough paper will scatter light in several directions, whereas a smooth paper will reflect more of the light back in the same direction. This makes the paper appear brighter, which in turn makes any image on the paper appear brighter. You can see this yourself by comparing a photo in a newspaper with a photo in a magazine. The smooth paper of the magazine page reflects light back to your eye much better than the rough texture of the newspaper. Any paper that is listed as being bright is generally a smoother-than-normal paper. Block of fir, ream of paper 2 x 8.5 x 11 inches Paper weight may be expressed in pounds (lb.) or as grams per square meter (g/m2). Different types of paper have their own weight scale. The bond papers which include most inkjet photo papers are found in the 24 to 71 lb. (90 to 270 g/m2) range. or 500 sheets of bond paper with a size of 17" by 22" have a weight of 20 pounds.

The manufacturer would cut a sheet that big into four letter-size sheets, so a 500-sheet ream of 20-pound bond paper weighs 5 pounds. Caliper Photo papers are heavier and thicker than typical multi-purpose papers. This thickness, known as caliper, is necessary to accommodate the greater ink coverage typically found in photos. Typical inkjet paper caliper may be anywhere from a thin 4.3 mil to a thick 10.4 mil paper. Photo paper is usually 7 to 10 mils. Another key factor in image quality is absorption. When the ink is sprayed onto the paper, it should stay in a tight, symmetrical dot. The ink should not be absorbed too much into the paper. If that happens, the dot will begin to feather. This means that it will spread out in an irregular fashion to cover a slightly larger area than the printer expects it to. The result is an page that looks somewhat fuzzy, particularly at the edges of objects and text. Imagine that the dot on the left is on coated paper and the dot on the right is on low-grade copier paper. Notice how irregular and larger the right dot is compared to the left one.

As stated, feathering is caused by the paper absorbing the ink. To combat this, high-quality inkjet paper is coated with a waxy film that keeps the ink on the surface of the paper. Coated paper normally yields a dramatically better print than other paper. The low absorption of coated paper is key to the high resolution capabilities of many of today's inkjet printers. For example, a typical Epson inkjet printer can print at a resolution of up to 720x720 dpi on standard paper. With coated paper, the resolution increases to 1440x720 dpi. The reason is that the printer can actually shift the paper slightly and add a second row of dots for every normal row, knowing that the image will not feather and cause the dots to blur together. Gloss Finish The coating on photo papers give your printed photos the look and feel of photographic prints. Because the coating keeps the paper from readily absorbing the ink some glossy papers dry slowly. However, quick-dry gloss finishes are common today. The finish may be described as high gloss, gloss, soft gloss, or semi-gloss, each reflecting the amount of shine. Satin is a less shiny coated finish.

Gloss papers are generally made for non-archival use. They range from highly reflective plastic films to materials with a relatively low gloss, that are almost closer to a pearl or luster finish. Pigment printers seldom produce good results on gloss surfaces, often giving very slow drying and patchy results. Matte Finish Images printed on photo matte papers appear soft and non-reflective, not shiny. Matte finish papers are not the same as regular inkjet finish papers. Matte finish photo papers are thicker and are specially formulated for photos. Many matte finish papers are printable on both sides. Matte papers are suitable for both pigment and dye based inks. For those printing in black and white in particular, matte surfaces give less brilliant prints than glossy, with lower maximum densities. However, visually the lack of surface reflections can make the blacks look good, and once framed under glass, the differences between prints on glossy and matte are quite hard to distinguish. Matte papers differ greatly in their surface texture and color, from optically brightened intense cool whites through warm whites to those that might be called cream or even pale yellow.

Some papers are extremely flat, while others have quite intrusive textures that can overwhelm detail in images and are only suitable for large prints depending on broad effects. Fine Art Papers - Archival qualities Three factors - paper, ink and paper coating - interact to determine print lifetimes, as well as the environmental factors including storage and display conditions. Good papers are likely to lead to longer lifetimes, and as with most other media, this generally means acid-free materials. The best papers are generally made from 100% cotton rag rather than wood pulp, and these tend to be expensive - at least a dollar for an A4 sheet and often rather more. The fine art papers share two main qualities - they are expensive and have a matte surface. Although nominally all white, some might more accurately be called pale yellow. All are acid-free, most are 100% cotton. Dust Removal With all fine art papers ensure that the surface is clean and dust-free immediately before printing by brushing gently with a soft 2" brush kept for this purpose, then using a blast of air.

As well as removing anything loose on the paper surface that will drop off after printing to leave a white spot in the print, this also helps to prevent a build up of fine dust that can clog printer heads and mechanism. Handling All printing paper needs careful handling, and fine art materials even more so. Avoid touching in the printing surface, and load ways load the paper before you print, rather than relying on auto loading. Since all fine art papers have a non-glossy surface, there are seldom if ever any problems with the 'pizza wheel' effect where the paper feed wheels on some printers can make marks on prints. Sample packs Many companies that sell inkjet paper provide sample packs containing a few sheets of the different papers they stock at reasonable prices, and it is worth getting these to decide which paper you prefer to use. Transformation Card Paper Two essential elements that make a playing card a playing card are the paper and varnish. A. Paper is usually 2 or 3 ply playing card stock often called "black liner board". Most stock is from mills in Germany and France. It is laminated with a black graphite glue which guarantees opacity. B. The "playing card varnish" is a custom formula; most major card makers have their own.

The varnish helps determine the "slip" and feel of the cards, how they slide against each other, and protects the cards from grease and dirt. If you are making hand-made cards, you should give some consideration to finishing the cards and making them easy to handle. Card magician Kevin Gallagher says "To me, the design is secondary to how well they handle since they are going to get written on, torn up and generally abused anyway". With hand-made cards, one can experiment finishing the cards by lightly polishing with wax, soap or fixative spray to make them slippery. Non-Coated Water Color Art Papers Advantages: Very artistic, very stable (acid-free, 100% cotton) - best to use with dye-based inks for greatest longevity. Disadvantages: Although these papers are "sized" (with gelatin and/or starch) to reduce dot gain, they still cannot reproduce the "photo-realistic" results that a coated water color paper can achieve. Coated Water Color / Art Papers Advantages: They produce more "photo-realistic" results than a non-coated water color paper can achieve, yet still retain much of the texture and feel of the traditional un-coated art papers.

This extra "pop" is very necessary when using the duller, pigmented inks. All of these papers are acid-free, and some are still 100% cotton. Disadvantages: These papers are usually more expensive than the non-coated papers. Coatings could decrease image stability - although this is not as much of a problem with the more "bullet-proof" pigment inks (made of more inert mineral substances than dye inks). Check for future longevity reports from Wilhelm Imaging Research. Ream - definition of ream by The Free Dictionary Ream - definition of ream by The Free Dictionary (rēm) n. 1. A quantity of paper, formerly 480 sheets, now 500 sheets or, in a printer's ream, 516 sheets. 2. often reams A very large amount: reams of work to do.

[Middle English rem, from Old French rayme, reme, ultimately (perhaps via Old Catalan raima, from Andalusian colloquial Arabic *razma) from Arabic rizma, bundle, from razama, to bundle; see rzm in the Appendix of Semitic roots.] ream 2 (rēm) tr.v. reamed, ream·ing, reams 1. To form, shape, taper, or enlarge (a hole or bore, for example) with a reamer or similar implement. 2. To remove (material) by this process. 3. To squeeze the juice out of (fruit) with a reamer. 4. Vulgar Slang To penetrate sexually. Phrasal Verb: ream out To criticize or reprimand severely: reamed me out for being late. [Possibly from Middle English remen, to make room, variant of rimen, from Old English rȳman; see reuə- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] ream (riːm) n 1.

(Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) a number of sheets of paper, formerly 480 sheets (short ream), now 500 sheets (long ream) or 516 sheets (printer's ream or perfect ream). One ream is equal to 20 quires 2. (often plural) informal a large quantity, esp of written matter: he wrote reams. [C14: from Old French raime, from Spanish rezma, from Arabic rizmah bale] ream 1. to enlarge (a hole) by use of a reamer 2. US to extract (juice) from (a citrus fruit) using a reamer [C19: perhaps from C14 remen to open up, from Old English rӯman to widen] ream1 (rim) n. 1. a standard quantity of paper, consisting of 20 quires or 500 sheets (formerly 480 sheets), or 516 sheets. 2. Usu., reams. a large quantity, as of writing.

[1350–1400; Middle English rem(e) < Middle French reime, rame < Sp rezma < Arabic rizmah bale] ream2 1. to enlarge to desired size (a previously bored hole) by means of a reamer. 2. to remove or press out with a reamer. 3. to extract the juice from: to ream an orange. 4. Slang. to cheat; defraud. [1805–15; orig. uncertain] - Used to be 480 sheets of paper and is now 500. See also related terms for sheet . Ream a bale or bundle of clothes or paper; specifically, today, 500 sheets; a large amount of paper, 1392. Examples: ream of ballads, 1630; of bloom, 1699; of modern plays, 1814; of nonsense; of rhyme, 1839; of writing paper, 1689.

ream I will have been reaming you will have been reaming he/she/it will have been reaming we will have been reaming you will have been reaming they will have been reaming Past Perfect Continuous they would have reamed ream A unit of volume, used to measure paper in bulk. One ream equals about 500 sheets. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: 1. ream - a large quantity of written matter; "he wrote reams and reams" large indefinite amount , large indefinite quantity - an indefinite quantity that is above the average in size or magnitude 2. ream - a quantity of paper; 480 or 500 sheets; one ream equals 20 quires definite quantity - a specific measure of amount quire - a quantity of paper; 24 or 25 sheets Verb 1. ream - squeeze the juice out (of a fruit) with a reamer; "ream oranges" press out , express , extract - obtain from a substance, as by mechanical action; "Italians express coffee rather than filter it" 2.

ream - remove by making a hole or by boring; "the dentist reamed out the debris in the course of the root canal treatment" remove , take away , withdraw , take - remove something concrete, as by lifting, pushing, or taking off, or remove something abstract; "remove a threat"; "remove a wrapper"; "Remove the dirty dishes from the table"; "take the gun from your pocket"; "This machine withdraws heat from the environment" ream - enlarge with a reamer; "ream a hole" 3.

Question: What term now describes 500 sheets of paper
Answer: A ream