BBC - History - Historic Figures: Titus (39 AD - 81 AD) Historic Figures z Portrait bust of Titus © Titus was the 10th emperor of Rome. His short reign was notable for the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD and the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD. Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born in Rome on 30 December 39 AD, the elder son of the future Emperor Vespasian. He was brought up in the court of Emperor Claudius as a companion to the emperor's son, Britannicus. Titus enjoyed a successful military career and in 67 AD went with his father to suppress the Jewish Revolt. In 69 AD, Vespasian returned to Rome to assert his claim for the imperial throne, leaving Titus to continue the campaign. In 70 AD, Jerusalem was sacked, the Jewish temple was destroyed and much of the population killed or dispersed. When Titus returned to Rome, Vespasian groomed him for the succession, sharing his powers with him to an unprecedented degree. Titus succeeded his father in 79 AD, and continued his policies.

He enjoyed excellent relations with the Senate and was popular with the people for the lavish games he put on. The Colosseum was opened in 80 AD. He responded generously with disaster relief after the eruption of Vesuvius, which occurred two months into his reign, and after a serious fire and a plague at Rome in 80 AD. Titus died on 13 September 81 AD, probably from natural causes, although Domitian, who succeeded him, was suspected of having poisoned him. Titus Titus, the elder son of emperor Vespasian, was born in AD 39. He was educated together with Claudius' son Britannicus, who became a close friend of his. From AD 61 to 63 he served in Germany and Britain as a military tribune. After this he returned to Rome and married Arrecina Tertulla, the daughter of a former commander of the praetorian guard. But only a year later Arrecina died and Titus married yet again, this time Marcia Furnilla. She was of distinguished family, which had connections to opponents of Nero.

After the failure of the Pisonian conspiracy, Titus saw it best not to be connected in any way with any potential plotters and hence divorced Marcia in AD 65. In the same year Titus was appointed quaestor, and then became commander one of his father's three legions in Judaea in AD 67 (XV Legion 'Apollinaris'). In late AD 68 Titus was sent by Vespasian as a messenger to confirm his father's recognition of Galba as emperor. But at reaching Corinth he learned that Galba was already dead and turned back. Titus played a leading role in the negotiations which led to his father being proclaimed emperor by the eastern provinces. It was in fact Titus who was credited with having reconciled Vespasian with Mucianus, the governor of Syria, who became his principal supporter. As a young man, Titus was dangerously like Nero in his charm, intellect, ruthlessness, extravagance and sexual desires. Gifted physically and intellectually, exceptionally strong, short with pot-belly, with an authoritative, yet friendly manner and a supposedly excellent memory he was an excellent rider and warrior.

He could also sing, play the harp and compose music. His reign was short, but he lived long enough to demonstrate that he had, obviously thanks to the guidance of his father, some talent for government, but not long enough for any judgement to be made as to how effective a ruler he would have been. In the summer of AD 69 Vespasian set out for Rome to claim the throne, Titus was left in charge of the military operation against the Jews in Judaea. In AD 70 Jerusalem fell to his troops. Titus' treatment of the vanquished Jews was infamously brutal. His most notorious act was to have the Great Temple of Jerusalem destroyed (it's only remainder today, the only piece of the temple to survive Titus' wrath, is the famous 'Wailing Wall', - the most holy place to followers of the Jewish faith). Titus' success won him much praise and respect in Rome and among the legions. The massive arch of Titus, celebrating his triumph over the Jews, still stands in Rome. His triumphalism after his victory over the Jews raised suspicions that he might become disloyal to his father. But Titus' loyalty to his father didn't wain.

He knew himself Vespasian's heir, and was sensible enough to wait until his time would come. And he could count on his father to pass on the throne to him, for Vespasian is reported to have once said, 'Either my son shall be my successor, or no one at all.' Already in AD 70, while still in the east, Titus was made joint consul with his father. Then in AD 71 he was granted tribunician powers and in AD 73 he shared the censorship with his father. So too did he become praetorian prefect. This was all part of Vespasian's grooming of his son as successor. Throughout this time Titus was his father's right hand man, conducting routine affairs of state, dictating letters, even delivering his father's speeches in the senate. Though so too did he do his father's dirty work in his position of praetorian prefect, removing political opponents by questionable means. It was a role which made him deeply unpopular with the people. A serious threat to Titus' succession was his affair with the Jewish princess Berenice, ten years his senior, beautiful and with powerful connections in Rome.

She was the daughter (or sister) of the Jewish king, Herod Agrippa II, and Titus called her to Rome in AD 75. As he had divorced his second wife Marcia Furnilla in AD 65 Titus was free to remarry. And for a while Berenice lived openly with Titus in the palace. But the pressure of public opinion, mixed with wild anti-Semitism and xenophopia, forced them apart. There was even talk of her being a 'new Cleopatra'. Rome was not prepared to tolerate an eastern woman close to power and so Berenice had to return home. When, in AD 79, a plot against Vespasian's life was revealed to him, Titus acted swiftly and ruthlessly. The two leading conspirators were Eprius Marcellus and Caecina Alienus. Caecina was invited to dine with Titus only to be stabbed to death on arrival. Marcellus was thereafter sentenced to death by the senate and killed himself. Later in AD 79 Vespasian died and on 24 June Titus succeeded to the throne. At first he was deeply unpopular.

The senate disliked him, for having no part in his appointment and for having been the ruthless figure for the less savoury matters of state in Vespasian's government. Meanwhile, the people disliked him for continuing his father's unpopular economic policies and taxes. His dalliance with Berenice had also not won him any favour. In fact many feared him to be a new Nero. It was therefore that Titus now embarked on creating a kinder image of himself with the people of Rome. The network of informers, on which emperors heavily relied, but which created an air of suspicion throughout society was drastically reduced in size. The charge of high treason was abolished. More surprisingly two new suspected conspirators were simply ignored. And when Berenice returned to Rome, she was sent back to Judaea by a reluctant emperor. Only one month after Titus' accession though a disaster should strike which should overshadow his reign. The eruption of the Mount Vesuvius volcano overwhelmed the towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and Oplontis.

There is a surviving eye-witness account by Pliny the Younger (61-c.113) who was staying at Misenum at thetime: 'To us at a distance, it was not clear which mountain was belching out the cloud, but it was later discovered to be Vesuvius. In form and shape the column of smoke was like a tremendous pine tree, for at the top of its great height it branched out into several skeins. I assume that a sudden burst of wind had carried it upwards and then dropped, leaving it motionless, and that its own weight then spread it outwards. It was sometimes white, sometimes heavy and mottled, as it would be if it had lifted up amounts of earth and ashes.' Within an hour or so Pompeii and Herculaneum, among several other towns and villages in the area, were engulfed by lava and red hot-ash. Many managed to escape with the help of the fleet stationed at Misenum.

Titus visited the stricken area, announced a state of emergency, set up a relief fund into which was put any property of victims who died with no heirs, offered practical assistance in rehousing survivors, and organized a senatorial commission to provide whatever help it could. Yet this disaster should tarnish Titus' memory until this day, many describing the outbreak of the volcano as divine punishment for the destruction of the Great Temple in Jerusalem. But Titus' troubles were not over with the Vesuvian disaster. Whilst he was still in Campania in AD 80, overseeing the operations to aid the victims of the volcano, a fire ravaged Rome for three days and nights. Once more the emperor provided generous relief to the victims. But yet another catastrophe should blight Titus' reign, as one of the worst epidemics of plague on record befell the people. The emperor tried his utmost to combat the disease, not only by medical support, but also with extensive sacrifices to the gods. Titus though is not only famed for disaster but so too for the opening of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known under the name 'Colosseum'.

Titus finished the building work which had been begun under his father and inaugurated it with a series of lavish games and spectacles. On the last day of the games though he is said to have broken down and wept in public. His health had taken a marked downturn by then and perhaps Titus knew himself suffering from an incurable disease. Titus also had no direct heir, which meant his brother Domitian would succeed him. And Titus is said to have suspected that this would lead to disaster. For all the accidents and disasters that befell his short reign - and considering how disliked he was at the outset, Titus became one of Rome's most popular emperors. His death came suddenly and unexpected, on 13 September AD 81 at his family home at Aquae Cutiliae. Some rumours claim the emperor's death was not at all natural, but that he was killed by his younger brother Domitian with poisoned fish. Roman Empire The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Emperors.

Titus & Domitian | PBS Bust of Titus The two sons of Vespasian Titus and Domitian (ruled 79 ï¿½ 81 AD, and 81 ï¿½ 96 AD respectively) could not have been more different as emperors. Although Titus had a reputation for ruthlessness, he would prove to be a fair ruler. His brother Domitian, however, returned Rome to tyranny and fear. Like father, like son Vespasianï¿½s eldest son, Titus, was already a successful politician and general before his father became emperor. He had seen action in Britain and commanded a legion in Judaea under his father. When Nero died, Titus had actively encouraged his father to claim the throne. When Vespasian left Judaea to march on Italy, he left Titus in charge of his campaign against the Jewish rebels. Second-in-command Here Titus proved his abilities. He successfully crushed the rebels and, in 70 AD, captured and destroyed the temple in Jerusalem. When he returned home to Rome, he was made commander of the Praetorian Guard.

He led the military arm of Vespasianï¿½s dictatorship and was effectively head of state. This role, along with his reputation for ruthlessness, did nothing for his popularity. His relationship with his mistress Berenice, a Jewish princess, didnï¿½t help. Romans remembered Marc Antony and Cleopatra and they were not prepared for another marriage to Eastern royalty. A pleasant surprise Given the bloodshed by which Vespasian had gained the throne and Titusï¿½ own reputation, Romans had good reason to fear this succession. But there was no need. Power was handed over peacefully and Titus was a surprisingly good ruler. Good-looking, cultivated and friendly, Titus was a calm and fair emperor. Much of his popularity was won through his generosity. This included financial aid after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD and reconstruction work in Rome after a fire the following year. He also completed work on the Colosseum and opened it with 100 days of games, wisely using this to calm the Roman mob during a time of economic hardship. Death and Domitian Against all expectations, Titus was a benevolent ruler.

However, his reign was short-lived ï¿½ just two years after he took the throne, he was dead. Rome now faced a very different dictator. Bust of Domitian Domitian, Vespasianï¿½s youngest son, was already known for wild excess. In 70 AD, his actions during military service in Germany had required a pardon from his father. It was even rumored that he had helped speed his brother Titus towards his death. ï¿½Master and Godï¿½ As emperor, Domitian was hated by the Roman aristocracy, largely because of his cruelty and showiness. He insisted on being addressed as ï¿½master and god.ï¿½ He held games every four years, as the Greeks did. He would attend these in Greek dress and a golden crown. His fellow judges had to wear crowns that featured images of the gods and Domitian himself. A revolt in Germany in 89 AD was put down with extreme brutality; in Rome, this was used as an excuse to terrorize senators and other leading figures. Proving himself every bit as bad as Nero and Caligula , Domitian launched treason trials, and executed or banished even his mildest critics.

Domitian had wisely given the army a large pay rise in 84 AD and this certainly helped secure his position. But it was not enough. In 96 AD, he was murdered by a group that included senior Praetorian Guards, palace officials and even the emperorï¿½s own wife. The army was furious, but Rome was happy enough. The latest in a long line of tyrants had also been deposed. Where to next: Titus | Roman emperor | Britannica.com Roman emperor Alternative Titles: Titus Flavius Vespasianus, Titus Vespasianus Augustus, Titus Vespasianus Augustus Titus Titus, in full Titus Vespasianus Augustus, original name Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born Dec. 30, 39 ce—died Sept. 13, 81 ce), Roman emperor (79–81), and the conqueror of Jerusalem in 70. Marble bust of Titus. © kmiragaya/Fotolia After service in Britain and Germany, Titus commanded a legion under his father, Vespasian , in Judaea (67).

Following the emperor Nero’s death in June 68, Titus was energetic in promoting his father’s candidacy for the imperial crown. Licinius Mucianus, legate of Syria, whom he reconciled with Vespasian, considered that one of Vespasian’s greatest assets was to have so promising a son and heir. Immediately on being proclaimed emperor in 69, Vespasian gave Titus charge of the Jewish war, and a large-scale campaign in 70 culminated in the capture and destruction of Jerusalem in September. (The Arch of Titus [81], still standing at the entrance to the Roman Forum , commemorated his victory.) “Romans Taking Spoils of Jerusalem,” detail of marble relief from the Arch of Titus, … Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York The victorious troops in Palestine urged Titus to take them with him to Italy; it was suspected that they acted on his prompting and that he was considering some sort of challenge to his father. But eventually he returned alone in summer 71, triumphed jointly with Vespasian, and was made commander of the Praetorian Guard .

He also received tribunician power and was his father’s colleague in the censorship of 73 and in several consulships. Although Vespasian had in various ways avoided making Titus his own equal, the son became the military arm of the new principate and is described by Suetonius as particeps atque etiam tutor imperii (“sharer and even protector of the empire”). As such he incurred unpopularity, worsened by his relations with Berenice (sister of the Syrian Herod Agrippa II), who lived with him for a time in the palace and hoped to become his wife. But the Romans had memories of Cleopatra, and marriage to an Eastern queen was repugnant to public opinion. Twice he reluctantly had to dismiss her, the second time just after Vespasian’s death. In 79 Titus suppressed a conspiracy , doubtless concerned with the succession, but, when Vespasian died on June 23, he succeeded promptly and peacefully. His relations with his brother Domitian were bad, but in other ways his short rule was unexpectedly popular in Rome .

He was outstandingly good-looking, cultivated , and affable; Suetonius called him “the darling of the human race.” His success was won largely by lavish expenditure, some of it purely personal largesse but some public bounty, like the assistance to Campania after Vesuvius erupted in 79 and the rebuilding of Rome after the fire in 80. He completed construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum , and opened it with ceremonies lasting more than 100 days. His sudden death at age 41 was supposedly hastened by Domitian, who became his successor as emperor. Britannica Stories Roman Emperors - DIR Domitian College of William and Mary Early Career Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October A.D. 51, the youngest son of Vespasian , Roman emperor (A.D. 69-79) and Domitilla I, a treasury clerk's daughter. [[1]] Despite a literary tradition that associated Domitian with Flavian poverty, the family's status remained high throughout his early years: Vespasian was appointed to the prestigious proconsulship of North Africa in A.D.

59, and seven years later was granted a special command in the East by the emperor Nero (A.D. 54-69) to settle a revolt in Judaea; Titus , Domitian's older brother by at least ten years and Vespasian's eventual successor as emperor, had married well in the 60's and was chosen as a legionary legate under Vespasian in the East. [[2]] Unlike Titus , Domitian was not educated at the emperor's court, yet he received sound training in Rome in the same way as any member of the senatorial elite of his day. The imperial biographer Suetonius records that Domitian gave public recitals of his works, conversed elegantly, and produced memorable comments; as emperor, he would write and publish a book on baldness. [[3]] Domitian's adolescence was also marked by isolation. His mother had long been dead, he was considerably younger than his brother, and his father was away for much of his teenage years, first in Africa and then in Judaea. [[4]] An obvious outcome of all of this was his preference for solitude, a trait that would contribute significantly to his difficulties with various constituents as emperor.

[[5]] Little is known about Domitian in the turbulent 18 months of the three emperors, but in the aftermath of the downfall of Vitellius in A.D. 69 he presented himself to the invading Flavian forces, was hailed as Caesar, and moved into the imperial residence. [[6]] Guided by Gaius Licinius Mucianus, Vespasian's chief advisor, Domitian represented the family in the senate and suggested that other issues be postponed until Vespasian's arrival from the East. Eager for military glory himself, Domitian soon led reinforcements to Germany, where the Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions had revolted. The uprising failed before he could arrive, however, and the literary accounts of his achievements are not to be trusted. [[7]] It was also during this period, perhaps in late A.D. 70, that he married Domitia Longina, daughter of the highly regarded general, Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, whom Nero had forced to commit suicide in A.D. 66. For all appearances, it was an excellent choice.

The name of Corbulo was synonymous with military achievement, and the general had left behind a substantial clientela. Even so, the marriage was troubled. An only child died young, and Domitia was probably exiled by her husband c. A.D 83. Later, she would be recalled to the palace, where she lived with Domitian until his death. [[8]] Domitian's role in the 70's was determined largely by Vespasian's choice of Titus as his successor. To him fell a series of ordinary consulships, the tribunician power, the censorship, and the praetorian prefecture. Domitian, on the other hand, was named six times to the less prestigious suffect consulship, retained the title of Caesar, and held various priesthoods. He was given responsibility, but no real power. Nothing changed when Titus acceded to the throne, as Domitian received neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind. The brothers were never to become close, and as Titus lay dying in September 81, Domitian hastened to the praetorian camp, where he was hailed as emperor.

On news of Titus' death, the senate chose first to honor the dead emperor before elevating his brother, an early indication perhaps of Domitian's future troubles with the aristocracy. At any rate, after waiting an extra day, Domitian received imperium, the title Augustus, and tribunician power along with the office of pontifex maximus and the title pater patriae, father of his country. [[9]] Administration As emperor, Domitian was to become one of Rome's foremost micromanagers, especially concerning the economy. Shortly after taking office, he raised the silver content of the denarius by about 12% (to the earlier level of Augustus), only to devaluate it in A.D. 85, when the imperial income must have proved insufficient to meet military and public expenses. [[10]] Confiscations and the rigorous collection of taxes soon became necessary. On another front, he sought to promote grain production by calling for empire-wide limitations on viticulture, but the edict met with immediate opposition and was never implemented. [[11]] On the other hand, there were notable successes. The great fire of A.D.

64, the civil wars of A.D 68-69, and another devastating fire in A.D. 80 had left Rome badly in need of repair. Domitian responded by erecting, restoring, or completing some 50 structures, including the restored Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol and a magnificent palace on the Palatine. The building program, ambitious and spectacular, was matched by hardly any other emperor. [[12]] He was also able to maintain the debased currency standard of A.D. 85, which was still higher than the Vespasianic one, until the end of his reign. The economy, therefore, offered a ready outlet for Domitian's autocratic tendencies. There were failures, but he also left the treasury with a surplus, perhaps the best proof of a financially sound administration. Domitian's reach extended well beyond the economy. Late in A.D. 85 he made himself censor perpetuus, censor for life, with a general supervision of conduct and morals. The move was without precedent and, although largely symbolic, it nevertheless revealed Domitian's obsessive interest in all aspects of Roman life.

An ardent supporter of traditional Roman religion, he also closely identified himself with Minerva and Jupiter, publicly linking the latter divinity to his regime through the Ludi Capitolini, the Capitoline Games, begun in A.D.86. Held every four years in the early summer, the Games consisted of chariot races, athletics and gymnastics, and music, oratory and poetry. Contestants came from many nations, and no expense was spared; the emperor himself awarded the prizes. [[13]] In the same manner, Domitian offered frequent and elaborate public shows, always with an emphasis on the innovative: gladiator contests held at night; female combatants and dwarves; food showered down upon the public from ropes stretched across the top of the Amphitheater. [[14]] Thus did the emperor seek to underscore not only Rome's importance but also his own and that of the Flavian regime. Beyond Rome, Domitian taxed provincials rigorously and was not afraid to impose his will on officials of every rank. Consistent with his concern for the details of administration, he also made essential changes in the organization of several provinces and established the office of curator to investigate financial mismanagement in the cities.

Other evidence points to a concern with civic improvements of all kinds, from road building in Asia Minor, Sardinia and near the Danube to building and defensive improvements in North Africa. [[15]] Less easy to gauge is Domitian's attitude toward Christians and Jews, since reliable evidence for their persecution is difficult to find. Christians may have been among those banished or executed from time to time during the 90's, but the testimony falls short of confirming any organized program of persecution under Domitian's reign. On the other hand, there is clear evidence that Jews were made to feel uneasy under Domitian, who scrupulously collected the Jewish tax and harassed Jewish tax dodgers during much of his rule. As with Christians, such policies did not amount to persecution, but it does help to explain the Jewish fears of expulsion present in the sources. [[16]] On balance, the tradition of Domitian as persecutor has been greatly overstated, yet given his autocratic tendencies and devotion to Roman pagan religion, it is easy to see how such stories could have evolved and multiplied. Military Affairs While the military abilities of Vespasian and Titus were genuine, those of Domitian were not.

Partly as an attempt to remedy this deficiency, Domitian frequently became involved in his own military exploits outside of Rome. He claimed a triumph in A.D. 83 for subduing the Chatti in Gaul, but the conquest was illusory. Final victory did not really come until A.D. 89. In Britain, similar propaganda masked the withdrawal of Roman forces from the northern borders to positions farther south, a clear sign of Domitian's rejection of expansionist warfare in the province. [[17]] The greatest threat, however, remained on the Danube. The emperor visited Moesia in A.D. 85 after Oppius Sabinus, the Moesian governor, had been killed by invading Dacians. In the First Dacian War, initial success against the aggressors by Domitian's praetorian prefect, Cornelius Fuscus, allowed the emperor to celebrate his second triumph at Rome in A.D. 86.

Fuscus was subsequently killed trying to avenge Sabinus' death, however, and Domitian soon returned to the Danube, where Roman forces, under the newly appointed governor of Upper Moesia, Tettius Julianus, defeated the Dacians at Tapae in the Second Dacian War, most likely in A.D. 88. Matters remained far from settled. In January, A.D. 89, the governor of Upper Germany, L. Antonius Saturninus, mutinied at Mainz. The revolt was promptly suppressed and the rebel leaders brutally punished. Later that same year, Domitian attacked the Suebian Marcomanni and Quadi in the First Pannonian War, while offering the Dacian king Decebalus a settlement to avoid conflicts on two fronts. Compelled to return to the Danube three years later, Domitian fought the combined forces of the Suebi and the Sarmatians in the Second Pannonian War. Few other details are available beyond the fact that a Roman legion was destroyed in a campaign that lasted about eight months. By January, A.D.

93, Domitian was back in Rome, not to accept a full triumph but the lesser ovatio, a sign perhaps of unfinished business along the Danube. In fact, during the final years of Domitian's reign, the buildup of forces on the middle Danube and the appointment and transfer of key senior officials suggest that a third Pannonian campaign directed against the Suebi and Sarmatians may have been underway. Even so, there is no testimony of actual conflicts and the evidence does not extend beyond A.D. 97. [[18]] The Emperor's Court and His Relationship with the Aristocracy Domitian's autocratic tendencies meant that the real seat of power during his reign resided with his court. The features typically associated with later courts - a small band of favored courtiers, a keen interest in the bizarre and the unusual (e.g., wrestlers, jesters, and dwarves), and a highly mannered, if somewhat artificial atmosphere, characterized Domitian's palace too, whether at Rome or at his Alban villa, some 20 kilometers outside of the capital.

[[19]] Courtiers included family members and freedmen, as well as friends (amici), a group of politicians, generals, and praetorian prefects who offered input on important matters. [[20]] Reliance upon amici was not new, yet the arrangement underscored Domitian's mistrust of the aristocracy, most notably the senate, whose role suffered as Domitian deliberately concentrated power in the hands of few senators while expanding the duties of the equestrian class. Senatorial grievances were not without basis: at least 11 senators of consular rank were executed and many others exiled, ample attestation of the emperor's contempt for the body and its membership. [[21]] The senate's enthusiastic support for the damning of Domitian's memory, therefore, came as no surprise. Nevertheless, the situation must be placed in its proper context. By comparison, the emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54) executed 35 senators and upwards of 300 equestrians, yet he was still deified by the senate! [[22]] Domitian's mistake was that he made no attempt to mask his feelings about the senate.

Inclined neither by nature nor by conviction to include the body in his emperorship, he treated the group no differently than any other. Revenge would come in the form of an aristocratically based literary tradition that would miss no opportunity to vilify thoroughly both emperor and his rule. Death and Assessment On 18 September, A.D. 96, Domitian was assassinated and was succeeded on the very same day by M. Cocceius Nerva , a senator and one of his amici. The sources are unanimous in stressing that this was a palace plot, yet it is difficult to determine the level of culpability among the various potential conspirators. [[23]] In many ways, Domitian is still a mystery - a lazy and licentious ruler by some accounts, an ambitious administrator and keeper of traditional Roman religion by others. [[24]] As many of his economic, provincial, and military policies reveal, he was efficient and practical in much that he undertook, yet he also did nothing to hide the harsher despotic realities of his rule. This fact, combined with his solitary personality and frequent absences from Rome, guaranteed a harsh portrayal of his rule. The ultimate truths of his reign remain difficult to know.

Bibliography The bibliography on Domitian is too vast for thorough treatment here. The works listed below are either main accounts of the emperor or pertain directly to issues raised in the entry above. For a comprehensive listing of sources, see Jones, The Emperor Domitian, 238-255. Anderson, J.C."Domitian's Building Program. Forum Julium and Markets of Trajan." ArchN 10 (1981):41-48. Atti congresso internazionale di studi Flaviani, 2 vols. Rieti, 1983. Breeze, D. J. The Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain. London, 1982. Carradice, I.A. "Coinage and Finances in the Reign of Domitian, AD 81-96", BAR International Series, 178, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1983. Coleman, K. M. "The Emperor Domitian and Literature." ANRW II.32.5: 3087-3115. Friedländer, L. Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire (trans.

of Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine, 7th ed. by L. A. Magnus), London, 1968. Garnsey, P. and Saller, R. The Early Principate: Augustus to Trajan,[Greece and Rome New Surveys in the Classics No. 15], Oxford, 1982. Girard, J-L. "Domitien et Minerve: une prédilection impériale." ANRW II.17.1: 233-245. Griffith, J. G. "Juvenal, Statius and the Flavian Establishment." Greece and Rome 16 (1969): 134-150. Heintz, Florent. "A Domitianic Fleet Diploma." ZPE 120 (1998): 250-252. Jones, B. W. The Emperor Domitian. London, 1992. Levi, M.A. "I Flavi." ANRW II.2: 177-207.

Levick, B. M. "Domitian and the Provinces." Latomus 41 (1982): 50-7. Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford, 1979. McGinn, Thomas A. J. "Feminae Probosae and the Litter" CJ 93 (1998): 241-250. McCrum, M. and Woodhead, A. G. Select Documents of the Principates of the Flavian Emperors, Including the Years of Revolution, AD 68-96. Cambridge, 1966. Millar, F. The Emperor in the Roman Word. Ithaca, 1992. Platner, M. and Ashby, T. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Oxford, 1929. Southern, Pat. Domitian: Tragic Tyrant. Indiana University Press, 1997. Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford, 1958. ________.

"Domitian, the Last Years." Chiron 13 (1983): 121-146. ________. The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford, 1986. Talbert, R. J. A. The Senate of Imperial Rome. Princeton, 1984. Vinson, M. "Domitia Longina, Julia Titi, and the Literary Tradition." Historia 38 (1989): 431-450. Wallace-Hadrill, A. Suetonius: The Scholar and His Caesars. London, 1983. Waters, K. H. "The Character of Domitian." Phoenix 18 (1964): 49-77. Notes [[1]] Ancient sources: Tac. Agr.; Cass. Dio 67; Plin. Pan.; Statius, Silv.; McCrum, M. and Woodhead, A.G. Select Documents of the Principates of the Flavian Emperors (Cambridge, 1966).

[[2]] Compare, however, Suetonius' claim at Dom.1: "He is said to have spent a poverty-stricken and rather degraded youth: without even any silver on the table." The passage is typical of the hostility directed toward Domitian in the literary sources. [[3]] Suet. Dom. 18, 20; in praise of his literary talents, see also: Plin. NH Praef 5; Statius, Achil. 1.15; Silius Italicus, Pun.3.621. But there were just as many hostile accounts of his literary prowess: Tac. Hist. 4.86; Suet. Dom. 2.2. Since none of this evidence survives, there is no way to judge the validity of these conflicting assessments. That the controversy even exists, however, helps to confirm that Domitian was well educated. [[4]] Domitian was likely left in the care of his uncle, Sabinus II. See Tac. Hist. 3.75. Whether he resided in Rome with his uncle during this period is less clear.

[[5]] Domitian's preference for solitude finds particularly cruel expression in Suetonius, who portrays him as spending hours alone every day catching flies and stabbing them with a needle-sharp pen while emperor. See Dom.3. Dio (66.9.5) also cites Domitian's predilection for his own company. [[6]] Tac. Hist. 4.86; 4.2. [[7]] Poetic embellishment of Domitian's military achievements: Statius, Theb. 1.21; Martial, 9.101.13; 9.10.15-16; Jos. BJ 7.85; Silius Italicus, Pun.3.608. [[8]] Long after Domitian's memory had been damned, Domitia still referred to herself as the emperor's wife, perhaps an indication that she maintained at least some degree of affection for her husband. The evidence is preserved on brick stamps datable to A.D. 123; CIL 15.548a-9d. [[9]] On honoring of Titus: Suet. Tit. 11.

[[10]] On the raising of the currency standard: Walker, D.R. , "The Metrology of the Roman Silver Coinage. Part I; From Augustus to Domitian," BAR Supplementary Series 5, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 120, 115; Carradice, I.A. "Coinage and Finances in the Reign of Domitian, AD 81-96," BAR International Series 178, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 9-56. [[11]] Suet. Dom. 7.2; 14.2. [[12]] For an excellent discussion of Domitian's building program, see Jones, B. W. The Emperor Domitian London, 1992, 79-98. [[13]] Capitoline Games: Censorinus, De Die Natali 18.5. In A.D. 93, Domitian also established the Ludi Saeculares (Secular Games), a celebration under the supervision of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, an aristocratic priestly college. See Suet. Dom. 4.3; Stat.

Silv. 1.4.17; 4.1.37; Martial, 4.1.7; 10.63.3. [[14]] Night time shows and unusual combatants: Dio 67.8.4; Amphitheater celebration: Stat. Silv. 1.6.75-78. [[15]] On improvements in the different provinces: Garzetti, A. From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire, 14-192 (London, 1974),278, 652; Leglay, M. "Les Flaviens et l'Afrique," MEFR 80 (1968):221-22, 230-232. [[16]] For a careful and balanced treatment of difficult evidence: Jones, The Emperor Domitian, 114-119. [[17]] That the Chatti were not subdued in A.D. 83 is revealed by their role in Saturninus' revolt (Suet. Dom.

6.2) and by their interference with the Cherusci (Dio 67.5.1). On the Roman withdrawal to the south in Britain, see Hobley, A.S. "The Numismatic Evidence for the Post-Agricolan Abandonment of the Roman Frontier in Northern Scotland," Britannia 20 (1989): 69-74. Numismatic evidence (ibid., 73) indicates that the arch at Richborough was erected at this same time. It is difficult to resist the conclusion that the monument served to mask the Roman retreat. [[18]] The presence of five Roman legions in Pannonia, for example, is unusual and points to genuine Roman concern with the region. See Dusanic, S. and Vasic, M. R. "An Upper Moesian Diploma of AD 96," Chiron 7 (1977): 291-304; Jones, The Emperor Domitian, 153-155. [[19]] Domitian did not hesitate to conduct a variety of imperial duties outside of the domus Flavia in Rome. For some of his activities at Alba: Plin. Ep.

4.11.6; Suet. Dom 4.4; Dio 67.1.2; Juv. 4.99. Tacitus (Agr. 45) and Juvenal (4.145) refer to it as the arx Albana, "the Alban fortress," implying the residence of a despot. [[20]] On the emperor's amici, Jones, The Emperor Domitian, 50-71. [[21]] On the execution of ex-consuls: Suet. Dom.10 and Jones, The Emperor Domitian, 182-188; exiles: ibid., 188-192. [[22]] Claudius and executions: Suet. Claud. 29.2; Apocol. 13. [[23]] For a collection of the ancient sources stressing a palace plot: Gephardt, R. F. C. "C. Suetonii Tranquilli Vita Domitiani: Suetonius' Life of Domitian with Notes and Parallel Passages," dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1922, 89.

For the most complete account: Suet. Dom. 14. [[24]] Domitian as lazy and lustful: Suet. Dom. 19; 22. Copyright (C) 1997, John Donahue. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact. Roman Emperors - DIR Vespasian Vespasian Introduction Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. A.D. 9, d. A.D. 79, emperor A.D. 69-79) restored peace and stability to an empire in disarray following the death of Nero in A.D. 68. In the process he established the Flavian dynasty as the legitimate successor to the Imperial throne. Although we lack many details about the events and chronology of his reign, Vespasian provided practical leadership and a return to stable government - accomplishments which, when combined with his other achievements, make his emperorship particularly notable within the history of the Principate. Early Life and Career Vespasian was born at Falacrina near Sabine Reate on 17 November, A.D. 9, the son of T.

Flavius Sabinus, a successful tax collector and banker, and Vespasia Polla. Both parents were of equestrian status. Few details of his first fifteen years survive, yet it appears that his father and mother were often away from home on business for long periods. As a result, Vespasian's early education became the responsibility of his paternal grandmother, Tertulla. [[1]] In about A.D. 25 Vespasian assumed the toga virilis and later accepted the wearing of the latus clavus, and with it the senatorial path that his older brother, T. Flavius Sabinus, had already chosen. [[2]] Although many of the particulars are lacking, the posts typically occupied by one intent upon a senatorial career soon followed: a military tribunate in Thrace, perhaps for three or four years; a quaestorship in Crete-Cyrene; and the offices of aedile and praetor, successively, under the emperor Gaius . [[3]] It was during this period that Vespasian married Flavia Domitilla.

Daughter of a treasury clerk and former mistress of an African knight, Flavia lacked the social standing and family connections that the politically ambitious usually sought through marriage. In any case, the couple produced three children, a daughter, also named Flavia Domitilla, and two sons, the future emperors Titus and Domitian . Flavia did not live to witness her husband's emperorship and after her death Vespasian returned to his former mistress Caenis, who had been secretary to Antonia (daughter of Marc Antony and mother of Claudius ). Caenis apparently exerted considerable influence over Vespasian, prompting Suetonius to assert that she remained his wife in all but name, even after he became emperor. [[4]] Following the assassination of Gaius on 24 January, A.D. 41, Vespasian advanced rapidly, thanks in large part to the new princeps Claudius , whose favor the Flavians had wisely secured with that of Antonia, the mother of Germanicus, and of Claudius ' freedmen, especially Narcissus.

[[5]] The emperor soon dispatched Vespasian to Argentoratum (Strasbourg) as legatus legionis II Augustae, apparently to prepare the legion for the invasion of Britain. Vespasian first appeared at the battle of Medway in A.D. 43, and soon thereafter led his legion across the south of England, where he engaged the enemy thirty times in battle, subdued two tribes, and conquered the Isle of Wight. According to Suetonius, these operations were conducted partly under Claudius and partly under Vespasian's commander, Aulus Plautius. Vespasian's contributions, however, did not go unnoticed; he received the ornamenta triumphalia and two priesthoods from Claudius for his exploits in Britain. [[6]] By the end of A.D. 51 Vespasian had reached the consulship, the pinnacle of a political career at Rome. For reasons that remain obscure he withdrew from political life at this point, only to return when chosen proconsul of Africa about A.D. 63-64. His subsequent administration of the province was marked by severity and parsimony, earning him a reputation for being scrupulous but unpopular.

[[7]] Upon completion of his term, Vespasian returned to Rome where, as a senior senator, he became a man of influence in the emperor Nero's court. [[8]] Important enough to be included on Nero's tour of Greece in A.D. 66-67, Vespasian soon found himself in the vicinity of increasing political turbulence in the East. The situation would prove pivotal in advancing his career. Judaea and the Accession to Power In response to rioting in Caesarea and Jerusalem that had led to the slaughter in the latter city of Jewish leaders and Roman soldiers, Nero granted to Vespasian in A.D. 66 a special command in the East with the objective of settling the revolt in Judaea. By spring A.D. 67, with 60,000 legionaries, auxiliaries, and allies under his control, Vespasian set out to subdue Galilee and then to cut off Jerusalem. Success was quick and decisive. By October all of Galilee had been pacified and plans for the strategic encirclement of Jerusalem were soon formed.

[[9]] Meanwhile, at the other end of the empire, the revolts of Gaius Iulius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, and Servius Sulpicius Galba , governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, had brought Nero's reign to the brink of collapse. The emperor committed suicide in June, A.D. 68, thereby ensuring chaos for the next eighteen months, as first Galba and then Marcus Salvius Otho and Aulus Vitellius acceded to power. Each lacked broad-based military and senatorial support; each would be violently deposed in turn. [[10]] Still occupied with plans against Jerusalem, Vespasian swore allegiance to each emperor. Shortly after Vitellius assumed power in spring, A.D. 69, however, Vespasian met on the border of Judaea and Syria with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria, and after a series of private and public consultations, the two decided to revolt.

[[11]] On July 1, at the urging of Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, the legions of Alexandria declared for Vespasian, as did the legions of Judaea two days later. By August all of Syria and the Danube legions had done likewise. Vespasian next dispatched Mucianus to Italy with 20,000 troops, while he set out from Syria to Alexandria in order to control grain shipments for the purpose of starving Italy into submission. [[12]] The siege of Jerusalem he placed in the hands of his son Titus . Meanwhile, the Danubian legions, unwilling to wait for Mucianus' arrival, began their march against Vitellius ' forces. The latter army, suffering from a lack of discipline and training, and unaccustomed to the heat of Rome, was defeated at Cremona in late October. [[13]] By mid-December the Flavian forces had reached Carsulae, 95 kilometers north of Rome on the Flaminian Road, where the Vitellians, with no further hope of reinforcements, soon surrendered.

At Rome, unable to persuade his followers to accept terms for his abdication, Vitellius was in peril. On the morning of December 20 the Flavian army entered Rome. By that afternoon, the emperor was dead. [[14]] Tacitus records that by December 22, A.D. 69, Vespasian had been given all the honors and privileges usually granted to emperors. Even so, the issue remains unclear, owing largely to a surviving fragment of an enabling law, the lex de imperio Vespasiani, which conferred powers, privileges, and exemptions, most with Julio-Claudian precedents, on the new emperor. Whether the fragment represents a typical granting of imperial powers that has uniquely survived in Vespasian's case, or is an attempt to limit or expand such powers, remains difficult to know. In any case, the lex sanctioned all that Vespasian had done up to its passing and gave him authority to act as he saw fit on behalf of the Roman people. [[15]] What does seem clear is that Vespasian felt the need to legitimize his new reign with vigor.

He zealously publicized the number of divine omens that predicted his accession and at every opportunity he accumulated multiple consulships and imperial salutations. He also actively promoted the principle of dynastic succession, insisting that the emperorship would fall to his son. The initiative was fulfilled when Titus succeeded his father in A.D. 79. [[16]] Emperorship Upon his arrival in Rome in late summer, A.D. 70, Vespasian faced the daunting task of restoring a city and a government ravaged by the recent civil wars. Although many particulars are missing, a portrait nevertheles emerges of a ruler conscientiously committed to the methodical renewal of both city and empire. Concerning Rome itself, the emperor encouraged rebuilding on vacated lots, restored the Capitol (burned in A.D. 69), and also began work on several new buildings: a temple to the deified Claudius on the Caelian Hill, a project designed to identify Vespasian as a legitimate heir to the Julio-Claudians, while distancing himself from Nero ; a temple of Peace near the Forum; and the magnificent Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre), located on the site of the lake of Nero 's Golden House.

[[17]] Claiming that he needed forty thousand million sesterces for these projects and for others aimed at putting the state on more secure footing, Vespasian is said to have revoked various imperial immunities, manipulated the supply of certain commodities to inflate their price, and increased provincial taxation. [[18]] The measures are consistent with his characterization in the sources as both obdurate and avaricious. There were occasional political problems as well: Helvidius Priscus, an advocate of senatorial independence and a critic of the Flavian regime from the start, was exiled after A.D. 75 and later executed; Marcellus Eprius and A. Alienus Caecina were condemned by Titus for conspiracy, the former committing suicide, the latter executed in A.D. 79. As Suetonius claims, however, in financial matters Vespasian always put revenues to the best possible advantage, regardless of their source. Tacitus, too, offers a generally favorable assessment, citing Vespasian as the first man to improve after becoming emperor.

[[19]] Thus do we find the princeps offering subventions to senators not possessing the property qualifications of their rank, restoring many cities throughout the empire, and granting state salaries for the first time to teachers of Latin and Greek rhetoric. To enhance Roman economic and social life even further, he encouraged theatrical productions by building a new stage for the Theatre of Marcellus, and he also put on lavish state dinners to assist the food trades. [[20]] In other matters the emperor displayed similar concern. He restored the depleted ranks of the senatorial and equestrian orders with eligible Italian and provincial candidates and reduced the backlog of pending court cases at Rome. Vespasian also re-established discipline in the army, while punishing or dismissing large numbers of Vitellius ' men. [[21]] Beyond Rome, the emperor increased the number of legions in the East and continued the process of imperial expansion by the annexation of northern England, the pacification of Wales, and by advances into Scotland and southwest Germany between the Rhine and the Danube. Vespasian also conferred rights on communities abroad, especially in Spain, where the granting of Latin rights to all native communities contributed to the rapid Romanization of that province during the Imperial period.

[[22]] Death and Assessment In contrast to his immediate imperial predecessors, Vespasian died peacefully - at Aquae Cutiliae near his birthplace in Sabine country on 23 June, A.D. 79, after contracting a brief illness. The occasion is said to have inspired his deathbed quip: "Oh my, I must be turning into a god!" [[23]] In fact, public deification did follow his death, as did his internment in the Mausoleum of Augustus alongside the Julio-Claudians. A man of strict military discipline and simple tastes, Vespasian proved to be a conscientious and generally tolerant administrator. More importantly, following the upheavals of A.D. 68-69, his reign was welcome for its general tranquility and restoration of peace. In Vespasian Rome found a leader who made no great breaks with tradition, yet his ability ro rebuild the empire and especially his willingness to expand the composition of the governing class helped to establish a positive working model for the "good emperors" of the second century.

Bibliography Since the scholarship on Vespasian is more comprehensive than can be treated here, the works listed below are main accounts or bear directly upon issues discussed in the entry above. A comprehensive modern anglophone study of this emperor is yet to be produced. Atti congresso internazionale di studi Flaviani, 2 vols. Rieti, 1983. Atti congresso internazionale di studi Vespasianei, 2 vols. Rieti, 1981. Bosworth, A.B. "Vespasian and the Provinces: Some Problems of the Early 70s A.D." Athenaeum 51 (1973): 49-78. Brunt, P. A. "Lex de imperio Vespasiani." JRS (67) 1977: 95-116. D'Espèrey, S. Franchet. "Vespasien, Titus et la littérature." ANRW II.32.5: 3048-3086. Dudley, D. and Webster, G.

The Roman Conquest of Britain. London, 1965. Gonzalez, J. "The Lex Irnitana: A New Copy of the Flavian Municipal Law." JRS 76 (1986): 147-243. Grant, M. The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Rome, 31 B.C. - A.D. 476. New York, 1985. Homo, L. Vespasien, l'Empereur du bons sens (69-79 ap. J.-C.). Paris, 1949. Levi, M.A. "I Flavi." ANRW II.2: 177-207. McCrum, M. and Woodhead, A. G. Select Documents of the Principates of the Flavian Emperors Including the Year of the Revolution. Cambridge, 1966. Nicols, John. Vespasian and the Partes Flavianae. Wiesbaden, 1978. Scarre, C. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors.

The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London, 1995. Suddington, D. B. The Development of the Roman Auxiliary Forces from Caesar to Vespasian, 49 B.C. - A.D. 79. Harare: U. of Zimbabwe, 1982. Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford, 1958. Wardel, David. "Vespasian, Helvidius Priscus and the Restoration of the Capitol." Historia 45 (1996): 208-222. Wellesley, K. The Long Year: A.D. 69. Bristol, 1989, 2nd ed. Notes [[1]] Suet. Vesp. 2.1. Suetonius remains the major source but see also Tac. Hist. 2-5; Cass. Dio 65; Joseph. BJ 3-4. [[2]] Suetonius (Vesp.

2.1) claims that Vespasian did not accept the latus clavus, the broad striped toga worn by one aspiring to a senatorial career, immediately. The delay, however, was perhaps no more than three years. See J. Nicols, Vespasian and the Partes Flavianae (Wiesbaden, 1978), 2. [[3]] Military tribunate and quaestorship: Suet. Vesp. 2.3; aedileship: ibid., 5.3, in which Gaius, furious that Vespasian had not kept the streets clean, as was his duty, ordered some soldiers to load him with filth;,they complied by stuffing his toga with as much as it could hold. See also Dio 59.12.2-3; praetorship: Suet. Vesp. 2.3, in which Vespasian is depicted as one of Gaius' leading adulators, an account consistent with Tacitus' portrayal (Hist 1.50.4; 2.5.1) of his early career.

For a more complete discussion of these posts and attendant problems of dating, see Nicols, Vespasian, 2-7. [[4]] Marriage and Caenis: Suet. Vesp. 3; Cass. Dio 65.14. [[5]] Nicols, Vespasian, 12-39. [[6]] Suet. Vesp. 4.1 For additional details on Vespasian's exploits in Britain, see D. Dudley and G. Webster, The Roman Conquest of Britain (London, 1965), 55 ff., 98. [[7]] Concerning Vespasian's years between his consulship and proconsulship, see Suet. Vesp. 4.2 and Nicols, Vespasian, 9. On his unpopularity in Africa, see Suet. Vesp. 4.3, an account of a riot at Hadrumentum, where he was once pelted with turnips. In recording that Africa supported Vitellius in A.D. 69, Tacitus too suggests popular dissatisfaction with Vespasian's proconsulship. See Hist.

2.97.2. [[8]] This despite the fact that the sources record two rebukes of Vespasian, one for extorting money from a young man seeking career advancement (Suet. Vesp. 4.3), the other for either leaving the room or dozing off during one of the emperor's recitals (Suet. Vesp. 4.4 and 14, which places the transgression in Greece; Tac. (Ann. 16.5.3), who makes Rome and the Quinquennial Games of A.D. 65 the setting; A. Braithwaite, C. Suetoni Tranquilli Divus Vespasianus, Oxford, 1927, 30, who argues for both Greece and Rome). [[9]] Subjugation of Galilee: Joseph. BJ 3.65-4.106; siege of Jerusalem: ibid., 4.366-376, 414. [[10]] Revolt of Vindex: Suet. Nero 40; Tac. Ann. 14.4; revolt of Galba: Suet.

Galba 10; Plut. Galba, 4-5; suicide of Nero: Suet. Nero 49; Cass. Dio 63.29.2. For the most complete account of the period between Nero's death and the accession of Vespasian, see K. Wellesley, The Long Year: A.D. 69, 2nd. ed. (Bristol, 1989). [[11]] Tac. Hist. 2.76. [[12]] Troops in support of Vespasian: Suet. Vit. 15; Mucianus and his forces: Tac. Hist. 2.83; Vespasian and grain shipments: Joseph. BJ 4.605 ff.; see also Tac. Hist. 3.48, on Vespasian's possible plan to shut off grain shipments to Italy from Carthage as well. [[13]] On Vitellius' army and its lack of discipline, see Tac. Hist.

2.93-94; illness of army: ibid., 2.99.1; Cremona: ibid., 3.32-33. [[14]] On Vitellius' last days, see Tac. Hist. 3.68-81. On the complicated issue of Vitellius' death date, see L. Holzapfel, "Römische Kaiserdaten," Klio 13 (1913): 301. [[15]] Honors, etc. Tac. Hist 4.3. For more on the lex de imperio Vespasiani, see P. A. Brunt, "Lex de imperio Vespasiani," JRS (67) 1977: 95-116. [[16]] Omens: Suet. Vesp. 5; consulships and honors: ibid., 8; succession of sons: ibid., 25. [[17]] On Vespasian's restoration of Rome, see Suet. Vesp. 9; Cass. Dio 65.10; D.

Wardel, "Vespasian, Helvidius Priscus and the Restoration of the Capitol," Historia 45 (1996): 208-222. [[18]] Suet. Vesp. 16. Titus Titus Location of death: Rome, Italy Cause of death: Fever Remains: Buried, Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome, Italy Gender: Male Nationality: Ancient Rome Executive summary: Roman Emperor, 79-81 AD Roman emperor from AD 79-81, son of the emperor Vespasian , was born on the 30th of December AD 40 (or 41). He was educated in the imperial court, and thoroughly accomplished: he could speak Greek fluently and compose verses; he was a proficient in music; he could write shorthand, and imitate handwriting so skilfully that he used to say that he might have been a most successful forger. He was handsome and commanding, and had a vigorous frame, well trained in all the exercises of a soldier. As a young man he served with credit in Germany and in Britain.

Soon he had the command of a legion, and joined his father in Syria, where he took an active part in the Jewish War. In 68 he was sent by his father to congratulate the newly proclaimed emperor, Galba ; but, hearing of Galba's death and of the general confusion in the Roman world, he returned to Palestine, having in the meantime consulted the oracle of the Paphian Venus and received a favorable answer. In the following year Vespasian, having been proclaimed emperor, returned to Italy, and left Titus to carry on the siege of Jerusalem, which was captured on the 8th of September 70. On his return to Rome, Titus and his father celebrated a magnificent triumph, which has been immortalized by the so-called Arch of Titus. He was now formally associated with his father in the government, with the title of Caesar, and during the nine remaining years of Vespasian's reign he was in fact emperor. He was anything but popular; he had the character of being profligate and cruel.

His connection with Berenice, the sister of the Agrippa of the Acts of the Apostles, also created a scandal; both brother and sister followed Titus to Rome, and were allowed to reside in the imperial palace. Public opinion was outraged, and Titus, though he had promised Berenice marriage, felt obliged to send her back to the East. Vespasian died in 79, leaving his son a safe throne and a well-filled treasury. The forebodings of the people were agreeably disappointed, for Titus put an end to prosecutions for high treason, and the delatores (informers) were scourged and expelled from the city. He assumed the office of pontifex maximus, in order that he might keep his hands free from blood. He forgave his brother Domitian , who more than once plotted against his life, and having let a day pass without bestowing a present, he exclaimed, "I have lost a day." Titus, like his father, spent money in adding to the magnificence of Rome.

The Flavian amphitheater (later called the Colosseum) was completed and dedicated in his reign, with combats of gladiators, shows of wild beasts, and representations of some of the great Greek naval battles. He gave the city splendid baths, which surpassed those of Agrippa and of Nero , and supplied the mob with every kind of luxury. During his reign, in 79, occurred the eruption of Vesuvius which destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii. The emperor visited the scenes and contributed liberally to the relief of the distressed inhabitants. During his absence a fire raged for three days at Rome, in which the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the library of Augustus , and other public buildings were burned; then followed a pestilence, and Titus again assisted freely with his purse. Italy and the Roman world were peaceful during his reign. The only fighting was in Britain under Agricola, who in the year 80 carried the Roman arms as far as the Tay. Titus died on the 13th of September 81. The verdict of history is favorable to him, but the general feeling throughout the Roman world was that he had been fortunate in the briefness of his reign.

Father: Vespasian (Roman Emperor) Brother: Domitian (Roman Emperor following Titus) Wife: Arrecina Tertulla (d.) Wife: Marcia Furnilla (one daughter, div.) Daughter: Julia Flavia (mistress of Domitian ) Mistress: Berenice of Cilicia

Question: Which Roman Emperor, son of Vespasian, died of the plague in 81 AD?
Answer: TITUS