Basic Principles of Roman Religion | ADF » Basic Principles of Roman Religion Basic Principles of Roman Religion When we were children, many of us learned about Greek and Roman mythology as if they were the same. Perhaps our parents alternated reading to us at bedtime watered down versions of classical mythology and Grimm's Fairy Tales. Even college Classics departments usually lump together the Romans and Greeks in classical mythology classes for students trying to meet their liberal arts and humanities requirements. At one time or another, most people have seen (or even had to memorize) a list that equates the twelve Greek Olympian Gods with their Roman counterparts (i.e., Zeus = Jupiter, Hera = Iuno, Poseidon = Neptune, etc.). While Zeus and Jupiter share certain characteristics, they are not the same deity. Those who refer to a conglomerate of Greco-Roman mythology or traditions may be making reference to a period in history when the Roman gods had been so diluted by foreign influences that the differences between the Romans and their neighbors had blurred. While it is difficult to distill early Roman religion from its many influences, one can be sure that the deities of the early Romans were very different before they became so heavily influenced by the other cultures.

Initially, Romans were simple farmers and shepherds, and their gods and religious practices revolved around their homes, farms, and immediate community. Their deities were for the most part not anthropomorphic and not depicted in statues or artwork. For example, the temples of Vesta[ 1 ], one of the last Roman deities to be depicted in human form, were small, round buildings where an eternal flame burnt. Vesta was the living flame itself; thus, there was no need for an image. While it is difficult to ascertain exactly what early Romans believed about gods and how they worshipped, there is much we do know. In general, Roman religious practices were not associated with dogma or morals, but were based on a contractual agreement with the gods. The fundamental religious ethic for the Romans was pietas[ 2 ], which implies a sense of duty, honor, and respect for the deities. Moreover, the moral fiber of the officiant was of no consequence; all that mattered was whether or not he performed the ritual with the proper pietas. Furthermore, Romans generally believed that gods and spirits were omnipresent and responsible for all natural phenomena; therefore, they must be propitiated in order for the home and community to thrive.

Do ut des[ 3 ] was the most common form of prayer, which means, "I give so that you may give." The whole idea was to covenant with the gods and contribute to their power by adding to it with sacrifices. The gods are more powerful than humans are, and their power can be increased when humans offer them gifts. Many Roman prayers that are accompanied by offerings contain some form of the phrase macte esto[ 4 ] ("Be thou increased"). The verb macto, mactare is probably linguistically derived from the same root as the word magnus ("great"). Thus, macte esto is an imperative literally suggesting that the deity being addressed be increased or enlarged by that which has been offered to it. In a sense, Romans may have believed that the gods needed humans to sustain and increase their power; likewise, humans needed the gods for their own sustenance and prosperity. When one considers the words and phrases Romans used to describe their practices, it becomes clear just how important religious ritual was to the welfare of Rome. The verb, religo, religare means literally "to bind," and so all the sacred precautions which bind the gods together with mankind are known as the religiones of the Romans.

Ius Divinum[ 5 ] ("Natural or Heavenly Law") was a set of procedures developed over generations, handed down, and kept secret lest enemies of the people might learn how to use it against the community and steal their gods away. People had faith that if the traditional rules of ritual were properly followed, the result would be Pax Deorum[ 6 ] ("Peace of the Gods") which is a sort of harmony between the worlds of the gods and mankind. Indeed, Q. Marcus Philippus was made to say, "The gods look kindly on the scrupulous observance of religious rites which have brought our country to its peak" (Ogilvie 23). Undoubtedly, Romans believed their prosperity was dependent upon the gods. To better understand the deities associated with the Roman home and farm, it is helpful to consider the layout of the Roman home. At the far end of the house, furthest from the door would be the hearth fire, home of Vesta, the living flame and central to Roman home religion.

The name Vesta is derived from the Indo-European *wes, which means, "to dwell," or more particularly, "she of the household." Vesta is the living embodiment of the flame of the hearth. The women of the household were responsible for proper maintenance and observance of hearth traditions, as opposed to the paterfamilias, who was responsible for religious duties outside the home. Vesta, along with the other household deities, received a portion of the family's main meal each day. After the main part of the meal, a young boy from the family would toss the contents of the plate into the fire and say, Di propitii[ 7 ] ("the gods are favorable"). Then the "second tables" (something like a dessert) could be served (Rose 29). As last to be seen upon entering (opposite the main door or in kitchen), Vesta was always the last to be invoked in a list of deities and last to receive offering. Generally, in Roman homes there was an entry room called the Atrium where families would keep their Lararium, a household shrine which would be the first thing one would see upon entering the home and the last to be seen upon leaving.

It was often a sort of cupboard containing depictions of the three groups of household deities that were worshipped within the house: the Penates, Lar Familiaris, and the Gens Patris Familiaris. Penates[ 8 ] are the deities of the penus[ 9 ] ("pantry; larder; or storage cupboard"). They protected the household's food supply and were propitiated so that the family would not go hungry or be unable to offer hospitality. Most families would keep a salt cellar and first fruits of the season on the family dining table for the Penates. The paterfamilias led a morning prayer each day, in which he recognized all the household deities. More formal rituals for the Penates were held on the Kalends (the first day of the month), the Nones (the ninth day before the Ides), and the Ides (the 13th or 15th day of the month), when the paterfamilias addressed a formal prayer to all the deities of the household and an offering made to the Penates.

Horace suggests that corn, wine, or the occasional suckling pig would have been appropriate offerings for such occasions (Rose 28). The Lar Familiaris[ 10 ] is a sort of patron deity of the family, although the Lares[ 11 ] were originally deities of the cultivated land. As powers of the earth, they helped the land (and therefore the household) to be more fertile and prosper. Apparently, one or more of the Lares took up residence indoors and became the Lar Familiaris, even though Lares were still considered the gods of the fields and farms. The oldest form of the name is las, lases, suggesting lasciuus, or "playful" (Rose 40). They probably were jolly, little godlings, as they are usually depicted as young men holding drinking horns and dancing with their tunics kilted up, and they may also be associated with hospitality. Some authors have referred to the Lares as the spirits of dead relatives, although this is not likely since ancestor worship of this type took place at the grave, rather than in the home.

In Plautus's Aulularia, the Lars tells of a young lady's prayer for protection and simple offerings of incense, wine, and garlands (Rose 28). The Gens Familiaris[ 12 ] is the guardian spirit of the family. Literally, the Genius[ 13 ] is the "Begetter"—the deity who promotes the begetting of children and sustains the family line. In some lararia, the Gens Familiaris is depicted wearing a toga capite velato (covering his head, as if in ritual), sometimes holding a cornucopia, sacrificing, or pouring a libation to the Lares. The Gens Familiaris is worshiped on the birthday of the paterfamilias and on his wedding day. Individuals each had his or her own guardian spirit - a Genius for men or a Iuno[ 14 ] for women. The remaining god of the interior household is Ianus[ 15 ], the god of doors, gates, and beginnings.

The door was very important to Romans, as is demonstrated by the fact that doors had several different gods associated with different parts and functions of the door: Limentinum and Lima are the god and goddess of the threshold (limen); Cardea (or Carna) is the goddess of door hinges; Forculus is the god of the door itself; and Portunus is the protector of doors. There are also many aspects of Ianus: Ianus Pater, the god of creation; Ianus Patulcius, the god who opens doors; Ianus Clusivus, the god who closes doors; and Ianus Bifrons, or "Ianus with two faces" who was symbolic that gateways go both ways. In fact, Ianus is so important that he always is the first to be named in a list of the gods or to receive an offering. The first month in the Julian calendar, January is named for him. His temple in Roman forum was a small shrine with an east-west arched passageway with doors at both ends; it was closed only in times of peace. Outside the home, aside from the aforementioned land spirits, the Lares, was Terminus[ 16 ], god of boundaries.

Each boundary had its own god, collectively known as the Terminii; who were honored at the festival of Terminalia on February 23. At that time, the two neighbors whose land bordered at a particular boundary stone would meet on opposite sides for a small ritual and sacrifice. Terminus was also recognized at the festival, Ambularia, where landowners would "beat the bounds" in a procession to purify and protect the land in a solemn procession around the borders of their land. Finally, Sylvanus[ 17 ] is associated with all the other uncultivated land beyond the boundaries of the owned and settled land. Sylvanus is the god of the woods, hunting, and wild things. He is considered something of a god of chaos, in the sense that his realm is wild and unordered. He was frequently given placatory offerings when land was being cleared. In fact, throughout the bounds of what was once the Roman Empire, thousands of shrines have been found to Sylvanus. Gradually, as farms grew closer together and villages and cities were formed, private home and rural practices grew into the State religion.

The paterfamilias had always been the head of the household whose role was maintaining the proper relationship with the deities and seeing to the welfare of the entire household. He led the morning ritual each day and oversaw that a portion of the main meal of the day was offered to the household deities. He was also responsible for the timely and proper performance of various other seasonal rituals and practices around the home and farm. The Compitalia (a moveable feast in late December/early January) was a ritual observed among immediate neighbors which honored the Lares, deities of the land, esp. cultivated land. The Compitum is the point where four farms meet. A shrine was erected there that overlooked all four directions. Once a year, farmers would hang a plough and a doll for each member of the household and make a sacrifice. The day would be a holiday for everyone, including the slaves and work animals. The Paganalia (January 24-26) was a festival observed among residents of a village or rural community, and later, among blocks or parishes in Rome.

It was a festival of spring sowing and worshipper sacrificed to Tellus (Mother Earth) on the first day and Ceres (goddess of growth) on second day. The king took on the role of paterfamilias of the city. Priesthoods were developed to maintain the complex relationships between the deities and the city; people need not be involved or even take an interest in the rituals; they were just glad to know that the priests were taking care of such matters on their behalf. Priesthoods were not full-time jobs, so they weren't "experts" or liturgists as we would expect them to be like nowadays; although there were those who could be hired to assist the officiant with music, prompting, and sacrificing. Aristocracy filled the positions of priests since it was considered their duty to the state; became more and more of a social position, rather than religious. Bibliography Copyright by Mark de la Hey, 1994, 1995. Abeona Roman protective goddess of children. Associated with the goddess Adeona. Abundantia Roman goddess of abundance, prosperity and good fortune. She was commonly portrayed with a horn of plenty, distributing grain and money.

After the end of the Roman occupation, she continued in French folklore as Lady Habonde (Abundia). Acca Larentia (Acca Larentina, Acca Laurentia) Roman goddess whose gift of land to the early Romans in the days of Romulus and Remus (according to one account) was celebrated in the festival of Larentalia (or Larentinalia) on December 23. She is variously given as the wife of Faustulus or of Carutius, and as the mother of the LAres, the Fratres Arvales, Hercules, or as the nurse and adopted mother of Romulus. Adeona Roman goddess of passage. Associated with the goddess Abeona. Aeneas The Roman emperor claimed descent from this deified Greek/Roman hero of the Trojan War and an epic voyage to Rome. Aeolus Roman version of the Greek god of the winds, Aeolos. Aequitas Roman god of fair dealing. Aera Cura Roman goddess of the infernal regions. Aesculapius Roman form of the Greek Asklepios, god of healing and medicinal arts, his cult was introduced to Rome during the plague of 293 BC.

In Rome he took the form of a snake, and the caduceus (a snake entwined around a staff) became his attribute. Aeternitas Roman personification of eternity. Symbolized by the phoenix rising from its own ashes and by the Uroboros (a snake biting its own tail). Aius Locutius Roman nonce-god reported to have foretold the invasion of the Gauls in 391 BC. Alemona Roman goddess of passage. Amor Roman god of love, equivalent to the Greek Eros. He was the son of Venus and either Mars or Mercury. Angerona Roman goddess of secrecy. Her festival was 21 December, the winter solstice. Anna Perenna Roman goddess of the circle of the year. She was worshipped in a grove to the north of Rome. Her festival was celebrated on the full moon of the first month of the Roman year (our March 15: the Ides of March). Antevorta Roman goddess of the future. Appiades Five Roman gods occupying a temple by the Appian aqueduct: Concordia, Minerva, Pax, Venus and Vesta.

Aquilo Roman weather god, associated with the north wind (the Greek Boreas). Aurora Roman goddess of the dawn, equivalent to the Greek goddess Eos. Auster The Roman name for the southwest wind, equivalent to the Greek Notus. Bacchus Roman god of wine and intoxication, equated with the Greek Dionysos. His cult was introduced to Rome circa 400 BC and was closely modelled on that of Dionysos. The object of a secret cult whose rites, the Bacchanalia, were infamous for their sexual license and criminal behaviour. Bacchus was also known as Liber (although the latter was sometimes regarded as a separate entity), and under this name was honoured in the festival of the Liberalia. Bellona (2) (Duellona) Roman goddess of war, given variously as the wife or sister of the war god Mars. Her festival was June 3. Bona Dea The Good Goddess". Roman fertility goddess, otherwise known as Fauna (qv). Her festival was 4 December, when secret rites were held to which only women were admitted. Her consort was Faunus. Bonus Eventus Roman god of success in enterprise.

Bubona Roman goddess of horses and cattle. She was the counterpart of the Celtic goddess Epona. Caca Roman goddess of the hearth, in which capacity she was later succeeded by Vesta. She was the daughter of Vulcan and Medusa, and the sister of Cacus. Cacus Originated as a pre-Roman god of fire who later became a fire-breathing demon. He was said to live in a cave on the Palatine hill in Rome. It was Cacus who stole the cattle of Geryon, and he was killed by Herakles, whose labours included the recovery of the cattle of Geryon. Camenae (Kamenae) Roman oracular goddesses, patrons of the sacred spring that supplied water for the Vestal Virgins. They were identified with the Greek muses. Candelifera Roman goddess of birth, associated with the goddesses Lucina and Carmentes. Cardea Roman goddess of thresholds and door-pivots, popularly believed to ward off evil spirits. She was associated with the god Janus, although she remained a virgin goddess. Carmenta (Carmentes) Roman goddess of fate or fortune, one of the Camenae (qv).

Also a goddess of childbirth, associated with Lucina and Candelifera. Her Greek equivalent was Themis. Carna Flesh". Roman goddess of bodily organs, particularly of hearts. Her festival was held on June 1. Ceres Roman corn goddess identified with the Greek Demeter. She is the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and is one of the consorts of Jupiter. Like Demeter, Ceres belongs to the long line of 'great mother' goddesses dating back to the Sumerian Inana and the Babylonian Ishtar. She had a daughter by Jupiter, Proserpina, who was abducted by the underworld god Pluto in a myth which parallels that of Demeter and Persephone. Proserpina spends half of the year (winter) in the underworld with Pluto, during which Ceres neglects her duties and plant-life languishes. However, each spring Proserpina is restored to Ceres and plant life flourishes once more. Ceres' festival was the Cerealia, celebrated on April 19. Cinxia Roman goddess of harmony and peace.

Consentes Dii The twelve chief Roman deities: Jupiter, Apollo, Neptune, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan, Juno, Diana, Minerva, Venus, Ceres and Vesta. Consus Roman god of good counsel. His feast days were August 21 and December 15. He had a temple in the Circus Maximus. Copia Abundance". The Roman goddess of wealth and plenty. She was the handmaiden of Fortuna and carried the cornucopia. Corus Roman god representing the north or north-west wind. Cunina Roman goddess of infants. Cupid Roman god of love, identified with the Greek Eros. Son of Venus and Mars, or Venus and Mercury, or Diana and Mercury. Also Amor. (H2>Dea Dia Roman goddess of the fields, honoured with three feast days in May. Decima Roman goddess of childbirth. Later Decima, with the goddesses Nona and Morta (Parca), formed the Parcae, the Roman goddesses of fate. Dei Consentes Roman council of 12 gods. Deverra Roman goddess of birth. Diana Roman moon goddess and goddess of woodlands. She was also regarded as a goddess of fertility and childbirth.

Daughter of Jupiter and Latona. Equivalent to the Greek Artemis. She had a sanctuary on the Aventine Hill in Rome. Discordia Roman goddess of discord and strife. Equivalent to the Greek goddess Eris. Dis Pater (Dis) Roman god of the infernal regions. Also known as Pluto. Roman equivalent of the Greek Hades. Husband of Proserpina. Duellona Roman goddess, see Bellona. Egeria Roman water spirit, goddess of fountains and protectress of unborn children. Said to have been the second wife of Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. Evander (Evandrus) Minor Roman god, who greeted Aeneas at the future site of Rome. He was said to have introduced the Greek pantheon and alphabet to Rome. Fabulinus Roman god of infants. According to Varro, it was Fabulinus who taught children to speak their first word. Fama Roman personification of popular rumour. Also a goddess of fame. Her Greek counterpart was Pheme. She was largely a literary conceit rather than a true goddess of Roman religion.

Fates (Latin Fata or Parcae; Greek Moirae) Hesiod gives the Greek Moirae as Atropos, Clotho and Lachesis. Their Roman counterparts were Decima, Nona (goddesses of birth) and Morta (goddess of death). Fauna (Fatua, Bona Dea, Bona Mater) Roman goddess of nature and fertility. Her husband was Faunus. Her festival was on December 4. Faunus Roman god of crops, herds and fertility. An oracular deity as well as a woodland deity. He was the son of Picus and the husband of Fauna. The Romans regarded him as a counterpart of the Greek Pan. Favonus The Roman god of the west wind. Equivalent to the Greek Zephyros. Febris Roman goddess of good luck and happiness. Feronia Roman goddess of orchards and woodland. Fides Roman goddess of good faith, honesty and oaths. Her festival day was October 1. Flora Roman goddess of fruitfulness and flowers. Her husband was Favonus (Zephyrus), the god of the west wind.

Her festival was the Floralia, noted for its sexual license, observed from April 28 to May 1. Fontus Roman god of springs. Son of Janus and Juturna. His festival was observed on October 13. Fornax Roman goddess of bread-making. Her festival was observed on February 17. Fortuna (Fors Fortuna) Roman goddess of fate and chance, earlier of prosperity. She was an equivalent of the Greek goddess Tyche. Her symbol was the wheel of fortune. Other attributes include a globe, rudder and a cornucopia. Her festival was observed on June 24. Fraus Roman goddess; the personification of treachery. Fulgora Minor Roman goddess. Consort of Janus. Janus Roman god of passage, of doorways (januae), archways (jani), and of beginnings and endings. Also a god of the threshold between the old year and the new, in token of which he gave his name to the month of January. His jurisdiction included gates, harbours, travel, daybreak -- things which had the sense of beginning or going out.

Janus was said to be the son of Apollo and Creusa, although he had no Greek equivalent. His consort was Jana. He was the father of Tiberinus by Camasena, of Fontus by Juturna, and of Canens by Venilia. Janus was depicted either as two-faced (Bifrons) or four-faced (Quadrifons). His attributes included keys and a staff. The doors of his temple in Rome were kept locked in peacetime and thrown open in wartime. His festival was the Agonium, which was held on January 9. The beginning of the day, month, season and year were sacred to him. Jove An alternative name for the Roman god Jupiter (qv). Juno Iuno The chief Roman goddess, equivalent to the Greek goddess Hera. In general she was the goddess of women, particularly associated with the institution of marriage. Juno was also the female counterpart of the male Genius: just as each man had his individual genius, so every wRoman had her individual juno.

She was also known as Juno Lucina in her capacity as goddess of childbirth, Juno Moneta in her capacity as goddess of finance, and Juno Regina in her capacity as protectress of the Roman Empire. She was the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and the sister and consort of Jupiter. Mother of Mars, Vulcan and Juventas. The month of June was named after her. Juno was honoured with two festivals: the Matronalia on March 1 and the Nonae Caprotinae ("The Nones of the Wild Fig") on July 7. Jupiter (Iuppiter, Juppiter, Jove, Diespiter) Chief Roman god, originally a sky god and a god of light. He was later equated with the Greek Zeus, although the origins of both have been traced back to a hypothetical Indo-European sky god, indicating that the similarity in their roles was not entirely due to Roman copying of a Greek original. Jupiter was also a god of thunder (Jupiter Tonans) and lightning (Jupiter Fulgurator). With the military expansion of Rome, Jupiter took on appropriate characteristics as Jupiter Victor and Jupiter Stator ("Jupiter Protector").

Jupiter was also important as a god of oaths, contracts and treaties. His consort was Juno. Jupiter's main sanctuary was the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ("Jupiter, Best and Greatest") on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, which was originally constructed by the Etruscans before they were overcome by the nascent Roman Republic. On the Capitol, he formed a trinity with Juno and Minerva. The Ides of each month (13 or 15) and the full moon were sacred to him. He was also worshipped at the festival of the Vinalia on August 19, which he shared with Venus. Justitia Juturna (Iuturna) Roman goddess of wells and springs. She was the mother of Fontus by Janus. Her festival was held on January 11 (the Carmentalia). Juventas Roman goddess of youth, particularly young men of military age. Her Greek equivalent was Hebe. Lactans Roman god of agriculture. Said to make the crops 'yield milk', i.e. thrive. Lar Roman god of the house. See LAres.

LAres (Singular: Lar) Roman tutelary deities, particularly of households (LAres Familiaris). They were said to be the children of Mercury and the naiad Lara. LAres Compitales Roman guardian deities of crossroads. Their festival was held on January 5. LAres Familiaris Roman tutelary deities of the home and the family, particularly associated with the hearth. Each home had a small shrine, the lararium, dedicated to these deities, typically depicted as a pair of dancing youths. LAres Viales Roman tutelary deities of travellers. Larvae Roman spirits or ghosts. See Lemures. Latona Roman counterpart of the Greek Leto. Laverna Old Italic underworld goddess. Libations to her were poured out with the left hand. Lemures Roman malignant spirits or ghosts of the dead, believed to wander about at night. Liber Old Italic fertility god. Originally associated with animal husbandry and the cultivation of crops, he was later equated with the Greek Dionysos. He was part of a chthonic triad including Libera and Ceres.

His festival, shared with his consort Libera, was the Liberalia, celebrated on March 17. Libera Old Italic fertility goddess. She was later equated with the Greek Persephone. She was part of a chthonic triad with Liber and Ceres. Her festival, shared with her consort Liber, was the Liberalia, celebrated on March 17. Liberalitas Roman god of human and agricultural fertility, linked with Dionysus. Libertas Roman goddess of freedom and constitutional government. Her attributes included the pileus (the cap worn by freed slaves) and a sceptre or lance. Her principal sanctuary was a temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome. Libitina Roman goddess of death and funerals. Lucifer Roman name for the morning star. Equivalent to the Greek Eosphoros. Lucina Roman goddess of childbirth. Luna "Moon". Roman goddess of the moon. Equated with the Greek Selene and, to some extent, Hekate. Her principal sanctuary was a temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome. Her festival was on March 31. Lupercus Roman god of flocks and fertility.

He was also a god of wolves, presumably in the capacity of a protector of domestic animals against wolves. His festival was the Lupercalia, celebrated on February 15. Maia Roman goddess of fertility, associated with Fauna. Maiestas Roman goddess of honour and reverence. Manes Di Manes Roman collective name for the spirits of the dead, who inhabited the Underworld. The Manes were honoured in the festival of the Parentalia, from February 13 to February 21. All temples were closed during the festival. Mania (2) Roman goddess of the dead. Mars (Marspiter, Mamers, Marmar, Mavors) Roman god of war and, at least in early Roman history, a god of agriculture. Equated with the Greek Ares. Son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the father of Romulus and Remus by the Vestal Ilia. As a result, Romans styled themselves 'sons of Mars'. He was typically depicted as a warrior in full battle regalia wearing a crested helmet and bearing a shield (the sacred Ancile) and lance. He is often linked with the goddess Bellona, who drove his chariot.

The main sanctuaries of Mars were the temple in the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars") in Rome and the temple of Mars Ultor ("Mars the Avenger") built under Augustus. The month of March was named after him, and he had a festival on March 1 called the Feriae Marti, which was the New Year's Day in the old Roman calendar. Another festival at which Mars was honoured was the Armilustrium on October 19, when military arms were ritually purified and put in storage for winter. Mater Matuta Old Italic goddess of the dawn. She later developed into a goddess of women and childbirth. Furthermore, in her later equation with the Greek goddess Ino, she came to be regarded as a tutelary goddess of seafarers. Her festival was the Matralia, observed on June 11. Meditrina Roman goddess of healing. Her festival was the Meditrinalia held on October 11. Mefitis Roman goddess of sulphur springs. Mellonia Mercury (Mercurius) Roman messenger god and god of merchants and travellers. Equated with the Greek Hermes. Son of Jupiter and Maia.

He had a temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome, said to date from 495 BC, as well as a shrine in the Circus Maximus. His festival was the Mercuralia, observed on May 15. Mercury is depicted as holding a purse, symbolic of his association with commerce, as well as the winged sandals (talaria), winged cap (petasus) and staff (caduceus) taken over from the Greek Hermes. According to Juvenal, posts topped by marble heads of Mercury were placed at the intersections of Roman roads. Messor Minor Roman god of agriculture. Minerva Roman goddess of war, and secondarily a goddess of wisdom and the arts and trades. As Minerva Medica she was regarded as a patroness of physicians. Equated with the Greek Athena, though she may derive originally from the Etruscan Menrva. Daughter of Jupiter. Her main festivals were the Minervalia and Quinquatria (March 19- 23). She shared the main temple on the Capitoline Hill as part of a triad with Jupiter and Juno, and also had a temple on the Aventine Hill in her capacity as Minerva Medica.

Mithras Greco-Roman name of Mithra. Mithras became popular as a god of soldiers in the Roman Empire beginning in the first and second centuries AD. He was regarded as a god of loyalty and truth, and of the struggle aginst evil. The cult of Mithraism excluded women, and its rites were conducted in underground temples known as mithraea (sing. mithraeum). The central rite involved the ritual slaughter of a bull, symbolizing the regeneration of life and the world. Moneta Neptune (Neptunus) Roman god of the sea. Neptune was originally a minor Roman god of fresh waters until he was equated with the Greek Poseidon. He may be derived from the Etruscan god of water, Nethuns. Husband of Salacia. Also a god of horse-racing. His festival, the Neptunalia, was held on July 23, the height of the midsummer drought, probably a reference to Neptune's original role as a god of the fresh waters essential to agriculture. Otherwise, Neptune's representation in art and literature was essentially identical with that of Poseidon. Nona Roman goddess of birth.

Her name means ninth month, an allusion to the term of pregnancy. She later became associated with the goddesses Decima and Morta as one of the Roman Fates. Ops Roman goddess of the harvest. She also governs the proper growth of the seed. Consort of Saturn. Equated with the Greek goddess Rhea. Her festival was the harvest festival of the Opiconsivia, observed on August 25. Orcus Roman god of the underworld. Equivalent to the Greek Hades. In many respects, he is also interchangeable with the Roman gods Dis Pater and Pluto. Pales Roman goddess of flocks and herds (originally male). Her festival, the Parilia, was celebrated on April 21. The Parilia was said to be the 'birthday of Rome', commemorating the day Romulus was said to have drawn the first furrow laying the foundations of the Roma Quadrata, the oldest part of the city of Rome. Palici Twin Sicilian gods associated with a pair of geysers near Palagonia still known as the Lago dei Palici.

Their shrine became a sanctuary for slaves, and as such played a prominent symbolic role in the Sicilian slave revolts of the 2nd century BC. The Palici were later identified as the offspring of either Zeus and Thalia or Hephaestus and Aetna. Parca See Morta. Parcae Roman goddesses of fate. Originally they included only the pair of Decima and Nona, both goddesses of birth. Later, under the influence of the Greek Fates, the Moirai, the goddess of death Morta (Parca) was added to form a triad. Partula Minor Roman goddess of birth, concerned with parturition. Pax Roman goddess of peace. Equated with the Greek Eirene. She was first recognized as a goddess proper under Augustus. An altar of Pax Augusta was erected at the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) in 9 BC, and a temple of Pax was completed under Vespasian in AD 75. She was depicted as a young wRoman bearing a cornucopia, an olive branch and a garland of corn. Her festival was celebrated on January 3. Penates (Di Penates) Roman household gods.

Originally they were gods of the storeroom (penus), but their role gradually expanded to include the entire household. They were associated with, but not identical with, other household deities such as Vesta and the LAres. They were represented by small statues gathered together in a household shrine, to which offerings of food were made. The Roman state also had its Penates, the Penates Publici, which were the focus of a state cult. Picus Woodpecker". Roman woodland god in the form of a woodpecker. Also an agricultural deity associated with the fertilization of the soil with manure. The woodpecker was sacred to the god Mars, and played an important role in Roman augury. Later Roman writers made Picus an early Italian king, while Virgil made him the son of Saturn and the father of Faunus. In early Roman art, Picus was depicted as a wooden pillar surmounted by a woodpecker. He later came to be represented as a youth with a woodpecker perched on his head. Pietas Roman goddess personifying respect and fidelity to gods, country and relatives. A sanctuary in Rome was dedicated to Pietas as early as 191 BC.

Pilumnus Minor Roman god, given variously as a god of agriculture or a guardian deity of infants at birth. Pluto Roman god of the Underworld. Derived from the Greek Hades (qv), and largely indistinguishable from him. However, in Roman tradition the entrance to hell was said to be at Avernus in Rome. Poena Roman goddess of punishment. Pomona Roman goddess of fruit trees. After spurning the advances of many suitors, she eventually became the wife of the god Vertumnus, although some sources make her the wife of Picus. Portunus (Portumnus) Roman god of gates, doors and harbours. In other words, a god associated with the entrance to both the city and the home. As a god of ports, he came to be equated with the Greek Melicertes. His festival, the Portunalia, was celebrated on Auguts 17. At his festival, keys were thrown into the fire in order to bless them. He was depicted as a youth bearing keys. Porus Roman goddess of the past. Potina Roman goddess associated with children's potions or the safe drinking ability of children. Proserpina Roman name for Greek goddess Persephone.

Providentia Pudicitia (Pudicita) Roman goddess of chastity. Depicted as a matronly figure wearing a veil or heavy clothing. Her cult went out of fashion with the increasing decadence of the Roman Empire. Quirinus Roman god of war, similar to Mars, but later identified with the deified Romulus. He formed part of a triad with the other war gods Jupiter and Mars. His consort was Hora. He seems to have originated as a Sabine god whose centre of worship was the Sabine settlement on the Quirinal, later one of the seven hills of Rome. His festival, the Quirinalia, was observed on February 17. He was depicted as bearded and wearing clothing that was partly military and partly clerical. The myrtle was his sacred plant. Robigo Roman corn goddess. Robigus Roman corn god. More specifically the god of mildew or wheat rust who was propitiated to safeguard the wheat crop against this common disease. His festival, the Robigalia, was celebrated on April 25. Roma Roman goddess personifying the city of Rome. Her head was commonly depicted on coins, symbolizing the Roman state.

Romulus Legendary founder of Rome, later revered as the god Quirinus (qv). Rumina Roman goddess of nursing mothers and suckling infants (both human and animal). Salacia Roman goddess of springs. Consort of Neptune. Salus "Salvation". Roman goddess of public safety and welfare who later became a goddess of health equated with the Greek Hygieia. She had a temple on the Quirinal, one of the seven hills of Rome, dating to 302 BC. Her festival was on March 30. An annual sacrifice was also held at her temple on August 5. Saturn (Saturnus) Roman god of agriculture concerned with the sowing of seed. Equated with the Greek god Kronos. His consort was either Lua or Ops. He was the father of Jupiter. His temple was constructed in the Roman Forum as early as the fifth century BC. It served as the Roman treasury (aerarium). His festival was the Saturnalia, observed on December 17 but later extended to seven days.

It was the most popular Roman festival, characterized by a suspension of all business, a reversal of the roles of master and slave, the exchange of gifts (including candles to symbolize the winter darkness), and a loosening of moral restrictions. Our Saturday was named after Saturn. Securitas Roman goddess, a personification of security. She was later invoked to ensure the continuing stability of the Roman Empire. Silvanus Roman god of woodlands and of the countryside in general. He may have developed from the Etruscan god Selvans. He was usually depicted as a rustic peasant. Silvanus had no official cult, but was very popular among the common people, who typically worshipped him in a sacred grove or tree. Sol "Sun". Roman sun god. Equated with the Greek Helios. Under the name of Sol Indiges ("the indigenous Sol"), he had a temple on the Quirinal hill in Rome. During the period of the Empire, the worship of Syrian sun deities were incorporated in a new Sol Invictus ("the unconquered Sol"). The emperor Elagabalus (AD 218- 222) built a temple to him on the Palatine hill.

Sol came to be worshipped as the protector of the emperors. The festival of Sol Indiges was observed on August 9. Somnus Roman god of sleep. Equated with the Greek Hypnos. Sors "Hope". Roman goddess of hope. Also a goddess of gardens. Strenua Roman goddess of strength and vigour. Striges Roman bird-like demons. Descendants of the Harpies, they preyed on children. Suada Tellus (Terra Mater) "Earth". Roman earth goddess. Also a goddes of corn (wheat) and of the dead (who return to her). Believed to date back a very primitive period in Roman religion. Later equated with the Greco- Phrygian mother goddess Cybele. Her temple was constructed on the Esquiline Hill in Rome circa 268 BC. She had two festivals, the Fordicidia on April 15 and the Sementivae on December 13. Tempestas Roman goddess of storms. Terminus "Boundary Stone". Roman god of boundaries and border markers. There was believed to be a curse placed on anyone who removed a boundary stone.

His festival, the Terminalia, was observed on February 23, the end of the old Roman year. Terra Mater See Tellus. Tiberinus Roman river god of the river Tiber. Some Roman writers claim that the river was originally known as the Albula, in reference to the white colour of its waters, but later renamed after Tiberinus, the king of Alba Longa who drowned in it. His temple stood on an island in the river. His consort was said to be Rhea Silvia, the Vestal virgin sacrificed by drowning in the river. In early Roman history there was a proscription against the use of iron in bridges across the Tiber, which were constructed wholly of wood until well into the Republican period. Trojanu The Roman emperor Trajan was worshipped as a god under this name in some parts of Russia. Venus Roman goddess of love and beauty. She was originally associated with vegetable gardens. She later came to be equated with the Greek goddess Aphrodite, whose myths she took over. Her cult was apparently a late import to Rome from the surrounding Latin peoples. She was the daughter of Jupiter and Dione.

Her consorts included Mars and Vulcan, modelled on the relationships of Aphrodite with Ares and Hephaistos. Her importance rose with the political fortunes of the gens Julia, the clan of Julius Caesar, who claimed descent from Venus via Aeneas and Julia. Caesar introduced the cult of Venus as a goddess of marriage and motherhood, Venus Genetrix, under which name he constructed a temple at the Forum in her honour. She became identified with many foreign goddesses, including Ishtar, whence came her identification with the planet we now know as Venus. Her festival, the Veneralia, was celebrated on April 1. Veritas "Truth". Roman goddess of truth. Daughter of Saturn. Vertumnus Roman god of the seasons, gardens and orchards. Also god of change (Latin vertere = to turn, change), particularly of the changing year. He appears to have been derived from the Etruscan god Voltumna. He was the consort of Pomona. He had a temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome, dedicated in 264 BC. His festival, the Vertumnalia, was observed on August 13. Vesta Roman goddess of the hearth.

Equated with the Greek Hestia. She had a round temple at the foot of the Palatine Hill in Rome. She had an elaborate state cult, and was also worshipped in Roman homes along with the LAres and Penates. Vesta was symbolized by the sacred fire maintained within her temple by the Vestal Virgins. The Vestal Virgins, whose term of office lasted at least thirty years, were expected to keep strict vows of chastity, on penalty of death. The ass was regarded as sacred to her, and asses were adorned with wreaths on her festival day. Her festival, the Vestalia, was observed on June 9. Victoria Roman goddess of victory. Equated with the Greek Nike. She had a temple on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Regarded as a protector of the Empire, she was often portrayed on Roman coins. Virbius Minor Roman god. Consort of Diana. Virtus Roman god of manly courage and military prowess. Volumna Roman protective goddess of the nursery. Vulcan (Vulcanus) Roman god of fire, particularly of destructive fire.

Equated with the Greek Hephaistos (qv), from whom he derives many of his aspects and myths, including the association with blacksmiths and forges. He was believed to have a forge under Mt Aetna. Vulcan was also the tutelary deity of the Roman seaport of Ostia. Because of the dangerous nature of fire, his temples were generally located outside the cities. His festival, the Volcanalia, was observed on August 23, during the height of the Mediterranean drought and the period of highest risk from fire. During the festival, fish were thrown into fires, presumably as an offering meant to invoke the god's assistance in warding off destructive fires. Roman Gods: Stolen From the Greeks, or Originally Roman? The Nature of the Roman Gods: Greek Influences or True Originals? May 21, 2014 Jupiter is one of the Roman gods closely associated with the Greek pantheon. But his origins are much older. Image by PHGCOM. The Romans are often accused of stealing their gods from the Greeks.

But while the likes of Jupiter, Juno, Mars and Venus may have been affiliated with the Greek gods, they, like all of Rome’s deities, predate the Greek pantheon influence on Roman culture. In fact, Rome’s gods– the well-known and the more obscure– are ancient and reflect the uniquely Roman way of interpreting the unseen world around them. The Spirits of Place: Animism Evidence for archaic Roman religion is sparse and much of this comes to us in a second-hand form recorded by authors living hundreds of years later. But one theory places the basis of Roman religion in the principle of ‘animism’ or the manifestation of divine power through nature. To the early farming communities that predated the city of Rome, every place, be it a river, stream or grove, had its own patron deity. Many of the names of these gods are lost. It was also quite usual for the Romans not to name them at all, but they always honoured them. The Romans believed that these gods were endowed with, what in the imperial period, was defined as numen or divine power. From the earliest times, if someone cleared or built upon a tract of land, it was usual to pacify the spirits of place with sacrifices.

________________ Would you like to see more articles like this? Support This Expert's Articles, This Category of Articles, or the Site in General Here. Just put your preference in the "I Would Like to Support" Box after you Click to Donate Below: This was not an act of worship or submission. Rather, it was the respectful gesture of a good neighbour. Ovid in his Fasti describes a ritual dedicated to the god of boundaries, Terminus, held every year on the morning of the 23rd February. He describes how farmers would meet at the boundary point of their lands, bringing ‘a garland and each a cake’ to offer to the deity. Shrine to the Lares in Herculaneum. The Lares were the guardian spirits of each Roman home and family. But individual districts within towns had their own Lares too. Image by Natasha Sheldon, all rights reserved. Lares and Penates Amongst these spirits of place were the Lares, the guardian spirits of particular tracts of land. When building a house upon that land, the Lares became the guardians of the home. In cities, they also became the guardian spirits of the various districts, marked by an altar or shrine most commonly found at crossroads.

The Penates, an obscure group of spirits whose name derives either from the word penus (store-room) or penitus (those that dwell within), joined the Lares in this capacity. So the Penates were the gods of the inner reaches of either the house or the pantry. Historian Mary Beard notes that according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, they were also the ancestral gods of Aeneas, who introduced them from Troy. The exact nature of the Lares is debatable. Ovid believed they were descended from a nymph. It was also commonly believed that they were the spirits of dead ancestors, guarding their descendants. This belief remained in vogue well into the Imperial period. The Lares of Augustus’s household were Venus and Cupid, supposedly early Julian ancestors. The Cult of the Dead Although not gods, per se, the cult of Di Manes or ‘good dead’ remained vital from the beginnings of Rome until the end of the empire. The Romans held their dead ancestors in high esteem, believing them to be separate from the living yet still present in the physical world.

They honoured these ancestors yearly at three festivals held in their honour: the Feralia, the Parentalia and the Lemuria, as well as on their birthdays. Roman Gods: What’s in a Name? Aside from the ancestral dead, it is debatable whether the Romans originally viewed spirits of place as having human attributes, personalities or even gender. Cato records how it was usual to begin rites to the deities of groves by saying ‘be thou a god or a goddess.’ Pales, the shepherd god, was variably presented as male or female. Even Venus, later seen as the epitome of divine femininity, was, as the neutral noun ending of her name indicates, not originally seen as a goddess at all. Often, names were a summation of the god’s function. Janus’s name comes from the Latin ianua or ‘gateway.’ Ceres is a corruption of Geres from gero or ‘to bear.’ The god Neptune was one of many Roman sea gods until he was cast in the equivalent role as the Greek god Poseidon. Image by Habib M’henni. The Roman Pantheon Because the gods did not have human attributes, the Romans saw no need for a complex mythology to surround them.

But contact with Greek culture changed this and the Romans saw advantages to affiliating their own gods with those of an established and prestigious culture. The Romans began to fit their gods into the Greek mythological structure. Roman gods with the most applicable attributes found themselves cast in the roles of the Olympians. Jupiter, formerly the Roman god of skies and oaths became the Roman Zeus and Juno, a mother goddess figure, became Hera. Mars, previously a god of agriculture and war, had his agrarian role downplayed as he was cast as Ares. Many previously minor gods found themselves promoted as they were cast in the remaining Olympian roles. Venus, formerly a minor garden deity, became the goddess of love, and Neptune, only one of many Roman water deities, became the god of the sea. However, other key Roman gods could not be fitted into this new style pantheon. But they still retained their cult significance within Roman state religion. The goddess Vesta, guardian of the Roman state was one example and her ancient cult of the Vestal Virgins continued as an important part of Roman state religion. Janus, the god of thresholds, beginnings and endings, also remained a prominent deity.

Other ancient deities, such as Tellus, the earth goddess and Ceres the goddess of the crops, also remained, but became more marginal as the emphasis of Roman society shifted further away from agriculture. Roman Pragmatism and Familiar Deities The Romans’ pragmatic usurpation of gods from other cultures resulted in popular deities with familiar roles throughout the Roman Empire – but the Roman gods did predate the Greek Gods they came to resemble. © Copyright 2014 Natasha Sheldon, All rights Reserved. Written For: Decoded Past Roman Pantheon - Data Recovery A ROMAN PANTHEON This page is intended as a reference guide for students of Roman mythology. When completed, it will hopefully be a compilation of all the known deities of the pre-Chistian Latins. The descriptions will include areas of authority, attributes, images, appearance, and selected comments or stories which might help characterize the divinity better. As I implied above, this is an ongoing work which, at the moment, is incomplete. I most certainly solicit comments and contributions; if you have additional information for me (or complaints, for that matter), I ask only that you try to supply documentation in support of what you have to say.

Here is a catalogue, hopefully reasonably complete, of known Roman God-forms. The information here is necessarily brief; a full accounting of all these entities would be a massive book in its own right. What is included here is: a Name (A note on origin, if other than local Latin), (A translation, in parentheses, of the name if I know it) the culture that Name appears within, any important epithets or sobriquets that are associated with the Name, and a basic description of spheres of influence, attributes, and/or descriptive stories. Feed a hungry website? Angerona (Etruscan) An Etruscan divinity, She remained into Roman times as Goddess of the winter solstice. She has connections to Death, and to Silence, and seems to represent the passage of the yearly cycle into a time which symbolizes completion, the seed of renewal, and the duty to accept adversity in silence. Her image is invariably that of a female, mouth sealed and a finger placed upon it. She has been conflated to a degree with Ceres . Angitia (Italian) An obscure Goddess associated with witchcraft, herbalism, healing, and eloquence.

In later times, She was often conflated with the Hellenic sorceress Circe. Arkate and Alpanu (Etruscan) Two very obscure north Italian divinities whose tale has been almost entirely eroded away. Arkate, who appears as an old man in a heavy cloak, opposes Alpanu in some manner. Aurora Goddess of the dawn, and Divine Herald of the day, and by extension, new beginnings of any sort. Similar in many respects to the Hellenic Eos . Bacchus God of wine, intoxication, and ecstatic celebration. Similar in most important respects to Dionysios . Bellona A Goddess of war, attended to by violent and frenzied rites. Caca Goddess of Latrines and waste disposal. Cardea Goddess of thresholds and door-hinges, and thus a Patroness of changes-of-state, an element of great importance in the Latin psyche. She also has Huntress connections, and is associated in some manner with Diana . Not at all surprisingly, She is close associated with Janus as well. Castor & Pollux Twin Deities associated with the sea, the Roman eqivalents of the Hellenic Kastor & Polydeukes .

Catha (Etruscan) An early north Italian divinity associated with the sun. His cult became absorbed by that of Apollo . Charun (Etruscan) A north Italian God of death. He wields a warhammer, or maul, and often accompanies Mars . His cult was conflated with that of Hades- Pluto for the most part. Despite the similarity in names, it not certain that Charon is a version of this divinity, or a separate conception. Cloaca Goddess of sewage systems and drains. Consus Patron of horses, stables, grainaries, and storage facilities, especially underground structures. As such, He also has connections to Patronage over secret plans and conspiracies. Cupid Son of Venus , and God of love and sexual passion. Cupra (Etruscan) A fertility Goddess, one of an ancient triad alongside Minerva and Tina . Diana (Lala: Etruscan) Goddess of the moon and Patroness of groves, forests, and the natural world. She is a huntress and protectress of animals. A perpetual maiden, she is usually conflated with the Hellenic Artemis .

Even so, She is also regarded as having authority over childbirth and midwivery. Finally, She seems to have connections to plebians, commoners, fugitives, outlaws, and slaves as a kind of natural protectress. The theme here seems to be that anything helpless, downtrodden, misunderstood, in a condition of mystery, or circumstances contrary to the normal flow finds in Her an advocate. She is the daughter of Jupiter by Latona . She is considered a triple-Goddess; for divinities often regarded as Aspects, see Hekate , Lucina , and Phoebe . Dispater Underworld ruler of the dead, similar in many respects to the Hellenic Hades . Fauna and Faunus Paired Deities of grove and forest, and the life therein. Faunus was originally a mythical King of Latium, but in later times, these spirits were conflated with Hellenic Pan , and the Race of Satyrs. Februus (Etruscan) God of ritual purification. He is very likely an early source for Febris, a later Roman Goddess associated with fevers and malaria.

The month of February was the season of purificatory rites and the renewal of vows, and was named for the festival honoring the later Roman divinity. Feronia (Etruscan) Fertility Goddess associated with fire. There is some evidence to connect Her with Flora as well. Flora Goddess of plant life, especially flowers. Her festival was one noted for sexual extravagance, but She also has connections with the Dead. Fons Any of a class of spirits controlling freshwater sources. Fufluns (Etruscan) God of natural growth in plants, animals, and humans. His cult was conflated with that of Bacchus to a large degree Fulgora Goddess of Lightning.. Genius Any of a class of Spirits, each one the Guide and Protector of a particular person of male gender. Similar in most respects to the modern idea of a Guardian Angel. See also Juno (II) . Haruspices (Etruscan) An early Etrurian divinity of prophecy and the taking of omens. In later times, the names was preserved as Haruspex, a priest or diviner tasked with the interpretation of mantic signs, especially the reading of entrails in sacrificial victims.

Jana (Etruscan) Consort of Janus , and Goddess of secrets, mysteries, and hidden things. Janus (Etruscan) God of time, space, and passage. Guardian of roadways and gates, and presiding over all beginnings and cycles. He can see past, present, and future, and is responsible for the orderly movement of people and ideas through their appointed rounds. He is an example of the Roman obsession with boundaries, edges, transfer from one state to another, and organization. His consort is Jana . Juno IConsort of Jupiter and queen of Heaven. Similar in most respects to the Hellenic Hera , Juno was considered the Protectress of Women ans Patroness of the Matronly virtues.As with Her Greek counterpart, she suffers from jealous rages at her Consort's constant infidelities, although the Latins tended to downplay this somewhat from the Greek model, since Roman notions of appropriate feminine conduct differ somewhat from Hellenic. Juno IIAny of a class of Spirits, each one the Guide and Protector of a particular person of female gender. Similar in most respects to the modern idea of a Guardian Angel. See also Genius .

Jupiter Lord of the Universe, and King of Heaven. As with nearly all Aryan Gods of Sovereignty, He is a sky-lord, and his chief instrument of power is the thunderbolt. Similar in many respects to the Hellenic Zeus . Differences in personality are subtle, but real; Jupiter has more of the Roman character trait of Gravitas (dignity, stolid propriety) than Zeus, while Zeus is rather a bit more tempermental and spontaneous than Jupiter. Juterna Goddess of hot springs, mineral baths, brooks and ponds. As such, She has healer aspects. Juventas Goddess of youth and youthful activity. Closely paralleling the Hellenic Hebe . Kulmu (Etruscan) Protector of tombs; He is always shown bearing shears and a torch. The Lares (Etruscan) A set of household Gods worshipped by nearly everyone. They were said to be the offspring of Mercurius by Larunda, an Etruscan Goddess who was recognized in Roman times as the nymph Lara. The Lares were associated with the Lar Familiaris, ancestral spirits tied to particular tracts of land.

Latona Goddess of Light, and a close Roman equivalent to the Greek Leto . She is the mother of Diana by Jupiter . Liber A God of vegetation and husbandry. His cult was conflated with that of Dionysios to a degree, and his festival was kept as a celebration for young men who had achieved adulthood. Libitina Goddess of death or, more specifically, recipient and custodian of corpses. Her priests were needed in order to ritually purify a dead body, and claim it for the Goddess; before this was done, mere contact with a corpse was spiritually polluting. Her temple contained all the mortuary records and death registers. Lucifer (light-bearer)The morning star. Said to be the son of Aurora . Lupercus God of wolves, significant to Romans in that the mythological founders of the Roman Nation (Romulus and Remus) were suckled by a she-wolf in infancy. Mars God of war and soldiers. Often identified with the Hellenic Ares , Mars did not have that Deity's grim and brutal reputation, but was seen rather as a legitimate apotheosis of the State's power and majesty.

Mefitis Goddess of miasmas and sulphuric vapours; associated closely with plagues and malarias, as these were regarded as the results of the volcanic emissions so common in Italy. Mercurius The Messenger and Herald of the Gods, He also had responsibility for travelers and roadways. Similar in many ways to the Hellenic Hermes , Mercurius in the Roman world bore the cadeucus (a serpent entwinned staff) as a symbol of his office. The Romans also gave him authority over winds, and in this context he is said to be always a bane to Apollo , in that he constantly is stealing away Apollo's herds (the clouds). Minerva (Etruscan) Daughter of Jupiter , Goddess of war and peace or, more properly, the decisions and actions of the State. As such, she is also a Goddess of wisdom. Based on an early Etruscan Goddess, She became heavily conflated with the Hellenic Pallas Athene . Neptune Conflated in many important ways to the Hellenic Poseidon , Neptune is nevertheless not a Sea God as such, but to the Roman mind came out of an agricultural background.

He is watery in that he is a Patron of irrigation, and like Poseidon he is a Master of Horse-kind. The Penates A group of household Divinities, Guardians of a particular House and Family. They had special patronage over the hearth and kitchen, and the head of each household served as their priest. Pluto A chthonic Deity, Lord of the Underworld and Ruler of the Dead. In many ways identical to the Hellenic Hades , Pluto also was wed to the daughter of the primary seasonal and agrarian Goddess ( Proserpina , daughter of Ceres ), a circumstance which causes blights the Earth with winter when He is attended by Her, and blesses the earth with spring when She once more visits Her Mother. Proserpina Daughter of Ceres , Consort of Pluto , and identical in all important respects to the Hellenic Persephone . Quirinus A God of war, said to be the apotheosized Spirit of Romulus, founder of the City. In His origins, however, He seems to have been an independent Sabine divinity. Salacia Goddess of salt pans, salt-licks, salt water sources in general. She has some healer aspects.

Saturn (South Italian) Originally an agricultural divinity, a special patron to labourers among grape vineyards, and associated with agrarian prosperity in general. He became identified with the Hellenic Kronos . as ruler of the universe in pre-Olympic times, supplanted by His son Jupiter. In Italian mythology, His spouse was Ops . Silvanus (he of the forest)A God associated with parkland, copses, wooded glens, and the forest itself. His spirit was present anywhere there was waste ground or uncultivated land. He was an ominous figure, one who held the potential for terror and death, since to the Roman mind the forest primeval was a realm of chaos and fear, distinct from managed, settled territory. Summanus A (literally) shadowy counterpart, or perhaps Aspect, to Jupiter . A Sky-Lord and Ruler of the nocturnal heavens, inasmuch as Jupiter was associated with diurnal hours. Terminus Deity of Sacred Space, and the boundaries thereof. His Spirit was said to reside in cairns, landmarks, and boundary markers.

He is another example, like Janus , of the Roman preoccupation with space, distance, edges, and the transition from one state to another. Tiberinus Tutelary God of the Tiber River. Also known as Volturnus. Tina (Etruscan) Chief God of the early Etruscan pantheon, and forming with Cupra and Minerva a sovereign triad. He wielded a lightning-bolt, and became synchretized with Jupiter in later times. There is some evidence to suggest a close connection as a source to Summanus . Turan (Etruscan) Goddess of love, often associated with Zirna . Turms (Etruscan) The early north Italian version of Mercurius . Tushna (Etruscan) An early north Italian version of Apollo . Venus (blooming nature ?) Goddess of beauty and sexual love, and in many important respects similar to the Hellenic Aphrodite . In the Roman view, She was the daughter of Jupiter and Dione , and like so many Roman Divinities, she had considerable authority and influence in agrarian concerns, in her case gardens and flowering plants. Vesper The evening star.

Perhaps a son of Aurora . Vesta A household Guardian of primary importance, She is the Goddess of fire as a controlled thing, and of the hearth. Her Temple in Rome was considered one of the chief props of the State, its continuity guarenteeing the health of the res publica. It contained an eternal flame, and was administered by a company of priestesses sworn to virginity. No male could enter the sanctuary, not even the Pontifex Maximus. Voltumna (Etruscan) Goddess associated with fertility and motherhood. Vulcan (Etruscan) Originally an Etruscan God, Vulcan came to be recognized as a primary patron of Smiths, mechanics, and craftsmen. As such, he was often combined with the Hellenic Hephaestus and, like him (and so many other Aryan Smithy Gods), was lame. Also like Hephaestus, He was not highly honoured, owing to the very deeply felt Classic Mediterranean contempt for manual craft and labor. Zirna (Etruscan) Goddess of the moon, and close companion to Turan.

Agrarian DeitiesThe Romans regarded themselves in their distant origins as a pastoral folk, and to them, the farm and it's works always remained a primary source of inspiration and pride. Like most other people, the Romans had a number of Deities associated with agricultural concerns, but the Roman versions were not generally connected genealogically with the other divinities, and were of an unusually specific character. Here is a comment on a number of these spirits: Ceres Goddess of agriculture and the harvest, and Divine source of Life energy. Similar in many respects to the Hellenic Demeter , Ceres is also responsible for seasonality in abdicating her Attribute during winter, the time when her daughter Proserpina spends underground with Pluto . Horta (Etruscan) A Goddess associated with agriculture generally. Imporcitor The God presiding over the plowing of the fields; especially, the drawing of the furrow. Insitor The God presiding over the sowing of seed. Lactanus The God of crop vitality and growth. Mellonia Presiding Goddess of bee-keeping. Messor The God of the reaping and harvesting process.

Neptunus The earliest version of Neptune , this Aspect is the presiding God of Irrigation and canals. Nodotus A Divinity of grain crops, specifically assigned to guard the health of the stalks. Not unsurprisingly, He also has patronage over straw and similar products. Obarator The God ruling over fertilization and seed production. Ops (South Italian) A Goddess of the harvest, She controls the growth of plants from seed to maturity. She was said to be the spouse of Saturn . Pales A Goddess of pastoral concerns, She is Guardian and Nurturer of the flocks and herds. Pomona Goddess of orchards and fruit-bearing trees. Promitor God of fruition and the coming-to-readiness for harvest of the crops. Puta The Goddess of pruning, trimming, and silviculture generally. Redarator God of the ploughing-under, the return of the fields to fallow after harvest. Sarritor A God governing the gathering of the harvest; specifically, the Patron of the carts hauling the harvest to the mills. Spiniensis A God of briar patches and thorn bushes; He is the Patron of the uprooting of same.

He is thus an Aspect of an important process to the Roman mind, that of reducing the Wild to the Orderly. Stercullus The God of fertilization and the manuring of the crops. Ubertas Patron of agrarian wealth and plenty. Tellus An ancient Grain Goddess, often called Terra Mater (Earth-Mother), and responsible for crop growth and fertility. She has authority over the Dead, as well, and in that Aspect Her name was used to curse enemies; opponent armies were deemed Her legitimate sacrifice. Vertumnus The Consort of Pomona , He is the Patron of gardeners and cultivated ground; He also has a general authority over orderly change, as in the progress of the seasons. Based on an earlier Etruscan Deity. Birth and Childhood DeitiesAs I have mentioned elsewhere in this archive, the Romans had what amounts to an obsession with edges, boundaries, changes-of-state, and movement between conditions. One of the more important manifestations of such passage is, of course, birth and early childhood.

Unsurprisingly, therefore, the Romans maintained a large selection of divinities with unusually specific areas of authority within the general realm of infancy and childhood: Abeona and Adeona Two Goddesses very closely linked; Abeona guides a child while leaving a room or condition, and Adeona performs the same office for children entering or beginning. Alemona The Goddess who protects the health and safety of the unborn. Candelifera and Carmentia Two closely associated Goddesses, Candelifera guides an unborn infant to Lucina and the experience of the childs first sight, while Carmentia is an oracular Goddess who pronounces a newborn's destiny based on what, in fact is the first thing they lay eyes upon. Cunina Goddess of the cradle, and Protectress of the nursery. Decima and Nona Two closely linked Goddesses who are guardians of the nine months of gestation. Deverra and Intercidona Two guardians of newborns, whose specific task is defence against malignant influence, especially magickal or spiritual. Edusa Goddess of nourishment, especially for infants. Fabulinus A God who governs the first words uttered by a toddler.

Lucina An Aspect of Diana , Lucina is both a Spirit of midwivery as the Source of the first light seen by a newborn, and also Goddess of Moonlight and hence bringer of visions and phantasms. See also Candelifera . Partula Goddess of parturition

Question: Who was the rather appropriately named Roman god of land boundaries?
Answer: TERMINUS