Washington Salmon and Steelhead Species Salmonscape Salmon and Steelhead Species in Washington Salmon and steelhead have long played an important role in the ecology, economy and culture of the Pacific Northwest, providing a source of food for humans and wildlife alike. Unfortunately, many naturally spawning stocks are struggling to survive significant losses in spawning and rearing habitat and other factors related to growth in the region's human population over the past century. There are five species of Pacific salmon in Washington - chinook, coho, chum, pink and sockeye - all emerge from eggs and rear in freshwater, migrate to sea to feed, then return to their natal waters to spawn. Scientists use the term "salmonid" to refer to salmon, steelhead and anadromous trout species that share this anadromous lifecycle. Oftentimes "salmon and steelhead" will be used as well as "salmon" to generally refer to all salmon and steelhead species. Each salmonid species is adapted to the natural conditions found in Washington rivers and in the ocean.

Salmon and steelhead are further divided into 486 known "populations," each a scientifically designated, biologically distinct group of individuals (e.g., Lower Columbia River Spring Chinook, Skagit River coho) adapted to specific streams, estuaries and other conditions. When thousands of mature salmon spawn and die, they do far more than produce another generation. They also provide a source of nutrition, arriving in the fall, that allows many animals to survive the harshness of winter. Where salmon runs have become extinct, the local ecosystem suffers. Species such as bear, eagle, mink and river otter suffer large population losses when salmon runs decline. What Salmon need Although the habitat requirements of each species of salmon and steelhead differ somewhat, all share some common habitat needs to support life stage development (Spence et al. 1996). Common habitat functions include: stable incubation environment (flow regime/water quantity), cool, well-oxygenated, unpolluted water (water quality), cover (habitat structure), sufficient sources of prey (food source), and unimpeded access to off-channel areas and saline waters (access). How are Washington's Salmon and Steelhead doing?

In 1991, the federal government declared Snake River sockeye salmon as endangered. In the next few years, 16 more geographically distinct subgroups (i.e., evolutionarily significant units composed of several populations) of Chinook, coho, chum, and sockeye salmon, as well as several steelhead groups, were listed as either threatened or endangered. By 1999 75% of the state was covered by federal listings of at-risk salmon. Washington's 2010 State of the Salmon in Watershed Report provided an overview of which salmon and steelhead populations are increasing, decreasing or showing no changes. For status and information on specific populations in Washington you can click on each species of "salmonid" below and get a listing of all the populations within that species name: 10-25 pounds 3-6 years The information in the above table and species diversity notes is summarized from one of the finest books on salmon. This reference is highly recommended as a source for factual information as well as wonderful drawings (by Joseph R. Tomelleri) of each species of salmon (and trout). The book is by Robert J.

Behnke, entitled Trout and Salmon of North America, published in 2002 by The Free Press, New York. Pink salmon, ocean form (left) and freshwater form of reproductive male (right). Copyright Saturdaze. Pink Salmon. Pink salmon are the most abundant of the five North Pacific salmon species although they are the smallest. Because of their abundance they are one of the most important in the salmon fishery. The pinks are not considered to be one of the finest eating salmon however, because their flesh has a low fat content and is on the pale side. Pink salmon first entering a stream (left). Male pink salmon after developing hump in fresh water (right). Most pinks reproduce at two years (with only a few reproducing at three years in the coldest areas). This results in two distinct types of pink salmon - even year classes and odd year classes. Rarely do these two groups mix during reproduction. This species spends the least time in fresh water of all the North Pacific salmon (less than six months as babies). They generally spawn close to the mouth of their stream with little, or no, upstream migration. Sockeye salmon, ocean form (left) and freshwater form of reproductive male (right).

Copyright Saturdaze. Reproductive form (freshwater) from stream (NOAA image). Sockeye salmon are the most important commercial species of North Pacific salmon. This is because they have oil-rich flesh that is a deep orange/red in color. This species is on the smallish size (only pinks are smaller) and when it is in the ocean it feeds primarily on plankton. This species has more gill rakers than other salmon to facilitate this plankton feeding. Sockeye salmon in stream. The greatest diversity in life history details is found in the sockeye salmon. Baby sockeye may spend three months to three years in fresh water. Adults may spawn near shorelines, on lake bottoms, or hundreds of miles upstream. Some populations spawn within weeks of entering fresh water and others take months. Coho salmon, ocean form (left) and freshwater form of reproductive male (right). Copyright Saturdaze. Coho Salmon (NOAA image). Coho salmon are a favorite sport fish. They feed near shore and are thus near areas where anglers fish. This species is the second least abundant of the North Pacific salmon (Chinook are the least abundant).

Coho salmon make up only seven to ten percent of the commercial salmon fishery. Young coho spend one or two years in fresh water. Salmon in the southern part of their range (warmer) spend one year and salmon in the northern part of their range (cooler) spend two years. This species usually goes less than one hundred miles from the mouth of their stream for reproduction although a few populations travel over a thousand miles - so there is quite a diversity in this species. Chum salmon, ocean form (left) and freshwater form of reproductive male (right). Copyright Saturdaze. Chum Salmon (NOAA image). Chum salmon are the most widely distributed and have the greatest biomass of the North Pacific salmon. They are the second largest of the salmon (Chinook are the largest). Chum salmon are one of the most common salmon in the sport fishery. The name 'chum' comes from a word meaning 'variegated coloration' in the native language and chum salmon have a different coloration (from other salmon species) that is variegated. Reproduction for chum salmon is somewhat varied.

Many reproduce near the mouth of their stream (like pink salmon) whereas others travel up to one hundred miles inland. They migrate to the ocean after six to seven months in fresh water but spend three to five years in the ocean. The long period of time spent in the ocean gives them plenty of time to feed and grow to their large size. Because they are found in the same streams, the chum may hybridize with the pinks in their stream. Although this rare event has been documented numerous times (and the hybrids are thought to be fertile) there are no hybrid populations that are self-sustaining at this time. Chinook salmon, ocean form (left) and freshwater form of reproductive male (right). Copyright Saturdaze. Chinook Salmon (NOAA image). Chinook salmon are the largest, but least abundant of the North Pacific salmon. Because of their low abundance they are of minor importance in the salmon fishery. The name 'Chinook' came from the native peoples of the Columbia River (Washington and Oregon) and thus is a proper name and always capitalized. Young Chinook spend one to two years in fresh water.

Like coho, it is the populations in the southern part of their range that migrate to the ocean after one year and it is the populations in the northern part of their range that migrate to the ocean after two years. Many Chinook migrate over two thousand miles downstream as babies and then upstream as adults. It is believed that there are now only five to ten percent of the Chinook salmon left that were here only 150 years ago. There are two more salmon species in the northern hemisphere - one in the waters of northern Asia and one in the North Atlantic. The salmon from Asia is called the cherry (or masu) salmon and is classified in the genus Oncorhynchus as are the five common North Pacific salmon just described. The North Atlantic species is classified in the genus Salmo and is different in several ways. One of the major differences is behavioral as the Atlantic salmon can spawn up to three times in its life, returning to the ocean in between whereas none of the Pacific salmon can do this.

(Revised 21 March 2010) Puget Sound Shorelines: Species - Salmon: Estuary Use Oncorhynchus tshawytscha The "ocean-type" chinook generally spends a brief time in freshwater streams. It then migrates to estuary waters, where it may stay for an extended time before heading out to sea. The "stream-type" chinook lives one or more years in freshwater streams and typically passes through estuaries quickly before moving out to sea. Of all Pacific salmon species, "ocean-type" (fall) chinook rely most on estuaries and nearshore waters along Puget Sound - some stay as long as 189 days. Chinook fry and fingerlings move downstream to estuaries at a young age. Here they adapt to saltwater, hide from predators, and grow rapidly feeding on planktonic animals. Saving Estuaries and Chinook Puget Sound chinook salmon are a threatened species. Chinook populations in Puget Sound have declined 18 to 90 percent since the 1960's. One cause is the destruction of wetlands and estuaries.

Puget Sound has lost more than 70% of its tidal wetlands to filling, dredging, and diking - crucial areas for developing young chinook salmon. Oncorhynchus keta Chum fry travel downstream shortly after hatching, form dense schools, and spend a month or more in estuary waters. Young chum favor eelgrass meadows and often prey on small crustaceans such as harpacticoid copepods, gammarid amphipods, and isopods. Many genetically distinct runs exist on Puget Sound and Hood Canal. As many as three distinct populations may exist on the same river, passing through estuaries and on to sea at different rates. Threatened Chum Salmon Listed as a threatened species in 1999, the populations listed include all naturally-spawning summer-run chum salmon in Hood Canal and populations in Olympic Peninsula rivers between Hood Canal and Dungeness Bay. Hood Canal summer-run chum have disappeared from several streams. Populations in other streams show severe decline. Oncorhynchus nerka Sockeye spend one or two years developing in lakes. Large smolts typically pass quickly through estuary waters for ocean rearing grounds.

One type of sockeye, however, migrates quickly down to estuaries and develops there over time. Saving Sockeye Salmon Because young sockeye rely on lakes or estuaries, areas where people also congregate, they are susceptible to water quality and habitat threats. Sockeye salmon have greatly declined over the last 70 years and in some areas are now extinct. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Pink salmon begin migrating downstream almost immediately after emerging from the gravel. Pinks move rapidly into tidal channels and nearshore nursery areas, often in schools and usually in darkness. Juvenile pinks grow quickly while in nearshore waters, up to 5-6% body weight per day. Preferred prey of young pinks includes small crustaceans (euphausids, amphipods, and cladocerans). After a few weeks to a few months in estuaries and nearshore regions, pink salmon move offshore, where they migrate at sea for 12-16 months. Pink Salmon & Development Schools of juvenile pink salmon have been observed in Puget Sound avoiding deeper waters near marinas and bulkheads ­ where they may be more vulnerable to predators.

Oncorhynchus kisutch When coho enter estuary waters, they may be two years old and relatively large. As larger smolts, coho may pass quickly through estuaries and out to sea. In some cases however, the transition to the ocean may be prolonged. Some coho never leave coastal waters and return early to spawn as immature "jacks." Another "ocean type" coho migrates as fry to brackish waters in estuaries. These juveniles may use tidal sloughs and flood plains for development. Oncorhynchus mykiss Recently designated the same genus as Pacific salmon, steelhead are large rainbow trout that go to sea. Young steelhead spend two to three years in streams developing. In estuaries, larger smolts feed on insects, small crustaceans, and crab larvae. Studies show that steelhead from the Puget Sound area are genetically distinct from other regions. There may also be some genetic differentiation between populations from northern and southern Puget Sound. Even when Puget Sound steelhead migrate to the ocean, they may spend considerable time as juveniles or adults in the protected waters of the Sound.

Oncorhynchus clarki clarki Recently designated the same genus as Pacific salmon, cutthroat can be found year round in shallow water close to shore. Juvenile cutthroat trout spend a range of times in estuaries. Some cutthroat trout may remain in nearshore/estuary waters most of their lives feeding on amphipods, isopods, shrimp, and young fish such as pink and chum salmon. Salmon Species & Survival Each stock of wild salmon is important. The genetic variation among salmon species and the range of estuary use helps salmon survive. Of 148 stocks reviewed in Puget Sound in 1993, 11 stocks of Puget Sound Chinook, chum and steelhead were found to be in danger of extinction. 44 stocks including coho and Hood Canal pink salmon were "depressed" or below expected levels. Source: Salmon and Steelhead Stock Inventory, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1993. Fish images courtesy Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife.

Related Topics Skeena Salmon Program: Chinook, Coho, Pink, Chum, and River-Type Sockeye Salmon Habitat Report Cards: All Conservation Units Download lib_354.pdf, 124.5 MB Description These habitat report cards use maps to summarize the location and intensity of pressures on the migration, spawning, rearing, and egg incubation habitat of Chinook, coho, pink, chum and river-type sockeye salmon Conservation Units in the Skeena Watershed. Note: This is a VERY LARGE FILE. Report cards may also be downloaded individually , which may work better for slower internet connections. The report cards are part of a larger project that performed a broad-scale evaluation of the vulnerability of Skeena Chinook, coho, pink, chum and river-type sockeye to regional habitat threats and pressures. Products produced as part of this project include: Habitat report cards for each Chinook, coho, pink, chum and river-type sockeye CU in the Skeena watershed Skeena Estuary report card Skeena River Basin report card (showing habitat indicators that cannot be clearly associated with an individual CU) Report describing the project methods and results Interactive online map GIS data compiled for this project.

More information about this project, as well as links to all of the products listed above, can be found here . Results of a similar project for Skeena lake-type sockeye can be found here . Skeena Salmon Program – Pacific Salmon Foundation | #300, 1682 West 7th Ave, Vancouver BC V6J 4S6 | 604-664-7664 | skeena@psf.ca Salmon | Seafood Selector Canned salmon is mainly sockeye or pink from Alaska. + - Coho salmon (wild, US and Canada Pacific) OK High MORE ABOUT COHO SALMON The steely gray-blue Coho salmon is born in freshwater streams and marine inlets, then travels to sea, where it lives most of its life, until it travels back upstream to its origin, where it spawns and dies. During spawning time, the fish changes to a bright red on its sides. Coho salmon can grow up to 3 feet (0.9 meter) in length. Commercial Sources Coho salmon are found in the North Pacific Ocean. In the eastern Pacific, they occur from Alaska to Baja California in Mexico. In the western Pacific, they are distributed from Russia to Japan.

The main sources of coho salmon are the United States for wild caught fish and Chile and Japan for farmed fish. Wild coho sold in the U.S. market are primarily from the United States, while farmed coho are mostly from Canada. Capture Methods Coho salmon come from marine fisheries and fish farms. Wild fish are primarily caught with hooks-and-lines. Additional types of fishing gear include purse seines, gillnets and traps. Farmed fish are raised in net pens. Note: Most coho salmon is wild caught. + - Pink salmon (Washington) Low MORE ABOUT PINK SALMON The smallest of the true salmon, the pink salmon is born in freshwater streams and rivers. But because of its less-refined homing instincts than its salmon relatives, it does not always return directly to its birthplace to spawn. This fish changes from blue-green to reddish or brown during spawning. It grows to 2.5 feet (76 cm) length. Commercial Sources Pink salmon are found in the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans. In the eastern Pacific, they occur from the Aleutian Islands to southern California. In the western Pacific, they range from the Russian Federation to Japan and Korea.

The main sources of pink salmon are the Russian Federation and the United States. Capture Methods Pink salmon come from marine fisheries, not fish farms. They are primarily caught with purse seines. Additional types of fishing gear include gillnets, hooks-and-lines and traps. + - Sockeye salmon (Washington, Oregon) High MORE ABOUT SOCKEYE SALMON Sockeye salmon is born in freshwater: one type, the landlocked kokanee, spends its life in freshwater, while the ocean salmon travels out to sea only to return to its native stream to spawn. During spawning, males' heads turn a bright green and their fins brilliant red, while females change into a paler version. Ocean salmon grow larger, up to 2.5 feet (76 cm), than the kokanee. Commercial Sources Sockeye salmon are found in the North Pacific Ocean. In the eastern Pacific, they occur from Alaska to central California. In the western Pacific, they range from the Bering Sea to northern Japan. There are landlocked populations in the United States (Alaska, Washington and Oregon States) and in Canada (British Columbia). The main source of sockeye salmon is the United States.

Capture Methods Sockeye salmon come from marine fisheries, not fish farms. They are primarily caught with gillnets and purse seines. Additional types of fishing gear include troll lines and traps. + - Wild salmon (CA) High More about Wild salmon Some wild salmon are caught off California, Oregonand Washington.Because of the collapse of chinook populations and the poor state of coho salmon off California and Oregon, salmon fishing has been severely restricted for those states. Washington fisheries remain open. Habitat damage from water diversions, dam construction and urban development all threaten salmon populations + - Wild salmon (WA) Low More about Wild salmon Some wild salmon are caught off California, Oregonand Washington.Because of the collapse of chinook populations and the poor state of coho salmon off California and Oregon, salmon fishing has been severely restricted for those states. Washington fisheries remain open. Habitat damage from water diversions, dam construction and urban development all threaten salmon populations + - Wild salmon (OR) High More about Wild salmon Some wild salmon are caught off California, Oregonand Washington.Because of the collapse of chinook populations and the poor state of coho salmon off California and Oregon, salmon fishing has been severely restricted for those states. Washington fisheries remain open.

Habitat damage from water diversions, dam construction and urban development all threaten salmon populations + - Chinook salmon (wild, US Pacific) OK High MORE ABOUT CHINOOK SALMON Also called king salmon, the steely gray-blue chinook is born in freshwater streams and marine inlets, then travels to sea, where it lives most of its life, until it travels back upstream to its origin, where it spawns and dies. During spawning time, the fish changes to a bright red on its sides. Chinook salmon can grow up to nearly 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length. Commercial Sources Chinook salmon are native to the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans. In the eastern Pacific, they range from Alaska to California. In the western Pacific, they occur from the Bering Sea to Japan. Chinook salmon have been introduced into Europe, Central and South America and Oceania. The main sources of chinook salmon are the United States, for wild caught fish, and Canada and New Zealand for farmed fish. Wild chinook sold in the U.S. market are primarily from the United States, while farmed chinook are mostly from Canada. Capture Methods Chinook salmon come from marine fisheries and fish farms.

Wild fish are primarily caught with troll lines, gillnets and purse seines. Additional types of fishing gear include hooks-and-lines, weirs, pots and traps. Farmed fish are raised in net pens. Note: Most chinook salmon is wild caught. + - Chum salmon (Wild, US Pacific) OK Low MORE ABOUT CHUM SALMON The steely gray-blue Chum salmon is born in freshwater streams and marine inlets, then travels to sea, where it lives most of its life, until it travels back upstream to its origin, where it spawns and dies. During spawning time, the fish changes to a gray-red on its sides. Chum salmon can grow up to 3 feet (0.9 meter) in length and may live up to 6 years. Commercial Sources Chum salmon are found in the North Pacific Ocean. In the eastern Pacific, they range from Arctic Alaska to California. In the western Pacific, they are distributed from the Bering Sea to Japan and Korea. The main sources of chum salmon are Japan and the United States. Capture Methods Chum salmon come from marine fisheries, not fish farms. They are primarily caught with purse seines and gillnets.

Additional types of fishing gear include hooks-and-lines and traps. + - Atlantic or Farmed salmon Types of Salmon | MyRecipes What is the difference between chum, sockeye, king and coho salmon? By Marge Perry August 09, 2012 This is wild salmon season: salmon are fished in Alaska and the Pacific coast from May to August. The season usually opens with King salmon (also known as Chinook). As the name implies, it is the largest of the pacific salmon species (typically 11-18 pounds) and has the highest oil and healthy omega-3 content. It is prized for its buttery flavor and texture. It has a very short and limited season and is the most expensive species. Sockeyesalmon, which is more abundant, is flavorful with a deep, bright red-orange and also has a high fat and omega-3 content. Most of the sockeye we get comes from Alaskan waters, where they are managed in a sustainable way. Sockeye is the wild salmon most of us can get in the grocery store for a limited time. According to the government agency Fishwatch , the harvest on the Copper River in Alaska this year is over 1 million.

Click here to read more about sockeye and Copper River Salmon. Cohosalmon appears late in the season‚Äîusually from August to September. It is milder than King and sockeye salmon. It is sometimes called silver salmon‚Äîbut don't confuse that with Silverbrite, which is a trade name for Chum salmon. Chumsalmon are lower in oil than other Pacific salmon, and can vary greatly in quality. They are relatively abundant and are often used for canned salmon. Pink (humpback)salmon are the most abundant of the species. They are small (2-3 pounds), have lighter colored flesh and milder flavor and are lower in fat than the other types of salmon. These are often sold canned or smoked. Salmon | Seafood Health Facts Almost all Pink salmon consumed in the U.S. is harvested in Alaska. Pink salmon is primarily sold as a canned product. Sockeye salmon Sockeye salmon is caught by U.S. fishermen, mainly in Alaskan waters. Sockeye salmon is sold fresh, frozen and canned. Chum salmon Chum salmon are primarily harvested by U.S. fishermen in Alaska.

Wild fish populations in Alaska are supported by the release of hatchery raised fish. Chum salmon are sold fresh, frozen and canned Coho salmon Most Coho salmon is caught in Alaskan waters, and some is imported from Canada and Chile. Most Coho salmon is sold fresh or frozen. Chinook (King) salmon Chinook salmon are commercially harvested in Alaska, Washington, Oregon and in small amounts off California. Most Chinook salmon is sold fresh or frozen. Product Forms All types of salmon are available in one of three product forms: fresh, frozen or canned. Most of the salmon consumed in the U.S. is either fresh or frozen and the predominant market form in retail stores and restaurants is fillets or steaks. About one fourth or less of the wild domestic salmon catch is canned, and most canned salmon is either pink, chum, or sockeye. Some imported canned salmon is also available in U.S. markets. Smoked salmon is also produced in the U.S. and some is imported. Cold smoked salmon, marketed as "lox" or "nova lox", is a lightly salted, smoked and partially cooked ready-to-eat product that is sold in retail stores and restaurants as an appetizer or as an ingredient in other dishes.

Hot smoked salmon is also lightly salted and fully cooked. Most smoked products are made from either Atlantic, King or Coho salmon. Nutrition Information All types of salmon provide a good source of high quality protein and the heart healthy omega-3 fatty acids. The fat and omega-3 content varies from one species to another. Total fat content ranges from approximately 4 to 11 grams per 3 ounce cooked serving. Omega-3 fatty acid content ranges from 700 to 1,800 milligrams of omega-3 fatty acids per 3 ounce cooked serving. A summary of the fat and omega-3 content of the six commercially important salmon species is provided in the chart below. Salmon is also a good source of a variety of vitamins and minerals. Canned salmon that contains bones is also a good source of calcium. Salmon Species Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Management and Sustainability Although Atlantic salmon are contained in the Atlantic Salmon Fishery Management Plan, they are currently being managed under a federal Recovery Plan in close cooperation with the state of Maine, due to their listing as endangered in 2000. Recovery plans delineate actions that are thought to be necessary to recover and/or protect endangered species.

Today, U.S. fishery regulations prohibit commercial and recreational harvest of sea-run Atlantic salmon in state and federal waters. Atlantic salmon aquaculture in the United States must comply with environmental and health standards, and U.S. producers and buyers are involved in improving best practices for aquaculture worldwide. All management of the Alaska salmon fisheries in federal waters is deferred to the State of Alaska, which is also responsible for managing the commercial, recreational, and subsistence fisheries for salmon in state waters. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game manages salmon in state waters. The salmon populations in Alaskan waters, where most of the U.S. commercial harvest occurs, are all generally considered to be healthy with no overfishing occurring. The salmon fisheries in the federal waters off Washington, Oregon, and California are managed by the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) under a different FMP. Each state manages the salmon fishery in their respective state waters. Local populations of some species of salmon native to certain river systems in California, Oregon and Washington are considered threatened and are being actively managed as necessary to preserve habitat and encourage populations to rebuild.

References Chum Salmon Color Patterns | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife by Jim Ames and Steve Schroder Author's Note The following discussion of the color patterns of chum salmon has been adapted from an article titled "Color Variations in Spawning Pacific Salmon" (by Jim Ames and Steve Schroder), published in Breakthrough Magazine in 1995. We wish to thank Larry Blomquist, publisher and editor of Breakthrough Magazine, for allowing the use of this copyrighted material on the WDFW web site. Mature chum salmon entering freshwater to spawn. As discussed in the text below, the color patterns displayed by these fish are very dynamic, being affected by behavior factors and natural aging processes. One of the most overlooked of the many fascinating life history attributes of Pacific salmon is the use of varying color patterns throughout the lives of this group of fish. Few people understand the amount of variation that exists in the color patterns of salmon, particularly during spawning, and that these variations reflect the physical condition, degree of maturation, stock or racial origin, and the social positions of individual fish.

For most people, information about salmon color patterns usually comes from photographs of dead fish, or exhausted live fish that have just been caught on hook and line (like many of the photographs presented throughout the Chum Salmon Web Page). Salmon in either of these conditions do not display the colors of living fish happily occupied with the goals of feeding, growing, and ultimately producing as many offspring as possible. In this article, we will primarily discuss the colors of spawning chum salmon and include photographs showing various color patterns displayed by this species. These salmon color observations are the result of several decades spent studying and observing these fish in streams from Oregon to Alaska. Our goal is to explain some of the things you should look for if you get an opportunity to observe live spawning salmon. Fish Color The variety of colors displayed by fishes is unrivaled in the animal kingdom. Not only do fish exhibit just about every conceivable variation of color, stripes and spots, but they also have the ability to change colors and patterns depending on their environments, individual moods, or life history phases. The physical basis of fish color and the mechanisms controlling color changes provide insight into why fish look the way they do.

Fish color is determined by chromatophores, specialized cells that are present in the skin of nearly all fish species. Chromatophores are irregularly shaped cells that take many forms but usually are roughly circular with multiple radiating branches. There are two basic types of chromatophores; those that provide pigmented color, and those responsible for metallic, iridescent colors. The pigmented chromatophores include melanophores (black and brown), erythrophores (red) and xanthophores (yellow). These specialized cells absorb light, specifically, the complement of the color being expressed by a particular chromatophore. Color intensity is controlled within these cells by concentrating or dispersing pigment granules. When pigments are concentrated, the skin will be lighter and the chromatophore's color will be suppressed. Conversely, dispersion of pigment granules within a chromatophore will darken the skin and enhance color. The metallic chromatophores include leucophores (white) and iridophores (silvery), and they contain organic crystals that reflect light to display various metallic or iridescent colors. Fish and other vertebrates have not evolved pigments for colors in the green-blue-violet spectral range.

These colors are produced by iridophores reflecting light of specific wave lengths, or by the combined effects of iridophores overlaid with other chromatophores. Pigment chromatophores of differing colors can also overlay each other, and some can carry more than one pigment, processes which add greatly to the overall palette of fish colors. There are various ways fish produce or change their color patterns. The most fundamental color schemes are the genetically determined (morphological) colors and patterns that are specific for each life history stage. Such colors can be thought of as the generic patterns that occur throughout the range of the species. These general color schemes do show some variations in individual fish, particularly in patterns of spots, stripes and bars. The generic color pattern of the spawning chum salmon (our focus species) is dominated by irregular vertical bars along the sides that vary in color in a set pattern from black just posterior of the opercle, to various shades of red or maroon in the middle of the body, and again to black along the caudal peduncle. Other notable colors include dark, often black ventral surface, and black ventral and anal fins with snow white tips.

Other types of color patterns can be controlled and changed by the fish itself; and are the primary subject of this article. These physiological changes are a response to a variety of environmental and behavioral factors, and are under both neural and hormonal control. Neural, or nervous system, control of color can involve all types of chromatophores except iridophores. Spawning salmon display a range of neurally controlled colors that often reflect their sex and social status. The most obvious example of neural control (or lack of it) is the change in color that occurs when nervous system control ends - when a fish dies. Pigmented colors often fade, but silvery or otherwise metallic areas (iridophores) maintain their normal intensity. Hormonal control of color can take a variety of forms, but usually acts primarily on the melanophores and can cause either a lightening or darkening of the skin. Adrenaline, in particular, is known to concentrate pigment, resulting in lightening of melanophores, which causes a blanching of skin color. Salmon Colors Five species of salmon (genus Oncorhynchus) occur along the Pacific coast of North America, and two other species are found only in Asian waters.

Of the North American species, the chinook (king) and coho (silver) salmon are the best known because of their wide distribution and renowned sporting qualities. The sockeye (red), pink (humpback) and chum (dog) salmon have long been thought of as commercial species, but these fish are increasingly valued by sport anglers. Each species of Pacific salmon has unique color patterns that vary throughout their lives and are the most vivid and colorful during the spawning period. Prior to spawning, Pacific salmon undergo a series of remarkable transformations. They physiologically change from a marine organism to one that can live in freshwater, their jaws become elongated, large teeth may erupt through the gums, the skin and fins thicken and scales are partially resorbed. Accompanying these morphological changes are often spectacular species-specific changes in body coloration. Naturalists have frequently pondered why spawning salmon develop such vivid color patterns and at various times have proposed that they allow the fish to recognize members of their own species, aid in camouflage, increase oxygen absorption through the skin, and serve as important intraspecific signals in spawning communities. Variations Mature salmon are particularly interesting because their general morphology can vary regionally and their body colors are temporally dynamic.

In this article six factors are described that can influence the color patterns of individual spawning fish. For living spawners in their natural habitat, the most important factors are discussed in the Social and Sexual Differences section, which covers the complex color patterns used by the salmon to communicate social standing and to compete for mates. The color variations discussed here are general descriptions, and it should be noted that individual fish can vary greatly from the normal species pattern because of factors like genetic mutation, disease, injury, or hybridization with another species. Also, with the degree of color variability expressed by Pacific salmon, it would be expected that some populations could vary substantially from the patterns described below. 1. Maturation Differences As Pacific salmon return from the ocean (or large lake systems) in the last year of their lives, they exhibit typical pelagic fish coloration: dark blue or green backs with silvery sides and bellies. This counter-shading pattern can make a fish nearly invisible in an open-water environment as illumination from above lightens dorsal surfaces and shading darkens ventral surfaces. The silvery sides and belly reflect the general water or background color, resulting in near-perfect camouflage.

At this stage females and males are almost indistinguishable, and it takes experience and a sharp eye to differentiate sexes. Ocean bright chum salmon showing the counter-shading colors that provide camouflage for the fish in the open-water ocean environment. Chum salmon showing progressive development of the bar pattern as the fish mature. The first fish is ocean bright, displaying only the slightest indications of bars. The second individual exhibits increased definition of the bar pattern, and the third fish is beginning to change color from the silver-blue ocean coloration to the basic green/yellow spawner color. The last fish shows typical coloration when entering freshwater, and the light color in the center of individual scales shows that it has not yet reached full spawning colors. © 2000 Steve Schroder A dead male chum salmon that has completed its life cycle and displays pronounced scale loss in the caudal peduncle area, probably caused by the bites of competing males. All fins exhibit fraying, and the lower jaw shows some skin loss that may also have been caused by fighting behavior. The light colored patches on the body surface are sites of secondary fungal infestation. Sexual dimorphism increases as th e maturation process proceeds and the fish approach and enter their natal spawning grounds.

The silvery ocean-type coloration gradually changes to full spawning dress, with the males of some species displaying more vivid colors than the females. Each salmon species has a characteristic spawning coloration, making identification relatively simple during this life stage. Sockeye, coho, and northern stocks of chinook adopt various shades of red or maroon as their basic spawning colors. Pink salmon and southern chinook stocks vary in coloration from light to dark brown. The chum is unique in color, with a greenish ground color overlaid with patterns of black and maroon. As mentioned earlier, marked changes in body form also take place as salmon mature. Males develop characteristic hooked snouts and large spawning teeth, and the body becomes laterally compressed. In a few species, males may also develop pronounced humps. An often overlooked feature is that the adipose fins of mature male salmon are substantially larger than their female counterparts. Female body form does not change as markedly as the male; the skin thickens to a lesser degree, jaws elongate slightly, teeth become somewhat more prominent and developing ovaries fill out the abdominal area. All of these changes are controlled by hormones and occur throughout the range of each species.

Once sexual maturation has occurred, Pacific salmon rapidly age, with death the ultimate result. Males engage in ritualized battles and simple aggression to gain access to potential mates, and females use their caudal fins to prepare two to seven nests which they guard until death. These behaviors cause physical changes in their color patterns. Because of their repeated fighting activities, the skin adjacent to the dorsal fin and caudal peduncle of males is often abraded and turns a light tan or white. The caudal fin and peduncle of females not only becomes abraded but skin, muscle tissue and fin rays are eroded. In general, the vivid color patterns on both sexes become occluded because of injuries and fungal infestations as the fish approach death. The duration of the spawning process is variable, but all five of the Pacific salmon species die within several weeks of the initiation of spawning. 2. Latitudinal Differences Within a salmon species, spawning colors are usually brighter and more vivid the farther north the spawning distribution occurs. Whether there is some form of genetic selection for brighter colors in more northern areas, or if this phenomenon is simply a response to local environmental conditions (water temperature or amount of daylight) is not clear.

For most species, the more northern stocks express this color variation as a simple intensification of the generic pattern, with most areas of the body showing brighter hues of the characteristic species colors. For spawning chum salmon in the northern portion of their range, the result is often brighter maroons or reds in the banding pattern, darker and more extensive blacks on ventral surfaces and on the ventral and anal fins, and generally more colorful heads and body ground colors. The chinook salmon is an exception to the above tendency; there is actually a shift in the basic spawner colors in stocks along the coast. In California and coastal Oregon, chinook spawners display a dark brown or blackish color. In Washington, the typical spawning chinook will be a lighter olive brown, and in the Puget Sound region, an occasional dark red spawner will be seen. Proceeding north of Washington State, chinook spawners become progressively redder, until bright red spawners are the rule, as in Alaska.. 3. Stock Differences Individual populations, or stocks, of salmon can display color patterns distinctly different from adjacent populations.

A stock of fish is generally defined as a discrete group that is reproductively isolated from other populations; in other words, no significant interchange of spawners occurs among populations. This reproductive isolation allows a stock to adapt to local conditions, which can result in changes in run riming, survivals, body forms, color patterns, etc. In the case of color patterns, stock differences are often related to latitudinal differences, because different stocks are encountered along the Pacific coast. There are, however, examples of color differences in stocks of salmon that occupy the same region. Puget Sound chum salmon have developed three distinct times for spawning: summer, fall, and winter stocks. A general observation is that the summer stocks, those spawning in September and October, often exhibit brighter spawning colors than their fall and winter spawning counterparts. A similar example of brighter spawning colors in early run stocks can be seen in steelhead in the giant west coast river systems like the Columbia and Skeena rivers. Early run, upriver steelhead stocks generally display distinctly brighter (redder) spawning colors than the later run winter steelhead spawning in lower river tributaries.

Whether these examples of color variations between differently timed stocks represent genetically determined traits, or are just a response to local environmental conditions (different water temperatures or ambient light levels) is unclear. It is certain, however, that heritable traits, like color patterns, can vary in reproductively isolated populations. 4. Social & Sexual Differences To throughly appreciate the spawning life history of Pacific salmon, an understanding of how and when male and female fish express various color patterns is necessary. All species of Pacific salmon display a similar set of color patterns which represents a non-verbal language that contributes to the individual's success in attracting potential mates and in repelling competing rivals. The general color patterns evident in spawning Pacific salmon are vertical bars in males, and a single dark horizontal stripe in females. While spawning females of all species display some variation of the stripe pattern, the dominant males of different species express the barred pattern to varying degrees. The barred pattern in males varies from the bold bars of the chum spawner to a more subtle, vertical pattern of mottling in species with a darker body color (e.g. chinook and coho), and some individual fish show no obvious bars.

Subdominant males, those individuals that have not successfully competed for and attracted mates, tend to reverse the pattern by displaying a stripe. Spawning color patterns are displayed most distinctly by chum salmon, which makes that species an excellent example for describing the characteristics of spawning colorations. The following descriptions of the color patterns of spawning chum salmon are from a study by Steve Schroder, who observed fall-run fish in Big Beef Creek, a stream entering Puget Sound in Washington. Male chum salmon moving upstream to spawn usually display a subdominant stripe pattern. This reduces individual aggression and helps the fish save needed energy reserves (they have stopped feeding). It also allows them to school in secure stream areas, lowering losses to predation. Female chum salmon above displaying the horizontal stripe that reduces the amount of aggression that she is subjected to and communicates her femininity to prospective mates. The stripe pattern usually starts with a dark blotch on the operculum, and may extend through the center portion of the caudal fin. © 2000 Steve Schroder An anesthetized female chum spawner above showing the bar color pattern, which is totally different from the lateral striped pattern of a live, spawning female.

If you compare the photo of this female churn with the underwater photograph of the striped female spawner above, it would be easy to incorrectly assume that the two fish were members of different species. Subdominant male chum salmon above displaying the broken stripe pattern. The black color is present in those portions of the stripe that overlay the suppressed vertical bar pattern. The dorsal mottling on this fish is in large part caused by sunlight penetrating the riffled water surface. © 2000 Steve Schroder Anesthetized male chum spawner above showing the bar color pattern. The reddish-purple bars are places in the widest part of the fish to enhance the apparent size. In chum salmon the bar color pattern consists of black and red streaks that run perpendicular to the length of the fish. From the posterior edge of the operculum to the tip of the pectoral fins the bars are black. From this point to the posterior edge of the ventral fins (the widest part of the fish), the bars are a reddish-purple after which they become black again. They overlie a mottled green-yellow background which becomes tan on the dorsal surface of the peduncle.

The stripe pattern consist of a single black purple band that runs parallel to the length of the fish. Sometimes a fine white band borders the top and bottom of the stripe which tends to further enhance it. This stripe covers approximately thirty percent of the lateral surface area of the fish. Both sexes are able to quickly change (within seconds) from one pattern to the other, although females usually maintain the stripe pattern. There are various intermediate color stages between the bars of a dominant male and the stripe pattern of a spawning female. These intermediate patterns will often be expressed by subdominant and stressed fish (see photo of frightened chum below). The pattern is usually a partial stripe overlying a subdued banding pattern. The result is a broken stripe with the black color displayed only over areas that would normally be a part of the band pattern. Females often totally suppress the banding pattern, leaving only the broken stripe. The ability of chum salmon to rapidly shift from one basic color pattern to another is apparently the result of several selection pressures. In spawning populations of chum salmon it pays females to advertise their femininity since that will simultaneously reduce the amount of aggression they are subjected to and enhance their attractiveness to males.

Males are also expected to develop masculine traits that repulse or threaten rival and attract females. To the human eye, and most likely to all vertebrate eyes, bars that run perpendicular to the long axis of an object tend to magnify its apparent width while those running parallel to the long axis appear to reduce its bulk. The bar color pattern thus enhances the presumed size of a male to his rivals and prospective mates. Kees Groot, a Canadian scientist, discovered that a male chum salmon's social position relative to other adjacent rivals is reflected by his color pattern. Groot placed adult chum salmon into an aquarium and allowed the fish to form pairs, complete with satellite males (subdominant males that lie downstream from a pair). He observed that the satellite males and females had the stripe color pattern while the dominant males all possessed the bar pattern. Moreover, Groot was able to quickly (within seconds) alter the color pattern of the dominant male by striking its side with a broom handle. Invariably, the struck male lost its vertical bars and developed a dark lateral stripe. Once the broom handle was removed, the dominant male would usually nip at adjacent satellite males and in the process resume the bar color pattern.

Hundreds of observations made in an experimental stream by Schroder corroborated Groot's finding that dominant chum salmon males typically possess the bar color pattern. He found for instance, that dominant males usually had the bar color pattern and that satellite males almost always had a single dark stripe. In species such as chum salmon where competition for females is often intense, males are expected to develop alternative reproductive strategies. Because satellite males almost always have the stripe pattern and closely resemble females, the use of this pattern may reflect a type of female mimicry. Such mimicry commonly occurs in breeding populations of many species when portions of the male population are denied direct access to females. In chum salmon, males having the stripe color pattern avoid intense male aggression and can get close enough to spawning pairs to successfully steal fertilizations. Females often attack such males and slow down their reproductive behavior when courted by them. However, the capacity to rapidly shift from the bar to stripe pattern clearly enhances a male's ability to fertilize eggs. A visit to a spawning stream is necessary to observe this important nonverbal form of communication. A typical grouping of spawning salmon that would likely be observed would include a striped female on a spawning nest, flanked by a large heavily barred dominant male.

Downstream of this pair might be one or two subdominant satellite males displaying variations of the stripe pattern. These satellite males would most likely be on the side of the female opposite of the dominant male. Further downstream might be another spawning pair, or a number of subdominant males and females that have yet to select spawning sites or attract mates. 5. Stressed Fish Photographs of live sport caught salmon would seem to represent ideal representations of the color patterns of living salmon. However, there are several problems with photographs of this type. A disturbed or recently captured live fish will certainly not display dominant or subdominant color patterns. As explained earlier, these patterns only develop when the fish is competing for or spawning with potential mates. A frightened fish, or one that has been removed from the security of the stream environment, will default to the generic color pattern for the species, which is usually subdued in color and may be quite different from the colors displayed by a free swimming salmon. Another substantial problem is that extra production of adrenaline and other hormones caused by stress can result in a distinct lightening of the skin (see photograph below). © 2000 Jim Ames Frightened chum salmon.

This male chum salmon panicked when exposed to human scent in the water. In its rush to escape, the fish beached itself and was thoroughly frightened. The light body color is probably the result of an adrenaline surge, producing a general blanching of skin color. The opposite effect is observed when a fish is stressed to the point of exhaustion, like the typical sport-caught fish. In this case, the adrenaline blanching effect is overridden by other hormones, which disperse pigments in the chromatophores, resulting in a darkening of ground color on dorsal and other surfaces. In fact, photographs of live fish commonly show just such a dark skin color, which can be very different than the color normally exhibited by the fish in the stream. The above photograph of the frightened chum salmon shows another interesting feature; a down-turned eye. A living fish lying on its side will rotate its top eye downward in the eye socket, and this down-turned eye in a photograph shows that the fish was still alive. In fact, the fish displaying a down-turned eye is simply demonstrating an equilibrium reflex by reacting to the unnatural position of lying on its side.

If you hold a live fish on its side and look at the bottom eye, you will see that it is turned upwards in its socket because the fish is trying to orient itself to the normal upright position. The same photograph also shows equilibrium responses in fin positioning. The pectoral fin is clamped tightly against the side, the right ventral fin is curled upwards, and the dorsal and anal fins are cupped. These are the fin positions that will return the fish to an upright orientation as soon as it begins moving forward in the water. Dead male and female chum spawners showing the subdued colors and dark dorsal surfaces typical of dead fish. The male (top) has the bar pattern of a dominant male but lacks the intensity of color of a live fish. The female also exhibits the generic bar pattern which is entirely different than the characteristic stripe of a live spawner. 6. Dead Fish The dead fish photograph is the most common source of information on the colors of salmon and other fishes. If one wants to truly understand the color patterns of living salmon as they appear in their natural habitat, dead fish photographs must be used with caution.

When a fish dies, neutral control of color ends and the fish will typically display subdued generic colors and often an unnaturally dark body ground color. Dominant and subdominant colors and patterns typical of spawning fish will be missing. Such photographs will show the general generic colors, and can be used to identify patterns of spots and stripes, and to see other fine points like scale detail. In Closing Wild chum salmon are abundant in many western Washington streams, providing an excellent opportunity to learn about their freshwater life history through first-hand observation. One of the most intriguing characteristics of this species is the non-verbal language of changing color patterns used by chum salmon during competition for mates and the subsequent spawning process. To gain insight into the significance of the fascinating variations that occur in salmon colors and patterns, there are few good substitutes for sitting on the bank of a stream, observing living fish actually engaged in the spawning process. It is also a pretty nice way to spend your time on a sunny fall day. Additional Reading Ames, J. and S. Schroder. 1995. Color variations in spawning Pacific salmon. Breakthrough Magazine. No 41. p. 76-83. Schroder, S. L. 1981.

The role of sexual selection in determining overall mating patterns and mate-choice in chum salmon. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Wash., Seattle, 274 p. Salmon (Chinook, Chum, Coho, Pink, Sockeye) | SeaChoice Salmon (Chinook, Chum, Coho, Pink, Sockeye) From: Method: Wild, drift gillnet, purse seine, troll Pacific salmon in Alaska is among the most intensively managed species in the world, with excellent monitoring of both the fish populations and the fishery. Alaskan salmon dominates the West Coast salmon market. Over the past 20 years, Alaska has landed roughly 10 times as much salmon as California, Oregon and Washington combined. Freshwater habitats in Alaska have remained relatively pristine, and salmon originating in Alaska does not face the same damming, deforestation and development challenges as those in California and the Pacific Northwest. The current abundance of Alaska salmon and its habitat reflects the success of the state’s management practices.

For these reasons, wild-caught salmon from Alaska is ranked as a “Best Choice.” Report Sushi Name(s)Sake/Ikura (roe) Common Name(s)Chinook, Chum, Coho, Pink or Sockeye Salmon Scientific Name(s)Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Chinook), Oncorhynchus keta (Chum), Oncorhynchus kisutch (Coho), Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Pink), Oncorhynchus nerka (Sockeye) Similar Rankings ODFW Marine Sport Fish ID - Salmon The ocean phase of six different species of Pacific salmon. From top to bottom: chinook, chum, coho, sockeye, pink, and steelhead. The two most commonly caught species of salmon in the ocean hook and line fisheries off Oregon are coho and chinook salmon. Pink salmon are intercepted to a much lesser degree, and are most prevalent off Oregon in years ending in an odd number (i.e. '95, '97, '99, '01, etc.). Chum salmon and steelhead trout are occasionally intercepted as well.

Sockeye salmon are rarely caught by Oregon ocean fishers. Fishing regulations require anglers and commercial fishers to correctly identify salmon species as legal lengths, seasons, and other restrictions often vary based on the species. Anglers who incorrectly identify their catch, may have their fish confiscated, and receive a costly citation as well. It is highly recommended that fishers take the time to review fish identification materials that are available, including the information on this page. Do's and Don'ts for Ocean Salmon i.d. DO use the gumline on the LOWER jaw for identifying a salmon. It is the single best feature to use. It is also the characteristic that is most likely to be used by enforcement officers in deciding whether a violation has occurred and if a citation should be issued. DO review the identification materials provided on this web page, and keep a copy of this or another ocean salmon identification guide with you while fishing. DO carefully release any salmon if you are unable to make a positive identification and the fish may be a prohibited species. DON'T rely on body color or spots to identify a salmon caught in the ocean. Salmon in the ocean phase of their life cycle will not show the colors that are common after they enter the estuaries and rivers.

All ocean salmon are primarily silver in color, and there can be wide variations in spots and color both within and between species. DON'T use the presence or absence of a hooked nose as an identifying characteristic. A hooked nose is a common secondary sexual characteristic of male salmon as they approach maturity, and is present in all species. DON'T use the size of a salmon to determine the species. Although the chinook grows to be the largest of our salmon, with fish over 50 pounds being caught on occasion, the average size of an ocean caught chinook is 12-15 pounds. On the other hand coho, chum, and steelhead have been observed in the 25-30 pound range. Coho Salmon "Silver" (Oncorhynchus kisutch) The coloration on the lower jaw exhibits a distinct banding pattern. Outside the base of the teeth there is a dark band, at the base of the teeth is a white or very light band, and inside of the base of the teeth is another dark band. Bone segments in the fin rays of the tail can be felt by lightly running a finger nail along the top of the fin ray. Teeth are sharp and firmly set in the jaw.

Tail may or may not have "round" spots in the upper lobe. Occasionally, coho will have spots in both lobes of the tail. "Small" spots may or may not be present on the back. Lower jaw of coho salmon. Note the distinct banding pattern of dark to light to dark. Back to top Chinook Salmon "King" (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) The lower jaw is a uniform dark coloration (in some cases may be mottled). Bone segments in the fin rays of the tail CANNOT be felt by lightly running a finger nail along the top of a fin ray. Teeth are sharp and firmly set in the jaw. Tail may or may not have "round" spots in both the upper and lower lobe. "Large" wavy spots are usually present on the back Diagram and two photos showing coloration of lower jaw of chinook salmon. Note that the coloration at the base of the teeth is consistent with the area inside and outside i.e. no distinct banding coloration although colors can vary substantially.

Pink Salmon "Humpie" (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) The lower jaw is a uniform dark coloration (in some cases may be mottled).Teeth are dull and are loosely set in the jaw. Tail is translucent, with large oval spots throughout. Lower jaw of pink salmon and pink salmon tail displaying the large oval spots. Note that there is more variation in the color of the pink salmon gumline than in other salmon species. Generally, the gumline is most similar to the chinook's, however pink salmon will have dull and loosely set teeth while the chinook will have sharp firmly set teeth. Lower jaw of a chum salmon. Note banding pattern of light to dark to light, the opposite of what is seen in coho. Chum Salmon "Dog" (Oncorhynchus keta) Coloration on the lower jaw exhibits a distinct banding pattern. Outside the base of the teeth it is light, at the base of the teeth it is dark, and inside of the base of the teeth it is light again.Tail has no spots. Diameter of the pupil of the eye is large.

Question: Chum, pink, and Chinook are all types of what?
Answer: Salmon