Rome: Foro Romano (the Roman Forum) - TripAdvisor Want the lowest hotel prices? You're in the right place. We check 200+ sites for you. Rome: Foro Romano (the Roman Forum) Review a place you’ve visited JOIN We'll send you updates with the latest deals, reviews and articles for Rome each week. Rome Traveler Article: Rome: Foro Romano (the Roman Forum) Save Article Comments (0) The Roman Forum (Foro Romano) was once the beating heart of ancient Rome. The Roman Forum was a center of commerce, politics, government, and religion. Numerous religious rituals took place there, and the Senate met there. Military commanders paraded through the area in triumph after a successful military campaign. Mark Anthony famously addressed the citizens of Rome there after Caesar’s assassination, an event immortalized by Shakespeare. The Roman Forum lies in a little valley between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. Originally marshland, it was created by draining the area with Rome’s amazing sewer system.

The Roman Forum encompasses many temples and monuments, including: Arch of Septimius Severus (Arco di Settimio Severo): This was a triumphal arch dedicated in C.E. 203 to the Emperor Septimius Severus and his sons, Caracalla and Geta, celebrating their campaigns against the Parthians (people in modern day Iran). There is a central arch, with two smaller side arches. Arch of Titus (circa 82 C.E.): Standing tall on a little rise, looking down onto the Forum, the Arch of Titus consists of a single arch, over which is a large plaque with an inscription dedicating it to the Emperor Titus. This arch famously depicts Roman soldiers carrying off plunder from the temple in Jerusalem, including a great menorah. Recent research found the scene was painted, the menorah in gold, against a blue background. Basilica Aemelia (circa 179 B.C.E.): This was a large basilica (a type of Roman building which formed the model for Christian churches) consisting of a colonnade with commercial shops and a central area where business or legal meetings could be held. Little remains to be seen today.

Basilica Julia (circa 46 B.C.E.): The Roman Forum’s other major basilica, it was built by Julius Caesar on the site of an earlier building. You can still see the steps that ran along the length of the building, but little else remains. Basilica of Maxentius (sometimes called the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine): the last great building of the Roman Forum, this building was started by the Emperor Maxentius, but completed by Constantine -- who defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge -- in 312 C.E. This was the largest building in the Roman Forum – one gets a glimpse of how enormous this building was, when you consider that only one side aisle is left, the central nave and second aisle now destroyed. The giant statue of Constantine, which now is displayed in the courtyard of the Capitoline Museums, was once seated in a throne in the apse. Curia Julia (Roman Senate): Started by Julius Caesar, and finished by his great-nephew and heir, Augustus, this was the third Senate building built.

This was not, however, the building in which Caesar was assassinated, as the Curia was under construction and the Senate was meeting in a temporary facility near the Theater of Pompey on the Ides of March in 44 B.C.E. This building was later converted into a church, which is why it is well preserved. The lovely bronze doors are reconstructions, as the originals were moved to the Basilica of St. John Lateran. Rostra : This was the speaker’s platform, where important speeches and announcements were made to the Roman people. Heads of defeated enemies or traitors would have been displayed here, as well as the prows (rostra) of defeated enemy ships. The Rostra seen today is from the time of Augustus. Temple of Antonius and Faustina (circa 141 C.E.): The Emperor Antionius Pius built the temple for his late wife Faustina, whom he had declared a god after her death. Upon Antonius’ death, the thrifty Roman Senate declared the temple dedicated to the now late (and also deified) emperor as well.

The temple was re-used as a church, hence its unusual structure today, and you can see how the stairs to the church were built at a time when the ground in the Roman Forum was much higher than it is today. Temple of Castor and Pollux (the Dioscuri, or the Twins): Three pillars are all that remain from what must have been a beautiful temple. Temple of Concord : Dedicated to the goddess of peace, Concordia, the temple was built in 167 B.C.E. Only the base remains today. Temple of the Divine Julius : The cremation site of Julius Caesar, the temple was built in 42 B.C.E. when he was declared a god. Little remains today except for a crumbling stone altar and a section of wall. Remarkably, Romans still leave flowers to commemorate Caesar here. Temple of Saturn : Eight giant columns and a pediment stand today from this temple (79 B.C.E.) This was also the site of the Roman Treasury, where reserves of precious metals were kept.

Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestal Virgins : The little round temple (only a few columns remain) dedicated to the goddess of the hearth housed a sacred flame that was constantly watched by the Vestal Virgins. This is one of the oldest temples in the Roman Forum, Nearby is the House of the Vestal Virgins, with a lovely interior courtyard. Temple of Vespasian : This temple was dedicated to the first of the Flavian emperors, Vespasian, and his son, Titus, both of whom had been declared gods. The temple was completed by Titus’ brother, Domitian, in 87 C.E. Three columns that stood at one corner of the building are all that remain. Roman Basilicas - Crystalinks Roman Basilica The Latin word basilica was originally used to describe a Roman public building (as in Greece, mainly a tribunal), usually located in the forum of a Roman town. In Hellenistic cities, public basilicas appeared in the 2nd century BC. After the Roman Empire became officially Christian, the term came by extension to refer to a large and important church that has been given special ceremonial rites by the Pope.

Thus the word retains two senses today, one architectural and the other ecclesiastical. In architecture, the Roman basilica was a large roofed hall erected for transacting business and disposing of legal matters. Such buildings usually contained interior colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces at one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows. One can determine a basilica apart from other structures by its dome. The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was censor. Other early examples include the one at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). Probably the most splendid Roman basilica is the one constructed for traditional purposes during the reign of the pagan emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine after 313.

As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used like the late medieval covered markethouses of northern Europe (where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades). Basilica Aemilia The Basilica Aemilia was a civil basilica in the Roman forum, in Rome, Italy. Today only the plan and some rebuilt elements can be seen. The Basilica was 100 meters (328 ft) long and about 30 meters (98 ft) wide. Along the sides were two orders of 16 arches, and it was accessed through one of three entrances. The new basilica was built on a site where once 5th century BC) were the tabernae lanienae ("butcher shops") and later (4th century BC) the tabernae argentariae, which housed the city's bankers and after a fire were renamed tabernae novae ("new shops"). The square had two facing rows of shops.

A first basilica had been built behind the tabernae argentariae between 210 BC and 195-191 BC, date in which it is mentioned by Plautus. Archaeological studies have shown that this building comprised three naves paved with tufa from Monteverde, the back fa�ade having a portico which opened to the Forum Piscatorium and the Macellum (the area later occupied by the Forum of Nerva). It was erected in 179 BC by censor Marcus Fulvius Nobilior with the name of Basilica Fulvia. After the latter's death, his colleague Marcus Aemilius Lepidus completed it, and it was frequently restored and redecorated by the members of the Aemilian gens, giving the basilica its current name. The 78 BC consul, homonymous of the preceding one, embellished it with the clipei ("shields"). This intervention is recalled in a coin from 61 BC by his son, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. According to other scholars, however, the Basilica Aemilia formed a different edifice from the Basilica Fulvia.

A new edifice in substitution of the Basilica Fulvia was begun in 55 BC by Lucius Aemilius Paulus Lepidus, and inaugurated by his son in 34 BC. This edifice had similar lines to the preceding one; however with a reduced length and a second nave in lieu of the back portico. The columns in the central nave, in African marble, had Corinthian capitals and friezes with deeds from the history of Republican Rome. The columns in the second row were in cipolline marble and, finally, the external ones had Ionic capitals. After a fire, Augustus in 14 BC heavily restored the edifice. In this occasion the tabernae which preceded it towards the Forum square and the portico were totally rebuilt. The latter was dedicated to the emperor's two grandsons (Porticus Gai et Luci): it had two orders of arcades with pilasters and Doric semi-columns. The two upper floors of the basilica (which, according to some scholars, were still unfinished at the time) were totally rebuilt. Over the upper order an attic was built, decorated with vegetable elements and statues of barbarians.

The basilica was restored again in AD 22. On its two-hundredth anniversary, the Basilica Aemilia was considered by Pliny to be one of the most beautiful buildings in Rome. It was a place for business and, in the porticus of Gaius and Lucius (the grandsons of Augustus) fronting the Roman Forum, there were the Tabernae Novae (New Shops). On the colored marble floor one still can see the green stains of bronze coins that melted when Rome was sacked by Alaric the Visigoth in 410 AD. Conspicuous remains of the basilica could still be seen in the Renaissance: they were however used for the Giraud-Torlonia Palace (also no longer existing). Inside, there are several tabernae. The main hall or court is behind the shops. Basilica Julia The Basilica Julia, was a large, ornate, public building used for meetings and other official business during the early Roman Empire. The building was initially dedicated in 46 BC by Julius Caesar, with building costs paid from the spoils of the Gallic War. The Basilica was completed by Augustus, who named the building after his adoptive father.

The building burned shortly after its completion, but was repaired and rededicated in AD 12. The Basilica was again reconstructed by the Emperor Diocletian after the fire of AD 283. The Basilica housed the civil law courts and tabernae (shops), and provided space for government offices and banking. In the first century, it also was used for sessions of the Centumviri (Court of the Hundred), who presided over matters of inheritance. In his Epistles, Pliny the Younger describes the scene as he pleaded for a woman whose 80-year-old husband had disinherited her within days of taking a new wife. It was the favorite meeting place of the Roman people. This Basilica houses public meeting places and shops, but it is used mainly as a law court. On the pavement of the portico, there are diagrams of games scratched into the white marble. Basilica of Maxentius The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (sometimes known as the Basilica Nova 'new basilica' or Basilica Maxentius) was the largest building in the Roman Forum.

Construction began on the northern side of the forum under the emperor Maxentius in 308, and was completed in 312 by Constantine I after his defeat of Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. The building consisted of a central nave covered by three groin vaults suspended 39 meters above the floor on four large piers, ending in an apse at the western end containing a colossal statue of Constantine (remnants of which are now in a courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini). The lateral forces of the groin vaults were held by flanking aisles measuring 23 by 17 metres (75 x 56 feet). The aisles were spanned by three semi-circular cross vaults perpendicular to the nave, and narrow arcades ran parallel to the nave beneath the cross-vaults. The nave itself measured 25 metres by 80 metres (83 x 265 feet) creating a 4000 square meter floor. Like the great imperial baths, the basilica made use of vast interior space with its emotional effect.

Running the length of the eastern face of the building was a projecting arcade of archs. On the south face was a projecting (prostyle) porch with four columns (tetrastyle). All that remains of the basilica is the north aisle with its three concrete cross vaults. The ceilings of the the cross vaults show advanced weight-saving structural skill with octagonal ceiling coffers. In modern usage, a basilica has come to be defined as a place of worship; during ancient Rome, it was a combination of a court-house, council chamber and meeting hall. There were, however, numerous statues of the gods displayed in niches set into the walls. The wrestling events were held here during the 1960 Summer Olympic Games. On the outside wall of the basilica, facing onto the via dei Fori Imperiali, are contemporary maps showing the various stages of the rise of the Roman Empire. The Basilica Maxentius is a marvel of engineering work at the time of the Roman Empire. At the time when it was built it was the largest structure to be built and thus is a unique structure taking both aspects from Roman baths as well as typical Roman basilicas.

At the time it used the most advanced engineering techniques which we known, including innovations taken from the Markets of Trajan and the Baths of Diocletian. Similar to many basilicas at the time such as the Basilica Ulpia, the Basilica Maxentius featured a huge open space in the central nave, but unlike other basilicas instead of having columns support the ceiling the entire building was built using arches, a much more common appearance in Roman baths than basilicas. Another difference from traditional basilicas is the roof of the structure. While traditional basilicas were built with a flat roof, the Basilica Maxentius was built with a folded roof, decreasing the overall weight of the structure and decreasing the horizontal forces exerted on the outer arches. Christian legend: A anachronistic medieval Christian legend, recorded in the Golden Legend and elsewhere, had it that the basilica, which supposedly contained a statue of Romulus, fell down on the night of Christ's birth. This was one element feeding the depiction of the stable of the Nativity of Jesus as a ruined temple from the late Middle Ages on. From the sixteenth century many artists used the actual ruins as a loose base for their depictions.

Roman Towns Roman Towns Interesting Fact Romans invented towns in Great Britain. The Romans built Britain's first towns. They built towns all over Britain as centers to administer the people they had conquered. Within 17 years of the invasion, they had several major towns in place. connected by the famous Roman roads . Towns soon became important places for meetings and trade. Reconstruction of Roman Sichester What were Roman towns like? The Roman towns were full of fine buildings and temples. The Romans liked everything to be organised and orderly. Streets were laid out in neat, straight lines, like on a chess-board. In the middle there was a large square, called the forum. It was used as a market place and for meetings. It had shops and offices on three sides and government offices on the other side. Many towns had running water and sewers. Aqueducts were bridges for bringing water to the towns. Only the rich had water piped to their houses; everyone else used water from public fountains. The only toilets were public lavatories, which were built around the town and connected to underground sewers. What could you find in most Roman towns? Most towns would also have shops as well as the forum.

At one end of the forum was a large building called the basilica. There were temples too where the Roman gods were worshipped. Some towns had public baths , an open-air theatre and huge monumental arches. What was the general layout of a Roman town? Throughout their empire the Romans built towns in exactly the same style. They were designed in the form of a grid, with streets built at right angles to each other and parallel with one of the two main roads. The streets of Roman towns were between five and eight metres wide. Their width depended upon their importance. Each town had two main roads. One heading North-South and the other East-West. At the point where these roads met was the town centre, where the administrative centre and the forum were found. The central part of the towncontained the main businesses, with the homes and dwellings of the citizens further towards the edges of the town. What were Roman buildings made of? Buildings were made of stone and brick. They were so well built that we have been able to excavate many Roman buildings and even towns. Corbridge Roman Town as it might have looked and some of its remains today. What were the largest towns the Romans built in Britain?

The three largest were London, Colchester and St. Albans. Colchester was their main town. What were the names of the Roman towns? The Romans called our towns different names to what we know them as today. Verulamium (St Albans) Lindum (Lincoln) Eboracum (York) Every town with a name ending in 'chester' or 'caster' or ' cester' was once a Roman town e.g. Doncaster, Dorchester and Cirencester. Camulodunum (Colchester) Famous Historic Buildings & Archaeological Site in Italy ? Rome, Colosseum, Forum, Pantheon. Rome The Colosseum The Colosseum (or Coliseum) was started by Vespasian (AD 9 - 79) on becoming emperor in 69 AD. It was built on the site of Neroï¿½s Golden Palace in order to give the land back to the people having been acquired by Nero following the great fire of Rome in 64 AD when the previous amphitheatre was destroyed. Vespasian never saw the amphitheatre completed as he died in 79 AD.

It fell to his sons, Titus and then Domitian to complete the project. Rome is about 2600 years old, and during this time, layers of buildings and roads have accumulated, with many ancient buildings to be found underneath modern day ones. The Square around the Colosseum, however, is at the same level as it was in ancient times. When it was first built, the Colosseum was surrounded by an area paved with large travertine slabs with boundary stones set in the ground. A Colossal statue of Nero, which stood by his palace was retained and it was that which gave it itï¿½s name although itsï¿½ correct name was the Flavian Amphitheatre - after the Flavian dynasty of Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The building itself is elliptical in shape, 187 metres long by 155 metres across and 50 metres high. It originally consisted of three floors ï¿½ with the attic being added later by Domitian. It consisted of 240 external arches with 76 used as entrances. These were numbered, and determined the entrance to be used by each ticket holder.

This enabled an efficient circulation of the 50,000 to 70,000 people it could accommodate and provided swift access and egress - calculated to be approximately 30mins - and it kept the different classes of spectators separated. The arena is 75 metres by 44 metres with the floor made of timber. This was covered with yellow sand which is called harena in Latin, which is where we get the word arena. The spectators were seated in tiers above the arena according to class, with the higher social classes nearer the arena. A fence was place on the podium with wooden rollers on top, in order to prevent anything from climbing over from the arena. When first constructed, the floor could be removed, allowing the arena to be flooded for sea battles called a naumachia; later Domitian added a complex of stores and holding rooms which were constructed on two floors and known as the hypogeum (meaning underground) which brought an end to the naumachia. Animals and gladiators would be kept in the hypogeum until they were required in the arena when they would be lifted into the arena by a series of elevators, or guided up ramps.

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum in order to be able to bring in the animals, gladiators and the condemned without them having to use the streets around the Colosseum. The construction of the Colosseum involved the draining of the lake constructed by Nero and was achieved due to a number of technical innovations in architecture and construction developed by the Romans. These were the arch, concrete and mass production of bricks. It used a number of construction materials to maximise their qualities, these were travertine, tufa, brickwork and cement. The project required vast resources, much of which came from the sacking of the Temple in Jerusalem. The games themselves lasted all day, the morning entertainment was the hunt, where animals were hunted and killed; in many cases with the use of elaborate scenery. Midday was when the condemned were executed and the afternoon was the gladiatorial combat. During the games spectators would be protected from the sun by an awning which was secured to poles passing through sockets at the top of the building and supported on rests built into the walls. The awning was controlled by a unit of sailors of the imperial fleet.

The Colosseum became known as the arena of death due to the number of animals and people who died there in the name of entertainment. The Inaugural games lasted 100 days with thousands of animals being required. The Colosseum remained in service for four and a half centuries with the last gladiatorial combat in 404 AD and the last hunt in 523 AD. Addition information can be seen on Encyclopaedia Britannica The Forum The area of the Forum was originally a grassy wetland of approximately 250 x 170 metres between the Palatine and Capitoline Hill. As more people began to settle in the area during the 7th century BC a large covered sewer system was constructed in order to drain the area into the River Tiber. In time it developed into an open air market near the Comitium (a place of political and judicial activities). Over the years a number of buildings were constructed and in 600 BC the area was paved. This was the first forum and was considered ancient Rome's city centre.

As Rome's population increased, the forum became too small and in 46 BC Julius Caesar built a new one, setting a precedent that was followed by successive emperors including Augustus and Trajan whose forums are adjacent to this one, although a main road separates them and partly covers some of the ruin, work that was carried out by Mussolini in the 1930ï¿½s. The forum was initially a market-place that was also used for festivals and for conducting business. Over time, many of the traditions from the Comitium such as the popular assemblies, funerals of the nobility and games were transferred to the Forum. All the important buildings of Rome were located in or near this area. These include the royal residency of the Regia and the complex of the Vestal Virgins. The Senate House, government offices, Tribunals, religious monuments, memorials and statues could all be found there. Eventually the judicial offices and the senate itself moved from the Comitium to the Forum, which became the city square and the economic and political hub of the Roman Empire.

As with many ancient buildings, a great deal of the building material has been removed from the Forum to be used elsewhere, so apart from a few buildings and the arches of Titus (opposite the Colosseum) and Septimius Severus only columns and stone blocks remain. When visiting the Forum, the first building to be seen on entry is the Temple of Antonious and Fustina situated on the left as you walk in. This temple was begun in 141 AD by the Emperor Antoninus Pius, and was initially dedicated to his deceased wife, Faustina. After Antoninus Pius died in 161 AD, his successor, Marcus Aurelius, re-dedicated the temple jointly to Antoninus and Faustina. The building with itsï¿½ ten monolithic Corinthian columns 17 metres tall stands on a high platform of large blocks. The deep grooves in the temple's columns are the result of a medieval attempt to dismantle the pillared portico: The cords burnt into the columns, they resisted and remained intact. Converted to the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda, in the 7th century it was rebuilt in 1601.

On the right of the entrance next to the Temple of Antonious and Fustina is the Basilica Aemilia. Very little remains of the basilica due to the materials being removed in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance although the floor plan is still discernable showing a rectangular plan 70 × 29 metres which is divided in four naves, the main one being 12 metres wide. The basilica was destroyed and rebuilt on a number of occasions; the first complete reconstruction took place between 55 BC and 34 BC, which included a series of shops used by bankers and money changers. The building was destroyed by fire in 14 BC and rebuilt by Augustus, the ruins of this building can be seen today. Next to the Basilica on the main triumphal route known as the Sacred Way, which led to Capitol Hill and the Temple of Jupiter is the Arch of Severus. This was erected by the Senate in 203 AD on the tenth anniversary of the emperor's accession. It commemorates Roman victories over the Goths and Vandals and his defeat of the Parthians (Persians) in 198 AD.

The arch is made of travertine and marble with reliefs showing the Roman Army departing on the campaign and decisive battles in the wars. The Senate House or Curia was moved to its present location just past the Arch of Severus in 53 BC by Julius Caesar after the previous building was destroyed by fire an occurrence that happened on four occasions. The current building, constructed in 283 AD by Diocletius, consists of a great hall, 25.2 x 17.6 metres with a height of 31.6 meters. Still visible is the original marble floor made out of Egyptian marble and the tiers that held the seats of the senators. In the 7th century it was turned into a church which it remained until 1937, when the interior was removed and the original interior restored, it now hold items and statues. Just behind the Arch of Severus is the Temple of Concord, this was the main temple in ancient Rome, dedicated to the goddess Concordia. Believed to have been originally built in 367 BC, it was restored during the reign of Augustus by Tiberius.

Measuring 45 x 23 meters its design is unusual in that it has its facade on the long side, this was due to the ground configuration and to it being built directly against the wall of the Tabularium which provided a backdrop to the Forum and masks the slope of the Capitoline Hill. Adjacent to the Temple of Concord is the Temple dedicated to the Vespasian and his son, Titus. It was begun by Titus in 80 AD after Vespasian's death, and was completed by Domitian, Titusï¿½s brother, in 87 AD who dedicated the temple to Vespasian and Titus. Like the Temple of Concord it too was restricted by space and measures 22 x 22 metres. All that survives today are three Corinthian columns at the south-east corner, the podium's core and some fragments of the wall. The Temple of Saturn was built during the last years of the Etruscan kingdom and was inaugurated at the beginning of the republic in 497 BC. The existing ruins come from the third Temple which dates from 42 BC, the second one being destroyed by fire in 283 BC.

Although dedicated to the god Saturn, the temple's chief use was as the treasury of the Roman Empire, storing the Empire's reserves of gold and silver. It also served as the state archives and held the official scales for the weighing of metals, the bronze tablets on which the law was inscribed and the banners of the legions and the senatorial decrees. Just in front of the temple is an early twentieth-century restoration of the Rostra. This was a speaker's platform completed by Augustus in 42 BC where Politiciansï¿½ would address the crowd. In 20 BC the Milliarum Aureum column was placed in front of the temple and all distances to Rome were measured from that column. The ruins of a number of other buildings can be seen; the Basilica Julia named after Julius Caesar housed the civil law courts and provided space for government offices and banking. Running along the front of the building were seven honorary columns which were erected under Diocletian (284 ï¿½ 305) only two of which still remain. Temples include the temple of Castor and Pollux built in 414 BC.

All that remains today are three Corinthian columns, with its entablature, its frieze and cornice; the Temple of Caesar with its recessed semicircular niche and altar which marked the site of the funeral pyre of Julius Caesar; and the circular Temple of Vesta built in the 3rd century BC. Although small, the Temple of Vesta was one of Rome's most important, as it was dedicated to the protector of Rome. It held a statue of Vesta and her sacred flame, which was tended by the 6 Vestal Virgins. The girls were selected from aristocratic families when aged between 6 and 10 years old by the Pontifex Maximus, the supreme religious authority of the State. Once selected, they would move into the House of the Vestals next to the Temple where they would serve Vesta for 30 years. Today, the forum may appear to be a disorderly collection of ruins but it marks the heart of the Roman Empire.

Addition information can be seen on Encyclopaedia Britannica The Pantheon The Pantheon has the largest un-reinforced dome in the world and was the largest dome until the completion of the Duomo of Florence in 1436. Constructed of un-reinforced concrete it has a height of 43.3m which equals the dome's diameter. Two identical domes placed together would make a perfect sphere. The Pantheon was built originally as a temple by Marcus Aggrippa, Consul of Rome and son-in-law of the Emperor Augustus around 25 BC and was dedicated to the Roman Gods (ï¿½Pan" means everything, "theon", divine). This is confirmed by the inscription above the entrance which states that "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, in his third consulate, made it." This refers to the original temple and not the current one. Aggrippaï¿½s temple was rectangular in shape and was destroyed by fire in the rein of Domitian, which was then to be rebuilt by him, although that too was destroyed by fire.

The one that exists today was constructed by the Emperor Hadrian during the period 118 to 128 AD and the examination of the building indicates the level of the ground when it was first constructed. The best preserved of all ancient Roman buildings, it owes its preservation to the fact that in 609 AD it was given to Pope Boniface IV who converted it to a church and dedicated it to the Virgin Mary placing the bones of Christian martyrs under the main altar. In 1624 the bronze was removed from the beams in the Pantheon for the construction of the baldacchino in St Peters Basilica. To compensate for the removal, Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) added the two bell towers designed by Bernini which became known as "the donkey ears of Bernini;" these were demolished in 1883. The main part of the building is circular with the entrance through a rectangular structure linking the portico with the rotunda. The portico has three ranks of large granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind). The capitals of the columns are all damaged, except for the three columns on the eastern side.

These three columns were replaced in 1666 with columns taken from the Baths of Severus Alexander. The pediment was originally decorated with a sculpture and holes may still be seen for the clamps which held the sculpture. Within the walls at the back of the portico were niches, which probably held statues of Caesar, Augustus and Agrippa, or Jupiter, Juno and Minerva - known as the Capitoline Triad. The entrance doors to the Pantheon are 7m high (22 feet) and made out of bronze, these were once covered with gold. Inside the Pantheon is a coffered, concrete dome; the concrete consisting of hydrate of lime, pozzolanic ash, pumice with small pieces of rock (around 100mm in diameter) which was constructed over a formwork, similar to the technology used today. At the centre of the dome is the oculus, which measures over 8 metres (27 feet) across and the source of light in the building. Any rain that enters collects in a drain in the centre of the floor. On the 21st June (the summer equinox), the sun rays shine from the oculus through the front door.

Along the interior walls can be seen marble columns, niches with memorial portrait busts, the seven arched recesses originally housed statues of the seven ancient Gods. Today, the walls of the Pantheon have lost much of their splendour. Originally they were covered by Pentelian white marble and stucco, traces of these can still be seen. Located inside the Pantheon are a number of tombs, these include the tombs of Vittorio (Victor) Emmanuel II, first king of a unified Italy; his successor, King Umberto I. Although Italy has been a "Republic" since 1946 members of the Italian monarchist organization holds a vigil over their tombs. Also buried within the Pantheon in 1520 is the Italian artist Raphael, he worked in some of the Papal apartments in the Vatican and his work typifies the classical phase of the Renaissance. Above the altar is a 7th century icon of the Madonna and Child which dates from when the temple was first converted to a Christian church. Although rare today these were common in Roman churches at that time. The Pantheon remains a church to this day and is still used for the celebration of mass, marriages and on special occasions.

Addition information can be seen on Encyclopaedia Britannica St Peter's Basilica Located within the Vatican City, the Papal Basilica of Saint Peter, commonly known as Saint Peterï¿½s Basilica, is the greatest of all the churches of Christendom and the centre piece of the Vatican, which contains the government for the Roman Catholic Church. An independent sovereign city-state the Vatican consists of a walled enclave within the city of Rome, approximately 44 hectares (110 acres), it has a population of around 800 and is the smallest independent state in the world by both population and area. After Jesusï¿½s death, the apostle Peter found his way to Rome where he started to establish the foundations for the Christian Church. Peter was crucified head down and buried in Rome during the time of Nero who blamed the Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in AD 68. For many years the Christians were persecuted until the Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and reversed that persecution. It was Constantine who constructed the first Basilica in the year 326 over the spot where Peter was believed to have been crucified and buried. In 1506, St.

Peter's Basilica was considered to be too small as the main church of the Vatican and a new one was commissioned. In 1546 the project came under the control of Michelangelo who designed the brick dome modeled on the Duomo in Florence. The dome is supported internally by four piers more than 18 meters (60 feet) thick, the dome, which is 138 feet in diameter rises to 390 feet above the floor. Although the dome was completed in 1590, the building itself took over 100 years of intermittent work before it was consecrated in 1626. Located directly in front of St. Peter's Basilica is Saint Peter's Square. Designed by Bernini to enable the greatest number of people to see the Pope if he is either at a window in the Vatican Palace or on the balcony of the church façade. Around the square are two Colonnades consisting of 284 columns and 88 pilasters, these are said to have been designed to represent the arms of the Church welcoming people. On the Colonnades are 140 statues of the Saints: Above the façade are the statues of Jesus and the Apostles.

In the centre of St. Peter's Square is a 40 metre high obelisk dating from 1835 BC which was brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula to stand in the Circus a few hundred metres away. It was moved to its present location in 1585 by Pope Sixtus V. Also in the Square are two 8 metre high fountains, one by Maderno and one by Bernini. Statues of St Peter and St Paul rising over 10 metres high were constructed in 1847 to replace two smaller statues. Entrance to the Basilica is via five doors which correspond to the five naves of the ancient and new buildings. One of the doors, the Holy Door, is bricked up on the inside and only opened by the pope during Jubilee years, when pilgrims may enter through it. The Church is built on the design of the Roman cross and has a capacity of 60,000 people.

The central nave stretches for 186 metres and would hold a 15 storey building, in fact all the major cathedrals would fit inside St Peters and marks along the nave floor show where the other cathedrals would come to. The central focus of the interior is the Baldachin, a monumental canopy 95ft high that covers the papal altar. The altar, where only the pope can say mass, is carved from a single block of Greek marble: Directly below the altar is the tomb of St Peter. The Baldachin has four gigantic twisted bronze columns modelled on the pillars of the Temple of Jerusalem, designed and constructed by Bernini it is the largest bronze sculpture in the world. Started in 1623 it took over nine years of work to complete. Above the altar is the dome which is supported by four gigantic piers. In 1624 Urban VIII commissioned Bernini to create four loggias in these piers. They are called the "Loggias of the Relics".

The relics are: several fragments of the Cross of Jesus; a scrap of material, showing the imprint of the face of a bearded man; a fragment of the lance which was said to have been the one that pieced the side of Christ on the cross; and parts of St. Andrew's head. Within the niches of the piers are statues associated with the relics: St. Helena is holding the cross; St. Longinus holds the spear; St. Andrew with his cross; and St. Veronica holding the veil with the image of Jesusï¿½s face. The Church contains eleven chapels and numerous statues including Michelangeloï¿½s statue of the Pieta. Also is the bronze statue of St. Peter portrayed giving a blessing and holding the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven. Pilgrims, who reached Rome in the Middle Ages, touched or kissed the foot of the statue and prayed to St. Peter to open the gates of heaven for them if they died during the pilgrimage. This tradition has continued so that today most people will touch or kiss its foot, resulting in the foot being worn away.

Also on display are the bodies of a number of the popes in glass cases, these can be seen at the altars of some of the chapels. The Basilica contains contemporary objects as well as those dating back hundreds of years. Visitors are able to visit the Treasury and the tombs in the Crypt and to see columns from the original Constantine Basilica and to go to the top of the dome which provides an excellent view over Rome. Roman Triumphal Arches - Crystalinks Roman Triumphal Arches The Arc de Triomphe, Paris A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, crowned with a flat entablature or attic on which a statue might be mounted or which bears commemorative inscriptions. The main structure is often decorated with carvings, sculpted reliefs and dedications. More elaborate triumphal arches may have multiple archways. Triumphal arches are one of the most influential and distinctive types of architecture associated with ancient Rome.

Thought to have been invented by the Romans, the triumphal arch was used to commemorate victorious generals or significant public events such as the founding of new colonies, the construction of a road or bridge, the death of a member of the imperial family or the accession of a new emperor. The survival of great Roman triumphal arches such as the Arch of Titus inspired many post-Roman states and rulers, up to the present day, to erect their own arches in emulation of the Romans. Arches in the Roman style have been built in many cities around the world, most notably the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, the Siegestor in Munich and the Wellington Arch in London. Origins and Development Roman Triumphal Arches The origins of the Roman triumphal arch are unclear. Monumental gateways had already been in use for thousands of years by civilizations such as the Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians and Myceneans. There were precursors to the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.

The two key elements of the triumphal arch - a round-topped arch and a square entablature - had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece . The Greeks made comparatively little use of the arch, confining it to purposes such as structures such as tombs and sewers that were under external pressure, but made extensive use of entablatures in their temples. Entablatures were an essential part of the structural fabric of such buildings, as they were used to hold up the roofs. The great innovation of the Romans was to combine a round arch and a square entablature in a single free-standing structure. The columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey. The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic. Generals who were granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories. A number of fornices were built in Rome during the Republican era. Lucius Steritinus erected two in 196 BC to commemorate his victories in Hispania.

Another fornix was built on the Capitoline Hill by Scipio Africanus in 190 BC, and Quintus Fabius Allobrogicus constructed one in the Roman Forum in 121 BC. None of them survive today and little is known about their appearance. Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that only emperors would be granted triumphs. The term fornix abruptly ceased to be used and was replaced by arcus, from which the English word "arch" is derived. Whereas Republican fornices were put up at the initiative and expense of the triumphator, without needing or requesting permission, imperial triumphal arches were erected for the triumphator by decree of the senate. The triumphal arch changed from being a personal monument to being an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the state. Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but - unlike many modern triumphal arches - they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not round. Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period.

By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which three have survived - the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch of Septimius Severus (203-205) and the Arch of Constantine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire. The single arch was the most common, but many triple arches were also built, of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange (circa AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many examples of the arcus quadrifrons � a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on all four sides - were built, especially in North Africa. Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan (AD 98-117) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits. Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the only ancient author to discuss them.

He wrote that they were intended to "elevate above the ordinary world" an image of an honored person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a quadriga. However, the designs of Roman imperial triumphal arches � which became increasingly elaborate over time and evolved a regularized set of features � were clearly intended to convey a number of messages to the spectator. The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator. As such, it concentrated on factual imagery rather than allegory. The fa�ade was ornamented with marble columns, and the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a quadriga.

The inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This conception of what later became the art of typography remains of fundamental importance down to the present day. Types of Roman Triumphal Arches Arch of Titus The Arch of Titus is a triumphal arch with a single arched opening, located on the Via Sacra just to the south-east of the Forum in Rome. It was constructed shortly after the death of the emperor Titus (born AD 41, emperor 79-81). The arch commemorates Titus' capture and sack of Jerusalem in 70, which effectively terminated the Jewish War which had begun in 66 (the Romans did not achieve complete victory until the fall of Masada in 73). The Arch of Titus is in three bays with an ABA rhythm, articulated with a massive order of attached columns that stand on a high ashlar basement.

The capitals are Corinthian, but with prominent volutes of the Ionic order scrolling out above the acanthus foliage, the earliest example of the Composite order. Above the main cornice rises a high weighty attic on which is a central tablet bearing the dedicatory inscription. The entablatures break forward over the columns and in the wide central bay. Flanking the central arch, the side bays now each contain a shallow niche like a blind pedicular window, a discreet early 19th century restoration. The soffit of the archway is deeply coffered with a relief of the apotheosis of Titus at the center. The sculptural program also includes two panel reliefs that line the passageway. Both commemorate the joint triumph celebrated by Titus and his father Vespasian in the summer of 71. One of the panels depicts the spoils taken from the Temple, while the other depicts Titus as triumphator attended by various genii and lictors. The soffit of the arch depicts the apotheosis of Titus. The sculpture of the outer faces of the two great piers was lost when the Arch of Titus was incorporated in medieval defensive walling.

The attic of the arch was originally crowned by more statuary, perhaps of a quadriga pulled by elephants.Based on the style of sculptural details, Domitian's favored architect Rabirius, sometimes credited with the Colosseum, may have executed the arch. Without contemporary documentation, however, attributions of Roman buildings on basis of style are considered shaky. Arch of Septimius Severus The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna, a four-arched arcus quadrifrons The white marble Arch of Septimius Severus at the northeast end of the Roman Forum is a triumphal arch erected in 204 AD to commemorate the Parthian victories of the Emperor and his two sons Caracalla and Geta in the two campaigns against the Partians, of 195 and 203. The three archways rest on piers, in front of which are detached Composite columns on pedestals. So much debris and silt eroded from the surrounding hills that the arch was imbedded to the base of the columns. The damage wrought by wheeled medieval and early modern traffic can still be seen on the column bases, above the bas-reliefs of the socles.

The arch was raised on a travertine base originally approached by steps from the Forum's ancient level. The central archway, with a richly coffered semicircular vault, has lateral openings to the side archways, a feature copied in many Early Modern triumphal arches. A staircase in the south pier leads to the summit, on which were statues of the Emperor and his two sons, in a quadriga or four-horse chariot, accompanied by with soldiers. Winged Victories are carved in relief in the spandrels. The Arch stands close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill. A flight of steps originally led to the central opening, as they still do to the Arch of Trajan at Ancona. By the 4th century, erosion had raised the level of the Forum so much that a roadway was put through the Arch for the first time. During the Middle Ages, repeated flooding of the low-lying Forum washed so much additional sediment and debris that when Canaletto painted it in 1742, only the upper half of the Arch showed above ground (illustration, above).

The well-preserved condition of the arch owes a good deal to its having been incorporated into the structure of a Christian church. When the church was refounded elsewhere, the arch remained ecclesiastical property and was not dilapidated for other construction. Triumphal Arch of Orange The Triumphal Arch of Orange (French: Arc de triomphe d'Orange) is a triumphal arch located in the town of Orange, southeast France There is debate about when the arch was built, but current research that accepts the inscription as evidence favors a date during the reign of Augustus (63 BC - AD 14). It was built on the former via Agrippa to honor the veterans of the Gallic Wars and Legio II Augusta. It was later reconstructed by emperor Tiberius to celebrate the victories of Germanicus over the German tribes in Rhineland. The arch contains an inscription dedicated to emperor Tiberius in AD 27. On the northern (outward-facing) facade, the architrave and cornice have been cut back and a bronze inscription inserted, now lost; attempts at reconstructing its text from the placement of cramp holes for the projecting tines of its letters have not been successful.

The arch is decorated with various reliefs of military themes, including naval battles, spoils of war and Romans battling Germanics and Gauls. A Roman foot soldier carrying the shield of Legio II Augusta is seen on the north front battle relief. The arch was built into the town's walling during the Middle Ages to guard the northern entry points of the town. Architect Augustin Caristie studied the arch and carried out restoration work in the 1850s. The arch was originally constructed using large unmortared limestone blocks. It has three arches, the center one being larger than the flanking ones. The entire structure measures 19.57 meters long by 8.40 meters wide, standing to a height of 19.21 meters. Each facade has four semi-engaged Corinthian columns. The arch is the oldest surviving example of a design that was used later in Rome itself, for the Arch of Septimius Severus and the Arch of Constantine. Arch of Constantine 1742 Art The Arch of Constantine (Italian: Arco di Constantino) is a triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill.

It was erected to commemorate Constantine I's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312 AD. Dedicated in 315, it is the latest of the existing triumphal arches in Rome, from which it differs by spolia, the extensive re-use of parts of earlier buildings. The arch is 21 m high, 25.7 m wide and 7.4 m deep. It has three archways, the central one being 11.5 m high and 6.5 m wide, the lateral archways 7.4 m by 3.4 m each. The lower part of the monument is built of marble blocks, the top (called attic) is brickwork reveted with marble. A staircase formed in the thickness of the arch is entered from a door at some height from the ground, in the end towards the Palatine Hill. The general design with a main part structured by detached columns and an attic with the main inscription above is modelled after the example of the Arch of Septimius Severus on the Roman Forum.

It has been suggested that the lower part of the arch is re-used from an older monument, probably from the times of the emperor Hadrian (Conforto et al., 2001; for a defence of the view that the whole arch was constructed in the 4th century. The arch spans the Via Triumphalis, the way taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph. This route started at the Campus Martius, led through the Circus Maximus and around the Palatine Hill; immediately after the Arch of Constantine, the procession would turn left at the Meta Sudans and march along the Via Sacra to the Forum Romanum and on to the Capitoline Hill, passing both the Arches of Titus and Septimius Severus. During the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was incorporated into one of the family strongholds of ancient Rome. Works of restoration were first carried out in the 18th century; the last excavations have taken place in the late 1990s, just before the Great Jubilee of 2000. The decoration of the arch heavily uses parts of older monuments, which are given a new meaning in the context of the Constantinian building.

As it celebrates the victory of Constantine, the new "historic" friezes illustrating his campaign in Italy convey the central meaning: the praise of the emperor, both in battle and in his civilian duties. The other imagery supports this purpose: decoration taken from the "golden times" of the Empire under Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius places Constantine next to these "good emperors", and the content of the pieces evokes images of the victorious and pious ruler. Another explanation given for the re-use is the short time between the start of construction (late 312 at the earliest) and the dedication (summer 315), so the architects used existing artwork to make up for the lack of time to create new art. As yet another possible reason, it has often been suggested that the Romans of the 4th century lacked the artistic skill to produce acceptable artwork and therefore plundered the ancient buildings to adorn their contemporary monuments. This interpretation has become less prominent in more recent times, as the art of Late Antiquity has been appreciated in its own right. It is possible that a combination of those explanations is correct. Attic Above the middle archway, the main inscription takes the most prominent place of the attic.

It is identical on both sides of the arch. Flanking the inscription on both sides, there are pairs of relief panels above the minor archways, 8 in total. They were taken from an unknown monument erected in honour of Marcus Aurelius, and show (north side, left to right) the emperor's return to Rome after the campaign (adventus), the emperor leaving the city and saluted by a personification of the Via Flaminia, the emperor distributing money among the people (largitio), the emperor interrogating a German prisoner, (south side, left to right) a captured enemy chieftain led before the emperor, a similar scene with other prisoners, the emperor speaking to the troops (adlocutio), and the emperor sacrificing pig, sheep and bull (suovetaurilia). Together with three panels now in the Capitoline Museum, the reliefs were probably taken from a triumphal monument commemorating Marcus Aurelius' war against the Sarmatians from 169 � 175, which ended with his triumphant return in 176.

On the largitio panel, the figure of Marcus Aurelius' son Commodus has been eradicated after the latter's damnatio memoriae. On top of each of the columns stand marble statues of Dacian prisoners from the times of Trajan, probably taken from the Forum of Trajan. From the same time date the two large (3 m high) panels decorating the attic on the small sides of the arch, showing scenes from the emperor's Dacian Wars. Together with the two reliefs on the inside of the central archway, they came from a large frieze celebrating the Dacian victory. The original place of this frieze was either the Forum of Trajan, as well, or the barracks of the emperor's horse guard on the Caelius. The general layout of the main facade is identical on both sides of the arch. It is divided by four columns of Corinthian order made of Numidian yellow marble (giallo antico), one of which has been transferred into the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano and was replaced by a white marble column. The columns stand on bases showing victory figures on front, and captured barbarians and Roman soldiers on the sides.

The spandrels of the main archway are decorated with reliefs depicting victory figures with trophies, those of the smaller archways show river gods. Column bases and spandrel reliefs are from the times of Constantine. Above each lateral archway are pairs of round reliefs dated to the times of Emperor Hadrian. They display scenes of hunting and sacrificing: (north side, left to right) hunt of a boar, sacrifice to Apollo, hunt of a lion, sacrifice to Hercules, (south side, left to right) departure for the hunt, sacrifice to Silvanus, hunt of a bear, sacrifice to Diana. The head of the emperor (originally Hadrian) has been reworked in all medallions: on the north side, into Constantine in the hunting scenes and into Licinius or Constantius I in the sacrifice scenes; on the south side, vice versa. The reliefs, c. 2 m in diameter, were framed in porphyry; this framing is only extant on the right side of the northern facade.

Similar medallions, this time of Constantinian origin, are placed on the small sides of the arch; on the eastern side, showing the Sun rising, and on the western side, the Moon, both on chariots. The main piece from the time of Constantine is the "historical" relief frieze running around the monument under the round panels, one strip above each lateral archway and at the small sides of the arch. These reliefs depict scenes from the Italian campaign of Constantine against Maxentius which was the reason for the construction of the monument. The frieze starts at the western side with the "Departure from Milan". It continues on the southern, "outward" looking face, with the siege of a city, probably Verona, which was of great importance to the war in Northern Italy; also on that face, the Battle of Milvian Bridge with Constantine's army victorious and the enemy drowning in the river Tiber. On the eastern side, Constantine and his army enter Rome; the artist seems to have avoided using imagery of the triumph, as Constantine probably did not want to be shown triumphant over the Eternal City.

On the northern face, looking "towards" the city, two strips with the emperor's actions after taking possession of Rome: Constantine speaking to the citizens on the Forum Romanum, and distributing money to the people. In the central archway, there is one large panel of Trajan's Dacian War on each wall. Inside the lateral archways are eight portraits busts (two on each wall), destroyed to such an extent that it is no longer possible to identify them. Ornamentation on Roman Triumphal Arches Titus' triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of Titus, showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81 AD The elaborate carvings and coffered vault of the Arch of Septimius Severus Post-Roman Triumphal Arches Roman triumphal arches remained a source of fascination well after the fall of Rome, serving as a reminder of past glories and a symbol of state power. At Lorsch Abbey, the triple-arched Torhalle was built in deliberate imitation of a Roman triumphal arch to signify continuity between the Carolingian Empire and its Roman predecessor.

It was not until the coming of the Renaissance, however, that rulers sought to associate themselves systematically with the Roman legacy by building their own triumphal arches. One of the earliest was the "Aragonese Arch" at the Castel Nuovo in Naples, erected by Alfonso V of Aragon in 1443, although like the later Porta Capuana this was engaged as part of the entrance to the castle. By the end of the 16th century the triumphal arch had become closely linked with court theatre, state pageantry and military fortifications. The motif of the triumphal arch was also adapted and incorporated into the facades of public buildings such as city halls and churches. Temporary triumphal arches made of lath and plaster were often erected for royal entries. Unlike the individual arches erected for Roman conquerors, Renaissance rulers often built a row of arches through which processions were staged. They defined a space for the movement of people and denoted significant sites at which particular messages were conveyed at each stage. Newly elected popes, for instance, processed through the streets of Rome under temporary triumphal arches built specially for the occasion.

Arches were also built for dynastic weddings; when Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy married Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain in 1585, he processed under temporary triumphal arches that asserted the antiquity of the House of Savoy and associated his dynasty, through the art and architecture of the arches, with the imperial Roman past. Images of arches gained great importance as well. Although temporary arches were torn down after they had been used, they were recorded in great detail in engravings that were widely distributed and survived long after the original arches had been destroyed. The medium of engraving gave the viewer the opportunity to examine the allegories and inscriptions presented by the arches in a way that would not have been possible during the event. Sometimes the arches depicted were not even real structures but existed entirely as imaginary representations of royal propaganda. One famous example was the Ehrenpforte Maximilians I by Albrecht Durer, commissioned by the Emperor Maximilian I. It was one of the largest prints ever produced, measuring 3.75 metres (12.3 ft) high and consisting of 192 individual sheets, depicting an arch that was never intended to be built.

It was printed in an edition of 700 copies and distributed to be coloured and pasted on the walls of city halls or the palaces of princes. The French led the way in building new permanent triumphal arches when the imperial ambitions of the Bourbon kings and Napoleon Bonaparte led to a spate of arch-building. By far the most famous arch from this period is the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, built from 1806-36, though it is consciously dissimilar from its Roman predecessors in omitting the customary ornamental columns - a lack that fundamentally changes the balance of the arch and gives it a distinctly "top-heavy" look. Other French arches more closely imitated those of imperial Rome; the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris, for instance, is closely modeled on the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome. Triumphal arches have continued to be built into the modern era, often as statements of power and self-aggrandizement by dictators. Adolf Hitler planned to build the world's largest triumphal arch in Berlin.

The arch would have been vastly larger than any previously built, standing 550 feet (170 m) wide, 92 feet (28 m) deep and 392 feet (119 m) - big enough for the Arc de Triomphe to fit into it 49 times. It was intended to be carved with the names of Germany's 1.8 million dead in the First World War. However, construction was never begun. North Korea's dictator Kim Il Sung built the world's largest triumphal arch in Pyongyang in 1982. It was designed to be substantially bigger than the Arc de Triomphe in Paris and was erected on the site where, on October 14, 1945, Kim Il Sung gave his first public speech to the North Korean people. It is decorated with sculptures and reliefs depicting "the triumphal returning of the victorious Great Leader to the country." The form of the triumphal arch has also been put to other purposes, notably the construction of monumental memorial arches and city gates such as the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin or the Washington Square Arch in New York City.

Although patterned after triumphal arches, these were built for quite different purposes - to memorialize war dead or to provide a monumental entrance to a city, as opposed to celebrating a military success or general. MY ARCHITECTURAL MOLESKINE®: THE ROMAN FORUM, ARCHITECTURE THE ROMAN FORUM, ARCHITECTURE As a symbol of imperial majesty and monumentality, the Roman Forums were characterized by their imposing temples and secular buildings, as well as by the ornamentation of the space with statues and allegorical motifs. Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius The previous post reviewed the historical development and urban layout of the forums in Rome , and this post will explore some of its most conspicuous monuments. CURIA JULIA "Curia" comes from"co-viri" which means "association of men" and "Senate" comes from "senex," which means "old man". The curia was originally the place where the elders of the tribes near Rome met . During the Republic, the primitive Hostilia Curia, a modest building where the Senate sat in simple wooden benches, was burned down by a mob in 52 BC.

The Curia Julia was started by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by his adopted son Augustus in 29 BC. The brick building was originally covered by marble in its lower half and stucco imitating marble at the top, in the same style as the Baths of Caracalla . It features a rectangular layout of 25.2 x 17.6 m and 15.4 m high and is slightly rotated with respect to the old Curia Hostilia, defining more clearly the spatial boundary of the forum. In front of the facade, covering elongated stairs, was a portico of Ionic columns called Chalcidium, which was dedicated to the goddess Minerva. He also had two huge bronze doors, which were moved to the church of San Giovanni in Laterano by Borromini, during the Baroque era. The interior is a single room that hosted up to 300 senators. On the back was the podium, a seat for the President of the Senate. On the side walls were three niches, the central one with a semicircular pediment and the other with a triangular one. Roof of the Curia.

Photo courtesy of jere7my The Curia we see today was restored by Diocletian in 283 AD, after being partially destroyed by fire. At this time corresponds the current decoration visible on the mosaic floor . In the early seventh century it was transformed into the Church of St. Hadrian. Photo courtesy of antmoose In the 1930s Mussolini ordered the demolition of the church and restored the building closely to its original status. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina It is the best preserved building in the Roman Forum. It is located east of the Basilica Emilia, facing the Via Sacra. It was built by Antoninus Pius when his wife Faustina died in 141 AD. The building rests on a podium and consists of a cella originally clad in marble, a pronaos of six Corinthian columns with capitals carved in white marble, and a height of 17 m. The frieze is decorated with griffins. The building rests on a stylobate. Notable for the simplicity and purity of its style, which is Corinthian, hexastyle (6 columns) and prostyle (with freestanding columns in front of the buiding).

In the columns some marks can be seen, correspondent to the incisions that were made in the Middle Ages, in order to tear them down with ropes. In the seventeenth century the temple was transformed into the Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. BASILICA JULIA This long building (109 x 48 m) was started by Julius Caesar in 54 BC, completed by Augustus in 12 BC and rebuilt by Diocletian in 283 AD. The basilica is one of the most important types of Roman architecture and was subsequently adopted in the early churches of Christianity. The basilica rested on a podium and was surrounded by a colonnade of two levels. Its main hall, (82 x 18 m) was 3 storiess high and could be divided into four parts by removable wooden structures. It also had two smaller naves on the sides. Among its functions, it housed civil courts and shops. BASILICA EMILIA Parallel to the Basilica Julia, this trapezoidal building (70 x 30 m) consisted of three naves, with the central one 12 m wide.

It was surrounded by an arcade of 16 arches in each of its two levels. It was built in 179 BC by Aemilius Lepidus and expanded through the centuries. The building came to replace the old tabernae of the Roman forum, therefore new shops called novae tabernae were included . Temple of Saturn Here we are, at the foot of what remains of the temple of Saturn, 8 columns of its portico. The scale is, indeed, monumental, and one can not help feeling moved to imagine the impression that this structure would had produce in ordinary Roman citizens when it was still complete. This temple is the oldest structure in the area, dating from 501 to 498 BC and it housed the Roman state treasury. It was an Ionic temple, in whose interior the statue of Saturn, the god of agriculture, was carefully housed . Photo courtesy of San Juan Ramon . Arch of Septimius Severus The Arch of Septimius Severus was erected in 203 by his sons Caracalla and Geta to celebrate the triumphs of the emperor.

It is a marble gateway, richly decorated in bas-reliefs, with a main central arch and two smaller side arches (another reference to the Emperor and his sons). There are four protruding columns, and on top of the arch was originally a bronze sculpture of a chariot of the Emperor Septimius with his two sons. A curious detail is that, after the bloody Caracalla killed his brother Geta in front of his mother, he had to remove his name from all monuments in the empire. The third and final part of this series on the forums will focus on the interesting market of Trajan, that I will review in a future post. Until then. SEE ALSO

Question: What type of building in the Roman forum, the largest of its type there, was called "Julia"?
Answer: Basilica