APWorldHistoryWiki - A - African Nations Gain Independence - Struggles in Africa A - African Nations Gain Independence - Struggles in Africa Zoe Norris, Baylee Nichols, Kenzie Casement, Brooklyn Arnold Geograpically Diverse Continent Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It has tropical rainforests, savannas, and deserts. It also has fertile coastal strips in North and South Africa. Most people live around the fertile areas. The land produces enough food for big populations making it possible for larger colonies to thrive. Africa is known for having lots of minerals such as gold ore, copper ore, and diamonds. They also produce crops like coffee and cocoa. These are just some of the main reasons why European powers wanted to stay in control and do just about anything to maintain them. Savannas(n.): grasslands with scattered trees Colonies Demand Independence Thousands of African people started to demand freedom from the European leaders. Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, and Leopold Senghor led independence movements in their countries. In some countries, political pressure was enough to get independence, this method worked well for British colonies that became Nigeria and Ghana and in most of France's West African colonies.

Unfortunately not all countries were that lucky. In countries such as Algeria and Kenya, the battle for liberation became violent. Kwame Nkrumah Jomo Kenyatta: (1894-1974) Born in a small Kikuyu village, and educated at a Christian mission. As an adult he quickly became a very strong nationalist. He became an anticolonial organizer and fought long and hard for the independence of Kenya. Checkpoint Question: Why did European powers resist independence for their African colonies? The European powers wanted the African colonies resources like rich deposits of minerals, cash crops, and petroleum. Africans Build New Nations Some new African nations has peace but others broke out in civil war, military rule, or corrupt dictators. Confronting Ethnic Divisons The European powers had drawn colony lines without regard of the thousands of ethnic groups. Many nations gained independence with people that had different religions and languages and were more focused on putting forth their loyalty to their ethnic groups, not a national government. Because of this, there was a lot of ethnic and regional conflict. Many countries had one-party political systems rather than multiparty systems. It was believed that multiparty systems encouraged disunity.

Although, many of the one-party systems turned into dictatorships. The down side of these particular dictatorships was that the dictators used their power to enrich themselves, and a certain batch of lucky people. Because of this, military's often took control. More than half of African nations faced a coup d'etat. Some of these military leaders wished to improve awful conditions and restore civilian rule, but that wish was never granted to the people. Other military leaders became brutal tyrants. coup d'etat(n.): forcible overthrow of a government Moving Toward Democracy As military's often ruled many of the colonies, a democratic government was desired. In the mean time, Western governments and the World bank required reforms as a condition for loans. Because of this, some governments made changes. Many legalized opposition parties and allowed the freedom of speech. In nations such as Tanzania, Nigeria, and Benin, multiparty elections took place, removing long-ruling leaders from office. Election Campaign held in Tanzania Foreigners Jostle for Influence Unfortunately, although many African nations gained political freedom, colonial powers still maintained control of local business. Because of this, many nations remained dependent economically on their former colonies.

During the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union often competed for military and strategic advantages through alliances with many African countries. The United States supported Mobutu Sese Seko, a dictator of Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and they also supported Somalia. On the other hand, the Soviet Union supported Ethiopia. Many of the African countries struck the interest of the superpowers, mostly because they wanted to gain control of the Red Sea. Mobutu Seso Seko(n.): 1930-1997, Dictator of Zaire 1965-1997 Red Sea(n.): Vital shipping route connecting Asia, Europe, and Africa Checkpoint Question: Why have African countries moved toward democracy in recent years? They did not like their political polocies and didn't think they were fair. Also, United States alliances let African countries see what a democracy is like. The Stories of Five African Nations The new African nations all faced many of the same challenges, although each nation has a unique history behind how they gained their independence. Ghana Ghana was the first African nation south of the Sahara to gain freedom from the British.

In the 1940's Kwame Nkrumah rised to power of an independence movement by organizing rallies and political speeches against the British. In 1957, Ghana had finally won their battle. Nkrumah was elected the first president of Ghana and did many things to change the system they were used to. Nkrumah advocated socialism and nationalized many businesses. As time went on, the once democracy slowly turned into a dictatorship. In 1966, Nkrumah overthrown by the first of several military coups in Ghana. In 1981, a young military officer named Jerry Rawlings stepped forward. He slowly started to strengthen Ghana's economy, which is largely based on sales of cocoa and gold. He also restored democracy in Ghana. He then won a free election in 1992 and then lost to an opponent in 2001. Jerry J. Rawlings Stuggle for Independence in Kenya For thousands of Kenyans, freedom was only granted after a long, agonizing, armed struggle. African farmers had lost many of their land and jobs to white settlers.

The settlers took over much of the fertile highlands making it difficult for the village of Kikuyu to prosper. The settlers claimed it as their land but the people of Kikuyu begged to differ. Jomo Kenyatta, the leadingspokesman of the Kikuyu said "The land is ours. When Europeans came,they kept us back and took our land." Kenyatta was a nonviolent activist and used nonviolent methods to fight oppressive laws. Although, in the 1950's more radical leaders stepped forward and turned to guerrilla warfare.These rebels burned farms and attacked settlers and Africans who were known to have helped or work with the settlers. The British called theseguerrillas the 'Mau Mau'. To end the violence, British has Kenyatta arrested and killed thousands of Kikuyu. The rebels were crushed with no leader,but the movement lived on. Kenyatta became a national hero and in 1963, the year of his release, he was made the first leader of an independent Kenya. As president, Kenyatta jailed those who opposed him and outlawed opposition parties. Throughout the 1800's, France had conquered much of Alergia.

Millions of French people had settled there over time. They were very much determined to keep the Algerian people from winning independence. Because of this, Algerian nationalists set up the National Liberation Front. In 1954, this group turned to guerrilla warfare. The French though, had just recently lost one of their asian colony in Vietnam so they were very reluctant to lose their Algerian colony. The French sent 500,000 troops to maintain their possession. The main reason though as to why they wanted to control Algeria still though was because in the 1950's oil and natural gases had been discovered there. freedom lived on, hundreds of thousands of Algerians lost their lives. Eventually, the public opinions of the French people spoke out and rediculed the war causing it to end. In the year 1962, Algeria had won its freedom. In 1965, a coupe had taken over and a long period of military ruled had begun. In the 1960's and 1970's, Algerians had started a command economy based on oil and gas exports.

In the 1980's the country had then returned to a market economy and in 1992, the government had allowed free elections and an Islamist party had won most of the votes. Due to this, the military had rejected the election results and seven long years of civil war had broke out. Since 1999, the government has stopped the fighting but tense feelings remain. Critics have accused the government of rigging elections. command economy(n.): system in which government officials make all basic economic decisions market economy(n.): an economy that relies on market forces to allocate goods and resources to determine prices Islamist Party(n.): People who want government polocies to be based on the teachings of Islam Democratic Republic of the Congo The DRC was formerly a Belgian colony that covered a vast region of Central Africa. At least 1,000,000sq.mi. consist of rain forests and savannas located near the Congo River basin. The region contains many valuble natural resouces such as diamonds and copper of Katanga province.

In 1960, the Congo urged to declare the colony independent even though the Congolese were not ready for a self-government system which allowed Belgian people to maintain control over mining companies and working with poloticians in Katanga. Patrice Lumumba, the first prime minister of the independent Congo, asked for Soviet help to fight back agaisnt the Belgian-backed rebels. The United States on the other hand supported Lumumba's rival, Colonel Joseph Mobutu. Mobutu captured Lumumba and she was executed shortly after. In 1963, the United Nations ended the Katanga and in 1965 Mobutu overthrew Congo's government and ruled as a military dictator. Mobutu's harsh and corrupt rule let poverty and instabilities in the Congo get worse over time. In 1997, he was exiled and a civil war broke out for six years. In 2003, ceasefire brought uneasy peace but the country remains divided between the east and the west, and between many ethinic groups.

Katanga(n.): copper-mining region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Mobutu Seso Seko: President of the Congofrom 1965 to 1997. He served in the country's army and later became a journalist. Through press contacts, he met several influential politicians and eventually was appointed to high positions. He reigned during the Rwandan genocide and formed an authoritarian regime. He died in exile in 1997. Nigeria Nigeria has the highest population count in all of Africa. Its people being to thousands of ethnic groups, but three of them dominate. The Christian Ibo and Yoruba people live in the south, and the Muslim Hausa dominate the north. After WWll, the British gave into the idea of Nigerian independence and the country of Nigera won independence peacefully in 1960. In 1961, a discovery of oil in the southeast and raised high hopes for the new nations economic future. Unfortunately though, due to regional, ethnic, and religious differences led to many conflicts. In 1966, Nigeria suffered the first of several military coups.

The second coup help 1966 was led by northern Muslim officers which led to a rebellion in the southeast by the Ibo people, who then declared independence as the Republic of Biafra. Following the rebellion was a 3 year war. In the end of it all though, Nigeria's military defeated the Biafran rebels and ended all hoped of Biafra independence. Throughout the 1970's and 80's, a series of military rulers suppressed opposition and diverted much of the country's oil earnings for their own good. Opposition to military rule increased during the 1990's. Finally in 1999, a military government eventually allowed free elections. After the return to democracy, Nigera's people faced and increase in crimes. Meanwhile, ethnic and religious divisions gave rise to renewed violence. Biafran War Checkpoint Question: How did Biafra and Katanga reflect the challenges to unity that the new African nations faced? They were often out powered by a bigger military rule or colony. Most often, it was a struggle for independence and took many years of war to win their freedom.

Struggles In Africa During the 50's and the 60's, many African nations were gaining independence. However, due to many ethnic diversities, religious beliefs, and languages, their freedom was hard to maintain under the governments control. South Africa Struggles for Freedom The win for freedom in South Africa is very different from any other independence gain in Africa. They won self-rule from Britain in 1910, however freedom was limited to white settlers. Although whites only made up 20% of the population, they still controlled the government. They eventually passed laws that strictly limited the black minority. Apartheid Divides South Africa In 1948, the government expanded the existing system of racial segregation, which created an apartheid . Under apartheid, all South Africans were registered by race. Black, White, Colored (people of mixed ancestry), and Asian. Apartheid's supporters claimed that it would allow each race to develop its own culture. It was mainly designed to control over South Africa. Under apartheid, nonwhites faced many restrictions. Blacks were treated like foreigners in their own land. Under the passed laws, they had to get permission to travel.

Other laws banned marriages between races, and required segregated restaurants, beaches, and schools. Black workers were paid less than whites for the same jobs. Blacks could not own land in most areas even. Low wages and inferior schooling condemned most blacks to poverty. apartheid(n.): separation of the races Apartheid: was a system of racial segregation enforced through legislation by the National Party governments, who were the ruling party from 1948 to 1994, of South Africa, under which the rights of the majority black inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and white supremecy and Afrikaner minority rule as maintained. Apartheid was developed after WWll by the Afrikaner dominated National Party and Broederbond organizations and was practiced also in South West Africa which was administered by South Africa under a Leauge of Nationsmandate (revoked in 1966), until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990. Fighting For Majority Rule The African National Congress (ANC) was the main organization that opposed to the apartheid and led the struggle for majority rule. In the 50's, the ANC organized marches, boycotts, and strikes.

In 1960, police gunned down 69 men, women, and children during a peaceful demonstration in Sharpeville. The Sharpeville massacre and crackdown pushed the ANC to shift from nonviolent to armed struggle. Some people like Nelson Mandela went underground. As an ANC leader, Mandela had first mobilized young South Africans to peacefully resist apartheid laws. As the government violence grew, Mandela joined ANC militants who called for armed struggle against the white minority government. In the early 60's, Mandela was arrested, tried, and condemned to life in prision for treason against the apartheid. While Mandela was in prison he remained a popular leader and powerful symbol of the struggle for freedom. In the 80's, demands for and end to apartheid and for Mandelas release increased. Many countries, including the United States, imposed economic sanctions on South Africa. In 1984, black South African bishop Desmond Tutu won the Nobel Peace Prize for his nonviolent opposition to apartheid.

Nelson Mandela ANC(n.): Head leaders to oppose to the apartheid Sharpeville(n.): Black township Nelson Mandela(n.): Arrested for treason, encouraged to rebel against apartheid served as president 1994-1999 Desmond Tutu(n.): Winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for nonviolence Checkpoint Question: What factors finally brought an end to apartheid in South Africa? Outside pressures and protests at home convinced president F.W. Klerk to end the apartheid. He freed Mandela and lifted the ban on the ANC. South Africa's Neighbors Face Long Conflicts In Southern Africa, the road to freedom was longer and more violent than what other nations had to overcome. For many years the apartheid government of South Africa supported white minority rule in neighboring Namibia and Zimbabwe. Britain and France gave up their African possessions, Portugal clung fiercely to its colonies in Angola and Mozambique. In response, nationalist movements turned to guerrilla warfare. Fighting raged on for 15 years, until Portugal agreed to withdraw from Africa. In 1975, Angola and Mozambique celebrated independence. Independence did not end the fighting, however. Civil wars, fueled by Cold War rivalries went on for years.

South Africa and the United States saw the new nations as threats because some liberation leaders had ties to Soviet Union or the ANC. The US and South Africa aided a rebel group fighting the new government of Angola. South Africa alone aided Mozambique. The fighting didn't stop until 1992, in Mozambqiue and 2002 in Angola. Although, tensions remained afterwords. Slowly, they have both begun to rebuild. Checkpoint Question: Why did fighting continue after Agnola and Mozambique achieved independence? Because of the tensions that remained in the air caused by the Cold War alliances and ties. After independence, ethnic conflicts plagued several African nations. The causes were complex. Historic resentments divided ethnically diverse nations. Unjust governments and regional rivalries fed ethnic violence. Rwanda and Burundi Face Deadly Divisions The small nations of Rwanda, in Central Africa, faced one of Africa's deadliest civil wars. The Rwandan people included two main groups. Hutus were the majority group, but the minority Tutsis had long dominated Rwanda. Both groups spoke the same language, but they had different traditions. After independence, tensions between the two groups simmered. Conditions worsened in the early 1990's.

In 1994, extremist Hutu officials urged civilians to kill their Tutsi and moderate Hutu neighbors. Around 800,000 Tutsis and Hutus were slaughtered. Another 3,000,000 of Rwanda's 8,000,000 people lost their homes to destructive mobs. As the death rate rised, the international community failed to act. After several months of this, France finally sent in troops to stop the madness. With United Nations assistance, Rwanda set about rebuilding and recovering from the horrors of genocide.Those accused of genocide faced trials in an international court. Hutus and Tutsis had to find ways to live peacefully. World leaders pledged to stop any future genocide wherever it might occur. Their readiness, however, was limited. The neighboring nation of Burundi had a similar population and history. As in Rwanda, tensions between Tutsis and Hutus led to civil war during the 90's. While the fighting did not lead to genocide such as in Rwanda, guerrilla groups fought for much longer in Burundi. Although several guerrilla groups signed a peace treaty in 2000, fighting continued in the years followed.

Rwandan Genocide Hutus(n.):group that forms the majority in Rwanda and Burundi Tutsis(n.): main minority group in Rwanda and Burundi Genocide(n.): deliberate attempt to destroy an entire religious or ethnic group Rwandan Genocide: Over the course of approximately 100 days through mid-July, over 500,000 people were killed, according to a Human Rights Watch estimate. Estimates of the death toll have ranged between 500,000 and 1,000,000 , or as much as 20% of the country's total population. It was the culmination of longstanding ethnic competition and tensions between the minority Tutsi, who had controlled power for centuries, and the majority Hutu peoples, who had come to power in the rebellion of 1959–62 and overthrown the Tutsi monarchy. After independence, Sudan's Arab Muslim north dominated the non-Muslim, non-Arab south. Arab-led governments enacted laws and policies that discriminated against non-Muslims and against other ethnic groups. For example, the government tried to impose Islamic law even in non-Muslim areas.

For decades, rebel groups in the south battled northern domination. War, famine, and droughts caused millions of deaths and forced many more to flee their homes. However, in 2004, southern rebels signed a peace agreement with Sudan's government. The southern rebels agreed to stop fighting, and the government agreed to give the south limited self-government, power in Sudan's national government, and freedom from Islamic Law. Also in 2004, ethnic conflict had also spread to Sudan's western region of Darfur. This conflict raised fears of a new genocide. Arab militias, backed by the government, unleashed terror on the non-Arab Muslim people of Darfur. They burned villages and drove hundreds of thousands of farmers off the land that fed them and into refugee camps, where they faced the threat of starvation. The UN, the US, and other nations organized a huge aid effort to help refugees. Darfur(n.):a region in western Sudan where ethnic conflict threatened to lead to genocide. Bibliography Independence achieved 1 August 1960. Former name: Dahomey (renamed 30 November 1975).

Botswana (Republic of Botswana) Independence achieved 30 September 1966. Former name: British Protectorate of Bechuanaland (name changed with independence in 1966). Burkina Faso (Republic of Burkina Faso) Independence achieved 5 August 1960. Former name: Republic of Upper Volta (renamed in 1984). Burundi (Republic of Burundi) Independence achieved 1 July 1962. Former name: Urundi (part of Ruaunda-Urundi, renamed with independence in 1962). Cameroon (Republic of Cameroon) Independence achieved 1 January 1960 for East Cameroon (former French colony). Formed the Federal Republic (1 October 1961) when Southern (west) Cameroon (former British colony) voted in a U.N. supervised election (11 February 1961) to be attached to the former French Cameroon. Officially became United Republic of Cameroon on 2 June 1972, and renamed Republic of Cameroon in 1984. Central African Republic Independence achieved 13 August 1960.

Former name: Oubangui-Chari (renamed 1 December 1958). Chad (Republic of Chad) Independence achieved 11 August 1960. Congo (People's Republic of the Congo) Independence achieved 15 August 1960. Former names: Middle Congo (part of French Equatorial Africa), Congo-Brazzaville. Côte d'Ivoire (Republic of Côte d'Ivoire) Independence achieved 7 August 1960. Formerly refered to by the equivalent translation of the name into different languages, such as "Ivory Coast" in English. In 1986, the government declared that all countries should use the French name "Côte d'Ivoire". Democratic Republic of the Congo Independence achieved June 1960. 17 May 1997 the former regime (Zaire) of Marshal Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngendu Banga was toppled and the present Democratic Republic of the Congo was established in its place.

Former names: Congo Free State 1855-1908, Belgian Congo, 1908-1960, Democratic Republic of the Congo or Congo-Leopoldville, 1960-1966, Congo-Kinshasa 1966-1971, Zaire 1971-1997. Djibouti (Republic of Djibouti) Independence achieved 27 June 1997. Former names: French Somaliland until 1967, French territory of the Afars and Issas until independence. Egypt (Arab Republic of Egypt) Egypt has been seat of civilization since ancient times, however recent history has seen conquest by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, Napoleon Bonaparte's France in 1798, and finally by Britain in 1882. Modern independence was achieved on 28 February 1922 by British declaration. Equatorial Guinea (Republic of Equatorial Guinea) Independence achieved 12 October 1968. Former name: Spanish Guinea (renamed with independence).

Eritrea (State of Eritrea) Independence achieved 24 May 1993. Ethiopia (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia) Ethiopia has enjoyed independence from ancient times and has resisted attempts by other nations at colonization. Former name: Abyssinia. Gabon (Republic of Gabon) Independence achieved 17 August 1960. The Gambia (Republic of the Gambia) Independence achieved 18 February 1965. Ghana (Republic of Ghana) Independence achieved 6 March 1957. Former name: Gold Coast (renamed with independence). Guinea (Republic of Guinea) Independence achieved 2 October 1958. Guinea-Bissau (Republic of Guinea-Bissau) Independence achieved 24 September 1973. Former name Portuguese Guinea (renamed with independence). Kenya (Republic of Kenya) Independence achieved 12 December 1963. Lesotho (Kingdom of Lesotho) Independence achieved 4 October 1966. Former name: Basutoland. Liberia (Republic of Liberia) Independence achieved 26 July 1847.

Liberia was established by Black American colonists sent by the American Colonisation Society in a controversial move to repatriate freed American slaves to Africa. After Ethiopia, it is the oldest of the modern independent African nations. Libya (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) Independence achieved 24 December 1951. Madagascar (Democratic Republic of Madagascar) Independence achieved 26 June 1960. Malawi (Republic of Malawi) Independence achieved 6 July 1964. Former name: Nyasaland. Mali (Republic of Mali) Independence achieved 22 September 1960. Former name: Soudan. Mauritania (Islamic Republic of Mauritania) Independence achieved 28 November 1960. Morocco (Kingdom of Morocco) Independence achieved 2 March 1956. Mozambique (Republic of Mozambique) Independence achieved 25 June 1975. Former name: Portuguese East Africa. Namibia (Republic of Namibia) Independence achieved 21 March 1990. Former name South West Africa.

Niger (Republic of Niger) Independence achieved 3 August 1960. Nigeria (Federal Republic of Nigeria) Independence achieved 1 October 1960. Rwanda (Republic of Rwanda) Independence achieved 1 July 1962. Former name Ruanda (part of Belgian administered territory of Ruanda-Urundi under League of Nations mandate 1919-1946, and U.N. Trusteeship 1946-1962). Senegal (Republic of Senegal) Independence achieved 20 August 1960. Sierra Leone (Republic of Sierra Leone) Independence achieved 27 April 1961. Somalia (Somali Democratic Republic) Independence achieved 1 July 1960. South Africa (Republic of South Africa) Independence achieved 11 December 1931. The dismantling of apartheid affectively began in 1991 with the proposal to repeal of Lands Acts of 1913 and 1936, and the Group Areas act of 1966 by then President F.W. De Klerk.

By 27 April 1994 a Majority Rule Constitution was adopted, and on 10 May 1994 anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela was sworn in as the President of South Africa bringing an end to apartheid in South Africa. Sudan (Democratic Republic of the Sudan) Independence achieved 1 January 1956. Swaziland (Kingdom of Swaziland) Independence achieved 6 September 1968. Tanzania (United Republic of Tanzania) Tanganyika achieved independence on 9 December 1961. Zanzibar Achieved independence on 10 December 1963. The United Republic was formed on 27 April 1964, and the name Tanzania was adopted on 29 October 1964. Togo (Republic of Togo) Independence achieved 27 April 1960. Former name Togoland. Tunisia (Republic of Tunisia) Independence achieved 20 March 1956. Uganda (Republic of Uganda) Independence achieved 9 October 1962.

Western Sahara (Saharwi Arab Democratic Republic) When Spain withdrew from Western Sahara (then known as Spanish Sahara or Rio de Oro) in 1976 both Morocco and Mauritania moved to annex the territory. Mauritania withdrew in August 1979, and Western Sahara was absorbed by Morocco. However a political front called the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro (POLISARIO) continued to struggle against foreign domination against Morocco and formed the Saharwi Arab Democratic Republic as a government in exile on 4 March 1976 which was recognized in 1984 by the Organisation for African Unity (OAU) leading Morocco to withdraw its membership from the OAU. In May 1991, Morocco and the Polisario Front ended fighting as a part of a U.N. sponsored peace settlement. The future of Saharwi is still to be decided as of this writing (9 September 1998). Zambia (Republic of Zambia) Independence achieved 24 October 1964. Former name: Northern Rhodesia. Zimbabwe (Republic of Zimbabwe) Independence achieved 18 April 1980.

Former names: Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia. Not Shown on the Map: Cape Verde (Republic of Cape Verde) Independence achieved 5July 1975. Comoros Islands (Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros) Independence achieved 6 July 1975 (formally recognized by France (colonial regime) 1 January 1976). Mauritius (Republic of Mauritius) Independence achieved 12 March 1968. Reunion Administered by the French Overseas Department since 19 March 1946. French colony since 1642. São Tomé and Príncipe (Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe) Independence achieved 12 July 1975. Seychelles (Republic of Seychelles) Independence achieved 29 June 1976. Bibliography Mozambique | Article about Mozambique by The Free Dictionary Mozambique | Article about Mozambique by The Free Dictionary Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Acronyms , Wikipedia .

Mozambique (mō'zəmbēk`), officially Republic of Mozambique, republic (2005 est. pop. 19,407,000), 302,659 sq mi (784,090 sq km), SE Africa. It borders on the Indian Ocean in the east; on South Africa and Swaziland in the south; on Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi in the west; and on Tanzania in the north. Maputo Maputo , city (1997 pop. 966,837), capital of Mozambique, a port on the Indian Ocean. It is Mozambique's largest city and its administrative, communications, and commercial center. ..... Click the link for more information. is the capital and largest city. Land and People The Mozambique Channel separates the country from the island of Madagascar.

Mozambique's c.1,600 mi (2,575 km) coastline is interrupted by the mouths of numerous rivers, notably the Rovuma (which forms part of the boundary with Tanzania), Lúrio, Incomati (Komati), Lugela, Zambezi (which is navigable for c.290 mi/465 km within the territory), Revùe, Save (Sabi), and Limpopo. South of the Zambezi estuary the coastal belt is very narrow, and in the far north the coastline is made up of rocky cliffs. Along the northern coast are numerous islets and lagoons; in the far south is Maputo Bay. The northern and central interior is mountainous; Monte Binga (7,992 ft/2,436 m), the country's loftiest point, is situated at the Zimbabwean border W of Beira. About one third of Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) falls within Mozambique's boundaries; Lake Chilwa (Lago Chirua) is at the border with Malawi.

Much of the country is covered with savanna; there are also extensive hardwood forests, and palms grow widely along the coast and near rivers. In addition to the capital, other cities include Beira Beira , city (1997 pop. 397,368), capital of Sofala province, E central Mozambique, a seaport on the Mozambique Channel (an arm of the Indian Ocean), at the mouths of the Púngoè and Búzi rivers. ..... Click the link for more information. , Moçambique Moçambique or Mozambique , city (1997 pop. 42,407), NE Mozambique, a seaport on a small coral island in the Mozambique Channel (an arm of the Indian Ocean). It is c.3 mi (5 km) from the mainland town of Lumbo, a terminus of a railroad into the interior. ..... Click the link for more information. , Nampula Nampula , city (1997 pop. 303,346), NE Mozambique. It is an agricultural trade center, located on the railroad connecting the seaports of Lumbo and Nacala with Malawi.

Cement is manufactured. ..... Click the link for more information. , Pemba, Quelimane Quelimane , town (1989 est. pop. 78,500), capital of Zambézia province, E central Mozambique, a seaport on the Rio dos Bons Sinais near its mouth in the Indian Ocean. It is a trade center and terminus of a railroad extending c.100 mi (160 km) into the interior. ..... Click the link for more information. , Tete, Angoche, and Xai-Xai. The principal ethnic groups are, in the north, the Yao, Makonde, and Makua; in the center, the Thonga, Chewa, Nyanja, and Sena; and in the south, the Shona and Tonga. Small numbers of Swahili live along the coast. People of European, mixed African and European, and South Asian descent make up less than 1% of the population.

About 40% of the inhabitants of Mozambique are Christian (Roman Catholic and Zionist Christian), while about 18% follow traditional religious beliefs, and another 18% are Muslims (most of these living in the north). Although Bantu languages are widely spoken, Portuguese is the official language. Economy In 1990, Mozambique was estimated to be the world's poorest nation; since then, the country has been in transition toward a more market-oriented economy and the prospect of raising its standard of living. Mozambique remains an overwhelmingly agricultural and poor country, however, with the majority of its workers engaged in traditional subsistence cultivation of such crops as cassava, corn, coconuts, potatoes, and sunflowers. The principal cash crops are cotton, cashews, sugarcane, tea, sisal, citrus, and tropical fruits. Cattle and goats are raised, but their numbers are kept low by the tsetse fly tsetse fly , name for any of several bloodsucking African flies of the genus Glossina, and in the same family as the housefly. The larva of the tsetse fly develops inside the body of the mother until it is ready to pupate in the soil. .....

Click the link for more information. . There are forestry and fishing industries, including prawns. The country's mineral wealth has not been determined fully; however, titanium, zircon, petroleum, and natural-gas deposits have been developed by foreign investors and are now exported. There are also significant coal deposits, which are being developed more extensively, as well as hydropower. Many citizens work abroad in South African mines. Mozambique's industrial sector includes the processing of raw materials (mostly food, cotton, and tobacco) and the production of chemical fertilizer, aluminum, petroleum products, textiles, glass, and asbestos. Electricity from the giant Cahora Bassa hydroelectric project (located on the Zambezi near Tete) is exported to South Africa. A smaller hydroelectric plant is situated at Chicamba Real (near Beira) on the Revùe River. The economy is also reliant on foreign aid. Mozambique has a substantial trade imbalance, although export earnings have increased in recent years. The principal imports are machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, fuel, chemicals, metal products, food, and textiles; chief exports are aluminum, prawns, cashews, cotton, sugar, citrus, timber, and bulk electricity.

The Netherlands and South Africa are the country's main trading partners. Mozambique also derives income from handling foreign trade for nearby countries; goods are shipped on rail lines that terminate at the ports of Maputo, Nacala, Lumbo (near Moçambique), and Beira. A toll road that opened in 1998 carries goods from South Africa's industrial north to Maputo. Government Mozambique is governed under the constitution of 1990. The president, who is head of state, is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is eligible for a second term. The government is headed by a prime minister, who is appointed by the president. The unicameral legislature consists of the 250-seat Assembly of the Republic, whose members are popularly elected for five-year terms. Administratively, Mozambique is divided into 10 provinces and the capital city. History Early History and Portuguese Influence Bantu-speakers began to migrate into the region of Mozambique in the middle of the 1st millennium A.D.

From 1000, Arab and Swahili traders settled along parts of the coast, notably at Sofala (near modern Beira), at Cuama (near the Zambezi estuary), and on the site of present-day Inhambane. The traders had contact with the interior, and Sofala was particularly noted as a gold- and ivory-exporting center closely linked with—and at times controlled by—Kilwa (on the coast of modern Tanzania). In 1498, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese navigator en route around Africa to India, visited Quelimane and Moçambique. Between 1500 and 1502 Pedro Álvares Cabral and Sancho de Tovar, also Portuguese explorers, visited Sofala and Maputo Bay. In 1505, the Portuguese under Francisco de Almeida occupied Moçambique, and Pedro de Anhaia established a Portuguese settlement at Sofala. The Portuguese also set up trading stations N of Cabo Delgado (near the mouth of the Ruvuma), but their main influence (especially after 1600) in E Africa was in the Moçambique region.

Between 1509 and 1512 António Fernandes traveled inland and visited the Mwanamutapa kingdom, which controlled the region between the Zambezi and Save rivers and was the source of much of the gold exported at Sofala. Soon after, Swahili traders resident in Mwanamutapa began to redirect the kingdom's gold trade away from Portuguese-controlled Sofala and toward more northern ports. Thus, Portugal became interested in directly controlling the interior. In 1531, posts were established inland at Sena and Tete on the Zambezi, and in 1544 a station was founded at Quelimane. In 1560 and 1561 Gonçalo da Silveira, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary, visited Mwanamutapa, where he quickly made converts, including King Nogomo Mupunzagato. However, the Swahili traders who lived there, fearing for their commercial position, persuaded Nogomo to have Silveira murdered.

Between 1569 and 1572 an army of about 1,000 Portuguese under Francisco Barreto attempted to gain control of the interior, but Barreto and most of the soldiers died of disease at Sena. In 1574, an army of 400 men under Vasco Fernandes Homen marched into the interior from Sofala, but most of the men were killed in fighting with Africans. In the late 16th and early 17th cent. the official Portuguese presence in the interior was limited to small trading colonies along the Zambezi. At the same time Portuguese adventurers began to establish control over large estates (called prazos), which resembled feudal kingdoms. They were ruled absolutely and often ruthlessly by their owners (called prazeros); Africans were forced to work on plantations, and considerable slave-raiding was undertaken (especially after 1650). Some of the prazeros maintained private armies, and they were generally independent of the Portuguese crown to which they were theoretically subordinate.

From about 1628 the Portuguese gained increasing influence in Mwanamutapa, and they became intimately involved in the civil wars that led to the demise of that kingdom by the end of the 17th cent. Mozambique was ruled as part of Goa in India until 1752, when it was given its own administration headed by a captain-general. Although the Portuguese helped introduce several American crops (notably corn and cashew nuts) that became staples of Mozambique's agriculture, the impact of their presence on African society was mainly destructive. Colonial Struggles and Portuguese Domination From the mid-18th to the mid-19th cent. large numbers of Africans were exported as slaves, largely to the Mascarene Islands and to Brazil. In the 1820s and 1830s groups of Nguni-speaking people from S Africa invaded Mozambique; most of the Nguni continued northward into present-day Malawi and Tanzania, but one group, the Shangana, remained in S Mozambique, where they held effective control until the late 19th cent. From the mid-19th cent.

to the late 1880s the mestiço Joaquim José da Cruz and his son António Nicente controlled trade along the lower Zambezi. Thus, when the scramble for African territory among the European powers began in the 1880s, the Portuguese government had only an insecure hold on Mozambique. Nevertheless, Portugal tried to increase its nominal holdings, partly in an attempt to connect by land its territory in Mozambique and in Angola (in SW Africa). Portuguese claims in present-day Zimbabwe and Malawi were strongly opposed by the British, who in 1890 delivered an ultimatum to Portugal demanding that it withdraw from these regions. Portugal complied, and in 1891 a treaty establishing the boundaries between British and Portuguese holdings in SE Africa was negotiated. Beginning in the 1890s and ending only around 1920, the Portuguese established their authority in Mozambique by force of arms against determined African resistance.

Between 1895 and 1897 the Shangana were defeated; between 1897 and 1900 the Nyanja were conquered; in 1912 the Yao were pacified; and in 1917 control was established in extreme S Mozambique. In the 1890s several private companies were founded to develop and administer most of Mozambique. In 1910 the status of the territory was changed from province to colony. After the 1926 revolution in Portugal, the Portuguese government took a more direct interest in Mozambique. The companies lost the right to administer their regions, and at the same time the government furthered economic development by building railroads and by systematically forcing Africans to work on European-owned land. Portuguese colonial policy was based on the egalitarian theory of "assimilation": if an African became assimilated to Portuguese culture (i.e., if he was fluent in Portuguese, was Christian, and had a "good character"), he was to be given the same legal status as a Portuguese citizen.

In practice, however, very few Africans qualified for citizenship (partly because there were inadequate educational opportunities), and they were directed to work for Europeans or to grow export crops. In 1951 the status of Mozambique was changed to "overseas province" in a move designed to indicate to world opinion that the territory would have increased autonomy; in a similar move in 1972, Mozambique was declared to be a "self-governing state." In both instances, however, Portugal maintained firm control over the territory. Between 1961 and 1963 several laws (one of which abolished forced labor) were passed to improve the living conditions of Africans. At the same time, many African nations were becoming independent, and nationalist sentiment was growing in Mozambique. The Struggle for Independence In 1962 several nationalist groups were united to form the Mozambique Liberation Front (Frelimo), headed by Eduardo Mondlane. The Portuguese adamantly refused to give the territory independence, and in 1964 Frelimo initiated guerrilla warfare in N Mozambique.

In 1969, Mondlane was assassinated in Dar es Salaam; he was succeeded by Uria Simango (1969) and by Samora Moisès Machel Machel, Samora Moïsès , 1933–86, president of Mozambique (1975–86). Machel joined the Mozambican Liberation Front (Frelimo) in 1962, led its guerrilla forces by 1968, and in 1969 became president of the organization. ..... Click the link for more information. (1970). By the early 1970s, Frelimo (which had a force of about 7,000 guerrillas) controlled much of central and N Mozambique and was engaged in often fierce fighting with the Portuguese (who maintained an army of about 60,000 in the territory). In 1974 the government of Portugal was overthrown by the military. The new regime (which favored self-determination for all of Portugal's colonies) made an effort to resolve the conflict in Mozambique.

Talks with Frelimo resulted in a mutual cease-fire and an agreement for Mozambique to become independent in June, 1975. Upheaval in the New Nation In reaction to the independence agreement, a group of white rebels attempted to seize control of the Mozambique government but were quickly subdued by Portuguese and Frelimo troops. As black rule of Mozambique became a reality (with Machel as president) and as increased racial violence erupted, there was an exodus of Europeans from Mozambique. As the Portuguese left, they took their valuable skills and machinery, which had an adverse effect on the economy. Frelimo established a single-party Marxist state, nationalized all industry, and abolished private land ownership. Frelimo also instituted health and education reforms. Mozambique became a base for the nationalist rebels of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), a move that angered Rhodesia and South Africa. In 1979, Rhodesia invaded Mozambique, destroying communications facilities, agricultural centers, and transportation lines; many civilians were killed in the attacks.

After Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) obtained majority rule in 1980, the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (MNR or Renamo), a powerful dissident group financed in part by South Africa, waged guerrilla warfare against Frelimo. In addition to the chaos created by economic and political conditions, Mozambique was foundering under the weight of a large and inefficient bureaucracy. In the 1980s, Machel cut the size of the government and began to privatize industry. In 1984, Mozambique signed a nonaggression pact (the Incomati accord) with South Africa; the terms of the pact prohibited South African support of Renamo and Mozambican support of the African National Congress African National Congress (ANC), the oldest black (now multiracial) political organization in South Africa; founded in 1912. Prominent in its opposition to apartheid, the organization began as a nonviolent civil-rights group. ..... Click the link for more information. . Mozambique accused South Africa of violating the accord, and fighting continued between the government and Renamo throughout the 1980s.

In 1986, Machel was killed in a plane crash and succeeded by Joaquim Chissano Chissano, Joaquim Alberto, 1939–, Mozambican political leader. A founding member of the Mozambican Liberation Front (Frelimo), he rose to become a major general in the organization, and after Mozambique became independent from Portugal he served as foreign minister in ..... Click the link for more information. . In 1992, Mozambique suffered from one of the worst droughts of the century and from the widespread famine that ensued. Renamo rebels, who controlled most of the rural areas, blocked famine relief efforts. Civil war and starvation killed tens of thousands, and more than a million refugees fled the country. In 1992, Frelimo and Renamo signed an accord ending the civil war. In multiparty elections held in 1994, with the presence of UN peacekeepers, Chissano, the Frelimo candidate, won the presidency, and his party secured a slight majority in parliament. The Chissano government had begun repudiating Marxism in the 1980s, pledging itself to develop a market-oriented economy.

In the 1990s it privatized a number of state-owned companies and made progress in cutting inflation, stabilizing the currency, and stimulating economic growth, and by the end of the decade it had largely recovered from the civil war, although widespread poverty remained a problem. The Dec., 1999, elections were again won by Chissano and Frelimo, but the Renamo presidential candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, denounced the results as fraudulent and called for a recount; foreign observers, who were denied access to the final vote tabulation, expressed concerns about the vote-counting process. The supreme court denied (Jan., 2000) Dhlakama's request for a recount, stating that Renamo had failed to provide evidence of ballot fraud. In February and March, 2000, the Limpopo and Changane river valleys in S Mozambique experienced severe flooding as a result of heavy rain from a cyclone (hurricane); an estimated one million people were affected. The results of the elections led Renamo to boycott the national assembly for much of 2000, and protest demonstrations in November resulted in scattered violence in central and N Mozambique.

The presidential and legislative elections of Dec., 2004, were won by Frelimo, whose presidential candidate, Armando Guebuza Guebuza, Armando Emílio , 1943–, Mozambican business executive and politician, president of Mozambique (2005–15). A longtime supporter of the independence movement and member of the Mozambican Liberation Front (Frelimo), he relocated to Zambia in 1964 to join ..... Click the link for more information. , a millionaire business executive, won nearly 64% of the vote. Dhlakama and Renamo again accused Frelimo of fraud. International observers said there were widespread problems including presumed fraudulent totals in some strongly Frelimo districts but that the irregularities were not enough to have altered the overall result of the voting. The country's Constitutional Council also criticized the election commission's handling of the vote count. Guebuza and Frelimo won the 2009 elections by even larger margins against an opposition divided between Renamo and the Mozambican Democratic Movement. Both opposition parties denounced the results and accused the ruling party of fraud.

In 2013 rising tensions between the government and Renamo led to threats from Renamo leaders and attacks beginning in Apr., 2013, that were blamed on Renamo. The attacks led to military operations against Renamo in response, including an attack against Dhlakama's base in October. By Sept., 2014, however, a cease-fire was signed, and Dhlakama and Renamo participated in the October elections. Although Frelimo won a majority of the national assembly seats, its majority was significantly reduced and both opposition parties gained seats. Filipe Nyusi, the Frelimo candidate, won the presidency, with 57% of the vote. Renamo again leveled accusations of fraud, and subsequently boycotted parliament for month in early 2015. Tensions between govenment and Renamo soon revived, with Dhlakama making recurring threats to seize control of six northern and central provinces, and conflict between the two sides resumed in 2015. Bibliography See M. D. D. Newitt, Portuguese Settlement on the Zambesi: Exploration, Land Tenure, and Colonial Rule (1973); A. and B.

Isaacman, Mozambique (1983); B. Munslow, Mozambique: The Revolution and its Origins (1983); B. Egero, A Dream Undone: The Political Economy of Democracy 1975–1984 (1987); J. E. Torp, Mozambique (1989); A. Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (1991). Mozambique, Lecture Delivered by ANC President Jacob Zuma at the Central School of FRELIMO | African National Congress Lecture Delivered by ANC President Jacob Zuma at the Central School of FRELIMO 30 July 2008, Maputo "From a history and partnership against colonialism and apartheid -To a future partnership for development and the struggle against poverty".

Secretary General of FRELIMO, Members of the FRELIMO Central Committee, Members of the ANC National Executive Committee, Distinguished guests, Friends and comrades, Students, I am honoured to speak to you, as a group of students and young people of this noble city of Maputo and this generous country Mozambique, the land of Eduardo Chivambo Mondlane and the beloved Samora Machel. We are here in Mozambique, as the leadership of the ANC on an important mission to visit a revolutionary party of your country FRELIMO, the party which led the Mozambican people to their Independence in 1975. Our movement the African National Congress (ANC) shares a special and long history of friendship with FRELIMO, which started many decades ago. We are here to strengthen those bonds of friendship and comradeship. FRELIMO and the ANC share historical ties born out of struggle when in our country we were fighting against apartheid and in your country you were fighting against colonialism against the Portuguese rule; it is a relationship that spans many years. These common objectives united our people in struggles against fascist regimes.

The leaders of our movements, Comrades Oliver Tambo, Eduardo Mondlane, Samora Machel and others met in countries such as Algeria of Ben Bella, and in other African countries and were trained in the same camps of the newly liberated or independent countries, our goals then were to see to it that the liberation of our people was achieved. It was natural therefore that our leaders and members of both FRELIMO and the ANC shared a common goal to achieve the liberation of their countries. When FRELIMO had its first liberated area, MK soldiers entered Mozambique and stayed in the area. We remember that ours are the bonds that are not easy to break as they were cemented in blood, the blood of our brothers and sisters, which was shed during the Matola Raid, Niassa and many other areas where both Mozambicans and South Africans lost their lives. We must jointly build a monument for them in the area where the attack took place so that the memory of those who sacrificed their lives is honoured. When the Independence of Mozambique was finally achieved in 1975, our people were greatly overjoyed and their hope renewed that indeed the liberation in South Africa will soon dawn.

The liberation of Angola and Mozambique in a space of a year from each other was a great source of hope and inspiration for the oppressed people of South Africa, it made us to intensify our struggle so that we will follow soon in overthrowing the apartheid regime. This was seen and experienced right inside South Africa as young and old people of our country organised many FRELIMO victory celebrations. Once liberated, Mozambique helped uMkhonto we Sizwe to operate and the ANC to have its offices in this country. Our President Oliver Tambo had a permanent residence and home only in your country. We are eternally grateful to the friendship and love shown to our people and our movement by your Party FRELIMO and our beloved leader at the time Comrade President Samora Machel. When I was asked to speak here to young people of this revolutionary party FRELIMO I was excited, because young people are central for the future and the rejuvenation of any society. I know that if we share anything with FRELIMO it is our passion for young people, we are both committed to ensuring that young people grow and develop in a peaceful and a secure environment.

Our goal is to see the growth and development of young people to play a meaningful role in their society, in developing it and in turn in developing their own country and ensuring that they live in a prosperous country. In South Africa we are inspired by what a leader of our people, Moses Kotane who spent many years in this country, once said when speaking to a group of young people like yourselves many years ago, when he said: "A country, a people that does not value and cherish its youth does not deserve its future". And I want to add and echo his sentiment by saying that a youth that does not value and cherish its country and its people also has no future. Today, our African continent faces many challenges, among them the issue of lack of skills or the flight of the very limited skills that we have in the continent. For us to address this challenge we will need to invest enormous amounts of money to the development of skills and by investing in students and the youth so that they can play an instrumental role in the development of their societies. With this challenge in mind, the issue of achieving a higher level of education and attaining skills development becomes very critical for our continent.

Without skills development our continent cannot achieve the growth levels and development that it aspires to. It is for this reason that we would like to encourage all of you to concentrate on developing yourselves, to achieve the highest level of education, so that you can contribute meaningfully in your country`s development. It is our desire to see African youth being developed at a skills level, and most importantly after achieving that level of development to remain in their countries or at least in the continent, so that they can contribute to the well being of our continent. The issue of brain drain is affecting our continent negatively and it must be avoided at all cost. We would rather you used the skills that you acquire in your on country and continent rather than taking them to already developed nations in Europe and America. This means that part of the education that young people of our countries must receive must be around how to be patriotic and committed to their countries. Young people must be proud of their countries and their past histories so that they would understand the sacrifices that were made by many of their heroes who contributed in their struggle for liberation.

By so doing you will also be contributing to the protection and defence of the revolution of your own country, we depend on you to defend our revolutions which were achieved at great cost and human sacrifices. We remember the devastating war that affected your country and threatened your revolution and believe that freedom once achieved must be defended at all cost. Going forward we believe that our two countries must develop and strengthen their partnership, based on mutual bonds of struggle. We must develop from the historic partnership that we had when we fought against apartheid and colonialism, to a future partnership for development, growth and the struggle against poverty. It is for this reason that our countries still enjoy good relations today. We are close neighbours and live in an economically integrated region, where the porous nature of the borders between us relegates borders to being a formality. Developments such as the Maputo Corridor and the Libombo Corridor have made communication between our citizens easier. We must build and strengthen our relations based on common solidarity as Africans, our trade, investment and economic relations must be based on respect of each others countries as two distinct states, while also promoting continental cooperation.

We must understand that Africa comes from a past where artificial borders were created by the Berlin Conference which was meant to divide us, but now since most of our countries are free and we are united we must not be confined by such artificial borders, the movement of our people from one country to another to share knowledge and skills must be encouraged. It has always been my wish that we build a bridge over the Rovuma River between Mozambique and Tanzania thus linking the people of East and Southern Africa. Lastly, my message to you as young people is also to deal with the challenge of HIV and AIDS that is devastating our continent, especially Sub-Saharan Africa. You must guard against this disease and ensure that you protect yourselves by applying all precautions that will prevent the spread of HIV and AIDS. As the youth you are our future and we depend on you being healthy in order to achieve the agenda of a prosperous, politically stable and economically and thriving Africa. For us to achieve all of these important things we need to politically educate our youth in our political schools. I thank you.

Question: Between 1963 and 1975, FRELIMO, a nationalist group, fought for the independence of which African country?
Answer: Mozambique