Skin, Hair, and Nails Skin, Hair, and Nails La piel, el cabello y las uñas Your skin is your largest organ. If the skin of a typical 150-pound (68-kilogram) adult male were stretched out flat, it would cover about 2 square yards (1.7 square meters) and weigh about 9 pounds (4 kilograms). Skin protects the network of muscles, bones , nerves, blood vessels , and everything else inside our bodies. Eyelids have the thinnest skin, the soles of our feet the thickest. Hair is actually a modified type of skin. Hair grows everywhere on the human body except the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and lips. Hair grows more quickly in summer than winter, and more slowly at night than during the day. Like hair, nails are a type of modified skin — and they're not just for beauty. Nails protect the sensitive tips of our fingers and toes. Human nails are not necessary for living, but they do provide support for the tips of the fingers and toes, protect them from injury, and aid in picking up small objects.

Without them, we'd have a hard time scratching an itch or untying a knot. Nails can be an indicator of a person's general health, and illness often affects their growth. Skin Basics Skin is essential to a person's survival. It forms a barrier that prevents harmful substances and microorganisms from entering the body. It protects body tissues against injury. Our skin also controls the loss of life-sustaining fluids like blood and water, helps us regulate body temperature through perspiration, and protects us from the sun's damaging ultraviolet rays. Without the nerve cells in our skin, we couldn't feel warmth, cold, or other sensations. Our skin can also respond to situations and emotions: Muscles in the skin called erector pili contract to make the hairs on our skin stand up straight (goosebumps) when we are cold or frightened — for insulation and protection. Every square inch of skin contains thousands of cells and hundreds of sweat glands, oil glands, nerve endings, and blood vessels. Skin is made up of three layers: the epidermis (pronounced: ep-ih-DUR-mis), dermis, and the subcutaneous (pronounced: sub-kyoo-TAY-nee-us) tissue.

continue Skin Cells and Layers The upper layer of our skin, the epidermis, is the tough, protective outer layer. It is about as thick as a sheet of paper over most parts of the body. The epidermis has four layers of cells that are constantly flaking off and being renewed. In these four layers are three special types of cells: Melanocytes (pronounced: meh-LAH-nuh-sites) produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color. All people have roughly the same number of melanocytes; the more melanin that is produced, the darker the skin. Exposure to sunlight increases the production of melanin, which is why people get suntanned or freckled. Keratinocytes (pronounced: ker-uh-TIH-no-sites) produce keratin, a type of protein that is a basic component of hair and nails. Keratin is also found in skin cells in the skin's outer layer, where it helps create a protective barrier. Langerhans (pronounced: LAHNG-ur-hanz) cells help protect the body against infection. Because the cells in the epidermis are completely replaced about every 28 days, cuts and scrapes heal quickly.

Below the epidermis is the next layer of our skin, the dermis, which is made up of blood vessels, nerve endings, and connective tissue. The dermis nourishes the epidermis. Without certain molecules in the dermis, our skin wouldn't stretch when we bend or reposition itself when we straighten up. These two types of fibers in the dermis, collagen and elastin, help the skin stretch and reposition itself when we move. Collagen is strong and hard to stretch and elastin, as its name suggests, is elastic. In older people, some of the elastin-containing fibers degenerate, which is one reason why the skin looks wrinkled (most wrinkles are caused by sun exposure, though!). The dermis also contains a person's sebaceous glands. These glands, which surround and empty into our hair follicles and pores, produce an oil called sebum (pronounced: SEE-bum) that lubricates the skin and hair. Sebaceous glands are found mostly in the skin on the face, upper back, shoulders, and chest. Most of the time, the sebaceous glands make the right amount of sebum.

As a person's body begins to mature and develop during the teenage years, though, hormones stimulate the sebaceous glands to make more sebum. This can lead to acne when pores become clogged by too much sebum and too many dead skin cells. Later in life, these glands produce less sebum, which contributes to dry skin in older people. The bottom layer of our skin, the subcutaneous tissue, is made up of connective tissue, sweat glands, blood vessels, and cells that store fat. This layer helps protect the body from blows and other injuries and helps it hold in body heat. There are two types of sweat-producing glands. The eccrine (pronounced: EH-krun) glands are found everywhere in our bodies, although they are mostly in the forehead, palms, and soles of the feet. By producing sweat, these glands help regulate body temperature, and waste products are excreted through them. The other type of sweat-producing gland, the apocrine glands, develop at puberty and are concentrated in the armpits and pubic region. The sweat from the apocrine glands is thicker than that produced by the eccrine glands.

Although this sweat doesn't smell, when it mixes with bacteria on the skin's surface, it can cause body odor. A normal, healthy adult secretes about 1 pint (about half a liter) of sweat daily, but this may be increased by physical activity, fever, or a hot environment. previous continue Hair Basics The hair on our heads isn't just there for looks. It keeps us warm by preserving heat. The hair in our nose, ears, and around our eyes protects these sensitive areas of the body from dust and other small particles. Eyebrows and eyelashes protect our eyes by decreasing the amount of light and particles that go into them. The fine hair that covers our bodies provides warmth and protects our skin. Hair also cushions the body against injury. Human hair consists of the hair shaft, which projects from the skin's surface, and the root, a soft thickened bulb at the base of the hair embedded in the skin. The root ends in the hair bulb. The hair bulb sits in a sac-like pit in the skin called the follicle, from which the hair grows. At the bottom of the follicle is the papilla, where hair growth actually takes place. The papilla contains an artery that nourishes the root of the hair.

As cells multiply and produce keratin to harden the structure, they are pushed up the follicle and through the skin's surface as a shaft of hair. Each hair has three layers: the medulla at the center, which is soft; the cortex, which surrounds the medulla and is the main part of the hair; and the cuticle, the hard outer layer that protects the shaft. Hair grows by forming new cells at the base of the root. These cells multiply to form a rod of tissue in the skin. The rods of cells move upward through the skin as new cells form beneath them. As they move up, they are cut off from their supply of nourishment and start to form a hard protein called keratin in a process called keratinization (pronounced: ker-uh-tuh-nuh-ZAY-shun). As this process occurs, the hair cells die. The dead cells and keratin form the shaft of the hair. Each hair grows about ¼ inch (about 6 millimeters) every month and keeps on growing for up to 6 years. The hair then falls out and another grows in its place. The length of a person's hair depends on the length of the growing phase of the follicle.

Follicles are active for 2 to 6 years; they rest for about 3 months after that. A person becomes bald if the scalp follicles become inactive and no longer produce new hair. Thick hair grows out of large follicles; narrow follicles produce thin hair. The color of a person's hair is determined by the amount and distribution of melanin in the cortex of each hair (the same melanin that's found in the epidermis). Hair also contains a yellow-red pigment; people who have blonde or red hair have only a small amount of melanin in their hair. Hair becomes gray when people age because pigment no longer forms. previous continue All About Nails Nails grow out of deep folds in the skin of the fingers and toes. As epidermal cells below the nail root move up to the surface of the skin, they increase in number, and those closest to the nail root become flattened and pressed tightly together. Each cell is transformed into a thin plate; these plates are piled in layers to form the nail. As with hair, nails are formed by keratinization. When the nail cells accumulate, the nail is pushed forward. The skin below the nail is called the matrix.

The larger part of the nail, the nail plate, looks pink because of the network of tiny blood vessels in the underlying dermis. The whitish crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail is called the lunula. Fingernails grow about three or four times as quickly as toenails. Like hair, nails grow more rapidly in summer than in winter. If a nail is torn off, it will regrow if the matrix is not severely injured. White spots on the nail are sometimes due to temporary changes in growth rate. Skin Problems Some of the things that can affect the skin, nails, and hair are described below. Dermatitis Medical experts use the term dermatitis (pronounced: dur-mah-TY-tus) to refer to any inflammation that might be associated with swelling, itching, and redness of the skin. There are many types of dermatitis, including: Atopic dermatitis is also called eczema . It's a common, hereditary dermatitis that causes an itchy rash primarily on the face, trunk, arms, and legs. It commonly develops in infancy, but can also appear in early childhood. It may be associated with allergic diseases such as asthma or food, seasonal, or environmental allergies.

Contact dermatitis occurs when the skin comes into contact with an irritating substance or a substance that a person is allergic to. The best-known cause of contact dermatitis is poison ivy. But lots of other things cause contact dermatitis, including chemicals found in laundry detergent, cosmetics, and perfumes, and metals like jewelry, nickel plating on a belt buckle, or the back of the buttons on your jeans. Seborrheic dermatitis, an oily rash on the scalp, face, chest, and back, is related to an overproduction of sebum from the sebaceous glands. This condition is common in teens. Bacterial Skin Infections Impetigo . Impetigo (pronounced: im-puh-TY-go) is a bacterial infection that results in a honey-colored, crusty rash, often on the face near the mouth and nose. Cellulitis . Cellulitis (pronounced: sell-yuh-LY-tus) is an infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue that typically occurs when bacteria are introduced through a puncture, bite, or other break in the skin. The affected area is usually warm and tender and has some redness. Streptococcal and staphylococcal infections.

These two kinds of bacteria are the main causes of cellulitis and impetigo. Certain types of these bacteria are also responsible for distinctive rashes on the skin, including the rashes associated with scarlet fever and toxic shock syndrome . Fungal Infections Fungal Infections of the Skin and Nails Candidal dermatitis. A warm, moist environment, such as that found in the folds of the skin in the diaper area of infants, is perfect for growth of the yeast Candida. Yeast infections of the skin in older children, teens, and adults are less common. Tinea infection ( ringworm ). Ringworm, which isn't a worm at all, is a fungus infection that can affect the skin, nails, or scalp. Tinea (pronounced: TIH-nee-uh) fungi can infect the skin and related tissues of the body. The medical name for ringworm of the scalp is tinea capitis; ringworm of the body is called tinea corporis; and ringworm of the nails is called tinea unguium. With tinea corporis, the fungi can cause scaly, ring-like lesions anywhere on the body. Tinea pedis ( athlete's foot ).

This infection of the feet is caused by the same types of fungi (called dermatophytes) that cause ringworm. Athlete's foot is commonly found in adolescents and is more likely to happen during warm weather. Other Skin Problems Parasitic infestations. Parasites (usually tiny insects or worms) can feed on or burrow into the skin, often resulting in an itchy rash. Scabies and lice are examples of parasitic infestations. Both are contagious — meaning they can be easily caught from other people. Viral infections. Many viruses cause characteristic rashes on the skin, including varicella (pronounced: var-ih-SEL-uh), the virus that causes chicken pox and shingles; herpes simplex, which causes cold sores; human papillomavirus (HPV), the virus that causes warts ; and a host of others. Acne (acne vulgaris). Acne is the single most common skin condition in teens. Some degree of acne is seen in 85% of adolescents, and nearly all teens have the occasional pimple, blackhead, or whitehead. Skin cancer.

Skin cancer is rare in children and teens, but good sun protection habits established during these years can help prevent skin cancers like melanoma (pronounced: mel-uh-NO-ma, a serious form of skin cancer that can spread to other parts of the body) later in life, especially among fair-skinned people who sunburn easily. In addition to these diseases and conditions, the skin can be injured in a number of ways. Minor scrapes, cuts, and bruises heal quickly on their own, but other injuries — severe cuts and burns, for example — require medical treatment. Disorders of the Scalp and Hair Tinea capitis, a type of ringworm, is a fungal infection that forms a scaly, ring-like lesion in the scalp. It's contagious and common among school-age children. Alopecia (pronounced: ah-luh-PEE-sha) is an area of hair loss. Ringworm is a common cause of temporary alopecia in children. Alopecia can also be caused by tight braiding that pulls on the hair roots (this condition is called traction alopecia).

Alopecia areata (where a person's hair falls out in round or oval patches on the scalp) is a less common condition that can sometimes affect teens. Protein is important for beautiful skin, hair and nails - Nutrition Express Articles Protein is important for beautiful skin, hair and nails Learn why protein plays such a major role in your overall health by Judy Lindberg McFarland When you look in the mirror, what do you see? Do you see soft, supple, radiant, glowing, blemish-free skin? Or do you see age spots and new wrinkles? The skin is the first "aging" sign we tend to see in ourselves. We all want to find ways to keep our skin beautiful, soft, and, we hope, wrinkle free. We will each get some wrinkles, but nobody wants them prematurely! My mother, Gladys Lindberg, had the most beautiful skin for her age of any woman I have ever seen. She far surpassed the "beauty experts" and "movie stars" in her beauty and grace. At age 85 she had a clear, peachy complexion and was virtually wrinkle free! She had no patchy "age" spots or blemished skin.

She never smoked and avoided the sun whenever possible. This was natural beauty. Mother started her quest for health when she was 43 years old. She said her skin was blotchy and never radiant, but her program drastically changed the quality of her skin. Important advice for skin health A woman recently came into our store looking for a "magic formula" for her deeply wrinkled skin. She was only in her mid-40s, but said her skin had changed drastically over the past months. Being quite disturbed about the situation, she came to me wanting "that miracle cream." I talked to her for a few minutes and discovered that she had been on a severe reducing diet for several months. She had followed a diet low in protein, and over the course of those months had lost her skin tone. It had started to sag and wrinkle way beyond what would be normal for her chronological age. Most women want to be slim, but if you saw her, I'm sure you would agree, "not at that price!" Here are some things I told her that are important for healthy skin regardless of whether you're trying to lose weight or not.

Collagen - the skin's "cement" Elastic skin is a sign that a person has ample collagen, the strong cement-like material that binds together the cells of your body. Collagen is a structural tissue and it is replaced very slowly. It is made of fibrous protein. In fact, collagen comprises 30 percent of the total body protein. Its strong white fibers, stronger than steel wire of the same size, and yellow elastic networks, called elastin, form the connective tissue that holds our body together. Collagen strengthens the skin, blood vessels, bones, and teeth. It is the intracellular cement that holds together the cells in various organs and tissues. Collagen is one of the most valuable proteins in the human body. A person who has been sick, or who has been on an extremely low-protein diet, very often sees the muscles in his or her arms and legs begin to sag, which is a sign that they have probably lost collagen. Start with protein The building blocks of protein are amino acids. When protein is eaten, your digestive processes break it down into amino acids, which pass into the blood and are carried throughout the body.

Your cells can then select the amino acids they need for the construction of new body tissue, antibodies, hormones, enzymes, and blood cells. There are 22 different amino acids, each of which has its own characteristics, and are like the letters of the alphabet. The eight essential amino acids are like the vowels. Just as you cannot make words without vowels, so you cannot build proteins without these essential amino acids. Protein is not one substance, but literally tens of thousands of different substances. The essential amino acids must be consumed in the diet because the body does not make them. The complete proteins that contain the eight essential amino acids come from meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk -- all dairy, cheese and soy. They are basically anything that comes from the animal. Nuts and legumes (peas and beans) contain some but not all of the essential amino acids; these are known as incomplete proteins. In various combinations, all of these amino acids are capable of forming an almost limitless variety of proteins, each serving its own purpose. Proteins are necessary for tissue repair and for the construction of new tissue. Every cell needs protein to maintain its life.

Protein is also the primary substance used to "replace" worn-out or dead cells: Most white blood cells are replaced every ten days. The cells in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract and blood platelets are replaced every four days. Skin cells are replaced every 24 days. More than 98 percent of the molecules in the body are completely replaced each year! Your muscles, hair, nails, skin and eyes are made of protein. So are the cells that make up the liver, kidneys, heart, lungs, nerves, brain and your sex glands. The body's most active protein users are the hormones secreted from the various glands -- thyroxin from the thyroid, insulin from the pancreas, and a variety of hormones from the pituitary -- as well as the soft tissues, hard-working major organs and muscles. They all require the richest stores of protein. How much protein a day? Many opinions differ on the amount of protein needed in the diet. Some experts suggest very low amounts; some suggest much higher amounts, especially if body building. I have found with my nutritional counseling that most people consume a very low protein diet, especially if they tell me they are tired all the time.

When I have them increase their protein during the day, usually with protein shakes, it is amazing how much better they start to feel. The following protein requirement chart is to be used only as a guideline for determining your protein requirement. You may need more, or you might be able to get by with slightly less. Your requirement depends on your percent of body fat, your weight and the physical activity you do. The higher your activity level, the more you will need to increase your dietary protein intake to repair and rebuild muscle. If you are undergoing any type of severe stress (including the stresses of cancer, burns, radiation exposure, or pregnancy), you need more. If you are susceptible to infections you may need more. Remember that antibodies, white blood cells, lymph cells, and everything our body uses to fight infections is made out of protein. I feel it is very important we look to the high side of these requirements. Daily Protein Requirements for Men and Women Over 20* Ideal Weight 110 grams 130 grams *Our calculations for this age group are based on the usual recommendation of one gram of protein per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of ideal body weight, for sedentary individuals.

However, adding 20 grams of protein to the above recommendation as a safety margin will ensure getting enough protein. Pregnant women should add an additional 20 grams, and nursing mothers should add 40 grams of protein to the above recommendation. If you are physically active, exercising every day, figure one gram of protein per pound of lean (your ideal) weight. Three ounces of chicken yields approximately 20 grams of protein; one half cup of water-packed tuna contains 28 grams; eight ounces of low fat, plain yogurt has 12 grams. One egg provides six grams. An eight-ounce glass of low-fat milk has eight grams. Remember, there are excellent protein powders that are alternatives to traditional protein foods. We need to remember there is a balance of protein, fats and carbohydrates that Mother and I have basically taught. It is important to eat five times a day and include some form of protein at each meal or feeding. We have found this program has helped more people look and feel their best.

This may be ideal for most people, but remember, we are "biologically different." In our nutritional program I recommend a variety of complete protein foods including fish, chicken, low-fat dairy, eggs, some red meat, quality protein powders, and nutritional yeast. Also consume an ample supply of various fresh fruits and vegetables, legumes which are complex carbohydrates and include the essential fatty acids. A strict fat-free diet is not healthy for your skin. My approach is this: You are not made of lettuce leaves. Your body is made of protein which is essential for almost every cell in your body, especially your hair, skin and nails. Recognizing deficiencies related to protein deficiencies in hair, skin and nails Puffy bags under the eyes, especially in the morning, may indicate a lack of protein. Water retention. General puffiness around the eyes, as well as swollen ankles, face, and hands, can result from a protein deficiency. Nails are made of protein, not calcium as some think. A protein deficiency can be marked by split, extremely thin nails. Nails that fail to grow quickly lack protein. The structure of the hair follicle is protein.

There are eight amino acids that the body does not produce and which therefore must come from complete protein foods such as eggs, dairy (milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.), soy, meat, fish, and fowl. Quality protein powders can fill this nutritional requirement for complete protein foods. It's a great reason to use protein powders. Eat small meals often with protein at each meal. L-cysteine and L-methionine are the sulfur amino acids that form "keratin," which is the protein structure of hair. Studies have shown that supplementing with L-cysteine may prevent hair from falling out, as well as increase the diameter of the hair shaft. These amino acids have been found to increase hair growth by as much as 100 percent. These two amino acids are sold in your nutrition store, but egg yolk contains the highest amount of these two amino acids. Another easy way to add sulfur to your diet is to take MSM. The value of protein It's important to understand the value of protein in our diet. Proteins are necessary for tissue repair and for the construction of new tissue. Every cell needs protein to maintain its life.

Protein is also the primary substance used to "replace" worn out or dead cells. Your muscles, hair, nails, skin, and eyes are made of protein. Those with thinning hair and too many wrinkles for your age, may lack protein. The basis for neurotransmitters in your brain, and the substances that form the body's immune response against infection, is made from protein. The most active protein users of the body are all of the hormones. Next to water, protein is the most plentiful substance in your body. In fact, if all the water was squeezed out of you, half of your dry weight would be protein. One third of this protein would be in your muscles, a fifth in your bones and cartilage, a tenth in your skin, and the rest in your other tissues and body fluids. Even 95 percent of your hemoglobin is protein. Protein is the best nutrient to eat in order to maintain an even blood sugar level, because it is metabolized over a long period of time. Protein can be converted to glucose if need be. Now you have a better understanding why I keep emphasizing the value of protein. A quick and easy way to get more protein into your diet is to use a protein powder supplement.

Suggestions for choosing a protein powder Not all protein powders are alike, so it's important that you read labels. There are several types of powders dominant today. These protein powders may be used alone or in combination with other powders. Look for a powder formula that contains NO refined sugar such as white sugar, sucrose, dextrose, maltose, corn sweeteners or the artificial sweetener, aspartame. These are the four sources for protein powder that I recommend. Whey protein - concentrates and isolates Whey concentrates and isolates have gone through a manufacturing process to remove most of the carbohydrates, fat and lactose from regular whey or sweet whey. The process is called "ion exchanged" or "filtered", both of which result in almost a pure protein. It also removes the majority of lactose for those who are intolerant to milk. The protein content is about 80 percent in the whey concentrates and 90 percent in the whey isolates. One method to rate the quality of one protein versus another is called Biological Value (BV). Proteins with the highest biological value promote the most lean muscle gains.

Whey concentrates and isolates have higher biological values than regular whey, milk, egg or soy. Casein (milk protein) is the predominant protein in milk. For example, the protein in cheese and cottage cheese is casein. Sometimes called calcium-caseinate, or sodium- or potassium-caseinate. It contains all the essential amino acids and is a good source of protein. It is very low in lactose. This slow digesting protein keeps you full longer since it must form a gel during digestion before it is absorbed. This slower transit time may extend the exposure to the protein in the intestines and may help increase absorption. Egg protein (egg whites or egg albumen) Egg protein used to be the gold standard against which all other proteins were measured, until whey protein became available. Egg white protein provides all twenty-two of the amino acids with a proper balance of essential amino acids. It's an excellent protein source, but not very tasty compared to the milky taste of whey or casein. Some manufacturers add egg white powder to their protein powder to boost the quality of the protein. Egg white protein powder contains no cholesterol.

Soy Protein Soy protein is processed from the soybean plant and most of the fat, fiber and carbohydrate has been removed. Since it is a vegetable product, it has no cholesterol. The amino acid profile is not quite as good as the other protein sources. Do not attempt to substitute soy flour for soy protein powder. The two are very different products. Soy flour must be heated for it to be assimilated by the body. Soy is a nutritionally significant dietary source of isoflavones. These naturally occurring isoflavones are genistein, daidzein and glycitein. Recent human research suggests that these isoflavones are ideal for people of all ages, especially women concerned about bone health, those looking for an alternative to hormone replacement therapy and women experiencing menopausal symptoms. However there are differing opinions on soy and relief of menopausal symptoms. These isoflavones also work in conjunction with soy protein to lower cholesterol. Research has shown that 25 grams of soy protein a day, used as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. Some brands use GMO soy, meaning it is from genetically modified soybeans.

Most brands are switching to the more expensive non-GMO (non genetically modified) soy for this reason. Check your label and use the non-GMO brands. In summary, different proteins offer varying advantages. I suggest you consume a variety of proteins and be sure to get adequate amounts for optimal health. My favorite protein powders Lindberg Protein Blend is a scientifically designed blend of five protein sources. It's made with whey, milk and egg white protein, providing a blend of fast-release proteins for building muscle, and slow-release proteins to help suppress protein breakdown. One serving contains: 130 calories, 25 grams of protein, 3-6 grams of carbs and 1.5-2 grams of fat. Lindberg Whey is a whey protein concentrate, which provides the highest biological value protein available. The lactose has been filtered out, leaving less than one gram per serving - an amount easily tolerated by those with lactose sensitivities. Whey is an excellent source of BCAAs (branched chain amino acids), which are important to dieters and those on an exercise or fitness program.

No artificial growth hormone rBGH is used, and the whey comes from cows not given rBGH (artificial growth hormone). It is instantized with non-GMO sunflower lecithin rather than soy lecithin, so it contains no soy. One serving contains: 140 calories, 25 grams of protein, 3 grams of carbs and 2.5 grams of fat. References: 1. Braverman, E. R. and C. C. Pfeiffer. The Healing Nutrients Within. New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, Inc., 1987, page 91. 2. Lindberg, Gladys and Judy McFarland. Take Charge of Your Health. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1982, page 67. 3. Information about all deficiency symptoms can be found in: Lindberg, Gladys and Judy McFarland. Take Charge of Your Health. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1982, pages 184-241. 4. Braverman, E. R. and C. C. Pfeiffer. The Healing Nutrients Within.

New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, Inc., 1987, page 91. Buchanan, J. H. and M. S. Otterburn. "Some structural comparisons between cysteine-deficient and normal hair keratin." IRCS Med Sci 12 (1984): 691-692. Skin, Hair, and Nails Skin, Hair, and Nails La piel, el cabello y las uñas About Skin, Hair and Nails Skin is our largest organ. If the skin of a typical 150-pound (68-kilogram) adult male were stretched out flat, it would cover about 2 square yards (1.7 square meters) and weigh about 9 pounds (4 kilograms). Our skin protects the network of muscles, bones, nerves, blood vessels, and everything else inside our bodies. Our eyelids have the thinnest skin, the soles of our feet the thickest. Hair is actually a modified type of skin. Hair grows everywhere on the human body except the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and lips.

Hair grows more quickly in summer than winter, and more slowly at night than during the day. Like hair, nails are a type of modified skin. Nails protect the sensitive tips of fingers and toes. Human nails aren't necessary for living, but they do provide support for the tips of the fingers and toes, protect them from injury, and aid in picking up small objects. Without them, we'd have a hard time scratching an itch or untying a knot. Nails can be an indicator of a person's general health, and illness often affects their growth. continue Skin Basics Skin is essential in many ways. It forms a barrier that prevents harmful substances and microorganisms from entering the body. It protects body tissues against injury. It also controls the loss of life-sustaining fluids like blood and water, helps regulate body temperature through perspiration (sweating), and protects from the sun's damaging ultraviolet rays. Without the nerve cells in skin, people couldn't feel warmth, cold, or other sensations.

For instance, goosebumps form when the erector pili muscles contract to make hairs on the skin stand up straight when someone is cold, excited, or frightened — the blood vessels keep the body from losing heat by narrowing as much as possible and keeping the warm blood away from the skin's surface, offering insulation and protection. Every square inch of skin contains thousands of cells and hundreds of sweat glands, oil glands, nerve endings, and blood vessels. Skin is made up of three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and the subcutaneous tissue. The upper layer of our skin, the epidermis, is the tough, protective outer layer. It's about as thick as a sheet of paper over most parts of the body. The epidermis has four layers of cells that are constantly flaking off and being renewed. In these four layers are three special types of cells: Melanocytes produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color. All people have roughly the same number of melanocytes; the more melanin that is produced, the darker the skin. Exposure to sunlight increases the production of melanin, which is why people get suntanned or freckled.

Keratinocytes produce keratin, a type of protein that is a basic component of hair, skin, nails, and helps create an intact barrier. Langerhans cells help protect the body against infection. Because the cells in the epidermis are completely replaced about every 28 days, cuts and scrapes heal quickly. Below the epidermis is the next layer of our skin, the dermis, which is made up of blood vessels, nerve endings, and connective tissue. The dermis nourishes the epidermis. Two types of fibers in the dermis — collagen and elastin — help the skin stretch when we bend and reposition itself when we straighten up. Collagen is strong and hard to stretch, and elastin, as its name suggests, is elastic. In older people, some of the elastin-containing fibers degenerate, which is one reason why the skin looks wrinkled. The dermis also contains a person's sebaceous glands. These glands, which surround and empty into hair follicles and pores, produce the oil sebum that lubricates the skin and hair. Sebaceous glands are found mostly in the skin on the face, upper back, shoulders, and chest.

Most of the time, the sebaceous glands make the right amount of sebum. As a person's body begins to mature and develop during the teenage years, though, hormones stimulate the sebaceous glands to make more sebum. When pores become clogged by too much sebum and too many dead skin cells, this contributes to acne. Later in life, these glands produce less sebum, which contributes to dry skin as people age. The bottom layer of our skin, the subcutaneous tissue, is made up of connective tissue, sweat glands, blood vessels, and cells that store fat. This layer helps protect the body from blows and other injuries and helps it hold in body heat. There are two types of sweat glands: The eccrine glands are found everywhere, although they're mostly in the forehead, palms, and soles of the feet. By producing sweat, these glands help regulate body temperature, and waste products are excreted through them. The apocrine glands develop at puberty and are concentrated in the armpits and pubic region. The sweat from the apocrine glands is thicker than that produced by the eccrine glands.

Although this sweat doesn't smell, when it mixes with bacteria on the skin's surface, it can cause body odor. A normal, healthy adult secretes about 1 pint (about half a liter) of sweat daily, but this may be increased by physical activity, fever, or a hot environment. previous continue Hair Basics The hair on our heads isn't just there for looks. It keeps us warm by preserving heat. The hair in the nose, ears, and around the eyes protects these sensitive areas from dust and other small particles. Eyebrows and eyelashes protect eyes by decreasing the amount of light and particles that go into them. The fine hair that covers the body provides warmth and protects the skin. Hair also cushions the body against injury. Human hair consists of the hair shaft, which projects from the skin's surface, and the root, a soft thickened bulb at the base of the hair embedded in the skin. The root ends in the hair bulb, which sits in a sac-like pit in the skin called the follicle, from which the hair grows. At the bottom of the follicle is the papilla, where hair growth actually takes place. The papilla contains an artery that nourishes the root of the hair.

As cells multiply and produce keratin to harden the structure, they're pushed up the follicle and through the skin's surface as a shaft of hair. Each hair has three layers: the medulla at the center, which is soft; the cortex, which surrounds the medulla and is the main part of the hair; and the cuticle, the hard outer layer that protects the shaft. Hair grows by forming new cells at the base of the root. These cells multiply to form a rod of tissue in the skin. The rods of cells move upward through the skin as new cells form beneath them. As they move up, they're cut off from their supply of nourishment and start to form a hard protein called keratin in a process called keratinization. As this process occurs, the hair cells die. The dead cells and keratin form the shaft of the hair. Each hair grows about ¼ inch (about 6 millimeters) every month and keeps on growing for up to 6 years. The hair then falls out and another grows in its place. The length of a person's hair depends on the length of the growing phase of the follicle.

Follicles are active for 2 to 6 years; they rest for about 3 months after that. A person becomes bald if the scalp follicles become inactive and no longer produce new hair. Thick hair grows out of large follicles; narrow follicles produce thin hair. The color of a person's hair is determined by the amount and distribution of melanin in the cortex of each hair (the same melanin that's found in the epidermis). Hair also contains a yellow-red pigment; people who have blonde or red hair have only a small amount of melanin in their hair. Hair becomes gray when people age because pigment no longer forms. Nail Basics Nails grow out of deep folds in the skin of the fingers and toes. As epidermal cells below the nail root move up to the surface of the skin, they increase in number, and those closest to the nail root become flattened and pressed tightly together. Each cell is transformed into a thin plate; these plates are piled in layers to form the nail. As with hair, nails are formed by keratinization. When the nail cells accumulate, the nail is pushed forward. The skin below the nail is called the matrix.

The larger part of the nail, the nail plate, looks pink because of the network of tiny blood vessels in the underlying dermis. The whitish crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail is called the lunula. Fingernails grow about three or four times as quickly as toenails. Like hair, nails grow more rapidly in summer than in winter. If a nail is torn off, it will regrow if the matrix isn't severely injured. White spots on the nail are sometimes due to temporary changes in growth rate. Things That Can Affect Skin, Hair, and Nails Dermatitis The term dermatitis refers to any inflammation (swelling, itching, and redness) possibly associated with the skin. There are many types of dermatitis, including: Atopic dermatitis (eczema). It's a common, hereditary dermatitis that causes an itchy rash primarily on the face, trunk, arms, and legs. It commonly develops in infancy, but can also appear in early childhood. It may be associated with allergic diseases such as asthma and seasonal, environmental, and food allergies. Contact dermatitis. This occurs when the skin comes into contact with an irritating substance or one that the person is allergic or sensitive to.

The best-known cause of contact dermatitis is poison ivy, but there are many others, including chemicals found in laundry detergent, cosmetics, and perfumes, and metals like nickel plating on jewelry, belt buckles, and the back of a snap. Seborrheic dermatitis. This oily rash, which appears on the scalp, face, chest, and back, is related to an overproduction of sebum from the sebaceous glands. This condition is common in infants and adolescents. Bacterial Skin Infections Impetigo . Impetigo is a bacterial infection that results in a honey-colored, crusty rash, often on the face near the mouth and nose. Cellulitis . Cellulitis is an infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue that typically occurs when bacteria are introduced through a puncture, bite, or other break in the skin. The area with cellulitis is usually warm, tender, and has some redness. Streptococcal and staphylococcal infections. These two kinds of bacteria are the main causes of cellulitis and impetigo.

Certain types of these bacteria are also responsible for distinctive rashes on the skin, including the rashes associated with scarlet fever and toxic shock syndrome . Fungal Infections of the Skin and Nails Candidal dermatitis. A warm, moist environment, such as that found in the folds of the skin in the diaper area of infants, is perfect for growth of the yeast Candida. Yeast infections of the skin in older children, teens, and adults are less common. Tinea infection (ringworm) . Ringworm, which isn't a worm at all, is a fungus infection that can affect the skin, nails, or scalp. Fungi called dermatophytes can infect the skin and related tissues of the body. The medical name for ringworm of the scalp is tinea capitis; ringworm of the body is called tinea corporis; and ringworm of the nails is called tinea unguium. With tinea corporis, the fungi can cause scaly, ring-like lesions anywhere on the body. Tinea pedis (athlete's foot). This infection of the feet is caused by the same types of fungi that cause ringworm. Athlete's foot is commonly found in adolescents and is more likely to occur during warm weather.

Other Skin Problems Parasitic infestations. Parasites (usually tiny insects or worms) can feed on or burrow into the skin, often resulting in an itchy rash. Scabies and lice are examples of parasitic infestations. Both are contagious and can be easily caught from other people. Viral infections. Many viruses cause characteristic rashes on the skin, including varicella, the virus that causes chickenpox and shingles; herpes simplex, which causes cold sores; human papillomavirus, the virus that causes warts ; and a host of others. Acne (acne vulgaris). Acne is most common in teens. Some degree of acne is seen in 85% of adolescents, and nearly all teens have the occasional pimple, blackhead, or whitehead. Skin cancer. Skin cancer is rare in children and teens, but good sun protection habits established during these years can help prevent skin cancers such as melanoma (a serious form of skin cancer that can spread to other parts of the body) later in life, especially among fair-skinned people who sunburn easily. Besides these diseases and conditions, the skin can be injured in a number of ways.

Minor scrapes, cuts, and bruises heal quickly on their own, but other injuries — severe cuts and burns, for example — require medical treatment. Disorders of the Scalp and Hair Tinea capitis, a type of ringworm, is a fungal infection that forms a scaly, ring-like lesion in the scalp. It's contagious and common among school-age children. Alopecia is an area of hair loss. Ringworm is a common cause of temporary alopecia in children. Alopecia can also be caused by tight braiding that pulls on the hair roots (called tension alopecia). Alopecia areata (when hair falls out in round or oval patches on the scalp) is a less common condition that can affect children and teens. The Importance of Protein for Beautiful Skin and Hair The Importance of Protein for Beautiful Skin and Hair When you look in the mirror, what do you see? Do you see soft, supple, radiant, glowing, blemish-free skin? Or do you see age spots and new wrinkles? The skin is the first "aging" sign we tend to see in ourselves. We all want to find ways to keep our skin beautiful, soft, and, we hope, wrinkle free.

We will each get some wrinkles, but nobody wants them prematurely! My mother, Gladys Lindberg, had the most beautiful skin for her age of any woman I have ever seen. She far surpassed the "beauty experts" and "movie stars" in her beauty and grace. At age 85 she had a clear, peachy complexion and was virtually wrinkle free! She had no patchy "age" spots or blemished skin. She never smoked and avoided the sun whenever possible. This was natural beauty. Mother started her quest for health when she was 43 years old. She said her skin was blotchy and never radiant, but her program drastically changed the quality of her skin. Important Advice for Skin Health A woman recently came into our store looking for a "magic formula" for her deeply wrinkled skin. She was only in her mid-40s, but said her skin had changed drastically over the past months. Being quite disturbed about the situation, she came to me wanting "that miracle cream." I talked to her for a few minutes and discovered that she had been on a severe reducing diet for several months. She had followed a diet low in protein, and over the course of those months had lost her skin tone.

It had started to sag and wrinkle way beyond what would be normal for her chronological age. Most women want to be slim, but if you saw her, I'm sure you would agree, "not at that price!" Here are some things I told her that are important for healthy skin regardless of whether you're trying to lose weight or not. Collagen - the Skin's "Cement" Elastic skin is a sign that a person has ample collagen, the strong cement-like material that binds together the cells of your body. Collagen is a structural tissue and it is replaced very slowly. It is made of fibrous protein. In fact, collagen comprises 30 percent of the total body protein. Its strong white fibers, stronger than steel wire of the same size, and yellow elastic networks, called elastin, form the connective tissue that holds our body together. Collagen strengthens the skin, blood vessels, bones, and teeth. It is the intracellular cement that holds together the cells in various organs and tissues. Collagen is one of the most valuable proteins in the human body.

A person who has been sick, or who has been on an extremely low-protein diet, very often sees the muscles in his or her arms and legs begin to sag, which is a sign that they have probably lost collagen. Let's Start with Protein The building blocks of protein are amino acids. When protein is eaten, your digestive processes break it down into amino acids, which pass into the blood and are carried throughout the body. Your cells can then select the amino acids they need for the construction of new body tissue, antibodies, hormones, enzymes, and blood cells. There are 22 different amino acids, each of which has its own characteristics, and are like the letters of the alphabet. The eight essential amino acids are like the vowels. Just as you cannot make words without vowels, so you cannot build proteins without these essential amino acids. Protein is not one substance, but literally tens of thousands of different substances. The essential amino acids must be consumed in the diet because the body does not make them. The complete proteins that contain the eight essential amino acids come from meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk -- all dairy, cheese and soy. They are basically anything that comes from the animal.

Nuts and legumes (peas and beans) contain some but not all of the essential amino acids; these are known as incomplete proteins. In various combinations, all of these amino acids are capable of forming an almost limitless variety of proteins, each serving its own purpose. Proteins are necessary for tissue repair and for the construction of new tissue. Every cell needs protein to maintain its life. Protein is also the primary substance used to "replace" worn-out or dead cells: Most white blood cells are replaced every ten days. The cells in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract and blood platelets are replaced every four days. Skin cells are replaced every 24 days. More than 98 percent of the molecules in the body are completely replaced each year! Your muscles, hair, nails, skin, and eyes are made of protein. So are the cells that make up the liver, kidneys, heart, lungs, nerves, brain, and your sex glands. The body's most active protein users are the hormones secreted from the various glands -- thyroxin from the thyroid, insulin from the pancreas, and a variety of hormones from the pituitary -- as well as the soft tissues, hard-working major organs and muscles.

They all require the richest stores of protein. How Much Protein a Day? Many "experts" differ on the amount of protein needed in the diet. Some suggest very low amounts; some suggest much higher amounts, especially if body building. I have found with my nutritional counseling that most people consume a very low protein diet, especially if they tell me they are tired all the time. When I have them increase their protein during the day, usually with protein shakes, it is amazing how much better they start to feel. The following protein requirement chart is to be used only as a guideline for determining your protein requirement. You may need more, or you might be able to get by with slightly less. Your requirement depends on your percent of body fat, your weight and the physical activity you do. The higher your activity level, the more you will need to increase your dietary protein intake to repair and rebuild muscle. If you are undergoing any type of severe stress (including the stresses of cancer, burns, radiation exposure, or pregnancy), you need more. If you are susceptible to infections you may need more. Remember that antibodies, white blood cells, lymph cells, and everything our body uses to fight infections is made out of protein.

I feel it is very important we look to the high side of these requirements. Daily Protein Requirements for Men and Women Over 20* Ideal Weight 110 grams 130 grams *Our calculations for this age group are based on the usual recommendation of one gram of protein per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of ideal body weight, for sedentary individuals. However, adding 20 grams of protein to the above recommendation as a safety margin will ensure getting enough protein. Pregnant women should add an additional 20 grams, and nursing mothers should add 40 grams of protein to the above recommendation. If you are physically active, exercising every day, figure one gram of protein per pound of lean (your ideal) weight. Three ounces of chicken yields approximately 20 grams of protein; one half cup of water-packed tuna contains 28 grams; eight ounces of low fat, plain yogurt has 12 grams. One egg provides six grams. An eight-ounce glass of low-fat milk has eight grams. Remember, there are excellent protein powders that are alternatives to traditional protein foods. We need to remember there is a balance of protein, fats and carbohydrates that Mother and I have basically taught.

It is important to eat five times a day and include some form of protein at each meal or feeding. We have found this program has helped more people look and feel their best. This may be ideal for most people, but remember, we are "biologically different." In our nutritional program I recommend a variety of complete protein foods including fish, chicken, low-fat dairy, eggs, some red meat, quality protein powders, and nutritional yeast. Also consume an ample supply of various fresh fruits and vegetables, legumes which are complex carbohydrates and include the essential fatty acids. A strict fat-free diet is not healthy for your skin. My approach is this: You are not made of lettuce leaves. Your body is made of protein which is essential for almost every cell in your body, especially your hair, skin and nails. Recognizing Deficiencies Related to Your Hair, Skin and Nails Protein Deficiencies Puffy bags under the eyes, especially in the morning, may indicate a lack of protein. Water retention. General puffiness around the eyes, as well as swollen ankles, face, and hands, can result from a protein deficiency. Nails are made of protein, not calcium as some think. A protein deficiency can be marked by split, extremely thin nails.

Nails that fail to grow quickly lack protein. The structure of the hair follicle is protein. There are eight amino acids that the body does not produce and which therefore must come from complete protein foods such as eggs, dairy (milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.), soy, meat, fish, and fowl. Quality protein powders can fill this nutritional requirement for complete protein foods. It's a great reason to use protein powders. Eat small meals often with protein at each meal. L-Cysteine and L-Methionine are the sulfur amino acids that form "keratin," which is the protein structure of hair. Studies have shown that supplementing with L-cysteine may prevent hair from falling out, as well as increase the diameter of the hair shaft. These amino acids have been found to increase hair growth by as much as 100 percent. Egg yolk contains the highest amount of these two amino acids. Another easy way to add sulfur to your diet is to take MSM. The Value of Protein It is important to understand the value of protein in our diet. Proteins are necessary for tissue repair and for the construction of new tissue. Every cell needs protein to maintain its life.

Protein is also the primary substance used to "replace" worn out or dead cells. Your muscles, hair, nails, skin, and eyes are made of protein. Those with thinning hair and too many wrinkles for your age, may lack protein. The basis for neurotransmitters in your brain, and the substances that form the body's immune response against infection, is made from protein. The most active protein users of the body are all of the hormones. Next to water, protein is the most plentiful substance in your body. In fact, if all the water was squeezed out of you, half of your dry weight would be protein. One third of this protein would be in your muscles, a fifth in your bones and cartilage, a tenth in your skin, and the rest in your other tissues and body fluids. Even 95 percent of your hemoglobin is protein. Protein is the best nutrient to eat in order to maintain an even blood sugar level, because it is metabolized over a long period of time. Protein can be converted to glucose if need be. Now you have a better understanding why I keep emphasizing the value of protein. A quick and easy way to get more protein into your diet is to use a protein powder supplement.

Suggestions for Choosing a Protein Powder Not all protein powders are alike, so it's important that you read labels. There are several types of powders dominant today. These protein powders may be used alone or in combination with other powders. Look for a powder formula that contains NO refined sugar such as white sugar, sucrose, dextrose, maltose, corn sweeteners or the artificial sweetener, aspartame. These are the four sources for protein powder that I recommend. Whey Protein - Concentrates and Isolates. Whey concentrates and isolates have gone through a manufacturing process to remove most of the carbohydrates, fat and lactose from regular whey or sweet whey. The process is called "ion exchanged" or "filtered", both of which result in almost a pure protein. It also removes the majority of lactose for those who are intolerant to milk. The protein content is about 80 percent in the whey concentrates and 90 percent in the whey isolates. One method to rate the quality of one protein versus another is called Biological Value (BV). Proteins with the highest biological value promote the most lean muscle gains.

Whey concentrates and isolates have higher biological values than regular whey, milk, egg or soy. Casein (Milk Protein) is the predominant protein in milk. For example, the protein in cheese and cottage cheese is casein. Sometimes called calcium-caseinate, or sodium- or potassium-caseinate. It contains all the essential amino acids and is a good source of protein. It is very low in lactose. This slow digesting protein keeps you full longer since it must form a gel during digestion before it is absorbed. This slower transit time may extend the exposure to the protein in the intestines and may help increase absorption. Egg Protein (Egg White or Egg Albumen). This protein used to be the 'gold standard' against which all other proteins were measured, until whey protein became available. Egg white protein provides all twenty-two of the amino acids with a proper balance of essential amino acids. It is an excellent protein source, but not very tasty compared to the milky taste of whey or casein. Some manufacturers add egg white powder to their protein powder to boost the quality of the protein. Egg white protein powder contains no cholesterol.

Soy Protein Soy protein is processed from the soybean plant and most of the fat, fiber and carbohydrate has been removed. Since it is a vegetable product, it has no cholesterol. The amino acid profile is not quite as good as the other protein sources. Do not attempt to substitute soy flour for soy protein powder. The two are very different products. Soy flour must be heated for it to be assimilated by the body. Soy is a nutritionally significant dietary source of isoflavones. These naturally occurring isoflavones are genistein, daidzein and glycitein. Recent human research suggests that these isoflavones are ideal for people of all ages, especially women concerned about bone health, those looking for an alternative to hormone replacement therapy and women experiencing menopausal symptoms. However there are differing opinions on soy and relief of menopausal symptoms. These isoflavones also work in conjunction with soy protein to lower cholesterol. Research has shown that 25 grams of soy protein a day, used as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. Some brands use GMO soy, meaning it is from genetically modified soybeans.

Most brands are switching to the more expensive non-GMO (non genetically modified) soy for this reason. Check your label and use the non-GMO brands. In summary, different proteins offer varying advantages. I suggest you consume a variety of proteins and be sure to get adequate amounts for optimal health. My Favorite Protein Powders Lindberg Protein Blend is a scientifically designed blend of the four protein sources just referred to, with predigested (hydrolyzed) whey for optimal digestion, absorption and utilization by the body. This is a new, revised version of our classic Varsity Protein powder designed by Gladys Lindberg many years ago, and the one I have used and recommended throughout the years. Our Protein Blend is formulated from soy protein isolate, which is a perfect addition to your cardiovascular and general health program. It is non-genetically modified (non-GMO) soy. It also contains whey protein concentrate, which has the highest biological value of any protein source. We also include casein (milk protein), which has a naturally slower passage through the intestine and allows for maximal peptide and amino acid absorption. Egg white (albumin) has also been added for it's excellent amino acid profile and because it comes from egg white, it's cholesterol free.

Lindberg Protein Blend powder has a mild natural vanilla flavor. It contains no added sugar, sucrose, dextrose, maltose, and no artificial ingredients or sweeteners, making it a wonderful all natural product for the whole family, including children. One serving contains: 110 calories, 22 grams of protein, 2 grams of carbohydrate and 1.5 grams of fat. Lindberg Natural Whey is a whey protein concentrate powder, which provides the highest biological value protein available! The lactose has been filtered out, leaving less than one gram per serving - an amount easily tolerated by those with lactose sensitivities. Whey is an excellent source of BCAAs (branched chain amino acids), which are important to dieters and those on an exercise or fitness program. Lindberg Natural Whey contains no artificial sweeteners, no artificial flavors or colors! One serving contains: 90 calories, 16 grams of protein, 4 grams of carbohydrate and 1.5 grams of fat. It is available in vanilla and chocolate. Drink one or two protein shakes a day made with whey protein or a combination of proteins. Selected Sources Braverman, E. R. and C.

C. Pfeiffer. The Healing Nutrients Within. New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, Inc., 1987, page 91. Lindberg, Gladys and Judy McFarland. Take Charge of Your Health. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1982, page 67. Information about all deficiency symptoms can be found in: Lindberg, Gladys and Judy McFarland. Take Charge of Your Health. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1982, pages 184-241. Braverman, E. R. and C. C. Pfeiffer. The Healing Nutrients Within. New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, Inc., 1987, page 91. Buchanan, J. H. and M. S. Otterburn. "Some structural comparisons between cysteine-deficient and normal hair keratin." IRCS Med Sci 12 (1984): 691-692. Proteins in structures - hair, wool, nails and skin Figure 10a The organisation of a complete hair.

5.4 Hair, wool, nails and skin Scientists are interested in finding out about hair, wool, nails and skin for several reasons. Pharmaceutical companies are looking into possible treatments for a variety of very common skin complaints. Eczema, psoriasis, acne and dermatitis are all examples of these. Cosmetics companies are trying to develop new products to improve the appearance of hair, nails and skin. Textile manufacturers use wool as one of their raw materials, so it is important that they know about its chemical and physical properties. What do these four materials have in common? Hair and wool are very similar but both are quite different from nails and skin. They all, however, are protein-based structural materials and they all have a particular protein, a-keratin, as one of their components. You can stretch hair to at least twice its original length before it breaks (see Basic experiment 2b). It can be made to curl permanently or set temporarily. We can explain the way it behaves by looking in more detail at the molecules it contains. The a-helix molecules in hair are bundled together in a regular way to give protofibrils, microfibrils and macrofibrils.

Each hair is wrapped in a cuticle made up of protein scales (Figures 10a and b) and contains macrofibrils embedded in matrix proteins. Figure 10b Hair a-keratin If you heat hair, particularly with steam, and then pull it, the relatively weak hydrogen bonds in the a-helices are stretched and broken. This allows the molecules to elongate without breaking. As the hair continues to stretch, the helix structure breaks down and is replaced by b-pleated sheet. At this point the hair is far less stretchy as the hydrogen bonds now run at right angles to the length. The only way the molecules can elongate in this state is by bending and stretching the covalent bonds of the polypeptide chain. The matrix proteins also change as the hair is stretched. These proteins are tangled up and have many disulphide cross-links . Stretching deforms the matrix and these cross-links help the hair recover its original length when the pulling force is removed. If you apply moist heat the hydrogen bonds will break. In a process called styling you can change the shape of the hair and allow it to set by reducing the temperature and humidity.

New hydrogen bonds form to keep the hair in its new style. You can read about perming hair in Section 3.7. Questions: What are fingernails made of? - How Fingernails Work | HowStuffWorks What are fingernails made of? Prev Next In order to understand both how to keep your nails healthy and how they can act as an indicator of health problems, first you have to know that fingernails are made of layers of a protein called keratin. This protein is also found in your skin and hair [source: Mayo Clinic ]. But your nails are more than just keratin. Your nails comprise several different components: Up Next The nail plate is the part of the nail that you can see. The skin around your nails is referred to as nail folds. The skin that is covered by your nail is known as a nail bed. A cuticle is the tissue that covers the bottom of your nail to protect newly formed keratin as your nail grows. The white half-moon seen at the base of your nail is called a lunula.

[source: Mayo Clinic ] Changes and discoloration to any parts of your fingernails can indicate that something is wrong with your nail health, or even your overall body health. For example, slow or halted nail growth could indicate a health concern that involves more than just your fingertips. On average, fingernails grow at a rate of about 0.08 to 0.12 inches (2 to 3 millimeters) a month. Therefore, it takes about four to six months for a fingernail to fully regenerate. Interestingly, the nails of the hand you use most often grow slightly faster than the nails of your non-dominant hand [source: American Academy of Dermatology ]. Now that you know the general structure of your nails, read on to learn about some of the problems that can develop there. Nails and Pregnancy Among the many changes that occur within a woman's body during pregnancy, something that is often reported is nail change -- be it a change in nail growth or overall nail health. It is quite common for some pregnant women to report rapid nail growth, while other pregnant women report having fragile fingernails prone to breakage [source: The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists] .

The Worst Diet Mistakes For Hair And Nails | The Huffington Post The Worst Diet Mistakes For Hair And Nails 03/28/2013 08:33 am ET | Updated Jul 17, 2014 250 Sarah Klein Senior Editor, Health & Fitness; Certified Personal Trainer Just like your skin, your hair and nails are affected by the foods you choose to eat. And we're not talking about the sheen of those lustrous waves or a hangnail. Both hair and nails can become brittle and dry, and hair can thin or fall out without the right range of nutritious picks in your diet. "Both are a barometer of how well (or how poorly) you're feeding the body," says dermatologist Jessica Wu, M.D., author of "Feed Your Face" and skin and beauty expert for Daily Glow , "as well as your overall health." Both hair and nails are made from the same protein, called keratin, so it makes sense that similar diet choices would affect them both, she explains.

Of course, a number of other lifestyle choices also play a role, including smoking, she says, since it reduces circulation and may cut down on the amount of biotin in the blood. Biotin , often added to hair and nail products, seems to strengthen both. Less research exists to document the impact of various foods on hair and nail health than to illustrate the role of diet in healthy skin. But there are still a few foods to consider avoiding if you're concerned about brittle nails or thinning hair. High-Mercury Fish Flickr : kawanet Wu says she spends a good amount of time discussing diet with patients who come to her with thinning hair or brittle nails. One of the main culprits in her Los Angeles office is too much fish. "Some fish contain high levels of mercury, and high levels of mercury can lead to hair loss ," she says. These patients are eating a lot of fish, she stresses, and particularly sushi, sometimes four or five times a week. While true mercury poisoning is rare, swordfish and mackerel do have high levels of mercury , as do certain varieties of tuna. Canned light tuna, salmon and shrimp are all low in mercury, according to the FDA.

Sugar Flickr : Alison Christine "Just like sugar is bad for the skin in many ways, foods that are sugary are bad for your hair and nails," says Wu. Eating sweets causes blood sugar to spike. As the body pumps out insulin in response to the rise in blood sugar, it also raises levels of androgen, a male hormone that can make the hair follicle shrink in both women and men, she says. High-Glycemic Foods Flickr : jeffreyw It follows, then, that foods that are quickly broken down into sugar pose similar hair and nail risks. Starchy white breads, pastas and cakes trigger a similar response in the body, says Wu, and can lead to hair thinning. Research has shown that a high-glycemic-index diet can increase androgen levels , while a low-glycemic-index diet can reduce them. Too Much Vitamin A Alamy In ultra-high doses, vitamin A can lead to hair loss . A typical multivitamin won't usually contain a dangerous amount, according to JoyBauer.com, but an individual vitamin A supplement might.

It's also related to compounds found in some medications, says Wu, like Accutane, which could be why hair thinning is a side effect of some treatments, she says. Too Little Protein Flickr : ImpromptuKitchen Since hair and nails are made of protein, people who don't get enough in their diet may experience brittle nails or hair loss, says Wu. Typically, this only occurs in people with severe diet limitations or eating disorders, she says. Vegetarians should keep in mind that protein doesn't have to come from meat -- beans, tofu, spinach, lentils and more are all beneficial. Foods with a particular amino acid that creates keratin, called cystine, can also help, like pork, broccoli, wheat germ and red peppers, says Wu. Too Little Iron And Zinc Flickr : simpleprovisions There's a misconception that little white flecks in your nails may indicate a calcium deposit. According to Reader's Digest, those spots might be a sign your diet is lacking in zinc . Both zinc and iron -- found together naturally in red meats and some seafood -- are essential to keratin formation, says Wu, so skimping on these can cause hair and nail problems.

Getting enough can be challenging for vegetarians and vegans, she says. Luckily, both zinc and iron are found naturally in some beans . What are nails made of? | Reference.com What are nails made of? A: Quick Answer Nails are made out of keratin. Keratin is a tough, fibrous protein that also makes up hair, horns, claws, hooves and feathers. Forms of keratin may also be a component of the silk produced by spiders and caterpillars. Full Answer The cells of the nail begin as epidermal cells below the root of the nail. As more and more cells grow, they are pushed forward and form layers of thin plates that eventually keratinize. These cells are dead, but they are also strong, flexible and permeable. Fingernails grow much more quickly than toenails, and nails generally grow faster during the warm months.

Question: Of which protein are hair and nails made?
Answer: KERATIN