Songhai, African Empire, 15-16th Century | South African History Online South African History Online Home » The world around 1600 » Songhai, African Empire, 15-16th Century The world around 1600 Songhai, African Empire, 15-16th Century Overview, West Africa and the rise of the Songhai Empire Map of the Kingdom of Songhai. It became the largest empire in African history, but its enormous size eventually led to its collapse. Picture source: West Africa is home to many of Africa's oldest kingdoms. These kingdoms played an important role in the development of trade and economic growth of the region. As old kingdoms came to be replaced by new smaller ones many changes were experienced. The transformations were influenced by conquest and warfare along with patterns of trade. West African societies were shaped by competition for wealth and the search for independence from more powerful kingdoms. The earliest African civilizations south of the Sahara desert were in West Africa. These civilisations developed at a time when most of Europe was experiencing the Dark Age, after the fall of the Western half of the Roman Empire around 476 A.D.

the people of West Africa could already smelt iron ore to make tools for warfare and agriculture. Iron farming tools made agricultural methods far more efficient. This led to improvements in agriculture and greater productivity of the land, as prosperity grew the population expanded giving rise to larger towns. Broad rivers linked people in these larger towns by way of canoe travel. These rivers also maintained the fertility of the soil all year round. Map B: Ancient Ghana. This should not be confused with modern Ghana (Source : At the same time kingdoms were developing in this region. One of the earliest kingdoms to emerge here was ancient Ghana to the far West. By the year 300 A.D, this kingdom had been ruled by about 40 kings, showing that its political administration was well developed to allow new kings to take office without destroying the kingdom by fighting destructive civil wars. The economy of Ghana was based on iron and gold mining along with agriculture. Products were traded with Berber societies north of the Sahara desert. At the same time (1230-1300) the Mali kingdom of the Mande people, to the east of Ghana, was growing and increasing its control of trade in the region. This brought the two kingdoms into conflict.

Finally, the Ghana kingdom was taken over by the Mali kingdom. The Mali kingdom was able to establish its influence with ease due to the surrounding savannah terrain. This enabled the easy and speedy dispatch of soldiers across the region to conquer neighbours. The adoption of the Islamic faith by the Mali people in about the 1500s during the rule of Kankan Musa, created a point of unity for this kingdom. Quarrels over who should succeed the throne and rebellion by the Fulani people in Senegambia and the Songhai people in Gao led to the collapse of the Mali kingdom in the 16th century. Songhai became independent of Mali, and rivalled it as the leading power in West Africa. Culture, Religion and Monarchy The Songhai had settled on both banks of the middle Niger River. They established a state in the 15th century, which unified a large part of the western Sudan and developed into a brilliant civilisation. It was ruled by the dynasty or royal family of Sonni from the thirteenth century to the late fifteenth century. The capital was at Gao, a city surrounded by a wall.

It was a great cosmopolitan market place where kola nuts, gold, ivory, slaves, spices, palm oil and precious woods were traded in exchange for salt, cloth, arms, horses and copper. Islam had been introduced to the royal court of Songhai in 1019, but most people remained faithful to their traditional religion. Sonni Ali reorganised the army, which was equipped with a fleet on the Niger River. The commander of the fleet was known as the ‘Master of the Water’. Foot soldiers captured the best men of the defeated armies. An elite cavalry was fast and tough. They wore iron breastplates underneath their battle tunics. The foot soldiers were armed with spears, arrows and leather or copper shields. Military music as produced by a group of trumpeters. The total army comprised 30 000 infantry and 10 000 horsemen. The Songhai defence system was the largest organised force in the western Sudan; not only was a political instrument, but also an economic weapon by virtue of the booty it brought in. They conquered the cities of Timbuktu and Jenne. Muslim scholars at Timbuktu called Sonni Ali ‘tyrannical, cruel and impious’.

The Sonni’s were driven from power by the Muslim Askiya dynasty. The new monarchy based at Gao had centralised and absolute and sacred power. It was possible to approach him only in a prostate position. He sat on a raised platform surrounded by 700 eunuchs. People paid taxes to the king in return for internal and external security. The royal court was responsible for the administration and the army. Large estates belonged to nobles. They were worked by servile labour that did the fishing, animal raising for milk, meat and skins, and the agricultural work. The Songhai kingdom was the last major one in the region. Its fall did not bring an end to kingdoms in West Africa. Kingdoms that survived were Guinea, Benin in Nigeria, Ashanti in present day Ghana and Dahomey, north of Benin. These kingdoms continued the Trans Saharan trade with the Arab states in North Africa. The Trans Saharan trade was complex. It was not limited to trade and the exchange of gold, copper, iron, kola nuts, cloth, and salt. It was also about close co-operation and interdependence between kingdoms south of the Sahara and kingdoms north of the Sahara.

Salt from the Sahara desert was just as important to the economies and kingdoms south of the Sahara as gold was for those in the north. Therefore, the exchange of these commodities was vital for the economic and political stability of the region. Travel and trade in Songhai Trade significantly influenced the course of history in West Africa. The wealth made through trade was used to build larger kingdoms and empires. To protect their trade interests, these kingdoms built strong armies. Kingdoms that desired more control of the trade also developed strong armies to expand their kingdoms and protect them from competition. Long distance trade helped the local economy and supported internal trade. Merchants travelling between towns across the Sahara needed places to rest and stock up with food for the journey across the Sahara desert. Food would be provided by local markets that relied on local farms for supplies. This practice allowed merchants to plan long trips knowing that local markets would provide food and shelter. For this reason, many kingdoms in West Africa encouraged agricultural improvements to meet this need. Often this meant uniting smaller farmers, traders and societies into stronger trading blocs. For example, the Kuba kingdom in present day Congo brought together different cultures under a single authority and used the Congo River as a main transport link to other distant kingdoms.

As a result, smaller traders joined with each other like the Chokwe and Lunda kingdoms under a single broad-based trade. This led to the increase of ivory and rubber trade between these kingdoms and with Portuguese traders. Present day Kuba King. Source: Daniel Laine (2001) National Geographic, from The slave trade was also important for the economic development of West Africa. For a very long time, West African kingdoms had relied on slaves to carry out heavy work. The Songhai kingdom under the rule of Askia Mohammed used slaves as soldiers. Slaves were trusted not to overthrow their rulers. Slaves were also given important positions as royal advisers. Songhai rulers believed that slaves could be trusted to provide unbiased advice unlike other citizens who held a personal stake in the outcome of decisions. Another group of slaves was known as palace slaves or the Arbi. The Arbi slaves served mainly as craftspersons, potters, woodworkers, and musician. Slaves also worked on village farms to help produce enough food to supply the growing population in towns.

The Asante kingdom of the Akan people grew in about the 15th and 16th century into a powerful kingdom in the most southern parts of West Africa, present day Ghana. This growth was made possible by the rich gold mines found in the kingdom. The Akan people used their gold to buy slaves from the Portuguese. Since 1482, the Portuguese who were interested in obtaining Asante gold, had opened a trading port at El Mina. As a result, their first slave trade in West Africa was with the Akan people. The Portuguese bought the slaves from the kingdom of Benin, near the Niger Delta in Nigeria. Slave labour made it easy for the Akan people to shift from small scale agriculture to large scale agriculture (Giblin 1992). The shift transformed the Asante kingdom and it developed a wealthy agricultural and mining economy. The Akan people needed slaves to work their gold mines and farms. Passing traders and a growing population in the Asante towns demanded increasing supplies of food. The slave trade with the Portuguese continued until the early 1700s. The Akan people supplied the Portuguese with slaves to work on sugar plantations in Brazil.

A small number of slaves were kept in the Asante kingdom. However, by this period, the Atlantic slave trade dominated trade with West Africa. Kingdoms like the Asante and Dahomey used their power to raid societies like the Bambara, Mende, and Fulanis for slaves. The kingdom of Benin is the only known kingdom in West Africa to abolish slave trading in Benin. The slave trade ban was succesful and forced the Portuguese to search for slaves elsewhere in West Africa. However, Dutch traders took over the role. From the 1600s the Dutch dominated the West african and Atlantic Slave trade. The Portuguese and Dutch governments were unable to colonise West African kingdoms because they were too strong and well organised. As a result, the slave and ivory, rubber and gold trades remained under the control of Asante, Fon, and Kongo kingdoms. In 1807, the British government abolished the slave trade. Because West African kingdoms did not co-operate with the British, the slave trade across the Atlantic Ocean continued. However, the slave trade declined in areas where the British had influence, for example the Gold Coast.

Industrial development in Britain led to increasing trade with West Africa in agricultural products like palm oil, rubber, and cocoa. To supply Britain with these products, the Asante kingdom kept the slaves they had captured for the Atlantic slave trade and used them as farm workers instead. This led to the growth of slavery in West Africa because each kingdom wanted to profit from this new trade. West African slavery came to a slow end towards the end of the 19th century when many of these kingdoms were colonised by the French and British. Former slaves became the landless lower classes. Kingdoms The states of the Niger Delta extend for about three hundred miles along the Gulf of Guinea from the Benin River on the West to the Cross River on the East. Due to the many rivers, which cross over each other, the main source of transport was by canoe. Societies found in this area include the Ibo, Ijaw, Jekiri Efik and Calabari. West African kingdoms from the earliest known kingdom to the most recent. Source: Unlike other West African states, Niger ones were different in character. They were small states that maintained contact through war, trade and migrations. The Atlantic trade brought about great prosperity in this region.

These states were known for their skill in politics and for their “middleman” skills in commerce. Their long history of internal trade had brought these small states together and led to economic growth of Bonny (also known as Igbani) and Warri states. The Kingdom of Dahomey (also known as the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey) was the southern part of the Republic of Benin, a country that divides the dense forest of Nigeria from those of modern Ghana. Dahomey was the most prominent coastal state in the region. It was ruled by a king on the authority of the queen mother who held the power to appoint an heir. The king and queen mother ruled Dahomey from their capital Abomey. Dahomey began emerging as a great power in the early 18th century because of the slave trade. It also managed to overtake other coastal states competing for control of both the slave and inland trade. The Fon army was unusual in West Africa because its soldiers were women feared by other neighbouring coastal states. In about 1650 there was a great demand from the West Indies sugar plantations for African slaves.

The Fon people used their position as sea-merchants to ensure that they held a monopoly of the slave trade. The Dahomey kingdom also relied on its strong military to dominate weaker inland states and to conquer coastal states. States looking to trade in the region were expected to pay a fixed amount of tax and fixed prices for slaves. Custom duties were paid in respect of each ship as well. By the 18th century the Fon king had absolute power and under his rule Dahomey became strong enough to capture neighbouring coastal states. The Fon were still paying tribute to the Oyo kingdom and this meant that they had to appease the Oyo with guns and other goods each year. In 1725, Dahomey conquered the Oyo kingdom, and three years later they pushed south to Savi and Whyad, Jakin was taken in 1732 but it was only in 1740 that the Fon won complete control when Whydah became a Fon colony. This ushered in control of the coast and even visiting Europeans had to gain prior permission to go ashore.

Atlantic System, Contact with Europeans The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century in search of new trading opportunities changed the trade networks in West Africa. An important change was the new direction of the slave trade across the Atlantic Ocean instead of the Sahara desert. This increased the power of small West African kingdoms like the Asante and Dahomey kingdoms. It also contributed to the fall of the Songhai Empire, because the slave and gold trade were no longer going through the Songhai kingdom. As a result, the Songhai rulers could not claim tribute and taxes from these kingdoms. The other change came from the growing slave trade. African slaves were captured from Africa to work as slaves in the Americas in the early 1500’s. Portugal, Spain, France and Britain were the key players in this slave trade, which lasted for more than 400 years. Because Portugal was the first to establish itself in the region and to enter treaties with West African kingdoms, it had the monopoly on the slave and gold trade. As a result, Portugal was responsible for transporting over 4.5 million Africans, approximately 40 percent of the slaves taken from the continent before the 1700s.

During the 18th century however, Britain was responsible for almost 2.5 million of the 6 million African slaves traded. Due to expanding market opportunities in Europe and the Mediterranean, they increased trade across the Sahara and later gained access to the interior using the Senegal and Gambia River, which bisected long-standing trans-Saharan routes. The Portuguese brought in copper ware, cloth, tools, wine and horses and later included guns, in exchange for gold, pepper, slaves, and ivory. The growing trade across the Atlantic came to be called the triangular trade system. The Triangular Trade System The Trans Atlantic Slave Trade pattern had a shape of a triangle. Source: The Atlantic Slave Trade (also known as the triangular trade) was a system of trade that revolved around three areas. The first point of the triangle would begin in Africa, where large shipments of people were taken across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas (The Caribbean, North and South America) to be sold to work in colonies on plantations as slaves. Once the slaves were offloaded in the Americas, the same ships would then load products from plantations such as sugar, cotton and tobacco. These products would be sold in Europe.

From Europe the ships would carry manufactured goods such as cloth, iron, rum and guns, which they would use in exchange for slaves and gold. Most captured slaves were taken between 1450 and 1500, from the West African interior with the co-operation of African kings and merchants. There were occasional military campaigns organised by Europeans to capture slaves, especially by the Portuguese in what is now Angola. This accounts for only a small percentage of the total. In return, the African kings and merchants received various trade goods including beads, cowry shells (used as money), textiles, brandy, horses, and perhaps most importantly, guns. These guns became a very important trade commodity when West African kingdoms were increasingly organising their militaries into professional armies. During this period England sold close to 100 000 muskets a year to West African kingdoms. Slaves crossing the Atlantic Ocean endured inhumane conditions aboard the ships transporting them. They would travel naked and cramped into the hold of the ship chained together at the ankles and packed together side-by-side in holds which were about 1.5 m high with hardly any light and fresh air. They were provided with buckets, which they had to use as toilets.

This resulted in many slaves becoming sick and dying. Cases of fevers and small pox were common during the voyages. The health of slaves on board was made worse by the lack of medical attention. Slaves would be regularly hosed down with water each morning and those that had died overnight, would be thrown overboard. The slave trade was abolished in 1807 by the British government. The French only abolished their slave trade in 1848. The continued Atlantic slave trade forced the British government to take responsibility to end slave trading. They captured European ships and released slaves on board. This was made more difficult by the unwillingness of West african kingdoms to give up the slave trade. The British government tried to influence the Asante rulers to stop practising slavery in their kingdom with no success. As a result, from the 1870s, the British government began to colonise the Asante people in order to prevent the use of slave labour, but also as an excuse to take control of the rich gold mines of the Asante and to protect British commercial interests against French expansion in the region. Click here to read a lesson about colonial rule and African responses.

A royal mausoleum for the ruler of Songhai, Askia Muhammed (1493-1528) built in Gao in the once powerful capital of the Songhai Empire. Picture source: baobab.harvard.edu The foot soldiers were armed with spears, arrows and leather or copper shields. Military music as produced by a group of trumpeters. The total army comprised 30 000 infantry and 10 000 horsemen. The Songhai defence systemwas the largest organised force in the western Sudan; Not only was a political instrument, but also an economic weapon by virtue of the booty it brought in. They conquered the cities of Timbuktu and Jenne. Muslim scholars at Timbuktu called Sonni Ali 'tyrannical, cruel and impious'. The Sonni's were driven from power by the Muslim Askiya dynasty. The new monarchy based at Gao had centralised and absolute and sacred power. It was possible to approach him only in a prostate position. He sat on a raised platform surrounded by 700 eunuchs. People paid taxes to the king in return for internal and external security.

The royal court was responsible for the administration and the army. Large estates belonged to nobles. They were worked by servile labour that did the fishing, animal raising for milk, meat and skins, and the agricultural work. The following information will still be developed for this topic: ”¢ Travel and trade in Songhai at the height of its power ( Arab, Italian and Jewish merchants at Timbuktu) ”¢ learning and culture; and ”¢ fall of the Empire: Moroccan invasion of 1591. ”¢ Women in Songhai Please contribute activities and content for this section by clicking on the ‘contribute’ button. Timeline 1290 – Empire of Mali established and conquered Timbuktu and Gao 1375 - Timbuktu appeared for the first time on a European map 1400 - Gold trade flourished - from west Africa, through Timbuktu and Gao, to Europe 1450 – Large settlement of scholars and traders in Timbuktu 1468 - Songhay Empire established by Sunni Ali.

Took over Timbuktu and Gao 1493 – Muhammed Ture, a Muslim, founded the Askia dynasty and took over Songhay Empire. 1530 - Portuguese came to Timbuktu in search of wealth. Only one man survived. 1591 – Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire conquered by Moroccans. Activity Put these events up on the board in the wrong order. Students should try to recall the correct order in their note books. Songhai Empire (ca. 1375-1591) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed Songhai Empire (ca. 1375-1591) Image Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Songhai Empire was the largest and last of the three major pre-colonial empires to emerge in West Africa . From its capital at Gao on the Niger River, Songhai expanded in all directions until it stretched from the Atlantic Ocean (modern Senegal and Gambia ) to what is now Northwest Nigeria and central Niger.

Gao, Songhai’s capital, which remains to this day a small Niger River trading center, was home to the famous Goa Mosque and the Tomb of Askia , the most important of the Songhai emperors. The cities of Timbuktu and Djenne were the other major cultural and commercial centers of the empire. The Songhai people founded Gao around 800 A.D. and established it as their capital in the 11th century during the reign of Dia Kossoi. As the city and region grew in importance, the Malian Empire incorporated both as it expanded across the West African savanna. Mali ’s power however was eventually weakened by palace intrigue that interrupted the orderly succession of emperors. Recognizing the weakness at the center of Mali, Gao rebelled in 1375. Songhai then began its own imperial expansion at the expense of Mali, conquering Mema in 1465 and three years later siezing Timbuktu, the largest city in the region, from the Taureg who had recently taken it from Mali. Sunni Ali Ber, the military commander responsible for these victories, is widely considered the first great ruler of the Songhai Empire.

He continued to enlarge the empire, taking control of important Trans-Saharan trade routes as well as other cities and provinces of Mali. After Sunni Ali Ber’s death in 1492, his son, Sonni Baru, became emperor but soon lost the throne to Askia (Emperor) Muhammad Toure one year later. The new ruler, a devout Muslim , was responsible for few additional conquests. Instead he centalized the bureaucracy, appointing virtually all of the mayors and provincial governors, established Sharia law throughout the empire, expanded Sankore University in Timbuktu and built numerous schools through Songhai. Askia Muhammad Toure also strengthened political and cultural ties with the rest of the Muslim world, encouraging the immigration of scholars and skilled workers from Arabia , Egypt , Morocco and Muslim Spain . He was the first West African ruler to allow the exchange of ambassadors with these and other Muslim states. After Askia Muhammad Toure’s death in 1528, Songhai enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity under a succession of emperors.

Urban-centered trade flourished in Gao, Timbuktu and Djenne although the vast majority of Songhai’s inhabitants were small farmers whose fortunes were tied to success in agriculture rather than in commerce. That period of peace and stability ended in 1591 when a civil war created an opportunity for Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to send an army to conquer Songhai. Al-Mansur hoped to control the West African gold fields and establish himself as the Caliph of Sudan. The invading Moroccans face Askia Ishaq II, the last Songhai Emperor at the Battle of Tondibi. Although they outnumbered the invading army, the Songhai were routed by the Moroccans’s use of primative muskets called arquebus and six cannon, both of which appeared for the first time with this invasion. The Songhai fell back in confusion particulary after Ishaq was killed by the Taureg who were allied with the Moroccans. The Morrocan Army, however, soon realized that conquering Songhai was far easier than governing it. Constant rebellions and resistance and shortages of supplies forced Morocco to send additional resources across the Sahara.

Faced with these logistical problems and the near impossibility of controlling the gold mines which prompted the initial invasion, the Moroccans withdrew from the region in 1661. Nonetheless the Songhai Empire could not be reestablished. The surviving elites fled Gao and set up a new capital at Lulami. From 1591 to 1901 various Askias (Emperors) attempted to continue the traditions of the old empire. Finally in 1901 French colonial forces conquered their state, extinguishing the last connection to Songhai’s earlier glory. Sources: E. W. Bovill, The Golden Trade of the Moors (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968); Thomas A. Hale and Nouhou Malio, Scribe, Griot and Novelist: Narrative Interpretations of the Songhay Empire (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1990); Kevin Shillington, History of Africa (New York: Palgrave, 2005); Ari Nave, “Songhai Empire” in Africana, The Encyclopedia of the African & African American Experience, Kwame Anthony Appiah, and Henry Louis Gates, Jr.

eds., (New York: Oxford: University Press, 2005; Timothy Insoll, "Looting the antiquities of Mali: the story continues at Gao." Antiquity 67: 256 (Sept 1993). Contributor(s): Lupe Zavala's World History Project The Empires of Mali and Songhai Mali and Songhai Empires Textbook lesson number three from chapter five is titled "The Empires of Mali and Songhai". These empires were in West Africa, and were one of the largest and most prosperous empires. The lesson assigned is intended for sixth or seventh graders. It is comprehensible for that level but it does not cover as much information as it should. It can go more in to depth on certain information. For the most part it is precise on what is stated. In 1235 the rise of the new kingdom of Mali and King Sundiata's reign began. This happened in the Battle of Kirina, which caused King Sumanguru to end his reign and the fall of Ghana. Sundiata was the king of Mali. He did not fight again after the Battle of Kirina.

Sundiata's goal was to restore prosperity to his kingdom. Mali became a productive farming region and economy was based on trade. Salt and gold mines were big factors in the expansion of trade routes. The Niger River became a busy form of trade route for gold and other goods. In less than 100 years Mali became the most powerful kingdom in Africa. By the late 1300's, Mali was three times larger than what Ghana had ever been. In 1307, Mansa Musa, Mali's greatest ruler came to the throne. He was a Muslim that increased the conversion to Islam. Mansa Musa is best known for his 3,500-mile journey in 1324 to Mecca. He had about 50,000 people and 80 to 100 camels loaded with gold dust accompanying him. This helped put Mali on the map of Africa. From the pilgrimage Mansa Musa brought back scholars with him. Culture and learning were encouraged. The expansion of Mali increased and was divided into states controlled by Musa's. In 1332 Mansa Musa died. Mali was not able to be protected by other kings and fell.

The Songhai was a mixture of farmers, traders, fishermen, and warriors. Mansa Musa ruled the Songhai but after his death they stopped paying taxes to Mali. In 1435 Sunni Ali declared Gao's independence. Mali weakened and by 1464, Sunni Ali began to expand his kingdom of Songhai. The Songhai Empire expanded outside of Mali. Ali was a Muslim but not a devoted believer. When Ali died his son took over the throne. A Muslim force overthrew Ali's son and Askia Muhammad came to the throne. Islam was declared the state religion. At the peak of its power in the late 1500's, the Songhai Empire was wealthier and larger than Mali had ever been. It was the greatest trade empire of West Africa. In 1585 Morocco captured Songhai's salt mines in Taghaza. The Moroccan ruler wanted full control of Songhai's trade. In 1590 Morocco's ruler sent an army to conquer Songhai. These soldiers had guns with them and therefore captured Songhai. Songhai had not yet been introduced to guns. Songhai was the last trading empire of West Africa.

The Moroccans were not able to find the gold mines in order to establish trade. Songhai was no longer an empire, but a series of military camps. The rise of the Mali Empire rose from the empire of Ghana. In the lesson it is stated that in 1235 the empire of Ghana fell and the kingdom of Mali rose. This statement is true according to Bentley and Ziegler, "About 1235 Sundiata returned to his homeland and claimed the throne."(429) The lesson retells the legend of how Sundiata came to be the first king of Mali. For the most part it is precise but it does not go in depth. This is typical for a sixth/seventh grade lesson. It should have given more detail on Sundiata. This lesson does not state the background of this king. In the book The Guardian of the World, the author states the legend of Sundiata. He describes Sundiata as "The 'Nankama' or Predestined One, born with both legs paralyzed but who through magic and faith curses himself of this handicap and eventually becomes Mali's first Emperor." (9). He was known as the "Lion King".

This is something that should have been included to make it easier for the students to remember him. Mali's next greatest king was Mansa Musa. The lesson is not accurate on the date Mansa Musa succeeded to the throne; the date they state is 1307. In Mali: A Search for Direction the dates for the ruling of Mansa Musa was, "Around, 1317, Mansa Musa became king, and in 1324-1325 made a pilgrimage to Mecca." (20) This source is accurate for all other sources have the same dates. The one fact that is correct in all sources is the great journey of Mansa Musa to Mecca. This is the most important fact about Mansa Musa, which is stated in all resources dealing with the Mali Empire and this king, Mansa Musa. The lesson portrays it fairly accurate and covers the most important facts.

One important fact is that for "this pilgrimage put Mali on the map in both figurative and cartographic terms." (Imperato 23) Another being that he brought back with him scholars as it is stated in the article "African Odyssey Interactive", "He brought back a number of Muslim scholars, architects, and other skilled men amongst whom was as-Saheli who distinguished himself by building the University of Sankore at Timbuktu." This fact is fairly important for the reason that it is something that young students can easily grasp and understand how it was that education was encouraged. The decline of the Mali Empire is accurate, it states the reason for their weakness and why it shifted its power to the Songhai. The shift of power is described in the book Warriors, Merchants, and Slaves, "the decline of Mali and the rise of Songhay in the fifteenth century"(8). As it is stated in the lesson and other books, the Mali Empire was attacked and eventually it was taken over by Sunni Ali who established the Songhai Empire. The facts are somewhat square, but it does not go in to great detail. The fall of the Songhai Empire is also stated fairly accurate.

The facts are true and the dates go in hand with all the other resources listed. The fact that gold and salt were one of the biggest trading products of these empires is also true. "The impetus for this growth and that of its capital, Gao, was the slat trade that originated in the Taghaza mines in the Sahara and the gold trade, over which Songhay assumed control after Mali's decline."(Imperato 23) This lesson frequently states this to insure that it will be grasped. Overall the facts are true and square with the sources. It does not go in depth for the reason that it is intended for sixth/seventh grade students. The ideas in this lesson are not really distorted in the process of simplifying the language. The right vocabulary is used and it is to the sixth/seventh grade level. The content is easily adapted for the reason that the language being used is not complicated. Not many new key terms are used and so the students know what each word means or at least have an idea for its meaning. For this reason the content of the lesson is quickly adapted without ideas being distorted. Overall the lesson is a fair presentation of the subject at hand.

The ideas stated could have gone more in depth to be able to comprehend the lesson. The ideas stated are an overview of the history. It is not intended to go in to great detail; it is just so that the students can have knowledge of what went on in other parts of the world. As mentioned before it is common for the sixth/seventh grade level for they cannot take in as much information and all they really need to grasp are the key facts in the lesson. As they get older the topics will go more in to depth where they will be analyzed. The most important events were covered and dated as well as the ideas. People are mainly omitted. By this I mean all the people being man or woman. The main focus of this lesson is on the kings and the rise and fall of the empires. Wars and the people engaged in them are about the only ones they include. As if the empires had no difficulties ruling the people. This can be for the reason that it can confuse the students. They might not be able to understand what it is that should be grasped and understood. Mali and Songhai were the greatest trading empires of West Africa.

They were rich in gold and salt and had important kings that made the empires prosper and expand. The empires go hand-in-hand for the reason that once the Mali fell it just shifted power to the Songhai. The lesson states the ideas for the sixth/seventh grade students in a manner that is comprehendible. Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Songhay Kingdom - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Songhay Kingdom From Wikibooks, open books for an open world Introduction[ edit ] Songhai Empire (orthographic projection) The Songhay or Songhai Empire, was a state located in western Africa from ca. 1341 to 1591. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. At its height (ca. 1500), the Songhay Empire covered over 1.4 million square kilometers. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhay.

Its capital was the city of Gao, and its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present day Niger and Burkina Faso. Origin[ edit ] The Songhai state has existed in one form or another for over a thousand years if one traces its rulers from the first settlement in Gao to its semi-vassal status under the Mali Empire through its continuation in Niger as the Dendi Kingdom. The Songhai are thought to have settled at Gao as early as 800 CE, but did not establish it as the capital until the 11th century, during the reign of Dia Kossoi. However, the Dia dynasty soon gave way to the Sunni, proceeding the ascension of Sulaiman-Mar, who gained independence and hegemony over the city and was a forbear of Sunni Ali. Mar is often credited with wresting power away from the Mali Empire and gaining independence for the small Songhay kingdom at the time. Imperial Songhay[ edit ] In 1340, the Songhay took advantage of the Mali Empire's decline and successfully asserted its independence. Disputes over succession had weakened the Mali Empire, and many of its peripheral subjects broke away.

The first emperor of Songhay was Sunni Ali, who reigning from about 1464 to 1493. Like the Mali kings before him, Ali was a Muslim. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhay's neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. His empire was the largest empire that Africa has ever seen. Tomb of Askia. In all, the Sunni Dynasty would count 18 kings. The Songhay Empire's most notable monarch was Askia Muhammad the Great (ca. 1443-1538). Under his rule, the Songhay Empire reached its zenith. He organized the territories that Sonni Ali had previously conquered and extended his power as far to the south and east. He was not as tactful as Ali in the means of the military, but he did find success in alliances, because of these alliances he was able to capture and conquer more vastly. Askia opened religious schools, constructed mosques, and opened up his court to scholars and poets from throughout the Muslim world. Yet he was tolerant of other religions and did not force Islam on his people. Not only was he a patron of Islam, he also was gifted in administration and encouraging trade.

He centralized the administration of the empire and established an efficient bureaucracy which was responsible for among other things tax collection and the administration of justice. He also demanded for canals to be built in order to enhance agriculture, which would eventually increase trade. More importantly than anything he did for trade was the introduction of weights and measures and appointing an inspector for each of its important trading centers. During his reign Islam became more widely entrenched, trans-Saharan trade flourished, and the Saharan salt mines of Taghaza were brought within the boundaries of the empire. Unfortunately as Askia the Great grew older his power declined. In 1528 his sons revolted against him and declared Musa, one of Askia's many sons, as king. Following Musa's overthrow in 1531, Songhay's empire went into decline. Following multiple attempts at governing the Empire by Askia's sons and grandsons there was little hope for a return to the power it once held.

Decline[ edit ] WestAfrica1625 Following the death of Emperor Askia Daoud, in 1583, a civil war of succession weakened the Empire, leading Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur of the Saadi Dynasty of Morocco to dispatch an invasion force. After a march across the Sahara desert, Morocco's forces captured, plundered, and razed the salt mines at Taghaza and moved on to Gao. At the 1591 Battle of Tondibi, Songhay forces, despite vastly superior numbers, were routed by a cattle stampede triggered by the Saadi's gunpowder weapons. Moroccan troops proceeded to sack Gao, Timbuktu and Djenné, destroying the Songhay as a regional power. Governing so vast an empire proved too much for the Saadi Dynasty; however, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms. The Songhai people themselves established the Dendi Kingdom. Society and Economy[ edit ] The Songhay society was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided their occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters.

Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhay people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the Empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans. Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Economic trade existed throughout the Empire, due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to the regional economy were independent gold fields. The julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants and the port cities of the Niger. It was a very strong trading kingdom, known for its production of practical crafts as well as religious artifacts. World History Timeline Civilization: African Kingdoms Overview The Ghana Empire or Wagadou Empire (existed before c. 830 until c. 1235) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, and Western Mali.

Complex societies had existed in the region since about 1500 BCE, and around Ghana's core region since about 300 CE. When Ghana's ruling dynasty began is uncertain, it is first mentioned in documentary sources around 830 CE. The introduction of the camel, which preceded Muslims and Islam by several centuries, brought about a gradual change in trade, and for the first time, the extensive gold, ivory trade, and salt resources of the region could be sent north and east to population centers in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe in exchange for manufactured goods. The Empire grew rich from the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. This trade produced an increasing surplus, allowing for larger urban centers. It also encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the lucrative trade routes. The first written mention of the kingdom comes from Arabic-language sources some time after the conquest of North Africa by Muslims, when geographers began compiling comprehensive accounts of the world known to Islam around 800. The sources for the earlier periods are very strange as to its society, government or culture, though they do describe its location and note its commercial relations.

The Capital The empire's capital is believed to have been at Koumbi Saleh on the rim of the Sahara desert. According to the description of the town left in 1067, the capital was actually two cities six miles apart but "between these two towns are continuous habitations", so that they might be said to have merged into one. The major part of the city was called El-Ghaba and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees used for Soninke religious rites in which priests lived. It also contained the king's palace, the grandest structure in the city. The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. It was surrounded by wells with fresh water, where vegetables were grown. It was inhabited almost entirely by Arab Muslims along with twelve mosques, one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes and Islamic jurists. Because the majority of these Muslims were merchants, this part of the city was probably its primary business district.

Economy Most of our information about the economy of Ghana comes from merchants, and therefore we know more about the commercial aspects of its economy, and less about the way in which the rulers and nobles may have obtained agricultural products through tribute or taxation. Merchants had to pay a one gold dinar tax on imports of salt, and two on exports of salt. Imports probably included products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in old Morocco may also had their origins in the empire. The main centre of trade was Koumbi Saleh. The king claimed as his own all nuggets of gold, and allowed other people to have only gold dust. In addition to the exerted influence of the king onto local regions, tribute was also received from various tributary states and chiefdoms to the empire's periphery. The introduction of the camel played a key role in Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara. These factors all helped the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy that was to last over several centuries.

Politics Much testimony on ancient Ghana depended on how well disposed the king was to foreign travelers, from which the majority of information on the empire comes. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king. The Arabic sources, the only ones to give us any information are sufficiently vague as to how the country was governed. It is mentioned that the king had officials who surrounded his throne when he gave justice, and these included the sons of the kings of his country. Detailed accounts on the geography of the region show that in 1067 Ghana was surrounded by independent kingdoms, and Sila, one of them located on the Senegal River was "almost a match for the king of Ghana." Decline Given the scattered nature of the Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined and fell. The earliest descriptions of the Empire are vague as to its maximum extent, Ghana had forced Awdaghast in the desert to accept its rule sometime between 970 and 1054.

A tradition in historiography maintains that Ghana fell when it was sacked by the Almoravid movement in 1076, but this interpretation has been questioned. Dierk Lange, who believes that the Almoravids had an important role in Ghana's fall, notes that it was due to their instigation of internal political instability, rather than military actions or conquest. While there is no clear cut account of a sack of Ghana in the contemporary sources, the country certainly did convert to Islam. They extended their domination over the Sudan, pillaged, charged poll tax and other dues, and converted many of them to Islam. It is clear, however, that Ghana was incorporated into the Empire of Mali, according to a detailed account of al-'Umari, written around 1340. Ghana still retained its functions as a sort of kingdom within the empire, its ruler being the only one allowed to bear the title malik. Mali Empire Overview The Mali Empire or Mandingo Empire or Manden Kurufa was a West African empire of the Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600.

The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I. The Mali Empire had many profound cultural influences on West Africa, allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger River. It extended over a large area and consisted of numerous vassal kingdoms and provinces Economy The Mali Empire flourished because of trade above all else. It contained three immense gold mines within its borders unlike the Ghana Empire, which was only a transit point for gold. The empire taxed every ounce of gold or salt that entered its borders. By the beginning of the 14th century, Mali was the source of almost half the Old World’s gold exported from mines in Bambuk, Boure and Galam. There was no standard currency throughout the realm, but several forms were prominent by region. The Sahelian and Saharan towns of the Mali Empire were organized as both staging posts in the long-distance caravan trade and trading centers for the various West African products. At Taghaza, for example, salt was exchanged; at Takedda, copper. Ibn Battuta observed the employment of slave labour in both towns.

During most of his journey, Ibn Battuta traveled with a convoy that included slaves, most of whom carried goods for trade but would also be traded as slaves. On the return from Takedda to Morocco, his caravan transported 600 female slaves, suggesting that slavery was a substantial part of the commercial activity of the empire. Gold Gold nuggets were the exclusive property of the mansa, and were illegal to trade within his borders. All gold was immediately handed over to the imperial treasury in return for an equal value of gold dust. Gold dust had been weighed and bagged for use at least since the reign of the Ghana Empire. Mali borrowed the practice to stem inflation of the substance, since it was so prominent in the region. The most common measure for gold within the realm was the ambiguous mithqal (4.5 grams of gold). This term was used interchangeably with dinar, though it is unclear if coined currency was used in the empire. Gold dust was used all over the empire, but was not valued equally in all regions. Salt The next great unit of exchange in the Mali Empire was salt. Salt was as valuable, if not more valuable than gold in Sub-Saharan Africa.

It was cut into pieces and spent on goods with close to equal buying power throughout the empire. While it was as good as gold in the north, it was even better in the south. The people of the south needed salt for their diet, but it was extremely rare. The northern region on the other hand had no shortage of salt. Every year merchants entered Mali via Oualata with camel loads of salt to sell in Niani. According to Ibn Battuta who visited Mali in the mid-14th century, one camel load of salt sold at Walata for 8-10 mithkals of gold, but in Mali proper it realized 20-30 ducats and sometimes even 40. Copper Copper was also a valued commodity in imperial Mali. Copper, traded in bars, was mined from Takedda in the north and traded in the south for gold. Contemporary sources claim 60 copper bars traded for 100 dinars of gold. Military The number and frequency of conquests in the late 13th century and throughout the 14th century indicate the Kolonkan mansas inherited and or developed a capable military.

Sundjata is credited with at least the initial organization of the Manding war machine. However, it went through radical changes before reaching the legendary proportions proclaimed by its subjects. Thanks to steady tax revenue and stable government beginning in the last quarter of the 13th century, the Mali Empire was able to project its power throughout its own extensive domain and beyond. The Mali Empire maintained a semi-professional, full-time army in order to defend its borders. The entire nation was mobilized with each clan obligated to provide a quota of fighting age men. These men had to be freemen and appear with their own arms. Contemporary historians present during the height and decline of the Mali Empire consistently record its army at 100,000 with 10,000 of that number being made up of cavalry. With the help of the river clans, this army could be deployed throughout the realm on short notice. Collapse The mansa’s defeat actually won Manden the respect of Morocco and may have saved it from Songhai’s fate. It would be the Mandinka themselves that would cause the final destruction of the empire. Around 1610, Mahmud IV died.

Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single person ever ruled Manden after Mahmud IV's death, resulting in the end of the Mali Empire. The old core of the empire was divided into three spheres of influence. Kangaba, the de facto capital of Manden since the time of the last emperor, became the capital of the northern sphere. The Joma area, governed from Siguiri, controlled the central region, which encompassed Niani. Hamana or Amana, southwest of Joma, became the southern sphere with its capital at Kouroussa in modern Guinea. Each ruler used the title of mansa, but their authority only extended as far as their own sphere of influence. Despite this disunity in the realm, the realm remained under Mandinka control into the mid-17th century. The three states warred on each other as much if not more than they did against outsiders, but rivalries generally stopped when faced with invasion. Overview The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire, was a state located in western Africa.

From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhai. Its capital was the city of Gao, where a Songhai state had existed since the 11th century. Its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present day Niger. The Songhai state has existed in one form or another for over a thousand years if one traces its rulers from the first settlement in Gao to its semi-vassal status under the Mali Empire through its continuation in Niger as the Dendi Kingdom. The Songhai are thought to have settled at Gao as early as 800 CE, but did not establish it as the capital until the 11th century, during the reign of Dia Kossoi. However, the Dia dynasty soon gave way to the Sonni, proceeding the ascension of Sulaiman-Mar, who gained independence and hegemony over the city and was a forbear of Sonni Ali. Mar is often credited with wresting power away from the Mali Empire and gaining independence for the small Songhai kingdom at the time.

Economy Economic trade existed throughout the Empire, due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to the regional economy were independent gold fields. The merchants would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants and the port cities on the Niger. It was a very strong trading kingdom, known for its production of practical crafts as well as religious artifacts. The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided their occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the Empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans. Government Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Timbuktu was the educational capital.

Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia Muhammad, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states, situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy. Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile; usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today's central bureaucrats. Under Askia Muhammad, the Empire saw increased centralization. He encouraged learning in Timbuktu by rewarding its professors with larger pensions as an incentive. He also established an order of precedence and protocol and was noted as a noble man who gave back generously to the poor. Under his policies, Muhammad brought much stability to Songhai.

Decline Following the death of the Emperor Askia Daoud, a civil war of succession weakened the Empire, leading the sultan of the Saadi Dynasty of Morocco to dispatch an invasion force (years earlier, armies from Portugal had attacked Morroco, and failed miserably, but the Morrocan coffers were on the verge of economic depletion and bankruptcy, as they needed to pay for the defenses used to hold off the siege). Judar Pasha was a Spaniard by birth, but had been captured as an infant and educated at the Saadi court. After a march across the Sahara desert, Judar's forces captured, plundered, and razed the salt mines at Taghaza and moved on to Gao. When the Emperor met Judar at the 1591 Battle of Tondibi, Songhai forces, despite vastly superior numbers, were routed by a cattle stampede triggered by the Saadi's gunpowder weapons. Judar proceeded to sack Gao destroying the Songhai as a regional power. Governing so vast an empire proved too much for the Saadi Dynasty however, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms.

The Songhai people themselves established the Dendi Kingdom. The Songhai Empire - YouTube The Songhai Empire Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Sep 4, 2010 This video gives a brief description of the Songhai Empire of west Africa. The Songhai Empire was a state located in western Africa. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhai. Its capital was the city of Gao, where a Songhai state had existed since the 11th century. Its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present day Niger and Burkina Faso. Category Songhai About Watch and Favorite Watch Watching this resources will notify you when proposed changes or new versions are created so you can keep track of improvements that have been made.

Favorite Favoriting this resource allows you to save it in the “My Resources” tab of your account. There, you can easily access this resource later when you’re ready to customize it or assign it to your students. Songhai The Songhai Empire dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th centuries; at its peak, it was one of the largest states in Africa. Learning Objective Explain the importance of Timbuktu after locating the Songhai Empire Key Points The Songhai Empire was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591). In the second half of the 14th century, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire and in the 1430s Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni Dynasty. Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492.

In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhai's neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. He was arguably the empire's most formidable military strategist and conqueror. Under his rule, Songhai reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers. The internal political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire allowed Morocco to invade Songhai. The main reason for the Moroccan invasion was to seize control of and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. The empire fell to the Moroccans and their firearms in 1591. The empire's power was linked to economic trade; their government system granted authority to local chiefs as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy and tightly controlled labor division system. Terms Timbuktu A historical and still-inhabited city in the West African nation of Mali, situated 20 km (12 mi) north of the River Niger on the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. In its Golden Age, the town's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network enabled an important book trade. Together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established the city as a scholarly center in Africa.

Sahel The ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south. Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. Sonni dynasty A dynasty of rulers of the Songhai Empire of medieval West Africa. The first ruler of the dynasty, Sunni Ali Kulun, probably reigned at the end of the fourteenth century. The last ruler, Sonni Baru, ruled until 1493 when the throne was usurped by the Askiya Muhammad I (known also as Askia the Great), the founder of the Askiya Dynasty. Gao A city in Mali located on the River Niger that for much of its history was an important commercial center involved in the trans-Saharan trade. Towards the end of the 13th century, it became part of the Mali Empire, but in the first half of the 15th century the town regained its independence and with the conquests of Sonni Ali (ruled 1464–1492) it became the capital of the Songhai Empire.

Full Text Introduction The Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay) was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its leading ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai. Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the empire, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively, where urban-centered trade flourished. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591). During the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown into an important trading center and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire.

Mali conquered Gao towards the end of the 13th century and the town would remain under Malian hegemony until the late 14th century. But as the Mali Empire started to disintegrate, the Songhai reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expand Songhai rule. Imperial Songhai In the second half of the 14th century, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire and in the 1430s, Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni Dynasty. Around thirty years later, Sonni Sulayman Dama attacked Mema, the Mali province west of Timbuktu, paving the way for his successor, Sonni Ali, to turn his country into one of the greatest empires sub-Saharan Africa has ever seen. Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492. Like Songhai kings before him, he was a Muslim. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhai's neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. He was arguably the empire's most formidable military strategist and conqueror.

Under his rule, Songhai reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers. During his campaigns for expansion, Ali conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and overcoming the Dogon people to the north. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested his assistance in overthrowing marauding Tuaregs (Berber people with a traditionally nomadic pastoralist lifestyle) who had taken the city following the decline of Mali. However, Ali met stark resistance after setting his sights on the wealthy and renowned trading town of Djenné (also known as Jenne). After a persistent seven-year siege, he was able to forcefully incorporate it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved its citizens into surrender Oral traditions present a conflicted image of Sonni Ali. On the one hand, the invasion of Timbuktu destroyed the city; Ali was described as an intolerant tyrant who conducted a repressive policy against the scholars of Timbuktu, especially those of the Sankore region who were associated with the Tuareg.

On the other hand, his control of critical trade routes and cities brought great wealth. He is thus often presented as a powerful politician and great military commander and under his reign, Djenné and Timbuktu became great centers of learning. The map shows that the Songhai Empire covered portions of modern-day Gambia, Senegal, Guinea, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin, and Nigeria. Following Ali's reign, Askia the Great strengthened the Songhai Empire and made it the largest empire in West Africa's history. At its peak under his reign, the Songhai Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano (in present-day Nigeria) and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the west. His policies resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with Europe and Asia, the creation of many schools, and the establishment of Islam as an integral part of the empire. Askia opened religious schools, constructed mosques, and opened up his court to scholars and poets from throughout the Muslim world, but he was also tolerant of other religions and did not force Islam on his people.

Among his great accomplishments was an interest in astronomical knowledge, which led to the development of astronomy and observatories in the capital. Not only was he a patron of Islam but he was also gifted in administration and encouraging trade. He centralized the administration of the empire and established an efficient bureaucracy that was responsible for, among other things, tax collection and the administration of justice. He also demanded that canals be built in order to enhance agriculture, which would eventually increase trade. More importantly than anything he did for trade was the introduction of weights and measures and the appointment of an inspector for each of Songhai's important trading centers. During his reign Islam became more widely entrenched, trans-Saharan trade flourished, and the Saharan salt mines of Taghaza were brought within the boundaries of the empire. However, as Askia the Great grew older, his power declined. In 1528, his sons revolted against him and declared Musa, one of Askia's many sons, as king. Following Musa's overthrow in 1531, Songhai's empire went into decline. Multiple attempts at governing the empire by Askia's sons and grandsons failed and between the political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire, Morocco invaded Songhai.

The main reason for the Moroccan invasion of Songhai was to seize control and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. The Songhai military, during Askia's reign, consisted of full-time soliders, but the king never modernized his army. The Empire fell to the Moroccans and their firearms in 1591. The Organization of Songhai At its peak, the Songhai city of Timbuktu became a thriving cultural and commercial center where Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all gathered for trade. Economic trade existed throughout the empire due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to the regional economy were independent gold fields. The Julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants and the port cities of the Niger. The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided one's occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders.

At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. Historian James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans Criminal justice in Songhai was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Askia the Great. Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy. Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile, usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today's central bureaucrats.

Question: In which continent was the 'Songhai Empire', one of the largest empires in history?
Answer: AFRICA