Vaclav Havel | president of Czech Republic | Britannica.com president of Czech Republic František Langer Václav Havel, (born October 5, 1936, Prague , Czechoslovakia [now in Czech Republic]—died December 18, 2011, Hrádeček, Czech Republic ), Czech playwright, poet, and political dissident, who, after the fall of communism , was president of Czechoslovakia (1989–92) and of the Czech Republic (1993–2003). Václav Havel, 1999. Sean Gallup/Getty Images Havel was the son of a wealthy restaurateur whose property was confiscated by the communist government of Czechoslovakia in 1948. As the son of bourgeois parents, Havel was denied easy access to education but managed to finish high school and study on the university level. He found work as a stagehand in a Prague theatrical company in 1959 and soon began writing plays with Ivan Vyskočil.

By 1968 Havel had progressed to the position of resident playwright of the Theatre of the Balustrade company. He was a prominent participant in the liberal reforms of 1968 (known as the Prague Spring), and, after the Soviet clampdown on Czechoslovakia that year, his plays were banned and his passport was confiscated. During the 1970s and ’80s he was repeatedly arrested and served four years in prison (1979–83) for his activities on behalf of human rights in Czechoslovakia. After his release from prison Havel remained in his homeland. Havel’s first solo play , Zahradní slavnost (1963; The Garden Party), typified his work in its absurdist, satirical examination of bureaucratic routines and their dehumanizing effects. In his best-known play, Vyrozumění (1965; The Memorandum), an incomprehensible artificial language is imposed on a large bureaucratic enterprise, causing the breakdown of human relationships and their replacement by unscrupulous struggles for power. In these and subsequent works Havel explored the self-deluding rationalizations and moral compromises that characterize life under a totalitarian political system .

Havel continued to write plays steadily until the late 1980s; these works include Ztížená možnost soustředění (1968; The Increased Difficulty of Concentration); Spiklenci (1971; The Conspirators); the three one-act plays Audience (1975), Vernisáž (1975; Private View), and Protest (1978); Largo Desolato (1985); and Zítra to Spustíme (1988; Tomorrow). When massive antigovernment demonstrations erupted in Prague in November 1989, Havel became the leading figure in the Civic Forum , a new coalition of noncommunist opposition groups pressing for democratic reforms. In early December the Communist Party capitulated and formed a coalition government with the Civic Forum.

As a result of an agreement between the partners in this bloodless “Velvet Revolution,” Havel was elected to the post of interim president of Czechoslovakia on December 29, 1989, and he was reelected to the presidency in July 1990, becoming the country’s first noncommunist leader since 1948. As the Czechoslovak union faced dissolution in 1992, Havel, who opposed the division, resigned from office. The following year he was elected president of the new Czech Republic. His political role, however, was limited, as Prime Minister Václav Klaus (1993–97) commanded much of the power. In 1998 Havel was reelected by a narrow margin, and, under his presidency, the Czech Republic joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1999. Barred constitutionally from seeking a third term, he stepped down as president in 2003. Britannica Stories Václav Havel - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) (1936-2011).

Czech playwright and political leader, born Oct. 5, 1936, in Prague, Czechoslovakia [now Czech Republic]; first essays published when he was 19, first plays performed in 1960s; imprisoned for a total of more than 5 years for speaking out against government abuses; leader of the peaceful "velvet revolution" that ended Soviet-style Communism in Czechoslovakia; in December 1989 became first non-Communist president of Czechoslovakia since 1948; in 1990 discussed Czechoslovak membership in the European Communities with leaders of other European nations; resigned the presidency in 1992 when Slovakia’s regional parliament declared sovereignty, the Slovaks in the federal parliament blocked his reelection, and Slovakia and the Czech Republic agreed to break up the federation; elected president of new Czech Republic in Jan. 1993; literary works include The Memorandum, The Conspirators, Audience, Largo Desolato, and Letters to Olga. Havel died Dec. 18, 2011, in Hradecek, Czech Republic.

Article History Czechoslovakia | historical nation, Europe | Britannica.com historical nation, Europe Alternative Titles: Česká a Slovenská Federativna Republika, Česká a Slovenská Federativní Republika, Československo, Czech and Slovak Federal Republic Related Topics Helsinki Accords Czechoslovakia, Czech and Slovak Československo, former country in central Europe encompassing the historical lands of Bohemia , Moravia , and Slovakia. Czechoslovakia was formed from several provinces of the collapsing empire of Austria-Hungary in 1918, at the end of World War I . In the interwar period it became the most prosperous and politically stable state in eastern Europe. It was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1938–45 and was under Soviet domination from 1948 to 1989. On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia separated peacefully into two new countries, the Czech Republic and Slovakia . Czechoslovakia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. A brief treatment of the history of Czechoslovakia follows.

For full treatment, including a discussion of the region prior to 1918, see Czechoslovak history . The political union of Czechs and Slovaks after World War I was feasible because the two ethnic groups are closely related in language, religion, and general culture . An independent Czechoslovak state was declared by Tomáš Masaryk , Edvard Beneš , and other leaders on October 28, 1918, and was quickly recognized by France and other Allied opponents of Austria . Bohemia and Moravia, populated by Czechs, constituted its western portion, while Slovakia occupied the eastern portion. Czechs and Slovaks together accounted for roughly two-thirds of the new country’s population; other nationalities within the state’s borders included Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians, and Poles. Edvard Beneš. Czechoslovak history: Czechoslovakia (1918–92) Under the leadership of Masaryk, who served as president from 1918 to 1935, Czechoslovakia became a stable parliamentary democracy and the most industrially advanced country in eastern Europe.

But after the rise to power of Adolf Hitler in Germany in 1933, the significant German minority in the Sudetenland of western Czechoslovakia began to lean toward Hitler’s National Socialism . With the acquiescence of Britain and France, Hitler annexed the German-speaking Sudeten areas of Czechoslovakia in 1938. By 1939 Germany had occupied all of Bohemia and Moravia and turned the two regions into a German protectorate. Slovakia received nominal autonomy , though it was dominated by Germany. Tomáš Masaryk, painting by Vojtěch Hynais, 1919; in the Národní … Courtesy of the National Gallery, Prague Similar Topics Katanga The liberation of Czechoslovakia by Soviet troops during World War II helped bolster the Communist Party while hindering the numerous other parties that emerged. Clever maneuvering and unfailing support from the Soviet Union enabled the Communists to stage a virtual coup d’état in 1948, and a people’s republic was formed. Gradually, with Soviet supervision, internal opposition was crushed while the country’s industry was nationalized and its agriculture was collectivized.

Alexander Dubček, April 28, 1969. Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images In the 1960s a progressively deteriorating economy discredited the government and led to grudgingly granted, and limited, reforms. When these failed, the Communist Party’s leadership passed to the Slovak first secretary, Alexander Dubček , in January 1968. He instituted a more openly reformist program, “socialism with a human face,” that encouraged non-Communists to participate in government and restored a number of civil liberties. The brief period of liberalization became known as the Prague Spring . In August 1968, however, Warsaw Pact troops invaded the country and seized Dubček, transporting him to Moscow. Upon his return to Czechoslovakia, Dubček saw his reforms rolled back, and hard-line communists restored the country to conformity with Soviet-bloc norms. Czechs confronting Soviet troops in Prague, August 21, 1968.

Soviet forces had invaded … Libor Hajsky—CTK/AP Images The deterioration of relations between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, following the period of … Stock footage courtesy The WPA Film Library The country’s new Communist leaders concentrated on making the state-run economy more productive while also stifling internal political dissent. Czechoslovakia in the 1970s and ’80s was thus one of the more prosperous but also one of the more repressive countries in eastern Europe. In late 1989, however, a wave of democratization swept through eastern Europe with the encouragement of the leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev . Czechoslovakia’s Communist leadership found itself confronted by mass demonstrations in Prague opposed to its policies, and the party soon gave in to the demands for reform. In December the Communists formed a coalition government with non-Communist opposition groups. A multiparty political system was written into law, the writer and former dissident Václav Havel became the country’s new president, and free elections to the Federal Assembly were held in June 1990, with non-Communists winning resounding majorities.

Václav Havel, 1989. The Breakup of Czechoslovakia | Slovakia The Breakup of Czechoslovakia Velvet revolution Forced by the popular movement (and by changes in Soviet policy towards Central European Allies) the Communist Party dropped its claims to "a leading role" in November and December 1989. President Husak was replaced by Vaclav Havel, playwright and dissident, who led the strongest political organisation of that era, Civic Forum (CF). An allied (formally independent) organisation Public Against Violence (PAV) was founded in Slovakia. Negotiations between renewed leadership of Communist Party and the alliance of non-communist organisations led by CF and PAV yielded new Government led by a Slovak communist, M. Calfa who soon deserted to PAV. The Federal Assembly was reconstructed. The most outspoken representatives of the old regime were ousted and replaced by those of new political organisations. The system of central planning was abandoned. The country has been striving to reintroduce market economy and to forge close links with the international economic and financial community. A serious Czecho-Slovak conflict suddenly emerged when the Federal Assembly discussed the proposal to drop the attribute "socialistic" (introduced by A.

Novotny in 1960) out of the name of the country. Many Slovak deputies demanded that the country return to its original name Czecho-Slovakia, adopted by the Treaty of Versailles in 1918. (The hyphen has been dropped out only in 1923). After unexpectedly fierce discussions the country was renamed as Czech and Slovak Federal Republic in April 1990. At the same time Slovak National Party (demanding the independence of Slovakia) was founded. The first free elections for 40 years were held in June 1990. Jan Carnogursky, the leader of Slovak Christian Democratic Movement (CDM) protested against President Havel's "intervening in Slovak internal affairs" and his open agitation for the PAV. CF won absolute majority in the Czech Republic and formed a single party government there. On the other hand PAV had to form a coalition with CDM. The federal government was formed by members of CF, PAV and CDM. Both governments, federal and Slovak, were led by PAV - members (Calfa and V.Meciar).

Nevertheless, strong jurisdictional disputes soon emerged between these two governments causing serious political crises in the PAV as well as in the whole federal state. After some hesitation CDM joined the pro-federal wing of PAV. They, together with two Hungarian parties, managed to establish a very slight majority in the Slovak National Council and in its Presidium, that ousted Meciar and replaced him by J. Carnogursky in April, 1991. Meciar's group split from the PAV and established so-called Movement for Democratic Slovakia (HZDS). The Civic Forum had split even earlier. Its major part formed the Civic Democratic Party (CDP) led by pragmatic Finance Minister V. Klaus. Many prominent former dissidents found themselves isolated in a small Civic Movement that failed to gain any of the seats in the Federal or Czech Parliament in the next elections in 1992. Under the overwhelming influence of V. Klaus the crude form of monetarism that had been hardly practised elsewhere, has dominated economic policy.

Already suffering from external shocks - collapse of the market for Czechoslovak goods in the Soviet Union and other former East block countries - the country has been subjected to macro-economic policies assuring a collapse of domestic demand as well. The real volume of credits was decreased by 30% and the real wages declined by 26,9% in the first half of 1991 while the personal consumption dropped by 37%. As a result industrial production was down by about one-third in 1991. Unemployment, virtually non-existent before 1990, rise to 8,4% in April 1992 (12,7% in Slovakia). Such a rates of decline make the Great Depression of 1930s pale. The government's approach to privatisation and its methods (e.g. voucher privatisation, physical restitution, non-competitive sale to a predetermined owner, sale to foreign entity, "Dutch auctions", uncompensated transfer to commercial banks) have provoked controversial discussions both in the country and abroad. Discussions on the future constitution of the country and related negotiations did not yield the desired effect.

Their only remarkable indirect result was splitting of CDH to a national wing - the Slovak CDH(SCDH)-- and pro-federal wing (CDH). Velvet Divorce The results of the elections of June 1992 reflected the growing split between the two lands. The liberal Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS), led by Slovak Vladmir Meciar, and the conservative Civic Democratic Party, led by Czech Vclav Klaus won the two largest representations in parliament; each leader became the prime minister of his own republic. Disagreements between the republics intensified, and it became clear that no form of federal government could satisfy both. Both of them gained more than one third of seats within their republics where they can easily form coalitions with sympathising parties. CDS ran for election in Slovakia as well but it failed to reach 5% threshold. This "schizophrenic" election result led a series of negotiations between two victorious parties. They agreed to form a federal government on the principle of symmetric power-sharing. However, this government had only a limited mandate until the end of 1992. CDS considered the principle of symmetry claimed by HZDS as impractical and unprofitable.

(There are approximately 10 millions of Czechs and 5 millions of Slovaks.) CDS also refused the proposal of Slovak partners to transform the country into a loose federation based on the principle of the Treaty of Maastricht and Premier Klaus uttered pessimistic comments concerning that treaty. This principal dis-consensus yielded the conditions necessary for negotiations for breakup. In July 1992 Slovakia declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the fall of that year, Meciar and Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on December 31, despite polls indicating that the majority of citizens opposed the split. In January 1993 Czechoslovakia was replaced by two independent states: Slovakia and the Czech Republic. Slovaks gathered for celebrations in their new nation’s capital at Bratislava. Independence under Meciar’s leadership, the process of privatization slowed in Slovakia. However, a divorce can hardly be pleasant, especially because of usual problems connected with splitting of common assets. One of the main problems that remained to be settled is the division of the pipeline that transports Russian gas to Germany.

No better solution has been find than the construction of an extra pumping station at the new common border. On the other hand, especially for Slovakia, this pipeline is one of the most important factors of countries strategic position. It crosses 8 times the border line between Slovakia and Hungary from the period 1939-45. This is therefore a very strong argument for the stability of the present border between these two countries. In February 1993 Michal Kovac was elected president of the country. Although a fellow member of the HZDS party, Kovac was not a Meciar ally, and conflicts soon developed within the government. Meciar’s position was further undermined by the resignation and defection of a number of party deputies in early 1994. In March of that year, Meciar resigned from office after receiving a vote of no confidence from the Slovak parliament. An interim coalition government comprising representatives from a broad range of parties was sworn in, with Jozef Moravcik of the Democratic Union of Slovakia Party as prime minister. Moravcik’s government revived the privatization process and took steps to attract more foreign investment to Slovakia.

It also helped to calm the increasingly strained relations between Slovaks and resident Hungarians, who had begun campaigning for educational and cultural autonomy. In May a law was passed by parliament allowing ethnic Hungarians in Slovakia to register their names in their original form; this replaced previous legislation requiring Hungarians to convert their names to the Slavic form. Topics in Slovak History: Czechoslovakia Breaks in Two, To Wide Regret - NYTimes.com Czechoslovakia Breaks in Two, To Wide Regret By STEPHEN ENGELBERG, Published: January 1, 1993 PRAGUE, Friday, Jan. 1— Against the wishes of many of its 15 million citizens, Czechoslovakia today split into two countries: Slovakia and the Czech Republic. A multi-ethnic nation born at the end of World War I in the glow of pan-Slavic brotherhood, Czechoslovakia survived dismemberment by the Nazis and more than four decades of Communist rule only to fall apart after just three years of democracy. Czechoslovakia's breakup, though peacefully accomplished, adds new potential trouble spots to a Central Europe already convulsed by nationalism.

While the Czech Republic's 10.3 million people are almost entirely composed of Czechs, Slovakia's population of 5.2 million includes nearly 600,000 ethnic Hungarians who already feel anxieties about the new Government. The split, which became effective at midnight, was cheered in the Slovak capital, Bratislava, by bonfires and joyous speeches in the main square. "Two states have been established," Vladimir Meciar, Prime Minister of Slovakia, said on Thursday. "Living together in one state is over. Living together in two states continues." There was no similar ceremony or celebration in Prague, which was for 74 years the federal capital. The Czechoslovak flag, which has been adopted by the Czech Republic as its own, remained atop Government buildings as the clocks tolled midnight. Czechoslovakia's federal television, which became Czech Television at midnight, marked the occasion by playing the Czechoslovak national anthem, which has verses in both the Czech and Slovak language, one last time. Shortly after midnight, it played the anthem of the new Czech Republic, which has only the Czech verses.

Czechs in bars and their own homes drank to the new year rather than the birth of a new nation. Miriam Huskova, a 22-year-old graphic artist, expressed the sentiments of many Czechs. Just three years ago, she stood in Prague's Wenceslas Square with hundreds of thousands of people shouting, "Havel to the Castle," a then seemingly outrageous demand that Vaclav Havel, the dissident playwright, take power from the Communists. On Thursday night, as the Czechoslavic republic's final hours ticked away, she stood pensively at the fog-shrouded castle. Mr. Havel, Czechoslovakia's only post-Communist President, had left months ago after he was defeated for re-election. Although he is expected to run for president of the Czech Republic, Miss Huskova said it wouldn't be the same. "Three years ago, people came together," she said. "The atmosphere was a little like Christmas eve, when everyone is nice to each other. That's ended, and it's sad." There is considerable uncertainty about what the next few months and years will bring these Slavic peoples, who speak similar languages and differ mainly in their ancient histories.

Although each country will now have a separate embassy in Washington, the two countries have for the moment agreed to maintain a common currency and customs union to allow free movement of goods. Czechs and Slovaks will not be required to show passports at the 17 newly opened border crossings, and the other 350 roads that link these two countries will remain open to traffic. But few economists believe the common currency will last long, and if it disappears, the effects could ripple through both countries. Slovakia, the eastern half of what was Czechoslovakia, currently suffers from an 11 percent unemployment rate, four times that of the Czech lands. Saddled with heavy industry by Communist central planners who sought to modernize Slovakia, the republic historically ran a trade deficit. In addition, its banks have faced runs as anxious Slovak depositors moved their savings into Czech banks. These factors could push the Slovak Government to run a deficit and print money, moves that would instantly mean the end of the common currency. Slovak officials have warned of hard times ahead, but insist their country will eventually reap major benefits from independence.

They note that the lion's share of foreign investment in Czechoslovakia thus far has gone to the Czech lands, a fact they attribute to the bias of federal officials in Prague rather than the demands of the market. Although the Czech Government estimates that trade between the republics will fall at least 10 percent in the next year, they too speak optimistically. Some even talk of a Czech economic take-off over the next two or three years that will propel this nation to European levels. Diplomats and international analysts see these projections as vastly overstated, and say the possible loss of the Slovak market could even blunt the economic recovery now gathering strength in the Czech Republic. The breakup of Czechoslovakia was, from its inception, a political matter. Soon after the Communists were pushed from power by the velvet revolution in November 1989, Slovak leaders began talking openly about eventually creating a separate country. In the 1990 presidential campaign, Mr. Havel, who had been championed by Czechs and Slovaks alike, was shouted down by the Slovak separatists when he spoke in the same square in which Bratislava residents gathered today.

It was a warning, even though the militant nationalist parties won scant support in that election. 1 Dissolution of Czechoslovakia - New World Encyclopedia Dissolution of Czechoslovakia Next (Distance) Czechoslovakia between 1968 (Constitutional Law of Federation) and 1989 (Velvet Revolution) The dissolution of Czechoslovakia, which took effect on January 1, 1993, saw Czechoslovakia split into two separate countries: The Czech Republic and Slovakia . It is sometimes referred to as the "Velvet Divorce" in English and in some other languages, a reference to the non-violent "Velvet Revolution" of 1989 that led to the end of the rule of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and the formation of a new, non- Communist government. Both nation-states joined the European Union in 2004. Relations are cordial, a testimony to the amicable way in which dissolution was handled. While relations between the two communities had often been tense, under Austria-Hungary , Germans were blamed for dominating both communities while under the totalitarian communists everyone was oppressed unless they belonged to the party elite.

From the start, Czechoslovakia had been an artificial creation. Neither province was given the chance to find national fulfillment within a Nation-state and many cherished the chance to do so. Slovakia was briefly independent between 1939 and 1945 but only as a client state of Nazi Germany . On the one hand, some people may regret the demise of a multi-cultural state that has split into two smaller, homogeneous units. On the other hand, within the wider framework of the European Union these units are allied not merely with each other but with many more nations. The EU is itself a multi-cultural construct. Contents 8 Credits Where strife exists, rightly of wrongly, on ethnic lines and national groups demand autonomy or self-governance, one possible solution is to allow the formation of smaller units which can then cooperate with others within the larger trans-national entity. Perhaps the peaceful and amicable separation of Slovakia from the Czech Republic and vice versa can serve as a model for other similar contexts where communities that became part of a larger nation-state under less than ideal circumstances and have unfulfilled national aspirations can achieve their goals. Of course, few nations willingly agree to allow provinces or regions to secede.

One solution is for the creation of more local governance across the globe within the contexts of larger structures such as the EU, since it can be argued that as long as nation-states remain the main unit of political organization, justice and equality will elude the human race. Background The modern Slovak Republic Czechoslovakia was created with the dissolution of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I . Bohemia had long agitated for greater autonomy and had increasingly demanded independence. In 1917, a meeting took place in Pittsburgh, U.S. where the future Czechoslovak president Tomas Masaryk and other Czech and Slovak representatives signed the "Pittsburgh accord," which promised a common state consisting of two equal nations, Slovakia and Czechia. Soon after, the philosophy of Edvard Beneš pushed for greater unity and a single nation. Up until World War II , it was a democratic republic. Tension existed between the dominant Czechs and the smaller German and Slovak communities. The Germans, under Austria-Hungary, had often been blamed for enjoying a privileged status. In 1938, the German speaking Sudetenland became part of Germany.

In the spring of 1939, with the approval of Adolf Hitler and a majority of Slovaks, the Slovak Republic was created as a puppet-Nazi state. During the second world war, Germany invaded and occupied Czechoslovakia. After the war, it fell within the Soviet Union zone. Pre-war borders were restored (although not entirely, since some territory became part of what was then Soviet Ukrainea. The Soviets set up the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, originally a centrally run, communist state. In 1968, the Constitutional Law of Federation reinstated an official federal structure (of the 1917 type), but during the "Normalization period" in the 1970s, Gustáv Husák (although a Slovak himself) returned most control to Prague. This approach encouraged a regrowth of separation after the fall of communism. Also in 1968, a pro-democracy movement briefly took power (January 5 to August 21, 1968) and severed the link with the Soviets, only to fall when the Soviets sent troops into the capital, Prague .

Separation By the 1990s, the Czech Republic's GDP per capita was some 20 percent higher than Slovakia's, but its long-run GDP growth was lower. Transfer payments from the Czech budget to Slovakia, which had been the rule in the past, were stopped in January 1991. As communism in East Europe began to collapse in East Europe and in the Soviet Union itself, what became known as the Velvet Revolution took place. Between November 16 and December 29, 1989, a series of non-violent protests against the Communist government broke out. In the face of public opinion, the government resigned. In June 1990, democratic elections were held. Václav Havel had been elected President at the end of December, one of the intellectual leaders of the anti-communist resistance. Many Czechs and Slovaks desired the continued existence of a federal Czechoslovakia. A slight majority of Slovaks, however, advocated a looser form of co-existence or complete independence and sovereignty. In the next years, political parties reemerged, but Czech parties had little or no presence in Slovakia, and vice versa.

In order to have a functional state, the government demanded continued control from Prague, while Slovaks continued to ask for decentralization. Václav Klaus was first among the Czechs who supported separation as an alternative to the constant bickering that prevailed at the time. He approached Vladimír Mečiar and suggested, "Let us work together on Velvet separation." In 1992, the Czech public elected Václav Klaus and others who demanded either an even tighter federation ("viable federation") or two independent states. Vladimír Mečiar and other leading Slovak politicians of the day wanted a kind of confederation. The two sides opened frequent and intense negotiations in June. On July 17, the Slovak parliament adopted the Declaration of independence of the Slovak nation. Six days later, politicians decided to dissolve Czechoslovakia at a meeting in Bratislava . The goal of negotiations switched to achieving a peaceful division. On November 13, the Federal Assembly passed Constitution Act 541 which settled the division of property between the Czech lands and Slovakia.

With Constitution Act 542, passed on November 25, they agreed to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as of December 31, 1992. The separation occurred without violence, and was, thus, said to be "velvet," much like the "Velvet revolution" which preceded it, which was accomplished through massive peaceful demonstrations and actions. In contrast, other post-communist break-ups (such as the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia ) involved violent conflict. Legal aspects Division of national property Most of federal assets were divided in the ratio 2 to 1 (the approximate ratio between the Czech and Slovak population within Czechoslovakia), including army equipment, rail and airliner infrastructure. Some minor disputes (for example, about gold reserves stored in Prague, federal know-how valuation) lasted for a few years after dissolution. Currency division Initially, the old Czechoslovak currency , the Czechoslovak koruna, was still used in both countries. Fears of economic loss on the Czech side caused the two states to adopt two national currencies as early as February 8, 1993.

At the beginning, the currencies had an equal exchange rate, but later on, for most of the time, the value of the Slovak koruna was lower than that of the Czech koruna (up to c. 30 percent, in 2004, around 25–27 percent, as of 2008, about 20 percent). Flag and the coat of arms The agreement on the dissolution of Czechoslovakia stipulated that former symbols of the federation would not be used by member states. This provision has not been observed by the Czech Republic who continued to use the Flag of Czechoslovakia as its national flag. Slovakia objected to this without success, though prominent Slovak vexillologists accepted the retention of the flag by the Czechs, citing the failure of their search for a new flag. Consequences Economy The dissolution had some negative impact on the two economies, especially in 1993, as traditional links needed to accommodate the bureaucracy of international trade were severed, but the impact was considerably lower than expected by many people. The hopes that dissolution would quickly start an era of high economic growth in the Czech Republic (without the need to "sponsor the less developed Slovakia") proved plainly wrong or highly exaggerated.

Also, the hope of a stand-alone, unexploited Slovakia becoming a new "economic tiger" was partially unfounded. The Slovak GDP level is still lower than that of the Czech Republic; the growth of the Slovak GDP, however, has been consistently higher than the Czech one since 1994. Citizenship Dual citizenship between the two states was originally not allowed; only years later did courts make it possible. Only a handful of people have exercised this correctly. Since both countries are EU members, this issue has become less important due to the EU Freedom of Movement for Workers policy. That policy means that EU citizens have the right to live and work anywhere within the EU (subject to some exceptions during a transitional period). In the case of movement between the Czech Republic and Slovakia, this policy took effect from 2004. People of both countries were allowed to cross the border without a passport and were allowed to work anywhere without the need to obtain an official permit. Border checks were completely removed on December 21, 2007, when both countries joined the Schengen Agreement.

Roma One of the problems not solved during dissolution was the question of a large number of Roma living in the Czech Republic, who were born and officially registered in today's Slovakia. Most of them did not re-register their official place of stay during the months before dissolution, and so the question of their citizenship was left open. The 1992 Czech Nationality Act allowed a grant of automatic citizenship only to those born in the Czech lands. For others, the right to citizenship required proof of a five-year period of residence, an "unobjectionable" criminal record, significant fees, and a complicated bureaucratic process; this reportedly excluded a rather large percentage of Roma. [1] The Slovak government did not want to grant citizenship to non-residents. Significant numbers of Roma living in Czech orphanages did not have their legal status clarified, and were released from care as adults, but non-citizens without any right to work or live in the Czech Republic. [2] Under pressure from the European Union, the Czech government made amendments to its nationality law in 1999 and 2003, which effectively solved the problem; compensation, however, has not been provided to those rendered stateless in 1992.

[1] Language contacts In the former Czechoslovakia, the first television channel was a federal one and the Czech and Slovak language was used in equal ratios in the TV news there, although foreign films and TV series were almost exclusively dubbed into Czech, for example. This made almost all people of both nations passively bilingual, that is, they were able to understand but not necessarily speak the other language. After the divorce the new TV channels in the Czech Republic practically stopped using Slovak, and young Czech people now have a much lower understanding of the Slovak language. The Czech TV news, however, recently started to reintroduce Slovak-language coverage from Slovakia. Also, the number of Slovak-language books and newspapers sold in the Czech Republic dropped drastically. In Slovakia, however, most cable TV providers offer Czech TV channels, and for economic reasons, many TV programs on Slovak TV channels are still dubbed into Czech, some films in cinemas are subtitled in Czech and there are far more Czech-language books and periodicals on the market than before the divorce. Young Slovak people still have the same knowledge (if not better) of the Czech language as their predecessors.

Sport At the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1993 in Falun, Sweden , the ski jumping team competed as a combined Czech Republic - Slovakia team in the team large hill event, winning a silver. The team had been selected prior to the dissolution. Jaroslav Sakala won two medals in the individual hill events for the Czech Republic at those games along with his silver in the team event. The official break-up occurred right in the middle of the 1993 World Junior Hockey Championship, which also took place in Sweden. The team representing Czechoslovakia was called "Czech-Slovak" starting on January 1. For the qualifying session for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , the national soccer team competed under the name RCS which stood for "Representation of Czechs and Slovaks." It was after this that the teams were then officially split up into Czech Republic national football team and Slovakia national football team. Legacy After a transition period of roughly four years, during which the relations between the states could be characterized as a "post-divorce trauma," the present relations between Czechs and Slovaks, as many people point out, are probably better than they have ever been.

No movement to re-unite Czechoslovakia has appeared and no political party advocates it in its program. Political influences between the countries are minimal. Trade relationships were re-established and stabilized. After a short interruption, Slovakia's mountains are again the target of a growing number of Czech tourists. Slovakia and the Czech Republic both became a member of the European Union in 2004. While deciding not to remain within one state they cooperate with other member states of the Union within a larger, multi-national framework. Czechoslovakia had always been an artificial creation. Under communist rule, tension between the two communities was ignored. Separation into two distinct nation states each with their distinctive cultural and linguistic identities has in this case left neither side bitter. Under Austria-Hungary, it was Germans who were accused of dominating both communities. Under communism , everyone was equally oppressed by a totalitarian system. Nationalism was suppressed in favor of communist ideology and internationalism. Uniformity, not diversity, was the official stance. Now part of the wider European space, the two communities can relate to each other across open borders amicably and without rancor.

Notes ↑ 1.0 1.1 Jasminka Dedić, Roma and Stateless, Brussells: European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs. Retrieved August 23, 2008. ↑ Ira Zoon, The manufactured troubles of L'udovit Gorej, Roma Rights Quarterly. Retrieved August 23, 2008. References Dissolution of Czechoslovakia : definition of Dissolution of Czechoslovakia and synonyms of Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (English) The modern Slovak Republic Czechoslovakia was created with the dissolution of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I. In 1917, a meeting took place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , where the future Czechoslovak president Tomáš Masaryk and other Czech and Slovak representatives signed the Pittsburgh Agreement which promised a common state consisting of two equal nations, Slovakia and Czechia. Soon after, the philosophy of Edvard Beneš pushed for greater unity and a single nation.

Many Slovaks were not in favour of this change, and in March 1939, with the approval from Hitler and a majority of Slovaks, the First Slovak Republic was created. Occupation by the Soviet Union after World War II oversaw their reunification into the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic . In 1968, the Constitutional Law of Federation reinstated an official federal structure (of the 1917 type), but during the "Normalization period" in the 1970s, Gustáv Husák (although a Slovak himself) returned most of the control to Prague. This approach encouraged a regrowth of separatism after the fall of communism. Separation By the 1990s, the Czech Republic's GDP per capita was some 20% higher than Slovakia's, but its long-run GDP growth was lower.[ citation needed ] Transfer payments from the Czech budget to Slovakia, which had been the rule in the past, were stopped in January 1991. Many Czechs and Slovaks desired the continued existence of a federal Czechoslovakia.

Some major Slovak parties, however, advocated a looser form of co-existence[ citation needed ][ need quotation to verify ] and the Slovak National Party complete independence and sovereignty . In the next years, political parties re-emerged, but Czech parties had little or no presence in Slovakia, and vice versa. In order to have a functional state, the government demanded continued control from Prague, while Slovaks continued to ask for decentralization. [1] In 1992, the Czech Republic elected Václav Klaus and others who demanded either an even tighter federation ("viable federation") or two independent states. Vladimír Mečiar and other leading Slovak politicians of the day wanted a kind of confederation . The two sides opened frequent and intense negotiations in June. On 17 July, the Slovak parliament adopted the Declaration of independence of the Slovak nation . Six days later, Klaus and Meciar agreed to dissolve Czechoslovakia at a meeting in Bratislava . Czechoslovak president Václav Havel resigned rather than oversee the dissolution which he had opposed; in a September 1992 poll, only 37% of Slovaks and 36% of Czechs favoured dissolution.

[2] The goal of negotiations switched to achieving a peaceful division. On 13 November, the Federal Assembly passed Constitution Act 541 which settled the division of property between the Czech lands and Slovakia. [3] With Constitution Act 542, passed on 25 November, they agreed to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as of 31 December 1992. [3] The separation occurred without violence, and was thus said to be " velvet ", much like the " Velvet revolution " which preceded it, which was accomplished through massive peaceful demonstrations and actions. In contrast, other post-communist break-ups (such as the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia ) involved violent conflict. Reasons for the division Many different reasons are given for the split of Czechoslovakia, but debates around the reason for the dissolution of Czechoslovakia centre around inevitability{[ clarification needed ] versus events that occurred between the Velvet Revolution of 1989 and the end of the joined state in 1992.

[4] The people who argue inevitability point to the stereotypes between the two nations, problems with the shared state during communism, the failure of the communist state in Czech lands and its success in the Slovak lands, and the 1968 constitution that had a minority veto. [5] The people who argue events between 1989 and 1992 point to international factors such as the situation the breakaway of the Soviet satellite nations, the lack of unified media between the Czech and Slovak republic, and most importantly the actions of the political leaders of the two nations. [6] Legal aspects This section does not cite any references or sources . National symbols Since the Coat of arms of Czechoslovakia was a composition of historic geographic areas forming the country, each republic simply kept its own symbol – the Czechs the lion and the Slovaks the double cross. The same principle was applied to the two-part bilingual Czechoslovak national anthem that comprized two separate pieces of music, the Czech stanza Kde domov můj? and the Slovak stanza Nad Tatrou sa blýska . Disputes occurred only with respect to the Czechoslovak national flag .

During the 1992 negotiations about the details of dissolution of Czechoslovakia, on demand made by Vladimír Mečiar and Václav Klaus , a clause forbidding use of state symbols of Czechoslovakia by successor states was inserted into the Constitutional Law about the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia. From 1990 to 1992, the red and white Flag of Bohemia (differing from the Polish flag only by proportion of the colours) officially served as the flag of the Czech Republic. Eventually, after a search for new symbology the Czech Republic unilaterally decided to ignore the constitutional law on dissolution of Czechoslovakia (article 3 of law 542/1992 says the "Czech republic and Slovak republic shall not use national symbols of Czech and Slovak Federative republic after its dissolution.") and to keep the Czechoslovak flag with an altered meaning. Territory The national territory was divided along the existing internal borders. Nevertheless, the border was not clearly defined at some points and, in some areas, the border cut across streets, access roads and communities that had co-existed for centuries.

The most serious issues occurred around area ‘U Sabotů’ and ‘Sidonia’, but the newly born countries were able to solve the difficulties via mutual negotiations, financial compensation and, finally, an international treaty covering the border modifications. People living or owning property in the border area, however, did not stop experiencing practical problems until both new countries entered the Schengen Agreement Area, after which the borders became less significant. Division of national property Most federal assets were divided in a ratio of 2 to 1 (the approximate ratio between the Czech and Slovak population within Czechoslovakia), including army equipment, rail and airliner infrastructure. Some minor disputes (e.g. about gold reserves stored in Prague, federal know-how valuation) lasted for a few years after dissolution. Currency division Initially the old Czechoslovak currency, the Czechoslovak koruna , was still used in both countries . Fears of economic loss on the Czech side caused the two states to adopt two national currencies as early as 8 February 1993. At the beginning, the currencies had an equal exchange rate, but later on, for most of the time, the value of the Slovak koruna was lower than that of the Czech koruna (up to ca.

30%, in 2004 around 25–27%). Since August 2nd, 1993, the two currencies were distinguished by different stamps first affixed to and then printed on the old (Czechoslovak koruna) banknotes. [7] On 1 January 2009 Slovakia adopted the euro as its currency, and €2 commemorative coin for 2009 , Slovakia's first one, featured 20th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution in remembrance of the common struggle of the Czechoslovakian people for democracy. By the virtue of fate, the welcoming speech on the behalf of the European Union on the occasion of Slovakia's entry to the Eurozone was delivered by Mirek Topolánek , the prime minister of the then EU presiding country, the Czech Republic, naturally in his native language while other guest speakers used English. The Czech Republic continues to use the Czech koruna, or crown. International law Neither the Czech Republic nor Slovakia sought recognition as the sole successor state to Czechoslovakia. This can be contrasted to the dissolution of the Soviet Union where the Russian Federation was recognized as successor state to the USSR.

Therefore, Czechoslovakia's membership in the UN ceased upon dissolution of the country, but on 19 January 1993 the Czech and Slovak Republics were admitted to the UN as new and separate states. With respect to other international treaties the Czechs and Slovaks agreed to honour the treaty obligations of Czechoslovakia. The Slovaks transmitted a letter to the Secretary General of the United Nations on 19 May 1993 expressing their intent to remain a party to all treaties signed and ratified by Czechoslovakia, and to ratify those treaties signed but not ratified before dissolution of Czechoslovakia. This letter acknowledged that under international law all treaties signed and ratified by Czechoslovakia would remain in force. For example, both countries are recognized as signatories of the Antarctic Treaty from the date Czechoslovakia signed the agreement back in 1962. Both the Czech and Slovak Republics have ratified the Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties . However, it was not a factor in the dissolution of Czechoslovakia since it did not enter into force until 1996.

Consequences Economy The dissolution had some negative impact on the two economies, especially in 1993, as traditional links needed to accommodate the bureaucracy of international trade were severed, but the impact was considerably less than expected by many people. Many Czechs hoped that dissolution would quickly start an era of high economic growth in the Czech Republic (without the need to "sponsor the less developed Slovakia"). Similarly others looked forward to a stand-alone, unexploited Slovakia which might become a new "economic tiger". The Czech state is markedly more prosperous than the Slovak and the Slovak GDP level is still lower than that of the Czech Republic. The growth of the Slovak GDP, however, has been consistently higher than the Czech one since 1994 and the margin between the two states is closing. Furthermore, Slovakia has overtaken the Czech Republic in terms of economic reforms aimed at approaching the economic conditions of the West. One of the outcomes so far has been the acceptance of Slovakia into the Euro Area in 2009, which the Czech Republic still does not fully qualify for (on account of the missing reforms, some of which are required for accession). While the wealth of the Czech Rep.

remains higher than that of Slovakia in many respects, Czech development is continually hindered by what may be described as a lack of resolve towards mending the persisting shortcomings of the domestic economy (in addition to the discussed reforms, this includes e.g. long-term fiscal irresponsibility or a failure to take steps to improve the low domestic labour productivity). Citizenship Dual citizenship between the two states was originally not allowed; only years later did courts make it possible. Only a handful of people have exercised this right; however, the significance of this is lessened by both nations' membership in the EU as the freedom of movement for workers policy guarantees EU citizens the right to work and live anywhere in the Union. In the case of movement between the Czech Republic and Slovakia, this policy took effect from 2004. People of both countries were allowed to cross the border without a passport and were allowed to work anywhere without the need to obtain an official permit. Border checks were completely removed on 21 December 2007 when both countries joined the Schengen Agreement .

Under the current European regulations, citizens of either country are entitled to the diplomatic protection of any other EU country and, therefore, the Czech and Slovak Republics have been considering merging their embassies together with nations of the Visegrád Group in order to reduce costs. [8] Roma people One of the problems not solved during dissolution was the question of a large number of Roma living in the Czech Republic, who were born and officially registered in today's Slovakia. Most of them did not re-register their official place of stay during the months before dissolution, and so the question of their citizenship was left open. The 1992 Czech Nationality Act allowed a grant of automatic citizenship only to those born on Czech territory. For others, the right to citizenship required proof of a five-year period of residence, an "unobjectionable" criminal record, significant fees and a complicated bureaucratic process; this reportedly excluded a rather large percentage of Roma. [9] The Slovak government did not want to grant citizenship to non-residents. Significant numbers of Roma living in Czech orphanages did not have their legal status clarified, and were released from care as adult non-citizens without any right to work or live in the Czech Republic.

[10] Under pressure from the European Union, the Czech government made amendments to its nationality law in 1999 and 2003 which effectively solved the problem; compensation, however, has not been provided to those rendered stateless in 1992. [9] Language contacts In the former Czechoslovakia, the first television channel (see Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia ) was a federal one and the Czech and Slovak languages were used in equal ratios in the TV news there, although foreign films and TV series were almost exclusively dubbed into Czech, for example. This (and the fact that both languages are very similar) made almost all people of both nations passively bilingual , i.e., they were able to understand but not necessarily speak the other language. After the dissolution in 1990s the new TV channels in the Czech Republic practically stopped using Slovak, and young Czech people now have a much lower understanding of the Slovak language. Also, the number of Slovak-language books and newspapers sold in the Czech Republic dropped drastically.

The Czech TV news, however, recently started to reintroduce Slovak-language coverage from Slovakia and Slovak TV (STV2) is re-transmitting Czech news Události ČT ("Czech Television - Events") each day ten minutes after the midnight. In the Slovak state TV, STV, it is common to have daily at least one coverage from the Czech Republic in the prime time news. Further, for economic reasons, many TV programmes on Slovak TV channels are still dubbed into Czech, some films in cinemas are subtitled in Czech and there are far more Czech-language books and periodicals on the market than before the dissolution. The major boost for the language interchange has come recently from private TV channel providers like CS Link (Czech Republic) and Sky Link (Slovakia) that offer Slovak Channels in the Czech Republic and, vice versa. Additionally, several channels, regardless of their national origin, offer programs both in Czech and Slovak (CSFilm, TV Barrandov) or even mix like TV Nova's NOVA SPORT coverage of the English Premier League .

New impulses to mutual contacts coming via TV are also common shows like the Intelligence Test of Nations, Czechoslovakia's Got Talent, [11] hosted by PRIMA and TV JOJ, and Czecho-Slovak SuperStar , the latter being the first international edition of the Pop Idol song contest hosted by TV Nova and Markíza. Also, the New Year's Eve Program for 2009 was prepared and broadcast jointly by the state televisions ČT and STV and that for 2010 by the Czech TV PRIMA and the Slovak TV JOJ, this time even including the singing of the Czechoslovak national anthem. Young Slovak people still have the same knowledge (if not better) of the Czech language as their predecessors. Even today, in Slovakia, Czech may be used automatically in all judicial proceedings, plus all documents written in Czech are acknowledged by Slovak authorities, and vice versa. Further, the Slovak Official Language Act passed in 2009 did reconfirm the right of Czechs to use their language in all official communication when dealing with Slovak authorities (however, the Act explicitely limited the use of Czech in Slovakia only to persons with Czech as their mother tongue).

The same is true about using the Slovak language in the Czech Republic owing to the Administration Procedure Act of 2004. Gustáv Slamečka , the Czech transport minister of Slovak origin, uses the Slovak language exclusively in his official communication. The upward trend in the language contacts demonstrates that Czechs and Slovaks do not regard each other as foreigners. The interview surveys from 2010 showed that majority of the population of Prague (Czechs) still considers the division of the country as a mistake; [12] similarly, the general representative survey in Slovakia (from 2008) [13] showed that society is still divided in opinion on the dissolution: 47% favouring the dissolution, while 44% considering it as a mistake. For the language comparison see differences between Slovak and Czech languages . Sport At the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1993 in Falun , Sweden, the ski jumping team competed as a combined Czech Republic-Slovakia team in the team large hill event, winning a silver. The team had been selected prior to the dissolution.

Jaroslav Sakala won two medals in the individual hill events for the Czech Republic at those games along with his silver in the team event. The official break-up occurred right in the middle of the 1993 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , which also took place in Sweden. The team representing Czechoslovakia was called "Czech-Slovak" starting on 1 January. In their qualifying section for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , the Czechoslovakia national football team competed under the name RCS which stood for "Representation of Czechs and Slovaks". It was after this that the teams were then officially split up into Czech Republic and Slovakia . The team failed to qualify after they could only draw their final match against Belgium , a match they needed to win to qualify. The mutual encounters between national teams especially in ice hockey, traditionally the successful sport, and soccer, where Czechs and Slovaks compete against each other regularly in the World and European Championship Qualifications is followed by the majority of the population, and the number of players and coaches active in the other republic is endless. Several sports did or do feature a common league, and the discussions about having a common soccer or ice hockey league continue.

For example, Martin Lipták, a Slovak handball coach led successfully the Czech national team in EHF 2010 Handball European Championship in Austria. [14] A Slovak Team under his coaching, Tatran Prešov, won the Czech national league in 2008 and 2009. [15] Telecommunications The two successor states continued to use the country code +42 until 28 February 1997, when this was replaced by two separate codes: +420 for the Czech Republic and +421 for Slovakia. Since then, telephone calls between the two countries have required international dialing. Legacy After a transition period of roughly four years, during which the relations between the states could be characterized as a "post-divorce trauma", the present relations between Czechs and Slovaks, as many people[ who? ] point out, are probably better than they have ever been. No movement to re-unite Czechoslovakia has appeared and no political party advocates it in its programme. Political influences between the countries are minimal, but social democrats tend to cooperate very closely on regional and European topics in recent years.

Furthermore, it has become customary that the elected presidents pay their first and last official "foreign" visits during their term to the other republic of the former Czechoslovakia . Appointed foreign ministers tend to follow this unwritten rule. Also, peace keeping troops stationed in the former Czechoslovakia were put under a joint command on several occasions. Trade relationships were re-established and stabilized, and the Czech Republic continues to be Slovakia's most important business partner. After a short interruption, Slovakia's resorts in the Carpathian mountains are again the target of a growing number of Czech tourists. Following the death of the last Czechoslovak president Václav Havel on December 18, 2011, both the Czech and the Slovak Republics observed the day of national mourning. During the funeral mass in Prague 's St. Vitus Cathedral prayers were recited in an equal ratio in the Czech and the Slovak Language. See also Hyphen War Notes

Question: Who was the last president of Czechoslovakia before its dissolution in 1993?
Answer: Vaclav Havel