The Spanish Conquest (1519-1521) : Mexico History History | See all articles tagged history The Spanish Conquest (1519-1521) Tweet April 21, 1519--the year Ce Acatl (One Reed) by Aztec reckoning-- marked the opening of a short but decisive chapter in Mexico's history. On that day a fleet of 11 Spanish galleons sailing along the eastern gulf coast dropped anchor just off the wind-swept beach on the island of San Juan de Ulúa. Under the command of the wily, daring Hernán Cortés, the vessels bore 550 Spanish soldiers and sailors, as well as 16 horses, the first of the species to tread the American continent. The party disembarked to set up camp on the dunes behind the beach. In a friendly reception from the native Totonac Indians, greetings and gifts were exchanged. Cognizant of the existence of a great inland Empire, Cortés promptly dispatched a message requesting an audience with Aztec ruler Moctezuma II .

(The term "Aztec" will be used throughout, although some historians prefer the less familiar designation "Mexica" for the last of Mexico's formidable pre-Hispanic civilizations.) Runners had already carried word to the "Lord of Cuhúa" in Tenochitlán, the capital city set on an island in Lake Texcoco some 200 hundred miles away. They reported the arrival of fair-skinned, bearded strangers and fearsome "man-beasts" (cavalry) who had descended from "towers floating on the sea." Cortés wasted no time in staking a claim for God and King, ceremoniously founding a settlement on the coast that he christened Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, in reference to the fleet's arrival on Good Friday to what he believed to be a vast land of plenty. The Spanish Conquest had begun. All odds were against this tiny band of adventurers who would soon venture into unknown territory to topple the mighty Aztec Empire. It could never have happened were it not for Cortés' remarkable fortitude and cunning, coupled with an incredible series of coincidental prior events.

In the wake the "discovery" of the Western Hemisphere by Christopher Columbus (1492), Spanish and Portuguese explorers continued the quest for riches in the New World. Among these were Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and Juan de Grijalba who, under the orders of Diego Veláquez, Spanish Governor of Cuba, set out on ill-fated ventures to the Yucatan and Mexico's gulf coast (1517-1518). Velázquez then commissioned the 34 year-old Cortés to lead a new expedition westward, but alarmed by escalating costs, had a last-minute change of heart. The eager and ever-astute Cortés eluded cancellation of the enterprise by hastily setting sail. The fleet first landed on the island of Cozumel off the Yucatan peninsula. There Cortés ransomed fellow Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar who had been forced to live among the Mayas after surviving a 1511 shipwreck during a prior expedition. Aguilar proved an invaluable asset to Cortés, acting as his personal interpreter of both native language and culture.

Communication problems arose anew, however, as the Spaniards sailed farther north, encountering natives who spoke a different tongue. Fortuitously, the spoils of victory over a Tabascan chieftain at Potonchán included a gift of twenty native maidens, one of whom was fluent in both the Náhuatl and Mayan tongues. The comely and clever Malintzin was promptly baptized with a Spanish name, Marina, and appointed the task of intervening in further contacts with indigenous peoples. She translated Náhuatl to Mayan for Aguilar, who then put her words into Spanish. Doña Marina soon earned her place as Cortés' most intimate adviser by first mastering Spanish and then becoming his mistress. Eventually she bore him a son, Martín, the first mixed-blood Mexican or mestizo. For having aided the Spaniards, today she is widely considered a traitor to her own people. The moniker by which she is mostly commonly known, la Malinche, gave rise to the modern-day term malinchista used in reference a Mexican who takes a fancy to anything of foreign origin.

Meanwhile, back in Tenochitlán, Moctezuma was in a quandary as to how to best deal with the unwelcome strangers. Ancient legend prophesied that Quetzalcoátl , the bearded, fair-skinned Toltec ruler-god, would return from the east in the year Ce Acatl to reclaim his kingdom. Evil omens that had confounded the Aztec priests and sorcerers over the previous decade only heightened Moctezuma's anxiety. First, despite fair weather, the waters of Lake Texcoco had suddenly boiled up, flooding the island of their capital city. Then an inexplicable conflagration had consumed the temple of their chief god, Huitzilopochtli. The voice of a woman wailing in the night had repeatedly disturbed the city's slumber. Immense comets with fiery tails had been seen shooting through day-time skies and a great column of fire had appeared in the east every night for an entire year. All of these were taken to be signs of Quetzalcoátl's imminent return. A hostile reception of the mighty Plumed Serpent or his emissaries was unthinkable.

So Moctezuma sent Cortés a cordial message, but cautioned him against proceeding to the Aztec capital. It was, he noted, an arduous journey through deserts, mountains and dangerous enemy territories. He also sent many fine gifts, tokens of his esteem which he hoped would placate the strangers or, better still, spur them to return from whence they came. The gold and other Aztec finery only whetted the Spaniards' appetite for new world riches. Determined to carry forward, the next moves Cortés made were as astute as they were bold. After dispatching trusted envoys back to Spain to deliver letters and Aztec treasure to his monarch, Carlos V, he stripped and scuttled the remainder of his fleet. This drastic measure constituted a blatant act of rebellion against his direct superior, Governor Velázquez, but by effectively eliminating any means of desertion, Cortés hoped to assure the do-or-die loyalty of his men. Through cunning and intrigue Cortés forged an alliance with the Totonacs at the coastal city-state Cempoala, then under Aztec dominion. The Spanish army was thus beefed up with more than a thousand native warriors plus 200 porters.

With a small party left to hold the fort at Vera Cruz, Cortés commenced the hazardous journey towards the Aztec capital. To the east of the great twin volcanoes Popocatépetl and Ixtaccíhuatl lay the first obstacle, the small kingdom of Tlaxcala whose fierce mountain people who had long managed to defy Aztec dominance. Suspecting the odd strangers to be agents of Moctezuma the Tlaxcalans promptly engaged the Spaniards in battle. Superior weaponry and military tactics, added to internecine rivalry between Tlaxcalan generals, helped Cortés prevail despite the fact that his troops were greatly outnumbered. The subsequent Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance proved to be a crucial factor in the ultimate downfall of the Aztecs. Next came a dangerous interlude at the great ceremonial center, Cholula. Warned by la Malinche that a plot was afoot to ambush and capture the Spaniards, Cortés outfoxed the Cholulan caciques (native chieftains), engineering a surprise attack in the city's center that left thousands dead. The Tlaxcalans joined in the fray, razing Cholula in a two-day rampage.

Finally the Spaniards approached their destination, descending into the Valley of Mexico from a high mountain pass between the great volcanoes. In early November 1519, with Cortés in the lead, they filed across the southern causeway into the magnificent Tenochtitlán. They were received with much ceremony by a retinue of lords and nobles headed by Moctezuma himself, and escorted to their quarters in the ancient palace of Atzayacatl, the emperor's father. The wary Moctezuma made great efforts to play the perfect host, showing his unwanted guests around the city and entertaining them with splendid banquets. Aware of the precarious situation in which he had placed his band of adventurers, Cortés made an extraordinarily bold move to secure their safety. He took Moctezuma captive, holding him in the Spaniards quarters. This bizarre state of affairs continued for eight months until news came that Spanish troops sent by the Cuban Governor Velázquez had arrived at the coast had arrived to place Cortés under arrest. Leaving a garrison in charge in the Aztec capital, Cortés marched back eastward with a band of his finest soldiers.

He defeated his intended captors in battle at Cempoala, and soon was headed back to Tenochtitlán with the newcomers in tow. In his absence, Pedro de Alvarado, the garrison's commander, ordered an attack on the Aztecs in the midst of what he viewed as an alarmingly frenetic religious celebration. Enraged by the vicious slaughter, the native population rebelled. Upon his return, Cortés tried to quell the hostilities by persuading Moctezuma to mount the roof of Atzayacatl's palace and appeal to his people for peace. Their response was to shower the emperor with insults, stones and arrows, inflicting physical and mental injury that soon resulted in his death. Under Moctezuma's successor, Cuitláhuac (who succumbed to smallpox several months later), the Aztecs mounted a full-scale siege on the conquistadores. With food and water scarce, the Spaniards and their Tlaxcalan allies attempted to slip out of the city under cover of darkness on what is now known as La Noche Triste, the Sad Night. An alarm was sounded and the Aztecs attacked with fury.

Hundred of soliders were killed or captured. Others, weighted down with the gold and silver loot they had collected, fell into the canals and drowned. A despondent Cortés collapsed and wept beneath the famous ahuehuete tree that still stands today in the Mexico City suburb of Tacuba. Damaged but not entirely disheartened, the surviving Spaniards and their allies retreated back into Tlaxcalan territory to regroup. In subsequent months they healed their wounds and trained for battle. Devising a new strategy, Cortés built a fleet of brigantines for his next attack. In January 1521 the conquistadores once again entered the valley of Mexico. They staged a series of raids throughout the countryside and took the Aztec stronghold at Texcoco, from whence they could launch the newly built fleet. In May Cortés began his final assault on Tenochtitlán, bearing down from every direction, with separate divisions assigned to each of the city's three causeways and the flotilla moving in by water.

The Aztecs fought valiantly under leadership of the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtemoc , whose name translates as "falling eagle" or alternately "setting sun." Ravaged by diseases introduced by the Spaniards, deprived of fresh water and food supplies from the mainland, they withstood an 80-day siege, surrendering August 13, 1521, only after their captured leader grasped the dagger in Cortés' belt and pleaded, "I have done all that I could to defend my people. Do with me now what you will." Their fervor fueled by victory, the conquistadores lay the Aztec empire to waste, erasing the remnants of the culture as best they could, scorching Tenochtitlán by fire, leveling its majestic temples. The rubble would make up the foundations of a new world, the cradle of a brand new people.

Published or Updated on: August 29, 2007 by Dale Hoyt Palfrey © 2008 Hernán Cortés: Conqueror of the Aztecs Hernán Cortés: Conqueror of the Aztecs By Jessie Szalay, LiveScience Contributor | August 28, 2013 12:33am ET MORE Hernan Cortés invaded Mexico in 1519 and conquered the Aztec Empire. Credit: Public domain. Engraving by W. Holl, 1837. Hernán Cortés is one of the most well-known Spanish conquistadors. He is best remembered for conquering the Aztec empire and claiming Mexico for Spain. He also helped colonize Cuba and became a governor of New Spain. Early life Cortés was born in 1485 in Medellín, Spain. He was the only son of noble, though not wealthy, parents. At age 14, Cortés was sent to study law at the University of Salamanca, but he was restless and unhappy. He became fascinated with tales of Christopher Columbus ’ New World explorations.

Columbus had landed at San Salvador and explored the West Indies in 1492, Cortés was a young boy. Cortés wanted to join the excitement of the Age of Exploration. He decided to seek fortune and adventure in Hispaniola (modern-day Dominican Republic and Haiti). In 1504, at age 19, Cortés set sail for the New World. In the Bahamas Cortés spent seven successful years on Hispaniola, living in the new town of Azua and working as a notary and farmer. In 1511 he joined Diego Velasquez’s expedition to conquer Cuba. There, Cortés served as a clerk to the treasurer and later as mayor of Santiago. Despite his success, Cortes was hungry for more power and greater thrills. He convinced Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to let him lead an expedition to Mexico . Velasquez canceled the voyage at the last minute. Ignoring his orders, Cortés set sail with 11 ships and more than 500 men. Arrival in Mexico In 1519, Cortés’ ships reached the Mexican coast at Yucatan.

Mexico had been discovered by the Spanish just a year prior, and they were eager to settle it. At Tabasco, Cortés was met with resistance from natives. He quickly overpowered them, and the natives surrendered. They provided the Europeans with food, supplies and 20 women, including an interpreter called Malintzin (also known as La Malinche or Doña Marina). She became Cortés’s intermediary with the natives and eventually his mistress, eventually mothering his son, Martin. After a few months, Cortés set sail from Yucatan, heading west. On the southeastern coast he founded Veracruz, where he dismissed the authority of Velasquez and declared himself under orders from King Charles I of Spain. He disciplined his men and trained them to act as a cohesive unit of soldiers. He also burned his ships to make retreat impossible. A 1909 painting depicts the Spanish conquistadors entering Tenochtitlán to the sounds of martial music. Credit: Public domain. Book illustration by J.H. Robinson. Conquering the Aztecs Cortés had heard of the Aztecs and knew that they, and their leader Montezuma II, were a primary force in Mexico.

Cortés set out to rule them. During the march through Mexico, he encountered a group of natives called the Tlaxcalans, who were enemies of the Aztecs. They became an important ally for Cortés during his siege of Tenochtitlán , the Aztec capital city. Unbeknownst to Cortés, his arrival coincided with an important Aztec prophecy. The Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, whom they credited with the creation of humans among other notable feats, was set to return to Earth. Thinking that Cortés could be Quetzalcoatl, Montezuma greeted the party with great honor. Montezuma sent out envoys to meet the conquistador as he neared. The Aztecs were fascinated by the Spaniards’ light skin and the sight of men on horseback, which they described as beasts with two heads and six legs. The Spanish fired shots, which stunned the natives and further intimidated them. Cortés entered the city. The Spanish soldiers and the Tlaxcalans sacked it, while Cortés took Montezuma hostage. With the help of Doña Marina, Cortés manipulated Montezuma and ruled Tenochtitlán through him.

The Siege of Tenochtitlán While Cortés held Tenochtitlán through Montezuma, a Spanish force from Cuba landed on the coast of Mexico. They had been sent by Diego Velasquez to unseat Cortés. When Cortés heard of this, he took a garrison of Spanish and Tlaxcalan soldiers and marched on the Spanish. Cortés defeated the Spanish force, but when he returned to Tenochtitlán he was met with a shock. The Aztecs were in the midst of a full rebellion. Cortés and his men fled the city. They were there long enough to start a smallpox epidemic in Tenochtitlán, however. One of Cortés’ men contracted smallpox from a member of the force from Cuba. That soldier died during the Aztec rebellion, and when his body was looted, an Aztec caught the disease, which spread like wildfire because the Aztec people had no immunity to it. Cortés regrouped and attacked Tenochtitlán in full force in 1521. At that time, the city’s society had crumpled.

The Aztecs no longer trusted Montezuma, they were short on food, and the smallpox epidemic was under way. More than 3 million Aztecs died from smallpox, and with such a severely weakened population, it was easy for the Spanish to take Tenochtitlán. It is uncertain how Montezuma died. Some scholars state that, disgusted with him, the Aztecs stoned him to death. Others, including indigenous scholars, assert that the Spanish killed him. Once the city had fallen, Cortés began building Mexico City on the ruins. It quickly became a pre-eminent city in the Spanish colonies and many Europeans came to live there. As a result of his success, King Charles I of Spain appointed Cortés as governor of New Spain. Later years In 1524, governor Cortés went to Honduras to quell a rebellion against him. He stayed for two years, and when he returned to Mexico he found himself removed from power. Cortés traveled to Spain to plead with the king, but he was never again appointed to governorship. The kind did allow him to return to Mexico, albeit with much less authority.

Cortés explored the northern part of Mexico and discovered Baja California for Spain in the latter 1530s. In 1540, he retired to Spain and spent much of his last years seeking recognition and rewards for his achievements. Frustrated and embittered, Cortés decided to return to Mexico. Before he could go, however, he died of pleurisy in 1547. Latest on Hernán Cortés: Conqueror of the Aztecs Aztec capital falls to Cortés - Aug 13, 1521 - HISTORY.com Aztec capital falls to Cortés Share this: Aztec capital falls to Cortés Author Aztec capital falls to Cortés URL Publisher A+E Networks After a three-month siege, Spanish forces under Hernán Cortés capture Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec empire. Cortés’ men leveled the city and captured Cuauhtemoc, the Aztec emperor. Tenochtitlán was founded in 1325 A.D. by a wandering tribe of hunters and gatherers on islands in Lake Texcoco, near the present site of Mexico City.

In only one century, this civilization grew into the Aztec empire, largely because of its advanced system of agriculture. The empire came to dominate central Mexico and by the ascendance of Montezuma II in 1502 had reached its greatest extent, extending as far south as perhaps modern-day Nicaragua. At the time, the empire was held together primarily by Aztec military strength, and Montezuma II set about establishing a bureaucracy, creating provinces that would pay tribute to the imperial capital of Tenochtitlán. The conquered peoples resented the Aztec demands for tribute and victims for the religious sacrifices, but the Aztec military kept rebellion at bay. Meanwhile, Hernán Cortés, a young Spanish-born noble, came to Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1504. In 1511, he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba and twice was elected mayor of Santiago, the capital of Hispaniola. In 1518, he was appointed captain general of a new Spanish expedition to the American mainland. Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, later rescinded the order, and Cortés sailed without permission.

He visited the coast of Yucatán and in March 1519 landed at Tabasco in Mexico’s Bay of Campeche with 500 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 16 horses. There, he won over the local Indians and was given a female slave, Malinche–baptized Marina–who became his mistress and later bore him a son. She knew both Maya and Aztec and served as an interpreter. The expedition then proceeded up the Mexican coast, where Cortés founded Veracruz, mainly for the purpose of having himself elected captain general by the colony, thus shaking off the authority of Velázquez and making him responsible only to King Charles V of Spain. At Veracruz, Cortés trained his army and then burned his ships to ensure loyalty to his plans for conquest. Having learned of political strife in the Aztec empire, Cortés led his force into the Mexican interior. On the way to Tenochtitlán, he clashed with local Indians, but many of these people, including the nation of Tlaxcala, became his allies after learning of his plan to conquer their hated Aztec rulers.

Hearing of the approach of Cortés, with his frightful horses and sophisticated weapons, Montezuma II tried to buy him off, but Cortés would not be dissuaded. On November 8, 1519, the Spaniards and their 1,000 Tlaxcaltec warriors were allowed to enter Tenochtitlán unopposed. Montezuma suspected them to be divine envoys of the god Quetzalcatl, who was prophesied to return from the east in a “One Reed” year, which was 1519 on the Aztec calendar. The Spaniards were greeted with great honor, and Cortés seized the opportunity, taking Montezuma hostage so that he might govern the empire through him. His mistress, Marina, was a great help in this endeavor and succeeded in convincing Montezuma to cooperate fully. In the spring of 1520, Cortés learned of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Pánfilo Narvez and sent by Velázquez to deprive Cortés of his command.

Cortés led his army out of Tenochtitlán to meet them, leaving behind a garrison of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs to govern the city. Cortés defeated Narvez and enlisted Narvez’ army into his own. When he returned to Tenochtitlán in June, he found the garrison under siege from the Aztecs, who had rebelled after the subordinate whom Cortés left in command of the city massacred several Aztec chiefs, and the population on the brink of revolt. On June 30, under pressure and lacking food, Cortés and his men fought their way out of the capital at heavy cost. Known to the Spanish as La Noche Triste, or “the Night of Sadness,” many soldiers drowned in Lake Texcoco when the vessel carrying them and Aztec treasures hoarded by Cortés sank. Montezuma was killed in the fighting–in Aztec reports by the Spaniards, and in Spanish reports by an Aztec mob bitter at Montezuma’s subservience to Spanish rule. He was succeeded as emperor by his brother, Cuitláhuac.

During the Spaniards’ retreat, they defeated a large Aztec army at Otumba and then rejoined their Tlaxcaltec allies. In May 1521, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán, and after a three-month siege the city fell. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cuauhtámoc, Cuitláhuac’s successor as emperor, was taken prisoner and later executed, and Cortés became the ruler of a vast Mexican empire. The Spanish conquistador led an expedition to Honduras in 1524 and in 1528 returned to Spain to see the king. Charles made him Marqués del Valle but refused to name him governor because of his quarrels with Velázquez and others. In 1530, he returned to Mexico, now known as New Spain, and found the country in disarray. After restoring some order, he retired to his estate south of Mexico City and sent out maritime expeditions from the Pacific coast. In 1540, he returned to Spain and was neglected by the court. He died in 1547.

Related Videos Cortes Conquers Aztecs: 1521 Spain © thenagain info All rights reserved. The Conquest of the Aztecs Spain 1521 The Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in 1521, led by Hernando Cortes, was a landmark victory for the European settlers. Following the Spanish arrival in Mexico, a huge battle erupted between the army of Cortes and the Aztec people under the rule of Montezuma. The events that occurred were crucial to the development of the American lands and have been the subject of much historical debate in present years. Back to "Later Empires" Chronology The Spaniards landed on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico in 1519, where they found the advanced society of the Aztecs. The Aztec Empire stretched along the Valley of Mexico, and Tenochititlan was its capital. The Aztecs had substantial wealth from trading and heavy payments of tribute from conquered peoples. From 1200-1520 the Aztecs flourished and expanded their empire greatly.

By the time Hernando Cortes landed in Mexico with his 600 soldiers, the Aztecs were in control of most of present-day Mexico. The expansion of the Aztecs, however, ended with the Spanish Conquest. A major element of Aztec life was religion. A polytheistic people, they often practiced human sacrifice to please their gods. According to legend, the god Quetzalcoatl, characterized by light skin, red hair, and light eyes, was supposed to return to earth. This appearance is remarkably similar to European appearance, and may be why the Aztecs originally greeted the Spaniards with food, gold, and women. The Spaniards, however, approached the Aztecs with an entirely different attitude. They had a strong sense of supremacy and intended to convert the natives to Christianity. But their ministering methods were radical. The Spaniards gathered the natives together and shouted the essentials of the Gospel, oblivious to the fact that the Aztecs did not understand their language. If the natives refused to fall to their knees and repent, the Spaniards assumed they were rejecting the word of God and killed or enslaved them. Upon arrival in North America, Hernando Cortes founded the colony of New Spain in Mexico.

On November 8, 1519, he challenged the native forces and entered Tenochititlan, taking the Aztec leader, Montezuma, hostage. This event led to an Aztec uprising that culminated in La Noche Triste. The Aztecs drove the Spaniards out of Tenochititlan in July of 1520. Men from both sides, as well as many Aztec treasures, were lost as a bridge collapsed during the desperate flight of the Spaniards. Nevertheless, Cortes survived, and led the final attacks on Tenochititlan. Throughout the warfare, the Spaniards were aided by the gruesome advantage of disease, for the Europeans brought ailments that the Aztecs had no immunity to. It is estimated that three-quarters of the native population died of violence or diseases like small pox and measles in just the first century of the conquest. Finally, the Aztec capital fell on August 13, 1521. After capturing Tenochititlan, the Spaniards destroyed the city, and built Mexico City on top of it. Just as Tenochititlan was destroyed, most of the Aztec civilization was destroyed with the European Spain Conquest.

Aside from this negative aspect of the European discovery of the New World, the Spaniards had some positive effects on the native population. They introduced domestic animals like horses, sheep, cattle, and pigs to the American Continent. Furthermore, they brought sugar, and different kinds of grains and fruits with them. The discovery of the New World also had a significant impact on the European diet, as the Spaniards brought important products like potatoes, tomatoes, beans and maize back to Europe. Despite these benefits, the Spanish defeat of the Aztecs has been criticized extensively for many years. It is the center of a huge historical debate focusing on the role of the conquerors. The Spaniards were harsh in their methods and motives, and many people argue that it was not their place at all to encounter new lands and demand control, much less force submission so cruelly. Moreover, virtually all of Aztec culture was carelessly destroyed in the conquest. Nevertheless, the Spaniards did conquer the Aztecs, and whether Western civilization is richer or poorer, this victory has had lasting effects for both native and European Spain people. Sources: Matthews, Roy T. and F. DeWitt Platt. Western Humanities.

Spain (Mountain View, CA; Mayfield Publishing Co.,1995) Sullivan, Richard E., Dennis Sherman and John B. Harrison. A Short History of Western Civilization. (Palatino, CA; McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994) Wood, Michael. Legacy - The Search for Ancient Cultures. (New York; Sterling Publisher Co., 1994) Edited by: Sara Bussema Cortés in Tenochtitlán Date: Cortés in Tenochtitlán Hernando Cortés was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. Learning of the powerful Aztec empire and its capital city of Tenochtitlán, Cortés traveled over one hundred miles inland to find the city and claim the Empire for Spain. At the time, the city of Tenochtitlán was home to over 100,000 people and one of the largest cities in the world. In August 1521, the Spanish and their Native American allies defeated the Aztecs and conquered the city. The Spanish leveled Tenochtitlán and built Mexico City on the site of the Aztec capital.

Primary sources, such as the accounts written by Hernando Cortés and other Spanish officials, are the only surviving writings we have of this once great city. Read the following description of Tenochtitlán by Hernando Cortés. Use this description to help you answer the questions below. Discuss your answers with the class. "This great city of Tenochtitlán is built on the salt lake, and no matter by what road you travel there are two leagues from the main body of the city to the mainland. There are four artificial causeways leading to it, and each is as wide as two cavalry lances. The city itself is as big as Seville or Córdoba. The main streets are very wide and very straight; some of these are on the land, but the rest and all the smaller ones are half on land, half canals where they paddle their canoes. All the streets have openings in places so that the water may pass from one canal to another. Over all these openings, and some of them are very wide, there are bridges. . . . There are, in all districts of this great city, many temples or houses for their idols. They are all very beautiful buildings. . . .

Amongst these temples there is one, the principal one, whose great size and magnificence no human tongue could describe, for it is so large that within the precincts, which are surrounded by very high wall, a town of some five hundred inhabitants could easily be built. All round inside this wall there are very elegant quarters with very large rooms and corridors where their priests live. There are as many as forty towers, all of which are so high that in the case of the largest there are fifty steps leading up to the main part of it and the most important of these towers is higher than that of the cathedral of Seville. . . ." 1. What are some of the objects and structures that Cortés sees in Tenochtitlán? 2. What does this primary source tell you about the city? What does Cortés' account tell you about the Aztec people? 3. What technology does Cortés mention in his account that shows the Aztecs were able to adapt to this environment? Visit your local library or use the Internet to research other primary sources that describe this city.

Here are ways to find books: Books: Look in the card catalog for books by "Cortés, Hernando (or Hernan)" or "Diaz Del Castillo, Bernal." The Internet: Use a search engine such as Yahooligans ( Enter "Cortés" or "Aztecs" into the Search box. You may download, print and make copies of these pages for use in your classroom, provided that you include the copyright notice shown below in all such copies. Copyright © 1999 Houghton Mifflin Company. All Rights Reserved. August 13, 1521 : Aztec capital falls to Cortés Introduction After a three-month siege, Spanish forces under Hernán Cortés capture Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec empire. Cortés’ men leveled the city and captured Cuauhtemoc, the Aztec emperor. Tenochtitlán was founded in 1325 A.D. by a wandering tribe of hunters and gatherers on islands in Lake Texcoco, near the present site of Mexico City. In only one century, this civilization grew into the Aztec empire, largely because of its advanced system of agriculture.

The empire came to dominate central Mexico and by the ascendance of Montezuma II in 1502 had reached its greatest extent, extending as far south as perhaps modern-day Nicaragua. At the time, the empire was held together primarily by Aztec military strength, and Montezuma II set about establishing a bureaucracy, creating provinces that would pay tribute to the imperial capital of Tenochtitlán. The conquered peoples resented the Aztec demands for tribute and victims for the religious sacrifices, but the Aztec military kept rebellion at bay. Meanwhile, Hernán Cortés, a young Spanish-born noble, came to Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1504. In 1511, he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba and twice was elected mayor of Santiago, the capital of Hispaniola. In 1518, he was appointed captain general of a new Spanish expedition to the American mainland. Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, later rescinded the order, and Cortés sailed without permission.

He visited the coast of Yucatán and in March 1519 landed at Tabasco in Mexico’s Bay of Campeche with 500 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 16 horses. There, he won over the local Indians and was given a female slave, Malinche–baptized Marina–who became his mistress and later bore him a son. She knew both Maya and Aztec and served as an interpreter. The expedition then proceeded up the Mexican coast, where Cortés founded Veracruz, mainly for the purpose of having himself elected captain general by the colony, thus shaking off the authority of Velázquez and making him responsible only to King Charles V of Spain. At Veracruz, Cortés trained his army and then burned his ships to ensure loyalty to his plans for conquest. Having learned of political strife in the Aztec empire, Cortés led his force into the Mexican interior. On the way to Tenochtitlán, he clashed with local Indians, but many of these people, including the nation of Tlaxcala, became his allies after learning of his plan to conquer their hated Aztec rulers.

Hearing of the approach of Cortés, with his frightful horses and sophisticated weapons, Montezuma II tried to buy him off, but Cortés would not be dissuaded. On November 8, 1519, the Spaniards and their 1,000 Tlaxcaltec warriors were allowed to enter Tenochtitlán unopposed. Montezuma suspected them to be divine envoys of the god Quetzalcatl, who was prophesied to return from the east in a “One Reed” year, which was 1519 on the Aztec calendar. The Spaniards were greeted with great honor, and Cortés seized the opportunity, taking Montezuma hostage so that he might govern the empire through him. His mistress, Marina, was a great help in this endeavor and succeeded in convincing Montezuma to cooperate fully. In the spring of 1520, Cortés learned of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Pánfilo Narvez and sent by Velázquez to deprive Cortés of his command.

Cortés led his army out of Tenochtitlán to meet them, leaving behind a garrison of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs to govern the city. Cortés defeated Narvez and enlisted Narvez’ army into his own. When he returned to Tenochtitlán in June, he found the garrison under siege from the Aztecs, who had rebelled after the subordinate whom Cortés left in command of the city massacred several Aztec chiefs, and the population on the brink of revolt. On June 30, under pressure and lacking food, Cortés and his men fought their way out of the capital at heavy cost. Known to the Spanish as La Noche Triste, or “the Night of Sadness,” many soldiers drowned in Lake Texcoco when the vessel carrying them and Aztec treasures hoarded by Cortés sank. Montezuma was killed in the fighting–in Aztec reports by the Spaniards, and in Spanish reports by an Aztec mob bitter at Montezuma’s subservience to Spanish rule. He was succeeded as emperor by his brother, Cuitláhuac.

During the Spaniards’ retreat, they defeated a large Aztec army at Otumba and then rejoined their Tlaxcaltec allies. In May 1521, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán, and after a three-month siege the city fell. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cuauhtámoc, Cuitláhuac’s successor as emperor, was taken prisoner and later executed, and Cortés became the ruler of a vast Mexican empire. The Spanish conquistador led an expedition to Honduras in 1524 and in 1528 returned to Spain to see the king. Charles made him Marqués del Valle but refused to name him governor because of his quarrels with Velázquez and others. In 1530, he returned to Mexico, now known as New Spain, and found the country in disarray. After restoring some order, he retired to his estate south of Mexico City and sent out maritime expeditions from the Pacific coast. In 1540, he returned to Spain and was neglected by the court. He died in 1547.

Article Details: August 13, 1521 : Aztec capital falls to Cortés Author August 13, 1521 : Aztec capital falls to Cortés URL MEXonline.com Hernan Cortes - Explorer of Mexico, conquerer of the Aztec empire Mexonline.com Hernan Cortes, Explorer and Conquerer of Mexico Hernan Cortes was born into a family of "little wealth but much honor" in Castile, Spain in 1485. At the age of fourteen he attended the University of Salamanca but he left after just two years. In 1504 he sailed for Hispaniola (now called Santo Domingo) where he settled for six years, becoming a farmer and a notary to the town council. In 1509 he missed two ill-fated expeditions to South America due to contracting syphilis but in 1511 was sufficiently recovered to accompany Diego Velazquez on his conquest of Cuba. Velazquez was appointed Governor of Cuba and Cortes became a clerk to the Treasurer, eventually rising to be elected mayor (alcalde) of Santiago twice.

In 1518 Velazquez designated Cortes Captain General of a new expedition. Cortes took eleven ships, 608 men, and sixteen horses with him to Mexico. He landed at Tabasco in March 1519, quickly winning over the local population. He stayed here for some time, gathering intelligence and founding Vera Cruz. A local woman, Marina (also known in Mexico as Malinche), became his interpreter and later bore him a son, Martin. He also burned his ships, committing himself and his forces to their mission of conquering Mexico, there was no turning back. Cortes quickly discovered that the Aztec empire was hated and feared by many of the other Indian tribes who had to pay tributes (including people to be sacrificed) to the Aztecs. By keeping conflict to a minimum, Cortez made over 200,000 allies, including the Tlaxcala, who became his closest allies after being defeated by the Spaniards.

Cortes finally reached Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec empire on 8th November 1519 where Emperor Moctezuma II received him with great honour, believing him to be the reincarnation of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Cortes soon took Moctezuma captive. At this time a Spanish army, led by Panfilo Narvaez, landed on the Mexican coast, with orders from Velazquez to capture and arrest Cortes. Leaving Captain Pedro de Alvarado in charge at Tenochtitlan, Cortes engaged Narvaez, defeating him and enlisting many of Narvaez's soldiers to his side. On returning to Tenochtitlan however he found that the Aztecs had revolted after Alvarado had massacred several of their chiefs. The Spaniards had to retreat. Cortes overcame a huge Aztec army at Otumba on July 7th 1520 and reached Tlaxcala where he rebuilt and reorganised his forces. They marched again on Tenochtitlan, laying siege to the city. It finally fell on 13th August 1521 - and with it the Aztec Empire.

Cortes razed Tenochtitlan, and built Mexico City in its place. In 1522 Cortes was appointed Governor and Captain General of New Spain. Velazquez, jealous of Cortes' success, embarked on a smear campaign back in Spain, which Cortes tried to refute by sending a series of long letters to King Charles V. In 1524 Cortes went on a disastrous expedition to Honduras, damaging his health and reputation. The officials he left in charge confiscated his property in Mexico. Their administration was cruel, and this caused consternation in Spain. Luis Ponce de Leon was sent to Mexico to discover what was happening but he died almost immediately. Cortes was accused in some quarters of poisoning him. In 1528 Cortes returned to Spain, with gifts of treasure, to plead his case with the king. Charles V received him and made him Marques del Valle. He returned to Mexico in 1530 and spent the next ten years there. In 1540 a viceroy was appointed and Cortes returned to Spain. He accompanied Charles V on a final expedition to Algiers, which ended in failure.

He died in Seville on 2nd December 1547, and his remains were transported to Mexico City in 1629. The road Cortés followed to reach Tenochtitlán The road Cortés followed to reach Tenochtitlán Bad omens! The road Cortés followed to reach Tenochtitlán: Mexico is revealed to the world... This article has generously been written specially for us by Xavier López Medellín and Felix Hinz. Xavier writes: ‘I was born in México City and currently live in Baja California. I have a PhD in Biological Sciences, but History is a great passion of mine, particularly the conquest of America and the XVIth century. I met Felix in 2002 and we’ve been partners since then working on our project Página de Relación.’ Felix Hinz is a Lecturer at the Department of History, University of Hildesheim (Germany); his doctoral thesis was on ‘mechanisms of Hispanization and the transformation of collective identities during and after the conquest of Mexico.’ Pic 1: Cortés’ expedition to Mexico: 1. Cuba 2. Cozumel 3. Grijalva River 4.

San Juan de Ulúa, Chalchihuecan, Cempoala 5. Jalapa, Xico 6. Tlaxcala, 7. Cholula, 8. Paso de Cortés, 9. Tenochtitlán (Click on image to enlarge) Hernán Cortés and his men departed from Cuba on September 11th [1519] and embarked on one of the most extraordinary adventures in the history of mankind: the conquest of Mexico. In the following months, not only would they encounter different civilizations, walk through forests with new and strange plants and animals and eat exotic food and beverages; they would also engage in ferocious combats with the natives, suffer from new diseases and bear the harsh conditions of an unknown and sometimes hostile country. Pic 2: The shores of Cozumel (Click on image to enlarge) On February 27th, they reached the island of Cozumel in the Caribbean Sea off the eastern coast of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula. When they arrived, they noticed that the inhabitants of the small and scattered villages had fled to the interior of the island, terrified by the sight of the ships.

When Cortés sent two of his captains to find the population, they found and seized a native and asked him to find and bring the rest of the inhabitants with the promise that they would not be harmed. Some caciques returned, and Cortés knew from them that there were at least two other Spaniards kept as slaves on the peninsula, so he wrote them letters explaining they were on the island waiting for them. Pic 3: Cortés and Jerónimo de Aguilar meet (Click on image to enlarge) Jerónimo de Aguilar had been enslaved in Yucatán for eight years after surviving a shipwreck and was the only one who returned with Cortés. The other, Gonzalo Guerrero, was already married with a Mayan woman and had children with her; he wanted to continue living among the Maya. The result of Jerónimo de Aguilar joining the expedition represented a great benefit for Cortés because through him he would be able to communicate with the Maya and learn more about this unknown land.

Pic 4: Grijalva River in the state of Tabasco (Click on image to enlarge) The expedition left Cozumel and on March 22nd they reached the Grijalva River in the present state of Tabasco. The natives there were hostile because they had already engaged in combat with Spaniards from a previous expedition. Cortés’ troops defeated the natives in the Battle of Centla, their first battle that allowed them to introduce horses as a new weapon. After this combat, the natives made peace with the Spaniards on April 15th and the cacique brought them several gifts that included food, jewels and twenty women to cook for them. Among these women was Malinalli or Malintzin, who was baptized as Marina, and Cortés gave her to one of his captains since he was already married to Catalina Xuarez. Pic 5: The present day island of San Juan de Ulúa (Click on image to enlarge) They embarked again on their journey and reached the island of San Juan de Ulúa on April 21st. That night Cortés and his troops contacted the first Aztec ambassadors sent by Motecuhzoma, and exchanged greetings and gifts.

Since Jerónimo de Aguilar only spoke Mayan he could not communicate with the Aztec ambassadors, on this occasion Malintzin would jump onto the stage, because she knew how to speak Mayan and Nahuatl (the Aztec language), so Cortés spoke in Spanish to Jerónimo de Aguilar who translated it into Mayan to Malintzin and then she translated it into Nahuatl to communicate with Motecuhzoma’s ambassadors. This was the beginning of a very close relationship between Cortés and Malintzin and she would become essential as interpreter because she soon learned Spanish. Pic 6: Chalchihuecan beach (Click on image to enlarge) With these meetings, Cortés realized that Motecuhzoma ruled a large, powerful and rich empire based in Central Mexico. From that time on his mind was set on one thing: to reach the heart of the empire and meet Motecuhzoma in person. Cortés also made a large display of his forces and fired the canons, something that had a tremendous impact on the ambassadors; he had now shown the superior combat forces of the newly arrived foreigners to Motecuhzoma.

The next morning, the Spaniards crossed to the mainland and founded their first, however rudimentary, settlement in a sandy area known as Chalchihuecan and named it Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz that would become Spain’s first political centre in Mexico. Hernán Cortés was now Captain General and he ordered his men to start building huts to shelter them from the intense sun and heat. However, there was not much to eat, the environmental conditions were very harsh and the mosquitos impossible to cope with! Pic 7: Cempoala, Veracruz (Click on image to enlarge) After the ambassadors from the Aztec empire left Cortés’ camp at Chalchihuecan, other natives who were in the vicinity but did not approach because they were afraid of the Aztecs, finally came to the encampment. The Spaniards noticed that they were different, using other kinds of clothes and ornaments and spoke a different language. However, some of them could speak Nahuatl and so Cortés learned they were Totonacs, inhabitants of Veracruz and under Motecuhzoma’s yoke. They were sent by their leader to invite them to their city: Cempoala.

The Totonacs guided some Spaniards to Cempoala, where Cortés learned from the local cacique that Motecuhzoma was a despotic ruler who demanded higher and higher tributes every year and that the Totonacs were severely punished if they did not comply in time. This was a great opportunity to make new alliances, so Cortés promised them to free them from the Aztecs if they joined him, and so they did. The Spaniards’ army started to increase in numbers... Pic 8: Ruins of the Villa Rica settlement (Click on image to enlarge) The rest of Cortés’ men were in charge of finding a better place to anchor the ships and moved the Villa Rica settlement to a new site. When Cortés arrived he started the construction of a more developed settlement with houses made of rock, he designed the streets and planned the construction of a small fortress where he would leave one of his captains in charge. While at this new settlement, Cortés heard that Diego Velazquez, the governor of Cuba, had been granted a royal decree that authorized him to conquer and populate the regions that were now being discovered by Cortés.

In response he assembled his most loyal captains and decided to send ambassadors with great presents to the Emperor in order to gain his trust and validate their deeds. A few days after Cortés’ ambassadors had departed he found out that some of his men wanted to rebel by stealing a ship and returning to Cuba. To set an example to the rest of his men, he punished them severely by hanging two and cutting the toes off another. Pic 9: Cortés burns his boats (Click on image to enlarge) Cortés then began preparations for the journey into Central Mexico. He left a strong garrison in their newly founded settlement in Veracruz, and also took a brave decision: to sink their ships to avoid another rebellion attempt to return to Cuba. He argued that the ships were no longer fit to sail and decided to dismantle them and kept all that could be useful: ropes, cannons, wood, even the nails!

Pic 10: Jalapa (Click on image to enlarge) The Spaniards first returned to Cempoala where they gathered resources for their journey and took advice from the natives as to which route to follow: The cacique of Cempoala recommended taking the eastern road to Jalapa and from there to proceed to Tlaxcala, land of the fiercest enemies of Motecuhzoma. They departed on August 16th 1519 and headed east towards Jalapa and Xico and started the ascent of the Sierra Madre Oriental (Mexico’s eastern mountain range). Pic 11: Zautla today (Click on image to enlarge) They continued their journey eastward and passed through a high plateau with arid and cold landscapes in the upper parts of the Sierra. After three days of hunger, extreme cold and heavy rains, the landscape gradually changed to woodlands and finally they reached the town of Zacatula (Zautla). They were very tired, weak and starving and some of the natives in his army that came from tropical lands died of the intense cold. Back in those days, Zacatula was an important, well-resourced settlement and the Spaniards were able to recover their strength.

Cortés asked the local cacique, a fat and shaky person named Olíntetl, if he was a vassal of Motecuhzoma, to which he replied: “What? Is there anyone who is not his vassal?” Pic 12: Near Ixtacamaxtitlán (Click on image to enlarge) Olíntetl was terrified of the reaction Motecuhzoma would have when he learned that Zacatula received these strangers without his permission, but Cortés told him that he came in the name of a more powerful ruler, to whom even Motecuhzoma would have to submit. At this meeting the Spaniards heard for the first time of the grandeur of the Aztec capital: México-Tenochtitlán, a city located in the middle of a lake with canals, large roads and endless luxuries. They continued their journey to Tlaxcala, and passed through the lands of Ixtacamaxtitlán where they saw a large wall made of rocks that represented the border with Tlaxcala. Today, nothing of this wallremains and the memory of its builders seems to be lost in history.

After inspecting the area, the Spaniards crossed the wall and continued to Tlaxcala; however, they soon found a group of armed men waiting to fight them. Cortés sent some horsemen to attack and the hostile soldiers started to run, but they suddenly turned around and attacked the horsemen, killing two horses: the natives now realized they could defeat them... Pic 13: The landscape between Ixtacamaxtitlán and Tlaxcala (Click on image to enlarge) Soon after, more forces from Tlaxcala appeared wearing the war banner of Tlaxcala with a white crane, but their attacks were not coordinated among their captains and they were unable to defeat the Spaniards; after a few battles they realized they could not defeat their enemy and surrendered to Cortés. This new alliance was not only beneficial to Cortés, who gained new forces and resources, but also to the people of Tlaxcala, since they had lived surrounded by allies of the Aztecs and could not access basic products like salt or cotton because these items were not produced in their own lands.

Pic 14: Supposed baptismal font of the Lords of Tlaxcala (Click on image to enlarge) On September 18th 1519, the Spaniards arrived in Tlaxcala and were welcomed with celebrations and gifts, among which were the daughters of the four rulers from Tlaxcala. Cortés wanted to impose the Christian faith and in the following days a priest baptized the rulers and their daughters. Motecuhzoma was terrified that his enemies from Tlaxcala and the Spaniards would make an alliance and he was constantly sending ambassadors to Tlaxcala under the protection of Cortés. Pic 15: Popocatépetl and Diego de Ordaz’ coat of arms with the fiery volcano (Click on image to enlarge) From the lands of Tlaxcala, the Spaniards were impressed by the huge 5,500 meter volcano Popocatépetl (‘the mountain that smokes’) that is still active today. One of his soldiers, Diego de Ordaz, was eager to climb the volcano and take a closer look at it.

Since the natives seemed to be terrified by it Cortés thought it would be a good idea if one of his men climbed it and returned successfully as proof of their braveness. The chronicles mention that the natives went as far as a shrine devoted to the gods of the volcano and the Spaniards went on on their own, but when Ordaz climbed the volcano it started to throw out fumes, rocks and fire. They waited an hour after it stopped and then climbed to its mouth and saw the lava inside; they could also see the magnificent city of Tenochtitlán from above and the best routes to access it. The natives were very impressed by this act, and years later Ordaz requested from the Emperor the right to use a coat of arms depicting a volcano. Pic 16: Cholula today with Popocatépetl behind (Click on image to enlarge) After spending more than twenty days in Tlaxcala recovering their strength and gathering information on Tenochtitlán and the best routes to get to it, the ambassadors of Motecuhzoma suggested to Cortés that he go to the holy city of Cholula, which was under Aztec control and located near Tlaxcala.

The people of Tlaxcala disagreed, arguing that Motecuhzoma was setting a trap for them. However, Cortés resolved to meet the Aztec ruler and on October 11th, he enlisted his forces that now included 100,000 warriors from Tlaxcala, and started their journey to Cholula. As soon as they got close to the city, they were received by priests who walked them into the holy city, where they provided them with comfortable accommodation and plenty of food. The warriors from Tlaxcala were not welcomed and so had to remain outside the city. Pic 17: The massacre of Cholula, Lienzo de Tlaxcala (Click on image to enlarge) Something terrible happened in Cholula while the Spaniards were there. The native and Spanish chronicles tell different stories about what happened and that has been an issue of debate since the sixteenth century and we will not go deeper into it. Whatever the reasons, the Spaniards punished Cholula with extreme severity.

It is generally accepted that Cortés called the nobles and warriors of Cholula to gather inside the main plaza, where he had previously located some of his men to block the access to the plaza and with a gunfire signal all of the Tlaxcala and Cempoala warriors rushed in and with the Spaniards they slaughtered them all. This terrible act is remembered by history as the massacre of Cholula, and changed the way the natives saw the Spaniards forever. Pic 18: The ruins at Cholula (Click on image to enlarge) Cortés remained in Cholula for the following days reorganizing his forces, sending messengers to his men in Veracruz, appointing new leaders for the city, and most importantly he sent Motecuhzoma’s ambassadors back complaining about the latter’s ill treatment of the Spaniards, so now they would march into Tenochtitlán as enemies making as much damage as they possibly could.

Motecuhzoma quickly sent back gold presents and much food and cocoa, and confusedly argued that he had not ordered any attack, and insisted that they should not continue to Tenochtitlán, which was a sterile and wasted land with not enough food and accommodation for the Spaniards. After further council with his captains and the leaders from Tlaxcala and Cempoala, they discussed the best route to take to continue. The Aztecs suggested going south and surrounding the volcanoes while those from Tlaxcala said it was probably a trap. Cortés then decided to take the hardest route by climbing the mountain range formed by the volcanoes Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, a route that was previously explored by Diego de Ordaz. Pic 19: A view of Popocatépetl from Amecameca (Click on image to enlarge) On November 1st. Cortés and his soldiers left Cholula and passed through Huejotzingo, where new ambassadors arrived with gifts and more persuasive words.

However, Cortés was determined to see Tenochtitlán himself, so they started to climb the mountain range and spent the night between the two volcanoes, where they suffered from extreme cold. Today, the pass between both volcanoes is called The Pass of Cortés and it was from there that he got the first glimpse of the wonderful city of Tenochtitlán. The next morning they started their descent towards Amecameca, where they were welcomed by the local cacique who complained about Motecuhzoma’s tyranny. Cortés spent two days in this city listening to the same complaints from ambassadors of the neighboring towns, and received them as allies. He and his men then took the road to Iztapalapa where they were received by a luxurious delegation headed by Cacama, Motecuhzoma’s nephew who was richly dressed and had many servants. His mission was to once and for all convince Cortés to turn back and return to Veracruz, which was of no use because the Spaniards were already on the doorsteps of Tenochtitlán.

Pic 20: Digital reconstruction of Tenochtitlan and its environs (Click on image to enlarge) The Spaniards reached the Iztapalapa road that led to Tenochtitlán on the morning of November 8th 1519. Cortés was leading the group with some of his captains on horses and Malintzin at his side. They were followed by the footsoldiers, then came the large contingent of allied native soldiers and the women that helped them, and finally by natives pulling the cannons. On this road, just before reaching the city, in the small islet of Xolo, Motecuhzoma and Cortés met. The emperor of the Aztecs was wearing a large plumed crown, rich clothes and golden sandals, while his companions were bare footed but also lavishly dressed. The Aztecs kneeled and put their hand on the ground and then to their lips in a saluting gesture; Cortés approached them and tried to hug Motecuhzoma, but he was stopped by one of the Aztec nobles. No one was allowed to touch the emperor of Tenochtitlán.

The story of the journey of the Conquistadors to Central Mexico is fascinating; the facts narrated by various witnesses reveal a new and exotic world that kept the Spaniards in awe with every step. From here on their adventure continues from scouring the city and wondering at the marvelous palaces, to the rushed escape from the city, then laying siege to it and finally by destroying it to conquer it, but that is another story... All images kindly supplied by Xavier López Medellín; pic no. 20 original by and copyright Tomás Filsinger. This article was uploaded to the Mexicolore website on Jan 23rd 2012 Q. Guess which was, according to Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, one of the first words in Mayan languages learnt by the Spanish conquistadors? A. tak’in - ‘gold’! Talk about takin a liberty...

Question: Which Spaniard led an expedition which reached Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital in 1519?
Answer: HERNAN CORTES