South African War | British-South African history | Britannica.com British-South African history Alternative Titles: Anglo-Boer War, Boer War, Second Boer War, Second War of Independence Related Topics Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd marquess of Salisbury South African War, also called Boer War, Second Boer War, or Anglo-Boer War; to Afrikaners, also known as the Second War of Independence, war fought from Oct. 11, 1899, to May 31, 1902, between Great Britain and the two Boer (Afrikaner) republics—the South African Republic ( Transvaal ) and the Orange Free State —resulting in British victory. Boer troops lining up in battle against the British during the South African War (1899–1902). DeA Picture Library Although it was the largest and most costly war in which the British engaged between the Napoleonic Wars and World War I (spending more than £200 million), it was fought between wholly unequal protagonists.

The total British military strength in Southern Africa reached nearly 500,000 men, whereas the Boers could muster no more than about 88,000. But the British were fighting in a hostile country over difficult terrain, with long lines of communications, while the Boers, mainly on the defensive, were able to use modern rifle fire to good effect at a time when attacking forces had no means of overcoming it. The conflict provided a foretaste of warfare fought with breach-loading rifles and machine guns, with the advantage to the defenders, that was to characterize World War I. Underlying causes Southern Africa: The South African War The causes of the war have provoked intense debates among historians and remain as unresolved today as during the war itself. British politicians claimed they were defending their “suzerainty” over the South African Republic (SAR) enshrined in the Pretoria and (disputably) London conventions of 1881 and 1884, respectively. Many historians stress that in reality the contest was for control of the rich Witwatersrand gold-mining complex located in the SAR.

It was the largest gold-mining complex in the world at a time when the world’s monetary systems, preeminently the British, were increasingly dependent upon gold. Although there were many Uitlanders (foreigners; i.e., non-Dutch/Boer and in this case primarily British) working in the Witwatersrand gold-mining industry, the complex itself was beyond direct British control. Also, the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886 allowed the SAR to make progress with modernization efforts and vie with Britain for domination in Southern Africa. Similar Topics Crimean War After 1897 Britain—through Alfred Milner , its high commissioner for South Africa—maneuvered to undermine the political independence of the SAR and demanded the modification of the Boer republic’s constitution to grant political rights to the primarily British Uitlanders, thereby providing them with a dominant role in formulating state policy that would presumably be more pro-British than the current policy of the SAR.

In an effort to prevent a conflict between Britain and the SAR, Marthinus Steyn , president of the Orange Free State, hosted the unsuccessful Bloemfontein Conference in May–June 1899 between Milner and Paul Kruger , president of the SAR. Kruger did offer to make concessions to Britain, but they were deemed insufficient by Milner. After the conference, Milner requested that the British government send additional troops to reinforce the British garrison in Southern Africa; they began arriving in August and September. The buildup of troops alarmed the Boers, and Kruger offered additional Uitlander-related concessions, which were again rejected by Milner. The Boers, realizing war was unavoidable, took the offensive. On Oct. 9, 1899, they issued an ultimatum to British government, declaring that a state of war would exist between Britain and the two Boer republics if the British did not remove their troops from along the border. The ultimatum expired without resolution, and the war began on Oct. 11, 1899. War Initial Boer success The course of the war can be divided into three periods.

During the first phase, the British in Southern Africa were unprepared and militarily weak. Boer armies attacked on two fronts: into the British colony of Natal from the SAR and into the northern Cape Colony from the Orange Free State. The northern districts of the Cape Colony rebelled against the British and joined the Boer forces. In late 1899 and early 1900, the Boers defeated the British in a number of major engagements and besieged the key towns of Ladysmith , Mafeking (Mafikeng), and Kimberley . Particularly of note among Boer victories in this period are those that occurred at Magersfontein, Colesberg, and Stormberg, during what became known as Black Week (Dec. 10–15, 1899). The Boer siege of Ladysmith, 1900, during the South African War (1899–1902). Photos.com/Thinkstock Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Kitchener responded with barbed wire and blockhouses along the railways, but when these failed he retaliated with a scorched-earth policy.

The farms of Boers and Africans alike were destroyed, and the inhabitants of the countryside were rounded up and held in segregated concentration camps, often under horrific conditions; several thousand died during their incarceration. The plight of the Boer women and children in the carelessly run, unhygienic camps became an international outrage, attracting the attention of such humanitarians as British social worker Emily Hobhouse . The commandos continued their attacks, many of them deep into the Cape Colony, with Gen. Jan Smuts leading his forces to within 50 miles (80 km) of Cape Town . But Kitchener’s drastic and brutal methods slowly paid off. Boer resistance was worn down and led to divisions between the bittereinders (“bitter-enders”), who wanted to continue fighting, and the hensoppers (“hands-uppers”), who voluntarily surrendered and, in some cases, worked with the British. Peace The Boers had rejected an offer of peace from the British in March 1901, in part because it required that the Boers recognize the British annexation of their republics. Fighting continued until the Boers finally accepted the loss of their independence with the Peace of Vereeniging in May 1902.

In the end, pragmatic Boer leaders such as Louis Botha and General Smuts trumped the will of the bittereinders and opted to negotiate for peace on the basis of British suzerainty, promises of local self-government, the swift restoration and efficient management of the gold mines, and, crucially, the alliance of Boers and Britons against black Africans. Assessment In terms of human life, nearly 100,000 lives were lost, including those of more than 20,000 British troops and 14,000 Boer troops. Noncombatant deaths include the more than 26,000 Boer women and children estimated to have died in the concentration camps from malnutrition and disease; the total number of African deaths in the concentration camps was not recorded, but estimates range from 13,000 to 20,000. On both sides the war produced heights of national enthusiasm of a type that marked the era and culminated in frenetic British celebrations after the relief of the Siege of Mafeking in May 1900.

(The word mafficking, meaning wild rejoicing, originated from these celebrations.) Despite attempts at rapid healing of the wounds after 1902 and a willingness to cooperate for the purpose of uniting against black Africans, relations between Boers (or Afrikaners, as they became known) and English-speaking South Africans were to remain frigid for many decades. Internationally, the war helped poison the atmosphere between Europe’s great powers, as Britain found that most countries sympathized with the Boers. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies Reflective of the discriminatory climate that permeated South Africa during much of the 20th century, it was not until the 1980s that studies of the war’s impact on Africa’s black peoples were made. In addition to the thousands who died in the concentration camps, innumerable black Africans were caught up in the sieges, lost their jobs (for example, when the gold mines were closed down during the conflict), or were evicted from their land in areas overrun by war.

Both sides recruited black Africans, though various euphemisms were sometimes used for “black soldier.” On the other hand, some segments of the black African population benefitted from the conflict by some measure. Black farmers in some areas prospered, owing to the wartime demand for food. In some regions, such as the western Transvaal, black Africans took advantage of the war and reoccupied lands previously seized from them by white settlers. Swaziland , which had previously been administered by the SAR, was taken by the British during the war and administered by them afterward; this is why it would be excluded from the Union of South Africa in 1910. The most astonishing aspect of the war, perhaps, is that it was a war between groups of white peoples in a subcontinent with a largely black African population that both sides generally sought to exclude from the fighting, although research in the later decades of the 20th century indicated that black Africans became heavily involved in the war both as combatants and as victims of the armies. During the conflict the British hinted and sometimes promised that in return for support, or at least neutrality, black Africans would be rewarded with political rights after the war.

Nevertheless, the Treaty of Vereeniging specifically excluded black Africans from having political rights in a reorganized South Africa as the British and Boers cooperated toward a common goal of white minority rule. More about South African War 33 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References The Boer War | australia.gov.au Australia.gov.au Helping you find government information and services Search form Battle of Long Tan and the Vietnam War The Boer War Around 16,000 Australians volunteered to fight for Britain against the Dutch-Afrikaner, or Boer, settlers in South Africa from 1899 to 1902. It remains Australia's third-worst conflict in terms of casualties. Trooper Farquhar George Williamson, 1902. Image courtesy of the Australian War Memorial: P01065.001. When the Boer War broke out in 1899, Australia was made up of six colonies that were on the verge of becoming a federation. The war was seen as an opportunity for Australia to show its commitment to Britain and to define its identity.

The first Australian troops and their horses sailed in late 1899 and were involved in major action by January 1900. After Australian Federation in 1901, the new Commonwealth Government sent a further eight battalions. In addition to the Australian troops who travelled to serve in the Boer war, thousands more Australians, who were already there working in the gold and diamond mines, also signed up to fight in what was often a bloody guerrilla war. All were volunteers as there was no draft or conscription. The Boer War saw advances in weaponry and medicines but also the use of guerrilla tactics that destroyed the lives and homes of civilians. A total of 606 Australians died in the two-and-a-half years in South Africa; that is more than the number of casualties in Vietnam over 10 years. Australians at home generally supported the war. However, public enthusiasm began to wane after 1900 as people became aware of civilian casualties. The conviction and execution of lieutenants 'Breaker' Morant and Handcock in 1902 further diminished support. An outline of the Boer War The Boer War took place in the area that is now South Africa.

The British held a territory they called Cape Colony. The Boers, descendants of Dutch settlers, held Transvaaland Orange Free State. The main commercial and strategic reasons for the war were that the British wanted the gold mines of the Boer states. A British raid in 1896 on the Boers, called the Jameson Raid, resulted in the Boers declaring war on Britain on 11 October 1899. Despite capturing a number of British towns early on in the campaign, the Boers lost their strategic offence early in the conflict. Subsequently, the Boer commandos turned to guerrilla warfare, which the British responded to in kind, and the war became a brutal and drawn-out affair for the next two years. Tumut, NSW. 25 April 1999. Robert Cooke, a member of the 21st Light Horse Association and the NSW Mounted Infantry, on his horse Minny on Anzac Day. Robert is dressed in original Boer War dress, commemorating the centenary of the conflict. His mount is wearing all genuine Boer War equipment. Image courtesy of the Australian War Memorial. PAIU1999/056.28.

The British reinforced their army and received support from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and India. Many battles and sieges were fought. Under the command of Lord Kitchener, the British gained control in open battle by late 1900. Eventually Britain won the war and, with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902, all Boers became British subjects. However, within nine years South Africa became a self-governing dominion led by former Boer generals. Australia's engagement in the Boer War Most Australians served in mounted units from the colonies and later from the Commonwealth, known variously as Bushmen, Mounted Rifles, Imperial Bushmen, The Australian Commonwealth Horse and the Light Horse. The Australian troops were highly valued by the British for their riding and shooting skills. Australian soldiers gained a reputation among the Boers as dangerous shooters who remained level-headed under fire. The Australian troops' reputation for bravery, toughness and cool-headedness during the Boer War was the foundation for the Australian warrior image that later became the Anzac legend of World War I.

The reputation of Australian soldier was established in actions such as the Battle Of Brakfontein on the Elands River, in August 1900. At Brakfontein, fewer than 500 Australian troops led by Colonel Hore defended their depot against an attack from at least 2,500 Boers. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish other unique Australian involvement from the British records. However, the 5th Queensland Imperial Bushmen were engaged in action at the farm Onverwacht in the Bankkop range of hills, 30 kilometres east of Ermelo in 1902. Casualties and awards Private Harry B. (The Breaker) Morant, Adelaide, 1900. Image courtesy of the Australian War Memorial: A05311. As the war dragged on, Australians became disenchanted. The suffering of the Boer civilians and the court martial of Lieutenant 'Breaker' Morant and Lieutenant Handcock in 1902 made the war less popular. Harry Morant and Peter Handcock were lieutenants in a unit of the Bushveldt Carbineers.

They were convicted of murdering twelve Boer prisoners and were executed by a firing squad in Pretoria, on 27 February 1902. Morant and Handcock admitted that they shot the Boers, but they maintained that they had been ordered by their British commanders to do so and not to take any prisoners alive during their campaign. Although there was no proof that the soldiers were ordered to shoot the Boer prisoners, the case remains infamous today, and is seen by some as a symbol of British military injustice. Of the 16,000 troops sent by Australia to the war, at least 600 died, about half from disease and half in action. Five Australians were awarded Victoria Crosses for bravery in battle. More than 60 Australian nurses went to the Boer war. Some were provided by governments or by privately raised funds, while others went at their own expense. The nurses served to aid the sick and wounded under very harsh conditions. Three were awarded Royal Red Cross medals. The Boer War marked the death of a nurse, Frances Hines—the first Australian woman to die in war.

Advances and setbacks in weaponry and warfare The Boer War saw the use of guerrilla tactics and the introduction of many new advances in weaponry and warfare, as well as the introduction of medical advances such as antiseptics and X-rays. It was also the first 'official' war in which Europeans engaged which resulted in civilian casualties. It was seen as a watershed event by for the British Army in particular as the British Empire had previously been fighting ill-equipped and ill-organised (albeit brave) native forces. 'The Boers were a fast and highly mobile guerrilla force, using the new smokeless cartridges in their German Mauser rifles which greatly concealed their positions; and they employed hit-and-run tactics that not only caused losses the British couldn't afford, but thoroughly frustrated the Empire's view of a 'fair fight'.' Boer guerrilla tactics and the British Allied response From late 1900, Boer commando units waged a guerrilla war against the British. Known as the Boer 'bitter-enders', these guerrillas blew up trains, train lines and bridges. They ambushed British troops and garrisons. A stone block house, South Africa, c. 1901.

Image courtesy of the Australian War Memorial: P02307.004. The British Army responded by using a combination of overwhelming force and ruthless tactics. They established blockhouses across the countryside to surround and expose the Boers. They burned farms and confiscated food that they suspected could be used to sustain the commandos. Boer women and children were taken to concentration camps. Eventually, faced with starvation, the last of the Boer commandos surrendered in May 1902. Weapons technology in the Boer War Observation balloons had been used in earlier wars, but proved very effective for the British in South Africa where rough terrain provided cover for ambushes and hidden movement of Boer commandos. As the Boers favoured attacking and derailing trains, the British developed armoured trains that could be defended by many men firing from inside the carriages. The Boers were also quick to adopt new technology and for much of the war they had more superior guns, rifles and ammunition than the British. The Boers were armed with German Mauser Rifles which were deadly at 2,000 metres. They had smokeless cartridges that allowed the Boers to snipe at British forces and remain unseen.

'Pom-Pom' guns were large, fast-firing guns mounted on carts. They could fire up to 60 one-pound shells per minute. Similar weapons were used on both sides. Medical advances in the Boer War The Boer War saw the wide application of antiseptics and use of modern surgical, medical and nursing procedures. These saved the lives of many wounded soldiers that would have previously died of infections. X-rays, which had been only recently discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895, were used to locate bullets and shrapnel and to diagnose fractures. Memorial The Boer War is the only major war not to be commemorated on Anzac Parade although a site has been reserved leading up to the Australian War Memorial. The Government has tasked the Boer War Memorial Project committee to establish a national memorial and is relying mainly on donations to do so. Useful links BBC - History - The Boer Wars The Boer Wars By Professor Fransjohan Pretorius Last updated 2011-03-29 How did the wars in South African shake British prestige so badly and cause a major re-evaluation of military tactics in the years before World War One?

On this page Print this page Origins of war These are wars of many names. For the British they were the Boer Wars, for the Boers, the Wars of Independence. Many Afrikaaners today refer to them as the Anglo-Boer Wars to denote the official warring parties. The first Boer War of 1880-1881 has also been named the Transvaal Rebellion, as the Boers of the Transvaal revolted against the British annexation of 1877. Most scholars prefer to call the war of 1899-1902 the South African War, thereby acknowledging that all South Africans, white and black, were affected by the war and that many were participants. The republicans acquired the name 'Boers' - the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmers. Between 1835 and 1845, about 15,000 Voortrekkers (people of Dutch extract) moved out of the (British) Cape Colony across the Gariep (Orange) River into the interior of South Africa.

Their 'Great Trek' was a rejection of the British philanthropic policy with its equalisation of black and white at the Cape, and of the political marginalisation they experienced on the eastern Cape frontier. They established two independent republics - the Transvaal and the Orange Free State - as recognised by Great Britain at the Sand River (1852) and Bloemfontein (1854) Conventions. The republicans acquired the name 'Boers', the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmers. Like the African societies within their borders, the stock farming Boers enjoyed a pre-capitalist, near-subsistence economy. Only gradually effective state administrations emerged. As part of a surge of neo-imperialism, which had already started with the annexation of Basutoland in 1868, the British Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon, proposed a confederation of South African states in 1875, along the lines of the Canadian federation of 1867. In a rather unstable political and economic fragmented region this would create a settled environment for greater economic integration and progress under British supremacy, particularly after the discovery of diamonds in 1867 near the confluence of the Orange and Vaal Rivers.

Top First Boer War Boer soldiers at Ladysmith, South Africa, circa 1899 © Initially, the Transvaal Boers adopted a policy of passive resistance. When the British government made its determination to uphold the annexation clear, the Boers turned to armed resistance in December 1880. They reinstated the republic, led by a triumvirate consisting of Vice President Paul Kruger, Commandant-General Piet Joubert and MW Pretorius. The first Boer War broke out on 16 December 1880 with a skirmish between the British garrison in Potchefstroom and a 'commando' under General Piet Cronjé. Essential Boer tactics were speed in concentration and attack, and a readiness to withdraw. The Boer 'commando' system evolved from the early defence system at the Cape. Each district was divided into three wards or more, with a field cornet for each ward and a commandant taking military control of the entire district. The burghers elected these officers, including the commandant-general of the Transvaal.

When mobilised, a burgher had to be prepared with his horse, rifle and 50 (later 30) rounds of ammunition and food enough to last for eight days, after which the government would provide supplies. Assembled burghers formed a 'commando'. Except for the artillery and the police in the second Boer War, no uniforms were worn, the burghers preferring drab everyday clothes. The Boer force is the classic example of a citizen army, because virtually the entire white male population of the republics between the ages of sixteen and 60 was conscriptable for unpaid military service. Growing up on the farms with a rifle in their hands made the burghers generally good marksmen, with the ability to judge distance accurately. The commando formation for driving home an attack was a loose swarm intent on outflanking the opponents. Once the enemy was located by efficient scouting, the commando would approach in a solid column under cover of dead ground in order to get within effective rifle range. Then the men would get into line, gallop into the nearest dead ground, dismount and open individual fire.

Essential tactics were speed in concentration and attack, and a readiness to withdraw to a more favourable position in case the fire-fight was going against them. The commando system called for initiative and self-reliance, which were essential in irregular warfare when men were widely scattered and not in close communication with their officers. Although the commandos had had mixed success against the indigenous black societies within their borders, they were to prove their mettle in the wars against the British. Top Total surprise British soldiers in khaki uniform © Going into the first Boer War, the Boers’ most popular firearm was the British-made .450 Westley Richards, falling-block, single-action, breech-loading rifle, with accuracy up to 600 yards. It was very similar in manufacture, sighting, calibre, weight and ammunition to the Martini-Henry Mark II carried by British troops. In the British army the officers were from the gentry and the professional middle classes, and the recruits from the poorest sections of society. Firing from medium to long range – 300 to 1,400 yards – was delivered in volleys. Independent fire was normally only ordered from close range – less than 300 yards.

The Boer commandos – as had been their custom in the wars against the black communities – lay siege to the British garrisons. Before the Boer Wars, the late Victorian Army had been engaged in colonial campaigns against irregulars inferior in armaments, organisation and discipline. The Boer experience therefore came as a total surprise. In the first Boer War the British uniform consisted of the serge frock, which was scarlet for the infantry and engineers, dark green for the rifles and blue for all others. Dark blue trousers were worn with a red welt down the seam for infantry and a wide red stripe for artillery, with black leather boots. Highland regiments wore tartan kilts instead of trousers. The 92nd Highlanders came to South Africa with khaki tunics instead of scarlet ones. Khaki was finally adopted in 1897 as service wear overseas, so the British soldier of the second Boer War was clad in khaki.

Upon the outbreak of the first Boer War, the Boer commandos – as had been their custom in the wars against the black communities – lay siege to the British garrisons in the towns of Potchefstroom, Pretoria, Rustenburg, Standerton and Marabastad near Pietersburg, in an attempt to starve them into submission. Meanwhile, the main force under Piet Joubert was bent on preventing the British relieving force under Major-General Sir George Pomeroy Colley, the governor of Natal and high commissioner for South East Africa, from entering the Transvaal from Natal. Top Uneasy peace While on its way to relieve Pretoria, Lieutenant-Colonel Philip Anstruther’s British force was crushed by Boer Commandant Frans Joubert near Bronkhorspruit on 20 December 1880. Colley’s attempt to enter the Transvaal was thwarted by Piet Joubert at Laing’s Nek on 28 January 1881 and again by General Nicolaas Smit at Ingogo on 8 February 1881. The British were driven back with heavy losses.

During the night of 26 February, Colley occupied Majuba Hill, which towered over the countryside on the Transvaal border, with 400 men. These comprised two companies each of the 92nd Highlanders and 58th Regiment, and the Naval Brigade. The Boers stormed Majuba Hill, using dead ground to reach the top, and achieved a brilliant victory. It seems that he either reckoned that this would place him in a position to turn the Boer flank on Laing’s Nek, or that the sight of his occupation of Majuba would make the Boers withdraw, thus opening the road to the Transvaal. Instead, early on 27 February, the Boers stormed the mountain using dead ground to reach the top, and achieved a brilliant victory. The British suffered a 46% casualty rate – five officers and 87 men were killed, eight officers and 123 men wounded. Seven officers and 50 men were taken prisoner. Colley was among the dead. The Boers lost one man killed and six wounded, one mortally.

The Pretoria Convention of 3 August 1881 did not reinstate fully the independence of the Transvaal, but kept the state under British suzerainty. This vague concept meant that Britain retained supervisory control of the foreign affairs of the Transvaal and of its internal legislation with regard to the black societies. However, the London Convention of 27 February 1884 conferred full internal independence on the Transvaal. Top Nationalism and unrest The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886 made the Transvaal, until then a struggling Boer republic, potentially a political and economic threat to British supremacy in South Africa at a time when Britain was engaged in the scramble for African colonies with France and Germany. The British believed that the Transvaal was pressing for a united South Africa under the Afrikaaners. When the scheme of Cecil Rhodes, Prime Minister of the Cape Colony, to overthrow the Transvaal government of President Kruger by means of the so-called Jameson Raid, failed in 1896, Afrikaner nationalism again, like in 1877, flared up all over South Africa.

The Orange Free State concluded an alliance with the Transvaal. Although Kruger was only interested in preserving the independence of the Transvaal, the British colonial secretary, Sir Joseph Chamberlain, and the British high commissioner in South Africa, Sir Alfred Milner, believed that the Transvaal was pressing for a united South Africa under the Afrikaaners. Milner, a self-acknowledged race patriot, resolved that if the Transvaal would not reform, war would be the only way to eliminate a Boer oligarchy threatening British supremacy and to facilitate the development of the gold mining industry. In order to become involved in the domestic issues of the Transvaal, he agitated that the foreign mineworkers (Uitlanders) should get the vote. In the diplomatic tussle that followed, Kruger refused to budge, despite a meeting with Milner in Bloemfontein in May - June 1899. A complete political deadlock was reached. Top Second Boer War Lord Roberts planning the advance on Pretoria © On 11 October 1899, the second Boer War broke out after Britain rejected the Transvaal ultimatum.

The ultimatum had demanded that all disputes between the two states be settled by arbitration; that British troops on the borders be withdrawn; and that troops bound for South Africa by ship should not disembark. The Orange Free State joined the Transvaal in accordance with the alliance of 1897. In the course of the war, the British Army was reinforced by volunteer contingents from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Cape Colony and Natal. Alarmed by the Jameson Raid, the governments of the Transvaal and the Free State started arming themselves. Alarmed by the Jameson Raid, the governments of the Transvaal and the Free State had started arming themselves. The burghers consequently went into the second Boer War with the British-made single shot .450 Martini-Henry (the Westley Richards version), which had the disadvantage that the black powder betrayed the rifleman’s position, and the German Mauser 7 mm Model 95/96/97, which had a maximum range of 2,000 yards, fired smokeless powder, and held five rounds in its magazine.

It compared favourably with the bolt-action .303 Lee-Metford which the British Army had been using since 1888, and the improved version, the Lee-Enfield, which was introduced during the second Boer War. They had a greater magazine capacity than the Mauser – ten rounds – but had to be loaded one round at a time, while the Mauser could be loaded quickly from clips. Top Ladysmith and Mafeking Boer artillery at Ladysmith, South Africa, circa 1899 © The first five months of the war consisted mainly of set-piece battles. The Boers besieged Ladysmith in Natal and Kimberley and Mafeking in the Cape Colony, while the British forces strove to relieve their beleaguered garrisons in these towns – Lord Methuen in the west and General Redvers Buller in Natal. From their camouflaged positions, the Boers scored impressive victories at Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso in mid-December 1899 (called 'Black Week' in Britain), and Spioenkop in January 1900.

The relief of Mafeking caused tumultuous joy in Britain, making Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, commander of the garrison, an instant hero. But by late February 1900 there was a definite change in their fortunes. Kimberley and Ladysmith were relieved and Piet Cronjé surrendered at Paardeberg with 4,000 burghers. All Boer fronts collapsed. The next six months was a period of great confusion for the Boers. Everywhere they were compelled to retreat. On 13 March 1900, Lord Roberts, the British commander in chief, occupied Bloemfontein and on 5 June 1900 he took Pretoria. With both republican capitals in British hands, he annexed the Free State as the Orange River Colony on 24 May 1900 and the Transvaal on 1 September 1900. The relief of Mafeking on 17 May 1900 caused tumultuous joy in Britain, making the commander of the relieved garrison, Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, an instant hero throughout the British empire. Lured by British promises of peace and protection, many burghers surrendered.

They were called hendsoppers(having 'hands-upped') by the men remaining in the field. By the end of the war they totalled 20,000 men – a third of the original Boer numbers. In the last six months of the war, 5,400 of them joined the British Army as collaborators ('joiners'), with General Piet de Wet becoming one of the leaders of the Orange River Colony Volunteers. Meanwhile, there was a revival in the Boer military effort. In the Free State, General Christiaan de Wet, brother of Piet de Wet, led the recovery of Boer resistance with surprise attacks on Roberts’ vulnerable lines of communication. After Roberts dispersed the Transvaal forces in the last pitched battle of the war at Bergendal (Dalmanutha), in August 1900, General Louis Botha’s officers, similarly to De Wet in the Free State and General Koos de la Rey in the Western Transvaal, applied the tactic of swiftly gathering their scattered commandos whenever the occasion arose, attacking isolated British columns and then disappearing into thin air.

In this way the resistance of about 20,000 Boer bitter-enders was to continue for almost two more years, in what is known as the guerrilla phase of the war. Top Concentration camps Lord Herbert Kitchener, who succeeded Roberts in November 1900, adopted a three-fold strategy to end the war. Firstly, he continued Roberts’ 'scorched earth' policy, in which the republics were deliberately and systematically devastated to deprive the guerrillas of food and shelter. Some towns and thousands of farmsteads were burnt or ravaged. This onslaught on Boer survival was backed up by the destruction of food supplies. Herds of livestock were wiped out and crops were burnt. The bad administration of the camps led to poor quality of food, unhygienic conditions and inadequate medical arrangements. Civilians suffered terribly. Secondly, Roberts’ 'concentration camp' system was expanded, wherein civilians were confined in camps, especially women and children whose houses had been burned. In Kitchener’s view this meant that burghers on commando would no longer be able to obtain food from women on the farms, and would, moreover, surrender in order to reunite their families.

Black people, too, were gathered in concentration camps, partly to deprive the commandos of yet another means of getting to food producers, and to obtain black labour for the gold mines that had been re-opened by mid-1901. The British were not the first in the modern age to use the concentration camp system. The Spanish General Valeriano 'Butcher Weyler had enforced a similar system on a far larger scale to crush a rebellion in Cuba in 1896, leaving more than 100,000 dead. The United States authorities had also established concentration camps to suppress the insurrection in the Philippines early in 1899. In South Africa, the bad administration of the camps led to poor quality of food, unhygienic conditions and inadequate medical arrangements. Consequently civilians suffered terribly. Eventually 28,000 Boer women and children and at least 20,000 black people died in the camps. A turning point in the death rate in the Boer camps came about by November 1901, after the Fawcett Ladies Commission had made some recommendations for improvement.

However, this was only after Emily Hobhouse from the Liberal opposition in Britain had revealed the terrible conditions in the camps to a sceptical British public and an embarrassed government, and High commissioner, Lord Alfred Milner had taken over the administration of the camps from the army. The concentration camp system caused the widest opprobrium of the second Boer War. In the first half of the 20th century Afrikaaner leaders effectively used the suffering and deaths in the Boer camps to promote Afrikaaner nationalism. (The term concentration camp has also been highly emotive since the advent of Nazi Germany’s death and labour camps. However, it is worth noting that there is very little similarity between the Nazi camps and the concentration camps established by the British army in the second Boer War. The latter were not set up with the express intention of exterminating a section of the human race, but to deprive the Boer commandos of supplies and to induce the burghers to surrender.

Things went horribly wrong because of the poor administration of the camps by the British and their callous lack of care.) Top Race and apartheid Apartheid-era flag of South Africa © Although the leaders of both the Boers and the British believed that this should be a 'white man’s war', black people played an important part, and also suffered severely. From the start British and Boer forces alike employed black people in non-combatant roles. About 10,000 agterryers ('after-riders') accompanied the Boers to perform small duties on commando. A very tiny number of them unofficially took up arms on the Boer side. The Afrikaaners took control of South African politics, and they resolved to become independent of the British sphere of influence. In the British Army, at least 14,000 black people worked as wagon drivers. The British Army increasingly employed blacks in combatant roles, such as spies, guides and eventually soldiers. Under Kitchener’s command they were armed for self-defence against the Boers, who were executing them when captured. By the end of the war there were probably 30,000 armed black men in the British Army.

Moreover, black communities drove Boer commandos and families from large areas of the Transvaal, thus further curtailing Boer operations and contributing to the Boer acceptance of the peace terms. The imperial policy promoted by Milner, which included rigorous Anglicisation efforts, failed soon after the war and merely fanned Afrikaaner nationalism. The British empire had been shaken by its efforts to force two small nations into submission, just a decade before World War One. The war had devastated the Afrikaaners economically and psychologically. This contributed to Boer poverty and accelerated urbanisation. In the course of the 20th century, the Afrikaaners took control of South African politics, and they resolved to become independent of the British sphere of influence. It shaped them as 'race patriots' and revealed an aggressive nationalism, which led them to aspire to self-determination and complete dominance of South Africa. This, together with a fear of the black majority, may partly explain the implementation of the policy of apartheid (racial segregation). With the forming of the Republic of South Africa in 1961, the Peace of Vereeniging seemed to have been avenged.

Black people were equally devastated by the war, with similar results concerning poverty and urbanisation. Moreover, their occupation of Boer land during the second Boer War was not recognised, and they did not receive an extension of the qualified franchise (practiced in the Cape Colony and Natal) to the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony. With the coming of Union in 1910, these aspirations were again frustrated which led to the founding of the South African Native National Congress in 1912. This became the African National Congress in 1923. The black struggle was to continue throughout the 20th century and would achieve success in 1994 with a democratically elected South African government. The second Boer War had a major impact on British tactics leading up to World War One. The war had shown that modern rifles and artillery provided greater accuracy, range and rates of fire than before. This led to the belief in a fire zone of increased depth and danger, and the need for formations that were more open. One of the most useful lessons was the necessity of cover for the attackers. During the war in South Africa, clear terrain had been sought when on the offensive, and rough terrain in defence.

The new emphasis on fields of fire meant a reversal in policy. And, finally, following the French, the British began to consider frontal attacks as decisive, giving them official sanction in the 1912 field service regulations. This marked the greatest diversion from the Boer War experience and the flank attacks of Lord Roberts. Find out more Books The Times History of the War in South Africa 1899-1902 by Amery, L.S., ed. (7 Vols. Sampson Low, Marston, 1900-1909.) The Dynamics of Treason. Boer Collaboration in the South African War of 1899-1902 by Albert Grundlingh (Protea, 2006) The Boer War by Denis Judd and Keith Surridge (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) The Transvaal Rebellion. The First Boer War, 1880-1881 by John Laband (Pearson Longman, 2005) Volunteers on the Veld.

Britain’s Citizen-Soldiers and the South African War, 1899-1902 by Stephen M Miller ( University of Oklahoma Press, 2007) The South African War 1899-1902 by Bill Nasson (Arnold, 1999) The Boer War by Thomas Pakenham (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979) The Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 by Fransjohan Pretorius (Struik and Pretoria: Protea, 1998) Life on Commando during the Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 by Fransjohan Pretorius (Human and Rousseau, 1999) Scorched Earth by Fransjohan Pretorius, ed (Human and Rousseau, 2001) The Origins of the South African War 1899-1902 by Iain R Smith (Longman, 1996) Black People and the South African War 1899-1902 by Peter Warwick (Cambridge University Press, 1

983) Top About the author Fransjohan Pretorius is professor of history at the University of Pretoria in South Africa.

He specialises on the Boer War of 1899-1902. His book, 'Life on Commando during the Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902', was runner-up for the Sunday Times Alan Paton Award. The Afrikaans edition won three major awards. He received the Stals Prize from the Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns (South African Academy for Arts and Science) in 1998. He is a former editor of 'Historia', the journal of the South African Historical Association. At present, he chairs the history commission of the Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns. The Boer War The Boer War ▼ Primary Sources ▼ The Boer War The Boer Wars was the name given to the South African Wars of 1880-1 and 1899-1902, that were fought between the British and the descendants of the Dutch settlers ( Boers ) in Africa . After the first Boer War William Gladstone granted the Boers self-government in the Transvaal .

The Boers, under the leadership of Paul Kruger , resented the colonial policy of Joseph Chamberlain and Alfred Milner which they feared would deprive the Transvaal of its independence. After receiving military equipment from Germany, the Boers had a series of successes on the borders of Cape Colony and Natal between October 1899 and January 1900. Although the Boers only had 88,000 soldiers, led by the outstanding soldiers such as Louis Botha , and Jan Smuts , the Boers were able to successfully besiege the British garrisons at Ladysmith , Mafeking and Kimberley . Walter Crane , Justice Journal (1907) Army reinforcements arrived in South Africa in 1900 and counter-offences relieved the garrisons and enabled the British to take control of the Boer capital, Pretoria , on 5th June. For the next two years groups of Boer commandos raided isolated British units in South Africa. Lord Kitchener , the Chief of Staff in South Africa, reacted to these raids by destroying Boer farms and moving civilians into concentration camps .

the journalist, Emily Hobhouse , visited the Bloemfontein Concentration Camp in January 1901: "When the eight, ten or twelve people who lived in the bell tent were squeezed into it to find shelter against the heat of the sun, the dust or the rain, there was no room to stir and the air in the tent was beyond description, even though the flaps were rolled up properly and fastened. Soap was an article that was not dispensed. The water supply was inadequate. No bedstead or mattress was procurable. Fuel was scarce and had to be collected from the green bushes on the slopes of the kopjes by the people themselves. The rations were extremely meagre and when, as I frequently experienced, the actual quantity dispensed fell short of the amount prescribed, it simply meant famine." The British action in South Africa was strongly opposed by many leading Liberal politicians and most of the Independent Labour Party as an example of the worst excesses of imperialism. The Boer War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging in May 1902. The peace settlement brought to an end the Transvaal and the Orange Free State as Boer republics.

However, the British granted the Boers £3 million for restocking and repairing farm lands and promised eventual self-government (granted in 1907). The Boer War in South Africa (1899-1902) By Tarkan Rosenberg, Contributing Writer Updated May 11, 2016. From October 11, 1899 until May 31, 1902, the Second Boer War (also known as the South African War and the Anglo-Boer War) was fought in South Africa between the British and the Boers (Dutch settlers in southern Africa). The Boers had founded two independent South African republics (the Orange Free State and the South African Republic) and had a long history of distrust and dislike for the British that surrounded them. After gold was discovered in the South African Republic in 1886, the British wanted the area under their control.

In 1899, the conflict between the British and the Boers burgeoned into a full-fledged war that was fought in three stages: a Boer offensive against British command posts and railway lines, a British counteroffensive that brought the two republics under British control, and a Boer guerrilla resistance movement that prompted a widespread scorched-earth campaign by the British and the internment and deaths of thousands of Boer civilians in British concentration camps. continue reading below our video 10 Facts About the Titanic That You Don't Know The first phase of the war gave the Boers the upper hand over British forces, but the latter two phases eventually brought victory to the British and placed the previously independent Boer territories firmly under British dominion -- leading, eventually, to the complete unification of South Africa as a British colony in 1910. Who Were the Boers? In 1652, the Dutch East India Company established the first staging post at the Cape of Good Hope (the southernmost tip of Africa); this was a place where ships could rest and resupply during the long voyage to the exotic spice markets along India’s western coast.

This staging post attracted settlers from Europe for whom life on the continent had become unbearable due to economic difficulties and religious oppression. At the turn of the 18th century, the Cape had become home to settlers from Germany and France; however, it was the Dutch who made up the majority of the settler population. They came to be known as “Boers”’—the Dutch word for farmers. As time passed, a number of Boers began migrating to the hinterlands where they believed they would have more autonomy to conduct their daily lives without the heavy regulations imposed on them by the Dutch East India Company. The British Move Into South Africa Britain, who viewed the Cape as an excellent staging post on route to their colonies in Australia and India, attempted to take control over Cape Town from the Dutch East India Company, which had effectively gone bankrupt. In 1814, Holland officially handed the colony over to the British Empire. Almost immediately, the British began a campaign to “Anglicize” the colony. English became the official language, rather than Dutch, and official policy encouraged the immigration of settlers from Great Britain. The issue of slavery became another point of contention.

Britain officially abolished the practice in 1834 throughout their empire, which meant that the Cape’s Dutch settlers also had to relinquish their ownership of black slaves. The British did offer compensation to the Dutch settlers for relinquishing their slaves, but this compensation was seen as insufficient and their anger was compounded by the fact that the compensation had to be collected in London, some 6,000 miles way. Boer Independence The tension between Great Britain and South Africa’s Dutch settlers eventually prompted many Boers to move their families further into South Africa’s interior—away from British control—where they could establish an autonomous Boer state. This migration from Cape Town into the South African hinterland from 1835 to the early 1840s came to be known as “The Great Trek.” (Dutch settlers who remained in Cape Town, and thus under British rule, became known as Afrikaners .) The Boers came to embrace a new-found sense of nationalism and sought to establish themselves as an independent Boer nation, dedicated to Calvinism and a Dutch way of life.

By 1852, a settlement was reached between the Boers and the British Empire granting sovereignty to those Boers who had settled beyond the Vaal River in the northeast. The 1852 settlement and another settlement, reached in 1854, brought about the creation of two independent Boer republics—the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The Boers now had their own home. The First Boer War Despite the Boers’ newly won autonomy, their relationship with the British continued to be tense. The two Boer republics were financially unstable and still relied heavily on British help. The British, conversely, distrusted the Boers—viewing them as quarrelsome and thickheaded. In 1871, the British moved to annex the diamond territory of the Griqua People, which had previously been incorporated by the Orange Free State. Six years later, the British annexed the Transvaal, which was plagued by bankruptcy and endless squabbles with native populations. These moves angered Dutch settlers throughout South Africa.

In 1880, after first allowing the British to defeat their common Zulu enemy, the Boers finally rose up in rebellion, taking up arms against the British with the purpose of reclaiming the Transvaal. The crisis is known as the First Boer War. The First Boer War lasted only a few short months, from December 1880 until March 1881. It was a disaster for the British, who had greatly underestimated the military skill and efficiency of the Boer militia units. In the early weeks of the war, a group of less than 160 Boer militiamen attacked a British regiment, killing 200 British soldiers in 15 minutes. In late February 1881, the British lost a total of 280 soldiers at Majuba, while the Boers are said to have suffered only one single casualty. Britain’s Prime Minister William E. Gladstone forged a compromise peace with the Boers that granted the Transvaal self-government while still keeping it as an official colony of Great Britain. The compromise did little to appease the Boers and tension between the two sides continued.

In 1884, Transvaal President Paul Kruger successfully renegotiated the original agreement. Although control of foreign treaties remained with Britain, Britain did, however, drop the Transvaal’s official status as a British colony. The Transvaal was then officially renamed the South African Republic. Gold The discovery of roughly 17,000 square miles of gold fields in Witwatersrand in 1886, and the subsequent opening of those fields for public digging, would make the Transvaal region the prime destination for gold diggers from all over the globe. The 1886 gold rush not only transformed the poor, agrarian South African Republic into an economic powerhouse, it also caused a great deal of turmoil for the young republic. The Boers were leery of the foreign prospectors—whom they dubbed “Uitlanders” (“outlanders”)—pouring into their country from across the world to mine the Witwatersrand fields. Tensions between Boers and Uitlanders eventually prompted Kruger to adopt harsh laws that would limit the general freedoms of the Uitlanders and seek to protect Dutch culture in the region.

These included policies to limit access to education and press for Uitlanders, making the Dutch language obligatory, and keeping the Uitlanders disenfranchised. These policies further eroded relations between Great Britain and the Boers as many of those rushing to the gold fields were British sovereigns. Also, the fact that Britain’s Cape Colony had now slipped into the South African Republic’s economic shadow, made Great Britain even more determined to secure its African interests and to bring the Boers to heel. The Jameson Raid The outrage expressed against Kruger’s harsh immigration policies caused many in the Cape colony and in Britain itself to anticipate a widespread Uitlander uprising in Johannesburg. Among them was the Cape Colony’s prime minister and diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes was a staunch colonialist and thus believed Britain should acquisition the Boer territories (as well as the gold fields there). Rhodes sought to exploit Uitlander discontent in the Transvaal and pledged to invade the Boer republic in the event of an uprising by Uitlanders. He entrusted 500 Rhodesian (Rhodesia having been named after him) mounted police to his agent, Dr. Leander Jameson.

Jameson had express instructions not to enter the Transvaal until an Uitlander uprising was underway. Jameson ignored his instructions and on December 31, 1895, entered the territory only to be captured by Boer militiamen. The event, known as the Jameson Raid , was a debacle and forced Rhodes to resign as the Cape’s prime minister. The Jameson raid only served to increase tension and distrust between the Boers and the British. Kruger’s continued harsh policies against the Uitlanders and his cozy relationship with Britain’s colonial rivals, continued to fuel the empire’s ire towards the Transvaal republic during the waning years of the 1890s. Paul Kruger’s election to a fourth term as president of the South African Republic in 1898, finally convinced Cape politicians that the only way to deal with the Boers would be through the use of force. After several failed attempts at reaching a compromise, the Boers had had their fill and by September of 1899 were preparing for full war with the British Empire. That same month the Orange Free State publicly declared its support for Kruger.

The Ultimatum On October 9th, Alfred Milner, the governor of the Cape Colony, received a telegram from authorities in the Boer capital of Pretoria. The telegram laid out a point-by-point ultimatum. The ultimatum demanded peaceful arbitration, the removal of British troops along their border, British troop reinforcements be recalled, and that British reinforcements who were coming via ship not land. The British replied that no such conditions could be met and by the evening of October 11, 1899, Boer forces began crossing over the borders into Cape Province and Natal. The Second Boer War had begun. The Second Boer War Begins: The Boer Offensive Neither the Orange Free State nor the South African Republic commanded large, professional armies. Their forces, instead, consisted of militias called “commandos” that consisted of “burghers” (citizens). Any burgher between the ages of 16 and 60 was liable to be called up to serve in a commando and each often brought their own rifles and horses.

A commando consisted of anywhere between 200 and 1,000 burghers and was headed by a “Kommandant” who was elected by the commando itself. Commando members, furthermore, were allowed to sit as equals in general councils of war to which they often brought their own individual ideas about tactics and strategy. The Boers who made up these commandos were excellent shots and horsemen, as they had to learn to survive in a very hostile environment from a very young age. Growing up in the Transvaal meant that one often had protect one’s settlements and herds against lions and other predators. This made the Boer militias a formidable enemy. The British, on the other hand, were experienced with leading campaigns on the African continent and yet were completely unprepared for a full-scale war. Thinking that this was a mere squabble that would soon be resolved, the British lacked reserves in ammunition and equipment; plus, they had no suitable military maps available for use either. The Boers took advantage of the British’s ill-preparedness and moved quickly in the early days of the war.

Commandos spread out in several directions from the Transvaal and Orange Free State, besieging three railway towns—Mafeking, Kimberley and Ladysmith —in order to impede the transport of British reinforcements and equipment from the coast. The Boers also won several major battles during the early months of the war. Most notably these were the battles of Magersfontein, Colesberg and Stormberg, which all occurred during what became known as “Black Week” between December 10 and 15, 1899. Despite this successful initial offensive, the Boers never sought to occupy any of the British-held territories in South Africa; they focused instead on besieging supply lines and ensuring that the British were too undersupplied and disorganized to launch their own offensive. In the process, the Boers greatly taxed their resources and their failure to push further into British-held territories allowed the British time to resupply their armies from the coast. The British may have faced defeat early on but the tide was about to turn. Phase Two: The British Resurgence By January of 1900, neither the Boers (despite their many victories) nor the British had made much headway.

The Boer sieges of strategic British rail lines continued but the Boer militias were rapidly growing weary and low on supplies. The British government decided it was time to gain the upper hand and sent two troop divisions to South Africa, which included volunteers from colonies like Australia and New Zealand. This amounted to roughly 180,000 men—the largest army Britain had ever sent overseas to this point. With these reinforcements, the disparity between the numbers of troops was huge, with 500,000 British soldiers but only 88,000 Boers. By late February, British forces had managed to move up strategic railway lines and finally relieve Kimberley and Ladysmith from Boer besiegement. The Battle of Paardeberg , which lasted nearly ten days, saw a major defeat of Boer forces. Boer general Piet Cronjé surrendered to the British along with more than 4,000 men. A series of further defeats greatly demoralized the Boers, who were also plagued by starvation and disease brought on by months of sieges with little to no supply relief. Their resistance began to collapse.

By March 1900, British forces led by Lord Frederick Roberts had occupied Bloemfontein (the capital of the Orange Free State) and by May and June they had taken Johannesburg and the South African Republic’s capital, Pretoria. Both republics were annexed by the British Empire. Boer leader Paul Kruger escaped capture and went into exile in Europe, where much of the population’s sympathy lay with the Boer cause. Squabbles erupted within Boer ranks between the bittereinders (“bitter-enders”) who wanted to keep fighting and those hendsoppers (“hands-uppers”) who favored surrender. Many Boer burghers did end up surrendering at this point, but about 20,000 others decided to fight on. The last, and most destructive, phase of the war was about to begin. Despite the British victories, the guerrilla phase would last more than two years. Phase Three: Guerrilla Warfare, Scorched Earth, and Concentration Camps Despite having annexed both Boer republics, the British barely managed to control either one.

The guerrilla war that was launched by resistant burghers and led by generals Christiaan de Wet and Jacobus Hercules de la Rey , kept the pressure on British forces throughout the Boer territories. Rebel Boer commandos relentlessly raided British communication lines and army bases with swift, surprise attacks often conducted at night. Rebel commandos had the ability to form on a moment’s notice, conduct their attack and then vanish as if into thin air, confusing British forces who barely knew what had hit them. The British response to the guerrillas was three-fold. Firstly, Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener , commander of the South African British forces, decided to set up barbed wire and blockhouses along the railway lines to keep the Boers at bay. When this tactic failed, Kitchener decided to adopt a “scorched earth” policy that systematically sought to destroy food supplies and deprive the rebels of shelter. Whole towns and thousands of farms were plundered and burned; livestock were killed. Lastly, and perhaps most controversially, Kitchener ordered the construction of concentration camps in which thousands of women and children—mostly those left homeless and destitute by his scorched earth policy— were interred.

The concentration camps were severely mismanaged. Food and water were scarce in the camps and starvation and disease caused the deaths of over 20,000. Black Africans were also interred in segregated camps primarily as a source of cheap labor for gold mines. The camps were widely criticized, especially in Europe where British methods in the war were already under heavy scrutiny. Kitchener’s reasoning was that the interment of civilians would not only further deprive the burghers of food, which had been supplied to them by their wives on the homestead, but that it would prompt the Boers to surrender in order to be reunited with their families. Most notable among the critics in Britain was Liberal activist Emily Hobhouse, who worked tirelessly to expose the conditions in the camps to an outraged British public. The revelation of the camp system severely damaged the reputation of Britain’s government and furthered the cause for Boer nationalism abroad. Peace Nevertheless, the strong-arm tactics of the British against the Boers eventually served their purpose. The Boer militias grew weary of fighting and morale was breaking down. The British had offered peace terms in March of 1902, but to no avail.

By May of that year, however, Boer leaders finally accepted peace conditions and signed the Treaty of Vereeniging on May 31, 1902. The treaty officially ended the independence of both the South African Republic and the Orange Free State and placed both territories under British army administration. The treaty also called for the immediate disarmament of the burghers and included a provision for funds to be made available for the reconstruction of the Transvaal. The Second Boer War had come to an end and eight years later, in 1910, South Africa was united under British dominion and became the Union of South Africa. Anglo Boer War website - Boer War 1899 - 1902 Boer War 1899 - 1902 Login or create an account Username Page 1 of 2 Introduction The Anglo Boer War was fought by Britain and her Empire against the Boers. The Boers were comprised of the combined forces of the South African Republic and the Republic of the Orange Free State.

The Boer Republics declared war on 11th October 1899 and the conflict ended on 31st May 1902, a duration of 2 years and 8 months. There were three distinct phases to the War: Stage 1 - Boer offensive. At first, the Boer republican fighters were successful in three major offensives. Their commandos invaded northern Natal and besieged the town of Ladysmith, invaded Cape Colony to lay siege to the British garrisons in Kimberley and Mafeking. While the British did achieve some tactical victories at Talana and Elandslaagte, there were serious defeats for the British at Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso which became known as 'Black Week' (10th - 15th December 1899). Stage 2 - British response. With heavy reinforcements and the assumption of overall command by Lord Roberts with Lord Kitchener as his Chief of Staff, the British turned the situation around.

Imperial troops eventually relieved the besieged towns of Ladysmith (28th February 1900), Kimberley (15 February 1900) and Mafeking (18th May 1900). On 13th March 1900 Roberts occupied Bloemfontein, the capital of the Orange Free State, and on 28th May the province was annexed and renamed the Orange River Colony. On 31st May, British troops entered Johannesburg and, on 5th June, Pretoria was taken. The Transvaal was annexed on 1st September 1900. To many it seemed that the was was over. At the end of November, Roberts made a triumphal return to England. Stage 3 - Guerrilla war. Under the leadership of Louis Botha, Christiaan de Wet, Jan Smuts and de la Rey, the Boers abandoned the British style of warfare and increased their reliance on small and mobile military units. The mobility of these units enabled them to capture supplies, disrupt communications and undertake raids on the army of occupation. They were very successful in evading capture.

In response, the British embarked on a scorched earth policy to deny supplies to the fighters. Approximately 30,000 farms were burnt. In March 1901 the need to restrict the movement of the Boers brought the development of 8,000 blockhouses and 3,700 miles of wire fencing guarded by 50,000 troops. This was followed by a number of 'drives' which had the intention of cornering the Boers but the operations mainly produced large numbers of displaced Boer and African families. These refugees were sent to concentration camps around South Africa. These measures were largely responsible for bringing the Boers to the negotiation table to end the War. Boer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - HISTORY.com Boer War begins in South Africa Share this: Boer War begins in South Africa Author Boer War begins in South Africa URL Publisher A+E Networks The South African Boer War begins between the British Empire and the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. The Boers, also known as Afrikaners, were the descendants of the original Dutch settlers of southern Africa.

Britain took possession of the Dutch Cape colony in 1806 during the Napoleonic wars, sparking resistance from the independence-minded Boers, who resented the Anglicization of South Africa and Britain’s anti-slavery policies. In 1833, the Boers began an exodus into African tribal territory, where they founded the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The two new republics lived peaceably with their British neighbors until 1867, when the discovery of diamonds and gold in the region made conflict between the Boer states and Britain inevitable. Minor fighting with Britain began in the 1890s, and in October 1899 full-scale war ensued. By mid June 1900, British forces had captured most major Boer cities and formally annexed their territories, but the Boers launched a guerrilla war that frustrated the British occupiers. Beginning in 1901, the British began a strategy of systematically searching out and destroying these guerrilla units, while herding the families of the Boer soldiers into concentration camps.

By 1902, the British had crushed the Boer resistance, and on May 31 of that year the Peace of Vereeniging was signed, ending hostilities. The treaty recognized the British military administration over Transvaal and the Orange Free State and authorized a general amnesty for Boer forces. In 1910, the autonomous Union of South Africa was established by the British. It included Transvaal, the Orange Free State, the Cape of Good Hope, and Natal as provinces. Related Videos

Question: In which modern-day country was the Anglo-Boer war fought?
Answer: South Africa