Obsidian in The Maya World Obsidian in The Maya World Obsidian Clovis style Point from Puerta Parada, Guatemala Highlands ca 8,000 BC Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of the Olmec and Maya since the Pre-Classic. Like other volcanic glasses, obsidian is a lava that has cooled too quickly for the contained minerals to crystallize. In chemical composition it is rich in silica and similar to granite. Obsidian was a highly integrated part of daily and ritual life, and its widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to Mesoamerica's lack of metallurgy. Lithic and contextual analysis of obsidian, including source studies, are important components of archaeological studies of Maya sites and inform scholars on economy, technological organization, long-distance trade , ritual organization , and socio-cultural structure. The first sings of human occupation in Guatemala dated from Ca 10,000 BC and are obsidian tools and weapons, both in the "Clovis" (mainly North America) and "Fishtail" (mainly South America) Styles. The first flat blades struck from a core were flat and not particularly useful.

Later blades were struck along previous blade scars, producing a blade with a triangular cross-section, something archaeologists call a backed or prismatic blade which has greater strength than a flat blade. It was this prism-like blade that was widely used by the Maya as a cutting tool. Bifacial Prismatic Obsidian in Los Encuentros , Jalapa, Source discovered recently No Maya site is without obsidian, named TAJ in Maya, and Chay Abaj in K'iche'. It was an item that had common Warfare and Art uses as well as ritual use . Obsidian, opposite to Jade , was available to all households and was found in hunting, agriculture , and many other everyday situations. Examples of obsidian tools are knives, lance and dart points, prismatic blades sometimes used for woodworking or shaving, bone working tools, bifacial, retouched flakes, and spearheads for warfare . Blades have been found in situ with rabbit, rodent, and mollusk remains, indicating its use in butchery.

Carved obsidian vase Serpent with snakes emerging from its head Although the three major obsidian sources of the Maya are located in the Maya Highlands , most trade models proposed so far for obsidian distribution in the lowlands do not consider the sociopolitical and historical factors that affected highland polities, and hence, long-distance trade systems. One approach to this broad question is to study and compare the major trade routes between the highlands and the Petï¿½n Lowlands , i.e., the Alta Verapaz (land) route and the Motagua-Caribean (sea) route, from geographic, sociopolitical, and historical points of view. Cores were made from obsidian cobbles found in stream beds adjacent to glass producing volcanoes. Oblong or football shaped cobbles were struck in a way to produce a flat surface at one end. This flat area, or striking platform, was then chipped away along the outer edge using a deer antler and a small hammer stone. The larger blades could then be further reduced by pressure flaking to make projectile points or ornaments.

Widely used throughout the western hemisphere and the rest of the world as well) obsidian blades, when freshly struck from the core represent the sharpest cutting edge known, several times sharper than a surgical steel scalpel. In fact obsidian blades are currently in use in some U.S. hospitals for heart bypass surgery. It seems that they cut cleaner, thereby promoting more rapid healing with less scar tissue. Needless to say, obsidian blades constitute a considerable hazard to the unwary archaeologist who chooses to sift through soil in Maya sites with unprotected hands. Even leather gloves are no guarantee against serious cuts. El Chayal obsidian featured the greatest variety of visual characteristics differing in both texture and color. The most common variety is smoky grey, translucent obsidian with grey or black bands, but it also can appear with red banding, as opaque gray, as nearly transparent, or with a combination of these characteristics. A small quantity can feature small black specks or inclusions, which makes it difficult to differentiate from San Martï¿½n Jilotepeque. However, San Martï¿½n Jilotepeque often has a bluish-black hue that is rarely found at El Chayal.

Ixtepeque obsidian can resemble the transparent variety of El Chayal, but it has a brownish, ï¿½bottle glassï¿½ color that does not occur at other sources. Ixtepeque obsidian also is extremely fine and has a glass-like quality. La Blanca , Preclassic Celt, Pacific Lowlands Available data on the social structure and culture history of Naranjo and Kaminaljuyï¿½ -prominent center located close to the obsidian sources-- and Guaytï¿½n , Vega del Cobï¿½n and Quiriguï¿½ that dominated the Motagua route, as well as of Verapaz centers, are tentatively reexamined and reevaluated in the context of the highland-lowland Classic obsidian trade. This allows us to assess the effective supremacy of the Motagua-Caribe route over the Alta Verapaz route, at least during the Pre and Classic period when Kaminaljuyï¿½ , Guaytï¿½n , Vega del Cobï¿½n and then Quiriguï¿½ , may have controlled long-distance obsidian trade .

It appears that sociopolitical and historical factors resulted in a degree of instability in the Classic trade systems, as both routes competed for larger quantities of obsidian to be extracted, processed, and transported through systems that differed in time and space. Against such a complex background, quantitative data on obsidian distribution in either the lowlands or the highlands will have limited predictive potential unless more precision is attained in the control of chronological and functional contexts of obsidian samples when they are analyzed for source provenience. Such a goal requires that specific data-recovery strategies be implemented, which should give priority to sociopolitical and historical factors and include both Maya Highland and Lowland sub areas. As an example, one of the largest workshops of Obsidian, its located in the pacific piedmont of Guatemala in El Baï¿½l Cotzumalguapa , Obsidian from El Chayal, and San Martï¿½n Jilotepeque were its main sources, although Ixtepeque and San Bartolomï¿½ Milpas Altas also have been documented, the obsidian arrived in prismatic and macro cores arrived and then were reduced and transformed into macro blades, and these in turn were transformed into knives and projectile points.

On the other hand, fine blades were obtained from the prismatic cores through the pressure technique. These cores were exhausted to the extreme, and subsequently used as a different type of tool, like scrapers, for example. Meanwhile, others were reduced through the bipolar percussion technique to obtain flakes, and something similar likely happened with the macro blade cores. The production of artifacts was aimed at manufacturing two major products: prismatic blades and projectile points. Both technological types required specialized skills and a centralized productive organization. The major purpose of this production was serving the local and probably the regional demand of cutting tools, throwing weapons with a cutting point, and instruments for scraping, polishing and perforating, all of which could be a part of household maintenance activities. Mesoamerican Commerce Routes and goods production, from the Pre Classic to the Post Classic Obsidian was also used in graves, at sacrifices, and in art . Some non-utilitarian forms are miniature human effigies, ear spools and labrets with gold and turquoise workings, carved animal figurines, beads, vases, and masks. Obsidian is frequently seen in the form of ritual blood-letting devices as well as buried in elite tombs and special deposits or caches.

Debitage is found in many of these tombs in addition to evidence of obsidian use in temple dedications, or offerings. For example, flakes have been found in association with stela offerings and related to specific gods at the Maya site of Tikal . Lancet and prismatic blades are also found in frequent association with self-sacrifice, and in "private ceremonies" in Caves . Obsidian was a highly integrated part of Mayan daily and ritual life. This widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to this culture's lack of metallurgy. The use of pecking, grinding, and carving techniques may also be employed to produce figurines, jewelry, eccentrics, or other types of objects. Prismatic blade production, a technique employing a pressure flaking-like technique that removed blades from a polyhedral core, was ubiquitous throughout Mesoamerica. The dancing figures carry what seem to be tri-bladed obsidian knives The main sources of the Olmec and Maya obsidian are located in the Guatemala Highlands .

El Chayal, Ixtepeque, and San Martin Jilotepeque are the most well-known of the Guatemalan obsidian sources and the most commonly exploited in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Located in Central and Eastern Highlands of Guatemala, these materials are found as far north as the Yucatï¿½n Peninsula, moving via a well developed and important long-distance trade network that linked much of the Maya area. Newer and tentative additions to the Guatemalan source area Jalapa and Sansare. However, the El Chayal area is often seen as subsuming these two into one large source area. Although there are some pieces that came from distant sources such as Pachuca, and the Guatemala Obsidian have been found in Teotihuacï¿½n and vice versa.

One of a series of small carved obsidian vases filled with red oxides, A Common Art form Generally, obsidian came into the Maya area from Naranjo up to 400 AD and then Kaminaljuyï¿½ via larger central places, such as, Chocolï¿½ , El Baï¿½l and Takalik Abaj , in the Pacific Piedmont, Tikal , Wakï¿½' , Uaxactï¿½n , and Piedras Negras . Obsidian artifacts and tools were then redistributed to smaller and potentially dependent centers and communities. This is indicated by a lack of production debitage, including polyhedral cores, decortical flakes, and large percussion flakes, among rural occupations. Obsidian was generally transported, where applicable, along coastal trade routes. Of primary importance is the circum-peninsular trade route that linked the southeast Maya area to the Gulf coast. Examples of evidence of this include the higher quantities of obsidian found among coastal sites, such as small island occupations off the coast of Belize and Yucatan, then at sites located in-land.

In the large blades typical from Kaminal Juyï¿½ two alternative technologies could have been employed: the use of indirect percussion to shape large blades, and/or the use of lever assisted pressure to remove large blades using the chest crutch, as had been employed in the Old World. Glossary | Living Maya Time A traditional beverage of corn meal cooked in water and typically sweetened with honey. August 11, 3114 BCE Date in the Gregorian calendar corresponding to the beginning date of the Maya Long Count calendar. Axis Mundi The “World Axis,” is a concept and symbol found in many cultures. The idea expresses a vertical connection between the Earth and the sky. Backstrap Loom A simple loom comprising two sticks or bars between which the warp threads are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed pole, and the other to the weaver, by means of a strap around the back. Baktun/B'ak'tun One of the cycles of the Maya Long Count calendar containing 144,000 days. Balustrade Architectural feature running down the side of a staircase.

Bloodletting A ritualized act of self-sacrifice performed by the ancient Maya, done by the cutting or piercing of the body. Caldera A volcanic feature formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption. Calendar Round A component of the Maya calendar system made from the interweaving of the Tzolk’in and Haab calendars, with a cycle of 52 years. Camioneta The most common form of public transportation in Guatemala. Caracol The name given to the observatory-like structure in the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá. It is named after the building’s interior spiral staircase resembling the inside of a snail’s shell. Cartouche Similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs, Maya hieroglyphs representing the twenty days of the Maya sacred calendar are enclosed in a cartouche. The cartouche is oval with three rounded “feet” underneath. Ceiba A large tree found in tropical areas including Mesoamerica. In Maya tradition, the ceiba tree connects the planes of the Underworld, the terrestrial realm, and the skies. Chac The Maya god of rain and thunder.

Chac Mool A type of stone statue depicting a human figure in a reclining position with the head turned to one side. It is an example of the confluence of Maya traditional styles with those from the city of Tula in central México. Chaya A shrub native to the Yucatán Peninsula, México, that is similar to spinach. Cha’a Chac A traditional Maya ceremony to petition for rain. Chile Chile is the fruit from Capsicum plants, also known as chili pepper. Since 8000 BCE, chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas. Chol Q'ij The name of the Maya sacred calendar in the K’iche’ Mayan language. Cinta The Spanish word for “ribbon,” and a component of traditional Mayan clothing. Cistern A waterproof receptacle for holding water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater. Cocoyoles Plural of Cocoyol, a type of tree nut with a hard outer shell. Codex/Codices A Codex is a book written by the ancient Maya. These codices (plural) are folding, bark-paper books written using hieroglyphs.

Thousands were burned and destroyed during the Spanish conquest. Cofradía Confraternities or honorary councils of Maya religious leaders common in Chiapas and Guatemala. Cofradías interpret Catholic ritual and symbolism using Maya beliefs and worldview. Comal Defined patterns formed by groupings of prominent stars in the night sky. Copal A type of tree resin used by the Maya as incense. Corbel Arch Corbel, or corbeled, arches are the classic Maya method of spanning an interior space. The corbel vault has unequaled stability and harmonious proportions. Corte Skirt of the traditional Maya dress worn by women in Guatemala and southern México. Cosmology Theory, model, or idea that seeks to understand the origin, structure, and evolution of the cosmos or universe. Day Keeper Specially trained people in the highlands of Guatemala who have a calling to become calendar keepers and who use the sacred 260-days calendar as a symbolic system of values to guide their communities. Death Lords Maya gods of the Underworld. December 21, 2012 CE End date of the 5,125 year cycle of the Maya Long Count calendar.

Decipher/Decipherment The analysis and interpretation of script and codes in ancient languages where knowledge of the written language has been lost. Día de la Santa Cruz Day of the Holy Cross, an important holiday with both Catholic and ancient Mesoamerican indigenous significance that is celebrated on May 3rd. Día de los Muertos Day of the Dead, an important holiday with both Catholic and ancient Mesoamerican indigenous significance that is celebrated on November 1st and 2nd. Don Title given to a man as a sign of respect. Doña Title given to a woman as a sign of respect. Earth Lord Spirit of the Earth, the Mesoamerican belief that all things have spirit, including the Earth. Ecliptic The path of the Sun throughout a year with respect to the apparently fixed background of stars. Emblem Glyph A combination of glyphs with the consistent words “holy lord” and a main sign that changes depending on the Maya city. Equinox Equinox is the time of year when day and night are approximately 12 hours each, everywhere on Earth. It happens twice a year, on March 20th or 21st and September 22nd or 23rd.

Fourth Creation In Maya mythology, we are living in the Fourth Creation of the Universe, which began on August 11, 3114 BCE. Gregorian Calendar The Gregorian calendar is an international standard. It is a solar calendar with an average year length is 365.2425 days per year, a close approximation to the tropical year. Haab The Maya solar calendar of 18 months of 20 days, plus five additional days, that make a total of 365 days. Heliacal Rise The heliacal rise of a star or other celestial body other than the Sun occurs when it first becomes visible above the eastern horizon, for a brief moment just before sunrise. Hero Twins Principal characters in the creation story of the Maya, called Hunahpú and Xbalanqué. Hieroglyph/Glyph The basic unit of the writing system of the ancient Maya. Hieroglyphic Inscriptions The script or writing system of the ancient Maya of Mesoamerica, found inscribed in stone, pottery, bone, jade, accordion folded books, stucco, and other surfaces.

Highlands A geographical area in western Guatemala and south-western México that has been populated by the Maya for thousands of years. Huipil/Huipiles The traditional dress of Maya women. In the Yucatán the huipil is a dress, while in Chiapas and Guatemala, the huipil is worn as a blouse. Huracán Supreme deity in the story of creation of the Maya. Iconography Interpretation of the content of images. Iguana Reptile native of tropical areas of México and Central America. Inferior Conjunction Alignment of Mercury or Venus with the Sun as seen from Earth. During the superior conjunction, the planet is behind the Sun, and during the inferior conjunction, the planet is in front of the Sun. Itzá Mayan The language of the Itza Maya people, similar to Yucatec Mayan. Itza/Itzaes The Itza or Itzaes are an ethnic group of Maya that historically descended from a Yucatec Maya lineage. They inhabit the Petén department (state) of Guatemala. Jade A hard and tough stone that was used by the Maya to make jewelry, weapons, and tools.

The color varies from black to lilac, but is most commonly green. Kan Kab’ Red clay found in the Maya region of the Yucatán. Kaqchikel Maya ethnic group and the name of one of the Mayan languages of Guatemala. Katun A katun is a unit of time in the Maya Long Count calendar equal to 7,200 days, or approximately 20 years. Katun-ending Period The end of the katun was marked by numerous ceremonies and at some of the ancient Maya cities, particularly Tikal in Guatemala. Komon Tohil Community-based organization of Day Keepers in Zunil, Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Kukulkán The feathered serpent of Maya mythology. K’awil An important deity of the ancient Maya. K’iche’ The largest Maya ethnic group and also the name of one of the Mayan languages of Guatemala. K’iche’ Mayan The language of the K’iche’ people in Guatemala. K’in Maya word for Sun, day, and time. Limestone/Lime Limestone, or lime, is a general term for calcium-containing inorganic materials.

The Maya use lime to cook corn and to make stucco, a type of plaster used to cover the stone structures and interiors of ancient buildings. Lintel A lintel is a horizontal structural element between two vertical supports. The Maya typically carved stone lintels in their buildings. Long Count One of the calendars of the ancient Maya, spanning cycles of 5,215 years. Lowlands Geographical area spanning the Yucatan peninsula and eastern Guatemala that has been occupied by the Maya for thousands of years. Machete A machete is a large cutting tool similar to a short sword. About 2 feet in length, it has a single sharp edge and it is used to cut grass and other plants. Madrid Codex One of four accordion shaped Maya books that remain from the many thousands that were destroyed by the Spanish invaders and Catholic priests. Mam Maya ethnic group and one of the Mayan languages of Guatemala. Masa Ground corn dough. Maya-Toltec A style of architecture that reflects a mix of elements from the Toltec and Maya ethnic groups. The Toltec come from Northern Mexico near the town of Tula.

Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a geographical area defined by its ancient culture, spanning central México, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Metaphor An analogy that describes a subject in comparison with another, otherwise unrelated object. Metate A stone mortar with two elements, a rectangular base and a stone cylinder known as "mano," which is pressed against the base to grind food, especially grains and seeds. Milpa An ancient system of sustainable agriculture used throughout Mesoamerica that produces maize, beans, and squash, sometimes complemented with chiles. Monolith/Monolithic A monument or sculpture made out of a single block of stone. Nadir In astronomy, the nadir is the point directly underneath an observer on the surface of the Earth. Nadir Passage of the Sun In tropical latitudes, the Sun, in its apparent motion caused by the rotation of the Earth, passes through a point directly underneath the observer twice a year. Nahuatl The native language of the ancient Aztecs and modern Nahuas of México. Nawal Each day in the Maya Tzolk’in calendar is called a nawal.

In the context of the Maya sacred calendar, a nawal is a guardian spirit that is a link with the sacred. Nixtamal The name given to the process of cooking corn with lime (calcium hydroxide). This method of cooking corn releases the amino acid niacin, which is essential to prevent the disease “pellagra.” Observation-based astronomy Geocentric astronomy, based on the observation of celestial bodies from the perspective of an observer on the surface of the Earth. Obsidian A type of volcanic igneous rock, very strong and very sharp. The Maya used obsidian to make tools and weapons, and was used for ornamentation. Olmec Pre-Hispanic culture that developed in the current Mexican states of Tabasco and Veracruz between 1400 and 400 BCE. Best known for its colossal head sculptures made of stone. Owner of the Milpa Spirit of the Earth, the Mesoamerican belief that all things have spirit, including the Earth. Paris Codex One of four accordion shaped Maya books that survived destruction by the Spanish invaders and Catholic priests. Peccary A type of wild pig native of the Americas.

Penis Perforator Razor-sharp pointed tool of obsidian, or the spine of a sting-ray, used to perforate the foreskin of a ruler’s penis in an act of self-sacrifice and bloodletting during Maya rituals. Petén The largest, and most northern, department (state) of Guatemala. A geographic region that harbors many Maya archaeological sites, including Tikal. Pitaya The fruit of a cactus vine native to Mesoamerica that is red on the outside. Its white interior is sprinkled with black seeds. Plateau A geological formation; an area of high land of relatively flat terrain. Plaza Square-shaped central space in a town or part of an architectural complex, and the gathering place of the community. Popol Wuj/Popol Vuh The “community book” of the K’iche’ Maya that recounts the creation story of the Maya people. Pottery Shards In archaeology, a shard is a historic or prehistoric fragment of pottery. Precession A wobble in the Earth’s rotation axis caused by gravitational interactions with the Moon and Sun. The Earth goes through one complete cycle of precession every 25,772 years.

Puuc Meaning “mountain” in Yucatec Mayan, Puuc is a region in the northwest of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is also a style of architecture characterized by skilled ornamentation. Q'anjob'al One of 31 Mayan languages spoken in Guatemala. Q’ukumatz The feather serpent of Maya mythology. Sac Be’ Meaning “white road” in Yucatec Mayan, a straight raised pre-Hispanic causeway or road. Sac Ha’ An offering of corn that is used during Maya ceremonies to petition for rain in the Yucatán peninsula. Sacred Cenote The largest natural sinkhole at the Maya city of Chichén Itzá where the ancient Maya made offerings and sacrifices. Savanna A grassland ecosystem with an open canopy of trees and a layer of grasses. Scarlet Macaw A large and colorful parrot, native to the humid, evergreen forests in the tropics of the Americas. Sinkhole Natural underground water hole. Sisal Native plant of the Yucatán, México, with fibers that are used to make rope, cord, and tapestries. Solar Maximum The period of greatest solar activity in the eleven year cycle of the Sun.

During solar maximum, the Sun’s surface has the largest number of dark sunspots. Solar Year A solar, or tropical year, is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth. The mean solar year is 365.242 days. Solstice The winter solstice is when we experience the longest night and the shortest day of the year. The summer solstice is when we have the longest day and shortest night of the year. Sots'leb The name of the city of Zinancantán, Chiapas, México, in the Tzotzil Mayan language. Spider Monkey An endangered monkey native to the Americas that inhabits tropical forests from southern México to Brazil. Spondylus Shells Also known as thorny oysters or spiny oysters, these colorful shells were used by the ancient Maya for ornamentation. Squall A sudden, sharp increase in wind speed which is usually associated with active weather. Stalactites/Stalagmites Natural formation in caves that result from the continuous deposit of minerals transported by water seeping into the cave, especially calcium bicarbonate.

Stela/Stelae A monument shaped like a column, usually monolithic, inscribed with a commemorative, funerary, or ceremonial function. Stingray Spine A type of fish related to sharks. The ancient Maya used the spine of stingrays to perforate parts of their bodies in acts of bloodletting and self-sacrifice. Story of Creation A symbolic narrative of how the world came to be and how humans first appeared on Earth. Stucco A substance made of an aggregate, a binder, and water. This material is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. The smooth surface serves as a protective cover that is often painted or sculpted. Sunspot Dark spots that appear on the surface of the Sun within an eleven year cycle. They are caused by intense magnetic activity. Syncretism The integration of different, and at times contradictory, belief systems. Tamal/Tamales Ancestral dish of Mesoamerica, of indigenous origin, generally prepared with cornmeal cooked by steam, wrapped in corn husks or banana leaf, and filled with meat, vegetables, or fruits. Tectonic Activity Natural forces that cause the deformation of the Earth’s crust.

Tepew One of the Maya deities in the Popol Vuh, meaning “sovereign” or “power.” Tortilla A flat bread in the shape of a circle made of corn meal that has been cooked with quicklime. Tripe Edible internal organs of farm animals, including the stomach and the intestines. Troje Storage bin for agricultural products. Tropical Savannah Areas with scattered trees that are dominated by woody and grassy shrubs. Tun A cycle of 360 days in the Long Count Maya calendar. Turtle Maya Constellation The constellation of Orion in Greek mythology. Tzab Meaning “rattle of the snake” in Yucatec Mayan, this is what the contemporary Maya of Yucatán call the Pleiades in the Greek constellation of Taurus. Tzolk’in The Maya 260 day sacred calendar, called Chol Q’ij by the K’iché people of Guatemala. Tzompantli A temple with many skulls carved in stone at the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá. Tzotzil One of the many Mayan languages spoken in southern México in the state of Chiapas.

Tz’utujil Ethnic group and Mayan language in the area surrounding Lake Atitlán in Guatemala. Uinal A month of twenty days in the Haab Maya calendar. Umbilicus The cord that joins an unborn child to the mother. Underworld Also known as Xibalbá, it is the subterranean world of nine levels where the Maya ancestors and “death lord” deities dwell. UNESCO World Heritage Site Ancestral site that has been designated by UNESCO as a special legacy for humanity because of its cultural significance and its beauty. Upper-world The realm of the sky with thirteen levels where the Maya deities dwell. Vernacular Native, in reference to language, home, and other traditions. Vigesimal Base twenty, in contrast with “decimal” which has the number ten as its base. Virgen de Guadalupe Our Lady of Guadalupe is one of the representations of the Virgin Mary of the Catholic Church, whose principal place of worship is at the Basilica of Guadalupe in northern Mexico City. Volcanic tuff A type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption.

Wajikol Meaning “bread of the milpa” in Yucatec Mayan, it is a ceremony held in connection with the harvest. Wajxaqib' B'atz' A ceremony held every 260 days by the K’iche’ people of Guatemala to celebrate a New Year in the Chol Q’ij Maya sacred calendar. Warp In weaving, the warp is the set of lengthwise yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom. Wayeb Five days of purification at the end of the 18 months of twenty days of the Maya Haab calendar. Weft In weaving, the weft is the yarn which is drawn through the warp yarns to create cloth. World Tree or Tree of Life Also called “axis mundi,” is a symbol present in many cultures, which expresses the connection between the Earth and the sky. Xmucane “First Grandfather,” one of the deities of the Popol Vuh, the Maya creation story. Xpiyacoc “First Grandmother,” one of the deities of the Popol Vuh, the Maya creation story. Yucatec A person from the Yucatán.

Yucatec Mayan One of several Mayan languages, spoken in the Yucatán peninsula and parts of Chiapas and Guatemala. Zenith In astronomy, the point in the sky directly overhead from the perspective of an observer on the surface of the Earth. Zenith Passage of the Sun In tropical latitudes, the moment when the Sun, in its apparent motion caused by the rotation of the Earth, passes through a point directly above the observer twice a year. Zenith Tube Vertical tunnel with an underground observation chamber that allows an observer to measure the exact moment of the zenith passage of the Sun, when the Sun is directly overhead at midday. Resources | Living Maya Time A traditional beverage of corn meal cooked in water and typically sweetened with honey. August 11, 3114 BCE Date in the Gregorian calendar corresponding to the beginning date of the Maya Long Count calendar. Axis Mundi The “World Axis,” is a concept and symbol found in many cultures. The idea expresses a vertical connection between the Earth and the sky. Backstrap Loom A simple loom comprising two sticks or bars between which the warp threads are stretched.

One bar is attached to a fixed pole, and the other to the weaver, by means of a strap around the back. Baktun/B'ak'tun One of the cycles of the Maya Long Count calendar containing 144,000 days. Balustrade Architectural feature running down the side of a staircase. Bloodletting A ritualized act of self-sacrifice performed by the ancient Maya, done by the cutting or piercing of the body. Caldera A volcanic feature formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption. Calendar Round A component of the Maya calendar system made from the interweaving of the Tzolk’in and Haab calendars, with a cycle of 52 years. Camioneta The most common form of public transportation in Guatemala. Caracol The name given to the observatory-like structure in the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá. It is named after the building’s interior spiral staircase resembling the inside of a snail’s shell. Cartouche Similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs, Maya hieroglyphs representing the twenty days of the Maya sacred calendar are enclosed in a cartouche. The cartouche is oval with three rounded “feet” underneath.

Ceiba A large tree found in tropical areas including Mesoamerica. In Maya tradition, the ceiba tree connects the planes of the Underworld, the terrestrial realm, and the skies. Chac The Maya god of rain and thunder. Chac Mool A type of stone statue depicting a human figure in a reclining position with the head turned to one side. It is an example of the confluence of Maya traditional styles with those from the city of Tula in central México. Chaya A shrub native to the Yucatán Peninsula, México, that is similar to spinach. Cha’a Chac A traditional Maya ceremony to petition for rain. Chile Chile is the fruit from Capsicum plants, also known as chili pepper. Since 8000 BCE, chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas. Chol Q'ij The name of the Maya sacred calendar in the K’iche’ Mayan language. Cinta The Spanish word for “ribbon,” and a component of traditional Mayan clothing. Cistern A waterproof receptacle for holding water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater.

Cocoyoles Plural of Cocoyol, a type of tree nut with a hard outer shell. Codex/Codices A Codex is a book written by the ancient Maya. These codices (plural) are folding, bark-paper books written using hieroglyphs. Thousands were burned and destroyed during the Spanish conquest. Cofradía Confraternities or honorary councils of Maya religious leaders common in Chiapas and Guatemala. Cofradías interpret Catholic ritual and symbolism using Maya beliefs and worldview. Comal Defined patterns formed by groupings of prominent stars in the night sky. Copal A type of tree resin used by the Maya as incense. Corbel Arch Corbel, or corbeled, arches are the classic Maya method of spanning an interior space. The corbel vault has unequaled stability and harmonious proportions. Corte Skirt of the traditional Maya dress worn by women in Guatemala and southern México. Cosmology Theory, model, or idea that seeks to understand the origin, structure, and evolution of the cosmos or universe.

Day Keeper Specially trained people in the highlands of Guatemala who have a calling to become calendar keepers and who use the sacred 260-days calendar as a symbolic system of values to guide their communities. Death Lords Maya gods of the Underworld. December 21, 2012 CE End date of the 5,125 year cycle of the Maya Long Count calendar. Decipher/Decipherment The analysis and interpretation of script and codes in ancient languages where knowledge of the written language has been lost. Día de la Santa Cruz Day of the Holy Cross, an important holiday with both Catholic and ancient Mesoamerican indigenous significance that is celebrated on May 3rd. Día de los Muertos Day of the Dead, an important holiday with both Catholic and ancient Mesoamerican indigenous significance that is celebrated on November 1st and 2nd. Don Title given to a man as a sign of respect. Doña Title given to a woman as a sign of respect. Earth Lord Spirit of the Earth, the Mesoamerican belief that all things have spirit, including the Earth. Ecliptic The path of the Sun throughout a year with respect to the apparently fixed background of stars.

Emblem Glyph A combination of glyphs with the consistent words “holy lord” and a main sign that changes depending on the Maya city. Equinox Equinox is the time of year when day and night are approximately 12 hours each, everywhere on Earth. It happens twice a year, on March 20th or 21st and September 22nd or 23rd. Fourth Creation In Maya mythology, we are living in the Fourth Creation of the Universe, which began on August 11, 3114 BCE. Gregorian Calendar The Gregorian calendar is an international standard. It is a solar calendar with an average year length is 365.2425 days per year, a close approximation to the tropical year. Haab The Maya solar calendar of 18 months of 20 days, plus five additional days, that make a total of 365 days. Heliacal Rise The heliacal rise of a star or other celestial body other than the Sun occurs when it first becomes visible above the eastern horizon, for a brief moment just before sunrise. Hero Twins Principal characters in the creation story of the Maya, called Hunahpú and Xbalanqué.

Hieroglyph/Glyph The basic unit of the writing system of the ancient Maya. Hieroglyphic Inscriptions The script or writing system of the ancient Maya of Mesoamerica, found inscribed in stone, pottery, bone, jade, accordion folded books, stucco, and other surfaces. Highlands A geographical area in western Guatemala and south-western México that has been populated by the Maya for thousands of years. Huipil/Huipiles The traditional dress of Maya women. In the Yucatán the huipil is a dress, while in Chiapas and Guatemala, the huipil is worn as a blouse. Huracán Supreme deity in the story of creation of the Maya. Iconography Interpretation of the content of images. Iguana Reptile native of tropical areas of México and Central America. Inferior Conjunction Alignment of Mercury or Venus with the Sun as seen from Earth. During the superior conjunction, the planet is behind the Sun, and during the inferior conjunction, the planet is in front of the Sun. Itzá Mayan The language of the Itza Maya people, similar to Yucatec Mayan.

Itza/Itzaes The Itza or Itzaes are an ethnic group of Maya that historically descended from a Yucatec Maya lineage. They inhabit the Petén department (state) of Guatemala. Jade A hard and tough stone that was used by the Maya to make jewelry, weapons, and tools. The color varies from black to lilac, but is most commonly green. Kan Kab’ Red clay found in the Maya region of the Yucatán. Kaqchikel Maya ethnic group and the name of one of the Mayan languages of Guatemala. Katun A katun is a unit of time in the Maya Long Count calendar equal to 7,200 days, or approximately 20 years. Katun-ending Period The end of the katun was marked by numerous ceremonies and at some of the ancient Maya cities, particularly Tikal in Guatemala. Komon Tohil Community-based organization of Day Keepers in Zunil, Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Kukulkán The feathered serpent of Maya mythology. K’awil An important deity of the ancient Maya. K’iche’ The largest Maya ethnic group and also the name of one of the Mayan languages of Guatemala.

K’iche’ Mayan The language of the K’iche’ people in Guatemala. K’in Maya word for Sun, day, and time. Limestone/Lime Limestone, or lime, is a general term for calcium-containing inorganic materials. The Maya use lime to cook corn and to make stucco, a type of plaster used to cover the stone structures and interiors of ancient buildings. Lintel A lintel is a horizontal structural element between two vertical supports. The Maya typically carved stone lintels in their buildings. Long Count One of the calendars of the ancient Maya, spanning cycles of 5,215 years. Lowlands Geographical area spanning the Yucatan peninsula and eastern Guatemala that has been occupied by the Maya for thousands of years. Machete A machete is a large cutting tool similar to a short sword. About 2 feet in length, it has a single sharp edge and it is used to cut grass and other plants. Madrid Codex One of four accordion shaped Maya books that remain from the many thousands that were destroyed by the Spanish invaders and Catholic priests. Mam Maya ethnic group and one of the Mayan languages of Guatemala. Masa Ground corn dough.

Maya-Toltec A style of architecture that reflects a mix of elements from the Toltec and Maya ethnic groups. The Toltec come from Northern Mexico near the town of Tula. Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a geographical area defined by its ancient culture, spanning central México, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Metaphor An analogy that describes a subject in comparison with another, otherwise unrelated object. Metate A stone mortar with two elements, a rectangular base and a stone cylinder known as "mano," which is pressed against the base to grind food, especially grains and seeds. Milpa An ancient system of sustainable agriculture used throughout Mesoamerica that produces maize, beans, and squash, sometimes complemented with chiles. Monolith/Monolithic A monument or sculpture made out of a single block of stone. Nadir In astronomy, the nadir is the point directly underneath an observer on the surface of the Earth. Nadir Passage of the Sun In tropical latitudes, the Sun, in its apparent motion caused by the rotation of the Earth, passes through a point directly underneath the observer twice a year.

Nahuatl The native language of the ancient Aztecs and modern Nahuas of México. Nawal Each day in the Maya Tzolk’in calendar is called a nawal. In the context of the Maya sacred calendar, a nawal is a guardian spirit that is a link with the sacred. Nixtamal The name given to the process of cooking corn with lime (calcium hydroxide). This method of cooking corn releases the amino acid niacin, which is essential to prevent the disease “pellagra.” Observation-based astronomy Geocentric astronomy, based on the observation of celestial bodies from the perspective of an observer on the surface of the Earth. Obsidian A type of volcanic igneous rock, very strong and very sharp. The Maya used obsidian to make tools and weapons, and was used for ornamentation. Olmec Pre-Hispanic culture that developed in the current Mexican states of Tabasco and Veracruz between 1400 and 400 BCE. Best known for its colossal head sculptures made of stone. Owner of the Milpa Spirit of the Earth, the Mesoamerican belief that all things have spirit, including the Earth.

Paris Codex One of four accordion shaped Maya books that survived destruction by the Spanish invaders and Catholic priests. Peccary A type of wild pig native of the Americas. Penis Perforator Razor-sharp pointed tool of obsidian, or the spine of a sting-ray, used to perforate the foreskin of a ruler’s penis in an act of self-sacrifice and bloodletting during Maya rituals. Petén The largest, and most northern, department (state) of Guatemala. A geographic region that harbors many Maya archaeological sites, including Tikal. Pitaya The fruit of a cactus vine native to Mesoamerica that is red on the outside. Its white interior is sprinkled with black seeds. Plateau A geological formation; an area of high land of relatively flat terrain. Plaza Square-shaped central space in a town or part of an architectural complex, and the gathering place of the community. Popol Wuj/Popol Vuh The “community book” of the K’iche’ Maya that recounts the creation story of the Maya people. Pottery Shards In archaeology, a shard is a historic or prehistoric fragment of pottery.

Precession A wobble in the Earth’s rotation axis caused by gravitational interactions with the Moon and Sun. The Earth goes through one complete cycle of precession every 25,772 years. Puuc Meaning “mountain” in Yucatec Mayan, Puuc is a region in the northwest of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is also a style of architecture characterized by skilled ornamentation. Q'anjob'al One of 31 Mayan languages spoken in Guatemala. Q’ukumatz The feather serpent of Maya mythology. Sac Be’ Meaning “white road” in Yucatec Mayan, a straight raised pre-Hispanic causeway or road. Sac Ha’ An offering of corn that is used during Maya ceremonies to petition for rain in the Yucatán peninsula. Sacred Cenote The largest natural sinkhole at the Maya city of Chichén Itzá where the ancient Maya made offerings and sacrifices. Savanna A grassland ecosystem with an open canopy of trees and a layer of grasses. Scarlet Macaw A large and colorful parrot, native to the humid, evergreen forests in the tropics of the Americas. Sinkhole Natural underground water hole.

Sisal Native plant of the Yucatán, México, with fibers that are used to make rope, cord, and tapestries. Solar Maximum The period of greatest solar activity in the eleven year cycle of the Sun. During solar maximum, the Sun’s surface has the largest number of dark sunspots. Solar Year A solar, or tropical year, is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth. The mean solar year is 365.242 days. Solstice The winter solstice is when we experience the longest night and the shortest day of the year. The summer solstice is when we have the longest day and shortest night of the year. Sots'leb The name of the city of Zinancantán, Chiapas, México, in the Tzotzil Mayan language. Spider Monkey An endangered monkey native to the Americas that inhabits tropical forests from southern México to Brazil. Spondylus Shells Also known as thorny oysters or spiny oysters, these colorful shells were used by the ancient Maya for ornamentation.

Squall A sudden, sharp increase in wind speed which is usually associated with active weather. Stalactites/Stalagmites Natural formation in caves that result from the continuous deposit of minerals transported by water seeping into the cave, especially calcium bicarbonate. Stela/Stelae A monument shaped like a column, usually monolithic, inscribed with a commemorative, funerary, or ceremonial function. Stingray Spine A type of fish related to sharks. The ancient Maya used the spine of stingrays to perforate parts of their bodies in acts of bloodletting and self-sacrifice. Story of Creation A symbolic narrative of how the world came to be and how humans first appeared on Earth. Stucco A substance made of an aggregate, a binder, and water. This material is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. The smooth surface serves as a protective cover that is often painted or sculpted. Sunspot Dark spots that appear on the surface of the Sun within an eleven year cycle. They are caused by intense magnetic activity. Syncretism The integration of different, and at times contradictory, belief systems.

Tamal/Tamales Ancestral dish of Mesoamerica, of indigenous origin, generally prepared with cornmeal cooked by steam, wrapped in corn husks or banana leaf, and filled with meat, vegetables, or fruits. Tectonic Activity Natural forces that cause the deformation of the Earth’s crust. Tepew One of the Maya deities in the Popol Vuh, meaning “sovereign” or “power.” Tortilla A flat bread in the shape of a circle made of corn meal that has been cooked with quicklime. Tripe Edible internal organs of farm animals, including the stomach and the intestines. Troje Storage bin for agricultural products. Tropical Savannah Areas with scattered trees that are dominated by woody and grassy shrubs. Tun A cycle of 360 days in the Long Count Maya calendar. Turtle Maya Constellation The constellation of Orion in Greek mythology. Tzab Meaning “rattle of the snake” in Yucatec Mayan, this is what the contemporary Maya of Yucatán call the Pleiades in the Greek constellation of Taurus.

Tzolk’in The Maya 260 day sacred calendar, called Chol Q’ij by the K’iché people of Guatemala. Tzompantli A temple with many skulls carved in stone at the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá. Tzotzil One of the many Mayan languages spoken in southern México in the state of Chiapas. Tz’utujil Ethnic group and Mayan language in the area surrounding Lake Atitlán in Guatemala. Uinal A month of twenty days in the Haab Maya calendar. Umbilicus The cord that joins an unborn child to the mother. Underworld Also known as Xibalbá, it is the subterranean world of nine levels where the Maya ancestors and “death lord” deities dwell. UNESCO World Heritage Site Ancestral site that has been designated by UNESCO as a special legacy for humanity because of its cultural significance and its beauty. Upper-world The realm of the sky with thirteen levels where the Maya deities dwell. Vernacular Native, in reference to language, home, and other traditions. Vigesimal Base twenty, in contrast with “decimal” which has the number ten as its base.

Virgen de Guadalupe Our Lady of Guadalupe is one of the representations of the Virgin Mary of the Catholic Church, whose principal place of worship is at the Basilica of Guadalupe in northern Mexico City. Volcanic tuff A type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Wajikol Meaning “bread of the milpa” in Yucatec Mayan, it is a ceremony held in connection with the harvest. Wajxaqib' B'atz' A ceremony held every 260 days by the K’iche’ people of Guatemala to celebrate a New Year in the Chol Q’ij Maya sacred calendar. Warp In weaving, the warp is the set of lengthwise yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom. Wayeb Five days of purification at the end of the 18 months of twenty days of the Maya Haab calendar. Weft In weaving, the weft is the yarn which is drawn through the warp yarns to create cloth. World Tree or Tree of Life Also called “axis mundi,” is a symbol present in many cultures, which expresses the connection between the Earth and the sky.

Xmucane “First Grandfather,” one of the deities of the Popol Vuh, the Maya creation story. Xpiyacoc “First Grandmother,” one of the deities of the Popol Vuh, the Maya creation story. Yucatec A person from the Yucatán. Yucatec Mayan One of several Mayan languages, spoken in the Yucatán peninsula and parts of Chiapas and Guatemala. Zenith In astronomy, the point in the sky directly overhead from the perspective of an observer on the surface of the Earth. Zenith Passage of the Sun In tropical latitudes, the moment when the Sun, in its apparent motion caused by the rotation of the Earth, passes through a point directly above the observer twice a year. Zenith Tube Vertical tunnel with an underground observation chamber that allows an observer to measure the exact moment of the zenith passage of the Sun, when the Sun is directly overhead at midday. Ancient Aztec Weapon Ancient Aztec Weapon Each ancient Aztec weapon was unique, used for a specific purpose - Aztec warfare was a highly organized, complex affair, steeped in ritual and tradition.

We know quite a bit about some of the weapons that were used by the Aztecs, though it appears much of the history has been lost. Manuel Aguilar-Moreno writes: One finds a repetition of the most important weapons in historical sources, while other weapons receive minimal mention in only a few scattered documents. This suggests that other, less commonly known arms may be forgotten. So we'll look at the ones that we do know a little about, and briefly discuss each ancient Aztec weapon. Ancient Aztec Weapon: the Maquahuitl Perhaps the best known ancient Aztec weapon is the maquahuitl (macahuitl). This is sometimes compared to the sword, and it was a powerful, close contact weapon. Like the European sword, they came in two varieties - one handed and two handed. Made from wood (usually oak), they were about 3-4" wide and 3-4' long. The two handed versions might be slightly wider and as tall as a person. Embedded in the edges was obsidian (volcanic stone) or flint. The maquahuitls were incredibly strong, and the Spanish claimed they could chop the head off a horse with one blow.

They were sharp and the Aztecs knew how to use them. They could not thrust like a sword, and so they lent themselves to a different type of warfare. The picture of a maquahuitl is from The Book of the Sword by Richard Burton. Most likely the maquahuitl usually had simpler grips. Clubs The maquahuitl could be used as a club, but other types of clubs were used. The cuauhololli was a mace made of wood with a ball at the end. It could be used to smash and crush. Various other types of clubs were commonly used, sometimes just made of wood, other times with embedded stone as the maquahuitl. Spears and lances Another common ancient Aztec weapon was the spear. They were extremely sharp, and sometimes over 7 feet long. They didn't have a small point as many spears you may be familiar with, but a blade a foot wide made of smaller stone blades. Theses spears were known to pierce the Spanish armour, and were sharp enough that the warriors could use them to shave. They are called tepoztopilli. Spears were used in Mexico long before the Aztec empire.

Atlatls Obsidian: Igneous Rock - Pictures, Uses, Properties Obsidian What is Obsidian, How Does it Form, and What is it Used For? Obsidian: The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. The curved semi-concentric ridges are breakage marks associated with obsidian's conchoidal fracture. The rock has very sharp edges. What is Obsidian? Obsidian is an igneous rock that forms when molten rock material cools so rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. It is an amorphous material known as a " mineraloid ." The result is a volcanic glass with a smooth uniform texture that breaks with a conchoidal fracture (see photo). Where Does Obsidian Form? Obsidian is usually an extrusive rock - one that solidifies above Earth's surface.

However, it can form in a variety of cooling environments: along the edges of a lava flow (extrusive) along the edges of a volcanic dome (extrusive) around the edges of a sill or a dike (intrusive) where lava contacts water (extrusive) where lava cools while airborne (extrusive) Types of Obsidian: The specimens shown above are from Glass Butte rockhounding site in central Oregon. It shows the diversity of obsidian types that can be found in a small geographic area. Clockwise from upper left are: double flow obsidian, rainbow obsidian, black obsidian, pumpkin obsidian, mahogany obsidian, gold sheen obsidian, and the piece in the center is gold sheen. The nice photo above is from the Glass Butte Rockhounding Site page on the Deschutes National Forest website . Mahogany obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "mahogany obsidian." Image © iStockphoto / Arpad Benedek. What Color is Obsidian? Rainbow Obsidian: A baroque cabochon of iridescent "rainbow obsidian." Black is the most common color of obsidian. However, it can also be brown, tan, or green.

Rarely, obsidian can be blue, red, orange, or yellow. The colors are thought to be caused mainly by trace elements or inclusions. Occasionally two colors of obsidian will be swirled together in a single specimen. The most common color combination is black and brown obsidian swirled together - that's called "mahogany obsidian" (see photo). As a "glass," obsidian is chemically unstable. With the passage of time, some obsidian begins to crystallize. This process does not happen at a uniform rate throughout the rock. Instead it begins at various locations within the rock. At these locations, the crystallization process forms radial clusters of white or gray cristobalite crystals within the obsidian. When cut and polished, these specimens are referred to as "snowflake obsidian" (see photos). Rarely, obsidian has an iridescent or metallic "sheen" caused by light reflecting from minute inclusions of mineral crystals, rock debris, or gas. These colored specimens are known as "rainbow obsidian," "golden obsidian," or "silver obsidian," depending upon the color of the sheen or iridescence. These specimens are very desirable for the manufacture of jewelry.

Snowflake obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "snowflake obsidian." Image © iStockphoto / Martin Novak. What is the Composition of Obsidian? Most obsidians have a composition similar to rhyolite and granite . Granites and rhyolites can form from the same magma as obsidian and are often geographically associated with the obsidian. Rarely, volcanic glasses are found with a composition similar to basalt and gabbro . These glassy rocks are named "tachylyte." Are There Other Glassy Igneous Rocks? Pumice , scoria , and tachylyte are other volcanic glasses formed by rapid cooling. Pumice and scoria differ from obsidian by having abundant vesicles - cavities in the rock produced when gas bubbles were trapped in a solidifying melt. Tachylyte differs in composition - it has a composition similar to basalt and gabbro. Obsidian outcrop: Obsidian along the edge of a lava flow in central Oregon. Image © iStockphoto / Phil Augustavo. Obsidian knife blade: A knife blade manufactured from mahogany obsidian.

The craftsman who made this blade had a very high skill level and was able to produce a serrated edge. Image © iStockphoto / Al Braunworth. Occurrence of Obsidian Obsidian is found in many locations worldwide. It is confined to areas of geologically recent volcanic activity. Obsidian older than a few million years is rare because the glassy rock is rapidly destroyed or altered by weathering, heat, or other processes. Significant deposits of obsidian are found in Argentina, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Russia, United States, and many other locations. In the United States it is not found east of the Mississippi River, as there is no geologically recent volcanic activity there. In the western US it is found at many locations in Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. Most obsidian used in the jewelry trade is produced in the United States. Obsidian spear point: A spear point fashioned from opaque black obsidian. Image © iStockphoto / Charles Butzin. Rock & Mineral Kits: Get a rock, mineral, or fossil kit to learn more about Earth materials.

The best way to learn about rocks is to have specimens available for testing and examination. Uses of Obsidian as a Cutting Tool The conchoidal fracture of obsidian causes it to break into pieces with curved surfaces. This type of fracturing can produce rock fragments with very sharp edges. These sharp fragments may have prompted the first use of obsidian by people. The first use of obsidian by people probably occurred when a sharp piece of obsidian was used as a cutting tool. People then discovered how to skillfully break the obsidian to produce cutting tools in a variety of shapes. Obsidian was used to make knives, arrowheads, spear points, scrapers, and many other weapons and tools. Once these discoveries were made, obsidian quickly became the raw material of preference for producing almost any sharp object. The easy-to-recognize rock became one of the first targets of organized "mining." It is probably a safe bet that all natural obsidian outcrops that are known today were discovered and utilized by ancient people. Apache tears: "Apache Tears" is a name used for small obsidian nodules of about one inch or less that can be found in volcanic areas of the southwestern United States. Their name comes from a Native American legend.

During a battle between Apaches and the U.S. Cavalry in 1870, the outnumbered Apaches, facing defeat, rode their horses over a cliff rather than allow themselves to be killed by their enemy. Upon hearing the story of the battle, the tears of their family members turned to stone when they hit the ground. Those stones are now found as the black obsidian nodules. People who do rock tumbling often polish Apache Tears. They are difficult to polish because the obsidian chips and bruises easily. Success occurs when they are cushioned during the tumbling with smaller pieces of rough or small ceramic media. Stone Age Manufacturing and Trade The manufacture of obsidian tools by humans dates back to the Stone Age. At some locations, tons of obsidian flakes reveal the presence of ancient "factories." Some of these sites have enough waste debris to suggest that many people labored there for decades producing a variety of obsidian objects.

Making arrowheads, spear points, knife blades, and scrapers from obsidian, chert , or flint might have been the world's first "manufacturing industry." Obsidian was so valued for these uses that ancient people mined, transported, and traded obsidian and obsidian objects over distances of up to a thousand miles. Archaeologists have been able to document the geography of this trade by matching the characteristics of obsidian in outcrops with the characteristics of obsidian in cutting tools. A study done by the Idaho National Laboratory used composition studies by X-ray fluorescence to identify the source outcrops of obsidian artifacts and map their use across the western United States. Obsidian in Modern Surgery Although using a rock as a cutting tool might sound like "stone age equipment," obsidian continues to play an important role in modern surgery. Obsidian can be used to produce a cutting edge that is thinner and sharper than the best surgical steel. Today, thin blades of obsidian are placed in surgical scalpels used for some of the most precise surgery. In controlled studies, the performance of obsidian blades was equal to or superior to the performance of surgical steel.

Obsidian jewelry: Mahogany obsidian and snowflake obsidian cabochons set in sterling silver pendants. Obsidian for opal triplets: A thin piece of obsidian is often used as a "backing" material for opal doublets and triplets. The black obsidian adds stability to the opal and provides a dark background color that contrasts with the opal's fire. Uses of Obsidian in Jewelry Obsidian is a popular gemstone . It is often cut into beads and cabochons or used to manufacture tumbled stones. Obsidian is sometimes faceted and polished into highly reflective beads. Some transparent specimens are faceted to produce interesting gems. The use of obsidian in jewelry can be limited by its durability. It has a hardness of about 5.5 which makes it easy to scratch. It also lacks toughness and is easily broken or chipped upon impact. These durability concerns make obsidian an inappropriate stone for rings and bracelets. It is best suited for use in low-impact pieces such as earrings, brooches, and pendants. Obsidian is also used in making opal doublets and opal triplets .

Thin slices or chips of opal are glued to a thin slice of obsidian to make a composite stone. The black obsidian provides an inexpensive and color-contrasting background that makes opal's colorful fire much more obvious. It also adds mass and stability to the opal that facilitates cutting it into a gem. Other Uses of Obsidian Freshly broken pieces of obsidian have a very high luster. Ancient people noticed that they could see a reflection in obsidian and used it as a mirror. Later, pieces of obsidian were ground flat and highly polished to improve their reflective abilities. Obsidian's hardness of 5.5 makes it relatively easy to carve. Artists have used obsidian to make masks, small sculptures, and figurines for thousands of years.

Question: Which black, igneous rock was used by the Mayans to make their sword blades?
Answer: Obsidian