Atropa belladonna Photo courtesy of Flickr user peganum All week on Wild Things, we’ll be presenting our favorite dangerous, horrifying, and monstrous plants, excerpted from The Big, Bad Book of Botany: The World’s Most Fascinating Flora by Michael Largo. Out now from William Morrow. Atropa belladonna is a Eurasian perennial with reddish, bell-shaped flowers that bear glossy-coated, black berries. Other names for the plant include belladonna, deadly nightshade, devil’s berries, naughty man’s cherries, death cherries, beautiful death, and devil’s herb. The plant earns its sinister nicknames, as its foliage and berries are extremely toxic, containing potent dosages of tropane alkaloids. Its most common name, belladonna, derives from Italian, meaning “beautiful woman.” Historically, women have used the herb’s oil to dilate and enlarge the pupils for seductive effect. But it’s best known as the plant of choice for assassins through history. Advertisement A native to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, the herb grows wildly in many parts of the United States, mostly in dumps, quarries, near old ruins, under shade trees, or atop wooded hills.

Belladonna is a branching plant that often grows to resemble a shrub of about 4 feet in height within a single growing season. Its leaves are long, extending 7 inches, and its bell-shaped flowers are purple with green tinges, about an inch long. The fruit and berries appear green when growing, but, as the toxins get stronger in the ripening stage, turn a shiny black color. Belladonna blooms in midsummer through early fall, and its roots are thick, fleshy, and white, growing to about 6 inches or more in length. Deadly nightshade is one of the most toxic plants in the Eastern Hemisphere. While the roots are the most deadly part, the poisonous alkaloids run through the entirety of the plant. Scopolamine and hyoscyamine are among these toxins, both of which cause delirium and hallucinations. Deadly nightshade berries pose the greatest danger to children, as they are attractive and are deceptively sweet at first bite. Yet just two berries can kill a child who eats them, and it takes only 10 or 20 to kill an adult. Likewise, consuming even a single leaf can prove fatal to humans.

Cattle, horses, rabbits, goats, and sheep can eat deadly nightshade without ill effect, though many pets are vulnerable to its lethal effects. Symptoms of deadly nightshade poisoning present quickly, so if medical aid is far off, drink a large glass of warm vinegar or a mixture of mustard and water, which may dilute and neutralize its toxicity. Though today we understand the risks involved in using deadly nightshade outweigh any potential benefits, it has a long history in medicine and cosmetics, and as a weapon. Ancient Romans harnessed the effects of the plant to make poison-tipped arrows guaranteed to kill, and still others found it an effective anesthesia for surgery, as numbness and drowsiness are side effects of its toxic mix. If you wish to grow your own crop of the herb, soak the seeds in refrigerated water for two weeks, replacing the water daily. Plant the seeds immediately after two weeks—the young seeds will need sufficient moisture if they’re to germinate successfully, so choose a plot outdoors in May, when there is no fear of frost, and after a strong rain, when the soil is fairly moist.

Place the seeds 18 inches apart from one another, and make sure to keep the soil free of weeds or other plants. First-year plants should be thinned out to about 2 1/2 to 3 feet to avoid overcrowding in the next year. Advertisement Because it’s so difficult to grow, belladonna rarely appears in gardens. Though it’s cultivated for medicinal purposes in England, France, and North America, the herb has no major value as food. Some home gardeners plant it for its large, colorful display of berries, but remember: This beauty blooms with no printed warning signs, and it’s a risky and deadly choice to grow it haphazardly. Top Comment The Nightshade family includes potatoes, tomatoes and eggplant. Is the genus described in the article the very same deadly nightshade? You know, you can graft a tomato stem onto a nightshade. More... -EricNelson745 How Deadly Are Nightshades? - Diagnosis:Diet Subscribe to blog How Deadly Are Nightshades? Nightshades have a reputation as bad actors in a variety of chronic conditions, such as arthritis, fibromyalgia, and IBS. But what do we really know about how these foods affect our health?

To skip to a specific section, choose a heading below: Meet the Nightshade (Solanaceae) Family: Tomatoes Tobacco Peppers (bell peppers, chili peppers, paprika, tamales, tomatillos, pimentos, cayenne, etc) At first glance, the nightshades may look like a random collection of foods that couldn’t possibly be related. However, every nightshade plant produces fruits that all sport that same adorable little green elfish hat. Of the foods above, only tomatoes, eggplants, goji berries and peppers are “fruits” (the potato is a tuber and tobacco is a leaf). The fruits of potato and tobacco plants wear the same telltale hat, but we don’t eat the fruits of those plants. What are glycoalkaloids? Glycoalkaloids are natural pesticides produced by nightshade plants. Glycoalkaloids are bitter compounds which are found throughout the plant, but their concentrations are especially high in leaves, flowers, and unripe fruits. They are there to defend plants against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and insects.

Cherries, apples, and sugar beets also contain small amounts of glycoalkaloid even though they are not nightshades. How do glycoalkaloids kill pests? Glycoalkaloids act as invisible hand grenades. They bind strongly to the cholesterol in the cell membranes of predators, and in so doing, they disrupt the structure of those membranes, causing cells to leak or burst open upon contact. Glycoalkaloids are neurotoxins. They block the enzyme cholinesterase. This enzyme is responsible for breaking down acetylcholine, a vital neurotransmitter that carries signals between nerve cells and muscle cells. When this important enzyme is blocked, acetylcholine can accumulate and electrically overstimulate the predator’s muscle cells. This can lead to paralysis, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and death. Military “nerve gases” work exactly the same way. Ok, so glycoalkaloids are clearly nightmarish compounds for the cells of tiny creatures daring to munch upon nightshade plants, but what do we know about their effects on human health? Nightshade glycoalkaloid health “benefits“ Health benefits? From a pesticide?

Hmmm… Since most people believe plant compounds are good for humans, when scientists conduct experiments with plant extracts, they are more likely to look for health benefits than health risks. Glycoalkaloids are anti-inflammatory. Glycoalkaloids have been shown to reduce inflammation in laboratory animals. This is likely due to the fact that glycoalkaloids are structurally similar to compounds called glucocorticoids, which have well-known anti-inflammatory properties. Familiar examples of glucocorticoids include cortisol (our body’s natural stress hormone), and Prednisone, a commonly-prescribed anti-inflammatory medicine. It should be noted, however, that just because glycoalkaloids or glucocorticoids can reduce inflammation doesn’t mean they are always good for you. Prednisone is not something most of us should be taking every day, because it has numerous damaging side effects, and elevated levels of natural cortisol in our bodies weaken our immune system and slow our metabolism. Glycoalkaloids kill bacteria and viruses. It should also not be surprising that glycoalkaloids have been shown in laboratory studies to possess antibiotic and antiviral properties, since this is what nature designed them for.

Glycoalkaloids have anti-cancer properties. In laboratory (in vitro) studies, glycoalkaloids can trigger cancer cells to self-destruct. This process is called “apoptosis.” Unfortunately, they can also cause healthy non-cancerous cells to do the same thing. Cancer studies in live animals and humans (in vivo) have not yet been conducted. The problem with so many anti-cancer plant compounds is that they are double-edged swords, killing both cancer cells and healthy cells alike: “…the undiﬀerentiating destruction of both cancer and noncancerous cell lines…leads to questions of therapeutic uses of glycoalkaloids due to safety considerations. However, it is diﬃcult to translate the results of an in vivo trial in vitro. Therefore, both animal and human experiments are essential to conﬁrm or disprove the in vivo data observed in these studies.” [Milner 2011]. Health Risks of Nightshade Glycoalkaloids Glycoalkaloids destroy cell membranes. Research has shown that glycoalkaloids can burst open the membranes of red blood cells and mitochondria (our cells’ energy generators).

“Some scientists have wondered whether glycoalkaloids could be one potential cause for “leaky gut” syndromes due to their ability to poke holes in cells: “…glycoalkaloids, normally available while eating potatoes, embed themselves and disrupt epithelial barrier integrity in a dose-dependent fashion in both cell culture models and in sheets of mammalian intestine…animals with the genetic predisposition to develop IBD, demonstrated a greater degree of small intestinal epithelial barrier disruption and inflammation when their epithelium was exposed to the potato glycoalkaloids chaconine and solanine.” Glycoalkaloids cause birth defects in laboratory animals. Nightshades and Mental Health Centuries ago, the common eggplant was referred to as “mad apple” due to belief that eating it regularly would cause mental illness. Due to widespread pro-plant food bias, the vast majority of scientific studies of nightshades explore their potential benefits rather than their downsides, so we do not have the studies we wish to have about how these interesting foods affect our well-being.

However, there have been plenty of documented cases of nightshade toxicity that demonstrate to us how poisonous they can be to our central nervous system, capable of causing severe neuropsychiatric side effects in human beings: “In cases of mild glycoalkaloid poisoning symptoms include headache, vomiting, and diarrhea. Neurological symptoms were also reported, including apathy, restlessness, drowsiness, mental confusion, rambling, incoherence, stupor, hallucinations, dizziness, trembling, and visual disturbances.”[Milner SE 2011] In a group of children who suffered from solanine poisoning as a result of eating potatoes that had been in storage for too long, severe psychiatric side effects were observed: “The largest series of solanine poisoning involved an English day school where 78 schoolboys developed diarrhea and vomiting after eating potatoes stored since the summer term. Symptoms began 7-19 hours after ingestion with vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, and malaise. Of the 78 boys, 17 were admitted to the hospital.

Other symptoms included fever (88%), altered mental status (drowsiness, confusion, delirium) (82%), restlessness (47%), headache (29%), and hallucinations (23%). Three boys were seriously ill with hypotension, tachycardia, and stupor out of proportion to fluid and electrolyte imbalance. These boys were discharged 6-11 days after admission, and they had nonspecific symptoms and visual blurring for several weeks after release from the hospital.” [Barceloux DG 2009] Keep in mind that these reactions just happened to be recorded due to their severity. We have no documented information about how everyday consumption of nightshades affects sensitive individuals, only numerous on-line personal accounts of mental health problems such as anxiety, panic, and insomnia that were alleviated by removal of nightshades from the diet. I personally experience profound insomnia and mild panic symptoms when I eat nightshades, which makes sense because glycoalkaloids overstimulate the nervous system.

If you experience anxiety or insomnia and are curious to know more about nightshades and the other foods most likely to be contributing to your symptoms, I recommend you read my Psychology Today article “ 5 Foods Proven to Cause Anxiety and Insomnia .” Fruits vs vegetables: here we go again! Those of you who are familiar with my philosophy about plant foods know that I believe vegetables are far less trustworthy when it comes to our health than edible fruits, and nightshades make this point nicely. [ Watch my Ancestral Health Symposium video about vegetables vs. fruits if you are curious about my vegetable philosophy.] As you will see below, even though nightshade fruits contain glycoalkaloids, they either contain lower amounts of these potentially toxic compounds or contain gentler versions of them. Luckily, most of the edible nightshades–eggplant, tomatoes, goji and peppers– are fruits (fruits by definition contain seeds). Tobacco is a nightshade vegetable, but it is typically smoked, not eaten, so the only nightshade vegetable humans consume is the beloved potato. Potato Glycoalkaloids All potatoes are nightshades except for sweet potatoes and yams.

Potato plants make two glycoalkaloids: alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine. These are the most toxic glycoalkaloids found in the edible nightshade family. Alpha-chaconine is actually more potent than alpha-solanine, but solanine has been studied much more thoroughly, and is therefore more familiar. There are numerous cases of livestock deaths from eating raw potatoes, potato berries, and potato leaves, but people don’t eat these things. However, there are well-documented reports of people getting glycoalkaloid poisoning from potatoes, typically from eating improperly stored, green, or sprouting potatoes. At low doses, humans can experience gastrointestinal symptoms, such as vomiting and diarrhea. At higher doses, much more serious symptoms can occur, including fever, low blood pressure, confusion, and other neurological problems. At very high doses, glycoalkaloids are fatal. Another reason why many people may not be bothered by potatoes is that glycoalkaloids are very poorly absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, so, if you have a healthy digestive tract, most of the glycoalkaloid won’t make it into your bloodstream.

However, if you eat potatoes every day, levels can build up over time and accumulate in the body’s tissues and organs, because it takes many days for them to be cleared. Also, since glycoalkaloids have the ability to burst cells open, they can theoretically cause damage to the cells that line your digestive system as they are passing through (this has been proven in animal studies but there are no human studies, to my knowledge). Due to known toxicity, the FDA limits the glycoalkaloid content in potatoes to a maximum of 200 mg/kg potatoes (91 mg per pound). Human studies show that doses as low as 1 mg glycoalkaloid per kg body weight can be toxic, and that doses as low as 3 mg/kg can be fatal. This means that, if you weigh 150 lbs, then doses as low as 68 mg could be toxic, and doses as low as 202 mg could be fatal.

Glycoalkaloid levels of a few prepared potato products are available [Milner 2006]: Potato chips, 1 oz bag: 0.36 to 0.88 mg chaconine and 0.29 to 1.4 mg solanine. Total glycoalkaloid concentrations range from 2.7 to 12.4 mg per bag. Fried potato skins, 4 oz: 4.4 to 13.6 mg chaconine and 2.0 to 9.5 mg solanine. Total glycoalkaloid concentrations range from 6.4 to 23.1 mg per 4 oz serving. Potato Processing 101 The vast majority of glycoalkaloid is in the potato skin, so peeling will remove virtually all of it. Glycoalkaloid levels can be dangerously high in unripe and sprouting potatoes; any greenish areas or “eyes” should be removed or avoided. Glycoalkaloids survive most types of cooking and processing.

In fact, deep frying will increase levels if the oil isn’t changed frequently, so fried products such as potato skins and french fries can contain relatively high amounts: “Mechanical damage to potato tissue increases the concentration of glycoalkaloids available for consumption. In addition, frying potatoes at high temperatures does not inactivate but instead serves to preserve and concentrate glycoalkaloids within the potato, leaving them available for ingestion and delivery to the intestine…” [Patel 2002] Boiling—reduces glycoalkaloids by a few percentage points Microwaving—reduces glycoalkaloids by 15% Deep frying at 150C (300F)—no effect (McDonald’s uses 340F degree oil) Deep frying at 210C (410F)—reduces glycoalkaloid content by 40% Tomato Glycoalkaloids Tomato nightshades include all types of tomatoes: cherry tomatoes, green tomatoes, yellow tomatoes and ripe red tomatoes. Tomatoes produce two glycoalkaloids: alpha-tomatine and dehydrotomatine.

The majority is in the form of alpha-tomatine, so we’ll focus on that one here. As tomatoes ripen, alpha-tomatine levels drop dramatically, from about 500 mg/kg in green tomatoes to about 5 mg/kg in ripe red tomatoes, or 2.3 mg/lb. [For those of you keeping score at home—that’s Fruits: 1, Veggies: 0.] Artificially ripened fruits may contain higher amounts than sun-ripened fruits. Tomato glycoalkaloids are about 20 times less toxic than potato glycoalkaloids. (Fruits: 2, Veggies: 0). There are no dosage studies of tomatine in humans, but studies in mice tell us that 500 mg tomatine per 1 kg body weight (or 227 mg per pound) is the median lethal dose (“LD50”). This doesn’t tell us how much it would take to kill a 150 lb person; it only tells us that it would take 34 grams of tomatine to kill a 150-pound mouse.

Since ripe tomatoes contain 5 mg/kg or 2.3 mg/lb of tomatine, it would take nearly 15,000 pounds of tomatoes to kill this Mighty Mouse (probably many fewer pounds if you were to simply hurl them in his general direction from across the room). Since green tomatoes contain 100 times more tomatine, it would only take 150 pounds of green tomatoes to kill the overgrown rodent. We do not understand the effect of low doses of tomatine over time on any type of animal, including humans. Eggplant Glycoalkaloids Centuries ago, the common eggplant was referred to as “mad apple” due to belief that eating it regularly would cause mental illness. Eggplants produce two glycoalkaloids: alpha-solamargine and alpha-solasonine. Solamargine is more potent than solasonine. Whereas potato glycoalkaloids are located mainly in the skin, in eggplants, glycoalkaloids are found primarily within the seeds and flesh; the peel contains negligible amounts.

The common eggplant (solanum melongena) contains 10-20 mg of glycoalkaloid per kg (or 4.5 to 9 mg per pound of eggplant). Eggplant glycoalkaloids are considered relatively nontoxic compared to potato glycoalkaloids (Fruits: 3, Veggies: 0). The median lethal dose (LD50) in rodents is 1.75 mg/kg. This means that it would take at least 13 pounds of eggplant to kill a 150 lb monster mouse. [Note to self—when facing a giant rodent in a dark alley, go for the eggplants, not the tomatoes]. Peppers Red and green bell peppers contain less than 10 mg of glycoalkaloid per kg. This is a very small amount, so if you react badly to peppers, you are either very sensitive, or you are responding to other compounds within the peppers, such as the notoriously hot and spicy capsaicinoids. What about Goji Berries? Your guess is as good as mine…I could not locate any scientific information about glycoalkaloids in these foods.

Nightshades and Nicotine Nightshade foods also contain small amounts of nicotine, especially when unripe. Nicotine is much higher in tobacco leaves, of course. Scientists think that nicotine is a natural plant pesticide, although it is unclear exactly how it works to protect plants from invaders. The amount of nicotine in ripe nightshade foods ranges from 2 to 7 micrograms per kg of food. Nicotine is heat-stable, therefore, it is found in prepared foods such as ketchup and French fries. The health effects of these small doses is not known, but some scientists wonder whether the nicotine content of these foods is why some people describe feeling addicted to them. In my opinion, it is more likely that the high carbohydrate content of those foods is responsible for their addictive properties. Do you have nightshade sensitivity? As with any food sensitivity, the only way to find out is to remove nightshades from your diet for a couple of weeks or so to see if you feel better. There are ZERO scientific articles about nightshade sensitivity, chronic pain, or arthritis in the literature, however, the internet is full of anecdotal reports of people who have found that nightshades aggravate arthritis, fibromyalgia, or other chronic pain syndromes.

I am personally very sensitive to nightshades; they cause me a variety of symptoms, most notably heartburn, difficulty concentrating, pounding heart, muscle/nerve/joint pain, and profound insomnia. Everyone is different, so as always, you’ll need to discover for yourself whether these foods may pose problems for your individual chemistry. However, given what we know about nightshade chemicals, common sense tells us that these foods are well worth exploring as potential culprits in pain syndromes, gastrointestinal syndromes, and neurologic/psychiatric symptoms. Recommended Nightshade-Free Cookbooks Since nightshades in various forms find their way into so many familiar dishes, it can be daunting to know where to begin when first trying to cook without them. While there are many nightshade-free cookbooks on the market, these two stand head and shoulders above the rest because they both focus on whole foods recipes free of other common food culprits. The Healing Kitchen: 175+ Quick & Easy Paleo Recipes to Help You Thrive is co-authored by the fabulous Sarah Ballantyne (aka PaleoMom) who has an impressive PhD in medical biophysics.

This cookbook eliminates nightshades, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, eggs, and dairy. In addition to delicious recipes, the authors do a beautiful job of explaining the science behind healthy eating, encouraging you to stay positive by focusing on what you CAN eat. The Autoimmune Paleo Cookbook: An Allergen-Free Approach to Managing Chronic Illness is written by nutritional therapist/cook Mickey Trescott. This beautiful and supportive cookbook includes helpful meal and shopping plans. All recipes are free of nightshades, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, eggs, and dairy. Quite a few recipes rely on coconut and garlic, so if you have sensitivities to these foods, it may not be the one for you, but otherwise it’s a wonderful choice. Other Food Sensitivity Syndromes If nightshades aren’t your problem, you may be interested to know that there are many other foods which can cause real health issues for people.

To read about foods that interfere with proper thyroid function, see my post: Foods That Cause Hypothyroidism To learn how aged, cured, fermented, smoked and processed foods can cause or worsen allergies, migraines, PMS/peri-menopausal symptoms, IBS, anxiety, or insomnia, read Freshness Counts: Histamine Intolerance To learn which foods are most likely to cause acne, check out my post The Complexion Connection To understand the risks of eating broccoli, kale, and other cruciferous vegetables, see my post Is Broccoli Good For You? The Link Between Nightshades, Chronic Pain and Inflammation The Link Between Nightshades, Chronic Pain and Inflammation Posted on: Sunday, April 21st 2013 at 5:00 am Written By: Nightshade Vegetables Few people are familiar with the term nightshade vegetables , and many will be surprised to learn that consuming foods from this plant group may be contributing to their pain and inflammation. Nightshades belong to the Solanaceae family which includes over 2,000 species. They also include some of the most popular foods consumed today; such as tomatoes, potatoes, all types of peppers, and eggplant.

Although not truly nightshades, blueberries, huckleberries, goji berries and ashwaganda all share the same inflammation-inducing alkaloids. The Solanaceae family contains cholinesterase inhibiting glycoalkaloids and steroid alkaloids including, among others, solanine in potato and eggplant, tomatine in tomato, nicotine in tobacco, and capsaicin in garden peppers. The glycoalkaloids in potatoes are known to contribute to Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) and negatively affect intestinal permeability. (1,2) According to Dr. Marvin Childers, "When these inhibitors accumulate in the body, alone or with other cholinesterase inhibitors such as caffeine or food impurities containing systemic cholinesterase inhibiting pesticides, the result may be a paralytic-like muscle spasm, aches, pains, tenderness, inflammation, and stiff body movements." (3) These symptoms may dissipate in a few hours or days if ingestion is stopped, based on the sensitivity of the individual, the amount of nightshades consumed on a regular basis and their level of inflammation.

However for some heavy consumers of nightshades the process of inflammation and pain reduction can take up to 3 months. After reading the symptoms associated with nightshade consumption, it is easy to understand why one of the major problems attributed to nightshade is arthritis. Arthritis is also the most common disability in the U.S. (4,5) Statistics from a 2007-2009 study show that doctor diagnosed arthritis affects 49.9 million people in the United States alone (6). Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis affecting more than 20 million people. More than 2 million people are affected by rheumatoid arthritis, the most disabling and painful form of arthritis. Arthritis has no boundaries to gender, race or age, it affects young and old alike. (5, 7) In fact it may be surprising to some that an estimated 294,000 children (age 18 and under), have some form of arthritis. (7) In 2003 the medical cost of arthritis alone was approximately 128 billion annually.

(4) Since 1994, disability-related costs for medical care and lost productivity have exceeded an estimated $300 billion annually in the United States, this includes arthritis and other rheumatoid related illness (8) Add to these numbers the report released in 2011 by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, where an estimated 116 million adults live with chronic pain, which costs the United States $635 billion annually in health care and lost productivity. (9) So the question is how much of these problems are nightshade related? That is the question some researchers are asking, as they believe that arthritis is often misdiagnosed in people who may in fact be experiencing severe side effects of nightshade consumption. Many who suffer with arthritis or an arthritis related disease such as lupus, rheumatism, and other musculoskeletal pain disorders, have found that consuming foods from the nightshade family is in fact adversely affecting their health. Norman F. Childers, PhD, founder of the Arthritis Nightshades Research Foundation stated: "Diet appears to be a factor in the etiology of arthritis based on surveys of over 1400 volunteers during a 20-year period.

Plants in the drug family, Solanaceae (nightshades) are an important causative factor in arthritis in sensitive people." (3) Three month challenge If you want to know if nightshades negatively affect you, take the three month challenge. Avoid all nightshades for three months. (It's called a challenge for a reason).Be careful to note the nightshade list, and become a label reader as some homeopathics, prescriptions, over the counter medications as well as numerous processed foods contain nightshades. Prescriptions and over the counter medicines may require a discussion with your pharmacist or a phone call to the manufacturer of your over the counter medicines to determine ingredients. After three months, begin to reintroduce one nightshade at a time. Take note of any aches, pains, stiffness, and loss of energy, headaches, respiratory problems or any other symptoms. You may find as many others have, that the quality of your daily health will dramatically improve after eliminating nightshades from your diet.

The nightshade list ­ tomatoes (all varieties, including tomatillos) ­ potatoes (all varieties, NOT sweet potatoes or yams) ­ eggplant (aubergine) ­ okra ­ peppers (all varieties such as bell pepper, wax pepper, green & red peppers, chili peppers, cayenne, paprika, etc.) ­ goji berries ­ tomarillos (a plum-like fruit from Peru) ­ sorrel ­ garden huckleberry & blueberries (contain the alkaloids that induce inflammation) ­ gooseberries ­ ground cherries ­ pepino Melon ­ the homeopathic "Belladonna" [note: this is highly precautionary as homeopathics contain virtually no measurable "active" chemical] ­ tobacco Bittersweet Nightshade Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com Herbal Database No data. Toxicology The plant is toxic. Ingestion of unripened berries should be considered a medical emergency. Symptoms may be delayed for several hours. Botany Bittersweet nightshade is a member of the same family as the potato and tomato. This plant is found widely throughout Europe, Asia, the US, and Canada.

Bittersweet nightshade is a vine-like perennial that can grow to a height of approximately 3 m. It has alternating heart-shaped oval leaves that usually have 2 small ear-like segments at their bases. Its star-shaped flowers bloom from April to September; the flowers are pinkish-purple with bright yellow stamens. The flowers produce green berries that turn bright red when mature. History The Latin name dulcamara refers to the flavor of the berries, which are first bitter, then unpleasantly sweet. Bittersweet nightshade has been used to treat cancers, tumors, and warts since ancient times as far back as Galen (AD 180) 1 and was recorded in Culpeper's Complete Herbal in 1681. 2 Although the plant has long been recognized as being highly toxic, 3 it has been used as an external remedy for skin abrasions. Its use to treat felons (inflammations around nail beds) may be the source of the name felonwort . The plant has been investigated for possible antirheumatic, diuretic, narcotic, and sedative activity, but these actions are linked to the toxicity of the plant, and therefore, have not been successfully exploited.

Chemistry Chemical investigations into the composition of bittersweet have identified a number of alkaloids in the leaves and fruit. There are several varieties of the plant that possess different alkaloid profiles. They occur primarily as glycosides of the 3 spirosolane alkaloids tomatidenol, soladulcidine, and solasodine, although the free alkaloids are sometimes also detected. Alpha-, beta-, and gamma-solamarine are glycosides of tomatidenol, 4 , 5 while soladulcines A and B are derived from soladulcidine, 6 and solasonine 7 and solamargine 8 are glyosides of solasodine. Green and yellowing fruits contain a higher percentage of the glycoalkaloids than ripe fruits. 9 Other compounds isolated from the plant include saponins such as soladulcosides A and B, 10 free sterols such as tigogenin, 11 and lycopene. Uses and Pharmacology Bittersweet has been used as a traditional external remedy for skin abrasions and inflammation. The stems were approved by the German Commission E for external use as supportive therapy in chronic eczema.

12 Animal/Clinical data Research reveals no published animal or clinical data regarding the use of bittersweet as an external remedy. Dosage There is no clinical evidence to guide dosage of bittersweet nightshade. Traditional use of the stem was at a dosage of 1 to 3 g/day, usually given as a decoction or infusion in 250 mL of water. Pregnancy/Lactation Administration of mature, unripe fruit to pregnant hamsters on day 8 of gestation resulted in a significant increase in craniofacial malformations over controls. The malformations included exencephaly, encephalocele, and occasional cebocephaly, cleft palate, or cleft lip. The dose used (7.5 g/kg by gavage) also induced significant maternal toxicity. However, the 2 effects were considered distinct because purified alkaloids (eg, solasodine) caused fetal damage without maternal toxicity. S. dulcamara was 10-fold more potent than the other species of Solanum studied, based on alkaloid content. The saponins present in the fruit may enhance absorption of the glycoalkaloids. 13 Interactions No data.

Toxicology The FDA classifies bittersweet as an unsafe poisonous herb because of the presence of the toxic spirosolane glycoalkaloids. Like saponin, the glycoalkaloids cause hemolytic and hemorrhagic damage to the GI tract. Such poisoning is often confused with bacterial gastroenteritis, with symptoms appearing only after a latent period of several hours following ingestion. A weak effect on cardiovascular function has been documented. 14 Toxic effects on both pregnant and nonpregnant mice have been found. 15 Symptoms of spirosolane alkaloid poisoning include the following: circulatory and respiratory depression, convulsions, cyanosis, death, diarrhea, dilated pupils, headache, paralysis, scratchy throat, shock, speech difficulties, stomachache, subnormal temperature, vertigo, and vomiting. Adults appear to be relatively resistant to the toxicity of spirosolanes, but fatal intoxications are more common in children. Emesis, fluid replacement, and supportive care, such as that used for gastroenteritis, should be administered.

Despite this typically aggressive therapy, the results of one study in mice fed ripened fruit suggested that because no GI or neurologic toxicity was observed, aggressive treatment of children who ingest ripened berries may not be necessary. 15 Nevertheless, these investigators found significant neurologic and pathologic GI toxicity when mice were fed unripened fruit, indicating that poisoning with this plant should be considered a critical situation. Other investigators have confirmed the pathologic changes in the GI tract (glandular mucosal necrosis and necrosis of the small intestine) in hamsters fed ground bittersweet fruit. 13 Despite its history of obvious toxicity and teratogenicity, bittersweet nightshade continues to appear as a component of homeopathic 16 and herbal medicine, in the latter case appearing as biological immune response modifier (BIRM) from an Ecuadorian source used in alternative cancer treatment. 17 Bibliography 1. Kupchan SM, Barboutis SJ, Knox JR, Cam CA. Beta-solamarine: tumor inhibitor isolated from Solanum dulcamara . Science . 1965;150:1827-1828. 2. Culpeper, N.

Amara bulcis, Culpeper's Complete Herbal. Available at: . Accessed August 24, 2004. 3. Lowe H. Poisoning by bittersweet ( Solanum dulcamara ). Analyst . 1929;54:153. 4. Boll PM. Alkaloidal glycosides from Solanum dulcamara . IV. The constitution of beta- and gamma-solamarine. Acta Chem Scand . 1963;17:1852. 5. Boll PM. Alkaloidal glycosides from Solanum dulcamara . V. The constitution of alpha-solamarine. Acta Chem Scand . 1963;17:2126. 6. Lee YY, Hashimoto F, Yahara S, Toshihiro N, Yoshida N. Steroidal glycosides from Solanum dulcamara . Chem Pharm Bull . 1994;42:707. 7. Briggs LH, Vining LC. Solanum alkaloids. Part X.

The mode of linkage in the trisaccharide moiety of solanine and solasonine. J Chem Soc . 1953;2809. 8. Briggs LH, Cambie RC, Hyslop DM. Solanum alkaloids. Part XVII. The sugar unit of solamargine. J Chem Soc . 1975;2455. 9. Sander H. Solanum dulcamara. VII. Biosynthesis of spirosolanol glycosides in the ripening fruit. Planta Med . 1963;11:23. 10. Yamashita T, Matsumoto T, Yahara S, Yoshida N, Nohara T. Structures of two new steroidal glycosides, soladulcosides A and B from Solanum dulcamara . Chem Pharm Bull . 1991;39:1626-1628. 11. Marker RE, Wagner RB, Ulshafer PR, Wittbecker EL, Goldsmith DP, Ruof CH. Sterols. CLVII. Sapogenins. 69.

Isolation and structures of thirteen new steroidal sapogenins. New sources for known sapogenins. J Am Chem Soc . 1943;65:1199. 12. Blumenthal M, ed. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicine . Austin, TX: American Botanical Council; 1998:232. 13. Keeler RF, Baker DC, Gaffield W. Studies on Spirosolane-containing Solanum species and induction of congenital craniofacial malformations. Toxicon . 1990;28:873-874. 14. Krayer O, Briggs LH. Studies on solanum alkaloids: II. The anti-accelerator cardiac action of solasodine and some of its derivatives. Br J Pharmacol . 1950;5:517-525. 15. Friedman M, Henika PR, Mackey BE. Effect of feeding solanidine, solasodine and tomatidine to non-pregnant and pregnant mice. Food Chem Toxicol .

2003;41:61-71. 16. Jaggi R, Wurgler U, Grandjean F, Weiser M. Dual inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase/cyclooxygenase by a reconstituted homeopathic remedy; possible explanation for clinical efficacy and favourable gastrointestinal tolerability. Inflamm Res . 2004;53:150-157. 17. Dandekar DS, Lokeshwar VB, Cevallos-Arellano E, Soloway MS, Lokeshwar BL. An orally active Amazonian plant extract (BIRM) inhibits prostate cancer growth and metastasis. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol . 2003;52:59-66. Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health List of Nightshade Vegetables & Fruits | LIVESTRONG.COM List of Nightshade Vegetables & Fruits by ERICA KANNALL Last Updated: Jan 11, 2016 Erica Kannall Erica Kannall is a registered dietitian and certified health/fitness specialist with the American College of Sports Medicine.

She has worked in clinical nutrition, community health, fitness, health coaching, counseling and food service. She holds a Bachelor of Science in clinical dietetics and nutrition from the University of Pittsburgh. Red Peppers, yellow peppers and eggplant are all members of the nightshade family. Photo Credit Judy Bishop - The Travelling Eye/Moment/Getty Images Nightshade fruits and vegetables belong to the family of Solanaceae plants of the Solanum genus. This group of plants contains more than 2,500 species that are widely used as food and medicine, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica. Some people have a sensitivity to nightshade plants and are unable to digest them fully. If you have a sensitivity, you may experience diarrhea, gas, bloating, nausea, painful joints, headaches and depression from consuming nightshades. 1. Potatoes Potatoes belong to the nightshade family Photo Credit Jupiterimages/Creatas/Getty Images Potatoes are part of the nightshade family. This includes white, red, yellow and blue-skinned potato varieties. Sweet potatoes and yams are not nightshades, however, according to The Weston A. Price Foundation.

If you have sensitivity to members of the nightshade family, You need to avoid foods made from potatoes, such potato salad, french fries and mashed potatoes. Also, be sure to read ingredient lists on all processed foods to avoid potatoes and potato starch. 2. Tomatoes Tomatoes are also part of the nightshade family Photo Credit Sam Edwards/OJO Images/Getty Images Another widely consumed member of the nightshade family are tomatoes. Although the culinary world refers to tomatoes as vegetables, scientifically, they fall into the category of fruit. Stay away from all raw tomatoes and also from cooked ones in other preparations such as in tomato sauce and ketchup. Be sure to read the ingredient lists on soups and condiments such as in salsas, hot sauces and marinades, because they often contain tomatoes. 3. Peppers All peppers belong to the nightshade family Photo Credit Jupiterimages/Creatas/Getty Images All peppers belong to the Solanaceae family, as well. This includes bell peppers, jalapenos, habaneros, cayenne peppers and paprika. Paprika, a spice made from ground, dried peppers, is used in a variety of cuisines.

Be sure to read labels and communicate well with servers and chefs when eating out to avoid it. Peppercorns are not a member of the nightshade family, even though they contain the word "pepper" within their name. 4. Eggplant All varieties of eggplant are nightshade vegetables Photo Credit Evan Sklar/The Image Bank/Getty Images Eggplant appears in Italian, Thai, Indian and other ethnic cuisines, and even though you need to avoid eating eggplant if you have a nightshade sensitivity, you can easily avoid dishes such as eggplant Parmesan. If you are ordering a meal which states that it contains mixed vegetables, be sure to communicate that you cannot eat eggplant and other nightshades. When in doubt, avoid a food altogether. 5. Tomatillos Tomatillos are another member of the nightshade family Photo Credit Ryan Benyi Photography/Image Source/Getty Images Tomatillos, another member of the nightshade family, are often found in Mexican cuisine. The fruit grows well in warm climates and can be found as a wild weed in parts of Mexico, according to Organic Gardening. Tomatillos have a papery husk and hang like small round paper lanterns from the plants.

When ripe, they're either pale yellow or purple and have a slightly citrus like flavor. Most often, you'll find tomatillos in sauces and salsas, such as salsa verde. 6. Goji Berries and Other Berries Goji Berries fall into the nightshade family Photo Credit anskuw/iStock/Getty Images Small, red goji berries fall into the nightshade family. These slightly sweet berries, sometimes called wolfberries, are native to Asia. They can be eaten raw, dried or made into a juice. They're easy nightshades to avoid, but do read ingredient lists of all juices, smoothies, teas and nutritional supplements to be sure they don't contain goji berries. Other berries that are nightshades include garden huckleberries, ground cherries and cape gooseberries, but not normal gooseberries nor blueberries. Related Searches Lose Weight.

Feel Great Change your life with MyPlate by LIVESTRONG.COM GOAL Gain 2 pounds per week Gain 1.5 pounds per week Gain 1 pound per week Gain 0.5 pound per week Maintain my current weight Lose 0.5 pound per week Lose 1 pound per week Lose 1.5 pounds per week Lose 2 pounds per week GENDER Deadly Nightshade — The Wild Leak By Guest Blogger, Becca Davis Deadly Nightshade. Photosource: Deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) has an interesting resume of skills, ranging from assassination to healing. Historically speaking, this plant is most notorious for being used as a poison. The Ancient Romans were known to have used deadly nightshade to make poison tipped arrows. More recently, it has been willingly ingested by people to help alleviate motion sickness or control muscle spasms. This plant is native to South and Central Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, but can commonly be found in England, France, and North America. Deadly nightshade is a perennial herbaceous plant that branches and can grow to resemble a shrub around 4 ft. tall.

The species is usually spotted in dumps, quarries, along the roadside, under shade trees, and wooded hills. Deadly nightshade is a member of the Solanaceae family. It is fascinating that such a toxic plant is closely related to common vegetables found in the same family, such as tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants. Every part of the deadly nightshade is toxic. The roots are thick, fleshy, white, and the most poisonous portion of the plant. Leaves can be found in opposite pairs up the stem, except for the low leaves, which are solitary. A unique characteristic about the paired leaves is that one is always significantly larger than the other. All of the leaves are a dull, dark green and slightly less toxic than the root. The flowers are a shade of dark purple and have a bell-like shape. They are approximately an inch long and the corolla is five lobed. Berries are the fruit of the deadly nightshade and contain seeds and have a sweet taste when eaten. The berries start out green and as they mature and the level of toxins increases, they become a dark, glossy black. While the least toxic part of the plant, the berries can still cause damage to anyone who chooses to try a few.

Children have died from ingesting the berries and roughly 10-20 berries or one leaf can kill an adult. Deadly nightshade is poisonous due to tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and hyoscyamine. These chemicals block functions of the body’s nervous system. The effects of these toxins can be delirium, hallucinations, dry mouth, enlarged pupils, blurred vision, dry skin, fever, fast heartbeat, inability to urinate or sweat, and entering into a coma. Symptoms are normally seen quickly, while waiting for professional medical help, drinking a glass of warm vinegar or a mixture of mustard and water is said to neutralize and dilute the toxins. Why is the ingestion of this plant even a consideration, knowing its poisonous characteristic? Deadly nightshade, when properly prepared and dosed, can be used medicinally to for a plethora of ailments. Some medication for Parkinson’s disease include deadly nightshade to prevent muscle spasms and it has been used to help correct certain heart conditions because it increases the rate at which the heart pumps. It is also possible to build a tolerance to the toxins in deadly nightshade, which is acquired by taking a few sips of the brewed leaves over time.

An interesting note about the toxins of deadly nightshade is that they do not affect all creatures. While it is harmful to humans, animals such as cattle, horses, rabbits, goats, and sheep can ingest the plant in large quantities without falling ill. In witch tales, deadly nightshade is cited as being the key ingredient that allows their broomsticks to levitate (though this may be due to the delirium and hallucinations that the plant induces). Let me stress ingesting this plant is not recommended seeing as “deadly” is a key component of the plant’s name. All About Nightshades | Paleo Leap All About Nightshades Get our “getting started” mini-course: Sign up × Quick, what do potatoes , paprika, and eggplant all have in common? If you said “delicious,” you aren’t far off, but there’s a more important similarity as well: these three plants (as well as tomatoes and all varieties of peppers) belong to the nightshade family. While the vast majority of people have no problems with nightshades, they can cause serious problems for anyone struggling with an autoimmune disease, as well as some people who simply have a digestive sensitivity to them. What Are Nightshades?

Members of the family Solanaceae, common nightshades include white (but not sweet) potatoes, eggplant, tomatoes, and peppers, both the eye-watering chilies and the sweeter bell peppers. The list of edible nightshade plants also includes any spices made from peppers, like paprika, red pepper flakes, and cayenne pepper (although black pepper is a different plant). The list of edible nightshades is fairly short, but the list of poisonous ones is quite extensive. Most nightshades are toxic to humans, with the best-known being belladonna, or “deadly nightshade,” traditionally valued for its use as a poison (in the play Macbeth, for example, belladonna poisoning features as a plot point). The association with such toxic family members makes some people very concerned about all nightshades – they worry that if deadly nightshade is such a terrifying poison, then even the apparently harmless tomato must be up to no good. Farmers and gardeners in some traditional cultures seemed to agree: they were dubious about the food value of these plants, and mostly grew them as ornaments in the belief that they were unhealthy to eat.

Guilt by association and the accumulated wisdom of traditional gardeners makes for a plausible theory, but fortunately there’s just no evidence that nightshades are dangerous in any way for most healthy people. On the other hand, they might be a bad idea for people whose guts and immune systems are already compromised, especially anyone with an autoimmune disease. Nightshades and Autoimmunity: Vitamin D The best evidence for the health risks of nightshades is connected with arthritis and joint pain, especially the autoimmune disease of rheumatoid arthritis. But even the “best evidence” isn’t that great: it’s mostly based on personal reports and the experience of nutritionists and integrative health specialists. One doctor conducted several surveys, and found that eliminating nightshades was extremely helpful, but that kind of survey has many limitations: there was no control group, and that just asking people “what did you eat?” is an unreliable way of gathering evidence. Even bearing in mind the relative lack of solid evidence in humans, though, it’s still an interesting theory, especially when you look into the proposed causes for this effect: why are nightshades so often blamed for pain, inflammation, and autoimmunity issues? One theory has to do with Vitamin D.

There’s a lot of evidence from animals indicating that nightshade vegetables cause all kinds of joint and bone problems, mostly because of the way the animals’ bodies process the form of Vitamin D in the nightshades. Vitamin D is crucial for proper bone formation, but the extremely potent form of Vitamin D3 in nightshade vegetables actually prevents proper calcium metabolism, causing the body to deposit calcium in the soft tissue (where you don’t want it) instead of in the bones (where you do). In animals, this causes very painful arthritis and joint inflammation. On the other hand, though, humans don’t metabolize Vitamin D in the same way as cows and horses. Animal studies just aren’t always relevant to human beings: avocados, for example, are toxic to dogs, but perfectly healthy for people. So the animal evidence is interesting, but doesn’t necessarily prove that humans will suffer in the same way. Nightshades and Autoimmunity: Alkaloids and Lectins Other research doesn’t blame the Vitamin D, but attributes the autoimmune dangers of nightshades to various other factors, usually a group of chemical compounds called alkaloids.

Alkaloids include solanine (in potatoes, especially green potatoes), nicotine (in very small amounts: nightshade plants are not addictive like cigarettes!), and capsaicin (the chemical that gives peppers their heat). While the plant is alive, these compounds work as its home-grown “bug spray,” defending it from pests and molds that would otherwise kill it. In other words, they’re designed to be toxic. In the poisonous members of the nightshade family, these chemicals are so concentrated that they have deadly effects on humans, but in the edible nightshades, they’re present in much smaller amounts, and mostly in the leaves and stems (which we don’t eat anyway). Since humans are so much bigger than bugs and mold, and since we’re not eating the most alkaloid-rich parts of the plant, most of us notice absolutely no effect from eating tiny amounts of this natural “bug spray.” It’s like trying to taste a single grain of sand in an enormous bowl of soup. In theory it’s a bad idea to eat sand, but such a tiny amount makes absolutely no measurable difference to your health. Healthy guts can deal with these chemicals just fine, but people whose digestive system is already compromised by an autoimmune disease have trouble with them.

For example, some kinds of alkaloids increase the power of the immune response – exactly what you don’t want when you’re dealing with an autoimmune disorder. Another danger of alkaloids is gut irritation: their job in the plant is to kill things, and when they start killing things in your intestine as well, the cells lining the intestinal tract are their first victims. This irritation of the gut contributes to intestinal permeability (“leaky gut”), which can set off an autoimmune reaction when various proteins that should stay inside the digestive tract instead make their way out into the bloodstream, and the body attacks them in response. On top of the alkaloids, there’s also the lectin issue. All foods contain lectins; many of those lectins are completely harmless, but others are gut irritants – the hard part is figuring out which is which. We know that the lectins in peanuts , for example, are dangerous. The lectins in nightshades may also be gut irritants in sensitive individuals, setting off the same leaky gut response as the alkaloids. What’s the evidence for this actually happening? It’s fairly scanty, but suggestive.

In this study , for example the researchers fed potato skins (the skin is where most of the alkaloids lurk) to mice with inflammatory bowel disease, and found that gut inflammation was significantly increased. The higher the alkaloid content of the potatoes, the worse the inflammation. Toxicity vs. Beneficial Stress It really can’t be emphasized enough that all these dangers are only relevant to people who are nightshade-sensitive. If you aren’t sensitive to them, there’s absolutely no reason to rush out and eliminate all these foods from your diet “just in case.” In fact, the same chemical compounds that cause so many problems in nightshade-sensitive people can bring benefits to people with healthy digestive systems. Capsaicin, for example, might be more familiar to most of us as an anti-inflammatory, one of the big health benefits of eating hot peppers. That’s because it really does work that way in healthy people. The minor irritation of the capsaicin triggers such a strong anti-inflammatory response that the overall result is anti-inflammatory and beneficial (if this sounds familiar, it’s the exact same way that antioxidants work). Alkaloids have even been studied as therapies for various diseases, precisely because of these benefits.

The deadly nightshade, for example, has been used in folk remedies since we realized how strong it was, and it’s now the source of the antispasmodic drug atropine. The powerful poison can also be turned into an equally powerful remedy, if it’s prepared correctly. To sum it up, it’s only for people with gut problems – autoimmune diseases, leaky gut, and related issues – that the minor irritation of alkaloids from edible nightshades is too much to handle. For healthy people, the hormetic stress of alkaloids is neutral at best, and may even be a benefit. Conclusion Should you avoid nightshades? If you’re trying to heal from an autoimmune disease (especially rheumatoid arthritis or anything else that causes joint pain and inflammation), a 30-day nightshade elimination is definitely worth a shot. After all, it can’t really hurt, and you might be surprised at the benefits. You can find details about the Paleo autoimmune protocol (which restricts nightshades, as well as a few other types of foods) here .

Total elimination is one option, but for people who are only slightly sensitive, it might be enough just to reduce the nightshade content of their diet, or to reduce the levels of the various problematic chemicals by properly preparing nightshades. This includes: Peeling all potatoes (as the alkaloids are mostly found in the skin) Avoiding green tomatoes and green and/or sprouting potatoes (unripe nightshades are higher in alkaloids) Cooking nightshade vegetables whenever you eat them (this reduces alkaloid content further). People without an autoimmune disease or chronic pain issues probably won’t see much benefit from eliminating nightshades. There’s not much harm in experimenting, but there’s no reason to make an already strict Paleo diet even stricter if you don’t have to. Most of us can enjoy tomato sauce, eggplant, and hot peppers just fine, and even see some benefits from those same chemicals. P.S. Have a look at Paleo Restart , our 30-day program. It lets you jump into Paleo, lose weight and start feeling great. + Paleo Leap Tribe is now also available. It's a set of tools that we've built to make Paleo work for you.

It has a meal plan generator, a weight loss tracker & tons of visual cheat sheets. × Get a PDF with our top 35 recipes Subscribe Tomato Characteristics Pronounced: tuh-MAY-toh; tuh-MAH-toh The tomato and the chile are the most common used ingredients in salsas. The tomato is the fruit of the tomato plant, a member of the nightshade family, which includes Tomatillo , Eggplant, and Chayote. The nightshade family also includes many species that produce poisonous alkaloids including tobacco (produces nicotine), deadly nightshade (produces atropine), and mandrake (produces hyoscymine, used for motion sickness and as a preoperative anesthetic). It is thought that the tomato originated in South America (probably Peru). It was domesticated by the Incas was introduced to Mexico where it was given the indian name, xicotomatl, now known in Mexico as jitomate. Spanish explorers introduced the tomato to Europe, but most Europeans were relucant to eat the tomato -- Since the tomato is a member of the nightshade family, it was commonly thought to be poisonous.

On the contrary, today the tomato is known as the primary source of Lycopene, an antioxidant carotenoid in the same family as beta carotene, which gives the tomato its red color. Lycopene may help protect against diseases such as cancer and heart disease. A tomato has high levels of vitamin C, folate, lycopene, and is low in calories with an average tomato having about 30 calories. The original wild, Incan tomato was a small cherry-sized berry with many ruffles and ridges. In the late 1800's, a horticulturist named Alexander W. Livingston spent many years attempting to develop a commercial tomato with a smooth contour, larger uniform size and better flavor. He suceeded in 1870 with a variety of tomato called the Paragon, and tomato culture began at once to be a great enterprise of the county. Today, tens of millions of tons of tomatos are havested in the US and Mr. Livingston's home town of Reynoldsburg, Ohio is generally recognized as the birthplace of the tomato. Incredibly, each man, woman and child in America consumes almost 80 pounds of tomatoes every year.

Many people don't realize the tomato is the fruit of the tomato plant. By definition, a fruit is the fleshy, seed-bearing part of a plant. A vegetable is part of various types of plants eaten as food. In 1893, however, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the case of Nix v. Hedden that because the tomato was used as a vegetable - eaten with the main part of the meal instead of at the end - it should be legally classified as such, and therefore be subject to the same tariffs as other vegetables when imported. When a tomato ripens, the fruit changes color, and develops flavor. The color changes is caused by loss of green chlorophyll and conversion of carotenoids into red lycopene pigments. The tomato naturally produces ethylene, a colorless gas with a sweet ether-like odor. Ethylene is a ripening hormone for several fruits, including apples, avocados, bananas, melons, peaches, and pears (NOTE: these ethylene producing fruits should never be stored with ethylene-sensitive vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower, and leafy greens like cabbage and lettuce).

Commercial tomatoes are often picked prior to a ripe maturity and ripened later by "gassing" with ethylene. Ethylene, however, can not change the color of the tomato. This produces the light reddish-pink, tasteless tomatoes commonly found in grocery stores. Personally, I have no use for these tomatoes. Use fresh, vine-ripened tomatoes when available. Ripe tomatoes should be stored at room temperature and used within a few days. They should never be refrigerated -- Refrigerating kills the flavor, the nutrients, the texture. Tomatoes ripen from inside out with the center of the tomato always riper than the skin. The ideal temperature for tomatoes is somewhere between 55�-70�. At this temperature the tomato will ripen inside and out. The tomato will have a full flavor and stay moist and plump. Varieties

Question: Which common sal\d ingredient is a member of the same family as 'Deadly Nightshade'?
Answer: TOMATO