Sulis Minerva - The Full Wiki The Full Wiki More info on Sulis Minerva Wikis Sulis Minerva: Wikis Advertisements Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles . Related top topics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Sul" redirects here. For other uses, see SUL . Gilt bronze head from the cult statue of Sulis Minerva from the Temple at Bath, found in Stall Street in 1727 and now displayed at the Roman Baths (Bath) . In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain, Sul or Sulis [1] was a deity worshipped at the thermal spring of Bath (now in Somerset ). She was worshipped by the Romano-British as Sulis Minerva , whose votive objects and inscribed lead tablets suggest that she was conceived of both as a nourishing, life-giving mother goddess and as an effective agent of curses wished by her votaries.

[2] The tablets were often written in code, by means of letters or words being written backwards; word order may be reversed and lines may be written in alternating directions, from left to right and then right to left. While most texts from Roman Britain are in Latin, occasional texts may be in a Celtic language. Typically, the text on the tablets offered to Sulis relates to theft; for example, of small amounts of money or clothing from the bath-house. In formulaic, often legalistic, language tablets appeal to the deity, Sulis, to punish the known or unknown perpetrators of the crime until reparation be made. Sulis is typically requested to impair the physical and mental well being of the perpetrator, by the denial of sleep, by causing normal bodily functions to cease or even by death. These afflictions are to cease only when the property is returned to the owner or disposed of as the owner wishes, often by its being dedicated to the deity. [3] One message found on a tablet in the Temple at Bath (once decoded) reads: "Dodimedis has lost two gloves.

He asks that the person who has stolen them should lose his mind and eyes in the temple where she appoint." [4] Contents 4 References Etymology Suil in Old Irish is 'eye' or 'gap'. Did her name "Sulis" suggest, in Brittonic , the 'orifice or gap' through which the healing waters ran? At Delphi the omphalos or navel was an opening into the other world. The usual etymology is that Sulis means 'sun', however, as this is the original form of Welsh haul 'sun' and Old Irish suil (from Indo-European *sawel-); cf. Latin sol 'sun'. Cult at Bath The Roman baths at Bath. Sulis was the local goddess of the thermal springs that still feed the spa baths at Bath , which the Romans called Aquae Sulis ("the waters of Sulis"). [5] Her name appears on inscriptions at Bath, but nowhere else. This is not surprising, as Celtic deities often preserved their archaic localisation. They remained to the end associated with a specific place, often a cleft in the earth, a spring, pool or well.

The Greeks referred to the similarly local pre-Hellenic deities in the local epithets that they assigned, associated with the cult of their Olympian pantheon at certain places (Zeus Molossos only at Dodona , for example). The Romans tended to lose sight of these specific locations, except in a few Etruscan cult inheritances and ideas like the genius loci , the guardian spirit of a place. The gilt bronze cult statue of Sulis Minerva "appears to have been deliberately damaged" sometime in later Antiquity, perhaps by barbarian raiders, Christian zealots, or some other forces. [6] ‘Minerva’ At Bath, the Roman temple is dedicated to Sulis Minerva, as the primary deity of the temple spa. Through the Roman Minerva syncresis , later mythographers have inferred that Sulis was also a goddess of wisdom and decisions. Sulis was not the only goddess exhibiting syncretism with Minerva . Senua 's name appears on votive plaques bearing Minerva's image, while Brigantia also shares many traits associated with Minerva.

The identification of multiple Celtic gods with the same Roman god is not unusual (both Mars and Mercury were paired with a multiplicity of Celtic names). On the other hand, Celtic goddesses tended to resist syncretism; Sulis Minerva is one of the few attested pairings of a Celtic goddess with her Roman counterpart. Dedications to “ Minerva ” are common in both Great Britain and continental Europe, normally without any Celtic epithet or interpretation. (Cf. Belisama for one exception.) A similar name, Suleviae , frequently identified as a plural form of Sulis, has been attested in the epigraphic record from sites at Bath and elsewhere. The aspect of plurality links the Suleviae to a good many widely-revered divine mothers , who frequently appear with two or three primary aspects to their character. On the other hand, the identification of the Suleviae with Sulis has been dismissed by some researchers who suggest that the similarity of the names is coincidental. [7] References ^ Also found as Sulevis: see Suleviae .

^ Joyce Reynolds and Terence Volk, "Review: Gifts, Curses, Cult and Society at Bath", reviewing The Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath: vol. 2 The Finds from the Sacred Spring, in Britannia 21 (1990:379-391). Teaching History with 100 Objects - The Roman temple in Bath The Roman temple in Bath © Bath & North East Somerset Council What was the temple like? The temple in Bath followed the classical Roman form and decoration. It stood on a podium in a courtyard and was approached by a flight of steps. Four large Corinthian columns supported a frieze with the triangular pediment above. The central snake-haired head would have looked down from a height of 15 metres above the visitor. Behind the columns was a large door to the inner room or cella where the cult statue of the goddess Sulis Minerva was kept. A larger-than-life-size bronze head is all that now survives of the statue. The pediment The pediment was discovered, broken into pieces, in the 18th century, during construction work in the city of Bath.

It is made from local stone and was probably carved by skilled sculptors from Gaul (now France). It shows two winged victories, standing on globes. Below them are a helmet on the left and a small owl on the right. The victories hold a wreath of oak leaves surrounding a shield with a snake-haired head at its centre. The head has snakes entwined within its beard, wings above its ears, beetling brows and a heavy moustache. In the corners are Tritons, half men and half fish. Minerva was the Roman goddess associated with healing. Her wisdom is symbolised by the owl carved on the pediment, and the helmet refers to her military powers. The Roman Minerva was the same deity as the Greek goddess Athena. Athena wore the head of the snake-haired gorgon Medusa on her breastplate, so the snake-haired head carved on the pediment should refer to the head of the gorgon. However, the gorgon is depicted as female and here we have a distinctively male face. Local and Roman religions Before the Romans arrived in Britain, the hot spring on the site was associated with Sul, a local deity linked to fertility and healing.

Sulis Minerva was the combination of the Roman goddess Minerva with Sul. Roman religion was flexible enough to accommodate the worship of native gods and to assimilate those gods into new mixed forms. At Bath the Romans built a classical Roman temple dedicated to a Roman goddess, but adapted to and incorporating elements of local British beliefs. The carving may therefore show a local deity, to balance the very Roman cult statue of Minerva inside, or may transform an attribute of the Roman deity – the gorgon’s head - into a local style. In general, the response of native peoples to the introduction of Roman gods was not uniform. Where a Roman god could be associated with a local one, the two might be combined into a new deity. Worship of local gods that presented no challenge to Roman rule probably continued as normal. Most native religions could accommodate the two required aspects of Roman religion: the worship of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva and participation in the cult of the emperor. It was the followers of religions which would not accept these requirements, notably the Christians and the Jews, who came into most conflict with Roman rule. In Bath, the temple of Sulis Minerva remained a focal point for worship until late in the fourth century AD.

Then, under the emperor Theodosius, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire and all the temples to the Roman gods and goddesses were closed. The temple in Bath fell into a state of disrepair and eventually collapsed. More information Roman Sites and Roman Remains in Britain Aldborough Roman Site, Yorkshire Urban Centre Once the capital of a Romanised tribe of native Britons, visitors today can still see two beautiful Roman mosaics as well as the remains of the town wall and a museum exploring the history of the town. Ambleside Roman Fort, Cumbria Roman Fort Dating back to the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, this fort was originally built for two purposes; to protect the Ravenglass to Brougham Roman Road as well as acting as a supply base for Hadrian's Wall to the north. Aesica Roman Fort Hadrian's Wall Fort Excavated in the late 19th century, Aesica is the ninth fort on Hadrian's Wall. A Roman bathhouse has also been discovered a short distance south of the fort. Agricola's Ditch Roman Road / Ditch This enormous earthwork follows the route of Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast, although its purpose has long been argued.

It is now thought that Agricola's Ditch (also known as the Vallum) was built as a boundary for the militarised zone around Hadrian's Wall, i.e. so that the local civilians would keep their distance! Arbeia Roman Fort, Northumberland Hadrian's Wall Fort Once a maritime supply fort for Hadrian's Wall, today Arbeias barracks and gatehouse have been reconstructed and a museum set up to showcase the history of the site. Ardotalia, Derbyshire Roman Fort This unexcavated fort could have once housed up to 1000 troops and until the late 18th century, the stone remains could still be seen. Unfortunately the remains of the fort now lie underground although it is still possible to make out the ramparts. Beckfoot (Bibra) Fort, Cumbria Roman Villa Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall, linked by a road rather than a wall.

Although many of these defences have now been lost, one of the major forts was located at Beckfort. Now just a series of crop marks, the fort was manned by the Romans until around AD 407 and was once home to the Cohors II Pannoniorum, a 500-strong infantry unit from the province of Pannonia, now a region of the Czech Republic. Excavated in 1879, evidence of a civilian settlement, or vicus, was also uncovered. Bignor Roman Villa, Sussex Roman Villa Boasting some of the most complete Roman mosaics in the country, Bignor Roman Villa was discovered in 1811 by a local farmer and has been a popular visitor attraction ever since. The villa dates from around 200AD and was demolished or burnt down around 200 years later. Birdoswald Roman Fort, Cumbria Hadrian's Wall Fort This well preserved fort on Hadrian's Wall was built around 110AD and included barracks, granaries, officers mess and even an exercise building (i.e. a Roman gym).

There is also a visitor centre which includes displays and artifacts from the fort, and rumour has it that the tea rooms here are also very good! Binchester Roman Fort, County Durham Roman Fort This large Roman fort was established around AD80 as a defensive measure for the newly built Dere Street. There is still a wonderfully preserved stretch of Roman road at the site, as well as remains of a bath house with underfloor heating. Brading Roman Villa, Isle of Wight Roman Villa This large Roman villa and courtyard was built in the 1st century AD and despite frequent Anglo-Saxon raids and the occasional fire, remained in use until the 4th century AD. Today all of the 12 ground floor rooms can still be seen, including a fabulous mosaic in the main entertaining room. Bremenium, Northumberland Roman Fort Bremenium was once an extremely well defended Dere Street fort complete with artillery defences. Remains of catapult emplacements have been found, once used by the Romans to fire boulders at marauders coming down Dere Street from the north. Bremetennacum, Lancashire Roman Baths This cavalry fort actually sits in the middle of the modern day village of Ribchester.

Although only small parts of the fort have been excavated, there have been some fantastic finds uncovered over the centuries including the Ribchester Hoard. Burgh Castle, Suffolk Roman Fort This third century Saxon Shore Fort was built to defend the south coast of Britain against invaders from Denmark and Germany. Today the walls still stand up to an impressive 4 and half metres high. Caister-on-Sea, Norfolk Roman Fort Although nowhere near as well preserved as its neighbour Burgh Castle just a few miles away, this Saxon Shore Fort was partially excavated in the 1950s although much of the fort now lies under modern housing. The excavated part of the site is now managed by English Heritage and is open to the public free of charge. Caistor St. Edmund (Venta Icenorum), Norfolk Urban Centre Once the capital of the Iceni tribe (of Boudica fame), Venta Icenorum soon became one of the most important Roman settlements in East Anglia. Today the most visible part of the remains is the town wall which still stands at around 20 feet high. Much of the rest of the site still lies unexcavated.

Calleva Atrebatum, Hampshire Urban Centre This relatively well preserved town is unique in that it did not become completely abandoned after the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Instead, the Anglo-Saxons decided to make nearby Winchester their home, leaving the remarkably intact remains that can still be seen today, including the city walls and the amphitheatre. Camulodunum (Colchester), Colchester Urban Centre Camulodunum (or modern day Colchester) was the home of the first permanent Roman fortress to be built in Britain in AD 43. Over the next 400 years the fort grew into one of the largest Roman cities in the country and even, for a short time, the capital of Britain. If visiting, be sure to check out Balkerne Gate right next to the Hole in the Wall pub: this is the best preserved Roman gateway in Britain. Carrawbugh, Northumberland Roman Temple Once the most northern fort on Hadrian's Wall, today the only visible remains of Carrawburgh fort (a.k.a. Brocolitia) are earthworks and a small Temple of Mithras. The site of a small Roman town, fort, amphitheatre and mines. Only earthworks remain.

Chedworth Roman Villa, Gloucestershire Roman Villa Although the structure of this villa dates from around AD120, it went through a dramatic extension and improvement in around AD310. Today the site is managed by the National Trust and is one of the largest villas of its type in the UK. Be sure to look out for the amazing mosaics, some of which were unearthed as recently as 2011. Chester Roman Amphitheatre, Cheshire Roman Amphitheatre Currently the largest amphitheatre ever found in Britain, only half of the site has actually been excavated. It is thought that the arena was rebuilt more than once, and that the remains of the current amphitheatre date from around 280AD. At its peak, the amphitheatre could have seated up to 8,000 people. Chesters Bridge , Northumberland Roman Bridge This Roman bridge would have spanned the North Tyne River for some 60 metres, carrying the weight of both a military road and Hadrian's Wall upon its arches. Unfortunately very little remains of the western side of the support abutments, but on the eastern side there is still considerable stonework to be seen.

Chichester City Walls, Chichester Roman Wall A surprisingly large amount of the original Roman core remains in Chichester's city walls, although most of the visible stonework is the result of 18th century restoration. Cilurnum, Nothumberland Hadrian's Wall Fort Cilurnum was the supporting fort to Chesters Bridge, and today is considered the best preserved Roman fort along Hadrian's Wall. There is also a museum at the site which houses a collection of Roman finds from the nearby area. Cirencester Roman Amphitheatre, Gloucestershire Roman Amphitheatre The remains of one of the largest Roman amphitheatres ever found in Britain although unfortunately no stonework can be seen, only earthworks. At its height the amphitheatre could have seated over 8,000 people. Concangis, County Durham Roman Fort Little remains of this Dere Street fort except for a small excavation of the officers quarters which is located in the centre of Chester Le Street. Corbridge Roman Site, Nothumberland Urban Centre Starting life as a Hadrian's Wall fort, Cordbridge developed into a large civilian centre sometime in the late 2nd century AD.

Amongst the remains here are some of the best surviving examples of military granaries in Britain. There is also a museum on the site which displays the Corbridge Hoard. Crofton Roman Villa, Kent Roman Villa The only publicly accessible Roman villa in London, Crofton is situated next door to Orpington Station and features some quite substantial remains including tessellated floors and a hypocaust. There is also a museum on site. Cunetio, Wiltshire Urban Centre First discovered in the 1940s, Cunetio was a Roman town between the 2nd and 5th century AD. Today all of the remains lay underground with only minor earthworks being visible. Dere Street Roman Road Dere Street was once the main supply route and only major road between York, Hadrian's Wall and onwards to the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Today the route is still used by many major roads including the A1, although the occasional Roman milestone still remains. There are also sections of the original Dere Street which have not been built on, such as at West Woodburn in Northumberland and Gilston in Scotland.

Devils Causeway, Northumberland Roman Road A spur road leading from Dere Street to Berwick-upon-Tweet, the route of which can still be made out in several places. Dubris, Kent Urban Centre and Roman Lighthouse Dubris, now known as Dover, was one of the most important sites in Roman Britain. Originally a base for the Roman fleet of the Classic Britannica (a branch of the navy designed to protect the English Channel), the town quickly grew into a major trading centre due to both its proximity to Gaul and its positioning at the start of Watling Street. Today there are considerable remains of both a Roman villa and the west wall of a fort at the Roman Painted House (which also includes a museum). The remains of a Roman lighthouse can also be seen within the grounds of Dover Castle. Durovernum Cantiacorum (Canterbury) Urban Centre (User Submitted) Once the capital of a Celtic tribe called the Cantiaci, Canterbury was captured by the Romans in the 1st century AD and renamed Durovernum Cantiacorum (meaning 'stronghold of the Cantiaci').

By the 3rd century AD the city had been rebuilt and grown into an area of around 130 acres, enclosed by a massive city wall with seven gates and a substantial earth bank. Unfortunately not much remains of Roman Canterbury, however sections of the original city wall around the North Gate area can still be seen. There is also a Roman gate still visible, albeit blocked up and incorporated into the medieval city walls. If visiting, be sure to stop in at the Roman Museum which, amongst a host of finds from the city, includes an in situ mosaic dating from the late 2nd century AD. Eboracum (York) Urban Centre (User Submitted) Founded in AD71, Eboracum started out as a Roman fort but soon grew into a urban centre with residents from throughout the Roman Empire. Remains that can be seen today include the military headquarters which is open to the public and located underneath modern day York Minster, as well as a Roman bath (located under the Roman Bath pub in St Sampson's Square), a temple and a portion of city wall in the Museum Gardens known as the Multangular Tower.

Epiacum (Whitley Castle), Cumbria Roman Fort This peculiar lozenge shaped fort was thought to have protected Roman lead mine interests in the area, as well as acting as a support fort for nearby Hadrian's Wall. The site is currently unexcavated but is popular with mole hill archaeologists, i.e. rummaging through mole hills looking for Roman remains! Ermine Street Roman Road A major Roman road that ran from London to York via Lincoln. Most of the route has now been incorporated into the A1, but there are still parts (namely just south of Lincoln) where the original Roman road is a public footpath. Exeter City Wall, Devon Roman Wall Over 70% of the original Exeter city wall still exists, and although much of it dates from Anglo-Saxon and medieval times, there are still large portions of the original Roman stonework. Fishbourne Roman Palace, West Sussex Roman Villa Larger than Buckingham Palace and easily the largest Roman residence north of the Alps, Fishbourne Roman Palace was built in the 1st century AD although it is not known who for. Today there are some fantastic mosaics on display, as well as a museum and a reconstructed Roman garden.

Fosse Way Roman Road The Fosse Way was one of the most important Roman roads in Britain, linking Exeter, Bath, Cirencester, Leicester and ending in Lincoln. Many sections of the road are now public footpaths. Gabrosentum, Cumbria Roman Fort and Civilian Settlement This former fort and adjoining settlement was built during Emperor Hadrian's reign and was in use until the late 4th century AD. Excavations have revealed official buildings including the commanding officers house, as well as numerous civilian buildings, a fort and a small natural harbour. Gadebridge Roman Villa, Hertfordshire Roman Villa Excavated in the 1960s and again in 2000, Gatesbridge Villa once housed the second largest swimming baths ever found in Britain. Now that the excavations have been completed the villa has been recovered with grassland. Great Witcombe Roman Villa, Gloucestershire Roman Villa Built in the first century AD, it is thought that Great Witcombe Villa once housed a fabulous water garden. Today the remains consist of a latrine, bath house and hypocaust, as well as the outline of the walls of the villa and a mosaic floor.

Habitancum, Northumberland Roman Fort Only ditches and a small amount of stonework at the north-eastern corner of this Dere Street fort can still be seen. Hadrian's Wall, North of England Roman Wall Hadrian's Wall is the most prominent and important monument left by the Romans in Britain, spanning the entire width of the country. Read our full article about Hadrian's Wall here . Halton Chesters, Northumberland Hadrian's Wall Fort Located at the juncture of Hadrian's Wall and Dere Street lies Halton Chesters Fort (also known as Hunnum), although only earthworks can still be seen. Originally an Iron Age hill fort, the Romans captured the site from the Britons in AD45. Hardknott Roman Fort , Cumbria Roman Fort Built between AD120 and AD138 during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, Hardknott Fort (Mediobogdum) appears to have been occupied initially only briefly before being re-occupied probably in the late 2nd century. It housed a cohort of 500 men, the fourth Cohort of Dalmatians, infantry soldiers from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro.

Read our full article on Hardknott Roman Fort here . Housesteads, Northumberland Roman Fort Built to house around 800 soldiers, Housesteads is one of a series of Hadrian's Wall forts and is relatively well preserved. In fact, rumour has it that Housesteads boasts the best preserved Roman latrine in all of Britain! Jewry Wall, Leicester Public Building Standing up to 8 metres high, this strikingly well preserved wall was once part of a Roman bath house. The reason it has survived for almost 2000 years is that the wall was once used in the structure of a nearby church. Letocetum, Staffordshire Urban Centre Letocetum was once a significant Roman settlement with temples, villas, a basilica, forum and amphitheatre. Although the majority of the remains now lie under the modern village of Wall, a bath house and official stopping place (mansio) can still be seen. Littlecote Roman Villa, Wiltshire Roman Villa The remains of Littlecote Roman Villa is perhaps most famous for its well preserved Orpheus mosaic which dates from the latter half of the 4th century AD.

London Wall, London Roman Wall From around 200 AD, the shape of London was defined by one single structure; it’s massive city wall. Lost for centuries, many sections of the wall were uncovered during WW2 bombing and can now be seen from Tower Bridge all of the way to Farringdon. Click here for our full walking guide. Longovicium, County Durham Roman Fort Yet another Dere Street fort, Longovicium is situated some 20 miles south of Hadrian's Wall. Although it is not currently open the public, there are plans by local authorities, Durham and Newcastle Universities and English Heritage to allow public access to the site. Lullingstone Roman Villa, Kent Roman Villa Built in around 100AD, Lullingstone Villa is a family friendly site boasting fantastic mosaics and wall paintings, as well as the remains of a bath-suite and temple. Lunt Fort, Warwickshire Roman Fort Built in AD60 to support the Roman army in their campaign against Boudica and the Iceni, Lunt Roman Fort has now been fully excavated and is open to the public.

The fantastic wooden gateway was built in the 1970s with the same tools and equipment as would have been used by the Romans. Lydney Park, Gloucestershire Roman Temple Once a Iron Age fort, Lydney Park was used by the Romans for the mining of iron ore. In the 4th century AD a temple was built on the site, the remains of which can still be seen today. Carvoran Roman Fort, Northumberland Hadrian's Wall Fort One of sixteen forts along Hadrian's Wall, Carvoran is not the most spectacular or most excavated site in the area, but it is the home to the Roman Army Museum which is well worth a visit. Highfield Barrow, Hemel Hempstead Roman Barrow (User submitted by Stephanie Nield) This well preserved Roman barrow is at the junction of Queensway and High Street Green in Hemel Hempstead, and although not currently open to the public it can be seen from the side of the road. Maryport (Alauna) Fort & Senhouse Roman Museum, Cumbria Roman Fort An early Roman fort, rebuilt around AD122 as a supply base for the coastal defences of the mighty Hadrian's Wall.

The coastline to the south of the wall being vunerable to attack was defended by a series of Roman milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast. Maryport represents the southernmost fort of these defences, guarding a crossing of the Solway Firth. An observation tower in the museum grounds reveals the extensive remains of the site. Restricted opening times and entrance charges apply. Milefortlet 21 Hadrian's Wall Fortlet Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall. Although many of these defences have now been lost, including the watchtowers that stood between each milefortlet, Milefortlet 21 is the first to be fully excavated. Free and open access at any reasonable time.

Moresby (Gabrosentum) Fort, Cumbria Hadrian's Wall Milefortlet Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall, linked by a road rather than a wall. Many of these defences have now been lost, and only the earthwork remains of Gabrosentum are visible. Occupied until the early 4th century, St Bridget’s church and graveyard now stand on the north-east corner of the fort. Newport Arch / Lincoln City Wall, Lincoln City Wall and Arch Newport Arch was built in the 3rd century to carry Ermine Street through the city of Lincoln and is still used by traffic today. There is also a small section of Roman city wall to the east of the arch. Noveum Museum & Roman Baths, Chichester Public Baths A purpose built museum designed to show the remains of the city’s Roman bath house, previously hidden under a car park.

Excavated in 1975, the public baths served the local Romano-British community between the 2nd and 5th centuries. The museum also includes other collections, charting the social history, archaeology and geology of region. Restricted opening hours and entrance charges apply. Pevensey Roman Fort, East Sussex Roman Fort This Saxon Shore Fort was built around AD290, and although most of the structure dates from the medieval times there is significant Roman masonry in the outer curtain wall. Piddington Roman Villa, Northamptonshire Roman Villa and Museum This Roman villa was discovered by workmen in 1781 when they uncovered a complete mosaic. Unfortunately when the local townspeople of Northampton came along to see the mosaic they decided to break it up and take it away as souvenirs! Recently a museum was set up on the site displaying a host of finds and remains from the villa. Piercebridge Roman Bridge, County Durham Roman Bridge The remains of a Roman Bridge which once led into Piercebridge Roman Fort from across the River Tees. Large masonry blocks and one of the bridge abutments can still be seen to this day.

Piercebridge Roman Fort, County Durham Roman Fort Piercebridge is the southernmost of the Dere Street forts, the main road linking York to Hadrian's Wall and on to the Antonine Wall. Plumpton (Voreda) Fort Roman Fort With the earthworks still clearly visible from the adjacent A6, the fort was built upon the old Roman road that ran northwards to Hadrian’s Wall. Occupied between the first and fourth centuries, it is thought the fort was built by the 2nd Cohort of Gauls, or Cohors II Gallorum, a mounted cavalry unit recruited from the Gallic tribes of northern France. Although excavations around the fort have revealed the existence of a large civil settlement or vicus, we can find no evidence of this from the satellite image... but don’t just take our word for it, take a look for yourself! Portchester Roman Fort, Hampshire Roman Fort The best preserved of all of the Roman Saxon Shore Forts, Portchester Fort (also known as Portus Adurni) appears almost as it did the day it was built… at least from a distance!

Only four bastions have been lost in the past 1600 years, whilst inside the Roman perimeter walls is a Norman stronghold. Ravenglass Bath House, Cumbria Roman Bath House With its stone walls still standing at almost 4m high, the ruined bath house stands outside the nearby 2nd century Ravenglass Roman fort. Although now on private land, the earthwork remains of the fort are still visible from the bath house. Originally of turf and timber construction, the fort served as an important naval base guarding the nearby harbour. Free and open access at any reasonable time. Rockbourne Roman Villa, Hampshire Roman Villa This courtyard villa includes fabulous Roman mosaics, a bath house, living quarters, workshops and underfloor heating. There is also a museum of the site which includes artefacts from the villa. Roman Baths, Bath Roman Baths The Roman Baths and magnificent Temple were built around the natural hot spring which rises at 46°C and were at the centre of Roman life in Aquae Sulis between the first and fifth centuries. The remains are remarkably complete and include sculpture, coins, jewellery and the bronze head of the goddess Sulis Minerva.

Richborough Castle, Kent Roman Fort Situated on the site where the Romans first invaded Britain in 43AD, Richborough Castle was built in the late 3rd century as a Saxon Shore Fort. The castle is now managed by English Heritage and in places the walls stand at around 20 feet high. Segedunum Roman Fort, North Tyneside Hadrian's Wall Fort Lying at the eastern corner of Hadrian's Wall, Segedunum is the most thoroughly excavated Roman fort in the country. Unfortunately only the foundations of the fort still remain, although there is also a modern reconstruction of the military bath house. Stanegate, Cumbria / Northumberland Roman Road Stanegate Roman Road was built in around AD80 to link together two major forts but only became a frontier road after the withdrawal from Scotland in 105AD. The original path of Stanegate, including milestones, can still be seen in locations such as Corbridge and Vindolanda. Temple of Mithras, London Roman Temple During the post-war reconstruction of London, an archaeological treasure was found amongst all of the rubble and debris; the Roman Temple of Mithras.

Click here to read our full article about this site. Tripontium, Warwickshire Urban Centre Situated around three miles from the town of Rugby, Tripontium was originally a frontier fort built in AD50 to support the Roman invasion to the north. The following centuries saw the site grow in size and become one of the most important towns in the area. Unfortunately the site is not open to the public after excavations were completed in 2006. Verulamium, Hertfordshire Urban Centre Verulamium was settled in the first 10 years of the Roman occupation of Britain and was granted city-like status in AD50. In AD61 Boudica sacked the city and burnt it to the ground but it was soon rebuilt after the Iceni uprising had been quelled. Remains that are now visible include city walls and a theatre, although the majority of the old Roman city remains unexcavated. Vindolanda, Northumberland Hadrian's Wall Fort Built to protect the Stanegate (a road which ran just south of Hadrian's Wall), Vindolanda is perhaps best known as the site where the Vindolanda Tablets (the oldest handwritten documents in Britain) were found.

Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter Roman City), Wroxeter Urban Centre Once the fourth largest Roman city in England, Viroconium Cornoviorum (now called Wroxeter) contains the largest free-standing Roman ruin in England as well as other extensive remains. There is also a museum on the site which is managed by English Heritage. Watling Street Roman Road Running from Dover to Wroxeter via London, the path of the original Watling Street is today covered by the A2 and A5 roads although there are certain portions which are either accessible either as footpaths or bridleways. Welwyn Roman Baths, Hertfordshire Roman Baths Preserved in a steel vault under the A1(M) motorway, these fantastic remains of a large villas baths are remarkably intact. There is also a small museum which includes an exhibition about the site as well as finds which were uncovered during excavation. Wigton (Maglona) Fort, Cumbria Roman Fort Also known as Old Carlisle, the fort was constructed towards the end of the first century AD. A strategically important outpost, it formed part of a military frontier against the hostile Picts to the north.

Home to a 500 strong cavalry regiment, a small civilian settlement or vicus formed just to the south of the fort. Although much of the stonework was recycled in the 18th century to rebuild Wigton, much of the earthen ramparts are well preserved. Free and open access at any reasonable time. Winchester City Walls, Winchester Fragments of the Roman City Wall Surrounding Winchester Cathedral's grounds is the old medieval city wall, with one visible section of the original Roman wall still intact. Antonine Wall Roman Wall The building of the Antonine Wall started in AD 142 and is thought to have taken six years to complete. Running from east to west and stretching some 37 miles from modern Boness on the Firth of Forth to Old Kilpatrick on the River Clyde, the wall marked the extent of the Roman military advance northwards from the existing frontier of Hadrian's Wall. Dere Street Roman Road Roman Road Dere Street was once the main supply route and only major road between York, Hadrian's Wall and onwards to the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Today the route is still used by many major roads including the A1, although the occasional Roman milestone still remains.

There are also sections of the original Dere Street which have not been built on, such as at West Woodburn in Northumberland and Gilston in Scotland. Inchtuthil, Perthshire Roman Fort Built in AD 82 as a command headquarters for the Roman invasion of Scotland, Inchtuthil is fairly unique in that it was never built over and therefore was in remarkably good condition when excavated in the 1950s and 60s. Trimontium, Scottish Borders Roman Fort Built as a base for the Romans advance into Scotland, Trimontium would have at one time housed around 2000 soldiers and civilians. Only faint earthworks can now be seen, along with a monument which marks the site of the fort. Bar Hill Fort, East Dunbartonshire Antonine Wall Fort Situated on the highest point of the Antonine Wall, the remains of Bar Hill include a bath house, granary, barracks and fort headquarters. There are also the remains of an Iron Age fort on the site.

Bearsden Bath House, Glasgow Antonine Wall Fort / Roman Baths Almost all of the Roman fort at Bearsden is hidden under modern housing, although the fort's bath house has been excavated and is now on public display. These remains date back to around 143AD and were discovered by builders in 1973. Castlecary, North Lanarkshire Antonine Wall Fort Built in AD 80 by Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the impressive remains of Castlecary Antonine Wall fort are well worth a visit and are easily accessed from the M80. Croy Hill, North Lanarkshire Antonine Wall Fort Not much remains of this Antonine Wall fort except for a single wall ditch and two beacon platforms. Pennymuir Roman Camps, Scottish Borders Temporary Roman Camp Pennymuir was once home to three temporary camps for Roman legions heading between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall. Remains that can be seen today include Dere Street as well the camp's ramparts and entrances. Rough Castle, Falkirk Antonine Wall Fort Although Rough Castle was the second smallest fort on the Antonine Wall, it is also one the best preserved with relatively well defined ramparts still visible today.

Also visible is a set of Lilas pits which would have had stakes at the bottom, as well as the line of the military road that would have linked all of the Antonine Wall forts together. Alabum Llandovery Roman Fort, Carmarthenshire Roman Fort / Roman Road Although not much of this 1st century auxiliary fort still remains, it is possible to see some scarped slopes to the north and west of St Marys Church. To the north of the church the path of a Roman road can also be seen. Finally, be sure to look out for Roman masonry which has been reused in the walls of the church. Caer Gybi, Anglesey Roman Fort, Anglesey Roman Fort Built in the 4th century AD to protect Anglesey against Irish invaders, Caer Gybi is remarkably well preserved with some parts of the original wall standing to over 4 metres in height (notably the north-western corner). The other walls have Roman foundations although were rebuilt some time later.

Caerleon (Isca Augusta), Gwent Romant Fort, Wall and Amphitheatre Built in AD75 to support the Roman conquest of Wales, Isca Augusta once housed up to 5,000 soldiers and was not abandoned until the late 4th century / early 5th century AD. There is a phenomenal amount of remains still visible including an amphitheatre, baths and barracks. Cardiff Roman Fort, Cardiff Roman Fort Although the majority of the Cardiff Roman Fort is a Victorian reconstruction, the original Roman walls can still be seen incorporated into certain portions of the Cardiff Castle. These visible remains are that of a Saxon Shore Short which was built around 300AD, although it is thought that the site housed at least two earlier forts. Cold Knap, Barry, Barry Island Roman Building, unknown use Cold Knap was once a Roman port, and the remains of a 3rd century building can still be seen along the shore. Dolaucothi Gold Mines and Luentinum Fort, Carmarthenshire Roman Mines and Fort Dolaucothi is though to have been the only Roman gold mine in Britannia, and would have been protected by an accompanying fort (known as Luentinum).

In the 18th century a large hoard of Roman gold ornaments was found (now on show in the British Museum). Moridunum, Carmarthen, Carmarthenshire Roman Fort, Town and Amphitheatre Situated in modern day Carmathen, the visible remains of Moidunum are limited to an amphitheatre thought to have been the furthest west ever built within the Roman empire. Artefacts from Moridunum excavations can be seen at the nearby museum in Abergwili. Nidum, Neath, Neath Roman Fort Situated at the corner of a main road and a modern housing estate lies the remains of the south gate of Nidum Roman Fort. Sarn Helen Roman Road, Powys Roman Road One of the best preserved Roman roads in the whole of Britain, the remains of both cobbles and a ditch are still visible at the Maen Madoc stone in the Brecon Beacons. Segontium, Gwynedd Roman Fort, Town and Temple Built in around 80AD just a few years after completing their conquest of Wales, Segontium was the largest and most important Roman fort in north Wales.

The remains of many of the forts buildings are still visible, quite surprising really considering that Edward I plundered most of the stonework for his castle at Caernarfon! Tomen-y-Mur Roman Fort, Snowdonia Roman Fort and Amphitheatre Visible earthworks of a Roman amphitheatre (albeit a very small one), bath house, temple, parade ground and even a Roman road can be seen, although most of the remains here are from a much later Norman motte and bailey castle. Venta Silurum, Monmouthshire Urban Centre Unquestionably the best surviving Roman town defence walls in Britain (standing up to 5 metres in places!), the remains at Venta Silurum also include a house with underfloor heating, basilica, forum and temple. The site is open to the public. Y Gaer, Brecon Beacons Roman Fort Built in AD75 at the crossroads of two Roman roads, Y Gaer would have been occupied by a contingent of 500 Spanish-recruited cavalrymen. Visible remains today include the perimeter walls, gatehouses and guard towers.

fpl1sulis Hot Springs of Bath, England Background Sulis, the great British Celtic healer Goddess, was originally a solar and fertility deity. Sulis’ shrine was located at Bath, England, where her power was strongest. Some scholars say she was a “Solar” divinity; her name is a derivative of the Celtic word “Sul” for “sun” and “eye,” and Suilead, meaning wisdom. She is also a Goddess of healing waters. Perpetual fires burned at her shrines, which were natural mineral hot springs. The Romans called her “Minerva Medica” (healing). Statues show Minerva Medica as matronly, with a hat made out of a bear’s head, and her foot resting on an owl. She was also referred to as “Sulis Minerva” by the Romans. Minerva was a virgin warrior dedicated to women’s rights and freedom. The owl was her sacred bird, and healing and medicine were her themes. Sulis is associated with the Roman goddesses Coventina and Nemetona, who were also worshipped at Bath. She has a connection to Brigit, who was associated with holy wells of healing water in Ireland.

Sulis, like Brigit, was served by priestesses who kept her eternal flame burning. At Aquae Sulis as well as on the continent, she appears in multiple forms, the three-part Celtic Goddess “Suleviae.” Symbols on her shrine are antlers, which symbolize the sun’s rays, and eyes, which signify the sun. The Roman God Mars Loucetius (light) also was invoked at Sulis’ shrine. The Sun is associated with hot springs, connecting hot water with healing. On the main temple pediment there is a carved masculine Gorgon head of Celtic origin. This image relates the Greek myth of Perseus and the Gorgon to the Celtic Goddess Sulis and the Roman Goddess Minerva. The Gorgon’s snakelike hair represents the waves of the sea as well as the rays of the sun, linking fire and water; Sulis is a Goddess of healing water as well as of the Sun. The Gorgon has wings on either side of his head, alluding to Air, and he is made of stone, signifying Earth origin. Therefore, the Gorgon combines all of the four elements.

Gorgons were thought to possess an ‘evil eye,’ which defended one against enemies. The Baths and Shrine at Aquae Sulis Archaeologists have determined that the hot mineral springs at Bath were in use at least 10,000 years ago. The first to use the spa were Neolithic hunter-gatherer tribes. The Celts, who arrived in England around 700 BCE, are believed to have built the first shrine structures at the springs. The Romans, who arrived in Britain around 43 CE, took over the Celtic shrine, and called the spa at Bath “Aquae Sulis,” the waters of Sulis. A quarter of a million gallons of hot mineral water (120 degrees Fahrenheit) flowed daily out of the hot springs. For centuries after the Romans left, the springs were buried under silted deposits. They were uncovered in the 17th Century by antiquarians. Columns of the original bath structures stand today, open to the sky as they stood millennia ago, besides the River Avon. Evidence of the pre-Roman sanctity of the springs is shown by the presence of Celtic coins, cast into the water as votive offerings.

The man-made causeway which led across marshy grown from the southwest to the springs is almost certainly pre-Roman. The Romans built an imposing temple at the springs in honor of Sulis. They constructed sumptuous bath buildings, a great altar and a reservoir for the sacred spring water. The bathing complex was designed so that the visitor could look from the main hall of baths to the actual spring, bubbling up from the earth. The bathing pools were fed with a constant flow of water through lead pipes which still function today, and the largest bath was lined with 42 sheets of lead whose combined weight exceeded 8 ½ tons. Once the Roman legions departed from Britain early in the fifth century CE, the city and its baths fell into decline. However, the town was not abandoned. By the seventh century CE, the first Christian structure was established on the ruins of the Roman temple, and for the next twelve hundred years, a succession of churches rose and fell upon the hallowed ground. The spa was “rediscovered” by the beginning of the 16th century, as royal and aristocratic families arrived to ‘take the cure,’ and by the 1720s, Bath was on its way to becoming a fashionable spa.

The hot mineral waters at Bath contained genuine therapeutic properties for certain types of afflictions. There was a close link between healing, regeneration and fertility, and patrons of the baths sought the waters for those benefits. Women patrons sought help for child-bearing and lactation disorders. Studies of the waters of Bath have revealed the presence of 43 different minerals, including iron, magnesium, potassium, copper and radium. Although the early people who came to the spa for healing had no way to determine the nature of these minerals, the springs have been venerated as a healing site since Neolithic times. Can this be yet another indication of the energetic resonance between humans and the Earth? Ritual procedures at Bath included immersion in the hot waters, drinking the sacred waters and sleeping at the shrine in the hopes of a curative vision. Sacrifices and festivals were also held, and offerings of money, jewels, shoes, spindle-whorls and coins have been found, as well as moulds for making amulets to be sold to patrons. The most common mould was of a solar wheel. Sulis was also venerated as a Goddess of Justice.

Researchers found 130 “curse-tablets” at the site; these were petitions to the Goddess, telling her the nature of the wrongdoing; the name (if known) of the wrongdoer, and graphic details of the desired retribution. These tablets were inscribed on thin sheets of pewter or lead, rolled up, addressed to the Goddess Sulis or Sulis Minerva, and cast into Sulis’ spring. It is interesting to note that not a single Roman citizen is mentioned in any of the curse-tablets; the names are all of Celtic origin. Although the curse-tablets mainly sought retribution for the theft of personal property from patrons of the spa, the remedies sought were often harsh. It is interesting to note that the Celts had no male God of war, such as Ares – they invoked a war Goddess. They also did not have a Goddess of Love, such as Aphrodite. Celtic goddesses evolved from manifestations of the Neolithic Great Mother in her incarnations as maiden, mother and crone, all identified with the Earth.

Sulis’ Attributes Rules: Joy, success, leadership, healing, light Day: Sunday Incense: Cinnamon, cloves, frankincense, laurel Plants: Acacia, bay laurel, chamomile, citrus fruits, honey, marigold, sunflower Trees: Acacia, ash, bay laurel, birch Animals: Eagle, lion, phoenix Best conducted at the waxing or Full Moon, on a Sunday Need: Bath: Sea salt, oil of rose, pine or sage, Goddess Oil or favorite oil for Self Blessing. White clothing or skyclad. Goddess candle, yellow or gold; 3 candles in any combination of blue and green; 1 white Self candle, athame Sage for purification, or spring water with sea salt Incense: Rose, sage or rosemary for healing or frankincense for solar power Flowers: any gold or yellow flowers (odd number) Music: Native American flute, or Celtic harp, or other calm instrumental Ritual Bath: Before beginning the ritual, fill bathtub with comfortably hot water. Add a handful of sea salt, and oil of rose, pine or sage. Bring Self candle into bathroom, light it, turn out electric lights.

Relax in water, envision your limbs floating, weightless. When the water cools, let it out of the tub, dry off, perform Self-Blessing with Goddess Oil or favorite oil. Dress in white clothing, or go skyclad. Free hair from all ties and bindings. Bring white Self candle to altar. Light sage bundle or incense and purify, or sprinkle altar and room with spring water and sea salt. Cast the Circle deosil, and invoke the directions: “Hail. Guardians of the Watchtowers of the East, Powers of Air, be with me now! Goddess Mother of Eagles, be welcome!” (Inscribe invoking pentacle) “Hail, Guardians of the Watchtowers of the South, Powers of Fire, be with me now! Goddess Brigit, be welcome!” (Inscribe invoking pentacle) Hail, Guardians of the Watchtowers of the West, Powers of Water, be with me now! Goddess Cordelia, be welcome!” (Inscribe invoking pentacle) Hail, Guardians of the Watchtowers of the North, Powers of Earth, be with me now!

Goddess Aine, be welcome!” (Inscribe invoking pentacle). Say, “This is a place that is not a place in a time that is not a time. We are between the Worlds.” Invocation: The purpose of this ritual is to invoke Sulis’ divine powers of Healing and to transmit them with all love and good intent to (myself or other person in need). Light Blue and Green candles. Meditation: Play calming music. Sit facing altar and contemplate the candle flames as they burn steadily. Close eyes and keep image of candle flame. Slow breathing; be aware of air traveling gently in and out of your nose. Consciously relax your body; bring your attention first to your feet, then to your legs, up your torso, to your arms and finally to your face, so that all your muscles are relaxed and receptive. Now see the candle flame that burns in your mind’s eye begin to grow. Soon it becomes the Sun, golden and radiant. You can look at this Sun without hurting your eyes; it is gentle and loving. As you watch the Sun, it changes; sometimes it is a Gorgon’s face, with hair and beard that look like sun rays.

Sometimes it is a woman’s smiling face, her hair streaming out in all directions. Sometimes it is the light glancing off a great shield of gold and glass, held by stern Minerva. Slowly open your eyes and stand up. Invoke Sulis Light Sulis’ yellow or gold candle. Turn to the South and raise hands, palms forward: “Goddess Sulis, patroness of the healing springs and of the Sun, be welcome to my Circle. Bring your healing love to me.” Feel the warmth of the Sun on your head, on your face, on your body, and as you breathe in, feel the warming power of Sulis’ healing in your lungs, your belly, your blood, your heart. Body of Ritual Sit facing altar, keeping Sulis with you. Turn your gaze inward and again visualize the golden Sun, feel its warmth. Sulis sits beside you; feel her warm hand on your shoulder. Pray: “Be with me, Goddess Sulis, as I gather healing for (myself or a loved one).” Visualize white and golden rays mingling, streaming from the face of the Sun. Raise your hands, palms upward, and feel the healing streaming into your palms; it may tingle or pulse.

Notice the healing moving up your arms, into your chest and your heart, suffusing your entire body. If you are healing yourself, open without reservation and allow the healing to stream to the tips of your fingers and toes; visualize what is ailing and see it surrounded by white and golden light. See yourself as whole and healthy, dancing in the Sunlight. If you are sending healing to someone else, say, “Goddess Sulis, be with me as I send Your healing power to (name).” Feel the healing concentrate, great beams of white and golden light, in your heart. Raise your arms, palms outward, send the rays through your arms and hands and hurl them through time and space to the person you wish to heal. Feel the healing streaming out of your palms. Sulis rests her hands on your shoulders and streams the healing with you. After a while you will feel the healing rays subside and then slowly fade. Raise Cone of Power Return your attention to the present; be aware of the music playing softly. Dance, swirl and move to the music. Sulis dances with you, her long hair flying. You can still feel Her hands in yours. Then, She releases your hands.

Ground Kneel, put your palms on the ground and rest your forehead between them. You may need to stay this way for a while (much power raised!). Open the Circle Moving counterclockwise, open the Circle. Thank the Watchtowers, saying to each in turn, “Leave if you must, stay if you will.” Thank the Goddess Sulis, saying, “Leave if you must, stay if you will.” Ground again if necessary. Say, “The Circle is open but unbroken; the love of the Goddess is ever in our hearts. Merry meet and merry part, and merry meet again.” Sulis’ Priestess Soon I learned to tend the holy fires and fetch the coins Thrown by the patrons into the Goddess’ spring. I learned to love The hot, fetid, bubbling waters that washed away sad memories. I learned the prayers and chants. I learned to take the hand of an old blind lady And bring her to the baths; pour soothing waters over her, Receive her thanks and blessings. Soon I learned The rituals and treatments for the sick. I learned to be a Healer. Patrons pressed my hand, knelt at my feet, thanked me with gifts of gold, Of cloth, of lyres.

I learned to diagnose old aching bones and joints, A weakened liver; impending childbirth peril, scanty milk. I comforted Mothers bereaved in childbed, and the blind that believed, mistakenly, That, beholding the Goddess’ face, their sight would be restored. My sisters and I read the curse-tablets piously laid in the waters; Laughed at the punishments asked for the theft of a sandal or a rabbit. On the solstices and other solemn nights, we gathered together At the foot of the Goddess, the Sun, and thanked her for our serene lives. Now I am old; now I too soak in the bubbling waters, ease my bones. I never missed an earthly family. Early transfixed by Sulis’ light, Sulis’ love filled my heart; Her service filled my days. Sometimes I wonder: if I did not serve Her, if I had lived a mundane life, Married, had children, seen my children’s children, Would I have come at last to Her, bringing my aging bones? I think I would. I have lived my life in the Sun.

Aldhouse,-Green, Miranda, The Sun-Gods of Ancient Europe Conway, Diana J, Ancient and Shining Ones Conway, Diana J., The Goddess Path Cunliffe, Barry and Davenport, Peter, The Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath French, Claire, The Celtic Goddess: Great Queen or Demon Witch Green, Miranda –The Gods of Roman Britain Monaghan, Patricia, The New Book of Goddesses & Heroines Monaghan, Patricia, The Goddess Path Monaghan, Patricia, Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore Starhawk, The Spiral Dance, 20th Anniversary Edition Telesco, Patricia, 365 Goddess Martin Gray’s Websites, (Minerva, the Celtic Connection) Temple Courtyard and Minerva | The Roman Baths Temple Courtyard and Minerva Temple courtyard at the Roman Baths Temple Courtyard and Minerva Sacred Spring and Associated Objects Proceed through the new suspended walkway above the Temple courtyard, and explore the sacred area, where Roman worshippers gathered to pray to the goddess Sulis Minerva. This was the place where sacrifices were made at the great altar. There are many altar stones and inscriptions here.

Visitors can also see breathtaking digital reconstructions of the Roman temple courtyard in this area of the museum. Minerva's head The gilt bronze head of the goddess Sulis Minerva is one of the best known objects from Roman Britain. Gilt bronze sculptures are rare finds from Roman Britain as only two other fragments are known. The head is probably from the cult statue of the deity which would have stood within the Temple beside the Sacred Spring, and may well date from the first century AD. Read a more detailed description of Minerva's head here. Haruspex stone The haruspex stone was found in an excavation in 1965. The inscription reveals that the stone was set up by L. Marcius Memor, a haruspex, who was a special kind of priest. It was dedicated to the goddess Sulis Minerva and is likely to have supported her statue. The haruspex had the power to advise on the meaning of omens and might be consulted before an important event or proposed course of action.

Share this page The end of Roman Bath | Current Archaeology The end of Roman Bath Mar 04, 2008 Features 0 Bath — Aquae Sulis — was one of the jewels of Romano-British civilisation. What happened to it when the Romans left? Roman specialist James Gerrard has been studying the tantalising evidence for the end of Roman Bath. The remains of the temple and baths dedicated to Sulis Minerva at Bath are some of the most evocative Roman ruins in the country. On a chill winter’s morning, with steam rising from the Great Bath, it does not take much to understand why this place was special in Roman Britain and famed across the empire. Most research at Bath has gone into understanding how and why temple and baths were built. My interest, in contrast, has always lain at the other end of the Roman period. I want to know what happened when the Romans left. Did this oasis of Classicism in Britain come to a rapid end in the 5th century? Did it perish before the fire and sword of Anglo-Saxon invaders? Or did life continue, dominated by the monumental structures of the Roman city?

Excavations at Roman Bath stretch back over 200 years to the efforts of 18th century antiquarians. It is, however, the excavations of 1978-1983, directed by Peter Davenport and Barry Cunliffe, that have given us the most detailed account of the site. The inner precinct was one of the targets of those excavations, and the result was a sequence of activity from construction through to ruin and the subsequent development of the medieval town. Between the well-paved surface of the inner precinct and the massive scree of collapsed masonry marking the collapse or demolition of the Roman temple, the excavation team hit archaeological pay-dirt. Dismissed by earlier excavators as ‘mud and rubble’, a series of layers of sediment interleaved with paved and rubble surfaces was found which contained the evidence for the Temple of Sulis Minerva’s final years. The layers of mud and rough paving sandwiched between the inner precinct’s paved surface and the massive layer of demolition rubble above clearly contains the evidence for the demise of the temple.

For some, everything up to the demolition of the temple can be contained within the 4th century, while for others, the sequence runs on into the 5th and even 6th century. This debate has, if not raged, then certainly bubbled away in the background for the best part of two decades. Only absolute dating techniques can truly determine whether the temple was demolished early (at the end of the 4th century) or late (in the 6th or 7th century). Calibration of the radiocarbon dates gives a series of calendar dates at 95.4% probability — meaning that there is a 95% chance that the date falls between the earliest and latest dates given. All the dates are early, none extending beyond the early 5th century except for Sample 4, which returned a determination of AD 130-540; even in this last case, there is an 82% chance that the date falls between AD 320 and AD 470, with only a 6% chance that it falls between AD 480 and 540.

The implication is that layers of paving and sediment were laid over the Period 4 (see table) surface in a fairly swift succession. The subsequent re-pavings were all of rubble and dumped tile. There were also traces of small structures being built against the north wall of the spring reservoir. It seems that what had been built as a great architectural monument in the 2nd or 3rd century was being remodelled much more simply from whatever materials were to hand in the late 4th. Also significant is that by Period 5b (see table) architectural fragments were incorporated into the rough paving, showing that the temple complex was falling into a state of disrepair, and that the great altar, the ritual focus of the whole complex, had been demolished. That the altar was not rebuilt is surely significant. Either it could not be reconstructed, or by the late 4th century it held no significance for people visiting the temple and spring. The excavators argued that the temple structures had been deliberately demolished, perhaps to salvage the iron clamps and lead sealings that held the masonry blocks in place.

To demolish a structure as big as the Temple of Sulis Minerva to extract small quantities of reusable metals, when it existed in such large quantities, seems hard to believe. What, then, was the motive? How the West Country was ruled in the 5th and 6th centuries is beyond historical reconstruction. The British monk Gildas tells us that there were political units ruled by kings and tyrants, but the organisation of those kingdoms remains obscure. What is clear is that by the late 5th century there were individuals and communities in the South West capable of commanding and controlling resources on a large scale. The demolition of the temple and baths should be seen in the same light as the construction of refortified hillforts: a community mobilised the resources and labour necessary to remove a major set of structures from the ancient Roman townscape, just as they did to create new high-order settlements in the surrounding countryside. Gildas hints at why they might have done this. Writing in the early 6th century, he rages against British kings for their sins: they were murderers and usurpers. But not once does he call them ‘pagans’.

The end of Roman Bath may be the story of a cult centre that had been supported by the Roman state, that staggered on for a few decades after the collapse of Roman power, but then succumbed in the late 5th century to the attacks of a post-Roman Christian community engaged in an ultimately successful struggle for political, economic and religious supremacy. When the Frankish nun Bertana founded what was to become Bath Abbey in the late 7th century, all that was left of the Temple of Sulis Minerva were a few ruins and wall stubs sticking up through the mire, and some vague memories of a great Classical religious sanctuary. This is a cut and condensed version of the article, to read more see issue 217 A fuller version of the evidence and arguments presented here can be found in The Antiquaries Journal 87 (2007). The Roman Baths are open every day of the year except Christmas Day and Boxing Day. For opening hours at different times of year, check the website ( ) or phone 01225 477785.

Minerva | Order of Bards and Druids Minerva by Bill Blank There is a Romano-Celtic solid bronze votive in the form of the helmeted head of Minerva (1st century CE, 1.5", 3.8 cm tall). Intensely stylized, she wears a high crested helmet decorated on either side with dolphins. Her hair falls in locks at the perimeter of her helmet. Her facial detail, including her wide eyes, broad nose and tightly closed lips, is strongly preserved. She wears an ornamental breastplate that ironically mirrors her own expression. This figure is an example of bronze votive Roman art as influenced by the native Celts of Britain. The eyes, and particularly the breastplate, are predominately Celtic in design. One of the unique features of this example is the breastplate which mirrors the goddess’ serious facial expression. Also, the sculpting of the helmet is zoomorphically styled with the dolphin heads. There are three similarly-sized bronze Minerva busts on display in the British Museum. This particular example is in my own collection. Minerva was the Roman goddess of war, wisdom and the crafts.

In Britain at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, Minerva was depicted throughout Celtic Britain in both purely Roman fashion and in the more abstract Celtic style as illustrated above. But in Bath, at the temple of Aquae Sulis she becomes ‘fully equated with a Celtic goddess, Sulis’. (1) Sulis was a local goddess of healing who ruled over the remarkable hot spring beside the river Avon near Bath (Aquae Sulis). She was not only a water deity, but her name Sulis is obviously linked with the sun, probably related to the heat of the waters. Thus she represents two of the elements, water and fire. Her association with Minerva may have related with the craft of healing. Miranda Green says, The shrine of Sulis Minerva at Bath provides a superb example of the conflation and hybridization of Roman and Celtic religious beliefs and practices. On epigraphic dedications to the goddess where both Celtic and Roman names are mentioned, that of the indigenous goddess, Sulis, is always put first, thereby emphasizing that she was the patroness of the spring and that her cult was long standing.

(2) Perhaps the most famous image from Aqua Sulis is the masculine Medusa head on the main temple pediment. This is a most remarkable image relating the classical Greek myth of Perseus and the Gorgon with the Celtic goddess Sulis and, by inference, the Roman goddess Minerva. The Celtic influence in this image has transformed the female gorgon into a male, bearded face. The locks of hair can represent not only waves of the sea, but also rays of the sun, again linking both fire and water to the sacred spring. Snakes in the beard leave little doubt of the Medusa relationship. Wings on each side of the head suggest a relation with air and the stone of the figure with earth. Thus this single Celtic image combines the four elements - earth, air, fire and water - in a composite whole which hearkens from the Celts through the Romans to the Greeks and, as a predecessor to the future Greenman. The Legend of Catumandus The Greek colony, Massilia (now Marseilles) was founded in the early 6th century BCE near to what was to become the Celtic heartland.

The Celts, as they developed, had generally good trading relationships with the Massalians with minor skirmishes won by the Massalians. However, in the early 1st century BCE, one Catumandus, meaning 'general' or 'he who directs battle' (cf. Irish cath and Welsh cad , battle), chieftain of the Saluvii centered on what in now Entremont, attacked Massilia. As reported by Pompeius Trogus, he saw ‘a vision of a menacing women who told him that she was a goddess' whom Catumandus took to be one of the Celtic triple goddesses of death and war (cf. the later Irish Morrigu, The Morrigan). She warned him against continuing the attack. Catumandus broke off his attack, sued for peace with the Massialians and asked if he could enter the city and worship their gods: According to Trogus, he recognized a statue of a goddess at the portico of the temple of Minerva and claimed it was the very woman he had seen in his vision.

He therefore presented his gold torque, his necklace symbolizing his rank, as a sacrifice to the goddess and swore a treaty of perpetual friendship with the city. (3) Although Trogus reports this story, it certainly has the feel of legend or myth. It also suggests, however, that the Celts had encountered Minerva long before the Romans invaded the Celtic world and had probably incorporated here into their pantheon by whatever name. References: 1. The Gods of Roman Britain, Miranda Jane Green, Shire Archaeology, 1993, ISBN: 0852636342, pp.29-31 2. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Miranda J. Green, Thames & Hudson, 1992, ISBN: 0-500-01516-3, pp.200-202 3. Celt and Greek: Celts in the Hellenic World, Peter B. Ellis, Constable, 1997, ISBN#: 0-09-475580-9, p. 50

Question: In which British city can you find the Roman temple dedicated to Sulis Minerva?
Answer: BATH