World War I glossary Search for: World War I glossary A-D This World War I glossary contains significant words, terms and concepts relating to the 1914-18 conflict, its causes and consequences. Contains words from A to D. It has been written by Alpha History authors. If there’s a word or term you believe should be here, please let us know . abdication The resignation of a monarch, either voluntarily or under duress. Several European monarchs abdicated during World War I, most notably Nicholas II of Russia in 1917. alliance An alliance is a formal agreement between two or more nations, pledging military, logistic or financial support to each other in the event of war or aggression. Military alliances are considered a pivotal cause of World War I. alliance system The alliance system describes Europe’s diplomatic organisation before 1914 and its heavy reliance on alliances, supposedly as a deterrent to war. annexation Annexation is the forced acquisition of a region or territory by a more powerful state, such as Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia in 1908.

ANZAC ANZAC is an acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, a joint force assembled in early 1915 to participate in the Gallipoli campaign. ANZAC Day (April 25th) is a day of commemoration in both nations. arms race An arms race is a period where two or more nations engage in the rapid production of military technology and equipment, usually in response or rivalry to each other. The arms race and build up of military equipment and weapons is considered an important cause of World War I. armistice An armistice is a temporary suspension of hostilities in a war, often while a peace treaty is being negotiated. The armistice that ended fighting in World War I was signed at dawn on November 11th 1918 and came into effect at 11 am. artillery Artillery is a collective term for large calibre mobile guns, capable of firing explosive shells that cause considerable destruction. Artillery fire caused more deaths in World War I than any other form of weapon. assassination Assassination is the murder of a monarch, political leader or other significant figure. Assassinations are usually designed to stimulate or trigger political change.

autocracy Autocracy is a system of government where all political power and sovereignty is vested in a single ruler, usually a king, tsar or emperor. Balkans (or Balkan peninsula) The Balkans is a large region of south-eastern Europe, bordered by Austria-Hungary to the north, the Black Sea to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Adriatic Sea to the west. Nations in the Balkans include Serbia, Bosnia, Greece and Montenegro. barrage A barrage is the sustained bombardment of a trench line, front or area, usually with heavy artillery or naval guns. See also box barrage, creeping barrage. bayonet A bayonet is a long blade that is attached to the barrel of a gun, for use in infantry charges and close quarter fighting. The bayonet was considered an important weapon during the 18th and 19th centuries, however it was largely rendered ineffective by artillery, rifle and machine gun fire that limited hand to hand fighting. Black Hand (Serb, Crna Ruka) The Black Hand was a Serbian nationalist group, formed in 1901 and particularly active after 1908.

Among the objectives of the Black Hand were the removal of Austrian control in Bosnia and the formation of a ‘Greater Serbia’ for Slavic people in the Balkans. blockade A blockade is a military operation to restrict movement and trade in and out of an enemy nation. The best known blockade of World War I was carried out by Allied warships against Germany. The blockade of Germany continued until 1919 and caused widespread food shortages and starvation. bolt hole A bolt hole is a space or natural crevice in the side of a trench wall. Bolt holes were used by trench soldiers for sleeping, resting and storage. Bosch (also Boche, Bosche) ‘Bosch’ is a derogatory term for Germans, common in England during World War I. It is derived from the French ‘caboche’ (cabbage) and German affection of sauerkraut, or pickled cabbage. box barrage A box barrage is an artillery bombardment focused on a small target area, such as a key position or section of trench, with the aim of destroying it utterly. censorship Censorship refers to government control or restrictions placed on the media or publishing. Censorship was a feature of total war during World War I.

It was used by all major combatants in the war, either to protect the secrecy of military operations or to shield the population from bad news. Central Powers The Central Powers refers to the alliance bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire. The name comes from their comparatively central location in Europe. chlorine gas Chlorine gas was one of several chemical weapons used during World War I. It appeared as a grey-green cloud, smelling of bleach. Much deadlier than mustard gas, it caused death by asphyxiation and burning of the lungs and airways. colonial war More common in the 19th century, colonial wars were one sided conflicts against undeveloped or inferior forces, waged to gain control of a colonial possession. colony A colony is a country, region or territory that is invaded and occupied by a more powerful nation, then absorbed into its empire. Colonies were usually exploited for the military, strategic or economic benefit of the colonising power, or ‘mother country’. conscientious objector A conscientious objector was an individual who refused to enlist in the military or fight in war because of religious, political or pacifist beliefs.

Known colloquially as ‘conchies’, they were treated with varying degrees of toleration during the war. Some conscientious objectors served in the military in non-combat roles, such as medics, stewards and cooks. conscription Conscription is a government policy that requires citizens to perform compulsory military service, particularly in a time of war. All major combatant powers used conscription during World War I. Conscription proved a divisive public issue in nations like Australia and Canada. cordite Cordite is a smokeless propellant used in munitions, including artillery shells, naval guns, mortars and rifle cartridges. creeping barrage A creeping barrage is a series of artillery bombardments where the target line of shelling is moved progressively forward. The aim of a creeping barrage is to clear an area by eradicating or forcing back enemy troops, allowing infantry to advance ‘behind’ the barrage. Creeping barrages were sometimes successful but often failed to disperse enemy soldiers as predicted, leaving advancing troops exposed to gunfire. czar (see tsar) Defence of the Realm Act The Defence of the Realm Act was legislation passed by the British parliament in August 1914.

It gave the government sweeping powers to protect the nation and coordinate the war effort. Among these powers were social controls, censorship and the authority requisition land, machinery and buildings. demobilisation (or ‘de-mob’) Demobilisation, or ‘de-mob’, is the process of dismantling armies, discharging soldiers and returning them to civilian life at the conclusion of a war. desertion Desertion is the act of an enlisted soldier or officer abandoning or fleeing his post during a time of war. Desertion was a serious criminal offence and was usually punished by imprisonment or execution. A total of 306 British and Commonwealth troops were executed for desertion during World War I. diplomacy Diplomacy refers to formal and informal communications between nations and their governments. The aims of diplomacy are to forge good relations, advance trade interests and resolve disputes and disagreements. The breakdown and failure of European diplomacy is considered an important cause of World War I. diplomat A diplomat is an official who represents a government in its relations with foreign governments. Diplomats include officials such as ambassadors, consuls and envoys. dogfight A dogfight is an aerial battle between aircraft.

In World War I, early dogfights took place between single-pilot planes and were considered an act of skill, courage and daring. Dolchstosslegende (see ‘stab in the back’ legend) Dreadnought Dreadnoughts were the largest class of British battleship, heavily armoured and outfitted with large artillery guns. The first Dreadnought was produced in 1906, accelerating the naval and arms race with Germany. The name Dreadnought became synonymous with any large and powerful naval vessel. dual monarchy A dual monarchy is a nation or empire that is formed from the union of two different kingdoms. In a dual monarchy the monarch is crowned twice, as king or queen of both states. Austria-Hungary was a dual monarchy, led by Franz Joseph until his death in late 1916. duckboard A duckboard is a wooden platform installed at the bottom of a trench, to provide soldiers with a firm footing and lift them out of water or muddy ground. dug out (or funk hole) A dug out is an enclosed living space or shelter dug into the wall of a trench. Dug outs were used for sleeping, storage and as headquarters.

dum dum A ‘dum dum’ or ‘dum dum bullet’ is rifle ammunition that explodes or expands when it impacts with flesh, thus creating even more serious injury. The use of ‘dum dums’ in World War I was controversial and considered by many to be a breach of the rules of war – however all combatant powers are known to have used them. dynasty A dynasty is a ruling family in a monarchy, such as the Romanovs in Russia and the Hapsburgs in Austria-Hungary. © Alpha History 2014. Content on this page may not be republished or distributed without permission. For more information please refer to our Terms of Use . This page was written by Jennifer Llewellyn, Jim Southey and Steve Thompson. To reference this page, use the following citation: J. Llewellyn et al, “World War I glossary” at Alpha History, 2014, accessed [date of last access]. Search this site Translate World War I live To mark the centenary of World War I, Alpha History authors live-tweet press reports on the war - as they appeared 100 years ago.

Dual Monarchy Brief History Of Austria-Hungary Since 1276 Austria ruled over many people and countries, and in the nineteenth-century one of these lands was the Hungarian kingdom which included the Slovak people. Austria maintained its traditional leadership until it was drawn into the "Seven Weeks' War of 1866." After Austria was defeated, Hungary was in a position to barter for more power, and the Ausgleich, or Compromise, of 1867 gave Hungary legal equality with Austria. Thus, Austria-Hungary, also called the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Dual Monarchy came into existence in 1867 and lasted until 1918 Austria-Hungary was a land of many different peoples. Each nationality group had its own part of the country and was almost a separate unit. Twelve million Germans and ten million Magyars dominated twenty-three million Slavs, three million Rumanians, and many smaller groups. The weaker groups were devoted to their own customs and languages. People were loyal to a nationality group, rather than to Austria-Hungary. World War I, which changed the map of Europe, completely destroyed the Dual Monarchy.

The land area of Austria-Hungary, including that of Bosnia-Herzegovina, was 261,241 square miles. It was slightly smaller than Texas. Czechoslovakia was created after World War I by putting together several parts of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire. Bohemia (Cechy) and Moravia make up the western, Czech part of the country. The Slovaks live in the eastern half, which is called Slovakia. The land area of Czechoslovakia was 49,355 square miles. Greatest length is about 600 miles, greatest width is about 185 miles. It is a little larger than the state of Louisiana. After World War II, Czechoslovakia became a vassal state of the Soviet Union. In January of 1993 Czechoslovakia became two countries - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

Build-Up to World War I, 1816 - 1914 Build-Up to World War I (1816 - 1914) Rising Nationalism in Europe, Power Race, Precursors to WWI Pre-World War Period Interactive Map Austria Gains Serbia (1817): An uprising liberates Serbs from the Ottoman Empire in 1817, freeing most of Serbia, except Belgrade. It then became a principality within the Austrian Empire. Canada (1818): UK and USA agree to split NW USA along the 49th parallel, creating the modern USA/Canada border. Greek War of Independence - Greece Gains Independence from Ottoman Empire (1821-29): Greek Orthodox Bishop proclaims Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. Revolts are organized with the help of western powers. Independence was ceded by the Ottomans in 1829. (Timeline Continued Below) Brazil Wins Independence from Portugal (1822): After Portuguese government returns to Portugal, Brazil claims independence. After some fighting, Portugal cedes in 1825.

Spanish Empire Loses American Mainland Possessions (by 1825): In 1820, Spain cedes Florida to the USA, in exchange for recognition of Spanish possession of the southwest section of modern USA, which it would lose to Mexico at the end of the Mexican War of Independence just a year later, in 1821. The remainder of its Central and South American colonies team up to gain independence from Spain by 1825, forever ending Spain's presence on the American mainland. Break Up of The United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1830): Unsatisfied with Dutch rule, Belgium declares independence from the Netherlands in 1830. The Belgian War of Independence ends in their favor in 1839. Luxembourg also gains independence by extension. The French speaking portion of Luxembourg would join the Belgian revolution, being annexed into Belgium upon gaining independence, causing Luxembourg to lose more than half its territory. France Invades Its Colony of Algeria (1830): France invades rebellious North African colony in part to distract from political scandal and turbulence at home. Russia crushes Polish independence movement (1830).

Failed Italian Revolutions (1830-48): Italian revolutionary movements crushed by Austrian army. Maps.com - The World's Largest Maps Store! Civil War in Spain (1833ï¿½39): a.k.a. The First Carlist War in Spain. Liberals win, undermining strength of the elite and the Catholic Church. Results in the end of the Spanish Inquisition, where the Spanish monarchy forced Catholism on all of its constituents, through the threat of death, torture or exile. Rule after the civil war would remain instable. Slavery Abolished in British Empire (1834): UK illegalizes the slave trade throughout its empire, bringing its dominance of the sugar cane industry (by its Caribbean colonies) to an end. Abolition of Slavery in Spanish Empire (1835): Spain illegalizes the slave trade in all its colonies. First Anglo-Afghan War (1839): By now, the UK is completely in control of India after series of wars, and looking to extend control northward into Afghanistan. The Opium Wars against China also begin, where the UK forcibly prevents the Chinese from illegalizing or otherwise inhibiting the opium trade into their lands.

Great Irish Famine (1845): Approximately one million died, and another one million emigrated out of Ireland, many to the USA. Resulted in a population decline of 20-25%, which would permanently affect Ireland demographics. Worsened by UK policy to still permit exports of food, while not subsidizing foods to enable the poor to afford to feed themselves. Slavery Abolished in French Empire (1848): France abolishes slavery in its empire. Overthrows monarch, resulting in short-lived republic, before a new monarchy was reinstalled in 1852. Netherlands Constitutional Monarchy (1848): Netherlands introduces parliament and reduces monarchist powers to become more democratic. Crimean War: Coalition vs Russia (1853ï¿½56): France, UK and Ottomans declare war on Russia, over controversy concerning protectorate of Christians in Ottoman Empire. France and Russia both claimed to be the protectors of Christians in the Holy Land, with France asserting Roman Catholic authority, and Russia asserting Eastern Orthodoxy authority. Russia temporarily lost naval bases in Black Sea upon its defeat, which were returned shortly thereafter.

Indian Rebellion Against United Kingdom Rule (1857): A massive uprising forces the UK to reform its rule in India. Resulted in the end of the British East India Company, transferring governence to the British government. Serves as the first step toward Indian independence (achieved in 1947), as the British and Indians developed a distrust for one another. Romania Formed (1859): Moldavia and Wallachia combine to form Romania, while remaining a client to the Ottoman Empire. French Assistance in Italian Independence and Territorial Gain (1859): France comes to the aid of the Italian revolutionaries. France's support helps the Italians defeat the Austrians in gaining independence. In return, Italy cedes Savoy and Nice to France, finalizing the SE corner of France's modern borders. Kingdom of Sardinia - Home Base for Italian Revolution (1859): As only sovereign Italian state before unification, served as HQ for initial independent government. Northern Italy conquered by Italian revolutionaries from Austria (1860). Southern Italy conquered by Italian revolutionaries from Spain (1860). Save as much as 70% on select National Geographic merchandise!

Independence of Italy (1860): In Italian Wars of Independence, the Italians drive Austria (North) and Spain (South) out of Italy for good, leading to an independent Italy. Italian Nationalism had been on the rise since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, as they were weary of being subdivided under foreign rule. After initial defeats, the Revolutionary movement finally achieved its purpose with the support of France. The region of Savoy and Nice along the westernmost borders of Italy was ceded to France in exchange for their aid. Note: Italian Nationalism. Italians were tired of serving as the battleground and pawns for continental powers. Instead, they saw the virtue in unifying for peace, security, prosperity, and leverage, as they took notice of other powers rising as result of unification. This nationalism led to revolutionary movements, and eventual independence. Since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, Italy had been continally fragmented under multiple foreign masters. In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, it became evident that their foreign rulers could not adequately protect them.

Italians also took notice that foreign masters managed to keep Italy in a regressive condition, as they were often of only secondary importance to them, causing Italy to become less developed than neighboring nations. Abolishment of Serfdom in Russia (1861): Russia emancipates serfs within its borders. A large workforce is now available to the cities, since the nation's majority are no longer enslaved to farmlands. Manufacturing productivity is increased as a result. Terms of emancipation highly unfavorable to serfs though, resulting in widespread and severe poverty. This leads to the eventual socialist revolution in 1917, as workers revolt against the oppressive economic system. Another Polish Revolt Crushed by Russia (1864): When Russia abolishes serfdom in Poland in 1864, another revolt rises up, again crushed by Russia. Poland placed under direct rule, instead of semi-autonomous rule. Russia unsuccessfully attempts to bring Polish language and culture to extinction. Germany Gains Territory in Schleswig War w/Denmark (1864): Both the Danes and the German Confederation had a claim to the Schleswig and Holstein territories between them.

Denmark annexed both regions, but with the formation of German Confederation, and the heightened sense of Germanic nationalism, this was found to be unacceptable. This prompted a German Confederation invasion in 1864. Prussian- and Austrian-led forces easily overwhelmed the Danes, conquering all of Schleswig and Holstein, ending the War of Schleswig with this new territory joined to the German Confederation. Save up to 85% on over 1300 magazines at BlueDolphin.com Austro-Prussian War Won by Prussia (1866): A result of the rivalry between Prussia and Austria to become the dominant German state within the German Confederation. Tensions finally led to a brief war won by Prussia. Prussia was now the dominant force among the German states, forming a new North German Confederation without Austria. Austria was now on its own, politically isolated from its fellow German states. Venice Conquered by Italy from Austria during Austro-Prussian War (1866): Italy collaborates with Prussia, providing two-front war for Austria in exchange for Venice and surrounding areas still possessed by Austria at the time.

Formation of Austria-Hungary Empire (1867): After its defeat to the Prussians in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Austria - in its weakened condition - was forced to cede to the demands of the Hungary portion of its empire, and provide Hungary with equal status. Hungarian nationalism had been on the rise since the Napoleonic Wars, leading to protests. Austria compromised by establishing a dual monarchy, rather than risk a Hungarian war of independence which it was not prepared to wage in its weakened state.Papal States (1870): Italian army marches on Rome, to add it to the unified Italy. The Popes had continued to hold out, opposed to the idea of a unified Italy, especially since it would lead to the end of their rule of Rome. Rome was taken after a brief skirmish. Papal States Conquered and Added to Italy (1870): Italian army marches on Rome, to add it to the unified Italy. The Popes had continued to hold out, opposed to the idea of a unified Italy, especially since it would lead to the end of their rule of Rome. Rome was taken after a brief skirmish.

France Loses Territory to Prussia in Franco-Prussian War (1870): Tensions between the two continental powers culminate in an armed conflict. Several German states from the North German Confederation would join the Prussians, helping to unite the German states into the German Empire in 1871. The Prussian/German forces were superior, and they were able to take the territory of Alsace-Lorraine away from the French during the brief war. Beginning of an era of an ongoing France/German rivalry that would end after WWII, as both sides would vie for territory along their shared border. German Empire Established (1871): A new, unified German state dominated by Prussia, incorporating all German states except Austria into a single state. In the past, the German states had always been a loose affiliation of a multitude of duchies, principalities and counties. The German Empire represented the first true German state, where Germans were consolidated under centralized rule. Further Understanding: German Nationalism After a series of wars on the German homeland during the 1700s and 1800s, the Germans saw virtue in unifying for increased peace and security, as opposed to being a battleground for continental wars.

They also observed other powers rising as result of unification, leading to increased prosperity as well. Since ancient times, German people had maintained a sense of common identity through their shared culture and language, being affiliated under the Holy Roman Empire for centuries. But the Empire had never unified all the German states under a centralized rule. German dukes, princes and counts had always desired to retain individual power and sovereignty. However, this fragmentation placed the German people at a military and commercial disadvantage to unified powers such as France and England. In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, nationalism ran high throughout Europe, as nations desired greater economic and geopolitical leverage, while protecting themselves against other rising powers. Therefore, it made sense for Germany to consolidate into a unified German Empire. (Timeline Continued Below) Visit OneGreatFamily.com Jews in Germany (1871): Jews in Germany are given equal rights, although still persecuted quite heavily. Jews in Russia (1871): Russia is the only European nation to have restrictive laws against the Jews. Russia's legacy of Anti-Semitism would later be condemned by the communist government.

In 1882, many of the Jews in Russia begin migrating to Palestine, due to heavy prosecution, foreshadowing the modern state of Israel. Ottoman Empire Defeated in Russo-Turkish War (1878): The Ottoman Empire is defeated In the final of a series of wars with Russia over mutual expansionist ambitions. Russian captures the Khanates of Kokand, Bokhara and Khiva, expanding further into Central Asia. Russia seeks to take the place of the Ottomans in the Balkan region, bringing Serbia, Montenegro, Romania and Bulgaria under its control. However, the UK prevents this through a show of force, intending to maintain the balance of power by prohibiting Russia from growing any more powerful. As a result, most of the Balkan nations gain independence. Austria Gains Bosnia from Ottoman Empire (1878): Austria-Hungary takes Bosnia and Herzegovina from a faltering Ottoman Empire. Most of the Bosnians are Muslim, and prefer Ottoman rule. Against the wishes of the Bosnians, Austria officially annexed Bosnia in 1908.

This increased hostilities, culminating with the assassination of the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne while he was visiting Bosnia in 1914, which helped to trigger WWI. Montenegro Gains Independence from Ottoman Empire (1878): Gains independence along with most other Balkan nations after the Ottoman Empire is weakened from defeat to Russia. Bulgaria Gains Independence from Ottoman Empire (1878): Bulgaria also gains independence upon the Ottoman's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War. Absorbs Macedonia and the northern Greek lands. Macedonia Annexed by Bulgaria (1878): Bulgaria and Macedonia successfully revolt from Ottoman Empire, with Macedonia being absorbed by Bulgaria. Albania Elects to Remain Part of Ottoman Empire (1878): When most of the Balkan nations gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, Albania, as a primarily Muslim nation, feared persecution from neighboring Christian nations. They appealed to the Ottoman Empire for military protection, in exchange for remaining a semi-autonomous region within the empire. Note: Russo-Turkish War Effect on the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire is defeated In the final of a series of wars with Russia over mutual expansionist ambitions.

The devastating defeat further weakened the Ottomans, and their ability to maintain their longstanding hold onto the Balkans. Upon their defeat in 1878, all Balkan nations were freed of Ottoman rule, with the exception of Albania, which voluntarily remained under Ottoman dominion due to the Muslim connection. Russia sought to take the place of the Ottomans in the region, bringing it under their control. However, the UK prevented this through a show of force, intending to strike a balance of power by prohibiting Russia from growing any more powerful. Romania Gains Independence from Ottoman Empire (1881): With weakening of Ottoman Empire, Romania asserted independence in 1881, forming the Kingdom of Romania. Greece Gains Thessaly from Ottoman Empire (1881): A weakened Ottoman Empire ceded Thessaly to Greece after its defeat to the Russians in the Russo-Turkish War. Serbia gained independence from the Austrian Empire (1882). United Kingdom Seizes Control of Suez Canal in Egypt (1882): UK assumes control over Egypt, since it had become turbulent, and UK sought to protect its Suez Canal investment (which opened in 1869 as a joint venture).

The Suez Canal was very important in administering to its Asian and African possessions. Scramble for Africa: Post-Slavery Exploitation of Africa. Berlin Conference, RE: Colonization of Africa (1884). European powers outline rules for African colonization. European powers were seeking new territories to exploit in order to feed their respective military and commercial machines. African colonization was already well underway, causing encounters and hostilities among the European powers. In the Berlin Conference, rules are established to divide Africa in the hope of avoiding war. Motive. During this time of heightened nationalism in the post-Napoleonic War period, it was justifiable to exploit indigenous peoples abroad in order to build up the state. This is partly driven by greed, but it is also by paranoia, in order to keep pace in the continent-wide power/arms race. The Napoleonic Wars served as a fresh reminder of the need to remain strong relative to oneï¿½s rivals. To feed the industrial and military-build up race, increased raw materials were needed. Africa was a prime target, since most of the rest of the world was well settled. Until the 19th century, most of Africa was still unmapped and unclaimed by European powers.

Europeans were familiar with the coastal areas of Africa, many of which were colonized and fortified, but not the interior, which therefore represented the greatest opportunity for new resources. Africa Vulnerability. European nations continued to hold a military and political advantage over African peoples. Africa was still very fragmented and decentralized, due to its tribal nature, preventing a coordinated defensive effort. Europeans were also able to buy off key leaders to support their cause, due to their vast wealth, and the promise of land. By now, most European nations had abolished slavery, as it became distasteful for the general public. But it was acceptable to exploit native Africans in other ways. Africans were forced to work in crop fields, mining operations and other commercial/military projects (e.g. railroads) for extremely low wages. So a form of slavery evolved from the more brutal slave trade which brought millions of Africans to the Americas. Furthermore, natural boundaries between tribes and nations were redrawn by European powers to suit their purposes. This would later lead to widespread civil war in the post-WWII era, after most European powers withdrew from Africa.

The artificial national boundaries they left behind resulted in tribal tensions within and across borders, as natural tribes attempted to recombine, while national leaders attempted to maintain their territorial integrity. Moral Justification. As the sub-humane treatment was undeniable, European societies continued to invent moral justifications for these practices. The white Europeans viewed Africa as a heathen continent, and believed that bringing civilization and Christianity to Africa more than counteracted any ï¿½side effectï¿½. Even though outright slavery was no longer morally acceptable, racist theories were on the rise. First, the biblical Curse of Ham, interpreted as justification for enslaving dark-skinned Africans in the late 1400s, was still believed by many. In the late 1800s, Europe was in the midst of a scientific revolution. However, they erroneously applied this new tool to further dehumanize Africans. For example, skull shape was studied, leading to the popular conclusion that the brain case of the African was smaller than the European (later proven completely false). However, these results were generally derived from flawed methodologies (influenced by preconceived notions and agendas) and even falsified data.

Europeans were largely influenced by such ï¿½studiesï¿½, adding further support to long-held misconceptions about ï¿½raceï¿½. Greece Gains Crete from Ottoman Empire (1898): The Ottomans are finally driven from the island of Crete, after years of insurrections following the independence of Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Spanish-American War (1898): U.S. captured Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines from Spain in this brief war, ending the longstanding Spanish possessions in America and the Pacific. Anti-Spanish and expansionist sentiment in the U.S. led to war, and a quick U.S. victory. Russian Defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1905): Russia lost this war to Japan, diminishing its strength greatly, especially in the eastern portion of its empire. Russian naval capacity was virtually extinguished. The defeat comes as great shock to entire world, as it is first time that an Asian power defeats an established European power in the modern era. Russia's poor performance in this war led to the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Tsar Nicholas II is consequently pressured into establishing a representative parliament (Duma), but at the last moment, he ensured himself autocratic/veto powers over Duma, making it ineffectual in ensuring rights of general public. Norway Independence from Sweden (1905): After the Napoleonic Wars (1815), Norway was joined with Sweden, ruled by the Swedish monarch. In 1905, the Personal Union between Sweden and Norway was peacefully dissolved, after Norwegian dissatisfaction with the union came to a boiling point. Instead of engaging in a war to maintain Norway, Sweden accommodated its desire for independence. Portuguese Civil War (1910): Portuguese revolutionaries overthrow monarch, leading to civil strife for the next 16 years as they attempt to install a democratic, republican government. The inability to create a stable government would eventually lead to a dictatorship. Italy Conquers Libya (1912): Italy conquered Libya from Ottoman Empire (Italo-Turkish War), as it was looking for opportunities to establish a colonial empire like other European powers, hoping to recreate Italian-based Roman Empire. First use of an airplane as a weapon in warfare, as Italy drops bombs on Turkish forces.

First Balkan War - Ottoman Empire Loses More Territory (1912-13): The Slavic Balkan nations, aware of the weakened condition of the Ottoman Empire, initiate war to gain more Balkan lands from the Ottomans. The Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria) quickly achieved victory. The Ottoman Empire was driven completely out of Europe. But they could not agree on how to allocate the spoils of victory among themselves (especially Macedonia), leading to the Second Balkan War. Albania Becomes Independent from Ottoman Empire (1912): When the Ottomans were further weakened due to their defeat in the Balkan Wars in 1912, Albania declared independence Second Balkan War - Bulgaria Loses More Territory (1913): Bulgaria was least satisfied with its gains from the First Balkan War, as it faced the greatest loss and sacrifice, since it was closest in proximity to the Ottoman Empire. However, Bulgaria was also the most weakened, and the other nations in the Balkan League were not willing to cede to its demands, sparking the second war.

Bulgaria was pitted against Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, with Romania and the Ottoman Empire also joining against Bulgaria after the start of the war. Fighting on all fronts, Bulgaria was soon forced to sue for peace, retaining some of its gains from the First War, but losing its SE corner back to the Ottomans. Romania recaptured some territory along its border with Bulgaria lost during the first war. Serbia gained most of the hotly-disputed Macedonia region, and Greece took a large part of Bulgaria's SW region. Macedonia Taken by Serbia from Bulgaria (1913): Disputed between Serbia and Bulgaria after the First Balkan War, taken by Serbia in the Second Balkan War. Romania Regains Border Lands from Bulgaria (1913): Bulgaria takes land from Romania along shared border in First War, but taken back by Romania in Second War. Ottoman Regains Europe-Side Territory from Bulgaria (1913): Ottoman's last holdings on the European continent, a small amount of territory located on the European side of the Turkish Straits, is taken by Bulgaria in First War, but regained by the Ottomans in the Second War.

Greece Gains Territory from Bulgaria (1913): A large swath of land comprising modern northern Greence was disputed between Greece and Bulgaria after the First War, and taken by Greece in the Second War. Note: Balkan Wars - Predecessor to WWI. The Balkan Wars set the stage for WWI, which would commence one year later. Austria-Hungary was alarmed by an assertive Serbia, which was now an ally with their enemy Russia. The Ottoman Empire would also be prepared to mobilize in cooperation with Germany and Austria-Hungary, in hopes of regaining its lost territory in the Balkans. This would also lead Bulgaria to join the Ottomans, as distasteful as it was, in order to also regain lost territories from its Balkan neighbors. The Causes and arms build up Of World War I The Causes and arms build up Of World War I Published: Last Edited: 23rd March, 2015 This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. Causes Of World War I The World War I started in July 1914.

It was mainly brought by assassination of Austria Franz Ferdinand and his wife that happened on 28th June 1914. Gavrirol Princip, a Bosnia revolutionary, killed them. Some factors triggered the war to continue for a while. Such factors as, stalemate conflicts among nation, well organized military, strong alliances among nation, imperialism, nationalism among people of the same state and state crisis (Garland, 1997).. Over the years, the state that were considered powerhouse crushed over colonial issues. These brought tensions throughout the continent. Thus, change in balance of power in the Europe. The crises that lead to war were conflict of Austria- Hungary over Balkans territory with Serbia and Russia. This made countries that formed alliances against each other start the war. Balkans war that was won by the Serbia lead them to increase their territories, Austria were very irritated ad said that they would wage a preventive war to weaken the Serbia or otherwise destroy them. This was meant to help Austria preserve dual monarchy, which was held by the Serbian in their Balkan territory. Serbia had made treaty with the Bulgaria after winning Balkan wars and had expanded up to Ottoman Empire and in Bulgaria (Howard, 1997).

Thus, preventive war was declared in 1912 by Austria for they termed Serbia to be unfriendly state and had increased its powers unacceptably. Austria approached German for support but German refused. Russia was humiliated by lack of ability to support Serbia in the first Balkan war in 1908 and thus announced great reconstruction of their military. In reaction to Russian move, German said that they would support Austria in its mission to fight for their power. This was announced by German foreign secretary Gotlieb Von Jagow to Reichstag on 28th of November 1912. Britain was so much irritated by that move. They said that if German helps Austria to fight Russia or France, they would not have any alternative than waging war to Reich. The tension was heightened and it was certain that war would erupt any time. On eighth of December in Berlin, German Imperial Council converged to discuss the issue in an informal meeting. The council discussed their importance now that the German army and Navy leaders were invited. Wilhelm II was not for the principle of British balance of power and termed it as idiocy. He urged the Austria to attack Serbia as early as possible before the German complete its arms modernization.

The Austria agreed on that opinion that they termed it as professional and wanted to attack immediately. Wilhelm II with Army leadership agreed that war was to be staged soon. However, Admiral Tirpitz disagreed with them. He sighted inefficiency in the Army due to uncompleted U-boat base and Kiel Canal as the major drawbacks yet they were very important to the army during the fight ( Howard, 1997). He proposed the postponement of the fight for one year and a half. Though Moltke was not for this idea, he later agreed reluctantly after Wilhelm sided with Tirpitz. The completion of the canal was to be in 1914. Russia great military program brought a lot of fear in the German army. They insisted on preventive war against Russia sooner. They feared German would become stronger and would be very difficult to deal with them. The problem was even worse because of the financial crisis that German was experiencing. German state gives Reich government low power for taxation. This means that the situation would lead to Germany being bankrupt if they engage themselves in war. Therefore, Moltke always advocated for war and the sooner the war would start the better.

Raymond Poincare was elected as French president and assumed the office in 1913. He wanted to improve the relationship with German. Nevertheless, the Reich government lacked interests and announced war to destroy France. France had disadvantage of having smaller economy and population. This made France to accept that they cannot beat Germany. In 1914, Serbia government was torn between two leaderships. First, one was headed by Nikola Pasic and the other one by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic who was chief of Military Intelligence. It leads to Russia minister in Belgrade to intervene making Pasic government to be restored. Serbia was almost bankrupt after suffering from Balkan war calamity thus needed peace. In this political confusion, powerful members of Serbia military divide trained and armed three students from Bosnia and sent them to Austria - Hungary for assassination mission. The student went to Austria and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife. This triggered the First World War that started in July 1914 (Lieven, 1983). Though this assassination made the First World War to start, its origin was more than that. They involved politics of the states, economics of the country, alliances and counterbalancing of the European power.

There are long-term causes that made the war to continue up to 1918. Nationalism was one of them. This means one being strong and supports one's country right and interest. For example, Vienna congress was held to solve problems in Europe after napoleon went to exile in Elba. Delegates from the winning allies that were Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia made a decision making a new Europe leaving Germany and Italy to fall apart. What followed was strong nationalism that reunited Italy in 1861 while German was reunited in 1871 ten years down the line. The Franco - Prussia war lead to fight between France and Germany. It came about because France was in pursuit to recover their lost territory. Different nationalist group also felt that they need freedom thus took large area of Austria - Hungary and Serbia making it their home. Militarism was another major problem in Europe that leads to extended First World War. Army was given high profile across the whole continent. In between 1870 to 1914, the German and France army had doubled. German and Britain at the same time were competing in mastery of the sea. The Britain country made a battleship that was very effective in exploring the sea.

It leads to German introducing theirs. They even planned to attack France through Belgium if Russia attacks them. It leads to continued war propagation along the European region. Alliance was made among nation. These were agreement that united countries so that they help each other in time of need. These made ally countries to join in time of war if any of the country declares one. Such alliances as dual alliance were made in 1881 by German and Austria - Hungary to protect them from Russia. The other one was Austria- Serbia alliance in 1882 that was meant to stop Russia from gaining control over Serbia. These alliances among others were formed and ganged against states hence continued war. The war had to go on for a while due to imperialism. This is where by a country rules over another country and take land into its possession. This makes such country to subject the other to its rule. Britain by 1900 had a very big empire that had gone to five continents while France had great control in Africa. This was mostly triggered by rise in industrialization in those countries and they were looking for market of their products. This caused rivalry between Germany and both Britain and France. They were all scrambling for colonies thus such rivalry-fuelled war more.

There were also crises that lead to more hatred among nations. In 1904 Britain gave morocco to France to reign over it but morocco wanted their freedom in 1905. German supported morocco to gain their independence and war almost arose but a conference avoided it. It leads to France retaining its control in Morocco, while German was persuaded to get some part of France in Congo. Bosnian crisis was another cause of heighten tension and prolonged war. In 1908, Turkish province of Bosnia was taken by Austria - Hungary. Serbia were filled with fury because they knew that the region were theirs. German allied to Austria - Hungary while Russia allied with Serbia and war was avoided when Russia stepped aside. However, the same lead to Balkan war in 1911 to 1912 when Balkan states drove Turkey out the area. These states fought over the control of the region. Austria - Hungary intervened and forced Serbia to surrender some its acquisitions. This brought a lot of tension thus prolonged war (Lieven, 1983)..

World War I - The Dual Monarchy - History - Austria - Europe home :: Europe :: Austria :: History :: The Dual Monarchy :: World War I The Dual Monarchy, World War I On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and his wife were assassinated in the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. After receiving German assurances of support, the Austro-Hungarian foreign office sent a harsh ultimatum to the Serbian government, holding it responsible for the assassination and requiring its total acceptance of Austria-Hungary's demands within three days. Despite a conciliatory reply that accepted all but two of the demands, and mediation efforts by the European powers, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. Germany's declaration of war on Russia and France in early August transformed the conflict into World War I. Austro-Hungarian military activity during the first year of the war was concentrated against Russia and Serbia. In May 1915 Italy, which had declared its neutrality in 1914, left the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Allies.

The Austro-Hungarian army suffered many setbacks, and the monarchy, weakened by decades of internal dissension, began to disintegrate after the death in 1916 of Francis Joseph I. He was succeeded by his grandnephew, Charles I of Austria. In 1917 the new emperor failed in several secret attempts to achieve a separate peace with the Allies, angering the Germans in the process. At the same time representatives of the Czechs, Poles, and South Slavs set up organizations in the Allied countries to gain sympathy and recognition. By late 1917 nationalist activities made the monarchy increasingly untenable. During the spring and summer of 1918 Austro-Hungarian forces were defeated on every military front; shortages of food and other necessities triggered strikes and demonstrations at home and mutinies in the army and navy. Recognizing that the collapse of the monarchy was inevitable, the nationalist groups within the empire organized national councils that acted like separate governments. The South Slavs, meeting in Zagreb on October 7, 1918, advocated union with Serbia, and on October 28 the Czechs proclaimed an independent republic in Prague.

On October 31 the Magyars had a revolution that initiated the creation of an independent Hungarian republic. On November 3, Austria and Hungary each signed an armistice with the Allies. On November 12 Charles relinquished all part in the administration of the state and left Austria. Within days Austria and Hungary declared themselves republics. [ad >] Are you lazy student? The smallest wireless audio headset will help you out! 6mm diameter (0.24 inch) - it hides inside ear completely and has no wires. Go to to read about it. [< ad] Austria-Hungary - definition of Austria-Hungary by The Free Dictionary Austria-Hungary - definition of Austria-Hungary by The Free Dictionary Aus·tri·a-Hun·ga·ry (ô′strē-ə-hŭng′gə-rē) A former dual monarchy of central Europe consisting of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, and Italy. It was formed in 1867 after agitation by Hungarian nationalists within the Austrian empire and lasted until 1918.

Aus′tro-Hun·gar′i·an (ô′strō-hŭng-gâr′ē-ən) adj. & n. Austria-Hungary n 1. (Historical Terms) the Dual Monarchy established in 1867, consisting of what are now Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Italy. The empire was broken up after World War I 2. (Placename) the Dual Monarchy established in 1867, consisting of what are now Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Italy. The empire was broken up after World War I Aus′tria-Hun′gary n. a former monarchy (1867–1918) in central Europe that included what is now Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and parts of Romania, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Italy. Aus′tro-Hungar′ian (ˌɔ stroʊ) adj., n.

ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. Austria-Hungary - a geographical area in central and eastern Europe; broken into separate countries at the end of World War I Europe - the 2nd smallest continent (actually a vast peninsula of Eurasia); the British use `Europe' to refer to all of the continent except the British Isles Translations Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary I. Introduction Austria-Hungary , also known as the dual monarchy, nation in central Europe ruled by the Habsburg monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was established in 1867 under Francis Joseph I, the emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. Austria-Hungary extended over more than 675,000 sq km (241,491 sq mi) in central Europe, and included what are now Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, as well as parts of present-day Poland, Romania, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Austria and Hungary were united as a result of the compromise (known in German as the Ausgleich) of March 1867. The compromise was an agreement between the Habsburg Emperor Francis Joseph and the Magyar rulers of the kingdom of Hungary. The people of Austria and the non-Magyar peoples of Hungary were not consulted. Besides a common monarch, the compromise established common ministries of foreign affairs, finance, and defense. Each kingdom had a separate parliament and was able to govern its own internal affairs. The compromise of 1867 established a large nation of about 50 million people. Located in the heart of Europe, Austria-Hungary was composed of many different language groups and nationalities. Austria-Hungary was regarded as a great European power along with France, Germany, Russia, and Britain. II. Background The Habsburgs had ruled many parts of Europe, including Austria, as part of the Holy Roman Empire since the 1200s. Austria was formed during the Napoleonic Wars, a series of wars fought from 1799 to 1815 between France, led by Napoleon I, and a number of European nations.

Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806; in anticipation of this, the Austrian Empire had been created in 1804. At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, Austria emerged as one of the most powerful states in what was called the German Confederation, and, as such, was one of the stronger nations in Europe. The Austrian Empire included the kingdom of Hungary, although the ruling class of Hungary, the Magyars, persistently pressed for more control in the years leading up to the compromise. For the half century after 1815, the Habsburg monarchy faced many serious internal challenges to its authority. Nationalistic groups demanded more autonomy. Political liberals were dissatisfied with the centralized Habsburg government, which promoted the idea that the emperor had absolute power to rule the Austrian nation without any interference. The Habsburg rulers managed to contain most of these threats by skillfully using the Austrian army and bureaucracy to keep restless subjects in line. Externally, however, the Austrian Empire lost ground to rival states.

Because Austria did not support Russia during the Crimean War (1853-1856), Russia refused in 1859 to support Austria against the French-supported Italian state of Piedmont (Piemonte), which drove Austria out of Lombardy (Lombardia), another state in northern Italy. Under the direction of Prince Otto von Bismarck, the minister-president of the north German state of Prussia, the Prussians began to challenge Austria for supremacy in the German Confederation. In 1866 Bismarck provoked Austria into the Seven Weeks' War. Austria lost and was expelled from the Confederation. III. The Compromise Shocked and humiliated by Austria's defeat, Francis Joseph compromised with the Magyars in Hungary to shore up his empire and save the Habsburg monarchy. First, Francis Joseph consolidated the monarchy's power in the German states that were part of the empire. Then, in exchange for Hungarian support of the monarchy, he agreed to surrender his control of Hungarian internal affairs, including his protection of the non-Magyar peoples. This was a key point in obtaining Magyar cooperation.

This agreement was the basis of the compromise of 1867, which divided the old Austrian Empire into two parts, Austria and the kingdom of Hungary. The Habsburg monarch would be both the king of Hungary and the emperor of Austria. The new entity would be called the Austro-Hungarian Empire and would have a single foreign policy, one army, and a unified monetary system. In the Austrian part of the new empire, the constitutional monarchy that was established in the old Austrian empire by an agreement called the February Patent of 1861 remained in force. The February Patent was the result of calls for a more democratic government. It transferred power from local legislatures that were controlled by the propertied classes and the nobility to a more centralized national government. The Magyars, who comprised the nobles and property owners in Hungary, had opposed the February Patent when it was issued in 1861, and they opposed it again when the compromise was discussed in 1867. To appease the Magyars, Francis Joseph agreed that the February Patent would apply only to Austria's half of the new empire. The compromise therefore sealed Magyar dominance of Hungary. The compromise united two kingdoms under one head of state.

Austria had its legislative branch, known as the Reichsrat, and the Hungarians had theirs, known as the Diet. The Delegations was a common legislative body that included delegates from each parliament; it served as a link between the two national governments. Each kingdom had its ruling class: the German-speaking people in Austria and the Magyars in Hungary. However, the Austro-Hungarian Empire included a significant number of Slavs, although they were a minority in both Austria and Hungary. In the entire Austro-Hungarian Empire of approximately 50 million people, about 23 million were Slavs. Since the compromise was primarily an agreement between the Habsburgs and the Magyars, the Slavic peoples were not consulted before the compromise was enacted. Consequently, most Slavs never supported the compromise and Slavic discontent later became an important issue leading to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. IV. The Height of the Dual Monarchy: 1867-1895 For the first 20 years after 1867, Austria-Hungary enjoyed a measure of security both at home and abroad. Hungary was calm for the first time in decades.

Under the guidance of Kálmán Tisza, Hungary's prime minister from 1875 to 1890, the Hungarian liberals in power were loyal to the compromise. The Magyars encountered strong resistance, however, when they tried to impose the Magyar language and Magyar culture on the non-Magyar peoples of Hungary. Austria experienced a period of reform and prosperity under German liberal governments from 1867 to 1879. After 1879, a coalition of conservative, aristocratic, clerical, and Slavic elements managed to neutralize the contending nationalities by setting one group against another so that no one group would ever become too powerful. This small group of political insiders known as the Iron Ring was controlled until 1893 by Prime Minister Count Eduard Taaffe, a childhood friend of Francis Joseph. The Habsburg monarchy's foreign policy was simplified when it lost territory in Italy and lost the Seven Weeks' War to Prussia in 1866. It concentrated on maintaining commercial markets and keeping expansionist powers from claiming Habsburg possessions that were populated largely by Romanians and Slavic peoples.

On the last point, Francis Joseph knew those territories were safe as long as he could prevent two or more great powers from uniting against Austria-Hungary. In their efforts to forestall such a combination, Austro-Hungarian statesmen showed considerable flexibility and ingenuity. They were able to achieve their foreign policy objectives peacefully by securing timely alliances with other great powers. Austria-Hungary was most concerned about limiting Russia's expansion in the Balkan Peninsula. In 1878 the Balkan Peninsula was made up of the independent countries of Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro, in addition to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which still belonged to the Ottoman Empire. In that year, with Britain's support, Austria-Hungary stationed troops in Bosnia, to prevent the Russians from expanding into nearby Serbia. In another measure to keep the Russians out of the Balkans, Austria-Hungary formed an alliance, the Mediterranean Entente, with Britain and Italy in 1887 and concluded mutual defense pacts, with Germany in 1879 and with Romania in 1883, against possible Russian attack.

Relations with Serbia, Italy, and Romania were improved in the early 1880s with separate alliances. Finally, Austria-Hungary worked with Russia to resolve their mutual differences peacefully through the Three Emperors' League (1873-1878) and then the Three Emperors' Alliances (1881-1887). The three emperors were Francis Joseph, William I of Germany, and Alexander II (who died in 1881) and Alexander III of Russia. These measures helped Austria-Hungary to achieve security. V. Crises at Home, Passivity Abroad: 1895-1906 Between 1895 and 1906, Austria-Hungary was preoccupied with internal problems. During the early years of the compromise, nationalistic and ethnic conflicts were pushed aside, but these conflicts exploded in the mid-1890s. Conflicts between the Germans and the Czechs in Bohemia paralyzed the Austrian Reichsrat. In Hungary, the long-repressed critics of the compromise, mainly the non-Magyar peoples who resented the rule of the Magyars, could no longer be silenced.

Negotiations in Hungary for the renewal of the compromise, which had to be approved every 10 years, dragged on from 1897 to 1906 without resolution. Some opponents of the compromise objected to institutionalized Magyar rule. Other opponents insisted that Magyar contingents in the imperial army received preferential treatment. Francis Joseph handled most of these domestic problems by resorting to his imperial executive powers to rule Austria-Hungary. He governed through the cabinet ministers and appointed civil servants. Since the Austrian Reichsrat and the Hungarian Diet were so divided they could do little more than debate the issues, the emperor enacted emergency legislation and budgets were administered by emergency decrees. He subjected Hungary to a virtual state of martial law. The dual monarchy seemed to be close to breaking apart, especially in 1905 when, in Hungary, the defenders of the 1867 compromise were defeated at the polls. Francis Joseph finally brought the Hungarians in line in 1906 when he threatened to give voting rights to the non-Magyars in Hungary. The Magyars were a minority population in Hungary, and they knew this would end their supremacy.

The renewal of the compromise finally won Hungarian approval in 1906. In foreign affairs between 1895 and 1906, Austria-Hungary seemed to drift. In 1897 Russia and Austria-Hungary agreed to maintain the status quo in the Balkans. This accord significantly reduced tensions in Europe for the next 10 years. However, between 1895 and 1906, Germany and Russia grew closer together. Concerned more with domestic matters, Austria-Hungary neglected its relationship with Britain, a long-time ally of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. This might have allowed Russia to increase its influence in the Balkans, but Russia was concentrating on expanding its holdings in eastern Asia, a policy that eventually resulted in conflicts with Japan. Russian imperialism in east Asia ended in 1905 when Russia lost the Russo-Japanese War. After that defeat, Russia turned its attention to the Balkans again. VI. The External Threat, 1906-1914 Although domestic discord troubled the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the end, the main threats to the empire after 1906 came more from outside than from within.

Specifically, relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia deteriorated to the point where war was increasingly likely. At this time, the Ottoman Empire, which had once controlled much of southeastern Europe and still controlled the Straits of Bosporus at Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), was in its final stages of disintegration. In 1908 Austria-Hungary took the Ottoman possessions it wanted when it annexed the Balkan states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, both of which were populated by Slavs. The Russians were denied what they wantedsafe passage for their warships through the Straits of Bosporus, the narrow channel of water that runs between the Black Sea, home of the Russian fleet, and the Mediterranean Sea. Austria-Hungary's unilateral actions angered the Slavs in the region and infuriated the Russians, who were still excluded from the straits. At this time, Germany supported Austria-Hungary, but was unwilling to risk war with Russia. Thus, Austria-Hungary was isolated in its Balkans policy. Austria-Hungary's sense of isolation over the Balkans developed into a national obsession with keeping Russian power in the region to a minimum. VII.

World War I and the End of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1914-1918 Greek and Balkan nationalists carved up the Ottoman Empire during a conflict known as the Balkan Wars (1912-1913). The Balkan state of Serbia was a major victor, emerging as a much enlarged nation that posed a direct threat to Austro-Hungarian holdings in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austro-Hungarian statesmen were convinced that Russia was working to increase nationalism in the Balkans. It appeared to Austria-Hungary that Russia, a Slavic nation, was encouraging the growth of new, predominantly Slavic states, thus tipping the regional balance of power in favor of Russia and against Austria-Hungary. The Slavic peoples who were, for the most part, denied a voice in the affairs of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, were calling for nationalistic self-determination. The leaders of Austria-Hungary believed that Slavic unrest in the Balkans presented a serious threat to the dual monarchy.

On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the presumed heir to the Austrian and Hungarian crowns, was assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia, by a Serbian patriot. The leaders of Austria-Hungary were sure the Serbian government and ultimately the Russians were responsible. Austria-Hungary prepared for war, and this time the Germans were willing to support them. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. For a complete discussion of the conflict, see World War I. Although the war was started to preserve Austria-Hungary as a great power, it actually destroyed the empire even before defeat and dissolution officially overcame the monarchy. Austria-Hungary had only one allyGermany, which had its own plans for Europe. These plans made no provisions for a truly independent Austria-Hungary. Austro-Hungarian losses on the battlefield served to increase its dependence on Germany. Francis Joseph died in 1916, and the new emperor, Charles I (1916-1918), tried secretly to conclude a separate peace with the Allies in 1917.

However, negotiations failed, and when they became public, outraged Germans from inside and outside the empire brought pressure on the emperor to follow Germany's lead in every respect. The emperor had no option but to comply; Austria-Hungary was suffering losses on every military front. By the end of 1917, Austria-Hungary was almost totally dependent on Germany. In 1918, although defeat in the war seemed likely, the monarchy's future remained uncertain. In domestic affairs, critics of the 1867 compromise were still demanding more influence within the monarchy, rather than independence outside the monarchy. The states with territorial claims against Austria-Hungary already were defeated in the war. There was considerable support among Austria-Hungary's Allied opponents for preserving the dual monarchy as a buffer against German power in the post-war world. The Allies were prepared to insist on federal reforms that would end the domination enjoyed by the empire's German and Magyar populations. However, the Germans and Magyars of the empire refused to consider such reforms. They staked their future on a German victory, and lost. A final effort by the emperor to save the monarchy by constitutional reform along federal lines was overwhelmingly rejected by the Hungarians.

A new map for central Europe was being drawn up in the months before the end of the war. Beginning in 1917, representatives of the Czechs, Poles, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes set up organizations in the Allied countries to gain sympathy and recognition. By late 1917 nationalist activities made the monarchy increasingly untenable. Shortages of food and other necessities triggered strikes and demonstrations at home and mutinies in the army and navy. Recognizing that the collapse of the monarchy was inevitable, the nationalist groups within the empire organized national councils that acted as separate governments. The Southern Slavs, meeting in Zagreb on October 6, 1918, advocated union with Serbia, and on October 28 the Czechs proclaimed an independent republic in Prague. The Hungarian government announced its complete separation from Austria on November 3. That same day, Austria and Hungary each signed an armistice with the Allies. On November 11, Charles I relinquished all his royal prerogatives in the administration of the empire and left Austria. His actions brought an end to Austria-Hungary and to the Habsburg monarchy. Within days Austria and Hungary declared themselves republics.

HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE "Austria-Hungary," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000 © 1997-2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Dual Monarchy - definition of Dual Monarchy by The Free Dictionary Dual Monarchy - definition of Dual Monarchy by The Free Dictionary Also found in: Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Dual Monarchy n (Historical Terms) the monarchy of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918 Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Hungary References in periodicals archive ? Chapters 1 through 5 describe the peacetime Dual Monarchy, including war plans and the pre-military response to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie.

A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire Italy being under customs war with France, uneasy by the rapprochement between the latter and Russia also being engaged in a colonial policy in Africa also agreed to renew the Triple Alliance, despite pressure from Paris and differences with Austria-Hungary, due to the problem of Italians in the Dual Monarchy and also because of the Balkans issue (Stieve, 1929: 44). Forecasting recognition and independence: an intellectual trait analysis of di Vergano diplomacy effectiveness BNA) -- Supreme Council for Youth and Sports (SCYS) Chairman and Bahrain Olympic Committee President Shaikh Nasser bin Hamad Al Khalifa, met here the President of the Hungarian Red Cross Georg von Habsburg, the grandson of Emperor and King Karl, the last monarch of the Habsburg Dual Monarchy of Austria and Hungary. Military rifle cartridges of Austria part I: Always Distinctive! It was pointed out in high political circles that if the emperor is permitted to reign only a few years more everything may continue as usual and Archduke Francis Ferdinand's death will have little lasting material effect on the foreign or domestic affairs of the dual monarchy.

The Will to Survive: A History of Hungary Double eagles or shields found in place of the single versions of the same device in the acceptance stamp indicates the weapon was accepted during the reign of Emperor Karl 1 (Karl Franz Joseph), who ascended to the Hapsburg Dual Monarchy following the death of Emperor Franz Joseph on November 21st, 1916. The successful straight pull: the Austro-Hungarian Model 1895 Mannlicher Formally known since "the Great Compromise" of 1867 as Austria-Hungary or the Dual Monarchy, the Habsburg Empire was at the very center of the events in the summer of 1914 which detonated the First World War, (7) and its collapse and dismemberment in November 1918 at the end of that war in turn initiated the chain of events which led to most of the Central-European catastrophes and horrors which were to come.

Question: In the build-up to World War One, what was the Dual Monarchy?
Answer: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY