Congress of Vienna | European history | Britannica.com Congress of Vienna German Confederation Congress of Vienna, assembly in 1814–15 that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars . It began in September 1814, five months after Napoleon I ’s first abdication and completed its “Final Act” in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo campaign and the final defeat of Napoleon. The settlement was the most-comprehensive treaty that Europe had ever seen. The Congress of Vienna, watercolour etching by August Friedrich Andreas … Fine Art Images/Heritage-Images Preliminaries Austria , Prussia , Russia , and Great Britain , the four powers that were chiefly instrumental in the overthrow of Napoleon, had concluded a special alliance among themselves with the Treaty of Chaumont , on March 9, 1814, a month before Napoleon’s first abdication. The subsequent treaties of peace with France , signed on May 30 not only by the “four” but also by Sweden and Portugal and on July 20 by Spain , stipulated that all former belligerents should send plenipotentiaries to a congress in Vienna .

Nevertheless, the “four” still intended to reserve the real decision making for themselves. Europe in 1812. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Delegates Representatives began to arrive in Vienna toward the end of September 1814. All of Europe sent its most-important statesmen. Klemens, prince von Metternich , principal minister of Austria, represented his emperor, Francis II . Tsar Alexander I of Russia directed his own diplomacy. King Frederick William III of Prussia had Karl, prince von Hardenberg , as his principal minister. Great Britain was represented by its foreign minister, Viscount Castlereagh . When Castlereagh had to return to his parliamentary duties, the duke of Wellington replaced him, and Lord Clancarty was principal representative after the duke’s departure. The restored Louis XVIII of France sent Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand . Spain, Portugal, and Sweden had only men of moderate ability to represent them. Many of the rulers of the minor states of Europe put in an appearance. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court.

Similar Topics Conference of San Remo Assisting Metternich as host, Friedrich Gentz played a vital role in the management of protocol and in the secretarial organization of the congress. The social side of the congress was, in fact, one of the causes of the long and unexpected delay in producing a result, for Metternich at least sometimes subordinated business to pleasure. Procedure The procedure of the congress was determined by the difficulty and complexity of the issues to be solved. First there was the problem of the organization of the congress, for which there was no precedent. The “four” were determined to keep the management of the main problems entirely in their own hands, but since they had rather rashly summoned a congress, they had to pay some attention to it. Thus, the ministers of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain assembled early for discussions and finally agreed, on September 22, 1814, that the “four” should be those to decide the future of all the conquered territories. They were then to communicate their decisions to France and Spain. The full congress was to be summoned only when all was ready. Such was the situation that Talleyrand found when he arrived on September 24.

He refused to accept it and was supported by Spain’s representative, the marqués de Labrador. Talleyrand denied that either the “four” or the “six” (including France and Spain) was a legally constituted body and desired that the congress should be summoned to elect a directing committee. If any other body had rights in the matter, it was the group of powers—Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal—that had signed the 1814 Treaty of Paris with France (thus, the “eight”), which ended the Napoleonic Wars for the first time. The core four were much disturbed, knowing that the smaller powers would support Talleyrand if they gave him the chance of appealing to them. They had no intention of giving way, however, and refused to summon a meeting of all the representatives. The opening of the congress was postponed until November 1. No solution could be found, however, and after a meeting of the “eight” on October 30, the opening was again postponed. Britannica Stories Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent Meanwhile, work proceeded without the sanction of the main body of plenipotentiaries.

The “four” discussed the main territorial problems informally among themselves. The “eight” assumed the formal direction of the congress; a committee of German states met to draw up a constitution for Germany , and a special committee on Switzerland was appointed by the “four.” Talleyrand was thus excluded from the main work of the congress, but his protests on behalf of the smaller powers grew fainter as he realized that the “four” were not in agreement; Castlereagh and Metternich gradually won his confidence and at last insisted on Bourbon France’s being admitted to the core group. It was that committee of five that was the real Congress of Vienna. Between January 7 and February 13, 1815, it settled the frontiers of all territories north of the Alps and laid the foundations for the settlement of Italy . Meanwhile, the committee of eight dealt with more-general matters. The congress as a representative body of all Europe never met. Decisions of the congress British Culture and Politics The major points of friction occurred over the disposition of Poland and Saxony , the conflicting claims of Sweden, Denmark , and Russia, and the adjustment of the borders of the German states.

In general, Russia and Prussia were opposed by Austria, France, and England, which at one point (January 3, 1815) went so far as to conclude a secret treaty of defensive alliance. The major final agreements were as follows. Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. In return for acquiring Poland , Alexander gave back Galicia to Austria and gave Thorn and a region around it to Prussia; Kraków was made a free town. The rest of the Duchy of Warsaw was incorporated as a separate kingdom under the Russian emperor’s sovereignty . Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony and was compensated by extensive additions in Westphalia and on the left bank of the Rhine River . It was Castlereagh who insisted on Prussian acceptance of the latter territory, with which it had been suggested the king of Saxony should be compensated. Castlereagh wanted Prussia to guard the territories of the Rhine region against France and act as a buttress to the new Kingdom of the Netherlands , which comprised both the former United Provinces and Belgium . Austria was compensated by Lombardy and Venice and got back most of Tirol .

Bavaria , Württemberg , and Baden on the whole did well. Hanover was also enlarged. The outline of a constitution, a loose confederation, was drawn up for Germany —a triumph for Metternich. Denmark lost Norway to Sweden but got Lauenburg , while Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia. Switzerland was given a new constitution. Connect with Britannica Congress of Vienna - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Except for minor conflicts, Europe was at peace from 1815 until 1914. This century of relative stability owed a great deal to the Congress of Vienna, an assembly that met in 1814-15 to reorganize Europe after the Napoleonic wars (see French revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars). The Congress of Vienna began in September 1814, five months after Napoleon’s first abdication, and was completed in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo campaign and the final defeat of Napoleon. The settlement was the most comprehensive treaty that Europe had ever seen.

Article Contributors Chapter 20 at Norco High School - StudyBlue StudyBlue Size: 11 Views: 4 Congress Of Vienna international conference held 1814–15 to agree upon the settlement of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Principles: restoration and strengthening of hereditary and sometimes despotic rulers. Nationhood Groups that were large enough to support a viable economy, had a significant cultural history, possessed a cultural elite that could spread trhe national language, and had the capacity to conquer other peoples and protect their own independence. Advertisement ) Tolerant of change; not bound by authoritarianism, orthodoxy, or tradition. Royalists A person who supports the principle of monarchy or a particular monarchy. Relationship of Nationalism to Liberalism - Not necessarily or even logically linked. - Many aspects of Nism were directly opposed to liberal political values. - Lism & Nism were often compatible. Fredrick William III - Promised some mode of constitutional gov't, yet deserted his promise in 1817 by creating a Council of State, (wasn't constit. based). - Replaced chief reform-minded ministers with hardened conservatives and established 8 provincial estates or diets.

Final Act Promulgated, (to make known by public declaration) by the German Confederation limiting the subjects that might be discussed in the constitutional chambers of the 3 German states-asserted the right of monarchs to resist demands of constitutionalists. Combination Acts 1) forbade large unauthorized public meetings. 2) raised fines for seditious libel. 3) sped up trials of political agitators. 4) increased newspaper taxes. 5) prohibited the training of armed groups. 6) allowed local officials to search homes. Louis XVIII - Former count of Provence and brother of Louis XVI, the son of the executed monarch had died in prison-Louis XVIII agreed to become a constitutional monarch under a constitution of his own making. Led to Bourbon restoration. A constitution granted by King Louis XVIII of France. Special provision made for the Roman Catholic Church as the official state religion. Advertisement * The material on this site is created by StudyBlue users. StudyBlue is not affiliated with, sponsored by or endorsed by the academic institution or instructor. Words From Our Students "StudyBlue is great for studying. I love the study guides, flashcards and quizzes.

So extremely helpful for all of my classes!" Alice , Arizona State University "I'm a student using StudyBlue, and I can 100% say that it helps me so much. Study materials for almost every subject in school are available in StudyBlue. It is so helpful for my education!" Tim , University of Florida "StudyBlue provides way more features than other studying apps, and thus allows me to learn very quickly!??I actually feel much more comfortable taking my exams after I study with this app. It's amazing!" Jennifer , Rutgers University "I love flashcards but carrying around physical flashcards is cumbersome and simply outdated. StudyBlue is exactly what I was looking for!" Justin , LSU 19 European Coalition is an alliance of centre right - EURO - AP 19 european coalition is an alliance of centre right SCHOOL View Full Document 19.) European Coalition- is an alliance of centre-right, regionalist or moderate nationalist parties in Spain for European elections. 20.) Klemens von Metternich- was a German-Austrian politician and statesman and was one of the most important diplomats of his era.

He was a major ±gure in the negotiations before and during the Congress of Vienna 21.) Congress of Vienna- an international conference held 1814–15 to agree upon the settlement of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. The guiding principle of the settlement was the restoration and strengthening of hereditary and sometimes despotic rulers; the result was a political stability that lasted for three or four decades. 22.) European Settlement- The agreement European countries made with each other after the Napoleonic reign that urged to return Europe to its state before Napoleon and to not let one nation gain to much power but to have equality so less ±ghting breaks out. Overall, its goal was to attain peace in Europe. This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version. View Full Document 23.) Alexander I of Russia- served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and Ruler of Poland from 1815 to 1825, as well as the Frst Russian Grand Duke of ±inland and Lithuania.

24.) The Hundred Days- marked the period between Napoleon Bonaparte's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815 25.) Quadruple Alliance- The Quadruple Alliance was a treaty signed in Paris on 20 November, 1815 by the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It renewed the alliance Frst agreed to in 1813 and it modiFed the aims of the alliance from defeating Napoleon Bonaparte to upholding the settlement following the Napoleonic Wars: with ±rance's admission in 1818, it became the Quintuple Alliance, though British government distaste for the other allies' reactionary policies meant that it lapsed into ineffectiveness after the mid-1820s. 26.) Waterloo- a battle fought on June 18, 1815, near the village of Waterloo (in what is now Belgium), in which Napoleon's army was defeated by the British (under the Duke of Wellington) and Prussians.

The allied pursuit caused Napoleon's army to disintegrate entirely, ending his bid to return to power. 27.) Elba- a small island off the west coast of Italy. This was the 1st place Napoleon was exiled to after his defeat at Waterloo. 28.) Romanticism - a movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual. 29.) Rousseau - (1812–67) ±rench painter. A leading landscapist of the Barbizon School, his works typically depict the scenery and changing light effects of the forest of ±ontainebleau. 30.) Kant - German philosopher. In the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) he countered Hume's skeptical empiricism by arguing that any afFrmation or denial regarding the ultimate nature of reality (“noumenon”) makes no sense. His Critique of Practical Reason (1788) afFrms the existence of an absolute moral law—the categorical imperative. This is the end of the preview. Sign up to access the rest of the document.

TERM Middleton High EURO AP - Fall 2014 Chapter 19 Book Notes The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism I. The Rise Chapter19-BookNotes Congress of Vienna Russia got Finland and effective control over the new kingdom of Poland Prussia was given much of Saxony and important parts of Westphalia and the Rhine Province. Austria was given back most of the territory it had lost and was also given land in Germany and Italy (Lombardia and Venice) Britain got several strategic colonial territories, and they also gained control of the seas. France was restored under the rule of Louis XVIII. Spain was restored under Ferdinand VII Outcomes of the meeting The goal of the congress was to reestablish a balance of power amongst the countries of Europe and have peace between the nations. The Congress was highly successful in achieving its goal, for the peace in Europe was left undisturbed for almost 40 years. The Delegations At the Congress of Vienna, the monarchs and princes of Europe redrew their boundaries, to the advantage of Prussia (in Saxony and the Ruhr), Austria (in Illyria and Venetia), and Russia (in Poland and Finland).

British conquest of Dutch and French colonies (S. Africa, Ceylon, Mauritius) was recognized, and France, under the restored Bourbons, retained its expanded 1792 borders. The settlement brought 50 years of international peace to Europe. Prussia Hardenberg, Prince Karl August von (1750-1822), chancellor of Prussia (1810-17), who reformed the Prussian state and played a leading role in the coalition that defeated Napoleon. Born on May 31, 1750, in Hannover, Hardenberg entered the service of the king of Prussia in 1792. In 1795 he negotiated the Treaty of Basel, ceding Prussian territory west of the Rhine to revolutionary France. He was foreign minister from 1804 to 1806, when Napoleon, after defeating and occupying Prussia, had him removed from office. Appointed chancellor in 1810, Hardenberg carried out extensive reforms, imposing a uniform system of taxation, abolishing restrictions on internal trade, easing the condition of the peasantry, and granting equality to Jews.

His attempt to establish a consultative representative assembly, however, was thwarted by opposition from the aristocracy. After Napoleon's hold on Europe was weakened by the failure of his Russian campaign, Hardenberg formed an alliance with Russia (1813), beginning Germany's War of Liberation against the French. In 1814-15 he represented Prussia at the Congress of Vienna, where the allies redrew the map of Europe after Napoleon's downfall. His collaboration with Great Britain and Austria in opposing Russian plans for the annexation of Poland was repudiated by Prussia's King Frederick William III, but he secured compensation for Prussia, which received parts of Saxony and the Rhineland. in Germany he agreed to a confederation of states under the presidency of Austria. Hardenberg died in Genoa, Italy, on November 26, 1822. Frederick William III (1770-1840), king of Prussia (1797-1840). He was the son of Frederick William II, born in Potsdam.

He was given military training in his youth and from 1792 to 1794 fought against France during the French Revolution. In 1797 he succeeded to the throne and set about rebuilding the economy and the army, which had suffered during the reign of his father. He kept Prussia neutral in the Napoleonic Wars until 1805, when persuaded by Russia and the aroused spirit of his people, he joined the allies against France. Prussia was defeated at Jena and Auerstï¿½dt in 1806. By the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, various Prussian territories were ceded to France. Through the efforts of the administrators Baron H. F. K. vom Stein, Count A. N. von Gneisenau, Prince K. A. von Hardenberg, and G. J. D. von Scharnhorst (1755-1813), the Prussian army was reconstituted between 1807 and 1812 and participated in the victorious campaigns against Napoleon from 1813 until 1815.

In this period, Frederick William promised the Prussian people a constitution. At the close of the war in 1815, however, he joined the Holy Alliance and participated in the alliance's repression of liberal movements in Europe. Within Prussia, he accomplished the reorganization of parts of the administrative system and consented to formation of the Zollverein, or customs union. Russia Alexander I (of Russia) (1777-1825), emperor of Russia (1801-25), son of Emperor Paul I (1754-1801). He abolished many barbarous and cruel punishments then practiced and in 1802 introduced a more orderly administration of government by the creation of eight ministries. He improved the condition of the serfs and promoted education, doubling the number of Russian universities by establishing those at Saint Petersburg, Kharkiv, and Kazan. Alexander was for a time the ally of Prussia against Napoleon of France. In 1807, however, after the battles of Eylau and Friedland, Alexander allied himself with the French.

He broke the alliance in 1812, and later that year Napoleon invaded Russia, only to lose his army in a disastrous retreat from Moscow. Alexander was prominent thereafter in the European coalition that led to Napoleon's fall. In 1815 Alexander instituted the Holy Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. The purpose of the alliance, as it was conceived, was to achieve the realization of high Christian ideals among the nations of Europe, but it soon ceased to have any real importance. The last years of Alexander's life and reign were reactionary and despotic. He was succeeded by his brother Nicholas I. France Talleyrand-Pï¿½rigord, Charles Maurice de (1754-1838), French statesman and diplomat, who flourished through the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and played a major part in the outcome of the Congress of Vienna. He also had a remarkable ability to survive in the turbulent period of the French Revolution, the Napoleonic wars, and the restoration of the monarchy. On the darker side, Talleyrand was not above playing both sides of the political street to be assured of coming out on top. Through bribes and speculation he amassed a huge fortune.

Talleyrand was born in Paris on Feb. 2, 1754. From either birth or accident he had a clubfoot. Educated in theology at the seminary of Saint Sulpice, he was ordained a priest in 1779, became abbot of Saint-Denis, and in 1780 was appointed agent-general of the French clergy. In 1789 Talleyrand was named bishop of Autun. Two years later he resigned his see, after subscribing to the new civil constitution of the clergy drawn up by the national constituent assembly, and was subsequently excommunicated. In 1792 he was sent by the French government to London, where he conducted informal negotiations for a British-French alliance. After the overthrow of the French monarchy in September 1792, Talleyrand returned to England as a private citizen. Following the outbreak of hostilities between France and Great Britain in 1793, he was listed as an ï¿½migrï¿½ by the French authorities, and after being expelled from England in 1794, he went to the United States.

Talleyrand was permitted to return to France in 1796, and the following year he was appointed foreign minister under the Directory. In July 1799 he resigned this office, and subsequently he was instrumental in effecting the coup d'ï¿½tat of 18 Brumaire that established the rule of the Consulate under the first consul Napoleon Bonaparte. Talleyrand served as Bonaparte's foreign minister from 1799 to 1807, when he resigned because of his opposition to the wars against Austria, Prussia, and Russia in 1805-6. After the fall of Napoleon, he represented France at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, where he obtained advantageous terms for France from the victorious Allies, including the restoration of the boundaries of 1789. During the July Revolution of 1830, Louis Philippe, duc d'Orlï¿½ans, was persuaded by Talleyrand to accept the French crown offered to him by the Paris revolutionaries.

Talleyrand served as the French ambassador to Great Britain from 1832 to 1834 and helped bring about an era of good relations between the two nations. He also took part in the negotiations that in 1839 led to the general recognition of the independent kingdom of Belgium. He died in Paris on May 17, 1838. Austria Metternich, Prince Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, von (1773-1859), Austrian statesman and diplomat, who was the dominant figure in European politics between 1814 and 1848. Metternich was born into an aristocratic family on May 15, 1773, in Koblenz, Germany, and attended the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz. His family fled the revolutionary French armies to Vienna in 1794, and Metternich there married Countess Eleanor Kaunitz (flourished 1795-1825), whose family was prominent at the Austrian court.

He served the Habsburgs first as an envoy to the Congress of Rastadt (1797) and then as ambassador to Saxony (1801), Prussia (1803), and Napoleonic France (1806). In 1809 Metternich was appointed minister of foreign affairs for the Habsburg state, then in disarray following several defeats by the French army. He arranged the marriage of the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise (1791-1847) to Napoleon, but he planned to renew the war with France when the opportunity arose. After Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign in 1812, Metternich played a leading role in the formation of a new European coalition that two years later defeated the French emperor. At the Congress of Vienna (1814-15), which redrew the map of Europe after Napoleon's downfall, he blocked Russian plans for the annexation of the whole of Poland and Prussia's attempt to absorb Saxony. He succeeded in creating a German confederation under Austrian leadership but failed to achieve a similar arrangement for Italy.

His attempt to make the postwar Quadruple Alliance (Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) into an instrument for preventing revolution in Europe also failed. As chancellor of the Habsburg Empire (1821-48) he was, however, able to maintain the status quo in Germany and Italy, and he remained Europe's leading statesman until driven from power by the Revolution of 1848. He died in Vienna on June 11, 1859. Metternich equally resented liberalism, nationalism, and revolution. His ideal was a monarchy that shared power with the traditional privileged classes of society. He was a man of order in an increasingly disorganized world of rapidly changing values. Conceited and indolent by nature, he often assumed responsibility for policies he had not himself formulated. Some have judged him a reactionary who tried to stop progress. To others he was a constructive force, misunderstood by contemporaries and historians alike. Great Britain Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount (1769-1822), British statesman, born in county Down, Ireland, and educated at the University of Cambridge.

In 1790 he entered the Irish parliament as a Whig, but he joined the Tory party when he entered the British House of Commons in 1795. A year later he was created Viscount Castlereagh, a courtesy title. As chief secretary for Ireland from 1799, he energetically supported the attempt of the British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger to bring about the political union of Ireland with Great Britain. Pitt's proposed legislation, known as the Act of Union, was carried in the Irish parliament in 1800, largely through Castlereagh's skill in bribing parliamentary members. Soon after the act became law (January 1, 1801), Castlereagh resigned from office because of the opposition of King George III to the passing of a Catholic emancipation act, which Castlereagh had hoped would follow the Act of Union. Castlereagh was a member of the House of Commons from 1801 until his death, serving as leader from 1812.

As secretary of state for the war and colonial department during most of the period from 1805 to 1809, he helped plan British campaigns in the Peninsular War. From 1812, as foreign secretary in the Tory cabinet of Robert Banks Jenkinson (1770-1828), 2nd earl of Liverpool, Castlereagh played a leading part in the coalition of nations against Napoleon, keeping it united during the critical campaigns of 1813-14. Castlereagh represented Great Britain at the Congress of Vienna (1814-15), which redrew the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. At the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), he resisted Russian attempts to draw Britain into a European league to oppose revolution. In 1822, suffering from depression and fearful that he was about to be exposed as a homosexual, Castlereagh committed suicide. Congress of Vienna facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Congress of Vienna The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.

Copyright The Columbia University Press Congress of Vienna, Sept., 1814–June, 1815, one of the most important international conferences in European history, called to remake Europe after the downfall of Napoleon I. Congress Participants The Austrian emperor Francis I (formerly Holy Roman Emperor Francis II ) was the host. Among the many monarchs to attend the congress the most important were Czar Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick William III of Prussia. Fürst von Metternich was the chief Austrian negotiator and presided over the congress; Viscount Castlereagh and, for a time, the duke of Wellington represented Great Britain; the Russian delegation included Count Nesselrode, Count Capo d'Istria, and Carlo Andreo Pozzo di Borgo; among the Prussian diplomats were Karl August von Hardenberg, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Karl vom und zum Stein. A peace settlement with defeated France had been reached before the congress convened (see Paris, Treaty of , 1814), but France was represented by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , who, by skillfully exploiting differences among the allies, soon obtained an equal voice with the four great victorious powers.

All other European states, large and petty, that had legally existed before the Napoleonic upheaval were represented by an army of delegates and agents, but the important work was carried out in committees under the tutelage of the major powers. Issues The problems confronting the congress were extremely thorny and complex, for the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars had swept away the entire structure of Europe. Although the principle of legitimacy—restoration of the pre-Revolutionary dynastic and territorial states—was often ceremoniously invoked, it was the determination to achieve a balance of power for the preservation of peace that guided congress decisions. The principle of national self-determination, although invoked in certain cases, was neglected in practice. The congress opened with a round of magnificent balls and entertainments, while its serious business was stalled by intrigues and rivalries. Territorial Adjustments Major territorial changes were unavoidable, partly because of previous secret agreements reached among individual allies and partly because of the pressure of power politics. Major points of friction were the settlement of the Polish question, the conflicting claims of Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, and the adjustment of the borders of the German states.

Russia and Prussia were generally opposed by Austria, France, and Britain, which at one point (Jan., 1815) went so far as to conclude a defensive triple alliance. The shock of this crisis and of the return of Napoleon I from Elba so upset the delegates that the congress began to find solutions for its many difficulties. In place of the defunct Holy Roman Empire or its several hundred princes, the German Confederation was created. The Confederation's constitution was accepted on June 8, 1815, and was incorporated into the Final Act of the congress, signed on June 9, nine days before Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. The restoration of Louis XVIII in France and of Ferdinand VII in Spain was confirmed. Italy was dealt with as a geographic rather than a political entity, and its hopes for unity were dashed.

Naples and Sicily were reunited under Bourbon rule; the Papal States were restored; the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were awarded to French Empress Marie Louise for her lifetime; Tuscany and Modena were restored to the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom was set up under Austrian rule to compensate Austria for its loss of the Austrian Netherlands; and the formerly Venetian part of Dalmatia also went to Austria. The kingdom of Sardinia was restored and recovered Savoy, Nice, and Piedmont, and it received Liguria with Genoa. Poland was redivided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, with Russia benefiting primarily; part of Poland, with Warsaw, was set up as a kingdom in personal union with Russia; Kraków and its surrounding territory were made a republic under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Since Austria received Italian territories to compensate for Russian gains, Prussia was awarded much of Saxony as well as important parts of Westphalia and Rhine Province.

Great Britain, more interested in acquiring strategic colonial territories, retained the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Cape Colony, received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain, kept Malta and Helgoland, and obtained a protectorate over the Ionian islands. The former Austrian Netherlands was united with the former United Provinces as the kingdom of the Netherlands, under the house of Orange. Russia retained the formerly Swedish Finland. The congress confirmed the transfer of Norway from the Danish to the Swedish crown; W Pomerania, the claim to which Sweden had ceded to Denmark in the Treaty of Kiel (1814), was given to Prussia, which compensated Denmark with the duchy of Lauenburg. Bavaria received its approximate present-day boundaries, as did Württemberg and Baden. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was guaranteed. As regards France, a new peace settlement was reached on Nov. 20, 1815 (see Paris, Treaty of , 1815). The Final Act of Vienna was subsequently ratified by the powers concerned, but several separate treaties were required to complete the settlement.

Consequences Although the territorial changes brought about by the Congress of Vienna did not endure long in entirety, they represented a practical if not always equitable solution and an attempt at dealing with Europe as an organic whole. The Quadruple Alliance and the Holy Alliance , designed to uphold the decisions of Vienna and to settle disputes and problems by means of conferences, were an important step toward European cooperation. The Concert of Europe , which functioned—even though imperfectly—through the 19th cent., may be credited to the Congress of Vienna. An auxiliary accomplishment of the Congress was the adoption of standard rules of diplomacy. Serious defects, however, included the disregard of the growing national aspirations and the social changes that brought about the revolutions of 1848, and the failure to include the Ottoman Empire in the settlement and to deal satisfactorily with the Eastern Question. Bibliography See H. Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna (1946, repr. 1970); H. Kissinger, A World Restored (1957, repr. 1964); H. Spiel, ed., The Congress of Vienna: An Eyewitness Account (1968).

Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA The Oxford Companion to British History © The Oxford Companion to British History 2002, originally published by Oxford University Press 2002. Vienna , Congress of, 1814–15. Napoleon's abdication in April 1814 was followed by a preliminary settlement, the first treaty of Paris , which restored the Bourbon monarchy, returned most of France 's colonies, allowed her the boundaries of 1792, and approved the union of Belgium and Holland. But twenty years of warfare, in the course of which boundaries had been constantly changed and new states created, demanded a general European settlement. The Congress opened in September with Castlereagh representing Britain . Strong disagreement between Prussia , Russia , and Austria over the fate of Saxony threatened allied unity and allowed Talleyrand, the French representative, to play a balancing role. In March 1815 everything was thrown into the melting pot by Napoleon's escape from Elba, and not until he had been defeated in June at Waterloo were the arrangements safe.

The terms of the settlement with France were then made more severe, giving her the 1790s boundaries, and insisting on an indemnity and an army of occupation. Belgium and Holland were united in the hope that they would be a more effective barrier to French aggression than either the Spanish or Austrian Netherlands had been; Piedmont was strengthened as a barrier in Italy, where Austria, with Milan, Lombardy, and Venetia, became the dominant power; a kingdom of Poland was established under the rule of Tsar Alexander; Prussia was compensated in the west for territorial losses in the east; the neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed; Denmark lost Norway to Sweden , which had changed sides at the last minute; Hanover's gains included East Frisia; Britain retained the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Tobago, St Lucia, Malta , Mauritius, the Ionian Islands, and Heligoland. By the Quadruple Alliance , which accompanied the second treaty of Paris in November 1815, the system of Congresses was established to adjudicate future problems. The Congress of Vienna was a prime example of balance of power diplomacy.

The first piece of the settlement to collapse was the union of Belgium and Holland, which disintegrated in 1830. J. A. Cannon Napoleonic Wars | European history | Britannica.com European history THIS IS A DIRECTORY PAGE. Britannica does not currently have an article on this topic. Europe in 1812. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815). Inset shows the greatest extent of the Napoleonic empire (1812). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Learn about this topic in these articles: in French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars a series of wars between 1792 and 1815 that ranged France against shifting alliances of other European powers and that produced a brief French hegemony over most of Europe. The revolutionary wars, which may for convenience be held to have been concluded by 1801, were originally undertaken to defend and then to spread the effects of the French Revolution. With Napoleon’s rise to absolute power,... in Battle of Austerlitz (Dec.

2, 1805), the first engagement of the War of the Third Coalition and one of Napoleon’s greatest victories. His 68,000 troops defeated almost 90,000 Russians and Austrians nominally under General M.I. Kutuzov, forcing Austria to make peace with France (Treaty of Pressburg) and keeping Prussia temporarily out of the anti-French alliance. in Battle of Borodino (Sept. 7 [Aug. 26, Old Style], 1812), bloody battle of the Napoleonic Wars, fought during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, about 70 miles (110 km) west of Moscow, near the river Moskva. It was fought between Napoleon’s 130,000 troops, with more than 500 guns, and 120,000 Russians with more than 600 guns. Napoleon’s success allowed him to occupy Moscow. The Russians were commanded by General M.I.... in Battle of Copenhagen (April 2, 1801) British naval victory over Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars.

The armed-neutrality treaty of 1794 between Denmark and Sweden, to which Russia and Prussia adhered in 1800, was considered a hostile act by England. In 1801 a detachment of the British navy was sent to Copenhagen. After a fierce battle in the harbour, Adm. Horatio Nelson, ignoring orders to withdraw from the fleet... in Battle of Eylau (Feb. 7–8, 1807), one of the engagements in the Napoleonic War of the Third Coalition. The first major deadlock suffered by Napoleon, the battle was fought around the East Prussian town of Eylau (modern Bagrationovsk, Russia), 23 miles (37 km) south of Königsberg (Kaliningrad). The 76,000 Russians and Prussians under Leonty Leontyevich Bennigsen confronted 74,000 men under Napoleon... in Battle of Friedland (June 14, 1807), victory for Napoleon that compensated for a setback the preceding February at Eylau and led to the Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia.

It was fought at Friedland (modern Pravdinsk, Russia), 27 miles (43 km) southeast of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) in East Prussia. in Battle of Jena (Oct. 14, 1806), military engagement of the Napoleonic Wars, fought between 122,000 French troops and 114,000 Prussians and Saxons, at Jena and Auerstädt, in Saxony (modern Germany). In the battle, Napoleon smashed the outdated Prussian army inherited from Frederick II the Great, which resulted in the reduction of Prussia to half its former size at the Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807. in Battle of Leipzig ...resulting in the destruction of what was left of French power in Germany and Poland. The battle was fought at Leipzig, in Saxony, between approximately 185,000 French and other troops under Napoleon, and approximately 320,000 allied troops, including Austrian, Prussian, Russian, and Swedish forces, commanded respectively by Prince Karl Philipp Schwarzenberg, General Gebhard Leberecht...

in Siege of Mantua (June 4, 1796–Feb. 2, 1797), the crucial episode in Napoleon Bonaparte’s first Italian campaign; his successful siege of Mantua excluded the Austrians from northern Italy. The city was easy to besiege: the only access to it was via five causeways over the Mincio River. The two Austrian commanders, Count Dagobert Siegmund Graf von Wurmser and Baron Josef Alvintzy, in four successive tries,... in Battle of Marengo (June 14, 1800), narrow victory for Napoleon Bonaparte in the War of the Second Coalition, fought on the Marengo Plain about 3 miles (5 km) southeast of Alessandria, in northern Italy, between Napoleon’s approximately 28,000 troops and some 31,000 Austrian troops under General Michael Friedrich von Melas; it resulted in the French occupation of Lombardy up to the Mincio River and secured... in Battle of the Nile The French Revolutionary general Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 made plans for an invasion of Egypt in order to constrict Britain’s trade routes and threaten its possession of India.

The British government heard that a large French naval expedition was to sail from a French Mediterranean port under the command of Napoleon, and in response it ordered John Jervis, earl of St. Vincent, the commander... in Battle of Wagram (July 5–6, 1809), victory for Napoleon, which forced Austria to sign an armistice and led eventually to the Treaty of Schönbrunn in October, ending Austria’s 1809 war against the French control of Germany. The battle was fought on the Marchfeld (a plain northeast of Vienna) between 154,000 French and other troops under Napoleon and 158,000 Austrians under Archduke Charles. After a... in Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815), Napoleon’s final defeat, ending 23 years of recurrent warfare between France and the other powers of Europe.

It was fought during the Hundred Days of Napoleon’s restoration, 3 miles (5 km) south of Waterloo village (which is 9 miles [14.5 km] south of Brussels), between Napoleon’s 72,000 troops and the combined forces of the duke of Wellington’s allied army of 68,000 (with... in Hundred Days (French history) Less than a year following his abdication (April 6, 1814) and the Bourbon Restoration, Napoleon left his island exile in the Tyrrhenian Sea and landed at Cannes on March 1, leading 1,500 men, and marched at once upon Paris. Louis XVIII fled to Ghent on March 13, and Napoleon entered Paris one week later. To broaden his support, Napoleon made liberal changes to the Imperial Constitution, which... in Peninsular War (1808–14), that part of the Napoleonic Wars fought in the Iberian Peninsula, where the French were opposed by British, Spanish, and Portuguese forces.

Napoleon’s peninsula struggle contributed considerably to his eventual downfall; but until 1813 the conflict in Spain and Portugal, though costly, exercised only an indirect effect upon the progress of French affairs in central and eastern... in Stendhal: Life ...This was the beginning of an administrative career in the French army that allowed Henri Beyle to discover parts of Germany and Austria. His army appointment gave him a direct experience of the Napoleonic regime and of Europe at war. He watched Moscow go up in flames, took part in the French forces’ retreat from Russia, and helped organize the military defense of the province of... in Austria: Conflicts with revolutionary France, 1790–1805 ...conflict (or preparation for conflict) between Austria and France. During that time Austria and France fought five wars for a total of 14 years, and Austria lost all of them but the last. At one time (1809–12), Austria was stripped of all its Italian possessions, the Austrian Netherlands, its western German...

in Denmark: The Napoleonic Wars and their aftermath The Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century ended an era of peace for Denmark and Norway that had lasted since the 1720s. The armed neutrality treaty of 1794 between Denmark and Sweden, which Russia and Prussia joined in 1800, was considered hostile by Great Britain. In 1801 British navy ships entered The Sound and destroyed much of the Danish fleet in a battle in the Copenhagen harbour. When... in history of Europe: The Napoleonic era ...create a French-dominated empire in Europe. To this end he moved steadily to consolidate his personal power, proclaiming himself emperor and sketching a new aristocracy. He was almost constantly at war, with Britain his most dogged opponent but Prussia and Austria also joining successive coalitions. Until 1812, his campaigns were usually successful. Although he frequently made errors in... in France: Campaigns and conquests, 1797–1807 Napoleon’s sway over France depended from the start on his success in war.

After his conquest of northern Italy in 1797 and the dissolution of the first coalition, the Directory intended to invade Britain, France’s century-long rival and the last remaining belligerent. Concluding that French naval power could not sustain a seaborne invasion, however, the government sent Napoleon on a military... in Germany: End of the Holy Roman Empire ...the Imperial Diet entrusted a committee of princes, the Reichsdeputation, with the task of drawing a new map of Germany. France, however, exercised the major influence over its deliberations. Napoleon had resolved to utilize the settlement of territorial claims to fundamentally alter the structure of the Holy Roman Empire. The result was that the Final Recess (Hauptschluss) of the... in Hanover (historical state, Germany) ...“Achilles’ heel” in continental Europe, Hanover suffered invasions during Britain’s wars, especially during the Seven Years’ War (1756–63) and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1793.

The Prussians seized it in 1801 and 1805 and the French in 1803 and 1806, after which part of it was incorporated into the French empire and the rest into the Kingdom of... in India: The ascent to paramountcy ...as well as salutary. The more-compelling immediate cause was the transformation of European politics by the French Revolution. A new French threat to India emerged, this time overland, with Napoleon I’s Egyptian expedition of 1798–99. It was certain that a French army under such a leader would find many friends in India to welcome it, not least Tippu Sultan. in India: The government of Lord Minto Lord Minto (governor-general 1807–13) was occupied with the revived French danger, which was once again serious with the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and Napoleon I’s resulting alliance with Russia. To guard against a French-sponsored Russian attack, British missions were sent to Afghanistan, to Persia, and to Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjab. The first two proved fruitless, but the...

in Thomas Jefferson: Presidency But Jefferson’s major disappointment had its origins in Europe with the resumption of the Napoleonic Wars, which resulted in naval blockades in the Atlantic and Caribbean that severely curtailed American trade and pressured the U.S. government to take sides in the conflict. Jefferson’s response was the Embargo Act (1807), which essentially closed American ports to all foreign imports and... in United States: The Jeffersonian Republicans in power By the start of Jefferson’s second term in office, Europe was engulfed in the Napoleonic Wars. The United States remained neutral, but both Britain and France imposed various orders and decrees severely restricting American trade with Europe and confiscated American ships for violating the new rules. Britain also conducted impressment raids in which U.S. citizens were sometimes seized. Unable... in logistics (military): Fundamentals Jomini’s discussion of logistics was really an analysis of the functions of the Napoleonic general staff, which he conceived as the commander’s right arm, facilitating his decisions and seeing to their execution. The mobility and gargantuan scale of Napoleonic warfare had left the simple old logistics of marches and encampments far behind.

The new logistics, said Jomini, had become the science... in logistics (military): Logistic systems before 1850 The era of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic domination of Europe (1789–1815) brought back both mobility and range of movement to European warfare, along with an immense further increase in the size of armies. Abandoning the siege warfare of the 18th century, Napoleonic strategy stressed swift offensives aimed at smashing the enemy’s main force in a few decisive battles. The... Europe 1700-1914: The Congress of Vienna A weblog for students of the Birkbeck, University of London, course 'Europe 1700-1914: A Continent Transformed' created by Dr Anne Stott. Monday, January 10, 2011 The Congress of Vienna ‘The reconstruction of Europe at the Congress of Vienna is probably the most seminal episode in modern history. Not only did the congress redraw the map entirely.

It determined which nations were to have a political existence over the next hundred years and which were not…It entirely transformed the conduct of international affairs.’ Adam Zamoyski, Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (HarperPress, 2007), p. xiii. The Congress of Vienna was a conference between ambassadors from the major powers in Europe that was chaired by the Austrian statesman Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (1773-1859) , and held from September 1, 1814, to June 9, 1815. Its purpose was to redraw the continent's political map after the defeat of Napoleonic France the previous spring. The Vienna settlement was in two parts, interrupted by Napoleon’s return from Elba in 1815. The Congress's Final Act was signed on 9 June, nine days before Waterloo. Technically, the ‘Congress of Vienna’ never actually occurred, as the Congress never met in plenary session, with most of the discussions occurring in informal sessions among the Great Powers.

The Congress was concerned with determining the entire shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the Treaty of Paris (May 30, 1814). The treaties reflected the policies of the victorious powers that imposed it. The fact that the congress was held in Vienna was a personal triumph for Metternich the dominant political figure of the post-Napoleonic era. At the congress, the United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, the Ulster aristocrat, Viscount Castlereagh (1769-1822) (left) and after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815, by the Duke of Wellington; and in the last weeks, after Wellington left to face Napoleon in the Hundred Days, by the Earl of Clancarty. Austria was represented by Metternich, and by his deputy, Baron Wessenberg. Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg (1750-1822) , the Chancellor, and the distinguished diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt .

Although Russia's official delegation was led by the foreign minister, Count Nesselrode, Tsar Alexander I (1777-1825) for the most part acted on his own behalf. Louis XVIII’s France was represented by its wily foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand- Périgord (1754-1838) . His aims were modest and amounted to damage limitation. The weaknesses of his position were obvious but a balance of power in Europe necessarily involved a relatively strong France in order to achieve what he called a ‘just equilibrium’ and counter the potential threat of an over powerful Russia. (Russia and France had the largest populations at the time and also the largest armies.) Britain: Britain refused to claim any territory in mainland Europe for fear of being drawn into future wars. It wanted the freedom to develop its empire and enhance its wealth through overseas trade. Castlereagh was cautiously in favour of more political liberalism in Europe but not at the expense of stability. Austria: Metternich was a conservative, 'in every sense a product of the ancien régime, believing in the natural order of things, based on established religion, monarchy and a defined hierarchy.

He viewed any change as potentially revolutionary ... [and saw] the French Revolution as the greatest catastrophe to afflict Europe'. (Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 39.) He was also the representative of a multinational empire without natural frontiers. He told a Russian diplomat: ‘My realm resembles a worm-eaten house. If one part is removed one can never tell how much will fall.’ He saw potential threats from Russia and France. Russia’s foreign policy was the preserve of the tsar. Alexander was idiosyncratic, an authoritarian who gave the appearance of being a liberal and was increasingly under the influence of the mystical Baroness Juliana von Krudener . He was in a strong position because of his massive army, which had taken Paris. His priorities were (a) the annexation of Poland and (b) to take land from the Turks. These ambitions made Russia the most potentially threatening power once France was defeated. Prussia was also expansionist, partly at least through fear of France and Austria. Her ambition was to gain Saxony. France: Talleyrand aimed at limiting the punishment of France by exploiting differences among the allies. He was especially anxious about an enlarged Prussia.

His views largely squared with those of Castlereagh and Metternich. Although they did not necessarily like or trust each other, the powers were anxious to stick together. It was recognized that France’s previous dominance had been caused in part by her ‘divide and rule’ policy; this must never be allowed to happen again. Under the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814) the powers had agreed not to make a separate peace with Napoleon and had joined forces in a Quadruple Alliance. They also agreed to maintain the territorial integrity of France. The extremely lenient Treaty of Paris (30 May) returned France to the frontiers of 1792 (with the addition of Avignon) and she kept a number of colonies as well as trading rights in India. The Bourbons were restored in the name of legitimacy. But at the same time the allies surrounded France with buffer states. In June 1814 the Low Countries was established as a unitary state, the Kingdom of the Netherlands under William of the House of Orange-Nassau (r. 1813-40) incorporating Belgium (the former Austrian Netherlands).

It was later agreed that Prussia should have the east bank of the Rhine and a large portion of the kingdom of Westphalia. South of the Rhineland were the larger south German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. To the south east of France the monarchy of Sardinia-Piedmont recovered its territorial integrity and gained Nice and Genoa. The treaties were ultimately directed against revolution and therefore against the nationalism that had been aroused by the wars – a phenomenon that greatly troubled Metternich. In the name of legitimacy, the Congress restored dynasties that had been ousted by Napoleon. In May 1814 Habsburg princes returned to Tuscany and Modena, while Napoleon’s wife, Marie-Louise, was made duchess of Parma. Pius VII recovered the Papal States including Umbria and the Marches. Ferdinand VII was restored to Spain and the Two Sicilies. Napoleon’s brother in law, Joachim Murat was initially allowed to retain his position as king of Naples, but in March 1815 he marched north and issued a proclamation to the Italian people calling on them to liberate themselves from foreigners.

The great powers combined against him. Murat was shot and King Ferdinand was restored to Naples. The situation was more complicated further east. Allied unity was potentially fragile. In 1813 Prussia and Russia had signed the Treaty of Kalisch in which Alexander proclaimed the liberation of Poland (with himself as king) and allowed Frederick William III to take possession of Saxony. In 1814 Prussian and Russian armies had surged across Europe and entered Paris. Both powers were enjoying a new lease of life and both Britain and Austrian felt apprehensive about new threats to European stability. In early January 1815, it looked as if the Allies might go to war with each other over Poland and Saxony, an apprehension that was brilliantly exploited by Talleyrand. On 3 January Britain and Austria signed a secret treaty with France, after which Alexander backed down. The solution was to buy off Russia by setting up a truncated Poland as the ‘ Congress Kingdom of Poland’ (above right) ,which would in practice be under Russian control. The majority of Poles, who lived outside the Congress Kingdom, lived either under Prussian or Austrian rule.

Prussia was allowed part of Saxony and most of the Napoleonic kingdom of Westphalia on the left bank of the Rhine. This killed two birds with one stone as it provided another buffer state against France; in accepting this, Talleyrand created a serious future danger for France. The Final Act was signed at Vienna on 9 June 1815. By it, the situation in Germany was settled. Castlereagh had wanted a strong Germany as a bulwark against France, Metternich a weak one that did not threaten Austria. The German Confederation, which replaced Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine, arose out of these contradictory aims. This was a very loose federation and Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover were allowed their own armies and foreign policies as a guarantee against Prussia. The Federal Act which set up the Confederation allowed constitutions to be set up – these were adopted by Baden, Bavaria and Württemberg. There was to be no elected Parliament, but a new Federal Diet at Frankfurt (under the presidency of Austria) consisted of representatives of the 39 German governments, including Austria and Prussia, though both of these states lay partly inside and partly outside the Confederation.

German nationalism was, therefore, kept strongly under control. Like the Poles, Germans and Italians, the Serbs also saw their nationalist aspirations suppressed when the revolt of their new ruler Milos Obrenovic was suppressed. In December 1815 the Ottoman Empire conceded them internal autonomy for fear of provoking intervention by Russia. Gains and losses You can read the details here. Russia gained ‘Congress Poland’ except Posen, Thorn and Galicia. The Congress of Vienna confirmed her earlier gains of Finland (from Sweden) and Bessarabia (from Turkey). Austria lost the Austrian Netherlands but kept Galicia and Lombardy and gained Venetia. Lombardy and Venetia were allowed some autonomy. Austria concentrated on being a central European power, but was vulnerable to conflicts with Prussia, Russia and Turkey. The multiplicity of nationalities within the Empire was a potential time-bomb. Prussia moved westwards. She lost her previous Polish territory to Russia but gained the Rhineland, though this province was separated from the rest of her territories. In the east she gained 60% of Saxony but only 40% of its people.

Nevertheless, ‘the Hohenzollern kingdom was now a colossus that stretched across the north of Germany…The consequences for Prussia’s (and Germany’s) nineteenth-century economic and political development were momentous’. (Christopher, Clark, Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947, Allen Lane: 2006, p. 389.) But the fundamental Prussian problem remained the lack of defensible frontiers. Britain’s gains were outside Europe. She kept some West Indian conquests (including Trinidad, Tobago and St Lucia) and retained Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope, which she had conquered from the Dutch. By the second Treaty of Paris (November, 1815) France lost some frontier fortresses, had to pay an indemnity of 700m francs, lost Tobago and St Lucia to Britain, had to return the looted art treasures and suffer an army of occupation for five years. Balance sheet The Vienna settlement has been praised and criticized in equal measure. Henry Kissinger (1957) praised it because the Congress forged a new ‘legitimacy’ that lasted for a hundred years.

But this is to ignore the numerous minor wars that Europe experienced throughout the nineteenth century. Adam Zamoyski argues that it brought into being a ‘pax Europaea’ of a sort, a Europe of expanding prosperity and technological advance, but at a high price. ‘The Vienna settlement…enshrined a particularly stultified form of monarchical government’ institutionalised social hierarchies as rigid as any that had existed under the ancien regime; and preserved archaic disabilities [including serfdom in Russia]. By excluding whole classes and nations from a share in its benefits, this system nurtured envy and resentment, which flourished into socialism and aggressive nationalism. And when, after the ‘Concert of Europe’ had fought itself to extinction in the Great War, those forces were at last unleashed, they visited on Europe events more horrific than the worst fears Metternich or any of his colleagues could have entertained.' Rites of Peace, p. 569. European diplomacy and the Congress System, 1815-56 European diplomacy and the Congress System, 1815-56: a brief survey The Vienna settlement 1814-15 - To keep peace in Europe after the downfall of Napoleon.

Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg were united in the kingdom of the Netherlands. Lombardy-Venetia was controlled by Austria. The German Confederation of 39 states was established under the presidency of Austria. Prussia received Posen, Danzig and parts of Saxony, Westphalia and Pomerania. Britain gained overseas territories, Malta, Heligoland and the Cape of Good Hope. The Pope regained the Papal States. Norway was united with Sweden. Russia gained Finland. Switzerland became independent. To prevent revolutions, legitimate rulers were restored in France, Spain, Naples, Tuscany and other parts of Italy. Free navigation was established on the rivers Rhine and Meuse. The slave trade was condemned. The rights of Jews were extended. Aims of the settlement Austria (Metternich), Britain (Castlereagh and Wellington), Prussia (Hardenberg) and Russia (Alexander 1) were determined to settle Europe after the years of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Talleyrand was admitted to represent France. The settlement was a series of compromises. France was contained but not harshly punished. Russian expansion in eastern Europe was feared and limited. Austria gained influence in Germany and Italy.

Prussia extended its territories. Britain's main interests were overseas. Minor states were treated as pawns. Some were combined to form larger states. Former rulers were restored. But nationalist feeling was thought unimportant, even dangerous, by the major powers. The Vienna settlement has been seen by some historians as a sensible arrangement. It was the best that could be expected in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, preventing war until 1854. Others have seen Vienna as showing the self-interest of the major states. Some of the terms were soon to cause trouble, especially as nationalism spread through Europe and people sought independence, e.g. in Italy, Germany and Belgium. The Congress System The Congress System was an attempt to maintain peace and order through the combined influence and actions of the major states. Some historians believe that the term 'System' is inaccurate because there was nothing systematic about the meetings and that they were individual responses to crises. Others see the congresses as a significant attempt to resolve tensions. Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia formed the Quadruple Alliance and agreed to maintain peace (the Concert of Europe). But the major powers had different aims.

Austria and Russia favoured intervention against revolutions; Britain did not wish to intervene in internal disputes. Congresses were held to resolve disputes. At Aix-la-Chapelle, France was admitted to the Quintuple Alliance; the occupation of France ended. Troppau was a response to revolts in Spain, Portugal, Piedmont and Naples. Britain opposed intervention. At Laibach, Austria and Russia were ready to send soldiers against Italian revolts. Britain again opposed intervention. The Greek revolt caused disagreements. Britain (represented by Canning) withdrew at Verona when French troops were used against rebellion in Spain. Only Austria, Prussia and Russia met at St Petersburg (1825), an unsuccessful attempt to resolve their problems. Revolutionary movements Soon after 1815, nationalist movements developed to threaten stability. Metternich was particularly concerned to stabilise the Austrian empire with its many races. The German Diet, encouraged by Metternich, passed the Carlsbad Decrees (1819) to suppress liberal groups. There were more reactionary measures in the 1830s. In Italy, the Risorgimento ('Resurrection') movement developed.

Following the failure of the 1830 revolution to unite Italy, Mazzini founded the 'Young Italy' movement (1831). Belgium became independent (1831) and its neutrality was confirmed (1839). Poland rebelled against Russia (1830 and 1846). Greece won its independence from the Turkish empire in 1830. A revolution against the absolute policies of Charles X of France resulted in his abdication and the monarchy of Louis Philippe. The Eastern Question The Eastern Question was a particularly tangled problem in which the interests of all of the major European powers and the Turkish empire were concerned. It began well before the nineteenth century and continued well into the twentieth century. There is a direct link between the Eastern Question and the troubles in the Balkans which were to cause the First World War. A declining Turkish empire ('the sick man of Europe') controlled much of the Balkans and Middle East. Russia wished to gain direct access to the Mediterranean through the Dardanelles and to protect the rights of Orthodox Christians in the Muslim Turkish empire. Austria had its own empire in the Balkans and did not favour the growth of Russian power.

Britain feared Russian expansion into the Mediterranean and Middle East because of its own interests in the region and in the route to India. France wished to secure the rights to protect Christian holy places in Palestine. After 1815, British and French suspicions of Russia increased. Successive treaties, e.g. the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833) and the Straits Convention (1841), did not resolve the problem. The Crimean War broke out in 1854 with Britain, France and later Piedmont joining the Ottoman empire against Russia. Although Austria opposed Russia, it did not intervene. In the Peace of Paris (1856) Russia surrendered its claims to land and the protectorate of Orthodox Christians, Turkey allowed disputed regions some self-government and the Black Sea was closed to all (particularly Russian) warships. It was an unsuccessful attempt to resolve the Eastern Question. Turkey continued to decline. Russia maintained its ambitions in the region and the peoples of the Balkans sought independence from Turkey. Britain continued to suspect Russian motives. The Crimean War also had important internal effects on countries. Alexander II, the new tsar of Russia, became convinced of the need for reform. Austria was isolated.

Napoleon III of France was encouraged to pursue a bold foreign policy, leading to conflict with Austria and Prussia in 1860s. Piedmont had taken a small, but important, step to the leadership of Italy and completed its unification later. Key events 1814 Downfall of Napoleon. Congress of Vienna 1815 Vienna settlement. Quadruple Alliance. Holy Alliance 1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle 1820 Revolutions in Spain, Naples, Portugal. Congress of Troppau 1821 Revolt in Greece. Congress of Laibach 1822 Congress of Verona 1000+ images about Congress of Vienna on Pinterest | Congress of vienna, Concert of europe and Napoleon Forward The Concert of Europe was formulated in 1815 as a mechanism to enforce the decisions of the Congress of Vienna. Composed of the Quadruple Alliance: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain, its main priorities were to establish a balance of power, thereby preserving the territorial status quo, and to protect "legitimate" governments.

Headed by Prince Metternich, the Concert of Europe was one of the first serious attempts in modern times to establish a society to maintain the peace. See More

Question: In which city was the congress held in 1814-15, which agreed the settlement of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars?
Answer: VIENNA