Homo neanderthalensis – The Neanderthals - Australian Museum Australian Museum About us Homo neanderthalensis – The Neanderthals Neanderthals co-existed with modern humans for long periods of time before eventually becoming extinct about 28,000 years ago. Gibraltar Skull Homo neanderthalensis front Photographer: Carl Bento © Australian Museum Want FREE general admission all year round? The unfortunate stereotype of these people as dim-witted and brutish cavemen still lingers in popular ideology but detailed scientific research has revealed a more accurate picture. Neanderthals were advanced humans, capable of intelligent thought processes and were able to adapt to and survive in some of the harshest environments known to humans. Background on discovery This species lived between 28,000 and 300,000 years ago early Homo neanderthalensis from about 300,000 years ago classic Homo neanderthalensis from about 130,000 years ago late Homo neanderthalensis from about 45,000 years ago.

Important fossil discoveries The first Neanderthal fossil was found in 1829, but it was not recognised as a possible human ancestor until more fossils were discovered during the second half of the 19th century. Since then, thousands of fossils representing the remains of many hundreds of Neanderthal individuals have been recovered from sites across Europe and the Middle East. These include babies, children and adults up to about 40 years of age. As a result, more is known about this human ancestor than about any other. Key specimens: Le Moustier – a 45,000-year-old skull discovered in Le Moustier, France. The distinctive features of Neanderthals are already apparent in this adolescent individual. This shows that these characteristics were genetic and not developed during an individual’s lifetime. Shanidar 1 – upper jaw with teeth. The front teeth of Neanderthals often show heavy wear, a characteristic that is even found in young Neanderthals. It is probable that they used their teeth as a kind of vice to help them hold animal skins or other objects as they worked.

La Ferrassie 1 – a 50,000-year-old skull discovered in 1909 in La Ferrassie, France. This skull of an elderly male has the features associated with ‘classic’ European Neanderthals. Amud 1 – a 45,000-year-old skull discovered in1961 by Hisashi Suzuki in Amud, Israel. This individual was more than 180 centimetres tall and had the largest brain of any fossil human (1740 cubic centimetres). Neanderthals probably migrated to the Middle East during times of harsh European winters. These individuals had less robust features than their European counterparts. Maba – a partial skull classifed as Homo sp. (species uncertain) and discovered in Maba, China. This partial skull, dated to about 120,000 – 140,000 years old, shows remarkable similarities to European Neanderthals and its discovery in southern China suggests the possibility that Neanderthals travelled further east than once thought. More fossil evidence from Asia is needed to understand the significance of this specimen.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints – a 50,000-year-old skull discovered in 1908 in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France. This male individual had lost most of his teeth and his skeleton showed evidence of major injuries and disease including a healed broken hip, and arthritis of the lower neck, back, hip and shoulders. He survived for quite some time with these complaints, which indicates that these people cared for the sick and elderly. Neanderthal 1 – a 45,000-year-old skullcap discovered in 1856 in Feldhofer Grotto, Neander Valley, Germany. This is the ‘type specimen’ or official representative of this species. Kebara 2 – 60,000-year-old partial skeleton discovered in 1983 in Kebara cave, Israel. This relatively complete skeleton belonged to an adult male. It was deliberately buried but as no grave goods were found it is difficult to infer any ritualistic behaviour. Lagar Velho – a 24,000-year-old skeleton of a Homo sapiens boy discovered in 1998 in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, central western Portugal.

This specimen has been described by its discoverers (and particularly Eric Trinkhaus) as a Neanderthal-Homo sapiens hybrid. This interpretation was based on knee and leg proportions but as the head, pelvis and forearms are decidedly human it is more likely that the robustness is a climatic adaptation (see Tattersal and Schwartz). Comparisons to other humans of this period are difficult due to lack of knowledge on variations within child populations. What the name means Homo, is a Latin word meaning ‘human’ or ‘man’. The word neanderthalensis is based on the location where the first major specimen was discovered in 1856 – the Neander Valley in Germany. The German word for valley is ‘Tal’ although in the 1800s it was spelt ‘Thal’. Homo neanderthalensis therefore means ‘Human from the Neander Valley’. Some people refer to this species as the Neandertals (with no 'h') to reflect the modern German spelling rather than the original spelling, Neanderthal, used to define the species. Distribution Remains of this species have been found scattered across Europe and the Middle East.

The eastern-most occurrence of a Neanderthal may be represented by a fossil skull from China known as ‘Maba’. A study published in 2009 confirms the presence of three separate sub-groups of Neanderthals, between which slight differences could be observed, and suggests the existence of a fourth group in western Asia. The study analysed the genetic variability, and modelled different scenarios, based on the genetic structure of the maternally transmitted mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The study was possible thanks to the publication, since 1997, of 15 mtDNA sequences from 12 Neanderthals. According to the study, the size of the Neanderthal population was not constant over time and a certain amount of migration occurred among the sub-groups. Relationships with other species While we are closely related to the Neanderthals, they are not our direct ancestors. Evidence from the fossil record and genetic data shows they are a distinct species that developed as a side branch in our family tree. Some European Homo heidelbergensis fossils were showing early Neanderthal-like features by about 300,000 years ago and it is likely that Neanderthals evolved in Europe from this species.

The name Homo sapiens neanderthalensis was once common when Neanderthals were considered to be members of our own species, Homo sapiens. This view and name are no-longer favoured. Interbreeding with modern humans? Groundbreaking analysis of the Neanderthal genome (nuclear DNA and genes) published in 2010 shows that modern humans and Neanderthals did interbreed, although on a very limited scale. Researchers compared the genomes of five modern humans with the Neanderthal, discovering that Europeans and Asians share about 1-4% of their DNA with Neanderthals and Africans none. This suggests that modern humans bred with Neanderthals after moderns left Africa but before they spread to Asia and Europe. The most likely location is the Levant, where both species co-existed for thousands of years at various times between 50-90,000 years ago. Interestingly, the data doesn't support wide-scale interbreeding between the species in Europe, where it would have been most likely given their close proximity. Researchers are now questioning why interbreeding occurred on such a low scale, given that it was biologically possible. The answer may lie in cultural differences.

Sharing Europe with the Denisovians? Did the Neanderthals also live alongside another human species in Europe? An interesting case making headlines in 2010 was the discovery of a finger bone and tooth from Denisova cave in Russia. The bones were found in 2008 and date to about 30,000-50,000 years old. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was extracted from the remains, and then sequenced. The result was that the mtDNA did not match either modern human or Neanderthal mtDNA. Little else could be gleaned from these studies so scientists started work on extracting nuclear DNA. This produced far more information. The 'Denisovians', as they have been nicknamed, were more closely related to Neanderthals than modern humans. This suggests the Neanderthals and 'Denisovans' shared a common ancestor after modern humans and Neanderthals split. Perhaps this ancestor left Africa half a million years ago with the Neanderthals spreading west to the Near East and Europe while the Denisovans headed east.

However, this does not necessarily mean they are a 'new' species as they may be already known from fossils that have no DNA record to compare, such as Homo heidelbergensis or H. antecessor. (See Nature, December 2010) Key physical features Neanderthals are recognisably human but have distinctive facial features and a stocky build that were evolutionary adaptations to cold, dry environments. Body size and shape Neanderthals were generally shorter and had more robust skeletons and muscular bodies than modern humans males averaged about 168 centimetres in height while females were slightly shorter at 156 centimetres. Brain brain size was larger than the average modern human brain and averaged 1500 cubic centimetres. This is expected, as Neanderthals were generally heavier and more muscular than modern humans. People that live in cold climates also tend to have larger brains than those living in warm climates.

Skull distinctive skull shape that was long and low, with a rounded brain case back of the skull had a bulge called the occipital bun and a depression (the suprainiac fossa) for the attachment of strong neck muscles thick but rounded brow ridge lay under a relatively flat and receding forehead mid-face region showed a characteristic forward projection (this resulted in a face that looked like it had been ‘pulled’ forward by the nose) orbits (eye sockets) were large and rounded nose was broad and very large Jaws and teeth jaws were larger and more robust than those of modern humans and had a gap called the retromolar space, behind the third molars (wisdom teeth) at the back of the jaw. jaw lacked the projecting bony chin that is found in Homo sapiens. teeth were larger than those of modern humans. Limbs and pelvis limb bones were thick and had large joints which indicates they had strongly muscled arms and legs shin bones and forearms tended to be shorter than those of modern humans. These proportions are typical for people living in cold climates.

pelvis was wider from side to side than in modern humans and this may have slightly affected their posture DNA and biomolecular studies Neanderthals are our only ancestors to have had studies performed on their DNA and other biomolecules. Although numerous studies have been undertaken since the first was published in 1997 (on mitochondrial DNA), the most significant is the publication in 2009 of the rough draft of the Neanderthal genome. Other key findings on from a variety of studies include the discovery of: a gene for red hair and fair skin (2007): the FOXP2 gene, related to language ability, that was the same as modern humans; type O blood in two males from Spain (2008) Lifestyle Culture Evidence shows that Neanderthals had a complex culture although they did not behave in the same ways as the early modern humans who lived at the same time. Scholars debate the degree of symbolic behaviour shown by Neanderthals as finds of art and adornment are rare, particularly when compared to their modern human contemporaries who were creating significant amounts of cave paintings, portable art and jewellery.

Some researchers believe they lacked the cognitive skills to create art and symbols and, in fact, copied from or traded with modern humans rather than create their own artefacts. However, others suggest the scarcity may have been due to social and demographic factors. Tools The Neanderthals had a reasonably advanced tool kit classified as Mode 3 technology that was also used by early members of our own species, Homo sapiens. This was also known as the Mousterian, named after the site of Le Moustier. At the end of their long history in Europe, they began manufacturing a more refined toolkit (known as the Chatelperronian), similar to the blade tools of Homo sapiens. This occurred at about the same time as modern humans entered Europe. Many archaeologists think that the Neanderthals were attempting to copy the types of tools that they observed modern humans making. Alternatively, they may have obtained these tools by trading with the modern humans. Fire, shelter and clothing The Neanderthals built hearths and were able to control fire for warmth, cooking and protection. They were known to wear animal hides, especially in cooler areas.

However, there is no physical evidence that Neanderthal clothing was sewed together, and it may have simply been wrapped around the body and tied. Caves were often used as shelters but open air shelters were also constructed. Art and decoration Neanderthals left behind no known symbolic art and only limited evidence for body decoration. One of few decorative items found at a Neanderthal site is a pendant from Arcy-sur-Cure in France, found amongst bone tools and other artefacts that were attributed to a culture known as Chatelperronian (which most researchers consider Neanderthal). However, redating of the site's layers in 2010 suggest contamination occurred between layers and that the artefact may have been made by modern humans, as they also occupied this site in later times. There is only one other undisputed Chatelperronian site that has yielded personal ornaments, and even these may have been obtained by trade with modern humans (Homo sapiens), or been made in imitation of artefacts made by modern humans. In 2010 researchers uncovered artefacts at two sites in Spain - Anton rock shelter and Aviones cave - that provide indirect evidence of symbolic art.

The former held naturally-perforated scallop shells painted with orange pigments and the latter a cockleshell that may have been used as a paint container as it had residue of red and black pigments. The Avione finds date to between 45-50,000 years ago, which is before modern humans arrived in Europe so could not have been copied from them. Burials The dead were often buried, although there is no conclusive evidence for any ritualistic behaviour. However, at some sites, objects have been uncovered that may represent grave goods. Environment and diet This species occupied a range of environments across Europe and the Middle East and lived through a period of changing climatic conditions. Ice Ages in Europe were interspersed with warmer periods but by 110,000 years ago average temperatures were on the decline and full glacial conditions had appeared by 40,000 years ago. There is evidence that the Neanderthals hunted big game and chemical analysis of their fossils shows that they ate significant amounts of meat supplemented with vegetation. Despite this mixed diet, nearly half of the Neanderthal skeletons studied show the effects of a diet deficient in nutrients.

Researchers have long debated whether Neanderthals also included human meat in their diets. It is not always easy to determine if cut marks on human bones are due to cannabilism, some other practice or even animal teeth, but in recent years new evidence has emerged that suggests some Neanderthals may indeed have been cannibals on occasions. At the site of Krapina Cave in Croatia, over 800 Neanderthal bones show evidence of cut marks and hammerstone fragments. The marrow-rich bones are missing and the marrow-poor bones are all in tact. Some argue that the evidence is inconclusive as the fragmentation of bones may have been caused by cave-ins and the bone cuts are different to the marks seen on reindeer bones. They claim the cut marks could be from secondary burial practises. Bones from Abri Moula in France show cut marks typical of butchery rather than simple ritual defleshing. The marks were also like those on the bones of roe deer, assumed to be food, found in the same shelter.

The cave of El Sidron in Spain yielded hundreds of Neanderthal bones with cut marks, deliberate breaks for marrow extraction, and other signs that the bodies had been butchered for flesh in the same way as animals. What happened to the Neanderthals? Neanderthals persisted for hundreds of thousands of years in extremely harsh conditions. They shared Europe for 10,000 years with Homo sapiens. Today they no longer exist. Beyond these facts the fate of Neanderthals has generated much debate. Two main theories Theory 1: They interbred with Homo sapiens sapiens on a relatively large scale. Followers of this theory believe that although Neanderthals as organisms no longer exist their genes were present in early modern Europeans and may still exist today. Interbreeding diluted Neanderthal DNA because there were significantly more Homo sapiens sapiens. Neanderthals were a sub-species of Homo sapiens rather than a separate species and hence their scientific name is Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. Proponents of this theory cite the following as evidence: there are features of Neanderthals in some Cro-Magnon (Homo sapiens) populations.

For instance the discoverers of the 24,000-year-old skeleton of a modern human boy from Lagar Velho in Portugal, argue that although the pelvis and facial morphology are sapien-like, the robusticity and limb proportions are more Neanderthal-like. As the age of the skeleton is later than the time of the last known Neanderthal, these features must represent significant interbreeding and transmission of DNA between modern humans and Neanderthals. Cro-magnon remains from Vogelherd in Germany and Mladec in the Czech Republic also exhibit a Neanderthal-like projection of the occipital bun at the back of the skull, more so than in later Homo sapiens. there are modern features in later Neanderthal populations. The Vindija Neanderthals look more modern than do other Neanderthals, which suggests that they may have interbred with incoming Homo sapiens. there are features of Neanderthals in modern Europeans. Some Europeans living today have a similar shaped mandibular foramen (nerve canal in lower jaw) to the Neanderthals and the distinct retromolar gap (typical of Neanderthals) appears in isolated modern European populations.

Theory 2: They were essentially replaced by Homo sapiens. In this case, Neanderthals are a separate species from Homo sapiens. This model does allow for peripheral interbreeding but no significant genetic input from Neanderthals to modern Europeans. Proponents of this theory cite the following as evidence: studies of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (first extracted in 1997) show that it lies outside the range of modern human mtDNA. Neanderthal mtDNA is four times older than that of Homo sapiens, hence scientists postulate a Neanderthal split from the line leading to modern humans about 500-600,000 years ago. The studies also reveal that Neanderthal mtDNA is no closer to modern European mtDNA than moderns from any other part of the world. analysis of the draft Neanderthal genome (the nuclear DNA and genes), released in 2010, shows that modern human and Neanderthal lineages began to diverge about 600,000 years ago. It also indicates that there was small-scale interbreeding as non-Africans derive about 1-4% of their DNA from Neanderthals.

These results challenge the simplest version of 'Out of Africa' (which claims no interbreeding in its model for modern human origins) but do support the view that the vast majority of genes of non-Africans came with the spread of modern humans that originated in Africa. studies of the facial growth patterns of young Neanderthals show they developed in distinct ways to Homo sapiens. The differences are therefore deeply genetic, contradicting the evidence of the Lagar Velho boy. The distinctive features include brow ridges, chins, forehead and facial protrusion. Why did they become extinct? Various reasons have been proposed for the ‘replacement’ of Neanderthals by modern humans. Today, most theories accept that Neanderthals displayed advanced behaviours and adaptive strategies and were not sluggish brutes that stood no chance against the vastly superior Homo sapiens. However,the incoming Homo sapiens were doing something that was different enough, and just that little bit more superior, to give them an edge under the circumstances. Exactly what was 'a little bit more superior' is debated. Of particular interest are a number of new studies that focus on the role of climate change and the subtle differences that behaviour and biology play in these conditions.

Perhaps their extinction was a combination of two or more of the following factors: Biological Neanderthal reproductive success and survival rates appear poor compared to Homo sapiens. Most Neanderthal remains are of individuals rarely over 30 years old and over half are children. Slightly better rates of reproductive success and childhood survival over 10,000 years could be all it took for Homo sapiens to replace Neanderthals. Neanderthal metabolic rates appeared to be much higher than modern humans so would have required more food to survive. In situations of plenty this would make little difference, but in severe winters or unstable climatic conditions (see below), the dwindling resources would put pressure on populations that needed large amounts of energy from food. Claims that Neanderthals could not run as well as modern humans over long distances is supported by evidence from Neanderthal ankles. Their heal bones are longer than modern humans', resulting in a longer Achilles tendon. Shorter Achilles, as in modern humans, store more energy so are more efficient for running. Neanderthals generally didn't need to be good long-distance runners as they hunted in cooler regions using ambush tactics, but when conditions changed this could prove a huge disadvantage.

Evidence suggests this happened 50,000 years ago as much of northern Europe changed from forest to tundra due to advancing ice sheets. Neanderthals were forced into isolated forest refuges in southern areas while modern humans adapted to hunting on the increasingly widespread tundra. Social and behavioural Neanderthal culture lacks the depth of symbolic and progressive thought displayed by modern humans and this may have made competing difficult. Neanderthal culture remained relatively static whereas the contemporary Homo sapiens were steadily evolving a complex culture. By the time Homo sapiens arrived in Europe 40,000 years ago they had a highly developed cultural system. This is despite the fact that 100,000 years ago there is relatively no cultural difference between either species in the archaeological record. Neanderthals may have had limited speech and language capabilities compared to Homo sapiens and the extent of the differences may have played a role in their extinction. For instance, studies of the base of the skull suggest limited Neanderthal repertoire and the position of the tongue in the mouth and larynx is also different from Homo sapiens. (This is a highly contentious theory with scientists on both sides strongly arguing for or against).

Neanderthals may have lacked the adaptive nature of modern humans who had complex social networks across wide areas. Smaller populations of Neanderthals that tended to stay in limited areas may have made them vulnerable to local extinctions. The survival techniques of Neanderthals were not as developed as Homo sapiens. For instance, studies on stress and build-up of tissue in Neanderthal bones indicate they may have lacked systematic and directional planning in procuring food. This Neanderthal predominance of ‘brawn over brain’ may also be reflected in the number of skeletal injuries seen in both sexes, probably from close range hunting. Other studies show that 40% of Neanderthal remains have hypoplasia, a condition caused by lack of nutrients in early childhood. This is supported by tests on Neanderthal bone collagen which indicate that meat was very significant in Neanderthal diets to the point that they may be lacking the nutrients from other sources used by Homo sapiens, especially fresh water products and vegetable matter. Neanderthals may not have used their brains they way modern humans do as their brains were shaped differently - modern human brains have expanded parietal and cerebellar regions.

These regions develop in the first year of life (Neanderthal infants appear to miss this stage of development) and are linked to key functions like the ability to integrate sensory information and form abstract representations of surroundings. Possible violent interactions with modern humans. Environment or climate New data on the glacial period that occurred from about 65,000 to 25,000 years ago (known as OIS-3) shows that it was a period of rapid, severe and abrupt climate changes with profound environmental impacts. Although Neanderthals were physically adapted to the cold, the severe changes in conditions (within individuals' lifetimes in many cases) allowed no time for populations to recover. Even small advantages in biology, behaviour or lifestyle, such as those mentioned above, would mean the difference between life and death. The archaeological record indicates that modern humans had a wider range of adaptations which would have helped in survival. There is another angle to the climate change theory. Evidence based on extensive surveys of sites in Europe suggests that Neanderthal replacement was not due to direct competition with modern humans.

Instead, evidence suggests that the severe conditions made the continent inhospitable for all humans living in Europe - and all populations died out about 30-28,000 years ago. However, there were other modern human populations living in Africa that were able to recolonise Europe at a later date. As there were no Neanderthal populations elsewhere, they became extinct. Fran Dorey , Exhibition Project Coordinator Last Updated: Homo neanderthalensis | The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program Where Lived: Europe and southwestern to central Asia When Lived: About 400,000 - 40,000 years ago Neanderthals (the ‘th’ pronounced as ‘t’) are our closest extinct human relative. Some defining features of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air. Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, another adaptation to living in cold environments. But their brains were just as large as ours and often larger - proportional to their brawnier bodies.

Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior. DNA has been recovered from more than a dozen Neanderthal fossils, all from Europe; the Neanderthal Genome Project is one of the exciting new areas of human origins research. Year of Discovery: 1829 History of Discovery: Neanderthal 1 was the first specimen to be recognized as an early human fossil. When it was discovered in 1856 in Germany, scientists had never seen a specimen like it: the oval shaped skull with a low, receding forehead and distinct browridges, the thick, strong bones. In 1864, it became the first fossil hominin species to be named.

Geologist William King suggested the name Homo neanderthalensis (Johanson and Edgar, 2006), after these fossils found in the Feldhofer Cave of the Neander Valley in Germany (tal—a modern form of thal—means “valley” in German). Several years after Neanderthal 1 was discovered, scientists realized that prior fossil discoveries—in 1829 at Engis, Belgium, and in 1848 at Forbes Quarry, Gibraltar—were also Neanderthals. Even though they weren’t recognized at the time, these two earlier discoveries were actually the first early human fossils ever found. Height: Males: average 5 ft 5 in (164 cm); Females: average 5 ft 1 in (155 cm) Weight: Males: average 143 lbs (65 kg); Females: average 119 lbs (54 kg) We don’t know everything about our early ancestors. But scientists are constantly in the field and the laboratory, excavating new areas and conducting analyses with groundbreaking technology, continually filling in some of the gaps about our understanding of human evolution. Below are some of the still unanswered questions about H.

neanderthalensis that may be better answered with future discoveries: Will more studies of Neanderthal DNA help us identify what is unique about the modern human genome compared with our closest extinct relatives, the Neanderthals? Is there a close correlation between climate change and the extinction of the Neanderthals, or was competition with modern humans the most important factor? What was the relative contribution of animal and plant sources to the average Neanderthal's diet? Were Neanderthals routinely symbolic (e.g. making ornamental or decorative objects, burying the dead), or did this just occur in specific populations? If the latter is the case, why did those populations exhibit these behaviors? What was the relationship between Neanderthals and the "Denisovans", a population of early humans known mainly from DNA, which overlapped with Neanderthals in time and space in Asia? First paper: King, W., 1864. The reputed fossil man of the Neanderthal. Quarterly Review of Science 1, 88-97. Other recommended readings: Trinkhaus, E., 1985. Pathology and the posture of the La Chappelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 67, 19-41. Trinkaus, E., Shipman, P., 1993. The Neanderthals: Changing the Image of Mankind. Knopf: New York. Berger, T., Trinkaus, E., 1995. Patterns of trauma among the Neandertals. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 841-852. Schmitt, D., Churchill, S., 2003. Experimental evidence concerning spear use in Neandertals and early modern humans. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 103-114. Delson, E., Harvati, K., 2006. Return of the last Neanderthal. Nature 443, 762-763.

Lalueza-Fox, C., Römpler, H., Caramelli, D., Stäubert, C., Catalano, G., Hughes, D., Rohland, N., Pilli, E., Longo, L., Condemi, S., de la Rasilla, M., Fortea, J., Rosas, A., Stoneking, M., Schöneberg, T., Bertranpetit, J., Hofreiter, M., 2007. A Melanocortin 1 Receptor Allele Suggests Varying Pigmentation Among Neanderthals. Science 318, 1453-1455. Stringer, C.B., Finlayson, J.C., Barton, R.N.E, Fernández-Jalvo, Y., Cáceres, I., Sabin, R.C., Rhodes, E.J., Currant, A.P., Rodríguez-Vidal, J., Giles-Pacheco, F., Riquelme-Cantal, J.A., 2008. Neanderthal exploitation of marine mammals in Gibraltar.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105, 14319–14324. Shipman, P., 2008. Separating "us" from "them": Neanderthal and modern human behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105, 14241-14242. How They Survived: Compared to early humans living in tropical Africa, with more abundant edible plant foods available year-round, the number of plant foods Neanderthals could eat would have dropped significantly during the winter of colder climates, forcing Neanderthals to exploit other food options like meat more heavily. There is evidence that Neanderthals were specialized seasonal hunters, eating animals were available at the time (i.e. reindeer in the winter and red deer in the summer). Scientists have clear evidence of Neanderthal hunting from uncovering sharp wooden spears and large numbers of big game animal remains were hunted and butchered by Neanderthals. There is also evidence from Gibraltar that when they lived in coastal areas, they exploited marine resources such as mollusks, seals, dolphins and fish.

Isotopic chemical analyses of Neanderthal bones also tell scientists the average Neanderthal’s diet consisted of a lot of meat. Scientists have also found plaque on the remains of molar teeth containing starch grains—concrete evidence that Neanderthals ate plants. The Mousterian stone tool industry of Neanderthals is characterized by sophisticated flake tools that were detached from a prepared stone core. This innovative technique allowed flakes of predetermined shape to be removed and fashioned into tools from a single suitable stone. This technology differs from earlier ‘core tool’ traditions, such as the Acheulean tradition of Homo erectus. Acheulean tools worked from a suitable stone that was chipped down to tool form by the removal of flakes off the surface. Neanderthals used tools for activities like hunting and sewing. Left-right arm asymmetry indicates that they hunted with thrusting (rather than throwing) spears that allowed them to kill large animals from a safe distance. Neanderthal bones have a high frequency of fractures, which (along with their distribution) are similar to injuries among professional rodeo riders who regularly interact with large, dangerous animals.

Scientists have also recovered scrapers and awls (larger stone or bone versions of the sewing needle that modern humans use today) associated with animal bones at Neanderthal sites. A Neanderthal would probably have used a scraper to first clean the animal hide, and then used an awl to poke holes in it, and finally use strips of animal tissue to lace together a loose-fitting garment. Neanderthals were the first early humans to wear clothing, but it is only with modern humans that scientists find evidence of the manufacture and use of bone sewing needles to sew together tighter fitting clothing. Neanderthals also controlled fire, lived in shelters, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior. This may be one of the reasons that the Neanderthal fossil record is so rich compared to some earlier human species; being buried greatly increases the chance of becoming a fossil!

Evolutionary Tree Information: Both fossil and genetic evidence indicate that Neanderthals and modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved from a common ancestor between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans belong to the same genus (Homo) and inhabited the same geographic areas in Asia for 30,000–50,000 years; genetic evidence indicate while they may have interbred with non-African modern humans, they are separate branches of the human family tree (separate species). In fact, Neanderthals and modern humans may have had little direct interaction for tens of thousands of years until during one very cold period, modern humans spread across Europe. Their presence may have prevented Neanderthals from expanding back into areas they once favored and served as a catalyst for the Neanderthal’s impending extinction. Over just a few thousand years after modern humans moved into Europe, Neanderthal numbers dwindled to the point of extinction. All traces of Neanderthals disappeared by about 40,000 years ago.

The most recently dated Neanderthal fossils come from western Europe, which was likely where the last population of this early human species existed. At least 20% of Neanderthal DNA Is in Humans At least 20% of Neanderthal DNA Is in Humans By Charles Q. Choi, Live Science Contributor | January 29, 2014 01:04pm ET MORE A girl goes nose-to-nose with a Neanderthal statue in Germany. Ancient DNA research is increasingly revealing the genetic links between modern humans and our extinct ancestors, including Neanderthals and the mysterious Denisovans. Credit: Neanderthal Museum (Mettmann, Germany) At least one-fifth of the Neanderthal genome may lurk within modern humans, influencing the skin, hair and diseases people have today, researchers say. Although modern humans are the only surviving human lineage, other groups of early humans used to live on Earth. The closest extinct relatives of modern humans were the Neanderthals , who lived in Europe and Asia until they went extinct about 40,000 years ago .

The ancestors of modern humans diverged from those of Neanderthals between 550,000 and 765,000 years ago. Recent findings revealed that Neanderthals interbred with ancestors of modern humans when modern humans began spreading out of Africa perhaps about 40,000 to 80,000 years ago, although some research suggests the migration began earlier . About 1.5 to 2.1 percent of the DNA of anyone outside Africa is Neanderthal in origin. However, scientists reasoned that the Neanderthal DNA found in one person might not be the same Neanderthal DNA of someone else. [ See Photos of Our Closest Human Ancestor ] The toe bone of a Neanderthal woman was uncovered in the Denisova Cave (shown here) in southern Siberia, the same place where the first signs of the Denisovans, a relatively newfound human lineage, were found. Credit: Bence Viola "If you are 2 percent Neanderthal and I'm 2 percent Neanderthal, we might not have the same Neanderthal DNA between us," said study lead author Benjamin Vernot, a population geneticist at the University of Washington in Seattle.

"We might have inherited different portions of the Neanderthal genome. This logic suggested a significant portion of the Neanderthal genome might survive within the genomes of present-day humans. Past calculations suggested that anywhere from 35 to 70 percent of the Neanderthal genome could exist in modern people. Hidden Neanderthal genes To find out just how much of the Neanderthal genome might hide within modern humans, Vernot and his colleague Joshua Akey analyzed the genomes of 379 European and 286 East Asian individuals. This involved identifying the DNA that didn't look modern human, and determining when that DNA was introduced into the genome. To see if any DNA in these genomes was not characteristic of modern humans, the researchers focused on the mutations within it. After lineages split as the ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals did, the more time these groups diverge, the more likely they will accumulate different mutations that set these lineages apart. Therefore, the scientists concentrated on sections of people's DNA whose mutations looked significantly different from their counterparts in other people, suggesting this DNA came from a very divergent lineage. To find out when this DNA was introduced, the researchers focused on the length of various sections of DNA.

When people have offspring, the chromosomes (packets that hold the cells' DNA) that get passed down are broken, mixed and reattached beforehand, meaning each child is a blend of their parents. With every generation, DNA gets broken into shorter and shorter fragments. By studying the length of a DNA section, the investigators could deduce approximately when it made its way into the modern human genome. [ Unraveling the Human Genome: 6 Molecular Milestones ] Researchers have completed the first high-quality sequence of a Neanderthal genome, using a sample from the toe bone of a Neanderthal woman. Credit: Bence Viola The scientists focused on DNA that was not characteristic of modern humans and that apparently entered modern-human genomes about 50,000 years ago, when ancestors of modern humans are suspected to have mated with Neanderthals. They also compared this DNA with that found in Neanderthal fossils to confirm that it looked Neanderthal. The researchers discovered that about 20 percent of the Neanderthal genome could be found in modern humans.

Although the majority of genes inherited from Neanderthals apparently do not do anything remarkably different from their modern-human counterparts, "some of the genes are beneficial," said Vernot, who, along with Akey, detailed these findings online Jan. 29 in the journal Science. For instance, they found "evidence that both Europeans and East Asians have inherited genes having something to do with the skin," Vernot told LiveScience. "That makes sense — skin is an important organ, protecting against pathogens, protecting against ultraviolet light." An independent team involving evolutionary geneticist David Reich at Harvard Medical School and his colleagues found mutations inherited from Neanderthals were most often in genes related to keratin, a component of skin and hair. These genetic changes may have helped modern humans adapt to chillier environments outside Africa. "It's always really nice to get independent confirmation of your findings," Vernot said. Lots of mating? Both research groups also found that some regions of the modern-human genome are devoid of Neanderthal DNA , including areas involving the testes and the X chromosome. This suggests certain Neanderthal mutations were incompatible with modern humans and were removed during evolution, perhaps because they reduced fertility, both research teams said.

Reich's group also identified Neanderthal-linked gene variants associated with the risk of diseases such as lupus, Type 2 diabetes and Crohn's disease (a chronic inflammatory bowel disease). Although 20 percent might sound like a lot of mingling happened between Neanderthals and the ancestors of modern humans, it could have resulted from as few as 300 mating events, Vernot said. The research team's computer simulations of modern-human intermingling with Neanderthals suggest about 40 percent of the Neanderthal genome may actually survive within modern human genomes. "We just identified 20 percent is all," Vernot said. To identify the other 20 percent or so of Neanderthal genome hidden within modern humans, the scientists estimate they would need about 1,000 individuals from any given modern-human population — for instance, Europeans — to find nearly all the Neanderthal DNA present there. However, identifying Neanderthal DNA will be challenging. "Because we're so similar to Neanderthals, there could be many, many regions that are virtually identical, with no differences that we can tell apart," Vernot said.

The method the scientists used to identify Neanderthal DNA could also be used to discover the DNA of previously unknown relatives with whom the ancestors of modern humans may also have interbred. This strategy could even work without DNA from fossils of such previously unknown human lineages as a reference point, although having such fossil DNA would make this research significantly more accurate, Vernot said. Follow LiveScience @livescience , Facebook & Google+ . Original article on LiveScience . Editor's Recommendations The Neandertal – Experience History and Nature | neanderland Booking Neandertal The Neandertal is probably one of the most well-known places in the world and therefore a destination that attracts a lot of visitors. Apart from the Neanderthal man who was found 160 years ago the valley is a place of excursions for nature-lovers and hikers alike. The Neanderthal Museum, the place of discovery and the ice-age game reserve near the river Düssel are suitable for a full-day excursion.

Place of Discovery of the Neanderthal man (Erkrath), © Stiftung Neanderthal Museum Where Neanderthal man was at home The Neandertal, named after the theologian and composer of hymns Joachim Neander, has been a tourist attraction for centuries. The ‘Gesteins’, as the valley of the little stream Düssel between Mettmann and Erkrath was also called, was in Neander’s times a narrow, deep gorge. In the 17th century he held church services and composed hymns in front of this impressive natural setting. The excavation of limestone that began in the 19th century with the onset of industrialisation changed the aspect of the valley for good, but also led to its becoming world-famous. In the process of excavation works in the caves in 1856, parts of a human skeleton were found which were later on identified as early hominid remains. Ever since then the term ‘Neanderthal man’ is known worldwide. Today the Neandertal with its numerous attractions and its excellent infrastructure is a popular destination for visitors from near and far. Moreover, the Neandertal is Germany’s oldest nature reserve.

Back then there were waterfalls, caves, cliffs and ample forests. After the excavation of limestone the valley has developed in harmony with nature. Beech groves and hornbeams grow at the valleys’ slopes and in the stone pits. INFO: How much Neanderthal DNA do you have? Lots | Fox News How much Neanderthal DNA do you have? Lots Published January 29, 2014 A reconstructed Neanderthal skeleton, right, and a modern human version of a skeleton, left, on display at the Museum of Natural History in New York. (AP Photo/Frank Franklin II) A replica of a Neanderthal man at the Neanderthal museum in Mettmann, western Germany. (AP Photo/Heinz Ducklau) Previous Next WASHINGTON – Next time you call someone a Neanderthal, better look in a mirror. Many of the genes that help determine most people's skin and hair are more Neanderthal than not, according to two new studies that look at the DNA fossils hidden in the modern human genome.

About 50,000 years ago, modern day humans migrated out of Africa north to Europe and East Asia and met up with furrow-browed Neanderthals that had been in the colder climates for more than 100,000 years. Some of the two species mated. And then the Neanderthals died off as a species — except for what's left inside of us. Scientists isolated the parts of the non-African modern human genetic blueprint that still contain Neanderthal remnants. Overall, it's barely more than 1 percent, said two studies released Wednesday in the journals Nature and Science. However, in some places, such as the DNA related to the skin, the genetic instructions are as much as 70 percent Neanderthal and in other places there's virtually nothing from the species that's often portrayed as brutish cavemen. More On This... Who was 'Adam'? Genetic 'man'-hunt catches eye of Vatican scientists [pullquote] The difference between where Neanderthal DNA is plentiful and where it's absent may help scientists understand what in our genome "makes humans human," said University of Washington genome scientist Joshua Akey, lead author of the paper in Science.

Harvard researcher Sriram Sankararaman, the lead author of the Nature study, said the place where Neanderthal DNA seemed to have the most influence in the modern human genome has to do with skin and hair. Akey said those instructions are as much as 70 percent Neanderthal. "We're more Neanderthal than not in those genes," Akey said. However, Sankararaman cautions that scientists don't yet know just what the Neanderthal DNA dictates in our skin and hair. Sarah Tishkoff, a professor of genetics and biology at the University of Pennsylvania who was not part of either study, theorized that the Neanderthal DNA probably helped the darker humans out of Africa cope with the cooler less bright north. Living in the cooler Europe means less ultraviolet light and less vitamin D from the sun. Darker skin blocks more of those needed rays, so lighter skin is more advantageous in the north and it seems that humans adopted that Neanderthal adaptation, she said. Another area where we have more Neanderthal DNA is parts of genetic codes that have to do with certain immune system functions, Sankararaman said.

Again, scientists can't say more than that these Neanderthal genes seem connected to certain diseases, such as type 2 diabetes and Crohn's disease and lupus, but they are there. Tiskhoff and Akey said one of the most interesting parts in comparing human and Neanderthal genomes is where we don't see any caveman influence. That, Tiskhoff said, is "what makes us uniquely human" and those regions of genetic code "you just can't mess with." One of those areas has been heavily connected to genes that determine speech and communication and there's nothing Neanderthal there, Akey said. This fits with theories that lack of communication skills hurt Neanderthal and speech ability was a distinctly human advantage, he said. And the study in Nature found something that may help explain why the brutish and virile cavemen haven't influenced humans much: They may have made babies, but the male hybrids of Neanderthals and humans weren't very fertile. Scientists figured that out because the genes associated with the testicles in humans and the X chromosome were unusually empty of Neanderthal influence.

While Neanderthal males themselves were likely good at breeding, their half-human sons weren't and "they must have been disappointed in their sons," said Nature co-author Svante Paabo of the Max Planck Institute in Germany. The Nature paper found that people of more East Asian descent had slightly more Neanderthal than Europeans, indicating that there may have been a second wave of interbreeding in Asia, researchers said. Three outside scientists praised the two studies, which used different techniques to reach similar conclusions. And those conclusions were so close to each other and standard evolution theory that it all fits together in a scary way for scientists used to findings that surprise, said New York University anthropology professor Todd Disotell.

Disotell recently had his genome tested by a private company and found he's got more Neanderthal DNA than most people, about 2.9 percent: "I'm quite proud of that." ___ The original Neanderthal skeleton from the Neander Valley Mousterian (Neanderthal) Sites The original Neanderthal skeleton from the Neander Valley The original Neanderthal skeleton from the Neander Valley, the type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones from the right arm, two from the left arm, part of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered this material originally thought it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Carl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaaffhausen. The discovery was jointly announced in 1857. The original Neanderthal discovery is now considered the beginning of paleoanthropology. These and other discoveries led to the idea these remains were from ancient Europeans who had played an important role in modern human origins. The bones of over 400 Neanderthals have been found since.

Text above adapted from Wikipedia. These are the bones of the original Neandertal from the Neander Valley. Photo: Michael Hess The museum has produced an excellent display of these most important discoveries. Photo: Michael Hess This version shows the partial skeleton superimposed over a drawing of the complete skeleton. Photo: G. Oleschinski This is a reconstruction of the 1856 discovery of the Neanderthal. It is a superb recreation from Kennis & Kennis Reconstructions, see Photo: © Neanderthal Museum/H. Neumann Source: Permission: by kind permission of Dr. Bärbel Auffermann, Deputy Director of the Museum, and in charge of Exhibition Management, Press and Public Relations. Stream in the Neander Valley. Photo: March 18, 2006, Cordula, Cordula's Web. Permission: Creative Commons Attribution Share-alike 2.5 Generic licence. Location map. Photo: Google Maps Here we see the skeleton laid out with the bones in the correct relation to each other, with red triangles indicating the extra bones found in the relatively recent excavations of 1997-2000, a wonderful addition to the specimen. Photo: Anon.

Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. It is most unusual to see the complete skeleton laid out in this way. Most textbooks show an overhead shot of the cranium only. The red arrows point to recently discovered bones found during the 1997-2000 excavations at the original site, and belonging to the Neanderthal skeleton discovered in 1856. Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. One of the distinguishing features of a Neanderthal skull is the prominent brow ridge, very evident in these photographs. Here we can also see the right clavicle or collar bone, displaying the double curvature characteristic of Western Neanderthals (Condemi, 2006) , which is also characteristic of anatomically modern humans. These curvatures are associated with shoulder architecture. (Voisin 2004, Voisin 2006a, Voisin 2006b) Photo: Anon.

Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. Here we can see clearly the characteristic occipital bun of the Neanderthals. Occipital bun is a morphological term used to describe a prominent bulge, or projection, of the occipital bone at the back of the skull. The term is most often used in connection with scientific descriptions of classic Neanderthal crania. While common among many of mankind's ancestors, primarily robust relatives rather than gracile, the protrusion is relatively rare in modern Homo sapiens. Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. Text: Adapted from Wikipedia Another superb version of the original Neanderthal, possibly by Élisabeth Daynès. Photo: Michael Hess Source: LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. This diagram shows the important parts of the skull of a typical Neanderthal, including the occipital bun. Some scientists suspect occipital buns might correlate with the biomechanics of running.

Another theory attributes them to enlargement of the cerebellum, a region of the brain which mediates the timing of motor actions and spatial reasoning. There are still many human populations which often exhibit occipital buns. A greater proportion of early modern Europeans had them, but prominent occipital buns even among Europeans are now relatively infrequent. They are still found fairly often among Basque, Sami and Finn individuals. Bushmen from South Africa and Australian aborigines often have occipital buns also. Photo: Wikimedia Commons Permission: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic licence. Text: Adapted from Wikipedia Other defining characteristics of Neanderthals are shown here: Großes Schultergelenk - Large shoulder joint Großes Ellenbogengelenk - Big elbow Kurze Unterarmknochen - Short forearm bones Breite Hüften - Wide hips Großes, nach außen gedrehtes Hüftgelenk - Large hip rotated towards the outside. Kräftige Hände mit robusten Fingern und breiten Fingerkuppen - Strong hands with robust fingers and broad fingertips Gebogene Oberschenkelknochen - Curved femur.

Source: Display at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. This is a delightful photograph from the Neanderthal Museum in Mettmann, Germany. Photo: © Neanderthal Museum/H. Neumann Source: Permission: by kind permission of Dr. Bärbel Auffermann, Deputy Director of the Museum, and in charge of Exhibition Management, Press and Public Relations. The skeleton lacks the skull below the eye sockets, as well as the jaw. I find this strange, as jaws, and especially teeth, are often very well preserved in cases of this type. Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. The original set of bones discovered in 1856. Photo: © Neanderthal Museum/S. Pietrek Source: Permission: by kind permission of Dr. Bärbel Auffermann, Deputy Director of the Museum, and in charge of Exhibition Management, Press and Public Relations. Various views of the skull and nearby bones from above. Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn.

The occipital bone joins the parietal bones along the lambdoidal suture. It forms the back of the skull and the base of the cranium. The lambdoidal suture, outlining the occipital bun is particularly obvious in this photograph of the back of the skull. Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. (left) This diagram shows the lambdoidal suture and the occipital bone clearly, viewed from the rear. (right) The capital and lower case forms of the Greek letter Lambda, which inspired the name of the lambdoidal suture - alone it is the upper case Lambda, and in combination with the sagittal suture forms the lower case lambda. Photo: This photo shows, to the left of the photo, the top of the right femur, with its ball joint which would have fitted into a socket in the pelvis. Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. The left femur, with part of the socket into which it fits in the hip.

The red triangles point to extra bones from the left hand of the original specimen which were found recently in the 1997 - 2000 excavations in the original site in the Neander Valley. It must have been exciting for the discoverers to find so many extra bones from possibly the most important skeleton in the history of anthropology! Photo: Anon. Source: Original bones of the type specimen of Homo neanderthalensis, displayed at LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn. Lower jaw of Homo heidelbergensis, facsimile. This is the presumed ancestor of both Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis, and is the type specimen for Homo heidelbergensis. It was found at Mauer, Rhein-Neckar-Kreis. Ca 600 000 BP. The first fossil discovery of this species was made on October 21, 1907, and came from Mauer where the workman Daniel Hartmann spotted the jaw shown here in a sandpit. The jaw (Mauer 1) was in good condition except for the missing premolar teeth, which were eventually found near the jaw.

The workman gave it to Professor Otto Schoetensack from the University of Heidelberg, who identified and named the fossil. The next Homo heidelbergensis remains were found in Steinheim an der Murr, Germany (the Steinheim Skull, 350 000 BP); Arago, France (Arago 21); Petralona, Greece; and Ciampate del Diavolo, Italy. Photo: R, 2012 Source: Museum of Karlsruhe, Inv. 2008/755 Text: Adapted from Wikipedia, and from the card with the exhibit. Mandible (lower jaw) of the type specimen of Homo heidelbergenis from Mauer near Heidelberg, Germany (replica, Museum Mauer) Photo: Gerbil Permission: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Mandible (lower jaw) of the type specimen of Homo heidelbergenis from Mauer near Heidelberg, Germany (replica, Museum Mauer) Photo: Stratigraphy of the sand pit Grafenrain at Mauer with the find horizon of the Homo heidelbergensis mandible in the lower sands.

Left photograph is taken from the original monograph, with the find site (x); right photograph shows the present exposure. Photo: The cave in the Neander Valley, 1835 Source: Adapted from the book 'Wanderungen zur Neandershöhle - Eine topographische Skizze von Erkrath an der Düssel', published in 1835 Arnz & Comp. Verlag Düsseldorf. The book was launched in 1956 on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the discovery of the Rhineland Regional Council in cooperation with the Nature Protection Society Neanderthal again. A facsimile is available under ISBN 3-92205-519-2 . The creator of the lithograph is not known, but it was probably one of the publishing houses or the self-appointed artist Bongard. Permission: Public Domain South-west view of the site coming from the entrance to the clearing. Photo: Michael Hess South-east view (opposite direction, towards the entrance). The original site was in the middle of the clearing where the stakes are.

Photo: Michael Hess Up river in the Duessel valley as it looks now, close to the museum not far from where a herd of Wisents are pastured. Photo: Michael Hess 'walk through time' near the museum. Photo: Michael Hess References Condemi, S., 2006: Continuity and Discontinuity in the Peopling of Europe, One Hundred Fifty Years of Neanderthal Study Volume 1Springer, 2006 Voisin, J., 2004: Clavicule: approche architecturale de l’épaule et réflexions sur le statut systématique des néandertaliens, Comptes Rendus Palevol, 3, 133–142. Voisin, J., 2006a: Krapina and other Neanderthal clavicles: A peculiar morphology? Periodicum Biologorum, 108, 331–339. Voisin, J., 2006b: The clavicle, a neglected bone; morphology and relation to arm movements and shoulder architecture in Primates.

The Anatomical Record, Part A, 288A, 944–953 File last updated: Monday, 29th Feb 2016 09:10 More photographs of sites and venuses are always welcome! If you would like a particular archaeological site to be covered here, if you have questions or comments, or if you have any photographs or information which would be useful for Don's Maps please contact Don Hitchcock Use of images Anyone (students, teachers, lecturers, writers of books, the general public) may use and reproduce, crop and alter the photographs which I have made of objects and scenes at no charge, and without asking permission. If you decide to use one or more of my images, I would be grateful if you would include a credit such as 'Photo: Don Hitchcock, donsmaps.com' or similar, at the place you normally put your credits. Obviously this does not apply for any rephotography I have made of existing photographs and diagrams from other people, in which case copyright remains with the original photographer or artist. Nor does it apply where there is some other weird copyright law which overrides my permission.

Webmaster: Don Hitchcock Neanderthals: Facts About Our Extinct Human Relatives Neanderthals: Facts About Our Extinct Human Relatives By Jessie Szalay, LiveScience Contributor | April 13, 2016 02:36pm ET MORE A Neanderthal skull. Credit: Jose Angel Astor Rocha | Shutterstock.com Neanderthals (or Neandertals) are our closest extinct human relatives. There is some debate as to whether they were a distinct species of the Homo genus (Homo neanderthalensis) or a subspecies of Homo sapiens. Our well-known, but often misunderstood, fossil kin lived in Eurasia 200,000 to 30,000 years ago, in the Pleistocene Epoch. Neanderthals’ appearance was similar to ours, though they were shorter and stockier with angled cheekbones, prominent brow ridges, and wide noses. Though sometimes thought of as dumb brutes, scientists have discovered that they used tools, buried their dead and controlled fire, among other intelligent behaviors. It is theorized that for a time, Neanderthals, humans and probably other Homo species shared the Earth.

Discovery In 1856, a group of quarrymen discovered remnants of a skeleton in the Neander Valley near Dusseldorf, Germany (hence their name). In a limestone cave, they found 16 pieces of bone, including a skull. Thinking the bones belonged to a bear, the quarrymen gave them to local teacher Johan Karl Fuhlrott. From him, the bones found their way to scientists, and it was eventually determined that they were ancient human relatives. The publication and popularization of Charles Darwin 's "The Origin of the Species" in 1859 helped inform the discovery. Since that day in the Neander Valley, more than 400 Neanderthal bones have been found. The original cave men Neanderthals lived during the Ice Age. They often took shelter from the ice, snow, and otherwise unpleasant weather in Eurasia’s plentiful limestone caves. Many of their fossils have been found in caves, leading to the popular idea of them as “cave men.” Like humans, Neanderthals originated in Africa but migrated to Eurasia long before humans did.

Neanderthals lived across Eurasia, as far north and west as the Britain, through part of the Middle East, to Uzbekistan. Popular estimates put the peak Neanderthal population around 70,000, though some scientists put the number drastically lower , at around 3,500 females. While humans may have interbred with Neanderthals long ago, the pairing probably only rarely produced offspring. Credit: Mauro Cutrona Their short, stocky stature was an evolutionary adaptation for cold weather, since it consolidated heat. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the wide nose helped humidify and warm cold air, though this assertion is debated . The American Museum of Natural History states that other differences from humans are a flaring, funnel-shaped chest, a flaring pelvis, and robust fingers and toes. Their brains, however, grew at a similar rate to humans ’ and were about the same size or larger. Approximately 1 percent of Neanderthals had red hair , light skin, and maybe even freckles. For a long time, scientists and anthropologists theorized that Neanderthals grew up faster than humans, reaching maturity sooner and dying younger, as chimps do.

In 2008, however, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences published evidence that humans and Neanderthals matured at the same rate. Social structure Neanderthals lived in nuclear families. Discoveries of elderly or deformed Neanderthal skeletons suggest that they took care of their sick and those who could not care for themselves. Neanderthals typically lived to be about 30 years old, though some lived longer. It is accepted that Neanderthals buried their dead, though whether or not they left carved bone shards as grave goods is more controversial. It is not known if they had language , though the large size and complex nature of their brains make it a likely possibility. Neanderthals used stone tools similar to and no more sophisticated than the ones used by early humans, including blades and scrapers made from stone flakes. As time went on, they created tools of greater complexity, utilizing materials like bones and antlers. Evan Hadingham of PBS’s NOVA even reports that Neanderthals used a type of glue, and later pitch, to attach stone tips to wooden shafts, creating formidable hunting spears.

Neanderthals had some control of fire, and it is even theorized that they built boats and sailed on the Mediterranean. Neanderthals were primarily carnivorous, and the harsh climate caused them to resort occasionally to cannibalism . Recently, however, scientists have found that Neanderthals actually ate cooked vegetables fairly regularly. Human-Neanderthal interbreeding Probably the most debated aspect of Neanderthal life in recent years is whether or not they interbred with humans. The answer remains ambiguous, with scholarly opinions ranging from belief that they definitely interbred to belief that the two groups didn’t exist on earth at the same time. Neanderthal expert Erik Trinhaus has long promoted the interbreeding hypothesis, but the theory really caught fire when a 2010 study published in Science magazine determined that Neanderthal DNA is 99.7 percent identical to modern human DNA (a chimp’s is 99.8 percent identical). Researchers of the Neanderthal Genome Projectfound that 2.5 percent of an average non-African human’s genome is made up of Neanderthal DNA. The average modern African has no Neanderthal DNA.

This information could support the interbreeding hypothesis because it suggests that humans and Neanderthals only bred once humans had moved out of Africa, into Eurasia. They could have interbred as recently as 37,000 years ago. If this interbreeding occurred, why don't modern humans carry more Neanderthal DNA? A possible reason involves the male sex chromosome. Scientists have found that the Neanderthal Y chromosome may have kept the two lineages from successfully interbreeding; the chromosome may have created conditions that frequently led to miscarriages if or when a Neanderthal male and modern human female got together, according to the research published in the April 7, 2016, issue of the American Journal of Human Genetics . In the study, Fernando Mendez, a population geneticist at Stanford University, and colleagues discovered three mutations on the Y chromosome , of a Neanderthal male, that would have produced molecules that can trigger immune responses from women during pregnancy. Those immune responses are linked to miscarriages. A 2012 study led by Dr. Rachel Wood, however, cast doubt on the interbreeding theory.

Researchers re-examined bones from southern Spain that were used in earlier studies with new radiocarbon dating techniques. They discovered that the Neanderthal bones were more than 50,000 years old. Humans aren’t believed to have settled in the area until 42,000 years ago, meaning that it may be unlikely that they lived together and interbred. If humans and Neanderthals didn’t interbreed, the similar genomes of humans and Neanderthals could be the result of both groups having a common African ancestor. Extinction No one knows exactly why Neanderthals went extinct and why humans survived. Some scholars theorize that gradual or dramatic climate change led them to their demise, while others blame dietary deficiencies. Some theorize that humans killed the Neanderthals. Until recently the hypothesis that Neanderthals didn’t go extinct but simply interbred with humans until they were absorbed into our species was popular. Latest on Neanderthals: Facts About Our Extinct Human Relatives

Question: The Neanderthal Museum is in which country?
Answer: Germany