Roman Paris Athena Review, Vol. 4, No. 2 Roman Paris Setting: Paris occupies a natural limestone basin hollowed out by the Seine, which passes through the city en route to the Normandy coast about 150 km to the northwest. The conventional names of the Right and Left Banks of the Seine, used since ancient times, are oriented to face downstream (northwest). The surrounding heights of the Paris basin define the limits of the modern city, which extends 10 km in all directions from the center at the Île de la Cité. The ancient and medieval city was much smaller, measuring only about 2 km from end to end (fig.1). While today the river level is some 9 m below street level, the ground surface was significantly lower in antiquity and the early Middle Ages, as attested to by the underground archaeological crypt found below Notre-Dame Cathedral (see Gallo-Roman remains beneath Notre-Dame cathedral ). Much of the low-lying area east of the city was a swampy zone known as the Marais (built over in the 13th century, and today an upscale region of Paris), which was criss-crossed by small Seine tributary streams .

During Roman times the city was called Lutetia, derived from an ancient Parisii word for marsh or swamp. Ancient settlement in Paris: Late Iron Age towns were abundant along the Seine from the 3rd to 1st century BC, when the ancient Parisii (one of dozens of Celtic tribes in Gaul) inhabited the area around the Île de la Cité. At the time of the arrival of the Romans in 53-52 BC, the largest settlement of the Parisii seems to have been at Nanterre (15 km west of the Île de la Cité), where remains of a nucleated town have recently been discovered within a loop of the Seine, including several main streets and traces of hundreds of houses (see AR 4,1). Like many other prosperous Celtic groups from Late Iron Age Gaul, Britain, and Germany, the Parisii minted their own coins of bronze, silver, and gold, indicating their involvement in trade networks fed by Roman commerce in wine and other commodities. [Fig.1: Section of a map of Roman Paris (after Crypte Archéologique 2005, Paris; MacKendrick 1972)].

Julius Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars, de Bello Gallico (ca. 50 BC), the earliest written source on the region, first mentions Lutetia as the scene where, in 53 BC, an annual assembly was held between Caesar, commander of the Roman Legions, and local Gallic leaders. In 52 BC, the Parisii broke their agreement with the Romans in order to support the Gallic war leader Vercingetorix. Their stronghold at Lutetia, left to be defended by the elderly warleader Camulogenus, was captured and burned by Labienus, one of Caesar's generals. The Romans soon established a new town called Lutetia on the hills of the Left Bank of the Seine, with the forum located about 1 km south of the river (fig.1). Roman Lutetia was laid out at the intersection of the Seine and two parallel Roman roads running north-south. The right hand or easternmost of these (today's rue St-Jacques) served as the Roman cardo or main NS street.

Ultimately coming from Spain, this road passed through Orléans (Cenabum) to Paris, crossed the Seine at the Île de la Cité via the Petit Pont ("small bridge") and Grand Pont ("large bridge," now the Pont Notre-Dame) and went north through Senlis. The second road (the present-day rue Galande), coming from Italy, passed through Lyon to Paris, then turned NW toward Beauvais, Rouen, and the Normandy coast. Linked by a grid of east-west streets, this network of Roman roads remained at the core of Paris through the Middle Ages (Didier Busson, 2003). The Romanization of Paris was seemingly well underway by the early 1st century AD. Evidence for this comes from le Pilier des Nautes , an altar to Jupiter found under the choir of Notre-Dame cathedral. Erected by a corporation of local river merchants and sailors (nautes), it invokes several Roman deities along with native Gallic gods. Other temples and shrines from the Gallo-Roman period include a temple of Mercury on top of Montmartre, about 2 km north of the Seine.

Mercury was a popular god in Gaul, often joined or syncretized with Gallic deities. A temple to the Egyptian goddess Isis, worshiped by many Romans including the Emperor Hadrian (AD 116-133), also lay in the Left Bank suburb of Locutitius, at the future site of St-Germain-des Prés. The Roman forum measured 160 by 100 m, with a layout similar to those found in many Roman towns at the time of Trajan (AD 98-117). The interior open space of the forum was surrounded by shops in a rectangular portico, with a basilica (law court) at the east end, and a temple on the west end, thought to be dedicated to the official imperial gods Romae and Augustus. A permanent army or legionary camp existed nearby. Here, in AD 360, the troops proclaimed Julian II (fig.3) as their emperor. Soon thereafter, the Emperor Valentinian I (AD 370-375) is also recorded as staying in the camp (MacKendrick 1972).

By far the most conspicuous Roman ruins in Paris are the baths (thermae) of Cluny (fig.2), named after the 16th century Hôtel de Cluny built around them. Rediscover ed in the 12th century, the Cluny Baths retain large sections of the frigidarium or cold rooms showing massive walls and vaulted openings, which provided a direct model for medieval architects building cathedrals, bridges, and other large structures in the Romanesque style. The Cluny baths were fed by a subterranean aqueduct with a source 16 km to the south at Rungus, with an estimated capacity of 2,000 m3 per day (MacKendrick 1972). In 1903-04, a second and third set of Roman baths came to light in Paris, one lying just south of the forum and another found in the College de France, possibly part of a palace or luxurious private home. [Fig.2: Remains of the 2nd-3rd century AD Baths at the Hôtel de Cluny in Paris show typical Roman construction (photo:Athena Review)].

The Roman town of Lutetia also had an open-air amphitheater on the Left Bank that could hold 8,000-9,000 spectators, as well as a smaller covered theater for an audience of up to 4,500, and a chariot racing circuit or circus. Town administration buildings were located on the Île de la Cité as well as in the forum. By the late 3rd century, when Germanic invasions forced defensive reorganization of Lutetia, a praesidium or headquarters was in the northern end of the Île, to be used by Julian II in AD 357-360. This underlay the medieval Royal Palace, and now holds the Palais de Justice. A Roman necropolis existed at the southern periphery of Lutetia along the main Roman north-south road coming from Orléans, and Roman and Merovingian tombs lay along roads leading out of the city. Another necropolis with Gallo-Roman and Merovingian tombs was near the Petit Pont around the Churches of St-Julien-le-Pauvre and St. Séverin.

Both churches were built on tombs of Roman-era martyrs, part of a continuity between Late Roman and early medieval religion and burial customs. The Franks Julian II and The Salian Franks: Germanic invasions by the Franks and Alemanni in the late 3rd century AD destroyed much of the Left Bank portions of the Gallo-Roman city of Lutetia, forcing its contraction into a defensive stronghold on the Île de la Cité, utilizing the Seine for protection. Walls were built along the island perimeter from large stones taken from damaged Left Bank structures. In AD 357-8, Julian II (fig.3), then serving as consul and general commanding Gallic Legions, moved the Roman capital of Gaul from Trier to Paris, which he defended against Germanic invaders coming from the north, down the road from Senlis. Prior to being proclaimed emperor by his troops in 360, Julian II (also known as Julian the Apostate since he rejected Christianity as the official Roman religion) defeated the Franks in a major battle at Strasbourg in AD 357.

Julian then fatefully allowed the Salian Franks to settle the west bank of the Rhine, in exchange for their military services. Between AD 380 and 400 the Franks provided an effective barrier against the invading Visigoths (pushed across the Danube by the expansion of the Huns), and again in AD 406, against the Vandals, Suebi, and Alani who crossed the Rhine, but were diverted southward through Aquitaine and into Spain. In AD 451 the Huns, a huge army of Asiatic nomads, invaded Gaul under their warleader Attila in search of additional subjects for the extortion of tribute money, a livelihood they had perfected in the Danube region during the previous half century. Just as they seemed about to sack Paris, the Huns altered their course to the south, only to be defeated near Orléans by Aetius, the last effective general of the Roman Imperial armies. A young Christian girl named Geneviève, who had preached to the alarmed Parisians that God would intervene on the city's behalf, later became the patron saint of Paris.

[ Fig.3: Coin of Julian II (the Apostate) as Roman emperor, minted in Paris in AD 360-363 (photo:Athena Review)]. Due to ongoing rivalries between Byzantine and Roman leadership, Aetius was assassinated in AD 453 by the eastern Emperor Valentinian III. Thus Roman control of northern France effectively ended, although the local general Siagrius nominally upheld Roman rule from Soissons in the Picardie region of northern France, even after the defection of the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476. In AD 486 Siagrius was finally defeated in battle by Clovis, King of the Salian Franks. Using the political vacuum in Gaul to his advantage, Clovis took over the remnants of the Roman army and administrative structure, thus commencing the Frankish or Merovingian period in France. References: Busson, Didier. 2003. Paris, a Roman city. (tr. A. Keens). Paris, Éditions du Patrimoine. Caesar, J. 50 BC. The Conquests of Gaul (tr. S.A.

Handford, 1951, revised in 192 by J.F. Gardner). New York, Viking Penguin Inc. Cole, R. 2003. A Traveller's History of Paris. 3rd edition. Northhampton, MA, Interlink Books. Gregory of Tours (orig. 6c AD). History of the Franks. (tr. E. Brehaut Ph.D, 1916). New York, Columbia University Press. Mackendrick, P. 1972. Roman France. New York, St. Martin's Press. The above text appears on pages 22-26 of Ancient and Medieval Paris: A Background to the Gothic era of Vol.4 No.2 of Athena Review. The complete text may be obtained in the printed version of the magazine . For original, comprehensive illustrations of ancients sites and monuments, visit Athena Review Image Archive ® Copyright 1996-2006 Athena Publications, Inc (All Rights Reserved) Paris: History History History Early History Julius Caesar conquered Paris in 52 B.C.

It was then a fishing village, called Lutetia Parisiorum (the Parisii were a Gallic tribe), on the Île de la Cité. Under the Romans the town spread to the left bank and acquired considerable importance under the later emperors. The vast catacombs under Montparnasse and the baths (now in the Cluny Mus.) remain from the Roman period. Legend says that St. Denis , first bishop of Paris, was martyred on Montmartre (hence the name) and that in the 5th cent. St. Geneviève, the patron saint of Paris, preserved the city from destruction by the Huns. On several occasions in its early history Paris was threatened by barbarian and Norman invasions, which at times drove the inhabitants back to the Île de la Cité. Clovis I and several other Merovingian kings made Paris their capital; under Charlemagne it became a center of learning. In 987, Hugh Capet, count of Paris, became king of France. The Capetians firmly established Paris as the French capital. The city grew as the power of the French kings increased. In the 11th cent.

the city spread to the right bank. During the next two centuries—the reign of Philip Augustus (1180–1223) is especially notable for the growth of Paris—streets were paved and the city walls enlarged; the first Louvre (a fortress) and several churches, including Notre-Dame, were constructed or begun; and the schools on the left bank were organized into the Univ. of Paris. One of them, the Sorbonne, became a fountainhead of theological learning with Albertus Magnus and St. Thomas Aquinas among its scholars. The university community constituted an autonomous borough; another was formed on the right bank by merchants ruled by their own provost. In 1358, under the leadership of the merchant provost Étienne Marcel, Paris first assumed the role of an independent commune and rebelled against the dauphin (later Charles V). During the period of the Hundred Years War the city suffered civil strife (see Armagnacs and Burgundians ), occupation by the English (1419–36), famine, and the Black Death. During the Renaissance The Renaissance reached Paris in the 16th cent. during the reign of Francis I (1515–47).

At this time the Louvre was transformed from a fortress to a Renaissance palace. In the Wars of Religion (1562–98), Parisian Catholics, who were in the great majority, took part in the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (1572), forced Henry III to leave the city on the Day of Barricades (1588), and accepted Henry IV only after his conversion (1593) to Catholicism. Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIII's minister, established the French Academy and built the Palais Royal and the Luxembourg Palace. During the Fronde , Paris once again defied the royal authority. Louis XIV, distrustful of the Parisians, transferred (1682) his court to Versailles. Parisian industries profited from the lavishness of Versailles; the specialization in luxury goods dates from that time. J. H. Mansart under Louis XIV and François Mansart, J. G. Soufflot, and J. A. Gabriel under Louis XV created some of the most majestic prospects of modern Paris. The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries During the late 17th and the 18th cent.

Paris acquired further glory as the scene of many of France's greatest cultural achievements: the plays of Molière, Racine, and Corneille; the music of Lully, Rameau, and Gluck; the paintings of Watteau, Fragonard, and Boucher; and the salons where many of the philosophes of the Enlightenment gathered. At the same time, growing industries had resulted in the creation of new classes—the bourgeoisie and proletariat—concentrated in such suburbs ( faubourgs ) as Saint-Antoine and Saint-Denis; in the opening events of the French Revolution , city mobs stormed the Bastille (July, 1789) and hauled the royal family from Versailles to Paris (Oct., 1789). Throughout the turbulent period of the Revolution the city played a central role. Napoleon to the Commune Napoleon (emperor, 1804–15) began a large construction program (including the building of the Arc de Triomphe, the Vendôme Column, and the arcaded Rue de Rivoli) and enriched the city's museums with artworks removed from conquered cities.

In the course of his downfall Paris was occupied twice by enemy armies (1814, 1815). In the first half of the 19th cent. Paris grew rapidly. In 1801 it had 547,000 people; in 1817, 714,000; in 1841, 935,000; and in 1861, 1,696,000. The revolutions of July, 1830, and Feb., 1848, both essentially Parisian events, had repercussions throughout Europe. Culturally, the city was at various times the home or host of most of the great European figures of the age. Balzac, Hugo, Chopin, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, Delacroix, Ingres, and Daumier were a few of the outstanding personalities. The grand outline of modern Paris was the work of Baron Georges Haussmann , who was appointed prefect by Napoleon III. The great avenues, boulevards, and parks are his work.

During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), Paris was besieged for four months by the Germans and then surrendered. After the Germans withdrew, Parisian workers rebelled against the French government and established the Commune of Paris , which was bloodily suppressed. Under the Third Republic With the establishment of the Third French Republic and relative stability, Paris became the great industrial and transportation center it is today. Two epochal events in modern cultural history that took place in Paris were the first exhibition of impressionist painting (1874) and the premiere of Stravinsky's Sacre du Printemps (1913). In World War I the Germans failed to reach Paris. After 1919 the outermost city fortifications were replaced by housing developments, including the Cité Universitaire, which houses thousands of students. During the 1920s, Paris was home to many disillusioned artists and writers from the United States and elsewhere. German troops occupied Paris during World War II from June 14, 1940, to Aug. 25, 1944. The city was not seriously damaged by the war.

Contemporary Paris Paris was the headquarters of NATO from 1950 to 1967; it is the headquarters of UNESCO and the European Space Agency. A program of cleaning the city's major buildings and monuments was completed in the 1960s. The city was the scene in May, 1968, of serious disorders, beginning with a student strike, that nearly toppled the Fifth Republic. In 1971, Les Halles, Paris's famous central market, called by Zola the "belly" of Paris, was dismantled. Construction began immediately on Chatelet Les-Halles, Paris's new metro hub, which was completed in 1977. The Forum des Halles, a partially underground, multistory commercial and shopping center, opened in 1979. Other developments include the Georges Pompidou National Center for Art and Culture, built in 1977, which includes the National Museum of Modern Art. The Louvre underwent extensive renovation, and EuroDisney, a multibillion dollar theme and amusement park, opened in the Parisian suburbs in 1992.

A number of major projects in the city were initiated by President François Mitterrand (1981–95); they include the new Bibliothèque Nationale, the glass pyramid at the Louvre, Grande Arche de la Défense, Arab Institute, Bastille Opera, and Cité de la Musique. Sections in this article: Lutetia (Paris) - Livius Lutetia (Paris) Lutetia Parisiorum: capital of the Parisii, a tribe in ancient Gaul. Model of Roman Lutetia, seen from the south The Parisii were a tribe on the Middle Seine, and Lutetia ("place near a swamp") was one of their main settlements. It was on the south bank of the river.

In 53 BCE, the Roman general Julius Caesar used Lutetia, which had probably been founded in the mid-third century BCE, as place of the council of all Gallic tribes.note[ Gallic War 6.3] In the next year, the town supported the rebellion of Vercingetorixnote[Gallic War 7.4] and Caesar sent his colonel Titus Labienus with four legions - including VII and XII - to keep control of Lutetia.note[Gallic War 7.57] Caesar writes that the Gauls ordered the town to be set afire, but does not mention that this actually happened. Although Labienus defeated his opponents in battle, he was forced to return to the south, where Caesar was facing great troubles. The town's surrender - if anything was left after the fire - is not mentioned in our sources, but is likely to have taken place in 51, after the fall of Alesia . The amphitheater of Lutetia Lutetia was actually a double settlement. The main part was, originally, a village on the island that is now called Isle de la Cité.

Writing during the reign of Augustus , the Greek geographer Strabo says that the Parisii live round about the Seine, having a city, called Lucotocia (Λουκοτοκία), on an island in the river".note[Strabo, Geography 4.3.5 ] The other settlement was a hill fort on the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève. The double town, where a main road from the south to the north crossed the river, was sufficiently wealthy to mint gold coins. A statuette of Bacchus from Lutetia The Romans reorganized the town on their customary gridiron map. It consisted of what is now more or less the Quartier Latin. The two main roads leading from Orleans in the south to the north, the Boulevard Saint-Michel and Rue Saint-Jacques, have ancient predecessors; the latter continued on the north bank of the Seine, where it is now called Rue Saint-Martin. It connected Lutetia to Senlis. Of the east-west roads, the Rue des Écoles and its southern parallel, the Rue Cujas/Rue Clovis are ancient.

In the eastern part of the city, the road now called Rue Mouffetard led to Melun. The city rapidly expanded. One of the monuments of this early period, and arguably the most famous monument of ancient Lutetia, is the Pilier des nautes ("the pillar of the boatmen"), which must stood in one of the temples on the island and was decorated with representations of many deities, both Roman and Gallic.note[The inscription is known as CIL 13.3026.] TIBerio CAESARE Sacrificial bull Thermes de Cluny The elder Pliny mentions the Parisii in his list of notable towns in Gaul.note[ Natural History 4.107] No less than three bathhouses have been identified, proving that Lutetia was pretty large: one on the grounds of the Collège de France, another on the Rue Gay-Lussac; one of the rooms of the modern Musée de Cluny is the frigidarium of a third bathhouse. It was built in the third century.

The Forum, built in the second half of the first century, was on the Rue Soufflot, between the Boul' Mich and Rue Saint-Jacques, while the theater has been identified near the Lycée Saint-Louis. An amphitheater has been excavated in the east, between the Rue Monge and the Rue des Arènes. It was built at the end of the first century CE, and converted to a theater in the second century. Thermes de Cluny, frigidarium Lutetia still flourished during the Gallic Empire (260-274) and was sacked when the emperor Aurelian reconquered this new state and took away the troops from the Rhine frontier: Germanic tribal warriors looted Trier , Metz, Reims, and Lutetia. After all, Lutetia was a prosperous city without walls, almost asking to be pillaged. Since it was now obvious that the city needed defenses, the forum in the south and the island were fortified. The necessary stones were taken from the amphitheater/theater. By the mid-third century, the city had a Christian community.

We do not know much about them, but their presence is logical, because one of them is known to have been martyred: Saint Dionysus (Saint-Denis), who was beheaded during the reign of Valerian . The Pilier des nautes was found underneath the altar of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, suggesting that there was cultic continuity on the island. Statue of a priest of Serapis, long time believed to be a portrait of Julian the Apostate The most famous event to take place in Lutetia in Antiquity can be dated to 360, when Julian , consul and caesar of the emperor Constantius II , was proclaimed emperor in a palace.note[Ammian, Roman History 20.4-5 ] This building has not been identified, although in the Middle Ages, it was believed to be identical to one of the bathhouses, which would in the fifteenth century become the palace of the abbots of Cluny. Lutetia in Late Antiquity will forever be associated with the heroism of Genovefa, better known as Saint Geneviève (c.420-502).

The main source for the events is a hagiography, but it seems more or less certain that she was appointed as deaconess by bishop Germanus and impressed the people with her piety, living as a nun. In 451, when the Huns, led by king Attila, were about to attack Lutetia, she convinced the people of Lutetia not to flee. Her prayers were, reportedly, sufficient to save the city - instead, Attila attacked Cenabum (Orleans). Saint Geneviève, in a portal of the Notre-Dame She is also associated with bringing food to Lutetia in 464, when the Frankish king Childeric was besieging Lutetia. During this same siege, Geneviève went to the enemy leader and convinced him to take better care of his prisoners of war. The siege led to nothing, and the city was to remain part of the realm controlled by Syagrius, the last Roman governor of this part of Gaul. In 486, these territories were seized by Childeric's son Clovis, to whom Geneviève also paid a visit. He granted her the right to build a monastery.

After her death, she was recognized as the patron saint of her city. This page was created in 2010; last modified on 11 August 2015. Top 10 Cities To Visit In Europe This Year Stumble Top 10 Cities To Visit In Europe This Year Europe has lots of wonderful cities that deserve to be on your itinerary if you ever decide to take a long vacation. To make your work easier, we’ve made a top with 10 of the most beautiful places on this continent. It each has unique attractions and must see destinations. Here they are: 1. Florence. View in gallery Italian style The city of Florence of Firenze as the Italians call it is the capital of Tuscany and the most populated city in this region. The city is famous for its history as it was a center of medieval European trade and finance. In fact, it was called the Athens of the Middle Ages. There are lots of wonderful attractions and one of them is the historic center of Florence. View in gallery Ponte Vecchio This area was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. The city of Florence is also very beautiful because of its artistic and architectural heritage.

It has lots of beautiful monuments and you can also find here numerous museums and art galleries. Florence is an important city in Italian fashion as well and this makes a very popular tourist destination. Its history is rich but the city also impresses with its more modern attractions. Must see: Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore. View in gallery Duomo It is the main church of Florence and it’s also known as the Duomo. Its construction began in 1296 and it was completed in 1436. It has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 2. Barcelona. View in gallery From streets Barcelona is the capital city of Catalonia and also the second largest city in Spain as well as the largest metropolis on the Mediterranean Sea. Located on the Mediterranean coast, Barcelona offers wonderful views and attractions. The city was founded by the romans and was first the capital of the County of Barcelona. Then it merged with the Kingdom of Aragon and became the most important city of the Crown of Aragon. View in gallery Las Ramblas It has a rich cultural heritage and it’s also an important cultural center and a major tourist destination. It’s mostly renowned for its architecture.

The works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner have been declared UESCO World Heritage Sites. Barcelona is also known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics and it’s one of the world’s leading tourist, economic, cultural and sports centers. In addition, it’s one of Europe’s main ports. Must see: Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família. View in gallery Sagrada Familia Commonly known as the Sagrada Familia, this Roman Catholic church was designed by Catalan architect Antoni Gaudi and, even though it remained incomplete, it has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in November 2010. 3. Roma. View in gallery Fontana di Trevi You can’t possibly visit Europe and not go to Rome. This is the capital of Italy as well as the fourth most populous city in the European Union. The city has a rich history that started two and a half thousand years ago. Founded in 753 BC., Rome is currently one of the oldest cities in Europe. It used to be the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.

View in gallery The Roman Forum In addition, since the 1st century AD, Rome has been considered the seat of the Papacy and it became the capital of the Papal States in the 8th century. The city’s architecture is very beautiful and it has been created by famous artists like Bramante, Bernini, Raphael and Michelangelo. The city’s center has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site and it features monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museum or the Colosseum. Must see: The Colosseum. View in gallery Colosseum Also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, the Colosseum or Coliseum is located in the center of Rome. It’s built of concrete and stone and it’s the largest amphitheatre in the world. Its construction began in 70 AD and it was completed in 80 AD. 4. Paris. View in gallery Arc de Triomphe Paris, also known as the city of lights, is the capital of France and also the largest city in the country. Situated on the river Seine, Paris is one of Europe’s foremost centers of learning and arts.

It is now one of the world’s leading business and cultural centers and an important city in the field of politics, education, entertainment, science and arts. View in gallery Seine The city has four UNESCO World Heritage Sites and it also features many more beautiful attractions. Originally called Lutetia, the city was later renamed Paris after one of its earliest inhabitants which was the Gaulish tribe known as Parisii. The city impresses with its architecture. The oldest intact buildings here are churches and they feature Gothic architecture. The Notre Dame cathedral is one of the most striking and famous attractions in the city. Must see: The Eiffel Tower. View in gallery Eiffel Tower The Eiffel Tower is the icon of Paris. It was named after Gustave Eiffel who designed and built it. It was built in 1889 and it became one of the most recognizable structures in the world. 5. Vienna. View in gallery Streets Vienna is the capital city of Austria as well as the country’s largest and primary city. It’s also the cultural, economic and political center of Austria. It was the largest German-speaking city in the world until the beginning of the 20th century.

The city hosts many major international organizations such as the United Nations and OPEC. View in gallery Christmas market Situated close to the borders with the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary, Vienna is a metropolitan region. Its center has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city has a rich musical background and it’s also known as the City of Music. Some also consider it the City of Dreams because it’s where the world’s first psycho-analyst lived: Sigmund Freud. In the center of the city you can find Baroque castles and gardens as well as numerous other beautiful monuments, parks and buildings. Must see: The Schönbrunn Palace. View in gallery Schönbrunn Palace The palace is a former imperial summer residence and one of the most important cultural monuments in the country. It has been a major tourist attraction since the 1960s. 6. Venice. View in gallery Restaurant Venice is another one of Italy’s spectacular cities. Located in northeasters Italy on a group of 118 small islands, the entire city along with its lagoons have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The islands that form the city are separated by canals and they connected by bridges.

The city is famous for its architecture and artworks. The name Venice is derived from the ancient Veneti, the people who inhabited this region until the 10th century BC. View in gallery Venetian taxi The city of Venice has many nicknames such as “City of Water”, “City of Masks”, “City of Bridges”, “The Floating City”, and “City of Canals”. It has also been declared one of Europe’s most romantic cities. As a tourist, you can find numerous attractions here such as St Mark’s Basilica, the Grand Canal, and the Piazza San Marco. It’s a wonderful honeymoon destination and also one of the places you must see if you’re ever visiting Europe. Must see: Piazza San Marco. View in gallery Szechenyi Bath and Spa Budapest is the capital of Hungary and the country’s largest city. It is also the largest city in East-Central Europe and Hungary’s political, cultural, commercial, industrial and transportation center. It has a long and rich history that started with Aquincum, a Celtic settlement. It then became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. The Hungarians arrived here in the 9th century.

After being first pillaged by Mongols, the town was re-established. View in gallery Winter seasond Budapest has an extensive UNESCO World Heritage Site that includes the banks of Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter, Andrássy Avenue, Heroes’ Square and the Millennium Underground Railway. Other interesting attractions include the city’s 80 geothermal springs and the world’s largest thermal water cave system.,second largest synagogue, and third largest Parliament building. Budapest is also the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). Its name is composed of Buda and Pest that have obscure origins. They were cities that were united in 1873. Must see: The Buda Castle. View in gallery Buda Castle The castle is part of Budapest’s World Heritage Site since 1987 and it has spectacular views. It was built on the southern tip of Castle Hill and it’s one of the city’s major attractions. 8. Kraków. View in gallery Kraków horses Kraków is one of Poland’s oldest cities and the second largest city in the country. It’s situated on the Vistula River and it has a very interesting history.

Founded in the 7th century, Kraków has been one of the leading centers of Polish academic, cultural and artistic life. From 1038 to 1569 it was the capital of Poland. Poland was invaded at the beginning of World War II and after that Kraków was turned into the capital of Germany’s General Government. View in gallery Wawel Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków became pope John Paul I in 1978 and he was the first Slavic pope ever as well as the first non-Italic pope in 455 years. The same year, the entire Old Town in the city’s Historic Center has been approved as the first ever site for UNESCO’s new World Heritage List.The city’s full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków, or “Royal Capital City of Kraków”. Must see: Sukiennice. View in gallery Sukiennice The Renaissance Sukiennice is one of the city’s icons and the central feature of the Main Market Square. It’s part of the Old Town which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1978. 9. Prague.

View in gallery Prague Castle and Old Town Square are highlights of the Czech capital Prague is the capital of the Czech Republic as well as its largest city. It’s also the historical capital of Bohemia proper. The city is situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river and it has been a political, cultural, and economic center of central Europe. It was founded by the romans and it was also the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors. View in gallery The Gardens of Prague Castle The city of Prague was an important part of the Habsburg Monarchy and of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It became the capital of Czechoslovakia after World War II. Here you can find numerous cultural attractions such as the famous Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square, the Jewish Quarter, the Lennon Wall, and Petřín hill. It also has ten major museums, theatres, galleries, cinemas and historical exhibits. The historic center of the city has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1992. Must see: Prague Castle.

View in gallery Prague Castle The Prague Castle is where the Kings of Bohemia, Holy Roman Emperors and presidents of Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic have had their offices over the years and it’s one of the city’s major tourist attractions. The Bohemian Crown Jewels are kept within a hidden room inside this castle. 10. Salzburg. View in gallery Night street The city of Salzburg is located in Austria. It’s the fourth largest city in the country and it’s also the capital of the federal state of Salzburg. Its name means Salt Fortress and comes from the Austro-Bavarian Såizburg. As a tourist, you can visit the Old Town which is famous for its baroque architecture. It’s also one of the best-preserved city centers north of the Alps and it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. View in gallery Salzburg view There are three universities in Salzburg and it’s also the birthplace of 18th-century composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It was the setting for parts of the musical and film The Sound of Music. The city’s architecture is definitely an attraction.

The Romanesque and Gothic churches and the monasteries are all great tourist destinations. The Cathedral of Archbishop Conrad of Wittelsbach was the largest basilica in the north of the Alps and one of the most famous attractions here. Must see: The Salzburg Cathedral. View in gallery Salzburg Cathedral The Salzburg Cathedral was dedicated to Saint Rupert and Saint Vergilius. It was founded by Saint Rupert in 774 and then rebuilt in 1181 after a fire. It was also completely rebuilt in the Baroque style in the 17th century and it still features the same appearance. History of Paris, France – European Trips Follow History of Paris If you have a plan to visit Paris – a city which is dubbed as the most romantic city in the world – anytime soon, then it would be a good idea to at least know the history of Paris first before you actually set foot there. Famous for its Eiffel Tower and home to 12 million Paris citizens, this city of love is one of top holiday destinations located in France. History of Paris: Early Settlement Who would have thought that Paris has a long way back into history?

The first settlement in Paris was predicted to happen around 250 BC or over 2,000 years ago. By then, the name of the place was definitely not Paris, but Lutetia, a Celtic name which means “a dwelling place in the middle of the waters.” The place was renamed as “Paris” only in 212 AD. So, where did the name “Paris” come from? Good question. It is most likely from the name of the Celtic tribe which first settled there, Parisii. They established their dwellings near Seine river. Since Lutetia’s soil was so rich, prosperous and its location was so strategic, it became an important point in the Gauls and Romans conflict for centuries before it ended in 52 BC won by the Romans. When the conflict ended, Lutetia developed into more and more important city. In 212 AD, the name of the city was changed from Lutetia into Paris, after the name of its first inhabitants.

Paris before 1900 Paris has gone through a lot of politics changes from Julian, Emperor Constantine’s nephew, in 357, then invaded by Atilla the Hun, ruled by Merovingian kings, Carolingians, to the famous Louises kings. Spiritual wise, Paris maintained Christianity as its main religion for the majority of its history, proved by its endless Catholic landmarks scattered throughout the city which we can even see today. Two of the most famous are the cathedral of Notre Dame and the Basilica of St. Denis. French Revolution Paris will also always be known for its position against Henry IV together with the other member of Catholic League until Henry IV defeat Catholic League in 1590. The resistance, however, did not diminish after Henry IV sat on the throne. He was assassinated by a Catholic fanatic on May 14, 1610 after surviving 18 assassination attempts. History of Paris: French Revolution French Revolution The year 1789 was one of most recognized years in history book because in that year, one important revolution took place, the French Revolution.

Despite its growing and promising status as the city of arts, sciences, and philosophy, Paris underwent a bankruptcy after it funded the Seven Years’ War and its involvement in America’s War of Independence. After a disastrous harvest failure in 1788, things were out of control and riots broke to reach its peak on a very fateful day, 14 July 1789. A mob stormed and invaded the Bastille, giving birth to French revolution. History of Paris: Industrial Revolution History of Paris Industrial Revolution Paris arrived in the Industrial Revolution in the early of 19th century. This revolution had made Paris’ inhabitants to rise up significantly to 900,000 people. Thousands of country side dwellers came to the city to work on railroad projects. With that number of population, the city was listed as the second largest city in Europe and third in the world. History of Paris: Today Eiffel Tower in 1900 Paris is today the capital city of France. It is famous as honeymoon destination and trend setter of world’s fashion. Eiffel Tower and Arc de Triomphe are two of the most iconic landmarks and inspired many novels and movies.

One of its nicknames is “La Ville-Lumière” which means “The City of Light,” referring to its role as the center of enlightenment and its beautiful arrays of street lighting. Eiffel Tower Today Named as one of the greenest city in the world, Paris is also one of the most expensive cities to date. With a 2000-year history stretched, there are about 3,800 historical monuments in Paris and four sites which are declared as UNESCO World Heritage sites. The History of Paris - Paris.fr 1,8118,8125 The History of Paris From Lutetia to the Napoleon Bonaparte Empire, from the declaration of the Republic to the Paris Commune: Paris was right at the heart of events that marked French history and shaped its present. Here is a look back to the birth of this major city. Antiquity : Gaul Even though the site of today’s Paris has been inhabited for 90000 years (Mesolithic period), the city’s history really began in the 3rd century BC.

At this time, the Parisii, a tribe in Gaul, took up residence in this area, a strategic crossing point towards the north of the country and for the trading route of the Seine river (ou for the river trade along the Seine river). Aware of the strategic importance of the location, Julius Caesar sent his troops to crush the Gauls. This was in 52 BC and is known as the battle of Lutetia, won by the occupying forces. A roman city was then built on the left bank of the Seine, along the northern slope of Sainte-Geneviève hill. Lutetia started to take shape. At the end of the 1st century AD, the “Arènes de Lutèce” amphitheatre and the Cluny public baths were constructed. The baths were supplied with water from an aqueduct alongside the Bièvre, a river which has since been buried under the city. These buildings reflect a lifestyle which was typically Roman. In the 4th century, Lutetia became a garrison town for troops fighting the Barbarians on the northern and eastern frontiers of Gaul.. The city moved to the Île de la Cité wich was fortified and renamed Paris.

In 451, an event took place which made the history books: the nun Saint-Geneviève succeeded in diverting the course of Attila the Hun and his army who wanted to take the city. She became the patron saint of Paris. The Middle Ages: at the heart of the Kingdom of France In 508, Clovis, king of the Franks, made Paris the capital of his kingdom. In the 8th century, the centre of the Carolingian Empire shifted to the Northeast. Yet the city took on a new dimension under Hugues Capet. Capet, Count of Paris was elected King of France in 987 and founded a new dynsasty, the Capetians. Then Louis VI, known as Louis the Fat, built a fortification, the Châtelet, around the rebuilt Grand-Pont (currently the Pont au change). The construction of Notre-Dame cathedral began in 1163 (and was completed in 1345). Then, Philippe Auguste, a great urban planner, left his mark on Paris by surrounding it with walls and building the fortress of the Louvre. Paris is consecrated capital under his reign.

In the 13th century, Paris was the most populated (approximately 200,000 inhabitants) and the richest city in the West. Up to this period the city was governed by one man, the King’s provost. In 1268, the powerful boatmen’s guild adopted its motto, « Fluctuat nec mergitur » (the boat is beaten by the waves but does not sink), which later became that of Paris. In the 14th century, the municipality enjoyed real authority, yet over the following centuries was regularly brought to heel by the royal powers. In the 15th century, Paris was occupied by the English for sixteen years. The modern era: the birth of royal squares In the middle of the 16th century, under the reign of François 1st, the capital grew in beauty with Renaissance constructions, such as the new Louvre and the Hôtel de Ville. At this time, several historic buildings were built, including the Natural History Museum and the Luxembourg Palace. From the reign of King Henri IV, the city has the role of honouring the sovereign and praising his power.

Royal squares were created for this purpose: Place Dauphine for Henri IV, Place de la Concorde for Louis XV, Place des Vosges for Louis XIII, etc. 1648 saw the beginning of the Frond, a people’s uprising which lasted until 1653. In 1680, Louis XIV left the Louvre Palace, which was until then the residence of the Kings of France, to take up residence in Versailles, to the west of Paris. He died there after a 72-year reign. The Bastille: symbol of the Revolution On 14 July 1789, Parisians appalled by the King’s pressure on the new assembly formed by the third estate, took siege of the Bastille fortress, a symbol of absolutism. This event is the start of the French Revolution and the decline of the divine right of monarchs in France. On 17 July, the national tricolour flag with the colours of Paris (blue and red) and of the King (white) was adopted at the Hôtel de Ville by Louis XVI. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, the first Mayor, was elected on 15 July 1789.

The Republic was declared for the first time in 1792. In 1793, Louis XVI and Queen Marie-Antoinette were executed on the Place de la Concorde. The Reign of Terror took hold. Then, a coup d’etat by Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the French Directory and put an end to the Revolution. Prefect Haussmann transforms Paris Napoleon was crowned emperor in Notre-Dame cathedral in 1804. He gave Paris the Ourcq canal, the embankments, the creation of the sewerage system, a numbered house system, etc. Later, the barricades went up in the capital: the July revolution toppled Charles X in 1830. Six years later, under Louis-Philippe, work is completed on the Arc de Triomphe. The 1848 Revolution led to the proclamation of the 2nd Republic. In 1852 and during the Second Empire, the capital is transformed under the leadership of Prefect Haussmann. He doubled the width of traffic lanes, made pavements commonplace, etc.

He also created 2,000 hectares of woodland and planted 90,000 trees along major roads. He developed an approximately 500-km-long sewerage network. The five train stations were completed in 1847. Between 1855 and 1880, the sales price of buildings increased by 136%. The 3rd Republic was declared in 1870 at the Hôtel de Ville. The Prussians invaded Paris. The Paris Commune was crushed during the ‘Semaine sanglante’ (bloody week). The outcome was 20 to 30,000 victims, a third of the city was burned down and the Hôtel de Ville destroyed. Paris, under siege, lost its status as capital of France for a time. In 1889, the Eiffel Tower was opened during a universal exhibition. In 1910, Paris was once again flooded when the Seine burst its banks in its hundred-year cycle. Paris and the two World Wars In World War One, Paris was saved from the German offensive by the Battle of the Marne.

However, the city could not escape German occupation from 1940 to 1944. The collaborationist State, governed by Marshal Pétain, is based in Vichy. In London, the free France organised its forces led by General de Gaulle. In 1942, 12,000 Jews were arrested and gathered together at the Vélodrome d’Hiver to be deported. Paris was liberated on 25 August 1944. The following day, General de Gaulle paraded down the Champs-Élysées. The city was saved: the German commander Dietrich von Choltitz, in charge of defence in Paris, disobeyed Hitler’s order to demolish the capital’s historic buildings. From Montparnasse tower to the tram’s comeback… Many tower blocks were built in the city in the 1960s. In May 1968, a student revolution took place around the Sorbonne University (5th arrondissement). In the early 1970s, the Paris ring road, the Montparnasse tower and the Palais des Congrès convention centre were completed.

In 1977, Jacques Chirac was elected Mayor of Paris: the first mayor since 1871. Many important buildings continue to flourish: the Opera Bastille, the Grande Arche de la Défense, the Stade de France, etc. In 2001, the new City Hall team, led by Bertrand Delanoë, took charge of the city. In December 2006, the tramway made a comeback in the south of Paris: the first to be operated in the capital in 69 years! For more information: Gallia - Province of the Roman Empire Population Gallia The region inhabited by the ancient Gauls, (Galli, the Roman name for the Celtic people there) comprised modern-day France and parts of Belgium, western Germany, and northern Italy. By the 5th century BCE the Gauls had migrated south from the Rhine River valley to the Mediterranean coast. Between 600-400 BCE growing populations of Gauls began to spread over the Alps into northern Italy, drawn by abundant food resources. The region of Italy occupied by the Gauls was called Cisalpine Gaul ("Gaul this side of the Alps") by the Romans.

In 390 BCE the Gauls seized and plundered the city of Rome. While devastating to the young Republic, the Gallic raids also helped to weaken Rome's powerful enemy the Etruscans, which, in time, helped the rise of Rome to dominance. The Cisalpine Gauls pushed into central Italy by 284. In a series of confrontations, the Romans defeated the tribe of the Insubres, took Mediolanum (Milan), and established colonies in a buffer zone. During the next century, Gauls remained a constant threat to the Romans. In the last Samnite War of 295 BCE, Gallic tribes joined with Samnites and Etruscans attempting to stop Rome's rise to power. Only after putting down several revolts by 282 BCE did Rome reduce this threat of Gallic invasions. In 218 BCE during the Second Punic War, Gauls joined with Hannibal as he crossed the Rhine to invade Italy. Upon Hannibal's defeat in 202 BCE, the Gauls again tried to organize against Rome, but the Boii, then the dominant Gallic tribe, were subdued by 191 BCE.

Thereafter, the Gauls were never again able to successfully challenge the Roman military. In the years following Hannibal's defeat, the Romans expanded throughout the Mediterranean. After reinforcing the northern colonies of Placentia and Cremona in 203 BCE, Roman troops expanded into Cisalpine Gaul. They waged costly, drawn-out campaigns against Gallic and Iberian tribes and finally, in 121 BCE, the Gauls were defeated on the lower Rhine, opening southern France to Roman rule. An alliance with the Aedui against the Allobroges and the Arverni brought the Romans control of the Rhï¿½ne River valley after 120 BCE. The Roman colony of Narbo Martius (Narbonne) was founded on the coast in 118, and the southern province became known as Gallia Narbonensis. An invasion by Germanic Cimbri and Teutones was defeated by Gaius Marius in 102, but 50 years later a new wave of invasions into Gaul, by the Helvetii from Switzerland and the Suevi from Germany, triggered Roman conquest of the rest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 58-50 BCE.

During 53-50 Caesar was engaged in suppressing a Gallic revolt led by Vercingetorix. He treated the Gauls generously, leaving their cities with a significant measure of autonomy, and thus secured the allegiance of Gallic soldiers in his civil wars against Pompey in 49-45. A former religious center of Gallic society, Lugdunum (Lyon) became the capital of Roman Gaul. The country was divided into four provinces: Narbonensis, Aquitania to the west and south of the Loire, Celtica (or Lugdunensis) in central France between the Loire and the Seine, and Belgica in the north and east. The Romans built towns and roads throughout Gaul and taxed the old Gallic landowning class while promoting the development of a middle class of merchants and tradesmen. The emperor Tiberius was obliged to suppress a rebellion of the nobles in 21 CE, and the assimilation of the Gallic aristocracy was secured when the emperor Claudius (41-54 AD) made them eligible for seats in the Roman Senate and appointed them to governing posts in Gaul. He also ordered the suppression of the druids, the Celtic priests.

Native deities were amalgamated with Roman counterparts, and emperor worship was encouraged. The next two centuries were marked by occasional revolts, by increasingly frequent invasions of Germanic tribes, against whom a line of limes, or fortifications, was erected from the middle Rhine to the upper Danube, and by the introduction of Christianity early in the 2nd century. During the reign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180), Germanic invaders crossed the limes. Frontier legions rebelled along the Rhine, spurring the civil wars that followed the death of the emperor Commodus in 192. In the mid third century AD, between 260 and 274, Gaul saw itself split into its own Gallic Empire under Postumus and ending with the victory of Aurelian over Tetricus. Gaul primarily a bastion of Romanization throughout its history, but eventually fell to the pressures of Germanic migrations. By the late 4th century, Germanic tribes pushed across the Rhine into Gaul and slowly began to change the political and military climate.

By the invasion of the Huns and more Germanics in the 5th century, Gaul was lost to the Roman Empire. In the 1st and 2d centuries CE, Gaul flourished through the export of food, wine, and pottery. Other major contributions of the Gallic provinces included glassmaking; metallurgy; woodcraft; textiles, wheat, olives, fruits, corn, oils and cheeses. The Remi tribe was also renowned in the Roman world for the quality of their horse breeds. There were also large copper deposits in Transalpine Gaul and Silver in southern Aquitania. Tribes of Gaul: Belgica: Remi -The leading tribe of the Belgae, they were based around Durocortorum (Rheims), and were well known for high quality horse breeding. Atrebates - Lived around Nemetocenna-Arras. Bellovaci - They lived around Caesaromagus. Nervii - One of the most powerful Belgic tribes living east of the Scheldt in central Belgium. Aided by the Atrebates and Viromandui, they came very close to defeating Caesar in 57BC.

The Atuatuci were marching to join them but did not reach the battle in time. The Nervii's capital city seems to have been at Bagacum. Treveri - They lived west of the Rhine in modern SE Belgium and Luxembourg. The town of Treves preserves their name and was probably their capital. Western Gaul: Carnutes - A tribe living SW of Paris between the Seine and the Loire and probably based on Chartres. However, Cenabum (Orleans) was also an important center of theirs. The Carnutes had in their territory a shrine sacred to all the Gauls and consequently were highly respected. Santones - Were found around the river Charente and their capital was probably the town of Mediolanum (Saintes). Namnetes - A tribe based around the town of Condivincum (Nantes). Pictones/Pictavi - Located near the town of Lemonum (Poitiers). Bituriges - A tribe with its capital at Bourges (Avaricum). Before the conquests of Caesar they had been one of the pre-eminent tribes, but after had declined in importance. Argentomagus was another important oppidum of theirs.

This is one of several tribes that seemed to have split, the Bituriges-Cubi lived near Bourges/Berry, the Bituriges-Vivisci near Burdigala (Bordeaux). Lemovices - Lived near the modern town of Limoges whose ancient name is unknown. Aquitania: Vocates - One of many small tribes of Aquitania. They lived in the north-west, towards the mouth of the Garonne River. Elusates - Another of many small tribes of Aquitania. They lived in the center of the region, around the town of Eauze, whose ancient name is unknown. Tarbelli - One of many small tribes of Aquitania. They lived in the extreme southwest around the town of Dax. Southern Gaul: Arverni - A very powerful tribe living in the Auvergne. The most important stronghold of theirs was Gergovia (somewhere near Clermont-Ferrand). The most notable Gallic resistance leader, Vercingetorix, came from the Arverni.

They had been the most powerful Gallic tribe in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC under their king, Luernios, but when his son, Bituitos was defeated by the Romans in 123BC and the Roman 'Provincia' established, their ascendancy passed to the Aedui and Sequani. Cadurci - A tribe centered on the town of Divona. Ruteni - Lived near the town of Segodunum (Rodez). Central Gaul: Aedui - The leading tribe of Caesar's period, although humbled by the Germans under Ariovistus. Their capital was at Bibracte (Mont Beuvray or Autun). Branovices - A branch of the Aulerci based at Brionnais. Mandubii - A tribe whose main stronghold at Alesia (Alise-Sainte-Reine) saw the climax of the Gallic Revolt, when Vercingetorix surrendered there after a long siege. Senones - A tribe living SE of Paris around the town of Agedincum (Sens). Parisii - Lived near Lutetia (Paris).

Meldi - Found east of Paris on the Marne near Meaux. Eastern Gaul: Sequani - Based at Vesontio (Besancon). They precipitated the Roman invasion by calling on the help of the German king Ariovistus of the Suebi when in danger of conquest by the Aedui. Lingones - Lived in the region of Andematunnum (Langres) and Dijon. Mediomatrici - Were found to the west of the Vosges, south of the Treveri. Their chief town was Divodurum (Metz). Helvetia: Helvetii - The major tribe living in Switzerland. Ariovistus' aid to the Sequani prompted them to want to move, something which Caesar didn't want to happen. Tigurini - Neighbours and fellow travellers with the Helvetii on their failed migration. The Tigurini had joined the Cimbri and Teutones in the march against northern Italia during the late 2nd century BCE, and fled from Sulla after those tribes' defeat by Marius. Boii - The Boii probably represented remnants of the Boii ejected from Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans.

They had also settled further north and then moved to modern Switzerland. Joining the Helvetii in their migration, they shared their defeat, but the Aedui persuaded Caesar not to send them back but settle them instead on devastated Aeduan lands. Provincia/Gallia Transalpina/Gallia Narbonensis: Narbo - This region had been annexed by the Romans in 125 BCE. Narbo was a colony planted there. Formerly it belonged to a small tribe called the Atacini. Massilia - A Greek colony founded about 600 BCE, it civilized the area and was allied with the Romans. It had to call them in when attacked by the Sallassi in 125 BCE and a province was set up around it. Massilia made the mistake of supporting Pompey in the Civil Wars at the end of the Republic. Unforgiven by Caesar, it was stripped of its territory and quickly lost its importance to nearby Arelate. Volcae - There were actually 2 branches of the Volcae, the Volcae-Tectosages living south of Narbo and the Volcae-Arecomici living north and east.

They had a large treasure pillaged from them by the Romans in 106 BCE, which then mysteriously disappeared. The Volcae Tectosages had a capital at Baetera (Beziers). Allobroges - Lived between the Rhone, the Isere and Lake Geneva. Their chief town was Vienne. They had opposed Hannibal's passage of the Alps and failed. In this period they were not very enthusiastic for Roman rule either. Tolosates - This tribe lived around Tolosa (Toulouse). From the name they were likely Aquitanian, and probably forcibly incorporated in Gallia Transalpina. Gallia Cisalpina/Rome: Vercellae - Originally an oppidum of the Celtic Libici, they had been brought into the administration. Near here the Cimbri were finally defeated in 101 BCE. Genua - Originally Ligurian, Genua had been Roman since 218 BCE, except for a few years when Hannibal captured it. Taurini - A Celtic tribe probably based on modern Turin. Ingauni - A Ligurian tribe, their center was at Album (Albenga).

Vasconia: Vascones - Were the Basques. Surprisingly there was not fierce resistance to the Romans, probably because Roman rule here was fairly light. Rome's occupation focused far more on the eastern passes through the Pyrenees. Autrigones - Possibly a sub-tribe of the Vascones and/or dependent on them. This tribe occupied lands between the Vascones to the east and the Cantabrii to the west, and probably had a constant balancing act to perform between these 2 powerful groups.

Question: Which European capital was known to the Romans as Lutetia?
Answer: Paris