The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Emperors. Julius Caeser | PBS Bust of Julius Caesar A superb general and politician, Julius Caesar (c.100 BC ï¿½ 44 BC / Reigned 46 ï¿½ 44 BC) changed the course of Roman history. Although he did not rule for long, he gave Rome fresh hope and a whole dynasty of emperors. Dangerous times Born into an aristocratic family in around 100 BC, Julius Caesar grew up in dangerous times. Rome could not yet handle its own size and power. The nobility were widely discredited and order had given way to chaos. The only clear alternative was military dictatorship. Caesar allied himself against the nobility. As his career took off, he won a number of political offices, not always by reputable means. By 63 BC, he had become a well-known, but controversial figure. Viva Espana Despite his notoriety, he was appointed governor of Farther Spain. This was a lucrative position, because it offered him the chance to plunder the local inhabitants at will.

He returned to Rome in 60 BC and, the following year, was elected consul, the highest office in the republic. Now holding real power, Caesar allied himself with two key people, Pompey and Crassus. Pompey was a war hero who had been badly treated by the Senate, while Crassus was a multimillionaire. The two men were rivals but Caesar was able to bridge the gap between them and the three men formed the powerful ï¿½first triumvirateï¿½. I predict a riot As consul, Caesar wanted to pay off Pompeyï¿½s soldiers by allocating them public lands. This was unpopular, so to get the measure through he engineered a riot and used the chaos to get his own way. He then used his power to secure the governorship of Gaul (modern day France and Belgium). Gaul gave Caesar a power-base to recruit soldiers and conduct the military campaigns that would make his name and secure his fortune. Conquering Gaul Between 58 and 50 BC, Caesar used his expertise in military strategy, along with the Roman armyï¿½s training and discipline to conquer and subdue the rest of Gaul, up to the river Rhine.

When battling foreign enemies, Caesar was ruthless. Besieging rebels in what is now the Dordogne part of France, he waited until their water supply ran out and then cut off the hands of all the survivors. Under threat back home He now turned his attention back home. His triumvirate was badly strained. Pompey was increasingly jealous of Caesarï¿½s success and Crassus still hated Pompey. After Crassus was killed in battle, Pompey and Caesar drifted apart, ultimately finding themselves on opposing sides. By now, Caesar was very successful, but he had many enemies and found his position and his life under threat. He believed the only way he could protect himself was by seizing power. In January, 49 BC, he led his troops across the Rubicon River into Italy and started civil war. Civil war Caesar scored some early victories and, by 46 BC, was dictator of Rome. After a year spent eliminating his remaining enemies, he returned home. Generous in victory, he was kind to his defeated rivals, giving them all amnesties and even inviting some to join him in government. Yet his position remained insecure. Without a son of his own, he needed an heir.

Caesar quickly adopted his great nephew, Augustus . He also moved fast to strengthen the northern borders of the empire and tackle its enemies in the east. At home, he reformed the Roman calendar, tackled local government, resettled veterans into new cities, made the Senate more representative and granted citizenship to many more foreigners. Beware the Ides of March But his rule would be cut short. Old enemies joined forces with some of his supporters, fed up of his dictatorial style. On March15, 44 BC, the Ides of March, Caesar was assassinated in the Senate. Although his own rule was unremarkable, his victory in the civil war replaced a republic, ruled by the consuls and the Senate, with an empire, reigned over by emperors and their hereditary successors. It was the start of a brand new age for Rome. Where to next: Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com Google Augustus: Birth and Inheritance Of Augustus’ many names and honorifics, historians favor three of them, each for a different phase in the emperor’s life. From his birth in 63 B.C.

he was Octavius; after his adoption was announced in 44 B.C., Octavian; and beginning in 26 B.C. the Roman Senate conferred on him the name Augustus, the august or exalted one. He was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus in Velletri, 20 miles from Rome. His father was a senator and governor in the Roman Republic. His mother Atai was Caesar’s niece, and the young Octavius was raised in part by his grandmother Julia Ceasaris, Caesar’s sister. Did You Know? In 8 B.C. Augustus had the Roman month of Sextilius renamed after himself—as his great-uncle and predecessor Julius Caesar had done with July. August was the month of several of the emperor's greatest victories, including the defeat and suicide of Antony and Cleopatra. He did not increase the month's length, which had been 31 days since the establishment of the Julian calendar in 45 B.C. Octavius donned the toga, the Roman sign of manhood, at age 16, and began taking on responsibilities through his family connections. In 47 B.C.

he went to Hispania (modern-day Spain) to fight alongside Caesar. He was shipwrecked along the way, and had to cross enemy territory to reach his great-uncle—an act that impressed Caesar enough to name Octavius his heir and successor in his will. Augustus: The Path to Power The 17-year-old Octavius was at Apollonia (in present-day Albania) when the news of Caesar’s death and his own inheritance arrived. The dead ruler’s allies, including many in the senate, rallied around Octavian against their powerful rival Mark Antony . But after Octavian’s troops defeated Antony’s army in northern Italy, the future emperor refused an all-out pursuit of Antony, preferring an uneasy alliance with his rival. In 43 B.C. Octavian, Antony and Marcus Aemilus Lepidus established the Second Triumvirate, a power-sharing agreement that divided up Rome’s territories among them, with Antony given the East, Lepidus Africa and Octavian the West. In 41 B.C. Antony began a romantic and political alliance with Cleopatra , queen of Egypt, which continued even after a Senatorial decree forced his marriage to Octavian’s sister Octavia Minor.

Lepidus remained a minor figure until Octavian finally had him ousted after the triumvirate’s renewal in 37 B.C. Antony’s affair with Cleopatra continued, and in 32 B.C. he divorced Octavia. In retaliation, Octavian declared war on Cleopatra. In the naval battle of Actium a year later, Octavian’s fleet, under his admiral Agrippa, cornered and defeated Antony’s ships. Cleopatra’s navy raced to aid her ally, but in the end the two lovers barely escaped. They returned to Egypt and committed suicide, leaving Octavian as Rome’s undisputed ruler. Augustus: Emperor in All but Name Historians date the start of Octavian’s monarchy to either 31 B.C. (the victory at Actium) or 27 B.C., when he was granted the name Augustus. In that four-year span, Octavian secured his rule on multiple fronts. Cleopatra’s seized treasure allowed him to pay his soldiers, securing their loyalty. To mollify Rome’s Senate and ruling classes, he passed laws harkening back—at least on the surface—to the traditions of the Roman Republic.

And to win over the people, he worked to improve and beautify the city of Rome. During his 40-years reign, Augustus nearly doubled the size of the empire, adding territories in Europe and Asia Minor and securing alliances that gave him effective rule from Britain to India. He spent much of his time outside of Rome, consolidating power in the provinces and instituting a system of censuses and taxation that integrated the empire’s furthest reaches. He expanded the Roman network of roads, founded the Praetorian Guard and the Roman postal service and remade Rome with both grand (a new forum) and practical gestures (police and fire departments). Augustus: Family and Succession Augustus married three times, although his first union, to Mark Antony’s stepdaughter Clodia Pulchra, was unconsummated. His second wife, Scribonia, bore his only child, Julia the Elder. He divorced in 39 B.C. to marry Livia Drusilla, who had two sons—Tiberius and Drusus—by her first husband, Mark Antony’s ally Tiberius Claudius Nero .

The family tree became more complicated after Augustus had his stepson Tiberius briefly marry his daughter, and then adopted Tiberius outright as son and successor in A.D. 4. Augustus Caesar died in A.D. 14, his empire secured and at peace. His reported last words were twofold: to his subjects he said, “I found Rome of clay; I leave it to you of marble,” but to the friends who had stayed with him in his rise to power he added, “Have I played the part well? Then applaud me as I exit.” Soon after that acknowledgement of human frailty, the Roman Senate officially declared their departed emperor, like Julius Caesar before him, to be a god. Tags A brief History of Rome Home Page A Brief History of Rome The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of civilization. It is so old, it is today known as 'the eternal city'. The Romans believed that their city was founded in the year 753 BC. Modern historians though believe it was the year 625 BC. A speech in the Roman senate Early Rome was governed by kings, but after only seven of them had ruled, the Romans took power over their own city and ruled themselves.

They then instead had a council known as the 'senate' which ruled over them. From this point on one speaks of the 'Roman Republic'. The word 'Republic' itself comes from the Latin (the language of the Romans) words 'res publica' which mean 'public matters' or 'matters of state'. The senate under the kings had only been there to advise the king. Now the senate appointed a consul, who ruled Rome like a king, but only for one year. - This was a wise idea, as like that, the consul ruled carefully and not as a tyrant, for he knew that otherwise he could be punished by the next consul, once his year was up. Rome knew four classes of people. This division was very important to the Romans. The lowest class were the slaves. They were owned by other people. They had no rights at all. The next class were the plebeians. They were free people. But they had little say at all. The second highest class were the equestrians (sometimes they are called the 'knights'). Their name means the 'riders', as they were given a horse to ride if they were called to fight for Rome.

To be an equestrian you had to be rich. The highest class were the nobles of Rome. They were called 'patricians'. All the real power in Rome lay with them. The Roman Republic was a very successful government. It lasted from 510 BC until 23 BC - almost 500 years. In comparison the United States of America only exist since 1776 - less than 250 years. The greatest challenge the Roman Republic faced was that of the Carthaginians. Carthage was a very powerful city in North Africa which, much like Rome, controlled its own empire. The fight between the two sides was a long one and took place on land and on sea. The most famous incident came when the great Carthaginian general Hannibal crossed the mountain chain of the Alps to the north of Italy with all his troops, including his war-elephants !, and invaded Italy. Though Rome in the end won and Carthage was completely destroyed in the year 146 BC. Hannibal, the great Museo della Civilta Rome Rome's most famous citizen was no doubt Julius Caesar.

He was a Roman politician and general who, without having any orders to do so, conquered the vast territory of the Gauls to the north of his province in France. In the year 49 BC Caesar crossed the small river between his province and Italy, called the river Rubicon, and conquered Rome itself which he then ruled as a dictator. His military campaigns also took him to Egypt where he met the famous Cleopatra. His life though was ended as he was infamously murdered in the senate in Rome. So famous and respected was Caesar that a month of the year is still named after him and his heirs today, July (after Julius Caesar). Also the great English poet Shakespeare wrote a famous play called Julius Caesar about his famous murder. After Caesar followed the many emperors of Rome - and there were truly very many of them. So, here are some of the most famous ones. Augustus He was the last emperor of Rome, nicknamed Augustulus which means 'little Augustus'. Justinian He was the last 'great' emperor. He conquered many territories, created the 'Justinian Code' and built the fantastic church Santa Sophia. Constantine XI The last emperor of Constantinople. He died defending his great city against the Turks.

The Roman empire in the end was overrun by millions of barbarians from the north and east of Europe. It is believed to have happened two or three times in history that huge migrations took place across Europe, where peoples moved to settle in new territories. The great migration proved too much for the Romans to stem. Their armies were designed to defeat other armies, not entire folks and peoples flooding toward them. The collapse was completed when Rome itself was conquered by the Visigoth Odoacer and his men in the year AD 476. But what is generally referred to as 'the Fall of Rome' doesn't include the eastern empire. This, with its centre in Constantinople, managed to cling on for almost another thousand years until it was eventually conquered by the Turks under their leader Mohammed II in the year AD 1453. Grown Up Section Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) Choose which paragraph to jump to and press "Go!": Gaius Julius Caesar was born on 12 July 100 BC in Rome, son of Gaius Caesar and Aurelia. Governor of Gaul 58-49 BC.

Appointed dictator for ten years in 47 B, for life on 14 February 44 BC. Married initially to Cornelia (one daughter, Julia), then to Pompeia, alas to Calpurnia. Assassinated on 15 March 44 BC. Deified in 42 BC. Caesar was tall, fair-haired, well built and of sound health. though he did suffer from the occasional epileptic fit. The historian Suetonius writes about Julius Caesar: He was embarrassed by his baldness, which was a frequent subject of jokes on the part of his opponents; so much so that he used to comb his straggling locks forward from the back, and of all honours heaped upon him by senate and people, the one he most appreciated was to be able to wear a wreath at all times..... Caesar's early Life Caesar grew up in a period of unrest and civil war in Rome. The increased size of the empire had led to cheap slave labour flooding into the country which in turned made many Roman workers unemployed. The Social Wars created turmoil all over Italy and Marius and Sulla were the great leaders of the time.

As a member of an old aristocratic family Julius was expected, at the completion of his education, to assume a modest office on the lower end of the long ladder of the Roman political career. However, Caesar was not like other Romans. Already at a young age he had realized that money was the key to Roman politics as the system had by his time long been corrupt. When, Caesar was fifteen years old, his father Lucius died, with him died the fatherly expectations that Caesar should engage on a modest political career. Instead Caesar now set out to better himself. His first step was to marry into a yet more distinguished family. Further he began building a network of connections, some of which with politicians currently out of favour (the supporters of Marius). But these were dangerous contacts to have. Sulla was dictator of Rome and was seeking to wipe out any Marian sympathizers. A nineteen year old Caesar was arrested. But it appears that Sulla chose to spare him, as he did some others. Influential friends managed to have him released, but it was obvious that Caesar would have to leave Rome for a while, in order to let things cool down. Caesar goes into Exile And so Caesar left Rome to join the army.

Naturally, as a member of a patrician family, he didn't enter the forces as a common soldier. His first posting was as a military assistant to a provincial governor. Thereafter he was posted to Cilicia, where he proved himself a capable and courageous soldier, winning praise for having saved the life of a comrade. It's believed that his next assignment was in one of the armies which crushed Spartacus' slave rebellion. After this Caesar left the army, yet it was still considered unwise for him to return to Rome. Instead he spent some time in the south of Italy improving his education, in particular rhetoric. Caesar later proved an incredibly talented, if not genial, public speaker and much of this will undoubtedly have come from his training in rhetoric. 'Do you know any man who, even if he has concentrated on the art of oratory to the exclusion of all else, can speak better than Caesar ?' (quote by Cicero). Caesar decided to spend the winter on the island of Rhodes, but the ship taking him there was captured by pirates, who held him hostage for about forty days, until a large ransom bought his freedom.

During this misadventure Caesar displayed much of the ruthlessness which should later lead to his world fame. While captured he joked with his captors, telling them he'd see them all crucified, once he was released. Everyone laughed at the joke, even Caesar himself. But it was in fact exactly what he did once he was released. He hunted the pirates down, captured them and had them crucified. Caesar's next task was to organize a force to defend Roman property along the coast of Asia Minor (Turkey). Caesar returns from Exile Meanwhile the regime in Rome had changed and Caesar could return home. Based on his deeds and military achievements so far, Caesar successfully campaigned for a post in the Roman administration. Caesar served in 63 BC as a quaestor in Spain, where in Cadiz he is said to have broken down and wept in front of a statue of Alexander the Great, realizing that where Alexander had conquered most of the known world at thirty, Caesar at that age was merely seen as a dandy who had squandered his wife's fortunes as well as his own. Caesar returned to Rome, determined to achieve political standing. His first wife had died, so Caesar once more entered into a politically useful marriage.

Though he divorced his new wife soon afterwards, on suspicion of adultery. The suspicion was unproven and friends urged him to show greater faith in his wife. But Caesar declared that he could not live with a woman even suspected of adultery. There was some truth in that statement. His enemies were only waiting to ruin him, seeking any chance to exploit a weakness, no matter if true or not. For the next years, Caesar continued to buy popularity, both with the people of Rome as well as with the high and mighty in important places. Achieving the post of aedile, Caesar used it to his fullest advantage. Bribes, public shows, gladiatorial contests, games and banquets; Caesar employed them all - at huge costs - to buy favour. 'He showed himself perfectly prepared to serve and flatter everybody, even ordinary people... and he did not mind temporarily grovelling' (quote by Dio Cassius) But he also acted, as was usual for an aedile to renovate public buildings, which naturally also impressed some of the less fickle part of the populace. Caesar well knew that his actions were costing him fortunes. And some of his creditors were calling in their debts.

Furthermore, many senators were beginning to dislike this brash newcomer who in the most undignified fashion was bribing his way up the political ladder. But Caesar cared little and bribed his way into the office of pontifex maximus (chief priest). This new office bestowed upon Caesar not only the sheer status of a powerful position, but so too the post's dignity granted Caesar a solemn appearance which he otherwise would have struggled to attain. Being a religious post it also made him sacrosanct as a person. The pontifex maximus a man very hard to criticize or attack in any way. Caesar in Spain In 60 BC Caesar's career took him back to Spain. Aged 41, he was awarded the post of praetor. It may well have been that the senate decided to send the young upstart to a troubled region, in order to have him fail. Trouble had been brewing with the local tribes in Spain for a long time. But Caesar undaunted by the problems, excelled in his new role. Caesar discovered a talent for military command which he himself hadn't known he possessed. The experience he gained in Spain would be of great value in his further career.

But more so the ability of capturing some spoils of war for himself, to put his personal finances back to right and repay his debt was what rescued his career. If there was one lesson, Caesar learnt in Spain then it was that war could be politically and financially very profitable. 'The First Triumvirate' In 59 BC Caesar returned to Rome, having proved himself a capable ruler. He now formed a valuable pact with two of the most prominent Romans of the day, - the so-called 'first triumvirate'. The triumvirate helped Caesar achieve his greatest ambition to that day. He was elected consul, the highest office of Rome. The political influence he had built up in his previous years of bribery, together with the enormous power and influence of Crassus and Pompey managed to virtually oust the second consul, L. Calpurnius Bibulus, who stayed at home for most of the time, knowing he had little say at all. The historian Suetonius tells of people joking of it being not the joint consulship of 'Bibulus and Caesar', but of 'Julius and Caesar'.

The formation of the ruling triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey was a mark also of Caesar's determination to push through genuine and innovative measures in the face of a hostile senate which was suspicious of his motives and to ensure that there was some continuity of progressive legislation after his term as consul was over. Caesar's laws are indeed seen as more than mere populist measures. For example, tax demands on farmers were cancelled. Public land was allocated to fathers of three or more children. These were laws hardly likely to make Caesar less popular than he was, and yet they reveal that he also possessed insight into the problems weighing on Rome at the time. Caesar also remarried, once again to a bride from a very influential Roman household. And his daughter Julia was married to Pompey, further cementing his political partnership with the great general. Caesar becomes Governor of Gaul As his one-year term of office as consul came to an end, Caesar needed to think of finding a new office into which to retire from his current position. For his enemies were that bent on vengeance, to not have held any office would have left him open to attack in the courts and possible ruin.

He therefore obtained for himself the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and - due to the sudden death of that governor - Transalpine Gaul for a period of five years, which was later extended for a second term. Gaul at the time comprised the subjugated region south of the Alps and to the east of the Apennines as far as the river Rubicon, together with a small portion of territory on the other side of the Alps, roughly corresponding with today's French regions Provence and Languedoc. The following military campaign Caesar then embarked upon against the Gauls is still subject of study to students at military academies today. Caesar had read and informed himself well in the art of warfare. Now also he should benefit on the experience he had gathered in leading troops in Spain. Had Caesar at first been hoping to conquer the lands north of Italy. For this purpose his first task was to start raising , partly at his own expense - more troops than those which he already commanded as governor.

Over the next few years he was to raise a force of ten legions, about 50'000 men, as well as 10'000 to 20'000 allies, slaves and camp followers. But it was to be in his very first year in office, 58 BC, before many additional troops had been levied that occurrences beyond Caesar's control should set him on the path to history. The tribe of the Helvetians (Helvetii) had been forced from their mountainous homelands by the migration of Germanic tribes and were now pushing into Transalpine Gaul (Gallia Narbonensis). Caesar acted swiftly and shattered the Helvetian invasion in a crushing defeat. Caesar defeats the Germans But no sooner was this done a large force of Germans, Sueves and Swabians, crossed the Rhine and then entered into the Roman part of Gaul. Their leader Ariovistus was an ally of Rome, but so too was the Gallic tribe of the Aedui, whom the Germans were attacking. Caesar sided with the Aedui.

the Germans had had their eye on Gaul for some time, and Caesar wanted to use this opportunity to put a stop to any such ambitions. Gaul was to become Roman, not German. The Germans were the larger army and the fighting prowess of the Germanic tribesmen was renowned. But they did not possess the iron discipline of the Roman army. Caesar felt sufficiently confident to meet them in battle. On learning that the Germans believed in a prophecy that they should lose the battle if they fought before the new moon, Caesar forced a battle upon them immediately. The Germans were defeated and large numbers of them were slaughtered, trying to escape the field of battle. Caesar defeats the Nervii The following year (57 BC) Caesar marched his troops northwards to deal with the Belgae. The Nervii were the leading tribe of the Celtic Belgae and were apparently preparing to attack the Roman forces, as they feared Caesar might otherwise conquer all of Gaul. How right they were in this assumption no one can say with absolute certainty. But it gave Caesar all the reason he needed to begin a full-scale war and invade Nervian territory. It was during the campaign against the Nervii that a weakness of Caesar's tactics was exposed.

Namely that of bad reconnaissance. His horsemen were mainly German and Gallic. Perhaps he didn't sufficiently trust them. Perhaps he didn't understand how to use them properly as scouts ahead of his army. but it is due to that oversight that Caesar was taken by surprise several times during his campaigns in Gaul. In one particular incident the Nervii swarmed down on his marching troops. It was only due to the iron discipline of his soldiers that panic did not take hold of the startled troops. When the decisive battle eventually came, the Nervii fought heroically, and the battle for some time hung in the balance, but eventually they were defeated. With the Nervii smashed the other tribes of the Belgae were gradually forced into submission. Having conquered most of Gaul, Caesar met up with the two other triumvirs in 56 BC in the town of Luca in Cisalpine Gaul, where it was decided that his governorship of Gaul was to be extended and Crassus and Pompey should once more be consuls. Then in 55 BC another invasion of Germans demanded Caesar's attention. The Germans were confronted and shattered near today's town of Koblenz (Germany).

Caesar then proceeded in building a bridge across the river Rhine. His description of events states his troops only took 10 days to construct the wooden bridge. Recent experiments by have indeed proved it possible. The meaning of the bridge was mainly symbolic. This display of Roman engineering and power was meant to frighten the Germans as well as impress people back home in Rome. (The bridge was used to carry Roman raiding parties into Germany. But appears to have been destroyed by the Caesar's troops shortly afterwards.) The senate however was angered at Caesar's flouting of the rules. For as governor of Gaul Caesar was by no means entitled to take any action against territory east of the Rhine. But Caesar was not to care for what his enemies in the senate thought of him. With the Germans crushed, he turned to Britain in the same year (55 BC). The following year he launched another expedition into Britain. These raids on Britain were as such not very successful from a military standpoint. But to Caesar they were invaluable propaganda. Britain was virtually unknown to the Roman world, but for some trading links. Ordinary Romans heard of Caesar fighting near mythical enemies in unknown lands. Meanwhile the senate was seething.

Gaul rises against Caesar On his return from Britain in the autumn of 54 BC, Caesar faced a large revolt of the Belgae. The rest of 54 BC and the following year were spent subduing the rebellious tribes and ravaging the lands of those who had risen against him. But in 52 BC Gaul arose in a massive revolt against its conqueror. Under the Arverni chief Vercingetorix, almost all the tribes of Gaul, except for three, allied against the Romans. At first Vercingetorix achieved some advances, trying to starve the Romans out of Gaul. Caesar had spent the winter in Cisalpine Gaul and now hurried, at great danger to himself, back to join his troops. Immediately he launched attacks on Vercingetorix allies, overrunning one foe after the other. At the fortified hill town of Gergovia he was however repelled. His lieutenant Labienus had been sent with half Caesar's force against another tribe, the Parisii. Caesar eventually realized he had insufficient forces to win the siege and withdrew. The Battle of Alesia Alas, Vercingetorix made his fatal error.

Rather than continuing his small scale guerilla war against Roman raiding parties looking for food for the army (and so denying Caesar's men food), he switched to a direct confrontation. The amassed Gallic army then launched a full-scale attack on Caesar's army and suffered a terrible defeat. Lucky to get away, the remainder of the Gallic force withdrew into the fortified hill town of Alesia. Caesar laid siege to the town. The Gauls watched on as the Romans built a deadly ring of trenches and fortifications around the town. Vercingetorix did not intervene against the Romans as they built their siege works. Evidently he was hoping for relief forces to arrive and drive Caesar off. Caesar knew that such a force had been sent for and hence also built an outer trench to defend against any attacks from outside. Alas, a massive relief force arrived, gathered from all parts of Gaul. Caesar tells of a force of 250'000 thousand infantry and 8'000 cavalry. The accuracy of such estimates is unclear, and one must consider that Caesar might well have exaggerated the scale of his challenge.

But with the Gauls drawing from an overall population which by today's estimates numbered between eight and twelve million, Caesar's figures might indeed be accurate. However high he odds were facing him, Caesar did not retire. The situation was desperate. The Romans still had a force of 80'000 warriors under Vercingetorix to contain within their siege works and a massive force without. More still, the Roman troops had stripped the surrounding countryside of any food. The Gallic troops had brought little for themselves and now faced the stark choice of having to fight or retreat. And initial nightly attack by the Gauls was beaten back. A day and a half later another massive attack was concentrated on one of the main Roman camps. With fierce fighting all around Caesar mounted his horse, haranguing his troops to fight on. He sent his reserve cavalry out into the field to ride around a nearby hill and fall onto the Gauls from behind. Then he finally rushed in to fight in person. He might have been the general who commanded form a distance. But here there was no retreat. there was Gauls on either side of the trenches and to have lost this battle would have meant certain death.

Fighting alongside his men he helped drive off the Gauls. Some soldiers, either weary from battle or panicked by fear, who sought to flee were grabbed by the throat by Caesar and forced back to their positions. Alas, Caesar's cavalry emerged from behind the hills and fell into the rear of the Gauls. The attacking army fell into disorder, panicked and tried to retreat. Many were slaughtered by Caesar's German mercenary horseman. The Gallic relief force realized its defeat and retired. Vercingetorix admitted defeat and the day after surrendered in person. Caesar had won the battle of Alesia (52 BC). Caesar, Master of Gaul Vercingetorix was offered no mercy. He was paraded through the streets of Rome in Caesar's triumph march, during which he was ritually strangled. The inhabitants of Alesia and the captured Gallic soldiers fared little better. They were shared out as slaves among the victorious Roman soldiers, who either kept them to help carry baggage, or sold them to the slave traders which accompanied the army. It took Caesar another year to quell Gallic resistance to Roman rule. Eventually he assembled all the tribal chiefs of Gaul and demanded their allegiance to Rome.

Gaul was beaten, they could do nothing but comply with his demands and Gaul was finally secured as a Roman province. When Caesar had finished his series of brilliant campaigns, he had changed the nature of the Roman empire from a purely Mediterranean realm into western European empire. He had also driven the empire's frontier up to the Rhine, a natural, easily defendable border, which should come to be the imperial border for centuries. Caesar crosses the Rubicon, takes Rome But then things turned nasty in 51 BC when Caesar's governorship of Gaul was revoked by the senate. This left Caesar hanging high and dry, needing to fear prosecution for past irregularities once he returned to Rome. For months on end there was diplomatic to'ing and thro'ing with Caesar remaining in Gaul, until he lost patience with the niceties of political life. In 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the demarcation line between his province and Italy. He marched on Rome at the head of his battle-hardened army, where he met little resistance. Though Caesar's tale is a tragic one. His taking control of Rome by force had destroyed the very system within which he had wanted to succeed. And there is little sign that he enjoyed the task of reconstruction.

And yet there was much to reconstruct for Caesar, foremost he had to reinstate order. his first task was to have himself appointed temporary dictator, a post of the republic set aside for emergencies, during which one man would be given absolute powers. Accustomed to working at top speed from his time in Gaul - he dictated letters to two secretaries while on horseback ! - Caesar went to work. Caesar defeats Pompey Caesar might have ruled Rome. But things were far from under control, just because the capital lay in his hands. The entire state of Rome was under threat and only one man could stop Caesar - Pompey. But Pompey, though an excellent general, deemed superior to Caesar by many, he didn't possess the troops to take on the invader. So he withdrew his troops from Italy to gain time to train his troops. Caesar tried to stop him but failed. But with Pompey forced to flee eastwards, Caesar was left to turn to Spain to put the Pompeian legions there out of action. Not so much by fighting as by skillful manoeuvering was Caesar by his own admission for once outgeneraled. However, the campaign was brought to a successful issue in six months, most of the troops joining his standard.

Caesar now turned east to deal with Pompey himself. The Pompeians controlled the seas, causing him great difficulty in setting across to Epirus, where he was shut up within his own lines by a much larger army of Pompey in November. Caesar avoided a pitched battle with some difficulty, whilst waiting for Mark Antony to join him with the second army in spring 48 BC. Then, in midsummer of 48 BC Caesar met Pompey on the plain of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey's army was much the bigger, though Pompey himself knew them not of the same quality as Caesar's veterans. Caesar won the day, utterly destroying the force of Pompey, who fled to Egypt. Caesar followed, though Pompey was eventually assassinated on arrival by the Egyptian government. Caesar in the East Caesar in hot pursuit of Pompey arrived in Alexandria, only to get entangled in the quarrels of succession to the throne of the Egyptian monarchy. Initially asked to help settle a dispute, Caesar soon found himself attacked by Egyptian royal troops and needed to hold out for help to arrive. His few troops he had with him, barricaded the streets and held off their opponents in bitter street fighting.

The Pompeians still controlling the seas with their fleet, made it nigh impossible for Rome to send help. Alas it was a independent expedition of wealthy citizen from Pergamum and the government of Judaea which helped Caesar end the 'Alexandrian War'. And yet Caesar did not leave Egypt at once. The legendary charms of the woman he had made queen of Egypt, Cleopatra, persuaded him to stay a while as her personal guest. Such was the hospitality that a son, named Caesarion, was born the following year. Back Caesar first dealt with king Parnaces, the son of Mithridates of Pontus, before returning to Rome. Pharnaces had used the Roman's weakness during their civil war to recover his father's lands. It was after this crushing victory in Asia Minor (Turkey) that he sent his celebrated message to the senate 'veni, vidi, vici' (I came, I saw, I conquered.) Caesar, Dictator of Rome Back home Caesar had been confirmed dictator in his absence, an appointment which was regularly renewed thereafter. With this began an era, the rule of Rome being held by men who successively held the name Caesar, by birth or adoption.

But the fact that Caesar had not returned home at once had given Pompey's sons enough time to raise new armies. Two more campaigns were needed, in Africa and Spain, culminating in the battle of Munda on 17 March 45 BC. In October of that year Caesar was back in Rome. Quickly it showed that Caesar was not merely a conqueror and destroyer. Caesar was a builder, a visionary statesman, the likes of which the world rarely gets to see. He established order, begun measures to reduce congestion in Rome, draining large tracts of marshy lands, gave full voting rights to the inhabitants of his former province south of the Alps, revised the tax laws of Asia and Sicily, resettled many Romans in new homes in the Roman provinces and reformed the calendar, which, with one slight adjustment, is the one in use today. Caesar's colonial policy, combined with his generosity in granting citizenship to individuals and communities, was to rejuvenate both the Roman legions and the Roman governing class. And Caesar, who included some provincial aristocrats in his enlarged Senate, was perfectly aware of what he was doing.

But despite the pardons he granted to his old senatorial enemies, despite not drowning Rome in blood like Sulla and Marius had done, when they had seized power, Caesar failed to win over his enemies. Worse still, many Romans feared that Caesar was going to make himself king. And Rome still held an old hatred to its ancient kings. Many saw their fears only confirmed as Cleopatra with her son Caesarion was brought to Rome. Was Rome perhaps the most cosmopolitan place in the world of that day, it still didn't take kindly to foreigners, the people of the east in particular. And so Cleopatra had to leave again. But Caesar did manage to persuade a senate which knew it possessed no effective powers to declare him dictator for life. Julius Caesar was king of Rome in all but title. Caesar then began to plan a campaign against the vast Parthian empire in the east. Why is unclear. Perhaps he sought more military glory, perhaps he simpy preferred the company of soldiers to that of intriguing politicians in Rome. The Murder of Caesar But Caesar's campaign against Parthia was not to be.

Five months after his arrival back in Rome, only three days before his departure on campaign to the east, Caesar was dead, at the hands of a band of senatorial conspirators led by Marcus Junius Brutus (d 42 BC) and Gaius Cassius Longinus (d 42 BC), both former Pompeians who'd been pardoned by Caesar after the battle of Pharsalus. He was, at the excuse of some of the conspirators, who claimed to want to present a petition to him, lured into one of the back room of Pompey's Theatre in Rome. (The rooms of the theatre were used for senatorial affairs, while the senate building was being restored.) There the conspirators pounced and Caesar was stabbed 23 times (15 March 44 BC). Julius Caesar had changed the nature of the Roman empire, he had swept away the old, corrupt system of the late Roman republic and had set an example to future Roman emperors as well as other future European leaders to live up to. Julius Caesar - Ancient Rome Ancient Rome Videos Julius Ceaser Julius Caesar was one of ancient Rome's most skilled military generals and political leaders.

While in power, Caesar changed Roman government and added much land to Rome's control. His life has been the subject of many plays, movies, books, and poems. Even Caesar's death could not reverse the political and social that changes Rome experienced during his rule. Julius Caesar was born in 100 B.C. in Rome. As the son of a wealthy Roman citizen, Caesar received his education in both Rome and Rhodes, a Greek island. Many leaders of the day considered Caesar an intelligent and talented young man. For a time, he served as a military officer in Asia Minor. Today the country of Turkey fills Asia minor. In 69 B.C. he began his political career and soon became one of Rome's most popular leaders. He held many important political offices including aedile (EE•dil) and praetor (PREE•ter). Caesar joined two other powerful leaders in an alliance, or an agreement to cooperate. In 60 B.C. Caesar entered into a triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus (lah•SIH•uhs KRA•suhs) and Gnaeus Pompey (guh•NAY•uhs PAHM•pee).

A triumvirate is a ruling group of three leaders. Together Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus ruled the lands that Rome controlled. Before the triumvirate the Roman government was a republic. In a republic citizens elect leaders to make and enforce laws. Free men in the Roman Republic formed a voting group called an assembly. This group elected the highest political officials, such as the two consuls and the eight praetors. These officials were advised by a governing body called the senate. Only some of Rome's most powerful citizens could hope to become senators. Although the triumvirate did not do away with these political offices, it did control the workings of the government. In 59 B.C. Caesar was elected a consul. He then was made the governor of Gaul for five years. At the time Roman Gaul included the region of present-day Provençe, France, and the area near and around the Alps. As governor, Caesar was also in charge of the military there. He immediately set out to conquer the rest of Gaul that Rome did not rule. He defeated the local tribes and claimed the land east of the Rhine River for Rome.

The land added an additional 640,000 square miles (about 1,700,000 sq km) to the Roman Empire. Caesar also attacked Britain in 55 B.C. and 54 B.C. Caesar sent back to Rome a series of reports called Commentaries on the Gallic Wars that described his battles in Gaul. By this time the triumvirate was beginning to fall apart. Crassus died during a military battle in 53 B.C. Then Pompey became jealous of Caesar's successes in Gaul and joined Caesar's enemies in the senate. The senate ordered Caesar to give up command of his army. Caesar refused. Pompey and Caesar began to fight for control of Rome. In 49 B.C. a civil war or, a war between groups of people within the same place or country, began. Caesar and his army left Gaul. They crossed the Rubicon River, the border between Gaul and Italy, and defeated Pompey's forces. Pompey then escaped to Egypt. There he was killed by Egypt's leader, King Ptolemy. King Ptolemy was trying to win Caesar's support.

In Egypt, Caesar becamenvolved in a struggle for leadership of the region. An Egyptian civil war had broken out between King Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra . With Caesar's help Cleopatra soon became the ruler of Egypt. The two then began a relationship that upset many Romans. After returning from Egypt, Caesar set up a dictatorship in Rome. As the empire's only leader, he began to make changes, such as reorganizing the Roman calendar and starting colonies. Caesar also granted Roman citizenship to people living in those colonies. Caesar lengthened the term of his rule first to five years and then for life. Romans were accustomed to leaders giving up their office each year. Upper-class leaders and senators in Rome became angered by Caesar's total control of the government. A group that included senators and other government leaders agreed to stop Caesar. On March 15, 44 B.C., Caesar was killed by the group in the senate building. After Caesar's death Rome fell into 13 years of civil war. REference: Caesar Augustus - History for Kids - mrdowling.com The Caribbean Caesar Augustus Octavian was the son of Julius Caesar’s niece.

The first eighteen years of Octavian’s life were unremarkable, but a surprise in Julius Caesar’s will eventually resulted in him becoming Caesar Augutus, the ruler who transformed Rome into the greatest empire of the ancient world. Julius Caesar was so popular with the Roman people that the Senate named him dictator for life. For five hundred years, the Roman government relied on two consuls serving one-year terms and taking advice from the Senate. Julius Caesar ruled without considering Roman tradition or consulting with the Senate . In 44BCE, a group of enraged senators stabbed the dictator to death. Caesar’s will decreed that Octavian would be his heir and must be treated as his son. Caesar’s decision made Octavian one of the richest men in Rome. It also provided Octavian with something even more valuable: the right to call himself Caesar. Two months after Julius Caesar’s murder, Octavian came to Rome to claim his inheritance, but Marc Antony dismissed the young man. Octavian spent the next several months gaining support with the Roman people. He also raised an army. Soldiers throughout the empire were loyal—not to Rome—but to Caesar.

By the end of 44BCE, both Marc Antony and Octavian commanded armies, but the two men avoided civil war by making a deal. In 43BCE, Octavian joined Antony and another general named Lepidus in a partnership historians call the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate raised money by branding more than 300 wealthy Romans as enemies. They seized the property of the newly designated outlaws and offered rewards to anyone who would kill them. The enemies of Octavian and Marc Antony who could not escape from Rome were killed. Octavian and Antony forced Lepidus into retirement in 36BCE. Five years later, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome upon the death of Marc Antony. Octavian earned the loyalty of the Roman soldiers by providing the men with land. The soldiers retired, but because Octavian was Caesar, he knew he could count on their support if the Senate challenged his authority. Octavian lived a modest life because he wanted to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar. He lived in a small house and traveled without bodyguards. Unlike Julius Caesar, Octavian was respectful to the senators.

Later in his career Octavian allowed other men to serve as consuls, but the Senate knew that Octavian controlled the military, so he was the actual ruler of the Roman Empire. In 27BCE, Octavian arranged for the Senate to grant him the honorific title Augustus. Augustus means “the respected one." During his rule, the Roman people knew Octavian only as Caesar, but to avoid confusion with his famous granduncle, historians generally refer him as Octavian before 27BCE and Caesar Augustus after that. Caesar Augustus ruled for 41 years, a period when Rome developed into a military empire, so historians consider him to be the first Roman Emperor. Caesar Augustus restored peace and order to Rome after years of civil war. He made sure the lands throughout the empire were well run, and taxes were fair. He built roads and bridges, government buildings, and massive public baths. He said, “I left Rome a city of marble, though I found it a city of bricks." The armies of Caesar Augustus conquered most of Western Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.

The Romans claimed all of the land surrounding the enormous Mediterranean Sea, which they nicknamed “a Roman lake." Rome developed into a great empire its army was so powerful that it protected citizens from attack from the tribes who lived beyond the empire. Historian Edward Gibbon later described the two hundred-years of peace that began with the rule of Caesar Augustus as the Pax Romana, or the “Peace of Rome." Augustus of Prima Porta is displayed in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican Museum. Roman coin bearing the image of Caesar Augustus Marc Antony became the ruler of Rome upon the death of Julius Caesar. Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian, but Octavian's forces defeated A Ntony's army in the Battle of Actium in 31BCE. The Roman Empire at its great extent in BCE117, 76 years after Augustus' death. Resources Download this lesson as Microsoft Word file or as an Adobe Acrobat file . View a Powerpoint presentation of this lesson . Listen as Mr. Dowling reads this lesson.

Lexile Measure 1120L Mean Sentence Length 16.89 Mean Log Word Frequency 3.37 Word Count 625 Mr. Donn has an excellent website that includes a section on Ancient Rome . To cite this page (MLA): Dowling, Mike. "Caesar Augustus." Updated July 13, 2016 . Web. Date of Access. < Copyright © 2016 by Mike Dowling. All rights reserved. Ancient Rome Daily Bible Study - Ancient Empires - Rome Questions? Search all 6,500+ Bible studies on this website. Just type in topic word(s) or a question. Due to extensive use of high-quality maps and illustrations, this educational website is best-viewed with a minimum screen-resolution width of 1280 pixels Ancient Empires - Rome by Wayne Blank The ancient Roman empire spanned the time period from about 145 B.C. to 476 A.D. At its peak, centered on Rome , and connected by a vast system of Roman Roads , it was one of the most extensive and powerful in all human history.

Roman Legions conquered and ruled a vast region throughout northern Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Jesus Christ lived His entire human life under the Roman empire, the first half under Caesar Augustus (Luke 2:1), who reigned when He was born in Bethlehem , the second half under Tiberius (Luke 3:1) (a statue of Tiberius is seen in the photograph below), when He still lived at Nazareth in Galilee , before moving to Capernaum on the shore of the Sea of Galilee , until His Crucifixion at Calvary in Jerusalem . New Testament 1. Augustus (Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus) born at Rome on September 23 63 B.C. died at Nola in Campania on August 19 14 A.D. at age 77 from an illness reigned 41 years, from 27 B.C. to 14 A.D. Augustus was the first Roman emperor, a grand-nephew of Julius Caesar. He reigned at the time of the birth of Jesus Christ (Luke 2:1). 2.

Tiberius (Tiberius Caesar Augustus) born at Rome on November 16 42 B.C. died at Misenum on March 16 37 A.D. at age 79 from being smothered with a pillow while on his death bed from a terminal illness (he wasn't dying fast enough for his successor's liking) reigned 23 years, from 14 to 37 A.D. Tiberius was emperor at the time of the ministry and crucifixion of Jesus Christ (Luke 3:1) 3. Caligula (Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) born at Antium (Anzio) on August 31 12 A.D. died at Rome on January 24 41 A.D. at age 19 from assassination reigned 4 years, from 37 to 41 A.D. 4. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) born at Lugdunum on August 1 10 B.C. died at Rome on October 13 54 A.D.

at age 64 from eating deliberately poisoned mushrooms given to him by his wife Agrippina (Nero's mother). reigned 13 years, from 41 to 54 A.D. 5. Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) born at Antium (Anzio) on December 15 37 A.D. died at Rome on June 9 68 A.D. at age 31 from suicide reigned 14 years, from 54 to 68 A.D. An insane tyrant, he set the Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D. and persecuted Christians terribly. Paul, Peter, and many thousands of others were martyred during his reign. See Nero 6. Galba (Servius Galba Imperator Caesar Augustus) born near Tarracina on December 24 3 B.C. died at Rome on January 15 69 A.D. at age 72 from assassination during a rebellion among his rivals reigned 1 year, from 68 to 69 A.D. 7.

Otho (Imperator Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus) born at Ferentium on April 28 32 A.D. died at Brixellum on April 16 69 A.D. at age 37 from suicide reigned less than a year, during 69 A.D. 8. Vitellius (Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus) born on September 7 12 A.D. (birthplace uncertain) died at Rome on December 20 69 A.D. at age 57 from assassination during the Flavian Revolt, his body was dumped into the Tiber River reigned less than a year, during 69 A.D. 9. Vespasian (Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus) born at Falacrinae on November 17 9 A.D. died in Rome on June 23 79 A.D.at age 70 of illness reigned 10 years, from 69 to 79 A.D. 10.

Titus (Imperator Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus) born at Rome on December 30 39 A.D. died at Aquae Cutiliae on September 13 81 A.D. at age 42 of illness, possibly malaria reigned 2 years, from 79 to 81 A.D. Before becoming emperor, he was the commander of the Roman forces that conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple in 70 A.D. precisely as prophesied by Jesus Christ 40 years before (Matthew 24:1-2). 11. Domitian (Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus) born at Rome on October 24 51 A.D. died at Rome on September 18 96 A.D. at age 45 from assassination by his own household staff reigned 15 years, from 81 to 96 A.D.

During Domitian's reign John was exiled on the island of Patmos where he wrote the Book of Revelation (Revelation 1:9) Unlike the other empires (Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek) that affected the course of events of The Holy Bible , the Roman empire isn't done yet. Although the ancient Roman empire "fell" long ago, it didn't die - it's going to make a big come-back. But then, so is Jesus Christ. See what The Rock Of Ages is prophesied to do with Daniel's Statue and its Feet Of Iron And Clay . Those and many other studies are available in the Prophecy section. Fact Finder: What was the name of the Roman territorial king who tried to have Jesus Christ killed right after He was born? Matthew 2:13 BBC - History - The Fall of the Roman Republic The Fall of the Roman Republic By Mary Beard Last updated 2011-03-29 In the space of a hundred years, Rome was transformed from a republic with democratic institutions into an empire under the control of one man - Augustus. How did it happen?

On this page Print this page Roman revolution In 133 BC, Rome was a democracy. Little more than a hundred years later it was governed by an emperor. This imperial system has become, for us, a by-word for autocracy and the arbitrary exercise of power. At the end of the second century BC the Roman people was sovereign. True, rich aristocrats dominated politics. In order to become one of the annually elected 'magistrates' (who in Rome were concerned with all aspects of government, not merely the law) a man had to be very rich. Even the system of voting was weighted to give more influence to the votes of the wealthy. Yet ultimate power lay with the Roman people. Mass assemblies elected the magistrates, made the laws and took major state decisions. Rome prided itself on being a 'free republic' and centuries later was the political model for the founding fathers of the United States. The system was weighted to give more influence to the votes of the wealthy. By 14 AD, when the first emperor Augustus died, popular elections had all but disappeared. Power was located not in the old republican assembly place of the forum, but in the imperial palace.

The assumption was that Augustus's heirs would inherit his rule over the Roman world - and so they did. This was nothing short of a revolution, brought about through a century of constant civil strife, and sometimes open warfare. This ended when Augustus - 'Octavian' as he was then called - finally defeated his last remaining rivals Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BC and established himself on the throne. Why did this revolution happen? Daggers in the forum Painting dated 1781 depicting a young Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus with their mother, Cornelia. © Many Romans themselves put the key turning point in 133 BC. This was the year when a young aristocrat, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, held the office of 'tribune' (a junior magistracy which had originally been founded to protect the interests of the common people). As one ancient writer put it, this was when 'daggers first entered the forum'. The course of events is clear enough. Gracchus proposed to distribute to poor citizens stretches of state-owned land in Italy which had been illegally occupied by the rich.

But instead of following the usual practice of first consulting the 'senate' (a hugely influential advisory committee made up of ex-magistrates), he presented his proposal directly to an assembly of the people. Tiberius's career crystallised many of the issues underlying the revolutionary politics of the next hundred years. In the process, he deposed from office another tribune who opposed the distribution and argued that his reforms should be funded from the money that came from the new Roman imperial province of Asia. Gracchus's land bill was passed. But when he tried to stand for election for another year's term as tribune (a radical step - as one of the republican principles was that each office should be held for one year only), he was murdered by a posse of senators. Gracchus's motivation is much less clear. Some modern historians have seen him as a genuine social reformer, responding to the distress of the poor. Others have argued that he was cynically exploiting social concerns to gain power for himself. Whatever his motives were, his career crystallised many of the main issues that were to underlie the revolutionary politics of the next hundred years. Top Challenge of the army The consequences of Rome's growing empire were crucial.

Many of the poor had fallen into poverty after serving for long periods with armies overseas - and returning to Italy to find their farmland taken over by wealthier neighbours. How were the needs of such soldiers to be met? Who in Rome was to profit from its empire, which already stretched from Spain to the other end of the Mediterranean? Leading men were sometimes given vast power to deal with military threats. Tiberius's decision to use the revenues of Asia for his land distribution was a provocative claim - that the poor as well as the rich should enjoy the fruits of Rome's conquests. But Tiberius's desire to stand for a second tribunate also raised questions of personal political dominance. The state had few mechanisms to control men who wanted to break out of the carefully regulated system of 'power sharing' that characterised traditional Republican politics. This became an increasingly urgent issue as leading men in the first century BC, such as Julius Caesar, were sometimes given vast power to deal with the military threats facing Rome from overseas - and then proved unwilling to lay down that power when they returned to civilian life. There seemed to be no solution for curbing them apart from violence.

Top Intensifying crisis The events of 133 BC were followed by a series of intensifying crises. In 123-122 BC, Tiberius's brother Gaius was elected to the tribunate, introduced a whole package of radical legislation, including state-subsidised corn rations - and was also murdered. At the end of the century Gaius Marius, a stunningly successful soldier, defeated enemies in Africa, Gaul and finally in Italy, when Rome's allies in Italy rebelled against her. Unlike Julius Caesar, Sulla retired from office and died in his bed. He held the highest office of state, the consulship, no fewer than seven times, an unprecedented level of long-term dominance of the political process. Marius then came into violent conflict with Lucius Cornelius Sulla, another Roman warlord, who after victories in the east actually marched on Rome in 82 BC and established himself 'dictator'. This had been an ancient Roman office designed to give a leading politician short terms powers in an emergency. Sulla held it for two years, in the course of which he had well over a thousand of his political opponents viciously put to death.

Unlike Julius Caesar, however, who was to become dictator 40 years later, Sulla retired from the office and died in his bed. Pompey vs Caesar Marble bust of Pompey the Great © The middle years of the first century BC were marked by violence in the city, and fighting between gangs supporting rival politicians and political programmes. The two protagonists were Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ('Pompey the Great', as he was called, after Alexander the Great) and Julius Caesar. Originally allies, they became bitter enemies. Both had conquered vast tracts of territory: Pompey in what is now Turkey, Caesar in France. Caesar promoted radical policies in the spirit of Tiberius Gracchus; Pompey had the support of the traditionalists. Historians in both the ancient and modern world have devoted enormous energy to tracking the precise stages by which these two men came head-to-head in civil war. For much of this period we can actually follow the daily course of events thanks to the surviving letters of a contemporary politician, Marcus Tullius Cicero. Caesar notoriously received the kind of honours usually reserved for the gods.

But the fact is that, given the power each had accrued and their entrenched opposition, war between them was almost inevitable. It broke out in 49 BC. By the end of 48 BC, Pompey was dead (beheaded as he tried to land in Egypt) and Caesar was left - to all intents and purposes - as the first emperor of Rome. But not in name. Using the old title of 'dictator', he notoriously received the kind of honours that were usually reserved for the gods. He also embarked on another programme of reform including such radical measures as the cancellation of debts and the settlement of landless veteran soldiers. He did not, however, have long to effect change (perhaps his most lasting innovation was his reform of the calendar and the introduction of the system of 'leap years' that we still use today). For in 44 BC he too was murdered by a posse of senators, in the name of 'liberty'. Not much 'liberty' was to follow. Instead there was another decade of civil war as Caesar's supporters first of all battled it out with his assassins, and when they had been finished off, fought among themselves.

There was no other major player left when in 31 BC Octavian (Caesar's nephew and adopted son) defeated Antony at a naval battle near Actium in northern Greece. Top Augustus, emperor Marble statue of Augustus, believed to have been commissioned in 15 AD, now held at the Vatican Museums and Galleries, Italy © During his 40-year rule, Octavian established the political structure that was to be the basis of Roman imperial government for the next four centuries. Some elements of the old republican system, such as magistracies, survived in name at least. But they were in the gift of the emperor ( princeps in Latin). He also directly controlled most of the provinces of the Roman world through his subordinates, and he nationalised the army to make it loyal to the state and emperor alone. No longer was it to be possible for generals, like Pompey or Caesar, to enter the political fray with their troops behind them. Like many autocrats since, Augustus invested heavily in reshaping the city of Rome. There was a good deal of clever spin here.

The princeps rebranded himself, getting rid of the name 'Octavian', and the past associations of civil war, and called himself 'Augustus' instead - an invented name which meant something like 'blessed by the gods'. No less important, like many autocrats since, he invested heavily in reshaping the city of Rome with massive building projects advertising his rule, while poets sang the praises of him and the new Rome. He spared no effort promoting his family as a future imperial dynasty. Augustus was both canny and lucky. When he died in 14 AD, aged well over 70, he was succeeded by his stepson, Tiberius. By then the idea of the 'free republic' was just the romantic pipe-dream of a few nostalgics. Rome in the Late Republic by M Beard and M Crawford, (2nd ed, Duckworth, 1999) Et tu Brute?

Caesar's Murder and Political Assassination by G Woolf, (Profile Books, 2006) Augustan Rome by A Wallace-Hadrill, (Bristol Classical Press, Duckworth, 1998) Camridge Companion to Republican Rome by H Flower (ed), (CUP, 2004) Marcus Tullius Cicero, Select Letters by (Penguin, 2005) Top About the author Mary Beard is Reader in Classics at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Newnham College, as well as being Classics editor of the Times Literary Supplement. Her most recent book is The Parthenon (Profile Books, 2002), and her other publications include The Invention of Jane Harrison (Harvard 2002) and with John Henderson, Classical Art from Greece to Rome (Oxford History of Art Series, 2001) Tetrarchy - About the Roman Rule by Four Tetrarchy T Page for the Ancient / Classical History Glossary Tetrarchy The Tetrarchs, porphyry, probably at the Philadelphion, in Constantinople, until 1204. Now in Venice.

CC Flickr User archer10 (Dennis) OFF By N.S. Gill Definition: The Tetrarchy in Roman history refers to the division of the Roman Empire into a western and eastern empire, with subordinate divisions within the western and eastern empires. Tetrarchy comes from the Greek words for four (tetra-) and rule (arch-) or what could be called a quadrumvirate (4-man [rule]) if basing it on Latin, as would seem more apporopriate for a Roman system of rule. Tetrarchy refers to the establishment by the Roman Emperor Diocletian , in 293, of a 4-part division of the empire. Diocletian continued to rule in the east. He made Maximian his equal and co-emperor in the west. They were each called Augustus which signified that they were emperors. Subordinate to them were the two Caesars: Galerius, in the east, and Constantius in the west. An Augustus was always emperor. Sometimes the Caesars were also referred to as emperors.

This method of creating emperors and their successors bypassed the need for approval of emperors by the Senate and blocked the power of the military to elevate their popular generals to the purple. continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance [Source: "The City of Rome in late imperial ideology: The Tetrarchs, Maxentius, and Constantine," by Olivier Hekster, from Mediterraneo Antico 1999.] The reforms of Diocletian came after a period when many emperors had been assassinated. This earlier period is referred to as chaotic and the reforms were meant to remedy the mess that the Roman Empire faced. With 4 men to move through, assassination became less likely, so at least in this sense, this was a more stable form of government. Go to Other Ancient / Classical History Glossary pages beginning with the letter

Question: The Caesars ruled which ancient empire?
Answer: Roman