Music Staff & Musical Notation or Symbols - The Staves musictheory 0 Comment Western music is usually written on a staff. People were talking long before they invented writing. People were also making music long before anyone wrote any music down. Some musicians still play “by ear” (without written music), and some music traditions rely more on improvisation and/or “by ear” learning. But written music is very useful, for many of the same reasons that written words are useful. Music is easier to study and share if it is written down. Western music specializes in long, complex pieces for large groups of musicians singing or playing parts exactly as a composer intended. Without written music, this would be too difficult. Many different types of music notation have been invented, and some, such as tablature, are still in use. By far the most widespread way to write music, however, is on a staff. In fact, this type of written music is so ubiquitous that it is called common notation. Music theory : the staff The staff (plural staves) is written as five horizontal parallel lines. Most of the notes of the music are placed on one of these lines or in a space in between lines.

Extra ledger lines may be added to show a note that is too high or too low to be on the staff. Vertical bar lines divide the staff into short sections called measures or bars. A double bar line, either heavy or light, is used to mark the ends of larger sections of music, including the very end of a piece, which is marked by a heavy double bar. The Staff The five horizontal lines are the lines of the staff. In between the lines are the spaces. If a note is above or below the staff, ledger lines are added to show how far above or below. Shorter vertical lines are bar lines. The most important symbols on the staff, the clef symbol, key signature and time signature, appear at the beginning of the staff. Many different kinds of symbols can appear on, above, and below the staff. The notes and rests are the actual written music. Other symbols on the staff, like the clef symbol, the key signature, and the time signature, tell you important information about the notes and measures.

Symbols that appear above and below the music may tell you how fast it goes (tempo markings), how loud it should be (dynamic markings), where to go next (repeats, for example) and even give directions for how to perform particular notes (accents, for example). Other Symbols on the Staff A notes stands for a sound; a rest stands for a silence. There are many other symbols on and around the staff that give directions for playing the music; the most important of these symbols give the clef, the key signature, and the time signature. But it is the notes and rests that are the actual written music. The bar lines divide the staff into short sections called bars or measures. The notes (sounds) and rests (silences) are the written music. Many other symbols may appear on, above, or below the staff, giving directions for how to play the music. Groups of staves Staves are read from left to right. Beginning at the top of the page, they are read one staff at a time unless they are connected. If staves should be played at the same time (by the same person or by different people), they will be connected at least by a long vertical line at the left hand side.

They may also be connected by their bar lines. Staves played by similar instruments or voices, or staves that should be played by the same person (for example, the right hand and left hand of a piano part) may be grouped together by braces or brackets at the beginning of each line. Groups of Staves When many staves are to be played at the same time, as in this orchestral score, the lines for similar instruments – all the violins, for example, or all the strings – may be marked with braces or brackets. The Staff, Clefs, and Ledger Lines Uh-oh. We just ran out of room to place notes, what happens now? Ledger Lines will solve our dilemma. A ledger line is a small line that extends the staff when we run out of room. With the ledger line drawn, we can place the A. Next, let's discuss the Bass Clef (also called the F Clef). The staff line in between the two dots of the clef is F. We can now fill the rest of the staff with notes. Finally, we will discuss the Grand Staff, a theoretical staff consisting of eleven lines. Watch what happens when we eliminate the middle line -- we end up with two regular staffs.

By adding a Treble Clef to the top staff and a Bass Clef to the bottom staff, we can see the relationship between the two staffs. Notice how the two clefs are ''joined'' by the C (shown in red). This C is commonly called ''middle C'' since it corresponds to the middle staff line on the Grand Staff. Basic Theory - Music for Beginners | Bellandcomusic.Com Basic Theory Basic Theory for beginners An Introduction to Music Theory This section on Basic Theory is an introduction to those of you that have had little or no experience in music. You may see it as a chance to brush up on basic concepts or just get to know a little more about music theory. Firstly we take a look at all the elements that make up 'music'... notes, clefs, staves, rests, intervals, accidentals, time signatures, key signatures, etc., and then we look at how these elements interact and formulate. In any field of study there is information we need to learn and apply, certain rules we need to follow, and even formulas to help us along the way.

Music theory helps us to understand the music, along with its elements, principles, applications, rules, formulas, etc., and once we understand the music, we are better prepared to create the music. We will start with the very basics. Pitch - Sound - Notes - Staves - Clefs Pitch is how low or how high sound is placed. Sound is shown on the piano for example by keys. It is shown on music by printed characters called notes. The note sounds are named after the first seven letters of the alphabet: A B C D E F G Notes are given pitch position by being placed on 5 lines and in 4 places called a Staff or Stave. We will use Stave in the following as it is less confusing in the plural form. Two Staves are in general use: One for the low sounds played by the left hand on a piano called the Bass or F Clef One for the high sounds played by the right hand on a piano called the Treble or G Clef A clef is a sign placed at the beginning of every Stave of music to give definite pitch position and an alphabetical name to all the notes placed on the Stave.

Without a Clef, we don't know what the note names are and how high or low the notes will sound. Clefs The top Clef is the Treble or G Clef - The bottom Clef is the Bass or F Clef Diagram 1. Bass Clef or F Clef - the F line (F3) passes between the 2 dots. The treble clef and bass clefs are the most commonly used clefs in modern music. MC stands for Middle C, the grandfather note. It is placed on the first ledger line above the bass clef or the 1st ledger line below the treble clef. (They are the same note) See C4 above. Ledger lines are the short lines used above and below the staves upon which notes are placed when they are too high or too low to be put on the Staves. (In Diagram 1, this is represented by C4 in the treble clef and E2 in the Bass Clef) When you go from a given note name to another note of the same name, you pass through seven different names plus the repeated one. This is 8 notes in all and is called an Octave.

A Bit Of Fun Over the centuries little sayings have been invented to help us remember the notes on the Treble and Bass Clef. The first letter of each word represents the note. Treble Clef: The notes on the lines are E G B D F from bottom to top: Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit. Treble Clef: The notes in the spaces are F A C E from bottom to top: Face Bass Clef: The notes on the lines are G B D F A from bottom to top: Good Boys Do Fine Always. Bass Clef: The notes in the spaces are A C E G from bottom to top: All Cows Eat Grass General Music Notation The time signature indicates the relationship between timing counts and note symbols, while the bar lines group notes on the staff into measures. Bar Lines Bar lines are the short vertical lines drawn across the Stave at regular metrical beat intervals according to the counting given in the time signature. Bar Lines are used to separate measures. They are also extended to connect the upper and lower staffs of a grand staff. Double Bar Lines : Used to separate two sections of music. Also used at changes in key signature, time signature or major changes in style or tempo.

Double Bold Bar Lines: Used to indicate the conclusion of a movement or an entire composition. Dotted Bar Lines : Used to subdivide long measures into shorter segments for ease of reading. When double bar lines have dots placed before them, it means that the section just played or sung is to be repeated. If the dots are placed after the double bars, the section ahead is to be repeated. In this example, the section between the dots is to be repeated... more on repeat signs . Bars are not always the same length by ruler-measurement, but each bar of a piece contains the same number of beat counts. This is shown by the time signature at the beginning of the piece. Download a free chart on all the lines in music, including bar lines. Notes & Rests Parts of A Note The length value of note sounds is indicated by the shape of the notes. This includes the note head, the stem, and the flags, hooks or beams. The shape of the head, and the absence or presence of the stems and flags, all indicate the duration of the note. There are 6 shapes in general use and three shapes not used very much. See all the notes ...free to download anytime.

The 6 notes in general use are: Semibreve - whole note A Demi-Semi-Quaver - thirty second note The 3 notes not generally used are: Breve - double whole note A Hemi-Demi-Semi-Quaver - sixty fourth note A Semi Hemi-Demi-Semi-Quaver - one hundred and twenty eighth note (You would really be pushing to play at this speed!) Basic Theory: Notes represent sound Rests represent silence Each note has a rest of the same name (e.g., quaver/eighth note - quaver rest/eighth note rest) A semibreve rest may be used for a whole bar rest at any time no matter how many beats are in each bar. Notes which have tails may be grouped instead of being left single (e.g. the quaver family may all be grouped...quaver, semi-quaver. demi-semi-quaver etc.) Most Commonly used Notes and Rests Notes Fermata, pause, or hold symbol Tie(s) 1.

A dot placed after a note makes it half as long again in value, e.g., Dotted crotchet/quarter-note = 1 + ½ (1½)beats, dotted minim/half-note = 2 + 1 (3)beats, dotted quaver/eighth-note= ½ + ¼ (¾)beats. Two dots after a note makes a note half plus a quarter longer in value .. = 1 + ½ + ¼ beats = 1¾ beats 2. A fermata, pause, or hold symbol placed above or below a note lengthens it for an indefinite period according to the performers' preference. 3. A tie is a curved line over 2 or more notes of the same alphabetical name or pitch. The first note is sounded and sustained until the values of all the notes end. In this example the note is held for 1 + ¼ beats. Music Note Names, Rests & Dotted Notes...

a detailed explanation Notes & Rests by MrTheoryGuy Rules regarding the stems of notes When notes are written from the lower part of the stave up to and on the third line, they usually have their stems placed on the right side of the note turning upwards with tails or flags down to the right. Notes written on the third line and above, usually have their stems placed on the left side of the note turning downwards with tails or flags up to the right. Tail always turn to the right Notes which have tails may be grouped instead of being left single, e.g., the quaver family may all be grouped... quaver, semi-quaver. demi-semi-quaver etc. . I hope you have enjoyed this session on Basic Theory. Keep working at it. Just remember that you have to crawl before you can walk. It's like everything in life. The more you do it, the more natural it becomes. Your confidence grows and grows and before you know it, you're an expert! Remember... Perseverance is GOLDEN.

Music Theory Books Reading Notation and Tablature | Guitar Lesson World Home Free Lessons Reading Notation and Tablature Reading Notation and Tablature Although, we love to listen to music, we need to be able to read and write it. This lesson show you how to read (and write) tablature and notation. Objectives Learn how to read the pitches on a standard notation staff. Learn how to map the pitches to the guitar. Learn how accidentals change the pitch of the note. Learn how key signatures work. Learn how tablature works to enhance standard notation. Introduction Standard notation is a very important form of written musical communication. It tells a musician which notes to play, when to play them, and how to play them. When combined with tablature, it is even more powerful. This lesson will show you how to read the pitches of the notes and how to read basic tablature. Tablature 101 Tablature, or tab, is a notation method used by stringed instruments to learn a song quickly. For guitar, it consists of six horizontal lines, which represents the strings of the guitar. The top line represents the first string. The bottom line represents the sixth string.

Numbers on the lines indicate which fret to play on that string. Although tablature does not tell you how long to play a note, it is often notated with a standard notation staff so you get the rhythm and note names as well as the exact fretting-hand fingerings. Practice Exercise: Reading Tablature Tablature is read like a book: from left to right. Because the rhythm is only notated in standard notation (and I haven’t explained that yet), listen to the audio example first. In the practice example, you will see two staffs: standard notation staff (on top), tablature staff (on the bottom). You only need to concern yourself with the tablature staff for this exercise. Playing the First Measure (The notes before the first bar line – first seven notes) Play the 3rd fret of the 5th string. Play the open 4th string. Play the 2nd fret of the 4th string. Play the 3rd fret of the 4th string. Play the open 3rd string. Play the 2nd fret of the 3rd string. Play the open 2nd string.

Notes on the Standard Notation Staff Treble Clef Standard notation is written on five horizontal lines called a staff. Each line and space between the lines represents a note. The lines and spaces of a staff can represent different notes based on which clef is used. For guitar, the treble clef, or G clef, is used. The treble clef indicates that the lines represent E, G, B, D, and F. To remember them, you can learn this common mnemonic device: Every Good Boy Does Fine. The spaces represent the notes F, A, C, E. This is easy for most guitarists to remember because is spells the word face. Notes of the lines and spaces Ledger lines are used when a note is too low or too high to fit on the staff. They extend the staff beyond five staff lines so more notes can be notated. Ledger lines are used to notate beyond the staff lines. The seven note names repeat as you move up the staff. The following figure shows the notes that the guitar can play from a low E to a high E (some guitars can play even higher notes).

Practice Song: Mary Had a Little Lamb Mary Had a Little Lamb isn’t a cool song unless you are listening to Buddy Guy’s bluesy version of it. However, it is perfect for learning notation because most people know the melody. Since I have not explained how to read the rhythms of the notes (how long to play each note) yet, I provided an audio example for you to test yourself. For this example we will play the song on one string (the fifth string). While playing this song, notice how the C note needed to use a ledger line because its pitch is too low to fit on the staff. Also, notice how the C note sounds deeper or lower in pitch than the G note. To help you visualize and play the song, look at this fretboard diagram of the 5th string (A string). Remember to place your finger behind the fret to play the note. Notes of the Fifth String (A String) Mary Had a Little Lamb Example on the 5th string An Accidental for Change Sometimes the notes between the basic seven notes need to be played. Accidentals (sharps, flats, or naturals) are used to indicate that you should play the note a half step higher or lower in pitch.

On guitar, this means you play the note one fret higher or lower, respectively. Sharps (♯) indicate that a note should be played a half step higher. Flats (♭) indicate that you should play the note a half step lower. Naturals (♮) mean that you should play the note as written without any sharps or flats. This is useful because accidentals last for the duration of the measure (explained later in this lesson). The Three Accidentals: Flat, Natural, and Sharp Practice Exercise: Using Accidentals This exercise shows you how to play accidentals. Accidentals stop working when they reach the end of a measure, or bar. Measures end at vertical lines called bar lines. The example below has 5 bars. Accidentals change the pitch of the note by a half step. Each fret on the guitar is a half step of movement. For your convenience, I added a fretboard diagram of the fourth string notes. Notice how G-flat and F-sharp are the same note and how G-sharp is the same pitch as A-flat. At this point, just remember that they are the same note. The reason for this requires learning music theory.

Notes of the Fourth String (D String) Notation for the notes on the 4th string (D string) Keying in on Keys Sometimes all the accidentals are intended to last for an entire piece of music. In this case, a key signature is used. Key signatures last until another key signature is written in the music. The diagram below shows all the possible keys and their names. Once again the reason behind the names of the keys requires learning music theory. Just remember that they are named after note names. Key signatures tell which notes are sharped or flatted by putting the center of the symbol on the line or space for that note. Example: The key of F has a flat on the B line so all the B notes are played as B-flat. Key Signatures with Sharps Key Signatures with Flats Practice Exercises: Using Key Signatures Key signatures are short-hand ways of using accidentals in music. They work by saying something like this, “Every B note will be flat unless an accidental changes the note.” Below are two examples that are played exactly the same way. One is written in the key of C (no sharps or flats in the key signature).

The other is written in the key of G (F-sharp in the key signature). The following example uses notes from both the second string and the fifth string. A diagram of the second string is provided. The fifth string diagram is given earlier in this lesson. Notes of the Second String (B String) Key Signature Example (Key of C) – Notice how the accidentals are used. Key Signature Example (Key of G) – Notice how the key signature changes how accidentals are used. Subscribe for Free Content, Tips, and More! 3 Reasons to Subscribe to the GLW Newsletter: Free Stuff! You'll get free content that is exclusive to my newsletter subscribers! Content tailored to you. Over time, I'll get to learn more about you and deliver content that motivates you to learn, play and be inspired! No spam. Just real content that's meant to make a difference in your playing Enter your name and email, and you're on your way! Success! Thank YOU for trusting me with your email and signing up to become a better guitarist. I am honored and excited to help you accomplish your guitar goals! This part is important! I intend to bring you value every time I send you something.

To do that, I need you to let me know how I can improve. You may not know right now, but let me know when you do! I hope you enjoy my free lessons and materials. It's my thanks to you for being part of the Guitar Lesson World community. Patrick There was an error submitting your subscription. Please try again. First Name Email Address We use this field to detect spam bots. If you fill this in, you will be marked as a spammer. Subscribe We won't send you spam. Unsubscribe at any time. Powered by ConvertKit Hello again! You're already subscribed to the GLW newsletter. Thank you for being a part of the GLW community. If you have a question, just send an email using my contact page. I'd be happy to help! Musical notation - Oscar van Dillen Oscar van Dillen The beginner’s learning book can be found at Basic elements of music theory . Overview of chapters: Chapter 8: Further study Introduction to notation Music is a time-art; music consists of sound and silence, performed by musicians. In musical notation therefore, symbols for both sound and silence are employed, set to a reading basis representing the flow of time.

Although an experienced musician is able to almost read music notation as one reads a book, the actual sound effect of a musical score can only be fully appreciated by hearing. Notation is basically an instruction for performance, and less so an actual representation of the sound produced. When evaluating the abilities in reading language some people may turn out to have a from of dyslexia, likewise it is also possible when evaluating the abilities in reading sheet music, some people may turn out to have dysmusia, at least this is both a phenomenon and a term currently being proposed and investigated. 1 Notation of time and rhythm Symbols for notes and rests To represent different durations of tones, different note symbols were developed. The normal ratio of durations is 1:2, each smaller, faster note being twice as fast, or: half as long, which amounts to the same result, as the larger one. The system begins with the whole note. The smaller values then are the half note, quarter note, eighth note, etc., always halving the previous value.

Older terms for these note symbols are still in use in some countries, such as “quaver”, “semi-quaver” and “crotchet”, but I consider these to be both confusing and outdated, so I prefer to use the numerical values and names. Nevertheless, a simple table comparing both systems of naming is given here: International numerical nomenclature Below are the notation symbols for most of these values: note values A similar system of symbols with relative durations is used for musical silences, called pauses or rests. rest values The whole rest can be used for two purposes: A true whole rest, with the exact value of a whole note; A full bar rest, not literally corresponding to and therefore independent of time signature. Meter Meter is a usually simple repeating cycle of rhythm originating from poetry. Rhythms are often linked to meters which are also used in poetry.

In Europe, these can be traced back to the ancient Greek meters, some of which have a binary strucure: iamb ᴗ – dactyl – ᴗ ᴗ amphibrach ᴗ – ᴗ In Ottoman as well as in classical Arabic poetry 2 on rhythm and meter, a related but more complex system of 16 different meters was used, which explains why the rhythms in the music linked to these traditions are also more complex than those that are common in the West. Example of text and meter: 3 example of meter in poetry There is a strong link to language and poetry in most of the world’s musical traditions, and such naturally leads to the use of meter in music. Meter in music is commonly represented by time signatures in notation. With the use of a time signature, it becomes mandatory to visually divide the notes into groups separated by vertical lines. Such groups are called bars. Each bar within one time signature has the exact same duration, with no notes nor rests more nor less than its full duration. Meter in music is represented by time signatures. Time signature and bar A time signature consists of two numbers, one above the other, without a horizontal line between them (it is not a fraction).

The upper number indicates the number of beats, the lower number represents the note value used for one beat. Although time signatures using the quarter or eighth notes as basis are more common, theoretically many more are possible, and indeed sometimes used. The most common time signatures are two-four, three-four, four-four and six-eight. Eighth and smaller notes can now be grouped and visually linked together per beat. In grouping these smaller note-values thick horizontal lines, called beams, are employed. These are double beams in the case of sixteenth notes, triple beams with thirty-second notes, etc. It is also possible to thus beam together notes of different values, as long as the beamed groups are a clear representation of the beat-structure. Further details on beaming will be explained later in this outline. With the use of time signatures, the notes become grouped in units called bars or measures, each group separated from the next by a vertical line, called the barline. Any grouping of notes that is more complex than the time signature within it is notated represents a rhythm. Meter itself may be considered a rhythm, a simple rhythm, but rhythm is generally not a meter. A longer sequence of rhythmical values may constitute a phrase.

Binary time signatures Binary time signatures are time signatures that have two (sub-)beats per beat, and can be recognized by the top number being 2, 3 and 4. Usually the lower number is 4, pointing to the 1/4 note (sometimes the 1/2 note occurs in older music). The following examples show how such time signatures can be used in their most simple form: Dots Note that the last bar of a piece always ends with a double barline. Note also that a dot is used here to make a three-part note out of a two-part note: any dot adds 50% to its duration. A half note is the same as two quarter notes which is two beats. The dotted half note however equals three quarter notes, which in these time signatures equals three beats. Dots can be equally applied to notes and rests. The following examples that also include rests show how these dots can be used for more complex rhythms: Ternary time signatures Ternary time signatures are time signatures that have three (sub-)beats per beat, and can be recognized by the top number being 6, 9, 12; numbers of the multiplication table of 3, except 3 itself .

(Though higher and lower valuses are possible, most often the lower number is 8, pointing to the 1/8 note; examples of these can be seen below: Six-eight may be ternary per beat, it is in itself a binary time signature, as it has two beats per bar. Note that with ternary beats, it is the dotted notes that represent a one-beat note! Ties So far we have seen note-values which fit neatly into a time signature, and durations which are also corresponding to the basic structure. But not everything can be notated this way. Often it will be necessary to use more irregular divisions and durations. The use of ties allows for more flexibility in connecting notes. Two notes tied together become one value, and are performed as one tone. Note how the second dot adds another 25%. The durations thus represented make sense only when notating sustained tones, such as of singers or wind instruments. For percussive music, such ties are normally not used, and this very same rhythm can be notated as below, with rests instead of ties: The tie is notated from one note head to the next note head, it cannot tie several notes together with one symbol only.

A tie cannot ever connect two different pitches, or tones, only two that are identical (but a slur can). The tie is therefore a rhythmical symbol. Still, graphically the tie looks somewhat like a slur, but this is a sign to represent not the rhythmical, but the uninterrupted connection of various different tones being sung, played or bowed in one go. The difference is thus that ties are always used between just two notes representing exactly the same pitches or tones. The slur will be shown later, in the section on articulation. As the relative silences of rests are identical, rests are never tied together! Tuplets Finally, to complete the rhythmic possibilities of musical notation, what are called tuplets allow for even more subtle subdivisions, and even more variations per beat or beat-group become possible. A tuplet is a temporary deviation from the theoretically normal division or subdivision within a time signature. Tuplets can be notated in various ways, with one number or a ratio (used especially for more unusual ratios). Depending on whether the group is connected, square brackets can be used to indicate exactly which are the notes and durations concerned.

Tuplets always change from the time signature (sub)divisions to another regular (sub)division, which could also be represented by time signature changes. Tuplets are used for temporary changes in rhythm or when time signature changes would become too complicated for practical reading. The most common tuplet is the triplet, allowing for three against two notes. Other examples are the quadruplet (four against three), or quintuplet (five against four or three). It is also possible to created nested tuplets: tuplets within tuplets. When writing such things, musicians often overlook simpler ways of writing the exact same rhythm. As notation is intended for practical use by performers, overcomplicated notation tends to create confusion and should be avoided. Besides, very complex ratios are hardly if ever performed mathematically exact, except by percussionists. The following slightly complex example contains the same rhythm thrice, notated in three different ways, ranging from simple to complex notation: Of course, in these different examples, a slightly different counting and even tempo and feel are used. The indication of tempo in notation is generally important, especially when the sheet music is to be studied in situations without direct contact to the writer thereof.

Basic tempo indication Basic tempo indications are done with the one-beat note-value, an = sign and the number of beats per minute (also called bpm). The example above could then be notated in the following way, to produce three times the exact same rhythm, because of the tempo and counting adjustments notated: Note that when changing the one-beat note, the equals sign = actually means becomes. More on tempo indications can be found in the section on other notation symbols. Correct rhythmical notation But back to basics now. As stated above, it is mandatory that the structures of the time signatures remain explicitly visible in notation. This means that connections through ties and vertical lines with shorter values must follow the beats: it is a rule that rhythmic notation must always show the beats, the natural accents pertaining to the structure of the time signature. The first bar fails to show the third beat, which is the middle accent of the time signature. Such and similar notation is rather unpractical and will easily lead to mistakes in performance. The second bar shows all the beats and is technically correct.

The third bar groups the beats evenly in two groups of two and is used very often in practice, especially in faster tempos, as more of the ‘feel’ of the bars as a whole is represented in this notation. It is therefore very important to write rhythm correctly, not only will incorrect notation lead to performance mistakes, but it also can cost valuable rehearsal time. Ritten stough spelt inca rectly maykes reeding tuff… So similar to reading text, the easier it is to grasp the music notated at first sight, the less misunderstandings will occur. The structures of the time signatures are therefore important to understand, so notation may follow them. In all time signatures, the first beat is considered to be an accent. Every beat is accented more than its subdivision, so in 4/4 the first beat is stronger than the third, and both are stronger than beats two and four. In a longer series of off-beat notes, usually called syncopations, the beat-structure behind these faster notes should always be visible in notation, like the following example demonstrates: A time signature adds a cycle, and hence a basic metric feel to a series of beats.

Thus this series of twelve eighth-notes can become musically very different, depending on the time signature: Beaming Note values smaller than 1/4 can be beamed together with the help of horizontal lines connecting the notestems; these replace the value-flags and by connections allow for more visible structuring of the rhythms intended. When writing or typesetting music notation, great care has to be taken to make the beams that touch each stem point in the proper direction, which can be either left or right. The preferred direction follows from the rhythmical grouping, where each group or subgroup is made into a visible unit by means of the value flags from the first note onwards all pointing to the right (reading direction), whereas the last one to close the group points left, backwards, to indicated its belonging to the prior notes. Any note following a beam pointing left should be on a beat or subbeat. A further refinement in beaming is possible to be able to visually group the rhythm notated by breaking beams under a common 1/8 beam, thus clearly showing the subdivision of each beat. It is also possible to beam across staves, see below under directions of notestems.

Odd time signatures A time signature without regular division and subdivision is usually an odd time signature, consisting of a prime number of beats, e.g. 5, 7 or 11. These are usually also complex time-signatures, and the intended irregular subdivisions are also shown wherever possible in notation. Complex time signatures Complex time signatures consist of a compound of irregular divisions, such as a 9/8 divided in 2+2+2+3, which is a common Middle Eastern complex rhythm. In music where such are common, these are usually indicated with a simple 9/8 indication, as the irregular subdivisions are an integral part of the music style concerned. When complex time signatures are not an integral part of the style musicians perform (such as having the example above performed by classically trained musicians), the subdivisions can better be notated more clearly with the intended subdivision indicated in the time signature itself. Notation of swing rhythm “Swing” is a term used to denote Jazz interpretation of rhythmic notation, this means: in unequal eighth-notes. The sixteenth notes are not affected by this feel. Today swing is usually notated in another font type, and indicated by adding (SWING) at the top left of the sheet music.

The 1/8 notes are approximately interpreted in triplets, with every upbeat accented. Exercises in rhythm At the end of this Outline, exercises in rhythm are provided in the section Further study . Notation of pitch Staff and clef A staff in notation normally consists of 5 parallel horizontal lines. The position of a notehead on a staff determines its pitch: a notehead can be notated either against or through lines. Special notation, such as for percussion, can also employ staves consisting of a different number of lines, even only of 1 line (e.g. for bass drum or tamtam). At the beginning of most staves a clef is employed to determine its exact usage and to determine the pitches notated. A clef (originally from French, meaning: key) determines which pitches are notated on a staff. Staff lines and ledger lines The staff lines are numbered upwards, starting with the lowest line: This numbering is used when describing notation orally, in spoken language, but can also occur in descriptive writing. Notes outside the staff are notated with the help of (one or multiple) ledger lines.

Ledger lines are small horizontal lines that act as a local extension of the staff at the position of the note, as can be seen in the next example, which shows all the steps in basic tones in a four octave scale: Commonly used clefs The following four clefs for notating pitch are still in use today, but many more historical clefs can be encountered in older sheet music 4 The G clef (sometimes also called violin- or treble clef) is used for most woodwind instruments, violin and the middle-high register in general. Middle C is notated on one ledger line below the staff. The F clef (also called bass clef) is used for low instruments, such as cello, double bass, bassoon and trombone, and the low register in general. Middle C is notated on one ledger line above the staff. The C clef can occur on the third or fourth line: On the third line it is called alto clef and used for viola and alto-trombone exclusively. On the fourth line it is called tenor clef and used for the middle-high register of low instruments, such as the cello, double bass and trombone.

In both cases, middle C is notated on the (middle) line where the clef is put. Directions of notestems and cross staff beaming As seen in the basic forms of notes, those symbols with a notestem have two versions: one with the notestem upwards, one with the notestem downwards. The proper direction of the notestem depends on several circumstances: The position of the single notehead (with 1/2 and 1/4 notes): only on the the third line of the staff one can choose freely, but should still sometimes take some care at producing a logical sequence of notes, depending on the grouping; noteheads below the third line have stems directing upwards, noteheads above the third line have stems directing downwards (bars 1 and 2) When the average of the beamed group is neither above nor below the third line, one can freely choose in which direction the stems should point.

(bar 3) In more complex groups of notes connected with beams, the amount of “upwardness” of “downwardness” of all the noteheads is calculated per group; when on average below the third line, stems go up, and when on average above the third line, stems go down; (bars 4 and 5) In staff systems performed by one player, it may be desirable to improve legibility by connecting rhythmic groups between registers in a single group beaming, connecting notes across staves. This is called cross staff beaming and is shown in the example below, containing piano notation. The first bar is the best practical notation, as the path the eye needs to follow to read all the information, is more or less in the middle of the notation. In this first bar, the stem directions vary per register group, which for the piano player means: different for each of his hands. In the other two bars, a more extreme approach makes it harder to see the beams and the tones at a glance. In different situations, composers and publishers may need to choose between such options.

Note that all these bars also have partial beam breaks through the 32nd beam line, in the middle of the rhythmic figure, visually supporting the grouping. In the first bar, where there are different stem directions within a group, the third beam is therefore added to different sides (upper or lower). Basic tones Definition of basic tones There are 7 basic tones in most music, from which all other tones are derived by alteration. Together, these 7 basic tones make up a diatonic scale, for example a church mode. These basic tones occur in different nomenclatures. Note that a tone represents a pitch, and is technically not identical to a note. Systems for basic tones There are various and different systems and nomenclatures for basically the same 7 basic tones. The examples in the following sections make use of 3 different clefs.

Alphabetic nomenclature In the international Western system, the following basic tones are used: c, d, e, f, g, a, b This alphabetic nomenclature normally denotes the following tones in notation: German nomenclature In the German nomenclature, the meaning of the letters is slightly deviant, as the b denotes an already altered tone in notation: c, d, e, f, g, a, h This special nomenclature allowed Johann Sebastian Bach to create a signature, with one note, to be read in 4 clefs, starting left then clockwise reading b-a-c-h, as is shown in the image on the right. Latin nomenclature Latin nomenclature is another widely used and originally Western system, based upon Latin solmisation: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si Relative Latin nomenclature The latin nomenclature can also be used relatively, and ”do” can then mean any chromatic tone, for example: Note that in these last transpositions, some basic tones are altered in the notation. Alteration is treated in the next paragraph.

Indian nomenclature In Indian nomenclature the following basic tones or swaras are used: SA, RE, GA, MA, PA, DHA, NI These can be represented in notation as well, in Indian notation: S R G M P D N Indian nomenclature transcribed Transcribed to Western notation, SA is usually rendered as c, even though on different instruments SA can vary, so such transcriptions may need retranscription to a certain key if intended for practical performance. There are two systems representing the lower and higher octaves, one using a dot above or below the tone, such as Ṣ. The other system is more easy to use, typing on a computer keyboard, with apostrophes to the right when higher, such as S’ and to the left when in a lower octave, such as ‘S. I will use the latter: Alteration Definition of alteration Alteration in music is the changing of a basic tone, by raising or lowering it’s pitch with one or two semitones or other microtones; opening up possibilities of alteration is the first step in the direction of a chromatic system. Symbols for alteration At the end of this Outline, exercises in melody are provided in the section Further study .

Notation of intervals, chords and harmony When notating simultaneous pitches, these are placed in exact vertical correspondence (one above the other), except with neighboring notes or smaller, as these will partially obliterate each other: these are placed diagonally or next to each other when identical. The placement of the notes is independent of the presence or absence of notestems, in the examples below the notestems are present for easier reference. Notation in scores Multiple staves can be combined into a staff-system, normal use of a staff-system will assign one staff to each instrument. Square brackets are used to group a staff-system (or a part of it) together, curly brackets assign more than one staff to one instrumental part, as is e.g. customary in piano notation. In a staff-system multiple staves are vertically synchronized like layers of simultaneous notation, the staves are connected at least at the beginning, but usually also at the end. Normally the bar lines are drawn through all the staves of a staff-system, but in case of a large score barlines between groups are not vertically connected. As a rule, the staves of higher pitched instruments are put above those of the lower instruments.

If this is done per group for all instruments of the classical orchestra, we call this the score-order of the staves. The following orchestrated example is based upon the same music as the above, yet by its very orchestral sound implies a slower tempo. It also has a larger staff-system in which the instrument groups are visually linked by the use of square brackets on the left. The groups are also kept visually apart by the interrupted barlines between the groups: In the above example there is still a lot missing: there are still no signs added to indicate tempo, dynamics, articulation or other special performance indications such as trills, mutes for the brass, stick type for timpani and so on. In a score like this it is possible to notate several musical instruments on one staff, to save space. Note however, that in these cases the notestems of the parts point in different directions (one-staff polyphonic notation).

This score, set in normal score-order for the classical orchestra (top to bottom) is: Woodwind instruments (pic, 2fl, 2ob, 2cl, bcl, 2bsn, cbn) Brass Instruments (4 hn, 3tp, 3tbn, tb) Percussion (timp) Strings (vi1, vi2, vla, vc, cb) Any additional solo-instrument would have to be added just above the first violin staff of the string section. Compact polyphonic notation Notation of chords is a simple way of notating more than one simultaneous tone on a staff. Using this notation of connecting several noteheads to one notestem, has one limitation however: all tones must have the same timing and rhythm. In various cases it may be desirable to notate more than one melody on one and the same staff, with different timing and rhythm for each changing part. The example below was composed to demonstrate what a simple two-voice notation could look like: all tones belonging to a melody share the same direction of notestems.

More complex notation can be encountered using this compact polyphonic notation, especially in certain editions of the keyboard fugues of Johann Sebastian Bach, where often also rests are included in this type of notation. 8 Other notation symbols Tempo indications An essential part of music, and therefore of notation, is the tempo. The very same music, performed in different tempi, can have vastly different effects and atmospheres. A proper choice of tempo is one of the main things any musician should be keenly aware of, and this choice is often dependent on the acoustic properties of the venue where a certain performance takes place as well.

There are many ways of notating tempo, all basic ways are indicated in the example below: Classical tempo notation Classical tempo notation is done in Italian terms, a short list of which is given here: Largo – Literally: broad, wide: very slow, one of the slowest tempo indications, only surpassed by the superlative term Larghissimo; another variation is the diminutive Larghetto, slightly less slow Lento – Literally: slow: generally slow, not further specified Grave – Literally: heavy: for serious music, with a procession-like tempo but much slower than Andante Adagio – Literally: gentle, quietly, carefully: medium slow Andante – Literally: going: slightly slow, like strolling rather than walking; the diminutive Andantino is slightly less slow, and generally lighter Moderato – Literally: moderate: moderate tempo, neither slow nor fast Allegro – Literally: merry, cheerful: generally fast, but not too fast; the diminutive Allegretto is lighter and less fast Vivace – Literally: lively: fast and lively Presto – Literally: prompt, immediate: very fast, the fastest tempo indication, only surpassed by the superlative term Prestissimo Other Italian

 tempo-related terms which are relative to prior parts can also be encountered: Meno mosso – Literally: less motion: less fast than the passage before Istesso tempo – Literally: same tempo: same tempo as before, even though this may seem to not be the case Tempo primo – Literally: first tempo: revert to the tempo of the first section of the piece Metronome numbers analog metronome Beethoven was one of the first composers to use a metronome.

Metronomes until recently 9 had a limited number of standard positions, a selection still often encountered in scores, ranging from 40-208 in steps of 3, 4, 6 or 8: 40 – 44 – 48 – 52 – 56 – 60 (indicated “Largo“) 60 – 63 – 66 (indicated “Larghetto“) 66 – 69 – 72 – 76 (indicated “Adagio“) 76 – 80 – 84 – 88 – 92 – 96 – 100 – 104 – 108 (indicated “Andante“) 108 – 112 – 116 – 120 (indicated “Moderato“) 120 – 126 – 132 – 138 – 144 – 152 – 160 – 168 (indicated “Allegro“) 168 – 176 – 18

4 – 192 – 200 (indicated “Presto“) 200 – 208 (indicated “Prestissimo“) digital metronome Today digital metronomes are in widespread use and allow for a stepwise choice of tempi in beats per minute, ranging from 40 – 208 in steps of 1.

10 An interesting fact is that the tempo numbers correspond by and large by the number of beats per minute a living human heart can support: at lower and at higher rates a person dies. Counting value changes Counting value changes can be exactly notated by comparing note values, one should take care in reading and writing this, as the ”equals” sign = should be read as becomes: meaning in the example above, that the counting value of the quarter note is henceforward replaced by the dotted quarter note as counting value, while not changing counting tempo. Jazz tempo notation In jazz, tempi are generally loosely notated, and may greatly vary per performance; even one and the same piece can be recorded or performed at a wide variety of tempi.

For reading notated Jazz, the following short list of commonly used terms is given here: (BALLAD) – “Jazz ballad“: slow, to very slow, generally with swing notation (MED BALLAD) – “Medium ballad”: medium slow, with swing notation (MED) – “Medium tempo”: with swing notation (MED WALTZ) – “Medium waltz“: medium tempo waltz, in 3/4, usually with swing notation (BOSSA) – “Bossa Nova“: medium tempo with non-swing notation (MED UP LATIN) – “Medium up tempo, Latin feel“: with non swing notation (FAST 3) – “Fast in three“: fast 3/4 tempo (UP) – “Up tempo“: fast or very fast, with swing notation Dynamic indications Dynamic indications are indications of the ”loudness”, or ”sound volume”, of the music to be performed.

The basic dynamic indications are usually printed in bold ”italics”, and are given in the example below: These Italian terms are explained here: pp, pianissimo: very soft mp, mezzo piano: medium soft mf, mezzo forte: medium loud f, forte: loud ff, fortissimo: very loud In contemporary composed music, the fourfold indications pppp and ffff are quite common, and even up to a sixfold pppppp can be found with a composer like Morton Feldman. Nevertheless all these indications are quite relative and one should not be mistaken about the apparent precision they seem to imply. In practice, many more shades and differences than e.g. MIDI allows for (128 steps) are possible, but it makes no sense trying to notate such fine nuances. When for example a whole passage is indicated mf it will be only a computer to play all these notes at the same volume; all performers subtly vary the loudness of individual notes, this practice is a normal organic element of human music in all styles and from all ages.

Other terms are: fp, fortepiano: a loud beginning, then an immediately soft sustained tone; variations such as fpp or ffmp and the like are also possible sfz, sforzato or rf, rinforzato: reinforced tone, especially at the beginning, which is generally less an accent but more a quick though gradual temporal loudness growing into and leaving the beginning of a tone Gradual and sudden transitions of dynamics are also possible, both can be seen in the example below: crescendo, or cresc.: getting louder gradually, it is also possible to indicate this by widening lines diminuendo, or dim.

is the same as decrescendo or decresc.: getting gradually softer, it is also possible to indicate this by narrowing lines subito, or sub.: “suddenly” in Italian, indicating a sudden transition to another, often unexpected, sound volume; typically, in the example above ff comes unexpectedly after a diminuendo and an unexpected pp after a crescendo; the word subito not only clarifies this beyond doubt but more importantly a performer is more likely to not oversee this intended sudden dynamic transition As a final remark to these indications being relative, let it be noted that for orchestral or big band use a mf for a trumpet more or less equals a f of a section of violins, (tenor or alto) saxophone or a french horn, and even a ff of a flute or solo violin, if measured in dB 11 . But all these dynamics depend not only on the timbre 12 but also on the register of the note played; for example a single piccolo playing f in its highest register can always be heard, even with 10 trumpets playing ff at the same time. Articulation There is a wide variety of possible articulations, many of which can be notated.

But as articulation depends not only on style but also on the musical instrument used, these articulations can greatly vary in practice. Even such basic articulations as staccato are very different in performance between for example a violin and a flute player, both classically trained. One should always check how certain players or types of players respond to certain articulation signs before prescribing these in a musical score. Some examples of articulations are provided in the example below: In different styles, there are different attitudes as well towards notated articulation. Jazz performers are used to choosing most if not all articulations themselves, often on the spot, as improvised, even when they are written out exactly in the sheet music; leading to a lively performance for sure, though perhaps not as a composer originally intended. In Jazz big bands one can expect more discipline as to the exact performance of notated articulation, especially with regard to slurs and short or accented notes.

When working with classically trained musicians on the other hand, one needs to always provide at least a minimum of notated articulation, or none at all will be performed: in this tradition, players don’t usually add their own articulations and are not used to improvising even these, unless they are soloists and performing as such. Especially string players that perform in sections need to coordinate their bowing, and will always change bowing direction when notes are not slurred. For this reason, at least the slurring of groups of notes into phrases can be recommended for string orchestras, because in this case (and only in this particular case: with string groups) it is true that adding slurs is almost mandatory, as writing them will always lead to a better and more coordinated performance, almost even independent of how the slurs are placed. When providing articulation however, one should take care not to overburden the sheet music with too many signs and symbols, as this may lead performers’ attention away from the more essential structural elements of the music, such as phrasing and breath, and so as not to provoke unnecessary mistakes.

Score indications concerning form Special barlines An additional way to indicate form sections in music can sometimes be encountered by the use of double barlines, dashed barlines, or repetition signs (double dotted barlines). In the following image examples of these can be seen. types of barlines Rehearsal numbers In longer scores so called “rehearsal numbers” -but these can also be letters- are used to easily refer to a passage for rehearsal purposes. Such indications mostly follow the form sections of the music, but this is not always the case. Rehearsal numbers are most practical when they can replace bar numbers, so e.g. “let’s play W” instead of “lets play… erm… bar … erm …. 1236…”. More score indications concerning form can be found at the section traditional Italian score indications concerning form in the chapter Concerning rhythm, melody, harmony and form. Music Theory Dictionary - The Method Behind the Music The Method Behind The Music Contact Us Jargon This is a quick guide to common music terms. It should smooth out confusions caused by too much music jargon. A Accent An accent is an emphasis on one note. Accents come in three types: dynamic, agogic, and tonic.

This is the accent symbol <. Accelerando Italian. (accel). Directs the musicians to play with gradually increasing tempo. Accidental Symbols which are used to raised or lower the pitch of a note by one half step. Ex: sharps, flats, and naturals. Adagio Italian. (affret.) Quickening or hurrying. Allargando Italian. Gradually slower, louder, and broader. Allegretto Italian. (alltto.) Light and cheerful, faster than moderato, slower than allegro. Allegro Italian. A fast tempo. In Italian the word means lively or merry. Andante Italian. A moderately slow tempo. In Italian the word means walking. Arpeggation Playing the notes of a chord one after the other. Assai The vertical lines drawn across the staff to indicate the measures in a musical composition. Beam A broad, straight line connecting two or more eighth notes. Beat The steady pulse of music. Beats form the basis of sense of musical time. Blue tone Blue tones ('worried' tones) are tones that are between the diatonic and flatted thirds and sevenths, which characterize the blues scales. Blues scale A major scale with a flat third and seventh.

It must be remembered that the flat third and seventh were sometimes 'worried' notes, thus their pitches did not always correspond to equal-tempered tuning. Boogie-woogie A modern blues style created for instrumental application. Boogie-woogie is characterized by adaptation of the ground bass principle - a repetitious bass figure that suggests the blues chord progression. Brio Italian With vigor and spirit. C A melody that can be sung against itself in imitation. Also called a round. Chord A combination of three or more pitches sounding at the same time. Chordal Texture A texture in which the musical material is concentrated into chords with relatively little melodic activity. Circle of Fifths A clockface arrangement of the twelve pitches in the order of the number of accidentals in the key signature. Common Time - C Another name for a 4/4 meter signature, sometimes written as a large capital C in place of a meter signature. Compound Division The division of the beat into three equal parts. Compound Meter A meter in which the beats have a compound division. Consonance A combination of sounds producing a feeling of stability, or of little desire for resolution. Crescendo Italian. (cresc.) A gradual increase in loudness.

Cut Time Another name for the 2/2 meter signature, it is written as a large capital C with a line drawn vertically through it. D Italian. (D.C.) Repeat from the beginning. Dal segno Italian. (D.S.) Repeat from sign. Degree One of the notes in a scale. Degrees are usually numbered starting with the tonic. Decrescendo Italian. (decresc.) A gradual decrease in loudness. Diatonic Any one of the common scales made of whole and half steps in a particular pattern. The white keys on a piano instrument from a diatonic scale. Diminuendo A combination of sounds that produce harsh, discordant results, and increase the desire for resolution. Do The solfeggio syllable that corresponds to the tonic. Dolce Italian. (dol.) Softly, sweetly, delicately. Dominant The fifth scale degree of a diatonic scale. The solfeggio syllable Sol corresponds to the Dominant. Double Flat A symbol written to the left of the note head, which lowers the pitch by a whole step. It is double the effect of a single flat. The symbol looks like two flats connected.

Double Sharp Written to the left of a note, The double sharp raises the pitch of a note by a whole step. It is double the effect of a single sharp. The symbol looks like an X. Duple Meter A meter that consists of two beats. Dynamic Accent Often indicated with an accent sign, This is an accent created when one note is louder than surrounding notes. E Two tones having the same pitch but different spelling. Espressivo The solfeggio syllable that corresponds to the subdominant. Fine Italian. The end. Flag The curved shaded line extending from the head of a stem used to indicate and eighth or shorter note. Forte G Grand Staff Keyboard music is frequently rotated using this combination of the treble and bass clefs. The two staves are arranged treble over bass. A long, curved, thick bar connects the two staves. Grave Italian. In a graceful manner. H Half Step The smallest interval on the standard keyboard. The interval between two adjacent keys (incl. both black and white keys) is a half step. Harmonic Progression Movement from one chord to the next; a succession of chords or a chord progression. Harmony The study of simultaneously sounding tones.

I A melody or melodic group is repeated in at different pitch level. Improvise To play on the spur of the moment. To perform without a prepared text or composed material. Interval The relationship between two tones. Interval, Compound Any interval greater than one octave. Compound intervals are usually expressed as simple equivalents (the "extra" octave is subtracted). ex: A major tenth interval is a simple major third. Inversion (of a melody) An ascending interval in a melody becomes as Descending interval (and vice versa) of the same size in the inversion of the melody. Inversion (of intervals) The lower tone forming the interval becomes the upper tone (or vice versa). J Jazz A popular music style influenced by the blues, popular song, and other musical genre. Jazz is characterized by highly sophisticated improvised melodic lines over chord progressions (changes) with a steady beat and considerable syncopation. K Key Music that is based on a major or minor scale is said to be in a key. Keys are identified by their tonic. Key Signature The arrangement of accidentals at the beginning of a staff. The key signature indicates the pitches that will be most common in a piece of music. Key signatures are associated with particular major and minor scales.

L The solfeggio symbol that corresponds to the submediant. Largetto Italian. A tempo slightly faster than largo. Largo Italian. A very slow tempo. In Italian, the word means broad. Ledger Line A small line written above or below the staff to extend its range. Leggiero M Major Scale A diatonic scale with half steps between the third and fourth, and the seventh and eighth scale degrees. Marcato Italian. (marc.) Maked, accented. Measure One unit of meter, consisting of a number of accented and unaccented beats. A measure is indicated in music notation by bar lines. Melody An organized succession of pitches. Meno mosso The system of regularly recurring pulses, they are most often grouped by periodic accents. Meter Signature A symbol placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate the meter of the piece. Meter signatures usually consist of two numbers, the lower indicating the note of value, and the upper the number of these notes per measure. Meter, Asymmetrical Meters in which the pulse cannot be divided into equal groupings of two, three or four in the measure. The groupings, instead, are uneven.

Examples include, 7/4, 5/4, 11/8. Meter, Compound A meter in which the basic pulse may be subdivided into groups of three. Examples include 6/8, 9/8 and 12/8. Meter, Simple Meter signatures whose upper numbers are 1,2,3 or 4. Simple meters can be divided into multiples of two(duples). Mezzoforte Mi is the solfeggio syllable that corresponds to the mediant. Middle C The C nearest to the middle of the piano keyboard. This note is an important point of reference because it is on the ledger line between the treble and bass on the ground staff. Moderato Italian. Moderate speed. Modes, Authentic Associated with Gregorian chants. The Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes are considered to be authentic. Each has the final as the first note. Modes, Plagal Also associated with the Gregorian chants, The Hypodorian, Hypophrygian, Hypolydian, and Hypomixolydian modes extend above and below the final. Morendo N Natural A symbol written to the left of a note head.

The natural cancels a pervious sharp or flat. Natural Minor Scale The basic form of a minor scale. The natural minor contains half steps between scale Degrees 2-3 and 5-6. Nonharmonic Tone A tone that does not fit into the surrounding harmony. Notation, Tablature Notation using letters, numbers, or a diagram. In the case of guitars, lutes and vihuela the diagrams frequently represent the strings of the instrument. O Ostinato Italian. A short musical pattern which repeats throughout a given passage. Ostinatos are generally a part of the supporting or accompanying material in a piece of music. P All notes of the same name on the keyboard. Poco a poco Italian. As fast as possible. Faster than presto. Presto Italian. A very fast tempo. Faster than allegro. Primary Melody The most significant melodic idea in a given musical texture. Q A meter consisting of four beats. R Re is the solfeggio syllable that corresponds to the supertonic. Rhythm The movement of the music in time. A patternn of different duration over the steady background of the beat. Ritardando Italian. (rit.) Gradual lessening of tempo.

Ritenuto Italian. Immediate reduction in tempo. Round A cannon in unison. One singer begins the round. As the first singer reaches a specific point, a second singer begins at the beginning. Rounds are usually in three or four parts. S Scale A summary of the pitches in a piece of music arranged in order from the lowest to the highest. Sequence, Modulating A sequence that leads from one total center to the next. Sforzando Italian. (sfz.) With sudden emphasis. Simple Division The division of the beat into two equal parts. Simple Meter A meter that has a simple division of beat. Sol The solfeggio syllable that corresponds to the the dominant. Solfeggio Italian. A system used to help singers to remember the pitches of a piece or section of music. Spacing The interval distance between voices or pitches of a chord. Staff A group of five horizontal lines on which music is written. Subdivision The division of the beat in simple meter (div. by two) into four equal parts or in compound meter (div. by three) into six equal parts. Swing The rhythmic style of most jazz. In swing music, the division of the beats is uneven and there is considerable stress on the notes between beats.

The feeling of swing music is compound, but it is usually written in simple. Syncopation A rhythm in which normally unaccented beats are stressed either through agogic or dynamic rhythm. T Tempo The speed of the beat in music. Tempo may be expressed in general terms (slow, fast, warp-speed) or in beats per minute. Tessitura Italian. The average range of a particular voice or instrument in a composition. If a tessitura is "high," the notes tend to be in the higher extreme of the total range of that voice or instrument. Texture A term that refers to how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are woven together in a piece of music. Theme A melodic figure or phrase that is the basis for a composition or a section of a composition. Themes can and are repeated many times in many different formats and by many different voices or instruments. *Some very good examples of thematic presentation are the closing credits for any and all of the Star Wars movies. The ending music presents all the themes presented in the movie.* Ti

Question: In musical notation, what is the name for the short lines drawn for notes that are too high or too low to fit on the stave?
Answer: Ledger lines