Pages - The People of Gibraltar The People of Gibraltar BC - The Pillars of Hercules The northern Pillar of Hercules ( 1910s - Allan Stewart) If a Gibraltarian were asked by a visiting friend about the Pillars of Hercules his probable response would be - "You are standing on one of them, mate". If they happened to be somewhere on the eastern side of the Rock, a vaguely familiar looking mountain on the other side of the strait would be pointed out and identified as perhaps being the second one. This would probably be followed by a short explanation as to how a mythical Hercules had ripped the place apart sometime in the very distant past thereby creating the Strait of Gibraltar. We are not just proud of being British - sometimes we are proud of our classical heritage as well. The Pillars of Hercules - the classical view (1450s - Nicolas Germanus - Detail ) The truth is that until I started my research for this essay the above was about the sum total of my own knowledge about the famous Pillars - including the fact that I was not entirely sure as to the actual location of the far less important Pillar - from a Gibraltarians' point of view of course - on the other side of the Strait.

I have since realised that I am not alone. It seems that the person responsible for the myths about Hercules was Peisander of Rhodes, a 7th century BC Greek epic poet who apparently got the story from an unknown Pisinus of Lindus who almost certainly plagiarised it from somebody else. In other words it's a pretty old story. According to Peisander's version Heracles - the name was later Romanised to Hercules - was advised by the Oracle at Delphi to submit to his cousin King Eurystheus and perform whatever labours he might set him. Of the twelve which he eventually carried out it is the tenth that concerns us here. It involved the capture of the cattle of the monster Geryon which meant that Heracles had to get himself to the island of Gades - today's Cadiz - where apparently Geryon had his cattle ranch. When Hercules found his passage from the Mediterranean into the Atlantic Ocean obstructed by mountains he simply rent them apart with his sword forming the Straits of Gibraltar. The two bits of mountain that were left over on either side were Gibraltar - Mons Calpe - to the north and Mount Abyla to the south - the Pillars of Hercules. But let me nitpick.

First of all it is worth noting that the creation of the Pillars of Hercules was not one of his labours. Rather than take the obvious and easier overland route to Cadiz Heracles inexplicably opted to go by sea and created a massive bit of extra work for himself. Another oddity is that although Peisander always went out of his way to depict Heracles wielding an enormous club he had him use a sword for this one. Another interpretation - Heracles using neither sword nor club - but simply brute force - to create the two "Pillars" ( 1634 - Francisco de Zubarán ) This illustration on a recent Gibraltar stamp issue also suggests a hands-on approach But perhaps the most awkward bit is the use of the words "Pillars" to describe Gibraltar and Abyla - the name of the unimportant one on the other side. And whichever mountain one chooses to call Mount Abyla on the African coast - and there is a choice of two - they do not look like pillars at all - particularly not el Hacho which is a rather insignificant hill being less than half the height of the Rock of Gibraltar.

Mount Hacho - not the most imposing of hills - also known by some as Mount Abyla (old postcard ) Looking up this quirk in various encyclopaedias and elsewhere I have found out that many people consider that the not so nearby but far more imposing Jebel Musa or Apes Hill is a much more likely candidate. The fact that there are ruins on its summit that are thought to be the remains of a temple to Heracles - makes it an interesting alternative. Looking south from Gibraltar with Jebal Musa in the distance - Is this the real Mount Abyla? (1883 - General John Miller Adye) ( See LINK ) The problem is that our ancient classical scholars were very good at describing myths but very poor at geography. For example: the 4th century Ora Maritima which was written by the Latin politician Rufus Festus Avienus mentions the Pillars in some detail. The book was essentially a traveller's account of Western Europe and much of it was based on a now long lost manuscript known as the Massaliote Periplus.

The Periplus in turn was written by an anonymous Greek in the 6th century BC and is one of the earliest works to describe the trade links between the people of the Mediterranean and those that lived beyond the Pillars of Heracles. A quote from the Ora Maritima reveals that: The Pillars of Hercules we have heard are the extremities of one continent and the other. They are in actual fact two paired mountains - Ábila y Calpe. . . . Calpe is on the Iberian side, Ábila on that of the maurusios. In the barbaric language of the Phoenicians Ábila means a tall mountain. . . on the other hand Calpe is the name given by the Greeks to something that has a hollow appearance and looks like a curved mountain. The Athenian Euctemon, however, says that there are no mountains . . . He recalls seeing close to the Libyan and European coastline two islands which are known as the Pillars of Hercules. . . .They are completely covered in forests and mariners find them very inhospitable.

"The Athenian Euctemon" belongs to the 5th century BC and whatever his fame as an astronomer, his geography sometimes left much to be desired. Nevertheless his 'islands' are not that ridiculous. Even today when looked at from the sea from afar Gibraltar does look like an island. His "tall mountain description also points at Jebal Musa as the likeliest candidate for the African Pillar. Generally classical writers of the ancient world refused to be swayed as regards the names of the Pillars. This - for example - is what the Pliny the elder, a 1st century AD - Roman author and natural philosopher had to say about it: At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side, Abyla in Africa, and Calpe in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of Hercules. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through by him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission, and so changed the face of nature. . . .

The Roman geographer Pomponius Mela in his Description of the World also wrote much the same thing. The one on this side they call Abyla, the one on the far side Calpe; together they are known as the Pillars of Hercules. Oral tradition gives us the story of the name: Hercules himself separated the mountains which had once been joined into a continuous ridge, and the Ocean, (the Atlantic) that had previously been shut out by the mountains rushed in and inundated the surrounding area. On this side of the Strait, the sea now pours in over a rather broad area . . . . The region is not very well known and is poorly endowed. . . It is populated with small towns and has small rivers. Its soil is of better quality than in its men; and the inactivity of its people make it even more obscure. Not very comfortable reading for those who now live in the "region". It is, however, Avenious, who put the cat among the pigeons when he awkwardly shifts the geography of the Pillars from the Straits to the "island" of Cadiz.

There is also the city Gadir, (Cadiz) formerly called Tartessus, with its Pillars of the tenacious Hercules, Abyla and Calpe. . . In ancient times, it was a large and wealthy state, now it is a poor, small, and abandoned heap of ruins. We saw nothing to admire here other than ceremonies in honour of Hercules. Avienus was mistaken as regards Cadiz. It was not Tartessos. On the other hand, those Pillars, however, may have actually existed - not as mountains but as real Pillars. Cadiz and its Pillars of Hercules - (1690 - J.Van Keulen - Detail) ( See LINK ) They were reputed by some to have been put there by Hercules himself to commemorate his very own creation of the Straits of Gibraltar - or to use one of its Latin names - the Fretum Herculaneum. Strabo, however, was extremely doubtful about the authenticity of the Pillars in Cadiz. In fact he had rather strong opinions about them. Most of the Greeks represent the Pillars as in the neighbourhood of the strait.

But the Iberians and Libyans say that the Pillars are in Gades, (Gadir, Cadiz) as the regions in the neighbourhood of the strait in no respect, they say, resemble pillars. Others say that the bronze pillars of eight cubits in the temple of Heracles in Gades, on which are inscribed the expense incurred in the construction of the temple, are the real Pillars; and those people who have ended their voyage visiting these and sacrificing to Heracles have noisily spread abroad that this is the end of both land and sea.. . . it . . would be right to speak of the 'Gates of Gades' if the Pillars were conceived of as at the mouth of the straits . . . But Gades is not situated in such a geographical position. Rather it lies at about the centre of a long coastline that forms a bay. The argument that the Pillars inside the temple of Heracles at Gades are in fact those of Heracles appear to me to be even less reasonable. The fame of the name "Pillars of Heracles" prevailed because the name originated, not with merchants, but rather with commanders.

Besides the inscription on them does not set forth the dedication of a reproduction but is just a summary of expenses. In my opinion these Pillars should be reminders of Heracles' mighty doings, not that of the expenses of the Phoenicians. An added distraction is the persistent - if unsubstantiated theory that Tartessos was in fact the lost continent of Atlantis giving rise to the idea that the Pillars were found there rather than in either Cadiz or the Straits The map shown above represents a section missing from a 13th century Roman world plan known as the Tabula Peutingeriana. It was probably based on a much older one. This section was a reconstruction edited in 1916 by a German historian, Konrad Miller. For unknown reasons he placed the Pillars - Columna Ercole - on an island in the Atlantic just west of the Straits which may represent Atlantis. Gibraltar is identified as Calpis and Cadiz as Gaditana.

Ruins of the Temple of Hercules - perhaps on what was once Atlantis (1872 - Leon Sonrel ) One of the many problems with the myth of Hercules - in so far as it has anything to do with Gibraltar - is that it probably does not refer to Heracles - the original Greek version of the Roman hero - but to some other mythical god or demigod. During the 12th century AD - for example - the Greek archbishop of Thessalonica Eustathius was peddling the idea that the Pillars had once been known both as the Pillars of Cronus and as the Pillars of Briareus - but gives no reason why. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography also offers another alternative name - the Pillars of Aegaeon. All these are associated more with the Atlas myth than that of Hercules and all of them are pretty unhelpful as regards explaining what those Pillars were doing in Cadiz.

Hercules wandering about with a couple of pillars - he seems to have left another couple behind ( 1550 - Heinrich Aldegrever ) A similar theme to that shown on the previous picture - Hercules carrying a couple of Pillars with Calpe and Abyla in the background - the artist seems to have forgotten about the the Strait ( 1550s - Couly Nouailher ) Strabo in fact probably hit on one possible reason: . . .the navigation carried on by the Phoenicians, is well known. A little after the period of the Trojan war they had penetrated beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and founded cities as well there as to the midst of the African coast. . . The Phoenicians were indeed the first Mediterranean people to explore the southern coasts of Iberia and crucially their main God Melqart was identified by the Greeks as Heracles. If those actual pillars in Cadiz ever existed they were meant to celebrate the exploits not of Hercules but of the Phoenician Melqart - in other words those pillars in Cadiz were the Pillars of Melqart. The question is - why Cadiz?

Once again Strabo offers a reasonable explanation which I paraphrase below: An oracle commanded the Phoenicians to found a colony at the Pillars of Heracles. The settlers . . . on arriving at the Strait thought they had reached the end of the inhabited world and of the expedition of Hercules. Taking the rocks of Calpe and Abyla for the Pillars . . . they landed . . but finding their sacrifices inauspicious they returned home. Another party sent out some time afterwards again found their sacrifices inauspicious and also returned home. A third attempt . . resulted in the foundation of Cadiz. So it was that some sought the Pillars in the headlands of the Straits while others did so at Cadiz . ( 1709 - Cadiz Johannes - Van Keulen - detail ) Generally speaking it therefore seems that we have no real idea as to which particular mountain can safely be identified as Mount Abyla - the African Pillar of Hercules. But there is more and that is the rather incongruous idea that there was a sign between the Pillars with the words Nec plus ultra. That "nec" can also be read as "Ne" or "Non".

As it is impossible to believe that a large banner stretching across the Straits ever existed we are left with the possibility that the words appeared on some other ancient representation. A good candidate would have been the Pillars at Cadiz. The meaning of this phrase is ambiguous and has been interpreted variously as "There is nothing beyond this point", "Don't go any further" or "It is risky to go beyond this". Whatever it means the Phoenicians obviously cannot have taken these warnings too seriously. The fact that Cadiz lies well west of the Pillars of Hercules must have made them well aware that it was quite possible to travel beyond them. Herodotus writing about an event that occurred as far back as the 7th century BC makes it clear that it was not just the Phoenicians in Iberia that had grasped this point. As for Libya, (The continent of Africa) we know it to be washed on all sides by the sea, except where it is attached to Asia. This discovery was first made by Necchos (II) the Egyptian king . . . who . . .

sent to sea a number of ships manned by Phoenicians, with orders to make for the Pillars of Hercules, and return to Egypt through them, and by the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians took their departure from Egypt by way of the Erythraean Sea, (the Red Sea) and so sailed into the southern ocean . . . and it was not till the third year that they doubled the Pillars of Hercules, and made good their voyage home. Next to these Phoenicians the Carthaginians, according to their own accounts, made the voyage. One modern local historian William Serfaty has gone so far as to suggest that the Nec Plus Ultra warning was a ploy by the Phoenicians intended to deter Greek and other incursions through the Strait. It is an unlikely theory as the words have come down to us in Latin and are not mentioned anywhere by any of the Greek or Latin classics. But he has a point as regards Phoenicians keenness in keeping others well away - the classics are full of the horrors of the stormy Atlantic - unknown birds and monsters of the sea some of them half man and half beast and vast squids so large they are unable to swim through the Strait into the Mediterranean.

Sea monster near Gibraltar ( Walter Plitt Quintin ) William Serfaty - "Los fenicios crearon simbologías para paralizar a los griegos y a otros pueblos frente a la entrada del Atlántico" (2004 Andalucia Mitica ) But nowhere are the actual words Ne Plus Ultra to be found. According to the OED it first came into the English Language in the mid 17th century. Its meaning is given as a warning against going on any further and is said to have been "inscribed on the Pillars of Hercules". Then rather illogically its meaning somersaulted into "the point of highest attainment". And perhaps this is a good moment to pause and reflect on a quote from the Herculean Straits which was written by Thomas James in 1771 just before he launched into a lengthy and generally incomprehensible discussion on the very early history of the Rock and the Pillars of Hercules: The reader will observe by the great disagreement of authors, the almost impossibilty of absolutely vouching for the truth of any fact." I couldn't agree more.

Rock of Gibraltar R Rock of Gibraltar The Rock of Gibraltar (sometimes by its Latin name, Calpe) is a monolithic limestone promontory located in Gibraltar , off the southwestern tip of Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . It is 426 metres (1,396 feet) high. The Rock is Crown property of the United Kingdom , and borders Spain . The sovereignty of Gibraltar was transferred to the Kingdom of Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 after the War of the Spanish Succession . Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve, which is home to around 250 Barbary Macaques - the only wild primates found in Europe. These macaques, as well as a labyrinthine network of tunnels, attract a large number of tourists each year. The Rock of Gibraltar was one of the Pillars of Hercules and was known to the Greeks as Mons Calpe, the other pillar being Mons Abyla or Jebel Musa on the African side of the Strait . In ancient times the two points marked the limit to the known world, a myth originally fostered by the Phoenicians .

Geology The Rock of Gibraltar is a monolithic limestone promontory (36°08″43′N 05°20″35′W). The geological formation was created during the Jurassic period some 200 million years ago, when the African tectonic plate collided tightly with the Eurasian plate. The Mediterranean became a lake that, over the course of time, dried up during the Messinian salinity crisis. The Atlantic Ocean then broke through the Strait of Gibraltar, and the resultant flooding created the Mediterranean Sea . The Rock forms part of the Betic Cordillera, a mountain range that dominates south-eastern Iberia. Today, the Rock of Gibraltar forms a peninsula jutting out into the Strait of Gibraltar from the southern coast of Spain. To the north, the Rock rises vertically from sea level up to 411.5 metres at Rock Gun Battery. The Rock's highest point stands 426 metres (1396 feet) above the strait.

The near-cliffs along the eastern side of the Rock drop down to a series of wind-blown sand slopes that date to the glaciations when sea levels were lower than today, and a sandy plain extended east from the base of the Rock. The western face is comparatively less steep. Calcite , the mineral that makes up limestone, dissolves slowly in rainwater. Over time, this process can form caves. Because the Rock of Gibraltar is made of limestone, it is not surprising that it contains over 100 caves. St. Michael's Cave, located halfway up the western slope of the Rock, is the most prominent and is a popular tourist attraction. Gorham's Cave is located near sea level on the steep eastern face of the Rock. It is noteworthy because archaeological excavations in the cave have found evidence that Neanderthals used it as far back as 30,000 years ago. It is especially significant because plant and animal remains found in the cave (and others nearby) indicate that the Neanderthals had a highly varied diet. Fortification The Moorish Castle The Moorish Castle is a relic of the Moorish occupation of Gibraltar, which lasted for 710 years.

It was built in the year A.D. 711, when Tariq ibn-Ziyad, the Berber chieftain first landed on the Rock that still bears his name. The principal building that remains is the Tower of Homage, a massive building of brick and very hard concrete called tapia. The upper part of the tower housed the former occupants' living apartments and Moorish bath. The Galleries A unique feature of the Rock is its system of underground passages, known as the Galleries or the Great Siege Tunnels. The first of these was dug towards the end of the four years’ siege which lasted from 1779-1783. General Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield, who commanded the garrison throughout the siege , was anxious to bring flanking fire on the Spanish batteries in the plain below the North face of the Rock. On the suggestion of Sergeant Ince of the Royal Engineers, he had a tunnel bored from a point above Willis’s Battery to communicate with the Notch, a natural projection from the North face. The plan was to mount a battery there.

There was no intention at first of making embrasures in this tunnel, but an opening was found necessary for ventilation; as soon as it had been made a gun was mounted in it. By the end of the siege, the British had constructed six such embrasures, and mounted four guns. The Galleries, which tourists may visit, were a later development of the same idea and were finished in 1797. They consist of a whole system of halls, embrasures, and passages, of a total length of nearly 1000 feet (304 metres). From them one may see a series of unique views of the Bay of Gibraltar, the isthmus, and Spain. The Second World War onwards When World War II broke out in 1939, the authorities evacuated the civilian population to Morocco , the United Kingdom, Jamaica , and Madeira so that the military could fortify Gibraltar against a possible German attack. By 1942 there were over 30,000 British soldiers, sailors, and airmen on the Rock. They expanded the tunnel system and made the Rock a keystone in the defense of shipping routes to the Mediterranean.

In February 1997, it was revealed the British had a secret plan called Operation Tracer to conceal service men in tunnels beneath the Rock in case the Germans captured it. The team in the rock would have radio equipment with which to report enemy movements. A six-man team waited under cover at Gibraltar for two and half years. The Germans never got close to capturing the rock and so the men were never sealed inside. The team was disbanded to resume civilian life when the war ended. Invincibility Despite long sieges it seemed that there was nothing that could destroy the Rock or its people. This history has inspired the simile "solid as the Rock of Gibraltar", which is used to describe a person or situation that cannot be overcome and does not fail. The motto of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and even Gibraltar itself, Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti (Latin for "No Enemy Shall Expel Us"), reflects this invincibility. For this reason, an illustration of the Rock of Gibraltar is the corporate logo of Prudential Financial. The company's slogans have also referenced the formation. Upper Rock Nature Reserve Approximately 40% of Gibraltar's land area was declared a nature reserve in 1993.

Flora and fauna The flora and fauna of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve are of conservation interest and are protected by law. Within it is a range of animals and plants, but the highlights are the Barbary Macaques (the famous Rock Apes), the Barbary Partridges, and flowers such as Gibraltar's own Chickweed , Thyme and the Gibraltar Candytuft. The Barbary Macaques may have originated from an escape of North African animals transported to Spain; it is also possible that the original Gibraltar macaques are a remnant of populations that are known to have spread throughout Southern Europe during the Pliocene , up to 5.5 million years ago. Ornithology The Rock of Gibraltar, at the head of the Strait, is a prominent headland , which accumulates migrating birds during the passage periods. The vegetation on the Rock, unique in southern Iberia, provides a temporary home for many species of migratory birds that stop to rest and feed before continuing migration for their crossing over the sea and desert. In spring they return to replenish before continuing their journeys to Western Europe , journeys which may take them as far as Greenland or Russia .

Commercial use The Rock of Gibraltar is used by Prudential Financial as their logo to suggest that the company is "rock solid" and prominent. (Wikipedia) Rock of Gibraltar Rock of Gibraltar Western face of The Rock of Gibraltar, 2006. Location of the Rock of Gibraltar's summit. Elevation Easiest route Cable car, Road, Hike The Rock of Gibraltar (sometimes called the Pillar of Hercules or by its Latin name, Calpe) is a monolithic limestone promontory located in Gibraltar , off the southwestern tip of Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. It is 426 metres (1,396 feet) high. The Rock is Crown property of the United Kingdom , and borders Spain . The sovereignty of Gibraltar was transferred to the Kingdom of Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 after the War of the Spanish Succession . Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve, which is home to around 250 Barbary Macaques, commonly known as 'apes'; they are the only wild monkeys found in Europe. These macaques, as well as a labyrinthine network of tunnels, attract a large number of tourists each year.

The Rock of Gibraltar was one of the Pillars of Hercules and was known to the Greeks as Mons Calpe, the other pillar being Mons Abyla or Jebel Musa on the African side of the Strait. In ancient times the two points marked the limit to the known world, a myth originally fostered by the Phoenicians. Geology The Rock of Gibraltar is a monolithic limestone promontory ( ). The geological formation was created during the Jurassic period some 200 million years ago, when the African tectonic plate collided tightly with the Eurasian plate. The Mediterranean became a lake that, over the course of time, dried up during the Messinian salinity crisis. The Atlantic Ocean then broke through the Strait of Gibraltar, and the resultant flooding created the Mediterranean Sea . The Rock forms part of the Betic Cordillera, a mountain range that dominates south-eastern Iberia. Inside St. Michael's Cave. Today, the Rock of Gibraltar forms a peninsula jutting out into the Strait of Gibraltar from the southern coast of Spain . To the north, the Rock rises vertically from sea level up to 411.5 metres at Rock Gun Battery.

The Rock's highest point stands 426 metres (1396 feet) above the strait. The near-cliffs along the eastern side of the Rock drop down to a series of wind-blown sand slopes that date to the glaciations , when sea levels were lower than today, and a sandy plain extended east from the base of the Rock. Its western face is comparatively less steep. A panoramic view from the top of the Rock of Gibraltar looking north. Calcite , the mineral which makes up limestone, dissolves slowly in rainwater. Over time, this process can form caves. Since the Rock of Gibraltar is made of limestone, it is not surprising that it contains over 100 caves. St. Michael's Cave, located halfway up the western slope of the Rock, is the most prominent and is a popular tourist attraction. Gorham's Cave is located near sea level on the steep eastern face of the Rock. It is noteworthy because archaeological excavations in the cave have found evidence that Neanderthals used it as far back as 30,000 years ago. It is especially significant because plant and animal remains found in the cave (and others nearby) indicate that the Neanderthals had a highly varied diet.

Fortification The Moorish Castle of Gibraltar flying the Union flag . The Moorish Castle The Moorish Castle is a relic of the Moorish occupation of Gibraltar, which lasted for 710 years. It was built in the year A.D. 711, when Tariq ibn-Ziyad, the Berber chieftain first landed on the Rock which still bears his name. The principal building which remains is the Tower of Homage, a massive building of brick and very hard concrete called tapia, the upper part of which housed the living apartments and Moorish bath of the former occupants. The Galleries The Rock of Gibraltar's North Front cliff face from Bayside (c.1810) showing the embrasures in the Rock. A unique feature of the Rock is its system of underground passages, known as the Galleries. The first of these was dug towards the end of the four years’ siege which lasted from 1779-1783. General Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield, who commanded the garrison throughout the siege , was anxious to bring flanking fire on the Spanish batteries in the plain below the North face of the Rock.

On the suggestion of Sergeant Ince of the Royal Engineers a tunnel was bored from a point above Willis’s Battery to communicate with the Notch, a natural projection from the North face on which it was proposed to mount a battery. There was no intention at first of making embrasures in this tunnel, but an opening was found necessary for ventilation, and as soon as it had been made a gun was mounted in it. By the end of the siege, six such embrasures had been constructed, in which four guns were mounted. The Galleries, which are shown to visitors, were a later development of the same idea and were finished in 1797. They consist of a whole system of halls, embrasures, and passages, of a total length of nearly 1000 feet (304 metres), and from them may be seen a series of unique views of the Bay of Gibraltar, the isthmus, and Spain. The Second World War onwards Searchlights in action, 1940 ( Imperial War Museum). When World War II broke out in 1939, the civilian population was evacuated to the United Kingdom , Jamaica , and Madeira so that Gibraltar could be fortified against the possibility of a German attack.

By 1942 there were over 30,000 British soldiers, sailors, and airmen on the Rock. The tunnel system was expanded and the Rock became a keystone in the defense of shipping routes to the Mediterranean. In February 1997, it was revealed the British had a secret plan called Operation Tracer to conceal service men in tunnels beneath the Rock in case it was captured by the Germans during World War II . The team in the rock would have radio equipment to monitor enemy movements. The team of six was sent to Gibraltar where they waited under cover for two and half years. The Germans never got close to capturing the rock, so the men were never sealed inside, and they were disbanded to resume civilian life when the war ended. Invincibility Despite long sieges it seemed that there was nothing that could destroy the Rock or its people. This history has inspired the simile "solid as the Rock of Gibraltar", which is used to describe a person or situation that cannot be overcome and does not fail. The motto of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and even Gibraltar itself, Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti ( Latin for "No Enemy Shall Expel Us"), reflects this invincibility.

For this reason, an illustration of the Rock of Gibraltar is the corporate logo of Prudential Financial. The company's slogans have also referenced the formation. The Upper Rock Nature Reserve Upper Rock Nature Reserve IUCN Category Ia ( Strict Nature Reserve) View north along the spine of the Rock of Gibraltar, within the Nature Reserve looking towards Spain. Location Rock of Gibraltar Rock of Gibraltar apfelmurks © panoramio The Rock of Gibraltar (sometimes by its original Latin name, Calpe, or from its later Arabic name: جبل الطارق, or Jabal Tariq ("Mountain of Tariq"); in Spanish: Peñón de Gibraltar) is a monolithic limestone promontory located in the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, off the southwestern tip of Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. It is high. The Rock is Crown property of the United Kingdom, and borders Spain. Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve, which is home to around 250 Barbary macaques. These macaques, as well as a labyrinthine network of tunnels, attract a large number of tourists each year.

The Rock of Gibraltar was one of the Pillars of Hercules and was known to the Romans as Mons Calpe, the other pillar being Mons Abyla or Jebel Musa on the African side of the Strait. In ancient times the two points marked the limit to the known world, a myth originally fostered by the Phoenicians. Geology The Rock of Gibraltar is a monolithic promontory. It is a deeply eroded and highly faulted limb of an overturned fold. The sedimentary strata comprising the Rock of Gibraltar are overturned (upside down) with the oldest strata overlying the youngest strata. These strata are the Catalan Bay Shale Formation (youngest), Gibraltar Limestone, Little Bay Shale Formation (oldest), and Dockyard Shale Formation (age unknown). These strata are noticeably faulted and deformed. Predominately of shale, the Catalan Bay Shale Formation also contains thick units composed of either brown calcareous sandstone, soft shaly sandstone interbedded with bluish-black limestone, and interlayered greenish-gray marls and dark gray cherts.

The Catalan Bay Shale Formation contains unidentifiable echinoid spines and belemnite fragments and infrequent Early Jurassic (Middle Lias) ammonites. The Gibraltar Limestone consists of greyish-white or pale-gray compact, and sometime finely crystalline, medium to thick bedded limestones and dolomites that locally contain chert seams. This formation comprises about three quarters of the Rock of Gibraltar. Geologists have found various poorly preserved and badly eroded and rolled marine fossils within it. The fossils found in the Gibraltar Limestone include various brachiopods; corals; echinoid fragments; gastropods (including ammonites); pelecypods; and stromatolites. These fossils indicate an Early Jurassic age (Lower Lias) for the deposition of the Gibraltar Limestone. The Little Bay and Dockyard shale formations form a very minor part of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Little Bay Shale Formation consists of dark bluish-gray, unfossiliferous shale, which is interbedded with thin layers of grit, mudstone, and limestone. It predates the Gibraltar Limestone.

The Dockyard Shale Formation is an undescribed variegated shale of unknown age that lies buried beneath the Gibraltar's dockyard and coastal protection structures. Although these geological formations were deposited during the early part of the Jurassic Period some 175-200 million years ago, their current appearance is due to far more recent events of about 5 million years ago. When the African tectonic plate collided tightly with the Eurasian plate, the Mediterranean became a lake that, over the course of time, dried up during the Messinian salinity crisis. The Atlantic Ocean then broke through the Strait of Gibraltar, and the resultant flooding created the Mediterranean Sea. The Rock forms part of the Betic Cordillera, a mountain range that dominates south-eastern Iberia. Today, the Rock of Gibraltar forms a peninsula jutting out into the Strait of Gibraltar from the southern coast of Spain. The promontory is linked to the continent by means of a sandy tombolo with a maximum elevation of . To the north, the Rock rises vertically from sea level up to at Rock Gun Battery. The Rock's highest point stands above the strait at O'Hara's Battery. The Rock's central peak, Signal Hill, stands at an elevation of .

The near-cliffs along the eastern side of the Rock drop down to a series of wind-blown sand slopes that date to the glaciations when sea levels were lower than today, and a sandy plain extended east from the base of the Rock. The western face, where the City of Gibraltar is located, is comparatively less steep. Calcite, the mineral that makes up limestone, dissolves slowly in rainwater. Over time, this process can form caves. For this reason the Rock of Gibraltar contains over 100 caves. St. Michael's Cave, located halfway up the western slope of the Rock, is the most prominent and is a popular tourist attraction. Gorham's Cave is located near sea level on the steep eastern face of the Rock. It is noteworthy because archaeological excavations in the cave have found evidence that Neanderthals used it as far back as 30,000 years ago. It is especially significant because plant and animal remains found in the cave (and others nearby) indicate that the Neanderthals had a highly varied diet. Fortification Moorish Castle The Moorish Castle is a relic of the Moorish occupation of Gibraltar, which lasted for 710 years. It was built in the year A.D.

711, when the Berber chieftain Tariq ibn-Ziyad first landed on the Rock that still bears his name. The 17th-century Muslim historian Al-Maqqari wrote that upon landing, Tariq burned his ships. The principal building that remains is the Tower of Homage, a massive building of brick and very hard concrete called tapia. The upper part of the tower housed the former occupants' living apartments and Moorish bath. Galleries A unique feature of the Rock is its system of underground passages, known as the Galleries or the Great Siege Tunnels. The first of these was dug towards the end of the Great Siege of Gibraltar, which lasted from 1779 to 1783. General Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield, who commanded the garrison throughout the siege, was anxious to bring flanking fire on the Spanish batteries in the plain below the North face of the Rock.

On the suggestion of Sergeant-Major Henry Ince of t… Text taken from Wikipedia - Rock of Gibraltar under the CC-BY-SA-3.0 on August 16, 2013 Hotels Rock of Gibraltar 1000+ images about Gibraltar on Pinterest | Rock of gibraltar, Gibraltar airport and The rock Forward The Rock of Gibraltar ("The Rock") was one of the Pillars of Hercules, known to the Romans as Mons Calpe, the other pillar, Mons Abyla, is on the African side of the Gibraltar Strait. In ancient times the two points marked the limit to the known world. The Rock is home to approximately 250 Barbary Macaques. Tourists also enjoy the elaborate network of tunnels. Located on the southwestern tip of Europe on the Iberian Peninsula, The Rock was a territory Spain and UK disputed over for… See More Gibraltar | Adkins History Adkins History The Pillars of Hercules The stretch of water between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean is known as the Strait of Gibraltar, separating Spain and Gibraltar from north Africa (Morocco).

The southernmost tip of Spain (and of Europe itself) is at the town of Tarifa, and here the African coast is only 10 miles (16 km) away. Gibraltar lies some 15 miles (24 km) north-east of Tarifa, and the African coast is almost 14 miles (22 km) away. Even though the distance to Africa is greater here, the promontories of Calpe (Gibraltar) and Abyla (Ceuta in Africa) were significant in Greek and Roman mythology, as they were believed to be the mythical ‘Pillars of Hercules’. This picture shows the Strait of Gibraltar, looking westwards. The African coast with the promontory of Ceuta is on the left. Next comes the seaway of the Strait of Gibraltar that opens into the Atlantic. The right-hand half of the picture portrays the coast of Spain, with the distinctive darker outline of the Rock of Gibraltar in front.

The Pillars of Hercules looking westwards from the Mediterranean towards the Atlantic The myth of the Pillars of Hercules originated with the ancient Greeks and was adopted Continue reading → This entry was posted on Retrospective: Trafalgar We keep talking about the number of anniversaries in 2015, so perhaps we can squeeze in one more. The 210th anniversary of Trafalgar will fall on 21st October 2015, highlighting that it took a decade after this famous sea battle for Napoleon to be defeated on land at Waterloo. In September 2001, we were travelling through Spain, a trip that we remember vividly because of the terrible events in New York on the 11th, which we barely understood as it was difficult to get hold of news. A few days later, we reached Gibraltar and visited the Trafalgar cemetery. We were then anxious for the holiday to finish, as we wanted to find out what books were available on Trafalgar and if it was a viable subject for us to tackle for our next book. As it happened, we both embarked on different projects, and it was Roy who wrote the Trafalgar book.

Since then, we have resumed writing our books as joint authors. Like all our books, it was not written for a specialist reader who wanted a blow-by-blow account of every single ship’s manoeuvres. Instead, it deals with Continue reading → This entry was posted on Apr 07, 2015 - National Geographic Explorer The impressive backlit stalactites and stalagmites at St Michael’s Cave. Model British soldiers looking out over Spain from the Upper Galleries dug into the Rock of Gibraltar. Laconic attitude of a barbary macaque in the Gibraltar nature reserves. The National Geographic Explorer departed Motril, the Spanish port that had served as our base to visit the unforgettable Spanish city of Granada, and sailed just 83 nautical miles due southwest in the Mediterranean Sea to reach a whole different world! Despite being physically a part of the Iberian Peninsula, our next port of call, Gibraltar, is culturally worlds apart, being a British Overseas Territory home to a people that adamantly refuse to become a part of Spain.

Gibraltar has belonged to Great Britain for just over 300 years, ever since it was ceded to them “in perpetuity” by means of the Utrecht Treaty in 1713, after having been captured by Anglo-Dutch forces during the War of Spanish Succession. Gibraltar has retained its status despite 15 attempts by Spain to reconquer this part of the peninsula for themselves, the most notable of these attempts being the Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779 to 1783). This remarkable peninsula, just 2.6 square miles in surface area, is now home to about 30,000 inhabitants, plus thousands of Spanish workers that travel to the area to work on a daily basis, making it one of the most densely populated areas in the world, with an economy based on tourism, shipping, and financial services. Despite this, the area has a remarkable amount to offer from a natural history perspective. We boarded small eight-passenger mini-vans driven by enthusiastic local driver-stroke-guides that talked to us about their views and personal perspectives on their tiny home’s history in barely recognizable English tinged with Spanish.

They drove us around the city, and then on to the main feature of Gibraltar, the impressive, towering monolithic promontory of Jurassic limestone that overshadows the whole area, affectionately dubbed “The Rock.” We stopped off at the lighthouse at the southernmost point of Spain to gaze over the Strait of Gibraltar to the African continent—the Rock of Gibraltar was one of the Pillars of Hercules and was known to the Romans as Mons Calpe, the other pillar being Mons Abyla on the African side of the strait. In ancient times the two points marked the limit to the known world, a myth originally fostered by the Greeks and the Phoenicians. Over the millennia, rainwater has dissolved the calcite that makes up The Rock limestone and created hundreds of spectacular caves. The most magnificent of these, known as St Michael’s Cave after a similar grotto in Monte Gargano, Italy, where the archangel Michael is said to have appeared, was the next stop on our explorations. The magnificent grotto, with its spectacular accumulation of backlit stalactites and stalagmites reminiscent of the organ pipes in an otherworldly cathedral, literally took our breath away as we entered.

The Rock has also been tunneled into by British troops, who, over close to 200 years, dug a system of over 30 miles of tunnels in the soft limestone, a veritable warren of tunnels that served a multitude of purposes, including ammunitions stores and guns making up a great defense system. The Upper Galleries, excavated during the Great Siege, are open to the public, and we explored galleries while reading the interpretative panels that brought us back in time to when the British forces had to continuously defend their tenuous hold on their Iberian outpost. The upper reaches of The Rock, an impressive 40% of the total territory of Gibraltar (albeit a very steep and uninhabitable 40%), are part of a nature reserve protecting several species of plants and animals, most notably the only wild primate population of Europe: the Barbary macaque. These incredibly charismatic creatures have recently been found to have descended entirely from northern African ancestry, probably brought over by the Moors from their native habitat in the Atlas Mountains during the centuries the area was under Moorish rule.

The population has fluctuated over the years, but after decades of being cared for by first the British Army and Gibraltar Regiment, followed by the Gibraltar Ornithological and Natural History Society, the population is thriving with close to 300 individuals belonging to five different troops. We spent hours captivated by their antics and friendly, inquisitive ways, admiring their gregarious and sociable natures, and the way all members of a troop, male and female, pitch in to take care of and entertain the youngsters. After an afternoon spent assimilating all these wonderful sights while partaking in some duty-free shopping, we gathered in the Explorer lounge for our captain’s welcome aboard cocktail party before continuing on to the next leg of our adventure along the Iberian coast. The Pillars of Hercules | Adkins History Our Books The Pillars of Hercules The stretch of water between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean is known as the Strait of Gibraltar, separating Spain and Gibraltar from north Africa (Morocco). The southernmost tip of Spain (and of Europe itself) is at the town of Tarifa, and here the African coast is only 10 miles (16 km) away.

Gibraltar lies some 15 miles (24 km) north-east of Tarifa, and the African coast is almost 14 miles (22 km) away. Even though the distance to Africa is greater here, the promontories of Calpe (Gibraltar) and Abyla (Ceuta in Africa) were significant in Greek and Roman mythology, as they were believed to be the mythical ‘Pillars of Hercules’. This picture shows the Strait of Gibraltar, looking westwards. The African coast with the promontory of Ceuta is on the left. Next comes the seaway of the Strait of Gibraltar that opens into the Atlantic. The right-hand half of the picture portrays the coast of Spain, with the distinctive darker outline of the Rock of Gibraltar in front. The Pillars of Hercules looking westwards from the Mediterranean towards the Atlantic The myth of the Pillars of Hercules originated with the ancient Greeks and was adopted by the Romans. In one version, Africa was joined to Europe, and the god Hercules cut the channel to divide them. In another version, Hercules pulled the two continents together to narrow the channel and stop the Atlantic sea monsters from bursting into the Mediterranean.

In both stories, Hercules set up the ‘pillars’ of Ceuta and Gibraltar as markers of how far he had travelled. For the people living around the shores of the Mediterranean, the Pillars of Hercules marked the limit of civilisation. Beyond lay the ‘Ocean’, which was thought to be a river encircling the earth, with any islands in it inhabited by barbarians. All but the most intrepid of sailors would have been deterred from venturing westwards by the dangers of the unknown beyond the Pillars and the real dangers from the difficult tides and currents through the Strait, where the Mediterranean and Atlantic meet. Our next book One of the Pillars of Hercules, the Rock of Gibraltar, is a natural fortress that has changed hands several times over the centuries. It was captured by the British in 1704 and ceded to Britain in perpetuity in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht. After that date, there were various attempts by the Spanish to regain the Rock, by direct assault or by siege, with no success. When France joined the American side in the American War of Independence, Spain saw another chance to regain the Rock and in 1779 declared war on Britain.

The Rock of Gibraltar from the site of the old Spanish siege lines From June 1779 until March 1783 Gibraltar was besieged, but the Rock withstood all attempts to starve it into submission or capture it by direct assault. We referred to this siege in our piece about the invention of the downwards-firing depression gun in newsletter 22 for March 2011. We are now writing a book about this siege, which we are pleased to say will be published in Britain by Little, Brown and in north America by Viking Penguin – the same publishers of our Jane Austen book. We should perhaps add that Jane Austen was 3½ years old when the siege began – it would have been the talk of her family when reading aloud their newspapers. We will keep you posted on progress in subsequent newsletters. This entry was posted on Rock of Gibraltar - Wikishire Rock of Gibraltar Jump to: navigation , search Western face of The Rock of Gibraltar The Rock of Gibraltar is a monollithc limestone promontory forming the body of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar , on the south-western tip of the Iberian Peninsula, to which it is joined by just a low sand-bar.

The Rock stands 1,398 feet high at its highest summit, O'Hara's Battery. It stands between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, commanding the Strait. The Rock has a most distinctive shape, and was once described in less happy times as "a couchant lion threatening Spain". Its north face is an almost sheer rise from the isthmus to a peak, while to the south it tumbles down more gently to Europa Point, the territory's southernmost spit. On the lower slopes of its western side spreads the City of Gibraltar, while the Rock's eastern scarp plunges to the Mediterranean Sea, leaving just a narrow strip of land for the village of Catalan Bay . The west side of the Rock is threaded with narrow roads reaching upwards to Gibraltar's more exclusive homes and ultimately to the Upper Rock, which is a nature reserve. The main city was once clustered in a narrow thread on the lower Rock, from the Landport Gate and Casemates southward along Main Street and up and over to Europa Point, though reclamation from the sea has allowed the city to spread far westward of the Watergate and indeed north of the Landport Gate. The Rock is Crown property.

Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve], which is home to around 250 Barbary macaques, the famous Gibraltar apes. The apes, as well as a labyrinthine network of tunnels, attract a large number of tourists each year. Contents 6 References Mons Calpe The Rock of Gibraltar was one of the "Pillars of Hercules" and was known to the Ancient Romans as Mons Calpe, the other pillar being Mons Abyla (now known as Jebel Musa) on the African side of the Strait of Gibraltar. In ancient times the two points were said to mark the limit to the known world, a myth originally known to the Phoenicians. [1] The Latin name of Calpe appears in the motto beneath the arms of Gibraltar (and is still seen in local commercial names. [2] The Rock's Arabic name, Jabal al Tariq ("the Rock of Tariq") gave rise to its name in English name. Fortification The Moorish Castle of Gibraltar flying the Union Flag The Moorish Castle Main article: Moorish Castle The Moorish Castle is a relic of the Moorish occupation of Gibraltar, which lasted for 710 years.

It was built in the year 711, when Tariq ibn-Ziyad, the Berber chieftain first landed on the Rock that still bears his name; Jebel al-Tariq. The principal building that remains is the Tower of Homage, a massive building of brick and very hard concrete called tapia. The upper part of the tower housed the former occupants' living apartments and Moorish bath. The Galleries The Galleries or the Great Siege Tunnels are a unique system of underground passages dug through the Rock. The first of these passages was dug towards the end of the Great Siege of Gibraltar, a four-year siege which lasted from 1779 to 1783. General Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield, who commanded the garrison throughout the siege, was anxious to bring flanking fire on the Spanish batteries in the plain below the North Face of the Rock. On the suggestion of Sergeant Ince of the Royal Engineers, he had a tunnel bored from a point above Willis's Battery to communicate with the Notch, a natural projection from the North face. The plan was to mount a battery there.

There was no intention at first of making embrasures in this tunnel, but an opening was found necessary for ventilation; as soon as it had been made a gun was mounted in it. By the end of the siege, the British had constructed six such embrasures, and mounted four guns. The North Front cliff face (c.1810) showing the embrasures in the Rock The Galleries, which tourists may visit, were a later development of the same idea and were finished in 1797. They consist of a whole system of halls, embrasures, and passages, of a total length of nearly 997 feet. From them, one may see a series of unique views of the Bay of Gibraltar , the isthmus, and Spain. The Second World War onwards When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the authorities evacuated the civilian population to Morocco, the United Kingdom, Jamaica, and Madeira so that the military could fortify Gibraltar against a possible German attack. By 1942 there were over 30,000 British soldiers, sailors, and airmen on the Rock.

They expanded the tunnel system and made the Rock a keystone in the defence of shipping routes to the Mediterranean. A secret plan, revealed only in 1997 was called "Operation Tracer", to conceal servicemen in tunnels beneath the Rock in case the Germans captured it. The team in the rock would have radio equipment with which to report enemy movements. A six-man team waited under cover at Gibraltar for two and half years. The Germans never got close to capturing the rock and so the men were never sealed inside. The team was disbanded to resume civilian life when the war ended. Invincibility Despite long sieges it seemed that there was nothing that could destroy the Rock or its people. This history has inspired the saying "solid as the Rock of Gibraltar". The motto of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and even Gibraltar itself is Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti (Latin for "No Enemy Shall Expel Us"), which reflects this invincibility. Upper Rock Nature Reserve View north along the spine of the Rock towards Spain The Upper Rock forms a nature reserve to which access is limited and an entrance fee charged. The reserve is managed by the Gibraltar Ornithological and Natural History Society.

Approximately 40% of Gibraltar's land area falls within the nature reserve, created in 1993. Flora and fauna Female ape feeding her young at Mediterranean Steps The flora and fauna of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve are of conservation interest and are protected by law. [3] Within it is a range of animals and plants, but the highlights are the Barbary macaques (the famous Rock Apes), the Barbary partridges, and flowers such as Gibraltar's own chickweed, thyme and the Gibraltar candytuft. The origin of the Apes is unknown but subject to many theories. They might may have originated from an escape of North African animals transported to Spain, or that the original Gibraltar macaques are a remnant of populations that are known to have spread throughout southern Europe during the Pliocene, up to 5.5 million years ago. [4] Others say they were first brought from Morocco by British officers as pets, or by the Moors. Birds The Rock of Gibraltar, at the head of the Strait , is a prominent headland, which accumulates migrating birds during the passage periods.

The vegetation on the Rock, unique in southern Iberia, provides a temporary home for many species of migratory birds that stop to rest and feed before continuing migration for their crossing over the sea and desert. In spring, they return to replenish before continuing their journeys to Western Europe, journeys which may take them as far as Greenland or Russia. [5] Geology Inside St Michael's Cave The Rock of Gibraltar is a monolithic promontory. It is a deeply eroded and highly faulted limb of an overturned fold. The sedimentary strata comprising the Rock of Gibraltar are overturned with the oldest strata overlying the youngest strata. These strata are the Catalan Bay Shale Formation (the youngest), Gibraltar Limestone, Little Bay Shale Formation (the eldest), and Dockyard Shale Formation (of unknown age). These strata are noticeably faulted and deformed. [6] The Catalan Bay Shale Formation consists predominately of shale. It also contains thick units composed of either brown calcareous sandstone; soft shaly sandstone interbedded with bluish-black limestone; and interlayered greenish-gray marls and dark gray cherts.

The Catalan Bay Shale Formation contains unidentifiable echinoid spines and belemnite fragments and infrequent Early Jurassic (Middle Lias) ammonites. [6] The Gibraltar Limestone consists of greyish-white or pale-gray compact, and sometime finely crystalline, medium to thick bedded limestones and dolomites that locally contain chert seams. This formation comprises about three quarters of the Rock of Gibraltar. Geologists have found various poorly preserved and badly eroded and rolled marine fossils within it. The fossils found in the Gibraltar Limestone include various brachiopods; corals; echinoid fragments; gastropods (including ammonites); pelecypods; and stromatolites. These fossils indicate an Early Jurassic age (Lower Lias) for the deposition of the Gibraltar Limestone. [6] The Little Bay and Dockyard shale formations form a very minor part of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Little Bay Shale Formation consists of dark bluish-gray, unfossiliferous shale, which is interbedded with thin layers of grit, mudstone, and limestone. It predates the Gibraltar Limestone.

The Dockyard Shale Formation is an undescribed varigated shale of unknown age that lies buried beneath the Gibraltar's dockyard and coastal protection structures. [6] These geological formations were deposited during the early part of the Jurassic Period some 175-200 million years ago, when the African tectonic plate collided tightly with the Eurasian plate. The Mediterranean became a lake that, over the course of time, dried up during the Messinian salinity crisis. The Atlantic Ocean then broke through the Strait of Gibraltar, and the resultant flooding created the Mediterranean Sea. The Rock forms part of the Betic Cordillera, a mountain range that dominates south-eastern Iberia. [6] Today, the Rock of Gibraltar forms a peninsula jutting out into the Strait of Gibraltar from the southern coast of Spain. The promontory is linked to the European continent by means of a sandy tombolo with of maximum elevation of 9 feet. To the north, the Rock rises vertically from sea level up to 1,350 feet at Rock Gun Battery . The Rock's highest point stands 1,398 feet above the strait at O'Hara's Battery .

The Rock's central peak, Signal Hill , stands at an elevation of 1,270 feet. The near-cliffs along the eastern side of the Rock drop down to a series of wind-blown sand slopes that date to the glaciations when sea levels were lower than today, and a sandy plain extended east from the base of the Rock. The western face, where the City of Gibraltar is located, is comparatively less steep. A panoramic view from the top of the Rock of Gibraltar looking north Calcite, the mineral that makes up limestone, dissolves slowly in rainwater. Over time, this process can form caves. For this reason the Rock of Gibraltar contains over 100 caves. St Michael's Cave , found halfway up the western slope of the Rock, is the most prominent and is a popular tourist attraction. Gorham's Cave is found near sea level on the steep eastern face of the Rock. Here archaeological excavations in the cave have found evidence that Neanderthals used it as long ago as 30,000 years. Plant and animal remains found in the cave and others nearby indicate that these Neanderthals had a highly varied diet.

[7] Footpaths The Rock is strung with a series of stairs and footpaths, which provide access to key areas of the Upper Rock, and while they were made for military purposes they now provide leisure walks and nature trails though some of Gibraltar's unusual and unique habitats. For many years, the Upper Rock was reserved exclusively for military use; it was fenced off for military purposes, [8] but was decommissioned and converted into a nature reserve in 1993. [9] The footpaths link many of the fortifications of Gibraltar. They were constructed from the 18th century onwards using chisels, hammers and rods to dig through the solid rock, in order to permit cannon, soldiers and supplies to be moved from ground level to gun positions and observation points established in numerous places on the Upper Rock. Most of these supply routes were later widened to permit vehicular traffic. Many of the roads on the Upper Rock have steel rings embedded in the rock alongside the carriageway, which were used as safety brakes for heavy loads such as cannon being pulled up the slope.

Some routes were retained as footpaths to enable troop movements to be concealed behind the surrounding shrubbery, and to provide alternative routes to key points if a road was congested with a heavy load. Several of the paths can be combined into a strenuous circuit of around six miles that takes about four hours to complete, providing broad views across Gibraltar, over the Strait of Gibraltar , to Spain and the coast of Morocco. [10] The most famed of these paths is the Mediterranean Steps , which lead up to O'Hara's Battery . Others include the path up the Charles V Wall , the Devil's Gap Footpath , the Douglas Path and the Inglis Way . References

Question: The Rock of Gibraltar and Mt Abyla on the African coast were known as what?
Answer: The Pillars of Hercules