Corundum: Use as a Gemstone, Abrasive, Refractory Home » Minerals » Corundum Corundum Corundum has historically been used as an abrasive, but it is most famous as the mineral of ruby and sapphire. Corundum: Two corundum crystal segments from India showing the mineral's hexagonal crystal habit and basal parting. These specimens are red in color and might be called "ruby corundum." Image © iStockphoto / Lissart. What is Corundum? Corundum is a rock-forming mineral that is found in igneous , metamorphic , and sedimentary rocks. It is an aluminum oxide with a chemical composition of Al2O3 and a hexagonal crystal structure. The mineral is widely known for its extreme hardness and for the fact that it is sometimes found as beautiful transparent crystals in many different colors. The extreme hardness makes corundum an excellent abrasive, and when that hardness is found in beautiful crystals, you have the perfect material for cutting gemstones . Natural and synthetic corundum are used in a wide variety of industrial applications because of their toughness, hardness, and chemical stability.

They are used to make industrial bearings, scratch-resistant windows for electronic instruments, wafers for circuit boards, and many other products. Corundum crystals: Photos of three corundum crystals. On the left is a common corundum from Transvaal, South Africa, that is about 6 centimeters in height. In the center is a gem-quality ruby corundum from Karnataka, India, that is about 1.6 centimeters in height. On the right is a blue sapphire corundum from Sri Lanka that is about two centimeters in height. All three specimens and photos by Arkenstone / .

Made Famous by Rubies and Sapphires Most people are familiar with corundum; however, very few people know it by its mineral name - instead they know it by the names "ruby" and "sapphire." A gemstone-quality specimen of corundum with a deep red color is known as a "ruby." A gemstone-quality corundum with a blue color is called a "sapphire." Colorless corundum is known as "white sapphire." Corundum of any other color is known as " fancy sapphire ." Corundum parting: Hexagonal crystal segments of corundum that have been separated by parting. These specimens are about one centimeter across. USGS photo by Andrew Silver. Corundum gneiss with sapphire: A specimen of corundum gneiss from Gallatin Valley, Montana. This specimen is about twelve centimeters across and has a round blue sapphire crystal on the left side. Properties of Corundum Corundum is an exceptionally hard and tough material. It is the third-hardest mineral, after diamond and moissanite. It serves as the index mineral for a hardness of nine on the Mohs Hardness Scale .

Its hardness, high specific gravity, hexagonal crystals and parting are very good diagnostic properties to use in its identification. A summary of the physical properties of corundum is given in the table below. Physical Properties of Corundum Hexagonal Uses Historically used as an abrasive. Specimens with pleasing colors have a long history of gemstone use. Montana alluvial sapphires: A scatter of small alluvial sapphires found in Montana. These blue stones are untreated and measure about four to five millimeters across. Geologic Occurrence of Corundum Corundum is found as a primary mineral in igneous rocks such as syenite, nepheline syenite, and pegmatite . Some of the world's most important ruby and sapphire deposits are found where the gems have weathered from basalt flows and are now found in the downslope soils and sediments. Corundum is also found in metamorphic rocks in locations where aluminous shales or bauxites have been exposed to contact metamorphism. Schist , gneiss , and marble produced by regional metamorphism will sometimes contain corundum.

Some of the sapphires and rubies of highest quality, color, and clarity are formed in marble along the edges of subsurface magma bodies. Corundum's toughness, high hardness, and chemical resistance enable it to persist in sediments long after other minerals have been destroyed. This is why it is often found concentrated in alluvial deposits. These deposits are the most important source of rubies and sapphires in several parts of the world. Traditional sources of alluvial rubies and sapphires include Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, India, Afghanistan, Montana, and other areas. In the past few decades, several parts of Africa, including Madagascar, Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria, and Malawi, have become important producers of ruby and sapphire. Emery wheels: An ad offering emery and corundum wheels, published in 1895 by The Springfield Manufacturing Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut. This was at a time when genuine emery and corundum were used to make the wheels. Hardness and Use as an Abrasive The extreme hardness of corundum makes it especially useful as an abrasive.

Crushed corundum is processed to remove impurities and then screened to produce uniformly sized granules and powders. These are used for grinding media, polishing compounds, sand papers, grinding wheels, and other cutting applications. Some problems with using natural corundum as an abrasive are that the deposits are usually small, irregular in shape, and the corundum is of variable quality. They are not reliable sources of consistent-quality material needed to run a manufacturing process. Synthetic corundum, produced using calcined bauxite , has become a more reliable source with more consistent properties. It has replaced natural corundum in most manufactured products. Aluminum oxide sandpaper is made by attaching size-graded particles of synthetic corundum (aluminum oxide) to a sheet of paper. It is a sandpaper widely used for woodworking and other manufacturing work. Photo © iStockphoto / Ma-Ke. Emery rock: A specimen of emery rock that is rich in corundum and spinel from Peekskill, New York. This specimen is approximately six inches (fifteen centimeters) across. Emery has often been crushed, processed, and screened for use as an industrial abrasive.

Emery nail files: "Emery boards" are a manicure and nail-care product that is made by gluing abrasive papers to a thin piece of cardboard. They obtained their name in the 1800s when crushed emery was used as the abrasive. Today's emery boards are not made with emery. Instead, many of them have a coarse side of synthetic corundum (aluminum oxide) and a fine side of garnet abrasive. Photo © iStockphoto / Acerebel. Emery Emery stone is a granular metamorphic or igneous rock that is rich in corundum. It is a mixture of oxide minerals, typically corundum, magnetite , spinel and/or hematite . It is the most common form of natural corundum that has been used to manufacture abrasives. The use of emery as an abrasive has declined significantly in the last several decades. It has been almost completely replaced by manufactured abrasives such as silicon carbide. Silicon carbide has a Mohs hardness of 9 to 9.5. It is inexpensive and usually performs better than natural abrasives made from corundum or emery.

Corundum as ruby, sapphire, and fancy sapphire: Gem-quality corundum is a highly prized and valuable material. When it is bright red in color it is called "ruby." When it is blue it is called "sapphire." When colorless it is called a "white sapphire." Gem-quality corundum of any other color is called "fancy sapphire." In the past, most gem corundum was produced in Asia and Australia. In the 1990s, many gem corundum discoveries were made in Africa. All of the stones in this photo were mined in Africa. Nearly all gem corundums are treated by heating or another process to improve their color. The best way to learn about minerals is to study with a collection of small specimens that you can handle, examine, and observe their properties. Inexpensive mineral collections are available in the Geology.com Store . Use as a Gemstone In the gemstone and jewelry market, almost all of the attention goes to a small group of gems known as "the big four": diamond , ruby , sapphire , and emerald . Two of these, ruby and sapphire, are gem corundums.

These most popular gems are highly sought after and have been mined in many parts of the world for thousands of years. Today, millions of rubies and sapphires are required every year to meet the demands of the jewelry market -- from inexpensive commercial stones sold in malls and department stores to spectacular specimens used in designer and custom jewelry. The demand for attractive stones exceeds the abilities of mines to supply. As a result, the prices paid for attractive natural stones have risen to high levels. When a consumer wants a "ruby ring" or a "sapphire pendant," they are generally not interested in substituting a red spinel , blue iolite , or other attractive gem of similar color. They want "ruby" or they want "sapphire." Retail jewelers, especially those selling pieces and sets for under $500, have been increasingly presenting synthetic or "lab-created" gems alongside the natural stones in their display cases. The synthetic materials are genuine corundums. They have the same aluminum oxide composition and crystal structure as natural rubies and sapphires. Their color is also produced by the same trace elements (chromium for ruby and iron with titanium for sapphire).

They have the same optical appeal and a better physical appearance than similar-size natural stones of the same price. As a result, many consumers now gladly purchase synthetic stones because they receive a more attractive product at a price that they can afford. Over the long term, synthetic gems are likely to continue displacing natural stones from the market, especially in the lower and middle price ranges where consumers are very conscious about price. Corundum watch bearings: Corundum (ruby) bearings in an antique pocket watch with a "jewel" movement. In the early 1900's, synthetic corundum was being used as the jewel bearings in watches. Image © iStockphoto / RobertKacpura. Corundum bearings: A drawing of jewel bearings and a capstone (red) holding a pivot wheel in a mechanical watch lubricated by oil (yellow). Public domain image by Chris Burks Chetvorno. Corundum "Jewels" in Watches In the mid-1800s, watch makers in Switzerland needed tiny bearings that were highly resistant to abrasion. They discovered that they could drill a hole into a tiny piece of corundum and use it for a smooth-running, long-life bearing.

The corundum was much harder than the metals used to make the moving parts of a watch, and it was able to stand up to the continuous abrasion without failing. This made Swiss watches and their "jewel movements" famous throughout the world for their long life and reliability. In the early 1900s, synthetic corundum bearings replaced natural corundum bearings in most Swiss watches. This use of jewel bearings created a positive reputation for Swiss watches that continues to this day - even while mechanical watches are being replaced by digital watches. Synthetic corundum: A boule of synthetic corundum. Because of its red color, it could be called "synthetic ruby." Material like this is used for watch bearings, gemstones, laser gain mediums, and many other purposes. Ruby laser: Diagram of the first working laser. It employed a thin ruby crystal as its gain medium. Public domain image by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Ruby Lasers Synthetic corundum is an essential part of many lasers. In fact, the first working laser was a "ruby laser," made by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Labs in 1960.

It employed a synthetic ruby crystal as the "gain medium." The gain medium is a material in the laser that is the target of an intense burst of light. That light causes electrons in the gain medium to jump up to a higher energy level causing the emission of photons, which strike other atoms in the gain medium, causing them to be excited and emit more photons. This brief chain reaction produces the very intense light of a laser beam. Lasers are named after the material used as a gain medium, such as "ruby laser" or "titanium sapphire laser" or "YAG laser" (yttrium aluminum garnet). In just a few decades, lasers have become common items of our society. Tiny lasers are used in CD and DVD players. Lasers are used to cut metal, stone, and other tough materials. Lasers are used to remove tattoos, perform cosmetic surgery, cataract surgery, and LASIK surgery for vision correction. Synthetic corundum scanner windows: A self-check-out machine with a barcode scanner window at a retail store in Houston, Texas. The window of the scanner is probably made from synthetic corundum. Public domain image by WhisperToMe.

Other Uses of Corundum Corundum has many other uses. It is chemically inert and resistant to heat. These properties make it a perfect material for making refractory products such as fire brick, kiln liners, and kiln furniture. Today, these products are usually made with synthetic corundum. Pure corundum is colorless, transparent, durable, and scratch resistant. Large crystals of clear synthetic corundum are grown, sawn into thin sheets, and then used as the windows of grocery store scanners, watch crystals, aircraft windows, and protective covers for electronic devices. Carborundum Company - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Carborundum Company Carborundum Company - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Carborundum Company P.O. Box 156 Niagara Falls, New York 14302-0156 U.S.A. History of Carborundum Company The Carborundum Company manufactures a diverse line of products focused on ceramic and composite technology.

Throughout its history, Carborundum has been a worldwide leader in the development and application of materials such as silicon carbide, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, and other ceramics, with a special emphasis on abrasives and refractory and insulation compounds. Carborundum products have been put to use in virtually every industry, from steel to automotive to space exploration, and, beginning in the late 1980s, the semiconductor industry as well. Long based in Niagara Falls, New York, Carborundum operates divisions in more than 30 countries and employs over 3,000 people. In 1995 Carborundum was bought by Compagnie de Saint-Gobain S.A. of France. Early in 1891, Edward Goodrich Acheson, a young scientist and inventor in Monongahela City, Pennsylvania, was attempting to create artificial diamonds using electricity. As a byproduct, his experiments produced small crystals that could cut glass, and even diamonds.

On the assumption that the new crystals were formed from a combination of carbon and corundum (that is, natural aluminum oxide), Acheson called his product Carborundum; it was not until a year later that chemical analysis of the crystals showed them to be in fact silicon carbide--the world's first artificially produced mineral. Acheson's first sale of his new product, to a New York diamond cutter, brought him $60, at about 40 cents per carat, or $880 per pound. The Carborundum Company--Acheson kept the name because he liked the sound of it--was formed in September 1891 with $150,000 raised by Acheson and a group of Monongahela investors, who paid $100 for each of 1,500 shares. Two years later Carborundum secured a $7,000 contract with George Westinghouse, who had been hired to light the Columbian Exposition Building in Chicago, for 60,000 of Carborundum's new grinding wheels.

Acheson used this money to buy the company's first dynamo; however, he soon sought a cheaper and more plentiful source of electric power, and when a hydroelectric dam was constructed at Niagara Falls, Acheson proposed to move the company closer to this power source. When his board of directors objected, Acheson formed a new board and contracted with the Niagara Power Company for 1,000 horsepower. Acheson turned to Andrew Mellon for backing to finance the move, and the Mellon family retained 20 percent ownership in the company throughout the next century. The new Carborundum plant opened in Niagara Falls in October 1895. With an abundant source of electrical power, Carborundum's next task was to develop a way to produce large quantities of the silicon carbide product. To this end the company built its first 1,000-horsepower furnaces. Using intense heat over a 24-hour cycle, chunks of silicon carbide could be formed from a mixture of sand, salt, sawdust, and coke. The resulting crystal chunks were crushed and applied to grinding wheels and other abrasive tools. The bricks used to build the furnaces, however, could not stand the intense heat.

Recognizing the heat-resistant qualities of silicon carbide, Carborundum patented the mineral for use as a refractory material in 1898. The following year, the company's first international subsidiary opened, across Niagara Falls in Canada. With the advent of industrialization, new manufacturing techniques created a demand for the new abrasives produced by Carborundum. Indeed, silicon carbide's abrasive and refractory qualities played a vital role in the growth of modern industry. Carborundum expanded rapidly. In 1905 it introduced a new abrasive, fused aluminum oxide, under the name Aloxite. At the same time, the company developed a process for producing fused silicon metal. In 1906 it opened the Deutsche Carborundum Werke near Düsseldorf, Germany, followed in 1910 by the opening of the Compagnie Fran&ccedilse Aloxite in France. Sales in that year topped $2 million. By 1913, Carborundum was producing 15 million pounds of silicon carbide each year, and its Niagara Falls plant had grown to 13 acres using 13,000 horsepower.

Its products were important to the development of many industries, including bicycle makers, the railroads, and the growing automobile and aviation industries. In 1913 a new subsidiary, The Carborundum Company Ltd., was formed in Manchester, England. The outbreak of World War I provided a major boost to the company's growth, with Carborundum's silicon carbide output fueling the war effort. With the war's end, Carborundum formed a Refractories Division to develop this part of its business. A facility for the division was purchased in Perth Amboy, New Jersey; its products were given trademarks using the suffix "frax." The first refractories--Carbofrax and Refrax--were soon joined by such trademarks as Silfrax, Mullfrax, Firefrax, and others. By the end of the war, Carborundum had quadrupled its staff, to 2,000, and its annual sales had reached $11 million. Sales dropped somewhat immediately following World War I, but the postwar industrial boom soon renewed the demand for Carborundum products.

Silicon carbide not only possessed heat resistance capabilities, but also could be used to conduct electricity at high and low temperatures. During the 1920s, the Wireless Resistor Company of America, based in Milwaukee, pioneered this use of silicon carbide in an electric heating element called "Globar." In 1927 Carborundum purchased that company, by then called the Globar Corporation, and moved its production to Niagara Falls. The new Globar division soon branched out from producing heating elements for the metal, chemical, and ceramic industries to manufacturing resistors for the burgeoning electronics market. By the end of the decade, Carborundum had also acquired A/S Smetleverk of Norway and the Hutto Engineering Company of Detroit, and the company's annual sales had risen to $17.5 million. Although growth slowed again during the Depression, Carborundum continued to expand its product line. Among its new products were the first grinding wheels to use crushed diamonds as an abrasive. Carborundum's foreign expansion continued with the acquisition in 1938 of the Australian Abrasive Pty., Ltd., in New South Wales.

By 1940, annual sales topped $20 million, and the company employed more than 4,000 people. Business boomed during the Second World War as Carborundum's production grew to support the war effort. By 1943, Carborundum's 6,000 employees produced $52 million in annual revenue. The slogan "Illegitimi Non Carborundum"--often translated as "Don't Let the Bastards Grind You Down"--helped make the Carborundum Company a household name during this time. By the end of the war, Carborundum employed roughly 20 percent of the Niagara Falls-area workforce. After the war, Carborundum once again embarked on an ambitious expansion plan. The company announced a $20 million program to upgrade and expand facilities in order to make the company more competitive in the postwar era. The Niagara Falls facilities were modernized, and new facilities were built or purchased in Wheatfield, New York; Vancouver, Washington; and Falconer, New York.

At this time, the company was decentralized into four primary operating divisions: Bonded Abrasives and Grains; Refractories; Coated Abrasives; and Globar. Carborundum continued to develop new materials and products. During the war years, Carborundum had begun development of its Fiberfrax ceramic fiber, and in 1952 the company began to market the first commercial applications of the new material. Composed of aluminum oxide and silica, the cotton-like fiber's properties of high heat resistance, light weight, and low heat transmission made it extremely versatile. Fiberfrax was soon used not only as refractory insulation, but also in the aviation, chemical, papermaking, and electrical industries, and would one day be found in such products as papers, felts, ropes, and woven textiles, including blankets. To further its research capacity, in 1953 Carborundum built a 60,000-square-foot facility for its Research and Development Division, which by then had a budget of more than $1 million per year.

Also in 1953, in response to a five-year contract with the Atomic Energy Commission, Carborundum began production of zirconium sponge metal. Within a year, its new Carborundum Metals Company plant in Akron, New York, produced 150,000 tons of the zirconium and hafnium sponge metals vital to the construction of nuclear power facilities. This marked Carborundum's first diversification beyond its traditional abrasives and refractories markets. Diversification became essential for the company's further growth. Because Carborundum had long depended directly on the capital goods market for its revenues, when that market cycled through a decline, Carborundum's fortunes went with them. During the 1950s the company stepped up the pace of its acquisitions, while moving to diversify internally. The company spent some $15 million developing its zirconium and hafnium capacity. In 1954 it acquired Stupakoff Ceramic and Manufacturing Company of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, and the American Tripoli Corporation of Seneca, Missouri, followed in the next year by the acquisition of the Curtis Machine Corporation of Jamestown, New York.

Between 1953 and 1959, new Carborundum plants opened in Brazil, Puerto Rico, Switzerland, New Zealand, India, and Belgium, bringing the company to a total of 30 plants in 10 countries. New materials developed during this time included boron nitride, KT silicon carbide, and synthetic diamonds. By 1956, annual sales reached $104 million. Not all of the company's diversification efforts were successful, however. The zirconium and hafnium markets quickly became glutted, resulting in significant losses for the company. The newly acquired Stupakoff Ceramics, which manufactured ceramic seals for electrical components, had been riding high at the time of Carborundum's purchase due to business generated by the Korean War. When that war ended, so too did Stupakoff's growth. In 1957 the Stupakoff division was combined with the Refractories and Globar divisions into a single Refractories division. Over the next decade, despite the growth of revenues to $150 million per year, Carborundum's per-share earnings stagnated.

By 1965, Carborundum had lost its leadership in the domestic abrasives market--which still accounted for some two-thirds of its sales&mdashø the Norton Company of Massachusetts. More acquisitions followed in the early 1960s, including the Tysaman Machine Company in Tennessee, Carborundum-Nederland N.V. in the Netherlands, Falls Industries in Ohio, Basic Carbon Corp. in New York, Lockport Felt Company in New York, W. T. Copeland & Sons in England, and Industrias Abrasives S.A. in Spain. By the mid-1960s Carborundum was under the direction of William Wendel, who remained company president until 1978. Under Wendel's leadership Carborundum acquisition policy followed a stricter adherence to the company's core ceramics technology while nonetheless moving beyond the capital goods market into the steel, paper, plastics, pollution control, and china industries. New plants, Toshiba Monofrax in Tokyo and a graphite electrode manufacturing plant in Kentucky, both built in 1966, exemplify Carborundum's new efforts to manufacture not only abrasives but also the machines and systems that use them.

From 1963 to 1974, Carborundum's sales rose from $162 million to $557 million, while its earnings per share more than doubled. In 1974 there were nearly 18,000 Carborundum employees. Through the 1970s sales grew an average of 16 percent and net earnings at an average of 17 percent, reaching $32.8 million in 1976. By the mid-1970s, Carborundum's success began to attract attention: after fighting off a hostile takeover attempt by Eaton Corp., Carborundum was purchased by Kennecott Copper Corporation for $571 million, which was the second-largest cash tender offer in U.S. history. Carborundum, with $713 million in sales and 19,000 employees, became a wholly owned subsidiary. William Wendel became president of Kennecott, which dropped the Copper from its name in 1980. Between 1978 and 1981 Carborundum went through three presidents.

Then, in 1981, Standard Oil of Ohio, popularly known as Sohio, purchased Kennecott and its Carborundum subsidiary for $1.77 billion. Through the 1980s, Carborundum's name was changed twice to Sohio Engineered Materials Company and Standard Oil Engineered Materials Company before returning the Carborundum name in 1988. Deeper changes were also made during this time. The company was once again reorganized, this time into three operating companies: Abrasives; Electro Minerals; and Resistant Materials. Silicon carbide continued to be one of the company's core minerals, now with the development of Hexoloy alpha silicon carbide products. The company also moved into development of materials for the growing semiconductor industry. An even more significant change occurred in 1983, when Carborundum's Niagara Falls bonded abrasives plant was closed and its coated abrasives plant sold to an independent investor, which later sold the plant to the Norton Company, although parts of Carborundum's abrasives business continued to operate under its own name.

The following year, the Electro Minerals division was sold to Washington Mills Abrasive company, and all but Carborundum's Brazilian abrasives activities were sold off to Carborundum management and other partners. Carborundum had all but left its original market. In 1987 British Petroleum acquired Standard Oil and its Carborundum subsidiary. Carborundum was organized under British Petroleum's BP Chemicals division. That year also marked the first large-volume use of Carborundum's Hexoloy material, with a shipment of automotive water pump seals to Germany. In 1989 a new structural ceramics manufacturing facility was opened in Möchengladbach, Germany, to supply the European automotive market. The company's development of aluminum nitride substrates and ceramic packages for the semiconductor industry led to the organization of a Substrates Division in 1989. The company also opened a microelectronics development center in Phoenix, Arizona, and acquired Ceradyne Specialty Products; meanwhile, it continued developing new uses for its Fiberfrax technology, while maintaining global leadership in sales of its Globar heating elements.

1990 sales of $350 million and a payroll of 4,500 employees reflected the changes the past decade had brought to Carborundum. The recession of the early 1990s cut into Carborundum's sales. By 1993 BP Chemicals reported an operating loss of over $100 million. British Petroleum then announced plans to divest its non-hydrocarbon-related businesses. Plans to sell off Carborundum were formulated by 1994 and early in 1995 BP announced its intention to sell most of Carborundum--with the exception of its ceramic fibers unit&mdashø St. Gobain S.A., the huge French glass and ceramics manufacturer. In 1990 St. Gobain had already purchased the Norton Company and its Carborundum abrasives unit; after nearly fifty years of intense competition between the Norton and Carborundum, they were to be joined into the same company. Despite a last-minute attempt by Carborundum's management to purchase the company, the sale to St. Gobain went through late in 1995.

At that time, BP was also preparing to sell Carborundum's ceramics fibers unit, possibly to Carborundum management. The acquisition of Carborundum by St. Gobain, subject to approval by the Federal Trade Commission and the governments of Great Britain, France, and Germany, was expected to be completed in 1996. Because the overlap of the two companies was minimal, St. Gobain expected to keep most of Carborundum's manufacturing facilities open, while pursuing the expansion of Carborundum's Asian and Pacific presence. Nevertheless, the future of Carborundum's management, and its Niagara Falls headquarters, was uncertain. Additional Details Wholly Owned Subsidiary of Compagnie de Saint-Gobain S.A. Incorporated: 1891 Sharpening stone - 必应 Sign in Sharpening stone Whetstones may be natural or artificial stones. Artificial stones usually come in the form of a bonded abrasive composed of a ceramic such as silicon carbide (carborundum) or of aluminium oxide (corundum). Bonded abrasives provide a faster cutting action than natural stones.

They are commonly available as a double-sided block with a coarse grit on one side and a fine grit on the other enabling one stone to satisfy the basic requirements of sharpening. Some shapes are designed for specific purposes such as sharpening scythes, drills or se ... (展开) errations. When the block is intended for installation on a bench it is called a bench stone. Small, portable stones (commonly made of bonded abrasive) are called pocket stones. Being smaller, they are more portable than bench stones but present difficulty in maintaining a consistent angle and pressure when drawing the stone along larger blades. However, they still can form a good edge. Frequently, fine grained pocket stones are used for honing, especially "in the field". Despite being a homophone with wet in most dialects of modern English, whetstones do not need to be lubricated with oil or water, although it is very common to do so. Lubrication aids the cutting action and carries swarf away. Finer grades of whetstones intended for use with oil (though, again, water may also be used) are called oilstones. Oilstones usually come in the form of bench stones.

One of the natural minerals commonly used in oilstones is Novaculite. Examples of stones made from this material include Arkansas, Ouachita or Washita stones from the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas. These come in various grades and colors, with the finer stones being denominated "surgical black" or "pink translucent". Novaculite is from the Devonian and Mississippian periods. It is a low grade metamorphic rock composed mostly of microcrystalline quartz and is basically a recrystallized variety of chert. It is also the primary material in Charnley Forest and Turkey oilstones. Extremely fine grades of stone that remove very little metal may be called polishing stones. Sharpening stone Natural stones versus artificial stones The use of natural stone for sharpening has diminished with the widespread availability of high-quality, consistent particle size artificial stones. As a result, the legendary Honyama mines in Kyoto, Japan, have been closed since 1967. Belgium currently has only a single mine that is still quarrying Coticules and their Belgian Blue Whetstone (BBW) counterparts. This scarcity causes high prices for a good quality natural stone.

Lower quality natural stones have problems with consistent grain sizes, low abrasive particle content allowing only slow sharpening, inconsistency in hardness, inclusions of large particles of other stone materials, and cracks and other natural imperfections.[citation needed] Modern synthetic stones are generally of equal quality to natural stones, and are often considered superior in sharpening performance due to consistency of particle size and control over the properties of the stones. For example, the proportional content of abrasive particles as opposed to base or "binder" materials can be controlled to make the stone cut faster or slower, as desired. Natural stones are often prized for their natural beauty as stones and their rarity, adding value as collectors' items. Furthermore, each natural stone is different, and there are rare natural stones that contain abrasive particles in grit sizes finer than are currently available in artificial stones. One of the most well-regarded natural whetstones is the yellow-gray "Belgian Coticule", which has been legendary for the edge it can give to blades since Roman times, and has been quarried for centuries from the Ardennes.

The slightly coarser and more plentiful "Belgian Blue" whetstone is found naturally with the yellow coticule in adjacent strata; hence two-sided whetstones are available, with a naturally occurring seam between the yellow and blue layers. These are highly prized for their natural elegance and beauty, and for providing both a fast-cutting surface for establishing a bevel and a finer surface for refining it. This stone is considered one of the finest for sharpening straight razors.[citation needed] The hard stone of Charnwood Forest in northwest Leicestershire, England, has been quarried for centuries, and was a source of whetstones and quern-stones. Sharpening stone Whetstones and oilstones Whetstones may be natural or artificial stones. Artificial stones usually come in the form of a bonded abrasive composed of a ceramic such as silicon carbide (carborundum) or of aluminium oxide (corundum). Bonded abrasives provide a faster cutting action than natural stones. They are commonly available as a double-sided block with a coarse grit on one side and a fine grit on the other enabling one stone to satisfy the basic requirements of sharpening.

Some shapes are designed for specific purposes such as sharpening scythes, drills or serrations. When the block is intended for installation on a bench it is called a bench stone. Small, portable stones (commonly made of bonded abrasive) are called pocket stones. Being smaller, they are more portable than bench stones but present difficulty in maintaining a consistent angle and pressure when drawing the stone along larger blades. However, they still can form a good edge. Frequently, fine grained pocket stones are used for honing, especially "in the field". Despite being a homophone with wet in most dialects of modern English, whetstones do not need to be lubricated with oil or water, although it is very common to do so. Lubrication aids the cutting action and carries swarf away. Finer grades of whetstones intended for use with oil (though, again, water may also be used) are called oilstones. Oilstones usually come in the form of bench stones. One of the natural minerals commonly used in oilstones is Novaculite. Examples of stones made from this material include Arkansas, Ouachita or Washita stones from the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas.

These come in various grades and colors, with the finer stones being denominated "surgical black" or "pink translucent". Novaculite is from the Devonian and Mississippian periods. It is a low grade metamorphic rock composed mostly of microcrystalline quartz and is basically a recrystallized variety of chert. It is also the primary material in Charnley Forest and Turkey oilstones. Extremely fine grades of stone that remove very little metal may be called polishing stones. Advantages and disadvantages The softer Japanese stones have a few advantages over harder stones. First, because they are softer they do not become glazed or loaded with the material they are sharpening. New particles are constantly exposed as they wear down, so that they continue to cut consistently. Second, they can be lubricated effectively with water (rather than oil, which can ruin some stones),[citation needed] so nothing but water is required. Finally, because they are soft, the worn material and the water form a slurry that, in conjunction with the stone, sharpens and polishes the blade. A disadvantage is that they become uneven faster than other types of sharpening stone, although the softness then makes them easier to flatten.

Grades of waterstones Historically, there are three broad grades of Japanese sharpening stones: the ara-to, or "rough stone", the naka-to or "middle/medium stone" and the shiage-to or "finishing stone". There is a fourth type of stone, the nagura, which is not used directly. Rather, it is used to form a cutting slurry on the shiage-to, which is often too hard to create the necessary slurry. Converting these names to absolute grit size is difficult as the classes are broad and natural stones have no inherent "grit number". As an indication, ara-to is probably (using a non-Japanese system of grading grit size) 500–1000 grit. The naka-to is probably 3000–5000 grit and the shiage-to is likely 7000–10000 grit. Current synthetic grit values range from extremely coarse, such as 120 grit, through extremely fine, such as 30,000 grit (less than half a micrometer abrasive particle size).

Sharpening stone Diamond plate A diamond plate is a steel plate, sometimes mounted on a plastic or resin base, coated with diamond grit, an abrasive that will grind metal. The plate may have a series of holes cut in it that capture the swarf cast off as grinding takes place, and cuts costs by reducing the amount of abrasive surface area on each plate. Diamond plates can serve many purposes including sharpening steel tools, and for maintaining the flatness of man-made waterstones, which can become grooved or hollowed in use. Flattening deformed waterstones is considered essential to the sharpening process. Diamond plates can be used to flatten these stones and are considered an alternative to more traditional methods. Diamond plates are available in various plate sizes (from credit card to bench plate size) and grades of grit. A coarser grit is used to remove larger amounts of metal more rapidly, such as when forming an edge or restoring a damaged edge. A finer grit is used to remove the scratches of larger grits and to refine an edge. There are two-sided plates with each side coated with a different grit. Stones can become rounded, reducing their effectiveness, but diamond plates remain flat. They do not require the use of a lubricant.

Industrial diamonds cost more than synthetic abrasives, making diamond sharpeners more expensive than stones. Diamond plates are also not capable of refining an edge as well or to as great an extent as synthetic or natural whetstones. grinding stone carborundum | Mining & World Quarry Find great deals on eBay for Carborundum Stone in Collectible... Carborundum Universal Ltd (Tamil Nadu, Chennai) - General ... universal corborandam grinding wheel, carborundum universal tvt, carborandum universal in trivottiyur, cumi uttarakhand, murugappagroups in chennai address... Cousins UK - Stones for Sharpening, Grinding & Finishing Count on Carborundum Stones for better abrasive, grinding, shaping, smoothing, deburring, edging, filing, sharpening and finishing needs. Carborundum is one... Carborundum stone - The Free Dictionary Information about Carborundum stone in the free online English dictionary and ... grindstone - a revolving stone shaped like a disk; used to grind or sharpen or...

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It is made of alumina, carbon materials, and scrap iron three kinds of raw materials in electric furnace melting reduction and made of brown alundum, reason for this name. Brown oxide mainly chemical composition is AL2O3, and its content from 94.5% to 94.5%, the other contains a small amount of Fe, Si, Ti, etc. Brown oxide is characterized by high purity, good crystallization, strong liquidity, low linear expansion coefficient, corrosion resistance. The dozens of refractory production enterprises have proved that this product has the characteristics of no initiation, not pulverization, no cracking in the application process. Especially the far higher than traditional brown corundum price, more make it become the best aggregate and filler of corundum refractory. Brown oxide is suitable for manufacturing ceramic porcelain, resin high consolidation abrasive and grinding, polishing, sandblasting, precision casting, etc., can also be used for manufacturing advanced refractory materials. According to the different characteristics of brown oxide, brown oxide can be applied in different ways.

Because of the brown oxide with high temperature resistant, corrosion resistant, high strength and other properties, so use casting steel slide gate, and special alloy smelting rare metals, ceramics, blast furnace lining; Physical and chemical vessels, spark plugs, heat-resistant oxidation coating. Because of the brown oxide has the characteristics of high hardness, good wear resistance, high strength, in the chemical industry system, used for all kinds of reaction vessel and pipe, chemical pump parts; To do mechanical parts, all kinds of mold, such as wire drawing die, pencil lead mold mouth; Do abrasive tool, mould, bulletproof material, human body joint, seal die ring, etc. Brown oxide can do heat preservation material, such as corundum light brick, corundum hollow sphere and fiber products, it widely used in all kinds of high temperature furnace wall and furnace top, with high temperature resistant and insulation. Brown corundum sand particle size is the corundum block by artificial selection, and use of equipment such as roller, ball mill, the mark, it is mainly used for polishing, grinding, grinding industry, etc., can also according to customer requirements for water washing, acid pickling treatment methods such as processing, and able to meet the different needs of customers.

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Xingguang Abrasives Co.,LTD Established in 1981,Xingguang Abrasives Co.,LTD is situated at Zibo Shandong.With a strict quality test system,the quality of our product is very much stable.In order to fierce marketplace competitive in markets,rigidly engaged in scientific management according to ISO9002 quality system and put our hearts ... Zhengzhou yellowriver carborundum Co.,ltd. We are Huanghe Abrasives COMPANY LTD.,we can supply types of black silicon carbide,green silicon carbide,white aluminium oxide & brown aluminium oxide and so on. Here are brief introduction of our company: We are an enterprise of abrasive productions .The company constantly persists in pursuit of good quality ... CARBORUNDUM ELECTRITE a.s.

Activities (in Czech language)/Predmet cinnosti: 1) Brousici zrna 2) Brousici platna a papiry 3) Brousici kotouce z umelych korundu a karbidu kremiku s pojivem keramickych, pryskyricnym, gumovym a magnezitovym ploche i tvarove 4) Rychlobezne brousici kotouce s keramickou a pryskyricnou vazbou 5) Rezaci a ... Foshan Zhouma Machinery Co., Ltd. >> About Us Foshan Zhouma Machinery Co., Ltd., founded in 1999, mainly offer services for the ceramic, stone and glass industries. At the meanwhile, we apply ourselves to exploit and research on the tools of abrading and polishing. Our products base upon the traditional techniques, regard technology as ... Beijing Xinhuacheng technology Co,.Ltd, XinHuaCheng----- Your reliable partner on refractory!

Beijing Xinhuacheng technology Co,.Ltd, located in Beijing ,China.Xin hua cheng has been focusing the business activities on external and internal trade of many kinds of refractory to the essential markets since 2005. Contract loyalty, expertise, and ... Henan Sicheng Co., Ltd. Henan Sicheng Co., Ltd. is found in 1999 .It is a leading manufacturer in China and has been growing at a rapid pace with oversea distribution . Main products are white fused alumina, brown fused alumina ,silicon carbide, glass beads and other abrasives raw materials. The factory of aluminais located in ... Contact Now Product List ?????????????????? Jingri-Cumi Super-Hard Material Co.,Ltd.(Jingri-Cumi) is a joint venture invested by China Metallurgical Geological Bureau (CEEB) and Carborundum Universal Ltd(CUMI),India, and established on 28th September 2006 on the basis of former Jingri Diamond Industrial Co.,Ltd. CEEB is a large-scale state-owned ... Lumeng Brown Fused Alumina Co., Ltd.

We, ZHOUCUN LUMENG ABRASIVES CO., LTD mainly produce abrasive materials in China mainland that include Black Silicon Carbide, Green Silicon Carbide, Brown Fused Alumina, White Fused Alumina and Pink Fused Alumina with FEPA, JIS and other standard, That was used widely in abrasive material, grinding tools, ... Land (Lianyungang, PRC) Silicon Carbide Co., Ltd. As the excellent junior production corporation in Chinese Silicon Carbide Market, we devote our mind to our major that the production and distribution of the Macrogrits , Microgrits and refractory carborundum products lines. At the present, we throw our into exploit the oversea market and we believe high ... Xiamen Pengxing Stone Tools Co., Ltd. Xiamen Pengxing Stone Tools Co., Ltd. Is a company located in Xiamen city, Fujian Province, China. We are a manufacturer of the Abrasive brushes for antique stone and honed brush. With professional quality and suitable price, the brushes are made by top-quality nylon and carborundum. Our brushes includes as ... px stone tools Xiamen Pengxing Stone Tools Co., Ltd.

is a company located in Xiamen city, Fujian Province,China. We are a manufacturer of the Abrasive brushes for antique stone and honed brush. With professional quality and suitable price, the brushes are made by top-quality nylon and carborundum. Our brushes includes as ... Yixing Zhongcun Kiln Products Co., Ltd. Yixing Zhongcun Kiln Products co., ltd. is a venture exclusively with a foreign investment and the only such enterprise in the mainland specializing in the production of the refractory board of carborundum. We have accumulated years of technique and experience in this field. After our everlasting research and ... Difference in Sharpening Stone Materials Home / Sharpening Articles / Sharpening Basics / Difference in Sharpening Stone Materials Selecting A Sharpening Stone: Understanding The Differences In Materials The three most common types of sharpening stones are oil stones, water stones, and diamond stones. Each of these stones has its own advantages that can help users achieve their sharpening goals. Oil Stones Oil stones are the traditional Western stones that many people grew up using.

These stones are made from one of three materials (Novaculite, Aluminum Oxide, or Silicon Carbide) and use oil for swarf (metal filing) removal. The most traditional oil stones are natural stones made from Novaculite. These natural stones are quarried in Arkansas and processed to make what we call Arkansas Stones. These stones are separated into different grades related to the density and the finish a stone produces on a blade. The coarsest of them are called Washita. The Washita is not often used these days because it is very soft. The finer grades are called Soft Arkansas, Hard Arkansas, Hard Black Arkansas and Hard Translucent Arkansas. These natural oil stones can produce a polished edge, but tend to cut more slowly than man-made stones. The Hard Black Arkansas and Hard Translucent are more rare and are therefore more expensive. The Aluminum Oxide oil stones are a very popular man made choice. The most popular are called India Stone which are made by Norton. These stones can cut fast, and can also produce a fine edge on tools and knives. The grading system for these stones is generally labeled fine, medium, and coarse. These stones are often brown or orange in color.

When compared with the Arkansas stones, Aluminum Oxide (India Stones) are more coarse. The India Stones are used in conjunction with Arkansas Stones to cover all levels of coarseness. The fastest cutting oil stones are made of Silicon Carbide. The silicon carbide stones made by Norton are called Crystolon stones. These stones are also labeled fine, medium, and coarse. They are usually gray in color. While these stones will not produce an edge as fine as the India or natural stones, the fast cutting makes them ideal for initial coarse sharpening. Because they sharpen quickly, it a common practice to use the Coarse Crystolon and then progress to an India Stone and then to finish up on an Arkansas Stone. The good overall performance and the lower price are the oil stone’s greatest assets. A set of India or Crystolon stones are the least expensive stones to purchase. The natural Arkansas Stones vary in price from the very economical Soft Arkansas to the more expensive Hard Black and Translucent Arkansas Stones. These stones are also relatively hard, so the stones rarely require flattening. The main disadvantage of the oil stone is its slower cutting rate. Of the three main stone types, the oil stone is the slowest.

The fact that oil is used to remove the swarf is also messier to clean up than water. View Oil Stones Water Stones Water stones are relatively new to the Western world, but have gathered a large following due to their many advantages. Like the oil stones, the water stones are available in both natural and synthetic materials. However, due to availability, only synthetic stones will be discussed. Synthetic water stones are generally made of Aluminum Oxide. This is the same abrasive material used in the India stones. However, the difference between the two is the binder that holds the abrasives in the water stone together. Water stones are softer than India stones, which promotes faster cutting because the old abrasive material breaks away and is replaced with fresh sharp material. Fast cutting is clearly an advantage of the water stone. The other obvious advantage is the use of water rather than oil to remove the swarf from the stone. However, the water stone is not perfect. The softness that promotes fast cutting also wears the stone down more quickly. This tends to wear the stone unevenly, which requires flattening to bring the stone back into shape. View Water Stones Diamond Stones Diamond stones contain small diamonds attached to the face of a metal plate.

These small industrial diamonds are much harder than any of the other sharpening stones. However, not all diamond stones perform the same function, nor are they always created equal. There are two main types of diamond stone styles. The more common style contains holes in the diamond surface to capture the swarf. These stones cut very fast and are very simple to use. The next type is the continuous diamond surface. These stones are preferred when you are sharpening tools with points that might get caught in the recesses of the non-continuous diamond surface. Both types of diamond stones are available in mono-crystalline and poly-crystalline diamonds. The mono-crystalline diamonds are more desirable as they will last longer. The two greatest advantages of the diamond stone are the very fast sharpening and the flatness that is retained by the diamond stone. In fact, extra-coarse diamond stones are often used to flatten oil or water stones. The main disadvantage of the diamond stone is its initial cost. While these stones are the most expensive, they will also last a long time, so the long-term cost can be comparable to other stones. There are good reasons why there are different types of sharpening stones available.

There is not one type of stone that is best for everyone. Selecting the right one starts by finding the stone with the best combination of advantages for your particular sharpening needs.

Question: Carborundum and Corundum are compounds/minerals traditionally used in?
Answer: Abrasives