Corn: Canada's third most valuable crop Corn: Canada's third most valuable crop By Marie-Andrée Hamel and Erik Dorff Skip to text Text begins Corn for grain: the world’s top cereal crop When it comes to cereal crop production around the world, corn is king. This may come as a surprise to many. Anyone who has ever seen the endless seas of golden wheat on the Canadian Prairies might think that this lynchpin of Canadian agriculture is the number one cereal crop. The same might be thought of rice and the landscape of paddies stretching as far as the eye can see across Asia. But instead, the most produced cereal crop worldwide is actually corn (also known as maize), a cereal native to the Americas. It outstrips both rice and wheat in terms of global production (Table 1). Table 1 World and Canadian production of major grains and oilseeds, 2011 Table summary This table displays the results of World and Canadian production of major grains and oilseeds. The information is grouped by Commodity (appearing as row headers), World, Canada, Share of total and World position, calculated using Metric tonnes, Percent and Rank units of measure (appearing as column headers). Commodity ...

not applicable Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Maize or corn for grain Note1 is the number one cereal crop worldwide with 885.3 million tonnes produced in 2011 according to the FAO Note2 . The top producer was the United States with 313.9 million tonnes or 35.5% of global production. The U.S. was followed by China which produced 192.8 million tonnes (21.8% of world production). Canada placed 11th in world production of corn with 10.7 million tonnes of grain corn produced in 2011 (Table 2). Table 2 Top grain corn producing nations, 2011 Table summary This table displays the results of Top grain corn producing nations. The information is grouped by Rank (appearing as row headers), Country, Production and Share of world production, calculated using Metric tonnes and Percent units of measure (appearing as column headers). Rank 0.7 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, data accessed February 13, 2014.

In Canada, over 32,300 farms reported planting 1.63 million hectares of corn (corn for grain, corn for silage and sweet corn) according to the 2011 Census of Agriculture. The value of farm cash receipts for grain corn alone reached $2.08 billion in 2011, ranking it as the third most valuable crop in Canada, after canola and wheat. Note3 One plant with many specialized varieties Farmers and corn breeders have developed multiple varieties suited to particular uses and adapted to distinct environments. In Canada, three broad types of corn dominate farmers’ fields: corn for grain, corn for silage, and sweet corn. In 2011, 23,472 farms reported growing corn for grain, a 17.7% decrease since 1971.

During the same period, the number of farms reporting corn for silage Note4 declined by 65.0% to reach 13,184 farms in 2011.The number of farms reporting sweet corn Note5 area declined by 46.6% from 1971 to 2,997 farms in 2011. Chart1 shows that more than 1.3 million hectares of corn for grain was reported in the 2011 Census of Agriculture, more than double the 573,039 hectares (Chart 1) reported in 1971. The 2011 total represented 81.8% of the total corn area reported. Description for chart 1 Canadian grain-corn production is located in central Canada Ontario and Quebec form the backbone of corn for grain production in Canada. According to the Census of Agriculture, Ontario accounted for 61.7% of seeded area in 2011, with Quebec following at 30.2% and Manitoba at 6.4% (Chart 2).

While corn for grain is the third largest grain crop in Canada (after wheat and canola), it ranks as the number one crop in Ontario in terms of production Note6 and farm cash receipts. Description for chart 2 Climate is a decisive factor in determining the areas of the country where corn for grain can be a viable crop. In general, the longer and warmer the growing season, the greater the possible harvest. Corn Heat Units (CHUs) are used to measure the average number of summer days that exceed a certain temperature. While corn breeders have developed corn varieties that are adapted to local environmental conditions, the greatest production usually occurs in the warmest regions of the country— primarily in southern, central and eastern Ontario, as well as in southern Quebec— since these areas have the highest CHUs (Map 1). Regions where the growing season is cooler or shorter are more suitable for growing other grains, especially wheat and barley. Map 1 Principal production regions of corn for grain area, Canada, 2011 Description for map 1 Table 3 shows how corn for grain production changed between 1971 and 2011. At the national level, there were fewer farms reporting corn for grain.

However, there were some interesting regional differences. In Ontario, the number of farms reporting corn for grain decreased by almost one-third, while the seeded area increased by 311,272 hectares. The remaining corn for grain farms are producing on a larger scale. The average size per farm more than doubled from 21.3 to 50.8 hectares. In Quebec, the second largest corn for grain producing province, both the number of farms and the seeded area increased during this period. In 2011, the average corn for grain area per farm was almost five times greater than in 1971. The Quebec average at 65.3 hectares per farm even surpassed Ontario average at 50.8 hectares per farm reporting corn for grain. In Manitoba, corn for grain acreage increased significantly with the development of earlier maturing varieties which expanded areas suitable for corn production. The largest market for Manitoba corn is livestock feed, followed by processing in the ethanol production plant which opened in 2008. The number of farms reporting corn for grain increased to 713 in 2011 compared to 152 farms in 1971.

During the same period, the seeded area jumped by more than 20 fold from 3,678 to 85,449 hectares. Average area of 119.8 hectares per farm was almost twice as big as the national average of 56.8 hectares per farm reporting corn for grain (Table 3). Table 3 Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 1971 and 2011 Who’s producing corn? Farms reporting seeded corn were classified using the 2012 North American Industry Classification System. The subsector is determined on the commodity that accounts for 50% or more of the farm production. Chart 3 shows that in 2011 more than one-third of the corn for grain seeded area was on farms specialized in corn production. This was followed closely by other grain and oilseed farms at 27.1% and dairy farms with 13.5% of the corn for grain seeded area. More than half of the corn for silage was on specialized dairy farms, followed by 26.9% of area on beef cattle farms. Corn for silage is harvested as a whole plant ( i.e.

, the cob, grain, stem and leaves) when still green and is used as feed for ruminant animals such as dairy and beef cattle. As expected, 54.3% of the seeded area of sweet corn was on specialized vegetable farms. Description for chart 3 The structure of the agriculture industry has changed significantly over the last decades. Overall, there are fewer but larger farms contributing to a significant portion of Canadian agriculture production. Corn production was no exception to this trend. The total corn for grain seeded area more than doubled between 1971 and 2011. The top 5% corn growers also operated on a much larger scale. During this period, their average seeded area almost tripled from 347.2 to 935.0 hectares per farm (Chart 4). Only 2.4% (or 561) of all corn for grain growers were responsible for 20% of all corn seeded area in 2011. For wheat and canola, the proportion of growers responsible for 20% of all seeded area was quite similar with, respectively, 2.4% and 3.0% of all wheat and canola growers.

The number of growers responsible for the 5% of all national area declined sharply between 1971 and 2011. The average seeded area of the top 5% wheat producers grew by almost six times, while the top 5% of canola producers increased 10.5 times (Table 4). Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 1971 and 2011 How is corn produced? To obtain good yield, corn requires more nutrient additions from fertilizer, manure, or other soil amendments compared to other crops to prevent soil depletion. Legumes, such as peas, beans, soybeans, clover and alfalfa, are able to “fix” nitrogen from the air and convert it into a form absorbed by the plant. Corn grown as a single crop could increase the risk of soil erosion. Corn grown in a rotation with beans (often soybeans), cereal or hay improves soil fertility and structure, reduces fertilizer application, diminishes the prevalence of weed, and also breaks disease and pest cycles. This section looks at cropping patterns that were the most prevalent in 2011.

According to the 2011 Census of Agriculture, 5.0% of the total corn for grain area was reported by growers who reported corn for grain as their only field crop. The most prevalent cropping pattern Note7 was ‘corn for grain-soybeans-wheat’. Almost 20% of all corn for grain seeded area was reported by growers who had these three crops. The second most prevalent cropping pattern was ‘corn for grain-soybeans’. Growers who reported these two field crops accounted for 17.9% of all corn for grain area. The third most prevalent cropping pattern was ‘corn for grain-hay-soybeans-wheat’ reported by growers who seeded 6.2% of all corn for grain area. Overall, 95.0% of all corn for grain and 97.9% of corn for silage seeded area were grown in a rotation with hay or another field crop like a cereal or a legume. Table 5 Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 2011 To be or not to be organic Organic operations are certified through certifying bodies accredited by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

According to the new regulations Note8 , producers can be either "certified organic" or "transitional". Transitional producers are those who were in the process of undertaking the three-year process of having all or part of their operations certified organic at the time of the 2011 Census of Agriculture. In 2011, certified organic operations represented 1.8% of all farms in Canada. The proportion of corn for grain growers was slightly below this national average at 1.1% of all farms reporting corn for grain. They accounted for 0.8% of all corn for grain seeded area (Table 7). The prevalence of genetically modified corn somewhat reduced the likelihood of producers seeking organic certification. In Ontario, the largest corn for grain producing province, 71.3% of the total corn area was seeded with genetically modified corn. In Quebec, 73.8% of corn for grain was genetically modified. Note9 For sweet corn, 6.5% of farms reported being certified organic. They accounted for 1.7% of sweet corn seeded area. Strong consumer demand has probably driven more sweet corn growers to offer organic products.

Table 6 Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 2011 How sweet it is! A signature dish of summer BBQs is fresh corn on the cob, yet this product was not always the succulent and sweet treat it is today. The gene responsible for high sugar levels can be traced to a genetic mutation in grain corn originating in the U.S. in the mid-1700s. Prior to this, fresh corn was starchier and less sweet. The genetic mutation presented disadvantages, however, since it reduced the storability of corn grain and hindered soil germination in colder regions. But with time, further breeding produced corn varieties with higher sugar levels ( i.e. , sugar enhanced and super sweet varieties), while also maintaining these sugar levels over time. In addition, growers began to plant sweet corn in black plastic mulch to help it mature earlier, thereby extending the length of the growing season. As a result of these developments, fresh sweet corn evolved from being a localized product – i.e. , harvested and consumed in the same day – to one that was transported long distances without spoiling. This evolution would have contributed significantly to increasing imports of fresh sweet corn (Chart 5).

Description for chart 5 Sweet corn is not solely consumed as corn on the cob. Since 1971, consumption of fresh corn more than doubled to reach 0.79 kilogram per capita in 2011. During the same period, consumption of canned corn declined from 1.83 kilogram to 0.79 kilogram per capita. Consumption of frozen corn increased from 0.28 kilogram to 0.41 kilogram per person (Chart 7). Although corn is often enjoyed as sweet corn on the cob, it is an important ingredient in many foods. For instance, on any given day a person might eat a breakfast cereal made of corn flakes, use corn syrup to bake a cake, and enjoy corn bread or corn tortillas with their supper. In 2011, Canadians consumed, on average, 0.52 kg of corn flour and meal (Chart 6). Corn is also consumed indirectly as corn is used to feed livestock, which provide the meat, milk and eggs purchased at grocery stores. Almost half of all domestic consumption went to feed livestock. Note10 Description for chart 6 The future of corn Corn is one of Canada’s traditional crops.

It was first grown by First Nations’ farmers, then by European settlers, and, today, by farmers across the country. This crop’s story continues to unfold. Foremost, corn’s productivity has increased significantly with the evolution of agricultural practices, the development of hybrid varieties, and new advancements in the field of biotechnology that transfer a gene from one organism to another ( e.g. , technologies using recombinant DNA ). The versatility of this crop, combined with the breeding advances made by plant scientists, make it a popular commodity for the feed, livestock, and industrial sectors. Thus, the future of corn appears to be sweet, and with ongoing research and development it seems that the sky – or rather, the farm field – is the limit. Start of text box Corn: A jack of all trades Corn grain is used as human food, animal feed, and feedstock for industrial products. Different processing methods produce the variety of corn products available. For instance, Whole corn grains intended for livestock feed are ground or ‘cracked.’ In contrast, corn destined for human consumption is progressively ground into a fine powder to make corn grits, hominy, corn meal and corn flour.

Masa, the corn flour used for tortillas, is produced when whole corn kernels are cooked in an alkali water solution to render the corn more nutritious. The process converts the protein niacin into a form that can be absorbed by the body and avoids beriberi disease, a condition that afflicted early Western settlers to the Americas. While some products are made from the whole corn kernel, other products use only one component of the whole grain illustrated in the following table. Specifically, the kernel can be broken down into four components: bran, gluten, starch, and germ. Through specialized processing, the kernel’s individual parts can be separated and used in different commodities. Flaked corn cereal, for example, is produced by putting the high starch cap of the corn kernel through rollers which flatten and stretch it, after which point it is toasted. Component fractions of a kernel of corn Table summary This table displays the results of Component fractions of a kernel of corn. The information is grouped by Components of kernel (appearing as row headers), Proportion of the grain (varies according to variety) (appearing as column headers).

Components of kernel 8 to 14 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2008 Corn starch, the component that comprises the bulk of the kernel, is used for both human consumption and industrial purposes including as a thickening, gelling, and binding agent for a variety of products, including puddings and pie fillings, wallpaper paste, aspirin, chalk, drywall panelling, and biodegradable plastics. It can be used to produce a range of sweeteners including corn syrup (or glucose) as a substitute for white sugar produced from sugar cane or sugar beets. The syrup is found in a variety of foods because it holds moisture, prevents crystallization, adds texture, and can serve as a thickener in food products. Its ability to hold moisture prevents breads, bakery products, and confections such as marshmallows from becoming stale and it also can be found in lollipops and hard candies and frozen desserts. Corn is also used to produce vegetable oil—specifically, corn oil—and can be further transformed into margarine and other food oils. The oil originates from the germ portion of the corn kernel.

Gluten is the main protein in corn and can be transformed into a product that is used in the feed of beef and dairy cattle, poultry and hogs. End of text box Notes Grain corn is grown for the corn kernels which are ground to produce both human food and animal feed, in addition to being used as industrial feedstock. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics Canada, CANSIM table 002-0001 Corn for silage is harvested as a whole plant ( i.e. , the cob, grain, stem and leaves) when still green and is used as feed for ruminant animals, namely dairy and beef cattle, and sheep, as well as pigs and poultry. In general, the harvested plant material is chopped and stored in airless vertical silos, bunker silos, or wrapped bales. The plant material is preserved by a process of bacterial fermentation that produces lactic acid. Of interest is the fact that lactic acid is also used as a preservative in human foods, and it is responsible for the distinctive taste of a variety of products, such as yogurt, sourdough bread, sauerkraut, some pickles, and kimchi.

Sweet corn has high sugar content and is the variety known to consumers as corn on the cob, canned corn, and frozen corn. Statistics Canada, CANSIM table 001-0010 The assumption was made that if producers reported more than one field crop, they should grow them in a rotation due to all benefits that a rotation can provide. In 2009, the Organic Products Regulations came into effect in Canada, which require mandatory certification to revised Canadian Organic Standards in order to claim agricultural products as being organic. Statistics Canada, Field Crop Survey, data available upon request. Genetically modified seed cannot meet standards for organic production.

Statistics Canada, CANSIM table 001-0042 FAO - News Article: World cereal production set to reach historic high in 2013 World cereal production set to reach historic high in 2013 Serious food insecurity affects Syria, Central Africa, parts of West Africa Wheat harvest 11 July 2013, Rome - World total cereal production is forecast to increase by about 7 percent in 2013 compared to last year, helping to replenish global inventories and raise expectations for more stable markets in 2013/14, according to the latest issue of FAO's quarterly Crop Prospects and Food Situation report . The increase would bring world cereal production to 2 479 million tonnes, a new record level. FAO now puts world wheat output in 2013 at 704 million tonnes, an increase of 6.8 percent, which more than recoups the previous year's reduction and represents the highest level in history.

World production of coarse grains in 2013 is now forecast by FAO at about 1 275 million tonnes, up sharply (9.7 percent) from 2012. World rice production in 2013 is forecast to expand by 1.9 percent to 500 million tonnes (milled equivalent) although prospects are still very provisional. Import forecasts, cereal prices Cereal imports of Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries for 2013/14 are estimated to rise by some 5 percent, compared to 2012/13, to meet growing demand. Egypt, Indonesia and Nigeria, in particular, are forecast to import larger volumes. International prices of wheat declined slightly in June with the onset of the 2013 harvests in the Northern Hemisphere. By contrast, maize prices increased, supported by continued tight supplies. Export prices of rice were generally stable. Food insecurity situations The report focuses on developments affecting the food security situation of developing countries.

In its review of food insecurity hotspots, the report highlights the following countries, among others: In Syria, 2013 wheat production dropped significantly below average due to the escalating civil conflict leading to disruptions in farming activities. Livestock sector has been severely affected. About 4 million people are estimated to be facing severe food insecurity. In Egypt, civil unrest and dwindling foreign exchange reserves raise serious food security concerns. In Central Africa, serious food insecurity conditions prevail due to escalating conflict affecting about 8.4 million people in Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of the Congo. In West Africa, the overall food situation is favourable in most parts of the Sahel following an above-average 2012 cereal harvest. However, a large number of people are still affected by conflict and the lingering effects of the 2011/12 food crisis. In East Africa, although household food security has improved in most countries, serious concerns remain in conflict areas in Somalia, the Sudan, and South Sudan, with 1 million, 4.3 million and 1.2 million food insecure people, respectively.

In Madagascar, damage caused by locusts and a cyclone is expected to reduce crop production in 2013, causing increased hunger, especially in the southern and western regions of the country. In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, despite improved cereal harvest of the 2012 main season and the near normal outcome of the ongoing harvest of the 2013 early season, chronic food insecurity exists. An estimated 2.8 million vulnerable people require food assistance until the next harvest in October. In total, there are 34 countries requiring external food assistance, of which 27 countries are in Africa. List of Cereal Crops and General Info About Cereals <<< To Home page <<< Cereal crops are interchangeably called grain crops. In many publications and correspondence, they are simply called grains or cereals. As of 2012, the top 5 cereals in the world ranked on the basis of production tonnage are maize (corn), rice (paddy), wheat, barley and sorghum. These crops are also among the top 50 agricultural commodities in the world with maize ranking second next to sugarcane.

Rice (paddy) ranks third, wheat - 4th, barley - 12th, and sorghum - 30th. Another cereal, millet, ranks no. 42 (FAOStat 2014, updated Aug. 18, 2014). According to Chapman and Carter (1976), “a cereal is generally defined as a grass grown for its small, edible seed.” They also explained that all cereals are angiosperms , monocots , and members of the grass family Gramineae. Similarly, Lantican (2001) defines cereal or grain crops as agronomic crops belonging to the grass family Gramineae which are utilized as staples ; the word “cereal” is derived from the most important grain deity, the Roman Goddess Ceres. Botanically, however, the seed and the grain are not exactly the same despite their interchangeable use. In rice, the grain consists of the brown rice and the enveloping rice hull. The brown rice is the plant's true fruit (a type of fruit called caryopsis) and consists of a seed and the sorrounding fruit wall.

The fruit wall (pericarp) consists of several thin layers of tissues which are fused together and inseparable from the seed coat. In indica rice, the hull consists of the lemma, palea, sterile lemmas, and rachilla. The grain, or kernel, of corn (maize) is likewise a caryopsis. Cereal crops are necessarily grasses, a composite term which refers to monocot plants under the family Poaceae or Gramineae. They are grown primarily for the harvesting of mature grains which are used or processed into staple food and animal feed.They are also processed into various products such as starch, malt, biofuel (alcohol) and sweetener (i.e., high fructose corn syrup). Although with similar uses, the pseudocereals or pseudograins are not grasses. They include members of the families Amaranthaceae (amaranths), Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot)and Polygoniaceae (smartweed). The principal pseudograins of the Americas belong to the amaranth and goosefoot families.

These plants produce dry fruits which are called by various terms such as nutlets, achenes and grains ( accessed October 20, 2010). FAO's definition of cereals also describes these plants as annual plants (including rice, canary grass, buckwheat and triticale) which generally belong to the gramineous family, producing grains that are used for food, feed, seed and production of industrial products like ethanol. It emphasizes also that the term "cereal crops" should be limited only to those crops that are harvested for dry grain. It appears, therefore, that in the strict sense cereal crops are grass plants grown as source of mature botanical fruits called caryopsis . But the term is now oftenly used to include the pseudocereals (or pseudograins) which are utilized primarily as staple food just like the cereals but they are not grasses. Further, the harvesting of the thin, outer fruit wall or pericarp only becomes necessary because it is inseparable from the inner seed. It is for the uses of their seeds, particularly the starchy endosperm, that cereal crops are cultivated. In addition, although cereals are described as annual plants, some can be perennial.

Rice and sorghum can be grown as ratoon crops in the tropics. Washington State University (2010) reported that perennial grains can be available in the next two decades. Researches on the development of perennial grains, primarily wheat, are ongoing in several countries.

List of Cereal Crops: Wheat, bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) Durum wheat, macaroni wheat (Triticum durum) Corn or maize (Zea mays) Job's Tears, salay, adlay, tigbe, pawas (Coix lachryma-jobi) Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Millet (Panicum miliaceum, Eleusine coracana, Setaria italica, Pennisetum glaucum) Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Wild rice, Canada rice, Indian rice, water oats (Zizania spp.) Spelt (Triticum spelta) Amaranth or Grain amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) Click on to read: Production Statistics on Cereals and Other Agri Commodities in the World REFERENCES Chapman, S.R. and L.P. Carter. 1976. Crop Production: Principles and Practices. San Francisco, USA: W.H. Freeman and Co. pp. 247-258. FAOSTAT. 2014.

Food and agricultural commodities production: commodities by regions. Retrieved Aug. 18, 2014 from . Food and Agriculture Organization (FA0). 2010. Crops statistics – concepts, definitions and classifications. Retrieved May 29, 2010 from accessed October 20, 2010. Lantican, R.M. 2001. The Science and Practice of Crop Production. UPLB, College, Los Baños, Laguna: SEAMEO SEARCA and UPLB. pp. 4-5 Washington State University. 2010. Agriculture's next revolution- perennial grain- within sight. ScienceDaily. June 27, 2010. Retrieved July 6, 2010 from . (Last edited Aug. 18, 2014) Fermented cereals a global perspective. Chapter 1. Previous - Next INTRODUCTION The global importance of cereal crops to the human diet and moreover to the written history of man and agriculture cannot be over stated. Cereal grains are the fruit of plants belonging to the grass family (Gramineae).

The sustenance provided by cereals is frequently mentioned in the Bible, and they are by many other criterea the most important group of food crops produced in the world. Cereal crops are energy dense, containing 10 000-15 000 kJ/Kg, about 10-20 times more energy than most succulent fruits and vegetables. Nutritionally, they are important sources of dietary protein, carbohydrates, the B complex of vitamins, vitamin E, iron, trace minerals, and fiber. It has been estimated that global cereal consumption directly provides about 50 percent of protein and energy necessary for the human diet, with cereals providing an additional 25 percent of protein and energy via livestock intermediaries. Some cereals, notably wheat, contain proteins that form gluten, which is essential for making leavened bread. Although dried cereal grains constitute living cells that respire, when kept in an appropriate environment, whole grains can be stored for many years. In 1996, world cereal production amounted to more than two billion metric tons (Figure1). Major cereal crops produced worldwide include wheat, rice, maize and barley (Figure 2).

Other major cereal crops produced include sorghum, oats, millet and rye. Asia, America, and Europe produce more than 80 percent of the worlds cereal grains. Wheat, rice, sorghum, and millet are produced in large quantities in Asia; corn and sorghum are principal crops in America, and barley, oats and rye are major crops in the former USSR and Europe (Chaven and Kadam, 1989). Cereals have a variety of uses as food. Only two cereals, wheat and rye, are suited to the preparation of leavened bread. The most general usage of cereals is in cooking, either directly in the form of grain, flour, starch, or as semolina, etc. Another common usage of cereals is in the preparation of alcoholic drinks such as whiskey and beer (barley; sorghum), vodka (wheat), American bourbon (rye), Japanese sake (rice), etc. A variety of unique, indigenous fermented foods, other than leavened breads and alcoholic beverages, are also produced in regions of the world that rely mainly on plant sources of protein and calories.

In developed countries, that obtain most of their protein from animal products, cereals are increasingly used as animal feed. More than 70 percent of the cereal crop produced in developed countries is fed to livestock; whereas, in developing countries, 68-98 percent of the cereal crop is used for human consumption (Betschart 1982; Chaven and Kadam, 1989). Figure 1  Global cereal production from 1961-1996. Data from FAO, Rome Figure 2  Global production of major cereal crops from 1961-1996. Data from FAO, Rome HISTORY The origin of farming practice appears to be located in the "Fertile Crescent", a wide belt of Southeast Asia, which includes Southern Turkey, Palestine, Lebanon and North Iraq. Abundant rainfall occured in the highlands of this area where there still exists a wide variety of wild cereals. Triticum dicoccoides (wheat) and Hordeum spontaneum (barley) were collected by local dwellers.

There is evidence that the people of Uadi el-Natuf Tell of Southeast Asia were the first grain cultivators at about 7 800 B.C (Table 1). By 5 000 BC, wild animals became rare forming only 5 percent of the diet, while cereals and farmed animals provided a sizeable part of human food (Furon, 1958). Early wild wheat (Triticum) and barley (Hordeum) species were diploid, carried few seeds, and abscissed from the plant at maturation, thus making harvest difficult. Polyploid plants can originate in nature but have little chance for self-propagation without cultivation (Raven et al. 1986). The cultivation and irrigation of cereals allowed the expansion of polyploid grains. The polyploid grains exhibit less genetic variation, since each gene is represented in several copies, causing more genetic uniformity and considerable increase in stability and yield. The first stable lines of polyploid cereals were identified as early as 6 000 BC.

On the other hand, genetic variability in diploid wild types was essential in order to develop plants adapted to different environmental conditions and geographic areas (Feldman and Sears, 1981). Triticum turgide dicoccoides was crossed with Triticum fanschii to give Triticum aestvum, the progenitor of actual wheat. T. aestivum has 42 chromosomes compared to the 14 chromosomes of T. monococcum. Today there are more than 20 000 cultivars of T. aestivum over the world. In Roman times, T. dicoccoides (spelt) was used for breadmaking and T. vulgaris (siligo) was used for soups because of its low gluten content (Simoon, 1982). Wheat and barley were initially cultivated in Southeast Asia, whereas rice was cultivated in Asia, maize in America, and sorghum and millet in Africa (Table 1). Over the last 200 years active programmes in genetic selection and manipulation have changed the character of the original Triticacee from few grains and low gluten to abundant grains rich in gluten forming proteins.

Triticale (genus Trticosecale) is a relatively new cereal that was developed by crossing wheat and rye in order to combine the tolerance of rye for poor soil and climatic conditions with the superior technological characteristics of wheat (Bushuk and Larter, 1980). Table 1. Estimates of origin and early cultivation of cereals1 CEREAL CEREALS Wheat One of the oldest of all cutivated plants. Today, there are more than 50000 cultivars of wheat in existence and as a result wheat can be grown in a relatively wide range of climatic conditions. Growing best in temperate climates, it is susceptible to disease in warm, humid regions and cannot be grown as far from the equator as can rye and oats. Wheat was brought to America early in the seventeenth century where it came to prominence in the Great Plains by 1855 (McGee 1984). Different types of wheat are classified based on planting season and endosperm composition. Wheat holds a special place amongst the cereals because upon mixing wheat flour with water, an elastic matrix called "gluten" required for the production of leavened breads is formed.

"Hard wheats" tend to contain relatively high levels of starch and relatively low levels of protein, while the reverse is true for "soft wheats". High protein flours are best suited for pastas and breads, while flour from soft wheats is excellent for cakes and pastries, etc. Rice The second most abundant cereal crop originated in the Indian subcontinent and Africa. Today, 90 percent of the world rice crop is grown in Asia (FAO,1996). Alexander the Great is credited with introducing rice to Europe around 300 BC. Growing rice requires more water than other cereal crops, although rice is a highly productive crop. There are several thousand rice cultivars which may differ in color, aroma and grain size. The main commercial distinction between rice types is the grain size, i.e. long, medium and short. Long grain rice, also called "Indian", tends to separate relatively easily on cooking and is dry and flakey. Short grain rice, also called "Japanese" is sticky, moist and firm when cooked. Unlike wheat, rice is most often consumed as grain rather than as a flour.

Different grades of milling include brown rice (hull removed), unpolished rice (hull, bran and most of germ removed), and polished rice (aleurone layer removed from unpolished rice). Since polishing removes most of the lipid, the latter product is relatively stable during storage. The discovery that rice bran can alleviate beriberi led to the discovery of the vitamin thiamine. The traditional technique of parboiling rice in India and Pakistan (also called "converted rice") prior to milling improves the nutritional quality of the grain by allowing the B vitamins in the bran and germ to diffuse into the endosperm. Wild rice is native to the Great Lakes region of North America where it was originally harvested from the wild by native Indians. Although wild rice is now cultivated, it is expensive and accounts for less than 1 percent of the American rice market. The rice is first fermented to develop a nutty flavor and to ease hulling. Maize Corn was originally cultivated in Central America and became the staple of the Incas of Peru, the Mayas and Aztecs of Mexico and early cliff dwellers of the American Southwest. Columbus brought corn back to Europe where it became a popular crop in the south.

Different types of maize are classified on the basis of their protein content and the hardness of the kernel. These include pop, flint, flour, Indian and sweet corns. Much of the niacin in corn is in a bound form and this led to pellagra in areas where corn became the food staple. It was not until the late 1920s that pellagra was identified as a vitamin deficiency. The traditional practice by early American natives, of boiling corn in 5 percent lime or ashes, releases bound niacin making it available as a nutrient. Millet and Sorghum Millet and sorghum are often grouped together because their growing conditions, processing and uses are similar. Millets are native to Africa or Asia and have been cultivated for more than 6 000 years. Millets grow well in arid regions with poor soils and are valued for their relatively high protein content among the cereals. Sorghum originated in East Africa and today is an important food crop in Africa, Asia, India and China where it is made into porridge, unleavened bread ("roti" in India) and beer.

Whole grain sorghum flour has a relatively short shelf-life and production of low-fat sorghum flour requires removal of about 20 percent of the grain weight by abrasion (Perten, 1983). In North America, millet and sorghum are used primarily as livestock feed. Barley In the United States, barley is mostly used for feed, brewing and alcohol production with only about 2 percent used for human food. Barley flour is produced by abrasion dehulling, followed by milling of the "pearled" barley. Shellenberger (1980), reviewed the uses of barley flour and grits in products such as soups, dressings, and baby foods. Oats About 95 percent of the world oat crop is used for livestock feed (McGee, 1984). However, oat consumption as human food has recently increased to 19 percent in the United States (Bowers, 1992), perhaps due to the reported health benefits of the soluble fibre of oats. Oats thrive in a moist, cool climate and became an important crop in Northern Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

Oats have a relatively minor status among cereals because they are more difficult to process and are unstable due to their high lipid content and lipase activity. Reports of the possible blood cholesterol lowering effect of oat bran have increased the popularity of its use for human food in developed countries. Rye Rye appears to have originated in central Asia around 4 000 BC as a weed contaminating barley and wheat and became domesticated around the Baltic Sea in 400 BC where it grows well in a cool, moist climate with poor soil (McGee, 1984). It was traditionally a popular grain for bread making in Northern and Eastern Europe. Rye flour has a relatively low gluten content compared to wheat flour, but contains a unique class of carbohydrates (pentosans) that facilitate bread making. The milling of rye yields a flour that is classified based on color or ash content (Rozsa, 1976). BOTANICAL STRUCTURE OF CEREALS All cereals belong to the taxonomic family known as the Gramineae. Other globally important crops in the Gramineae family include sugar cane and bamboo.

Botanically speaking, cereal grains are a type of "dry" fruit called a caryopse (Figure 3). A botanical fruit is defined as the ripened ovary or the ovary and adjoining parts. The flesh of the fruit may originate from the floral receptacle, from carpillary tissue, or from extrafloral structures, such as bracts. The caryopse fruit structure differs from that of other fruits (e.g., fleshy fruits) in that a thin, dry fruit wall is fused together with the seed coat. Cereals are sometimes thought of as seeds by the layman since the bulk of their tissue is the true seed; i.e. the part resulting from sexual reproduction of the plant. Seeds are produced within the fruit which serves to protect and aid their dispersal for propagation in a variety of ways for different plants. The seed is the result of sexual reproduction of the plant when the flower is fertilized and is the organ of propagation. Kernel structure is important with respect to minimizing damage during grain harvest, drying, handling, storage, milling, germination and in enhancing nutritional value (Pomeranz and Bechtel 1978).

Selection of cultivars with a large embryo or without hulls for example, will improve the protein content if the entire grain is consumed. The seed portion of cereals consists of numerous components (Fig. 3) which basically include three parts: a seed coat or testa (bran), storage organ or nutritive reserve for the seed (endosperm), and a miniature plant or germ. The fruit tissue consists of a layer of epidermis and several thin inner layers a few cells thick. The aleurone layer which is just below the seed coat, is only a few cells thick, but is rich in oil, minerals, protein and vitamins. Starch and protein are located in the endosperm which represents the bulk of the grain and is sometimes the only part of the cereal consumed. Starch is housed in the form of subcellular structures called granules that are embedded in a matrix of protein. The developing endosperm contains protein bodies which become a continous phase as the grain matures. There is generally a gradient of more protein and less starch per cell from the outer to the inner region of the endosperm. The diameter, shape, size distribution and other characteristics of starch granules vary with different cereals.

Starch granules range in size from 3-8 ï¿½m in rice; 2-30 ï¿½m in corn, and 2-55 ï¿½m in wheat. Reserve proteins in the endosperm are in the form of smaller "protein bodies" that range in size from 2-6 ï¿½m that become disordered and adhere to the starch granules in the mature grain of species like wheat. A. Rice; World Grain Production Down, But Recovering | Worldwatch Institute Donate World Grain Production Down, But Recovering World grain production fell last year, exacerbating a global food situation already plagued by rising prices, according to new research published by the Worldwatch Institute for its Vital Signs Online publication. Despite record rice and maize yields around the world, global wheat production dropped substantially enough to bring total grain output to just below 2008 levels. Maize, wheat, and rice provide nearly two-thirds of the global human diet and serve as critical inputs for both animal feed and industrial products.

The significance of these crops guarantees that a decline in production will produce ripple effects throughout the global economy, particularly as increased food prices continue to take a toll on the world’s neediest populations. Overall, rice and wheat production have tripled since the 1960s, and maize production has quadrupled, despite global acreage of these crops increasing by only 35 percent. Production increased worldwide, but there was greater reliance on irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides—all of which take resources, can be costly, and may cause substantial environmental degradation. As farmers have begun to witness these impacts, many have been forced to abandon their fields because of infertile soil. Nevertheless, preliminary data for 2011 indicate that grain production is recovering from the 2010 slump. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recently forecast that cereal output in 2011–12 will be 3 percent higher than in 2010–11. Grain remains the foundation of the world’s diet, and the failure of harvests in recent years to keep pace with growth in meat consumption and population is worrisome.

It’s important that we identify and implement more inventive and sustainable strategies in grain production. Reducing the proportion of grain harvests lost to weather disasters and waste or diverted for corn ethanol production and animal feed is among such strategies. It’s also important that we prioritize grain availability for those who need it most. Recent growth in agricultural production has been uneven. In many regions, climate change has brought irregular weather patterns such as rising temperatures, violent storms, and flash flooding. In Russia, where severe drought has plagued large farming regions, overall wheat yields plunged 40 percent in 2010, compared to a decline of only 5 percent worldwide. Subsequently, Russia—the fourth largest wheat exporter in 2009—banned all wheat exports, severely disrupting world grain markets. Poor weather took its toll elsewhere as well: El Niño in the west Pacific, for example, brought rice production down significantly in the Philippines, already the world’s largest food importer. Rising demand for ethanol fuel, which in the United States is produced almost exclusively from corn feedstock, is having an impact on grain prices as well. According to the U.S.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO), about 20 percent of the increase in maize prices between 2007 and 2008 was due to domestic ethanol demand. Demand for grains is also rising in countries such as China and India, where growing middle classes are adopting more diverse diets. Farming has always been an uncertain business that depends in large part on the weather, and it could be entering an even more difficult phase. As the global climate changes, the warmer, less stable atmospheric conditions could be detrimental for food production. In an already fragile economy, continued volatile prices and unpredictable weather-induced shortages are sure to negatively affect both producers and consumers in developing countries. Further highlights from the research: Between 1960 and 2010, annual global grain production increased from 643 million tons to 2.2 billion tons. U.S. maize (corn) production was down 5 percent in 2010 due to drought in the east and excessive rain in the west. The United States is the world’s largest exporter of maize, accounting for 56 percent of global exports from 2006 to 2010.

According to the FAO’s Cereal Price Index (CPI), which uses 2002–04 prices for wheat, rice and maize as its baseline (100), food prices increased to an index level of 185 in August 2010 and set a record at 265 in April 2011. Forty percent of the global increase in maize prices in 2000–07 was due to worldwide demand for ethanol, according to the International Food Policy Research Institute. Additional reasons for the jump in food prices include the weakening of the U.S. dollar, speculation on grain prices, and possible climate change impacts. Stanford University researchers who created a model to determine how changing weather patterns affect crop yields found a 2.9 percent increase in global rice production as a result of greater precipitation, but losses of 3.8 percent for wheat and 2.5 percent for maize.

Grain Harvest Sets Record, But Supplies Still Tight | Worldwatch Institute Grain Harvest Sets Record, But Supplies Still Tight Product Number: VST101 Following several years of declining harvests, the world’s farmers reaped a record 2.316 billion tons of grain in 2007. 1 (See Figure 1.) Despite this jump of 95 million tons, or about 4 percent, over the previous year, commodity analysts estimate that voracious global demand will consume all of this increase and prevent governments from replenishing cereal stocks that are at their lowest level in 30 years. 2 The global grain harvest has nearly tripled since 1961, during a time when world population doubled. 3 As a result, the amount of grain produced per person grew from 285 kilograms in 1961 to a peak of 376 kilograms in 1986. 4 (See Figure 2.) In recent decades, as the growth in grain production has matched population growth, per capita production has hovered around 350 kilograms. 5 But output per person varies dramatically by region.

For instance, it stands at roughly 1,230 kilograms per year in the United States, most of which is fed to livestock, compared with 325 kilograms in China and just 90 kilograms in Zimbabwe. 6 Economists, hunger activists, and agricultural researchers track world grain production because people still primarily eat foods made from grain. On average, humans get about 48 percent of their calories from grains, a share that has declined just slightly, from 50 percent, over the last four decades. 7 Grains, particularly corn, in conjunction with soybeans, also form the primary feedstock for industrial livestock production. People consume a little less than half (48 percent) of the world’s grain directly—as steamed rice, bread, tortillas, or millet cakes, for instance. 8 Roughly one third (35 percent) becomes livestock feed. 9 And a growing share, 17 percent, is used to make ethanol and other fuels. 10 Although high crop prices have been pushing farmers around the world to plant more land in grains in recent years, a more powerful engine for the record output was a boost in average yields, the amount of grain harvested per hectare.

For the last decade, grain yields have surpassed 3 tons—nearly three times the level in 1960. 11 Near-perfect weather in major growing areas as well as an estimated 5 percent jump in world fertilizer use helped farmers increase yields. 12 World grain production is concentrated in a number of ways—in terms of the species produced, where the crops are raised, and the major exporters. Corn, wheat, and rice account for about 85 percent of the global grain harvest (in terms of weight), with sorghum, millet, barley, oats, and other less common grains rounding out the total. 13 China, India, and the United States alone account for 46 percent of global grain production; Europe, including the former Soviet states, grows another 21 percent. 14 Argentina, Australia, Canada, the European Union (EU), and the United States account for 80 percent of wheat exports, while just three nations— Argentina, the EU, and the United States— account for 80 percent of corn exports.

15 In 2007, a 200-million-ton jump in the global coarse grain harvest was responsible for nearly all of the increase in the total grain harvest. 16 Production of coarse grains—a group that includes corn, barley, sorghum, and other grains fed mainly to animals—increased 10 percent, from 985 million tons in 2006 to 1,080 million tons in 2007. 17 At 784 million tons, the record harvest of corn was buoyed by the growing use of this grain to produce biofuels, which prompted farmers in the United States (responsible for over 40 percent of the global harvest and half of world exports), Brazil, and Argentina to plant more land to corn. 18 Production in China, the world’s second largest corn producer, inched beyond the previous year’s record. 19 Worldwide, the amount of coarse grains converted to energy jumped 15 percent to 255 million tons, although this is still small compared with the 627 million tons devoted to another relatively inefficient use—livestock feed.

20 Wheat harvests increased modestly, by 2 percent, to 605 million tons, with near perfect weather nurturing strong harvests in India, the EU, and the United States. 21 Australia, however, normally the source of one third of world exports, faced lower crop prospects and depleted exportable supplies. 22 And unfavorable weather meant a reduced harvest in China, the world’s second largest producer. 23 The global rice harvest was up slightly to 633 million tons, matching the record 2005 harvest, as conditions returned to normal in China, India, and across Asia, which accounts for 90 percent of world production. 24 The amount of grain stored by governments— a good measure of the global cushion against poor harvests and rising prices—continues to decline. Global cereal stocks were expected to stand at 318 million tons by the close of the 2007 season, equivalent to about 14 percent of annual consumption. 25 (See Figure 3.) These stocks, and the stock-to-use ratio, built up by bumper crops in the 1980s and the late 1990s, are now substantially below their all-time high.

26 Despite the record harvest, the low stocks and strong demand combined to push prices of all cereals to new highs. 27 At harvest time, the U.S. corn export price was up about 70 percent from the previous year, while the American hard wheat price averaged 65 percent more than a year earlier. 28 Wheat prices in Argentina, another major exporter, doubled since 2006. 29 Important wheat exporters like Ukraine and Russia have imposed export restrictions to ensure a sufficient domestic supply. 30 Major importers, like Egypt, the European Union, Yemen, and Iraq, have reacted to high prices by purchasing grain early, which has further tightened supplies and boosted prices. 31 As such increases ripple through the food chain, people around the world have been greeted with higher prices for bread, beer, corn flour, and other basic foods. Developing countries are likely to spend a record $52 billion on imports of cereals in 2007, up 10 percent from 2006. 32 This follows a 36-percent hike in the previous season. 33 Even international food aid programs, which also purchase their supplies on the world market, have been forced to scale back.

34 The volume of aid provided through the largest assistance program in the United States, Food for Peace, dropped by nearly half since 2005, to 2.4 million tons, in response to a 35-percent increase in the cost of agricultural commodities as well as the rising costs of fuel for shipping. 35 The combination of rising food costs and declining aid can be fatal for the estimated 854 million people worldwide who experience hunger on a regular basis. 36 Notes: 1. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), FAOSTAT Statistical Database, at faostat.fao.org, updated 30 June 2007; FAO, Crop Prospects and Food Situation, No. 5 (Rome: October 2007). Harvest in 2007 is an estimate. This figure includes rice measured as “paddy” rather than the smaller “milled” figure in order to correspond with international convention. 2. FAO, Crop Prospects and Food Situation, op. cit. note 1; U.S.

Department of Agriculture (USDA), Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), Grain: World Markets and Trade, October 2007 (Washington, DC: 2007). 3. FAO, FAOSTAT, op. cit. note 1. 4. Ibid.; U.S. Bureau of the Census, International Data Base, electronic database, Suitland, MD: updated 16 July 2007. 5. FAO, FAOSTAT, op. cit. note 1; Census Bureau, op. cit. note 4. 6. FAO, FAOSTAT, op. cit. note 1. 7. Ibid.

Question: Which cereal grain tails only corn and wheat in worldwide production?
Answer: Rice