Below is a brief description of the most common denominations issued in the Ancient Roman Empire. As Initially, the As was cast in bronze. Later, with reduction in weight, it was small enough to be struck with coin dies. With Augustus' coinage reforms in 23 B.C., this coin was struck in copper and showed the emperor with a bare or laureated head. By the rule of Valerian and his son Gallienus in the middle of the 3rd century, the As was infrequently struck. Dupondius Worth two Asses; literally means "two-pounder," but even during the Roman Republic it didn't weigh 2 pounds. Though this brass coin was more yellow in color, it was still easily confused with the As. Under Nero, the emperor, it began to show an emperor with a radiate crown. Sestertius Originally a small silver coin issued around 211 B.C., the Sestertius was worth 2½ Asses. Under Augustus it became a large "golden" orichalcum (brass) coin, worth 4 Asses. Its large size allowed emperors to commemorate victories, triumphs or virtues as rulers.

By the 3rd century A.D., the Sestertius had become a smaller bronze coin, and after Gallienus' reign (A.D. 253-268), it was no longer minted. Follis Emperor Diocletian first minted the Follis, a bronze coin with a minute amount of silver (usually a wash), around A.D. 294. Because of the chaotic state of the empire, it rapidly underwent changes, decreasing in size and weight. Reduced Follis Through time, economic changes forced a reduction in size and weight of the bronze Follis. It was gradually reduced under Constantine, and eventually replaced after the end of the Constantinian Era. Denarius This standard silver coin of the Roman Empire depicted an emperor wearing a laurel wreath. First issued around 211 B.C., it started with 5% alloy, and over the years the alloy was increased, until by the reign of Septimius Severus it reached 50%. The Denarius disappeared from circulation around the time of Gordian III (A.D. 238-244).

Antoninianus Caracalla first minted the Antoninianus around A.D. 211. It is named for him: M. Aurelius Antoninus "Caracalla." This silver coin shows the emperor wearing a radiate crown as opposed to the laurel wreath of the Denarius. Starting with 40% silver, this coin was gradually debased to a silver wash. Finally, it was abolished during the reign of Constantine the Great (A.D. 307-337). Siliqua A small silver coin first issued by Diocletian, originally called the Argenteus. Later reintroduced as a Siliqua under Constantine the Great, this coin weighed 1/96th of a Roman pound, but its exact place in the monetary system and its value are not known. Aureus Standard gold coin of the Roman Empire. First issued regularly under Julius Caesar around 46 B.C. Although it was reduced in weight, through time, the gold content remained consistently high. The Aureus circulated until A.D. 309 when Constantine the Great replaced it. Solidus Gold coin minted by Constantine the Great, replacing and weighing less than the Aureus.

This coin, later struck by the Byzantines, endured for seven centuries as a circulating gold coin used for commerce in Europe. Learn About Coins Sesterces - definition of Sesterces by The Free Dictionary Sesterces - definition of Sesterces by The Free Dictionary Also found in: Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . ses·terce n. A silver or bronze coin of ancient Rome equivalent to one fourth of a denarius.

[Latin sēstertius, a coin worth two and a half asses : sēmis, half; see sēmi- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots + tertius, third; see trei- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] sesterce sestertius n, pl sesterces or sestertii (sɛˈstɜːtɪaɪ) (Currencies) a silver or, later, bronze coin of ancient Rome worth a quarter of a denarius [C16: from Latin sēstertius a coin worth two and a half asses, from sēmis half + tertius a third] ses•terce Roman Coinage - Ancient History Encyclopedia Roman Coinage by Mark Cartwright published on 27 November 2013 Roman coins were first produced in the late 4th century BCE in Italy and continued to be minted for another eight centuries across the empire . Denominations and values more or less constantly changed but certain types such as the sestertii and denarii would persist and come to rank amongst the most famous coins in history.

Roman coinage , as in other societies, represented a guaranteed and widely recognised value which permitted an easy exchange of value which in turn drove both commerce and technology development as all classes could work to own coins which could be spent on all manner of goods and services. Even more significantly, large and identical payments could now be easily made which made possible a whole new scale of commercial activity. Coins also had a function as a vehicle to spread the imagery of the ruling class as coinage was the mass media of the day and often carried likenesses of emperors and famous imperial monuments which would be the nearest most Romans ever got to see of them. Advertisement Coins of the Republic The early Republic did not use coins but rather a system of bronze weights, the aes rude. These units were quite large as one unit was the equivalent of 324 g. or 11 1/2 oz. in weight. Despite their heaviness this type continued to be produced up to c. 218 BCE. As the Romans expanded over central Italy war booty meant coins could be produced using precious metals - gold , silver, and bronze.

The first Roman coins were probably the small bronze ones of low value produced at Neapolis from 326 BCE and carried the legend PΩMAIΩN. The first silver coins were produced from the early 3rd century BCE and resembled contemporary Greek coins. These were worth two Greek drachmas and carried the legend ROMANO, later to become ROMA . Gradually, following the financial excesses of the Punic Wars , the weight of coins was reduced, as was the metal content of the bronze bars. Due to financial necessity, gold coins (aurei) were also minted, a rare event not to be repeated until the 1st century BCE. Images were made on coins by striking the coin by hand onto a pre-cut die. In c. 211 BCE a whole new coinage system was introduced. Appearing for the first time was the silver denarius (pl. denarii), a coin that would be the principal silver coin of Rome until the 3rd century CE. The coin was initially funded by a tax on property but then via war booty as the wars against Carthage swung in Rome's favour. The denarius was equal to 10 bronze asses (sing.

as), each of which weighed 54 g. or 2 oz. There were other coins such as the silver victoriatus which was in weight equal to three quarters of a denarius, the quinarii, worth half of a denarius, and other bronze and gold coins but these were not always widely or consistently used. From c. 200 BCE only Rome now produced coins in Italy and the movement of troops ensured the wider circulation of Roman coinage. As Rome expanded and took ever more treasure from her enemies silver began to replace bronze as the most important material for coinage. This was especially so following the acquisition of the silver mines of Macedonia from 167 BCE, resulting in a huge boom in silver coins from 157 BCE. In addition, in c. 141 BCE the bronze as was devalued so that now 16 were equivalent to one denarius. It was now no longer necessary to mark coins as Roman as there were no others in Italy and by the 1st century BCE Roman coins were now also being widely used across the Mediterranean.

Remove Ads Advertisement In 84 BCE once again the link between warfare and coinage was evidenced when Sulla minted new silver and gold coins to pay his armies, a necessity repeated by Julius Caesar , who in 46 BCE, minted the largest quantity of gold coin yet seen in Rome, outproducing the state mint in the process. Following the death of Caesar coinage was produced by the various parties fighting to succeed him but with Octavian 's victory a uniform Roman coinage was once more established. Coins of the Emperor The imagery on coins took a turn towards propaganda when Julius Caesar used his own profile on his coins, an opportunity not missed by Brutus who similarly used his own image on one side of his coins and on the other side two daggers symbolising his role in the assassination of Caesar. Augustus , naturally, followed suit but he also reformed the denominations of smaller coins and his new system would form the basis of Roman coinage for the next three centuries. Gone were the silver coins below the denarius to be replaced in 23 BCE by the brass (copper and zinc) orichalcum sestertius and dupondius (pl.

dupondii), and the as and the even smaller quadran (quarter) were now made from copper instead of bronze. The silver denarius continued as before (now valued 84 to the pound) and the gold aureii were valued at 25 denarii each and 41 to the pound (7.87 g). Coins were largely struck in Rome but a significant exception was the Lugdunum mint which started production (mostly gold and silver coins) in 16 BCE and dominated until the mid 1st century CE. Other notable mints, albeit with sporadic production, were in Lyon in Gaul and the cities of Antioch, Alexandria and Caesarea , amongst others. It is also worth noting that in the east local varieties persisted, especially low value bronze coinage. Following the Severan emperors coin production began to proliferate throughout the empire. Hundreds of individual cities across the empire also minted their own coins and the forms of smaller denominations, in particular, were left to local authorities but in general all of these provincial varieties were convertible to Roman coin values.

It was also probable that these various coins remained within their own geographical area as empire wide circulation was not guaranteed and although Rome-minted coinage was shipped to provinces it is more than likely that it remained there. Advertisement Threats to the Currency Coins were continuously minted as taxation only met 80% of the imperial budget and the shortfall was met by putting more coins into circulation, the source coming from freshly mined metal. This also meant that extravagant emperors could get themselves into serious financial trouble. One solution was to reduce the weight and or the metal content of coins and so increase the possible money supply. Nero did this in 64 CE (reducing gold content by 4.5% and silver by 11%) as did Commodus , Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who produced the antoninianus which perhaps had the face value of two denarii whilst only really being worth nearer one and a half. Gradually, silver coins went from pure to 50% and then on down until they reached an all time low of just 2% silver content.

There is even evidence in the later empire that low-content silver coins were deliberately given a finer silver surface to make them appear more valuable than they were. Such blatant manipulation of currency did not go unnoticed by the general population who retaliated by paying their taxes using the newer coins and keeping the older more valuable ones for savings or even melting them down. Another problem was the production of forged money, largely helped by the poor quality of the official coinage. There was a specific body of professionals (nummularii) who had the task of testing suspect coinage but they were overwhelmed by the flood of fake coins. The situation became even graver following the barbarian invasions of the 3rd century CE and the resulting financial pressure on the empire led to the collapse of the silver currency so that only the gold coinage and goods in kind kept the economy afloat. From Aurelian attempts were made to improve the situation with coins being stamped to indicate their metal content: XXI or KA for 5% silver and XI or IA for 10 %.

In 293 CE Diocletian continued the reforms by guaranteeing the gold content of the aurei at 60 to a pound (later renamed the solidus and which would actually outlast the empire itself), minted a new pure silver coin and a part silver bronze coin, the nummus (worth 1/7200 of a solidus). He also further reassessed values in 301 CE, restricted production to between 12 and 15 mints, and made all designs and legends the same across the empire, wherever they were minted. Constantine reversed the trend by devaluing the solidus so that 72 equalled the pound but the economy bore the change. In general, bronze coins came to the fore in the later empire with their denominations varying over time and further reforms continued so that the stability of earlier centuries was never quite recaptured and production of coinage in the West ceased around 480 CE. Imagery Images were made on coins by striking the coin by hand onto a pre-cut die placed below (obverse) and above (reverse) the blank coin.

In the Republic, control of state coinage was in the hands of three junior magistrates (later to be four), the tresviri aere argento auro flando feriundo or a.a.a.f.f. They often signed their issues and initially favoured such classic images as Roma, Jupiter , Mars and Victory. In the second century BCE a series of coins depicted a quadriga or four-horse chariot but from c. 135 BCE the tresviri metales began to stamp references to their own family history, local landmarks, contemporary events and perhaps even their political allegiance. The representation of rulers was avoided, perhaps because on Greek coins this had been for kings and tyrants and so was not in accordance with the principles of a republic. Legends were in vertical or horizontal lines not curving around the edge and could continue on to the opposite side of the coin. Imperial period coins typically have on the obverse side a portrait of the emperor - now in sole charge of the state treasury - usually in profile wearing either a radiant crown or crown of laurel leaves, or, more rarely, a member of the imperial family.

Portraits could vary from an idealised to very realistic representation depending on particular emperors, the stage of their reign and changing artistic trends. After Constantine imperial portraits became increasingly standardised and a more uniform representation of the emperor regardless of individual physical characteristics became the norm. A notable exception to using the emperor was the SC (Senatus Consulto) stamped on Augustan coppers, perhaps signifying senatorial backing. Legends now ran clockwise around the coin, always starting from the bottom left. The reverse side of coins could carry a greater variety of designs and, in particular, Augustus' introduction of the large sestertius gave engravers a bigger scene to work with. Early bronze coins often depicted a ship's prow but higher value coins displayed much more interesting subjects and designs included monuments such as the Colosseum , Trajan 's column , and various temples in Rome or state sponsored projects such as aqueducts, bridges and the revamped harbour of Ostia depicted on Nero's sestertii. Imperial conquest could be referenced such as Augustus' use of a crocodile chained to a palm tree on as coins to symbolise the subjugation of Egypt .

Mark Anthony's coins carried the numbers of the particular legions they were destined for, and provincial coins could depict local gods and heroes, monuments and even symbols of local religion such as the canopic jars on the reverse of coins minted in Alexandria. Conclusion In many cases coins offer the only physical likeness of prominent personalities in the history of Rome. They also depict lost or ruined monuments and help to establish both the precise chronology of Rome and the date of other artefacts that might accompany them in archaeological finds. Coins of certain date can also help to date other less certain coins when they are found together. Coin portraits have also contributed invaluably to naming previously unidentified portrait sculpture and the distribution of coins across the empire can also reveal much about population movements, trade networks and civic identity. All of these studies continue to develop over time as ever more coin hoards are randomly discovered in out of the way places across territory once part of the Roman Empire . About the Author denarius - NumisWiki, The Collaborative Numismatics Project And the grandeur that was Rome - The Collaborative Numismatics Project Welcome Guest. Please login or register . The column on the left includes the "Best of NumisWiki" menu.

If you are new to collecting, start with Ancient Coin Collecting 101. All blue text is linked. Keep clicking to endlessly explore. Welcome Guest. Please login or register . The column on the left includes the "Best of NumisWiki" menu. All blue text is linked. Keep clicking to endlessly explore. If you have written a numismatic article, please add it to NumisWiki. Denarius Please add updates or make corrections to the NumisWiki text version as appropriate. DENARIUS. - This well-known Roman coin derived its name from its value of ten asses (a denis assibus) when it replaced the quadrigatus at the time when the old cast aes grave coinage finally gave way to the new struck bronze coins circa 211 B.C. Around 141 B.C., the denarius was retarrifed at sixteen asses and retained this value into Imperial times. According to Pliny, it was established that the denarius should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the quinarius for five pounds, and the sestertius for two-and-a-half.

- But when the as was reduced in weight to one ounce, it was established that the denarius should be given in exchange for sixteen asses, the quinarius for eight, and the sestertius for four. And though the reason for its being so called no longer existed, yet the denarius retained its original name. With respect to the weight of thje denarius, it appears, also according to Pliny and other writers, that there were, in the ancient libra, eighty-four denarii. The problems with Pliny's theory are cited (though unresolved) by Eckhel, and the chronology of Edward Sydenham, with regard to the Republic, has been revised by Michael Crawford in his Roman Republican Coinage. A specimen of a denarius of Augustus, struck at Rome about 19 B.C. by the moneyer M. Durmius is illustrated by the woodcut below. The mark of the republican denarius was X with one or two variations in the form of that letter.

A similar mark was used on the bronze coinage to indicate the weight of X asses; but on denarii also it donates the value of X asses, for which, as already stated, the denarius was given in exchange. Instead of this mark, however, on coins of the Atilia, Aufidia, Julia, Titinia, and Valeria families, there appears the numeral XVI, doubtless indicating the value of the denarius as 16 asses. With respect to the types of denarii, Pliny simply states that �the type of silver was bigae and quadrigae.� � this is true with reference to a large portion, but many bear other types. Tacitus (De Morib. Germ.) has mentioned the bigati, and so has Livy frequently, whilst describing the booty taken in Hispania and Gallia Cisalpina. On denarii struck during the later periods of the republic, the types varied in many ways, conforming to the will of consular magistrates, and finally of the triumvirs.

The obverses of the early denarii bore the helmeted head of Roma, while their reverses exhibited representations of the Dioscuri on horseback (as on the denarius pictured at the head of this entry); also figures driving bigae and quadrigae, from which the pieces were termed bigati or quadrigati. They were also called Victoriati, when their types displayed a figure of Victory, as in the woodcut below, from a denarius of the Fannia gens, in which the goddess is driving her chariot and four horses at full speed. This was also the case with the half denarius, called the quinarius (see EGNATIA and EGNATULEIA), or piece of five asses, but of this and of the small silver coin called sestertius, few specimens are extant.

Examples of the republican denarius can be found under the respective headings of Atilia (Dioscuri) � Annia (Victory in a quadriga) � Baebia (Quadriga) � Caecilia (Biga of elephants) � Cipia (Victory in Biga) � Cornelia (Jupiter in Quadriga) � Curiatia (Quadriga) � Saufeia (Victory in Biga) � etc., etc. For specimens of the Imperial denarius see Caesar Augustus � Agrippa and Augustus � Caligula and Agrippina � Antonia � Severus Alexander. To these we add the cut below from a rare Decursio denarius struck during the reign of Nero. Frequent mention is made of the denarius or (Roman) penny, in biblical writings, where it is spoken of as the daily wages of a labourer and too, as the tribute penny, �Whose is this visage and superscription?� Published in England, the �Numismatic Illustrations of the Narrative Portions of the New Testament,� quoting from St.

Matthew, the words �a penny a day,� makes the following observations:- �The penny here mentioned was the denarius, which, at the time of Our Lord�s ministry, was equivalent in value to about sevenpence halfpenny of our money. With the decline of the Roman Empire, the denarius was by degrees debased; and before the time of Diocletian had entirely disappeared, or rather had ceased to be struck in the Imperial mints; but that emperor restored the coinage of silver; and denarii were again minted, though reduced in weight. This reduction went on, after the division of the Empire, until the denarius, once a very beautiful medalet, became a coin of very inferior execution, low relief, and reduced thickness and weight. * * * The term �denarius� is yet preserved in our notation of pounds, shillings and pence, by �. s. d.

* * * It is worthy of remark, that, in this country, a penny a day appears to have been the pay of a field labourer, in the middle ages; whilst, among the Romans (See Tacitus, Ann, lib.i) the daily pay for a soldier was a denarius.� From the same work, another passage referring to the imperial denarius, as circulated during the ministry of Jesus Christ, can be found cited in this dictionary, amongst the mintages of TIBERIUS. Respecting base denarii, see the words MAJORINA PECUNIA. Roman silver coins: denarius Roman silver coins After the initial Roman coinage based on the as and its system in bronze, the expansion of the commerce to east and and the Magna Graecia imposed the use of coins with high intrinsic value. The first step in such direction was the mintage of the didrachm, a silver coin derived by the Greek drachma. The first silver coin derived by the Roman monetary system based on the as was the denarius, with a value equal to 10 asses and a weight of 4.5 grams (1/72 of a Roman pound).

Its name comes from "deni", meaning "ten times", pointed out by the value mark X. Also for the denarius, as for the as, the issue date is uncertain, but the most commonly accepted timing is during the first two Punic Wars (first 264-241 BC, 218-202 BC), to face the consistent war expenses. In the first issues the obverse depicted the head of Rome with a winged and crested helmet, while the reverse represented the twins of the Dioscuris horseback, with the inscription "ROMA". In following age the subjects were linked to the aristocratic families of the moneyer as means of politic propaganda. At the end of the republican era, the images used in the silver coins were the ones of the principal personalities of the Roman public life. An interesting evolution of the denarius at the end of the republican era was the introduction of the serrated denarii, introducing the serrated edges as anticounterfeiting measure, both to prevent the removal of metal from the edges of the coin, and to show that the inner coin was produced with the same precious metal of the two faces.

Following of the progressive decrease of the value of the as, in the 118 BC the denarius was revalued, bringing its value to 16 asses, as pointed out by the mark XVI on the of the coin; the three letters were written one above to the other, in a monogram resembling an asterisk. Fractions of the denarius As fractions of the denarius there were: Coin 2,5 as IIS or HS The quinarius had a value equal to 1/2 denarius or 5 asses and it was identified by the numeral V The sestertius was equal to 1/4 of denarius or 2.5 asses, from which the name "semis tertius"; the used mark was IIS (II =2 asses and S = 1 semisse), with the "II" at a later stage transformed in "H." To have a full picture of the Roman silver coins, it's worth to remember the circulation of the victoriatus in, parallel to the denarius. Based on the silver content of the victoriatus. (65% of 3,37 g, i.e.

2,19g of silver) in comparison to the one of the denarius (95-98% of 4,55g, i.e. 4,32 g. of silver), the intrinsic value of the denarius was double compared to victoriatus. Therefore, the victoriatus had a value equal to the one of the quinarius, but it was used mainly in areas of Greek influence, like the Magna Graecia. The denarius remained for centuries at the base of the Roman coinage, up to its substitution by the Antoninianus as silver coin in mid III century BC. To testify the importance of this coin remains the Italian name "denaro" for money, the use of the letter "d" as abbreviation for the denier coined by Carlomagno and for the British penny before the 1971 decimalization. Currently the name survives in Islamic countries in coins derived by the ancient dinar gold coin. Copyright ï¿½ Monete-Romane.com Hand-struck Roman Republic silver Denarii like these were produced between 154-41 B.C.

The Roman Republic The history of ancient Roman coins begins with the first old coins of the Roman Republic (c. 508-27 B.C. when Rome was ruled by its Senate). These were cast bronze coins – introduced during the third century B.C. and known as Aes Grave (heavy bronze). Before long, hand-struck Roman coins of various compositions appeared, which were issued through the remainder of the Republican era and well into the third century A.D. in the western half of the Roman Empire. These hand-struck old coins included the gold Aureus, silver Denarius, bronze Sestertius, bronze Dupondius, and copper As – which often depicted mythological figures on issues of the Roman Republic, and usually depicted reigning leaders on Roman Imperial coinage. During the third century A.D., the silver Denarius was replaced by the "Double Denarius" now commonly known as the Antoninianus – which in turn was replaced during the 284-305 reign of Diocletian with such denominations as the silvered bronze Follis and the silver Siliqua (originally known as the Argenteus).

Pre-Imperial Coinage The coins struck between the death of the dictator Sulla, 78 B.C., and the rise of Octavian (future Augustus) are transitional coinage, connecting the Republican and Imperial eras. During this time, bold generals raised huge armies, striving for the ultimate prize – power. One man, Julius Caesar (60-44 B.C.), rose from the chaos and brought an interval of stability, setting the Roman world on the road to imperial rule. Julius Caesar financed his march on Rome by striking silver Denarii. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, marched on Rome and drove the great general Pompey into Greece, he financed this invasion and secured the loyalty of his troops by striking silver Denarii. These ancient Roman coins have his name and an elephant trampling a snake on the obverse. Many numismatists believe the snake represents Salus, god of safety, and the elephant represents Pompey. After Pompey's defeat, Caesar was appointed to the office of dictator, renewed annually. He was assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C.

See our inventory of Republic and Pre-Imperial coins The Roman Empire Most Roman Imperial coinage depicts the ruling emperor on the obverse. Shown here are a Marcus Aurelius silver Denarius (top) and a Trajan Decius silver Antoninianus. The Roman Republican era ended and the Roman Empire began in 27 B.C. – when the Senate created the title of Augustus (emperor) for Octavian, granting him full authority over the entire empire. Most old coins of the Imperial era depict the reigning emperor on the obverse along with inscriptions identifying the ruler and his titles. These coins were often the only way to let the subjects know who was in charge and to some extent, what he looked like. The reverses of Roman Imperial coinage feature a wide variety of deities, mythological figures, military images, and symbols of authority. Because there were no banks in ancient times, citizens and soldiers often buried coins to keep them secure – and fortunately for collectors today, many of those hoards were never retrieved. Roman Imperial coinage is still periodically unearthed in regions controlled by Rome in ancient times. Ancient Roman coins available today are from nearly 90 different rulers from the 27 B.C. – A.D.

14 reign of Octavian to the A.D. 284-305 reign of Diocletian – when ancient Rome split into eastern and western empires along Latin and Greek lines of influence and culture. Collectors of ancient Roman coins often seek coins depicting the most famous emperors – such as Octavian, Tiberius, Nero, Vespasian, Trajan, Hadrian, or Marcus Aurelius. Other collectors may specialize in the deities featured on the reverses of many different imperial coins – including Cybele the mother of all gods, Venus the goddess of love, Mars the god of war, or Minerva the goddess of wisdom. Provincial Coinage As Rome spread its influence and consolidated power, lands once held by barbarian tribes, independent city-states, and Hellenistic kingdoms fell under its authority. Because the Romans left local systems like religion, rulers and coinage in place, those areas all produced their own coins. These local coins, once struck at over 600 provincial mints, could circulate within a single city or across a region.

Today, these coins make up the group known as Provincial coinage, which some collectors call Greek Imperials, and are a fascinating story in the history of ancient Roman coins. These coins can have legends in either Greek or Latin, sometimes both, because many of these areas were once part of the illustrious empire of Greece's Alexander the Great. Provincial coinage has several features that make it very different from Roman Imperial coinage, which was issued regularly and had fixed denominations like the As, Sestertius or Denarius. Provincial coinage was issued sporadically with a wide variety of values following Greek denominations. At the empire's beginnings, mints in both the East and West struck coins for their own locales. But by the reign of Claudius, A.D. 41-54, as Roman Imperial issues spread, western Provincial coinage ceased. Eastern mints continued for another 200 years because a minting tradition passed down from Alexander the Great's successors was already in place. Nero silver Tetradrachm struck at Antioch, Syria – one of the mints that also produced the famous coins mentioned in the Bible.

Three of the greatest eastern mints were Antioch and Tyre in Syria, and Alexandria in Egypt. The Syrian mints produced the famous coins mentioned in the Bible, like the silver Tetradrachms and Tyrian Shekels. The mint at Alexandria, Egypt was founded by Alexander the Great and outlasted all other provincial mints. When Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, Egypt became the personal property of the emperor. This rich country already had a coinage system that was "closed", meaning coins were struck and circulated only in Egypt. Future emperors maintained this system until Diocletian's reforms of A.D. 294. At that time, all Provincial coinage ended, and was replaced by Imperial issues. See our inventory of Roman Imperial and Provincial coins The Fall of Rome Diocletian bronze Follis, struck under Emperor Diocletian, who divided the Roman Empire during his reign. The history of ancient Roman coins grows more complicated as the ruling powers of the time began to shift. The Roman Empire was split into eastern and western empires under Emperor Diocletian (A.D. 284-305).

Coins were then issued in the western portion until the forced abdication of power by Romulus Augustus in 476 brought an end to the Western Roman Empire. Completely different imperial coins were issued by rulers of the eastern portion, which continued to exist as the Byzantine Empire until 1453. The Coinage of Britain - Roman Coins 2. ROMAN COINS Roman coins circulated in Britain from Celtic times, even before the conquest by the emperor Claudius in A.D.43. Following the occupation normal Roman coins were then used for some 250 years before Britain had its own mint. However, the Romans issued many coins with reference to Britain, including gold coins of Claudius showing a triumphal arch inscribed DE BRITANN, commemorating the conquest. The initial phase of the conquest established a frontier from roughly the Severn Estuary to the Wash. The Britons were mostly allowed to retain their rulers, serving as client-kings of the Romans.

Unfortunately for the Britons, Roman ambitions did not stop there and after a series of punitive raids beyond the frontier, the suppression of the Boudiccan rebellion and a period of consolidation which saw Roman rule extended into Wales, a decision was made to occupy the whole of the country. Accordingly Cnaeus Julius Agricola, governor of Britain, was given the task of subduing the native tribes, which he did with typical Roman thoroughness in a bloody campaign that lasted some seven years, from A.D.77-83. Silver denarius of Hadrian Following a visit by the emperor Hadrian in A.D. 122, the frontier was set from the Tyne to the Solway Firth, along the line of what we now call Hadrian's Wall, abandoning those lands in Caledonia (Scotland) that had been conquered by Agricola, which extended as far north as the glens. This proved only temporary as Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161), moved the frontier back to Scotland, building a new wall in the isthmus between the Clyde and the Forth following attacks by the northern tribes in A.D.

140-144. This Antonine Wall remained the border until the reign of Commodus when, in A.D. 180, the northern tribes overran the frontier and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Roman army. This rebellion was ruthlessly suppressed by a newly appointed governor, Ulpius Marcellus, and peace was restored. Coins commemorating the visit of Hadrian included sestertii with reverse legend BRITANNIA, depicting a seated Britannia. This was the prototype of the figure used 1300 years later on British coins, although the actual model for Britannia was taken from a coin of Antoninus Pius. Others referred to the garrison in Britain and were inscribed EXERC(itus) BRITAN; they show Hadrian addressing a group of soldiers. Bronze sestertius of Antoninus Pius AD 138-160 depicting Britannia This was the actual model for Britannia used by Charles II in 1674 The Britannia coin was repeated by Antoninus Pius (illustrated), together with others struck in gold and bronze which had the reverse legend IMPERATOR II BRITAN and have either Britanni or a winged figure of Victory.

These are thought to commemorate the victories of Lollius Urbicus against the tribes around the Wall. Commodus also issued coins with either BRITANNIA or VICT(oriae) BRIT(annicae) on them following the campaigns of Marcellus. Bronze medallion of Commodus commemorating the successful campaigns in Britain, dated TRP X (AD 185) Illustrated by kind permission of Ars Classica Copyright © Ars Classica 2009 The respite proved only temporary, as civil war followed the death of Commodus in A.D. 193. The garrison was withdrawn to fight the cause of the governor of Britain, Clodius Albinus, and perished with him at the Battle of Lugdunum (Lyons, France) in A.D. 197. Taking advantage of the Roman garrison's temporary weakness, the northern tribes again devastated the province. Hadrian's Wall was so badly damaged during the attacks that in places it required completely rebuilding. Although order was restored with some difficulty, the new emperor Septimius Severus arrived from Rome in A.D. 208 with a vast army intending to resolve the problems with the northern tribes once and for all.

In three years of campaigning, which took the Roman army to the north of Scotland, they obeyed the command "Let nobody escape destruction, no one, not even the babe in the mother's womb". The decimation of the highlands caused by this was so profound it was over 100 years before the inhabitants of Scotland were able to mount an effective attack again. This population vacuum was, in the interim, filled by Gaelic tribes from Ireland, the Hibernae, replacing or augmenting the surviving Scots. In A.D. 211, Severus died at York. His two sons, Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius, called Antoninus III in some old books) and Geta hastily returned to Rome to secure their inheritance. The Severans issued coins in gold, silver and bronze commemorating their campaign in Britain, all bearing the legend VICTORIAE BRITANNICAE in full or abbreviated, as well as adding the honorary title BRIT(annicus) to their name on the obverse. Above: Silver denarius of Septimius Severus with VICTORIAE BRIT reverse Thereafter, Britain enjoyed nearly a century of peace and relative prosperity before being subjected to the next series of attacks.

These began in the late 3rd Century A.D. when sea-going pirates from Ireland in the west and Saxons from Scandinavia in the east began raiding the coastal towns of Britain. To meet these attacks, two fleets of ships were set up, that in the east being based on Boulogne and called the "Classis Britannica". It was commanded by a Menapian called Carausius, who rebelled and proclaimed himself up emperor of Britain and Gaul. Six years later he was assassinated by enemies within his own court and his finance minister Allectus became emperor in his place. The reign of Allectus was brief because in A.D. 296 the newly appointed ruler of the western provinces of Rome, Constantius Chlorus (Constantius I), invaded Britain and recovered it for the Empire. During the reigns of Carausius and Allectus, coins were minted in Britain for the first time for 250 years. Two mints were involved, one with mintmark including the letter L, almost certainly Londinium (London), and another with signature C or CL.

The attribution of this mark has been questioned for many years and at one time Camulodum (Colchester) was favoured, then Clausentum (Bitterne, near Southampton). It has never been satisfactorily resolved where this mint was situated. Other coins of Carausius bear no mintmark at all, while others have the letters RSR. For the early part of his reign, Carausius controlled a large part of Gaul along the Channel coast and one mint, whose coins are sometimes marked R, is thought to have been Rotomagus (Rouen) in northern France. Above: Silver "denarius" of Carausius, with"RSR" on the reverse British Museum Collection Four denominations were involved, in gold, silver and silvered-bronze for Carausius and Allectus and a smaller, unknown, bronze denomination for Allectus, usually called a quinarius as they always have the letter Q on them. Among the antoniniani of Carausius were coins showing conjoined busts of himself with the two rightful joint-emperors, Diocletian and Maximian and the legend CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI (Carausius and his brothers).

Above: Silver-washed antoninianus of Allectus, "C" mint Reverse: PAX AVG With the restoration of official Roman rule, a decision was made to continue minting coins in London. This was an extension of the decentralising policies of Diocletian, which included splitting up the Empire into four administrative areas and increasing the number of mints producing coins instead of just relying on one mint in Rome. Coins in silvered-bronze were produced in London from A.D. 296 to A.D. 325. Initially these were a large denomination called a follis, struck in the name of Diocletian and his co-emperors, Maximian, Constantius and Galerius, who formed what is known as the First Tetrarchy. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in A.D. 305, Constantius and Galerius were promoted to Augustus (emperor) and two juniors appointed, Severus II and Maximinus II, to form the Second Tetrarchy. This arrangement did not last for long.

Constantius died at York after coming to Britain to repulse an invasion of the north by a new enemy called the Picts, and his troops acclaimed his son Constantine (later known to history as Constantine the Great) as emperor without waiting for the agreement of the other Tetrarchs. A period of confusion followed, with others making their play for power, among them Maxentius, son of Maximian, who rebelled against Severus II and killed him. Constantine, who had been downgraded to a subordinate rank by the Tetrarchs, formed an alliance with Maximian and marched on Rome, defeating Maxentius at the battle of Milvian Bridge, to become sole ruler of all the western provinces in A.D. 312. Meanwhile Galerius had died the previous year and his two successors in the east, Licinius and Maximinus II quarrelled A. D. 313 over territorial claims and in the ensuing battle Licinius was victorious. For another eleven years there was an uneasy peace between the two halves of the empire until A.D. 324, when victories over Licinius at Hadrianople and Chrysopolis left Constantine as sole ruler of the whole of the Empire.

During this period the London mint produced coins for all of the various rulers. The cost of wars meant that the original follis was gradually reduced in weight and size from circa 10 gm and a diameter of 27 mm in A.D 296, to only 3 gm by A.D. 322. The later coins were struck on thinner flans and maintained an average diameter of around 17mm to 19 mm. After A.D. 317 and the final split with Licinius, Constantine only issued coins for himself, his mother Helena, his wife Fausta and his three sons, Crispus, Constantine II and Constantius II, ignoring Licinius completely. During the whole of its operations the London mint produced no less than 587 different combination of obverse and reverse types and mintmarks, 287 in the period A.D. 296-312, the rest up to A.D.325. Thereafter the mint was closed.

During this time the system was that the two co-emperors had the rank of Augustus (abbreviated to AVG on coins) and the two junior emperors the rank of Most Noble Caesar (NOB CAES or just N C on the coins). Constantine divided Britain into four administrative areas, First and Second Britain, Maxima Caesariensis and Flavia Caesariensis, partly to prevent any commander doing what Constantine himself had done. By this time Britain had become the granary of the western provinces, as Egypt was to those of the east, and too important to take risks with. The size of the legions was reduced but the number of auxiliary and cavalry units was greatly increased. The fleet was similarly strengthened. In the process the Roman army became much more mobile. When the Picts again invaded the north in A.D. 343, Constantine's son Constans, now emperor of the West, crossed hurriedly to Britain and drove them off. In A.D. 360 when the same tribes broke the treaty, the new emperor, Julian, had to send reinforcements from Gaul. These were minor compared with the attack a few years later A.D.

369, when all the barbarians, Picts, Scots and Saxons, together with a new enemy called the Attacotti, attacked in unison. The most able general of the Roman army, Count Theodosius, father of the later emperor with the same name, defeated them so effectively he was able to annexe a new province to the empire, presumably from beyond Hadrian's Wall, naming it Valentia after the reigning emperor. Peace was short-lived. In A.D. 383 the commander of Roman army in Britain, Magnus Maximus, was proclaimed emperor by disgruntled troops and invaded Gaul, taking most of the army with him. The emperor Gratian was defeated and killed and Maximus became ruler of Britain, Gaul, Spain and North Africa. Then in A.D. 388 he decided to advance on Rome, was beaten at Poetovio by the emperor Theodosius I and killed. During the brief reign of Maximus a mint was set up in London (renamed Augusta), producing gold and silver coins with the mintmark AVG, all of which are extremely rare.

Above: Gold solidus of Magnus Maximus minted in Augusta (London) Mintmark: AVGOB (Augusta Obryziacum) That Britain did not fall victim to another barbarian invasion after being denuded of its garrison is a tribute to a system of foederati, which at first worked extremely well. This entailed settling barbarian tribes in frontier areas liable to attack, thus two Germanic tribes, the Votadini and the Damnoni were allocated to North Wales and the north of England respectively and other mercenaries were employed in Kent. North Saxon mercenaries were also employed against a new attack by the Picts. Stilicho, a Vandal general in the army of the emperor Honorius, came to Britain late in the fourth century to organise the country's defences. His efforts were negated a few years later when in A.D. 407 the legions in Britain declared one of their number, Constantine, as emperor and invaded Gaul to lay claim to the throne, chosen, apparently, because of his name and it was the centenary of Constantine the Great's elevation. Following his eventual defeat in A.D.

411, the garrison of Britain was never replenished and when a deputation from Britain was sent to Rome in A.D. 446 it carried a letter with the famous phrase "The barbarians drive us into the sea and the sea drives us back to the barbarians". No help was forthcoming. A few years later a foederati king called Vortigern invited the Saxons to occupy the south and effectively Roman rule was at an end. The Romano-British tribes were gradually pushed back into Wales, Devon and Cornwall and by the late 7th Century all of England had come under the control of the invaders. Appendix 1. THE ROMAN COINAGE SYSTEM From the time Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) until the middle of the 3rd Century, the Roman monetary system consisted of a number of denominations struck in four different metals, gold, silver, orichalcum (a kind of brass) and copper. During the latter half of the 3rd century onwards coins of gold and a silver-washed bronze alloy were issued.

Silver coins made their appearance as part of Diocletian's reforms late in the 3rd Century, and again during the reign of Constantine, being produced in substantial quantities from about AD 350 until the joint reigns of Arcadius and Honorius at the end of the Century. Thereafter, silver coins are quite scarce. An important point to remember concerning Roman coins is that after AD 214 we are mostly unaware of what the Romans called the various new denominations introduced. Most names in common use are those allocated to them by modern numismatists. Very often these coins are listed with a set of relative values ascribed to them, for example the gold coin or aureus is quoted as being worth 25 silver denarii. A reading of Roman documents shows that this is a modern interpretation. The actual system is more complicated. What needs to be understood is that the medium of exchange was the base metal coinage and that gold and silver were only for the convenience of storing or transporting large sums of money. Only when silver coins had themselves become so debased they were virtually copper did they supplant the base metal coins for transactions.

All prices were therefore quoted in terms of the brass sestertius, which had a nominal value of a quarter of a denarius, and all payments in the market place were made using that coin or one of the smaller brass or copper denominations. Before spending a gold or silver coin it had first to be exchanged with the money-changers for its current value in these base metal coins. You could also buy gold and silver coins from the money-changers. Either way you paid a premium, rather like today when obtaining foreign currency. What the table below shows therefore, is what is thought to be the approximate relative value of the various denominations, but there is no certainty of their correctness or for how long a period they applied. Metal Quarter of an as The first 200 years of the Roman Empire saw little change in this system, except that the silver denarius was progressively debased from the time of Nero onwards (A.D.54-68) and was accompanied by a series of downward adjustments in the weight of the gold coins (which were always struck pure). Silver antoninianus introduced by Caracalla AD 214.

During the reign of Caracalla (A.D.211-217) a new denomination was introduced, a base silver coin which we call the antoninianus after a passage in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae, which refers to a gift of "argentos antoninianos mille" ("one thousand silver antoniniani "- SHA, Firmus, Saturninus, >Proculus and Bonosus, XV.8). This coin always shows the emperor wearing a radiate crown (illustrated above) or, in the case of empresses, showing the portrait bust set on a crescent. These coins weighed about one and a half denarii but were probably valued at two denarii. Following what proved to be the last major issue of denarii by Gordian III (A.D. 238-244), the antoninianus virtually supplanted the denarius as the main silver coin produced. In the reign of Trajan Decius (A.D.249-251) antoniniani were overstruck on denarii from earlier reigns.

At the same time an orichalcum double-sestertius was introduced but was not continued into following reigns, though some were struck by Postumus in the breakaway Gallic Empire (A.D. 259-268), just before the sestertius ceased to circulate. Denarius of Gordian III AD 238-244 Reverse: LAETITIA AVG N After the financial collapse during the sole reign of Gallienus (A.D. 260-268) the antoninianus was reduced to a small coin of less than 4% silver with a silver wash to keep up its appearance. All the orichalcum and copper coins ceased production because they were worth more intrinsically than the so-called higher denomination. During the whole of this period, because it was pure, the gold coinage occupied what at first sight looks like an anomalous position, but it is fairly obvious that the money-changing system would have coped by adjusting the number of base metal coins obtained for it, or required for its purchase.

Post reform silver-washed antoninianus of Aurelian circa AD 273-275 Reverse: ORIENS AVG Mintmark: XXIA Aurelian (A.D. 270-275) attempted a currency reform that brought a measure of stability. The antoninianus was produced at something like its original size and although the outer silvering was improved, the actual silver content remained low. These reformed antoniniani often bear the mark XXI (or the Greek letters KA which mean the same), thought to refer to the ratio of 20 parts copper to one of silver in their composition. There were rare issues of smaller denominations, including a base metal denarius. The antoninianus remained the standard coin until the reforms of Diocletian in A.D. 296. The gold coinage was struck at a variety of weights, which stabilised into two distinctive denominations by the reign of Carus and his sons (A.D.

282-285) Diocletian's first step was to improve and stabilise the weight of the gold coins at 1/60th of a Roman pound in weight, then he reintroduced a pure silver coin, which we call the argenteus, weighing 1/96th of a pound. Both coins approximated to the standard of the coins in the time of Nero over 200 years earlier; with, possibly, similar relative values. The silver-washed antoninianus was abandoned, its place taken by a similar coin without the silver content. For want of a better name this coin is called a "post-reform radiate". A new denomination, weighing some 10 grams appeared. Again, we do not know what this coin was called but it is usually referred to as a follis. Like the antoninianus it was of approximately 4% silver with a silver wash and consequently the XXI mark was transferred to this coin. It is possible that this coin was initially valued at approximately 1/100th of an aureus.

Silver "argenteus" of Diocletian's co-emperor, Maximian, introduced in AD 294 As part of Diocletian's reforms the number of mints was greatly expanded. In the early empire the sole central mint at Rome sufficed, but the numbers had grown considerably in the 3rd Century because of the vast quantities of coins needed to be produced. The follis was minted at all of them, initially with a standard reverse type, GENIO POPVLI ROMANI (The Genius - i.e. spirit - of the people of Rome). Mintmarks, the use of which had also been developing in the late 3rd Century, were included on nearly every coin, necessitated by the standardisation of reverse types. The large folles barely survived Diocletian's reign and from A.D. 307 were progressively reduced in size and weight to a coin of only 17mm diameter and under 2 grams by A.D. 330. In the meantime Constantine the Great (A.D.307-336) had, in his turn, initiated a series of reforms.

The gold coinage was reduced in weight to a standard of 1/72nd of a pound, a weight atwhich it continued to be struck for several hundred years, as a consequence of which it became known as the solidus. Late in his reign, the argenteus was reintroduced, but is usually referred to as a siliqua, together with a silver coin weighing the same as the solidus which we call a miliarense (to compound matters there were so-called heavy miliarensia of 1/60th of a pound which occupied the same position relative to the earlier gold coins of the reign. Constans centenionalis minted at Rome Reverse:FEL TEMP REPARATIO Mintmark: R*Q In A.D. 346, Constantine's sons and successors, Constans and Constantius II, discontinued the small follis derivatives and replaced them with a new silver-washed bronze coin of about 23 mm diameter.

The name of this new denomination is unknown but has been equated with the centenionalis, a name which suggests that the value assigned to it was at first the same as the follis of Diocletian, the lighter weight because it was 1/100th of a gold solidus. At first they always bore the reverse legend FEL TEMP REPARATIO (Restoration of Happy Times). During his sole reign, after the death of Constans, Constantius II discontinued the original siliqua and replaced it with a coin of 1/144th of a pound. His coinage, therefore, consisted of the gold solidus and its half piece, the semis, occasional production of the miliarense, which seemed to have a ceremonial significance, and the light siliqua in silver and the centenionalis. By then, the centenionalis had followed the pattern of earlier silver-washed bronzes and declined to a quarter of its original weight and a size of 18mm. Valens silver miliarense minted at Trier Reverse: VICTORIA AVGVSTORVM Mintmark TRPS.

During the reigns of Julian, Jovian, Valentinian and Valens, following the example of the usurper Magnentius in Gaul, attempts were made to introduce a larger silver-washed bronze approximating to the original centenionalis. Similar attempts with slightly smaller coin in the reigns of Gratian and Theodosius I were equally short-lived. By then the coinage consisted of gold solidi, silver siliquae and small silver-washed bronzes. With only minor adjustments to the weight and size of the bronze coinage, this continued to be the monetary system until the reforms of Anastasius in A.D. 498, by which time the western provinces had all been lost to the Roman empire. Julian silver-washed large bronze minted at Cyzicus Reverse: SECVRITAS REIPVB Appendix 1. As a handy notation, late Roman bronze coins are usually defined by their size as a handy notation. These are: AE1 Occasionally, coins borderline in size are referred to as AE3/4 or AE2/3. Photo Forgers exploited ignorance of newly-introduced coin types and the illiteracy of the population, by producing imitations of Roman coins on a huge scale.

These contemporary forgeries are interesting and worthy of study in their own right and appear to emanate from specific centres of production in, for example, Gaul. They can usually (but not always) be distinguished by poor workmanship, blundered legends, and incorrect die axis (with official Imperial Roman coins the die axis of the reverse is exactly the same as obverse, with the design either the same way up or upside down - with forgeries the axes are usually at an angle with one another). These forgeries come in two types. Copies of early silver denarii were made which have a base metal core inside a thin "envelope" of silver. These were especially prevalent during the Roman Republic and virtually ceased when the silver coins became heavily debased. Money-changers took to testing silver coins by striking with a sharp instrument designed to pierce through the outer covering and show the core. Many early denarii exhibit these test marks. The others were copies of bronzes, which come in waves and tend to follow the introduction of new coin types. In the 1st century, copies of the copper as of Claudius abound.

Thereafter there was a lull until the 3rd Century when cast copies of base silver denarii were made. Following the collapse of the Gallic Empire (A.D. 260-273) set up by the rebellion of Postumus, there was a vast outpouring of what are called "barbarous radiates", forgeries of the last greatly-debased antoniniani. No sooner had this coinage subsided than the rebellion of Carausius provided the impetus for more copies. A high proportion of so-called Carausian coins are nothing more than contemporary copies, and their uncritical inclusion in reference works greatly hamper studies of his coinage. The constant changes to the bronze coins in the 4th Century brought successive waves of imitations. Especially favoured were the URBS ROMA and CONSTANTINOPOLIS coins of Constantine and the FEL TEMP REPARATIO coins of Constantius II. In the final phase many of these copies were extremely small, some barely 5 mm diameter and are often called minims or minimissimi. A final note concerns the late 4th Century siliquae.

Many of these are found clipped, something that was difficult to do on earlier silver coins but relatively easy on the thin flan siliqua. These are not, of course, forgeries as such. Appendix 3. COIN HOARDS & SITE FINDS There is a wide divergence between the sort of coins found on an average Roman archaeological site in Britain and in hoards. A common feature of early sites is the large number of "plated" forgeries of denarii found, coins that are rarely hoarded. This was because possession of a forgery was high treason and rather than risk execution, anyone finding that they had one quickly got rid of it. There is a major difference in the coins that are found. Large bronzes are rarely hoarded but abound in site finds, the exception being mid-3rd century hoards from the reign of Postumus when they had acquired a significant value. Emperors whose coins are rarely found on sites sometimes occur commonly in hoards, for example antoniniani of Gordian III to Valerian I.ï¿½ In fact such is the pattern of site finds absence of what are regarded as common coins does not mean that the site was unoccupied during that period.

Coin hoards tend to be deposited following major coinage reforms. At one time it was thought that they were the result of some disaster, an argument that had to be strained at times to equate the end of a hoard by the date of the latest coin in it with some known event. All kinds of special arguments were put forward to explain the gap. For example, a 30 year lapse in time had to be explained as the time it took for a coin to be minted in Rome and then arriving at the frontier. The trouble with that argument was that it had to be equally applied to hoards of a similar type found nowhere near the frontier and in areas that had not suffered the same disaster. Nowadays the economic arguments are more widely accepted. Appendix 4. ROMAN EMPERORS KNOWN TO HAVE VISITED BRITAIN Julius Caesar 55 and 54 B.C. Claudius A.D. 43 Vespasian A.D. 43 as Legate of Legion II during the invasion Hadrian A.D. 122 Pertinax - Governor of Britain during the late 2nd Century Clodius Albinus - Governor of Britain A.D.

193 Septimius Severus A.D. 207-211, died in York Caracalla A.D. 207-211 Constantius I A.D. 296 and A.D. 306, died in York Constantine the Great A.D. 306-307 Constans A.D. 346 Magnus Maximus - Army commander A.D. 383 (and possibly his son Flavius Victor as well) Constantine III - Army commander A.D. 407 (and possibly his son, Constans) Changes and additions: Minor changes made 30 June 2001. Photo of Constans centenionalis added.

Photo of Allectus antoninianus added 3 July 2001 Link to new page illustrating London mint coins AD 296-325 added 10 July 2001 Photo of Severus denarius added 31 March 2002 Photo of Magnus Maximus solidus added 31 March 2002 Minor corrections made and photos of Allectus "quinarius" and Valens miliarense added 24 April 2002 Link to new page about Carausius and Allectus added 22 May 2002 Photo of Julian AE1 added 3 June 2002 Minor corrections and additions to the textï¿½January 2007

Question: What was the Roman coin that was worth a quarter of a denarius
Answer: Sesterce