BBC - Culture - The mysterious origins of punctuation Books The mysterious origins of punctuation Commas, semicolons and question marks are so commonplace it seems as if they were always there – but that’s not the case. Keith Houston explains their history. By Keith Houston 2 September 2015 As readers and writers, we’re intimately familiar with the dots, strokes and dashes that punctuate the written word. The comma, colon, semicolon and their siblings are integral parts of writing, pointing out grammatical structures and helping us transform letters into spoken words or mental images. We would be lost without them (or, at the very least, extremely confused), and yet the earliest readers and writers managed without it for thousands of years. What changed their minds? In the 3rd Century BCE, in the Hellenic Egyptian city of Alexandria, a librarian named Aristophanes had had enough. He was chief of staff at the city’s famous library, home to hundreds of thousands of scrolls, which were all frustratingly time-consuming to read. For as long as anyone could remember, the Greeks had written their texts so that their letters ran together withnospacesorpunctuation and without any distinction between lowercase and capitals.

It was up to the reader to pick their way through this unforgiving mass of letters to discover where each word or sentence ended and the next began. In early Greece and Rome, persuasive speech was more important than written language Yet the lack of punctuation and word spaces was not seen as a problem. In early democracies such as Greece and Rome, where elected officials debated to promote their points of view, eloquent and persuasive speech was considered more important than written language and readers fully expected that they would have to pore over a scroll before reciting it in public. To be able to understand a text on a first reading was unheard of: when asked to read aloud from an unfamiliar document, a 2nd Century writer named Aulus Gellius protested that he would mangle its meaning and emphasise its words incorrectly.

(When a bystander stepped in to read the document instead, he did just that.) View image of In early Greece and Rome, understanding a text on a first reading was unheard of (Credit: Credit: Getty Images) Joining the dots Aristophanes’ breakthrough was to suggest that readers could annotate their documents, relieving the unbroken stream of text with dots of ink aligned with the middle (·), bottom (.) or top (·) of each line. His ‘subordinate’, ‘intermediate’ and ‘full’ points corresponded to the pauses of increasing length that a practised reader would habitually insert between formal units of speech called the comma, colon and periodos. This was not quite punctuation as we know it – Aristophanes saw his marks as representing simple pauses rather than grammatical boundaries – but the seed had been planted. View image of The Romans eventually abandoned Aristophanes’ system of dots without a second thought (Credit: Credit: Classic Image / Alamy) Unfortunately, not everyone was convinced of the value of this new invention. When the Romans overtook the Greeks as the preeminent empire-builders of the ancient world, they abandoned Aristophanes’ system of dots without a second thought.

Cicero, for example, one of Rome’s most famous public speakers, told his rapt audiences that the end of a sentence “ought to be determined not by the speaker’s pausing for breath, or by a stroke interposed by a copyist, but by the constraint of the rhythm”. Books became an integral part of the Christian identity And though the Romans had experimented for a while with separating·words·with·dots, by the second century CE they had abandoned that too. The cult of public speaking was a strong one, to the extent that all reading was done aloud: most scholars agree that the Greeks and Romans got round their lack of punctuation by murmuring aloud as they read through texts of all kinds. Writing comes of age It was the rise of a quite different kind of cult that resuscitated Aristophanes’ foray into punctuation. As the Roman Empire crumbled in the 4th and 5th Centuries, Rome’s pagans found themselves fighting a losing battle against a new religion called Christianity. Whereas pagans had always passed along their traditions and culture by word of mouth, Christians preferred to write down their psalms and gospels to better spread the word of God.

Books became an integral part of the Christian identity, acquiring decorative letters and paragraph marks (Γ, ¢, 7, ¶ and others), and many were lavishly illustrated with gold leaf and intricate paintings. As it spread across Europe, Christianity embraced writing and rejuvenated punctuation. In the 6th Century, Christian writers began to punctuate their own works long before readers got their hands on them in order to protect their original meaning. Later, in the 7th Century, Isidore of Seville (first an archbishop and later beatified to become a saint, though sadly not for his services to punctuation) described an updated version of Aristophanes’ system in which he rearranged the dots in order of height to indicate short (.), medium (·) and long (·) pauses respectively. View image of Books became an integral part of the Christian identity (Credit: Credit: Alamy) Moreover, Isidore explicitly connected punctuation with meaning for the first time: the re-christened subdistinctio, or low point (.), no longer marked a simple pause but was rather the signpost of a grammatical comma, while the high point, or distinctio finalis (·), stood for the end of a sentence.

Spaces between words appeared soon after this, an invention of Irish and Scottish monks tired of prying apart unfamiliar Latin words. And towards the end of the 8th Century, in the nascent country of Germany, the famed king Charlemagne ordered a monk named Alcuin to devise a unified alphabet of letters that could be read by all his far-flung subjects, thus creating what we now know as lowercase letters. Writing had come of age, and punctuation was an indispensable part of it. Cutting a dash With Aristophanes’ little dots now commonplace, writers began to expand on them. Some borrowed from musical notation, inspired by Gregorian chants to create new marks like the punctus versus (a medieval ringer for the semicolon used to terminate a sentence) and the punctus elevatus (an upside-down ‘;’ that evolved into the modern colon) that suggested changes in tone as well as grammatical meaning.

Another new mark, an ancestor of the question mark called the punctus interrogativus, was used to punctuate questions and to convey a rising inflection at the same time (The related exclamation mark came later, during the 15th Century.) The three dots that had spawned punctuation in the first place inevitably suffered as a result. As other, more specific symbols were created, the distinction between low, medium and high points grew indistinct until all that was left was a simple point that could be placed anywhere on the line to indicate a pause of indeterminate length – a muddied mixture of the comma, colon and full stop. The humble dot was put under pressure on another front, too, when a 12th Century Italian writer named Boncompagno da Signa proposed an entirely new system of punctuation comprising only two marks: a slash (/) represented a pause while a dash (—) terminated sentences. The fate of da Signa’s dash is murky – it may or may not be the ancestor of the parenthetical dash, like those that surround these words – but the slash, or virgula suspensiva, was an unequivocal success.

It was compact and visually distinctive, and it soon began to edge out the last holdouts of Aristophanes’s system as a general-purpose comma or pause. View image of The emoji: a new form of punctuation? (Credit: Emoji) This, then, was the state of punctuation at the height of the Renaissance: a mixture of ancient Greek dots; colons, question marks, and other marks descended from medieval symbols; and a few latecomers such as the slash and dash. By now writers were pretty comfortable with the way things stood, which was fortunate, really, because when printing arrived in the mid-1450s, with the publication of Johannes Gutenberg’s 42-line Bible, punctuation found itself unexpectedly frozen in time. Within 50 years, the majority of the symbols we use today were cast firmly in lead, never to change again: Boncompagno da Signa’s slash dropped to the baseline and gained a slight curve to become the modern comma, inheriting its old Greek name as it did so; the semicolon and the exclamation mark joined the colon and the question mark; and Aristophanes’s dot got one last hurrah as the full stop.

After that the evolution of punctuation marks stopped dead, stymied by the standardisation imposed by the printing press. It is only now, with computers more widespread than printing presses ever were, that punctuation is again showing signs of life. The average 15th Century writer would have little difficulty in identifying the marks of punctuation that grace the computer keyboard, but they might be a little more surprised by the emoticons and emoji that have joined them on our screens. Punctuation, it turns out, is not dead; it was just waiting for the next technological bandwagon on which to leap. Now we’ve found it, it’s up to us readers and writers once more to decide how we’re going to punctuate our words for the next 2,000 years. Keith Houston is the author of Shady Characters, The Secret Life of Punctuation, Symbols & Other Typographical Marks. More of his work can be found here . If you would like to comment on this story or anything else you have seen on BBC Culture, head over to our Facebook page or message us on Twitter .

Punctuation Marks: Ellipsis | Writing Forward Punctuation Marks Posted by Melissa Donovan on July 15, 2007 · Punctuation marks: the ellipses… You see it everywhere, but most people don’t know what it’s called or how to use it properly. In fact, it’s often referred to as “dot, dot, dot” even though it does have a name. This punctuation mark is the ellipsis. It is a series or row of three periods, which is usually used to indicate an omission. It may also be used to indicate faltering or interrupted speech or a pause. Punctuation Marks Some punctuation marks are clear-cut while others cause a lot of confusion. Most of us mastered periods and question marks back in elementary school. Commas, semicolons, and ellipses aren’t as easy to master. As a result, many punctuation marks are frequently misused. The ellipsis is one such punctuation mark. Most people don’t know the name of this punctuation mark and those who do often confuse the singular and plural (just as many people confuse singular datum and plural data). Luckily, the ellipsis isn’t nearly as confusing as the comma.

It’s relatively easy to learn how to use it correctly and how to refer to it properly. Ellipsis According to The Chicago Manual of Style: An ellipsis — the omission of a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage — is indicated by ellipsis points (or dots)… Ellipsis points are three spaced periods ( . . . ), sometimes preceded or followed by other punctuation. Singular and Plural The word ellipsis is not plural. In other words, it refers to the three points, together, as a single unit, which is often colloquially referred to as dots or periods. Here is an ellipsis: ( . . . ) The plural of ellipsis is ellipses. This would indicate more than one set of three dots: ( . . . ) ( . . . ) ( . . . ) This punctuation mark may also be called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, or periods of ellipsis. But to keep things simple, let’s just stick with the word ellipsis. Omissions The ellipsis is primarily used to indicate an omission. It can be an intentional omission, such as when you’re using a quotation but want to skip over a portion of it.

Consider the following quote from Stephen King: Fiction writers, present company included, don’t understand very much about what they do — not why it works when it’s good, not why it doesn’t when it’s bad. If space is tight, you might want to omit part of the quotation, but you still need to indicate a missing piece of text. You would use an ellipsis: Fiction writers . . . don’t understand very much about what they do — not why it works when it’s good, not why it doesn’t when it’s bad. Faltering or Interrupted Speech The ellipsis may also be used to represent faltering or interrupted speech: “Well, I . . . uh . . . don’t know,” she said. Pauses We can also use an ellipsis to indicate a pause or unfinished thought. At the end of a sentence, an ellipsis represents trailing off into silence. Using an ellipsis to represent a pause can get a writer into trouble. We tend to pause a lot in speech. Pauses give us a moment to collect our thoughts or add emphasis to what we’re saying. But in writing, a page peppered with ellipses wreaks havoc on the eyes. The same applies to unfinished thoughts.

A lazy writer might use ellipses to indicate, “and so on” or “et cetera.” In text messaging and social media, many people use ellipses where they believe the reader will implicitly understand what would be stated next. In professional-grade writing, we finish our thoughts, so ellipses used for this purpose should be rare. However, when we are writing dialogue, an ellipsis can come in handy, especially if we want to show a character’s speech trailing off. Keep in mind, though, that ellipses, like exclamation points, should be used with caution and only when truly needed for emphasis. As a general rule, don’t use it unless you must. Notation and Formatting You’ll see ellipses formatted in two ways, either three points without spacing (…) or three points with spacing ( . . . ). In some cases, four points are used, but this is rare and not covered in this article. In the U.S., an ellipsis is generally formatted with spacing between each ellipsis point: ( . . . ) per the most common style standards. The Chicago Manual of Style warns against using ellipsis at the beginning or ending of any quotations.

However, some writers will place ellipses at the beginning or endings of quotations to indicate preceding or following text that has been omitted. This ensures that readers are aware of omissions and prevents using quotations out of context. Using Punctuation Marks Like the Ellipsis If you want to ensure you’re using grammar and punctuation marks correctly and consistently in your writing, pick up a grammar manual or style guide. You’ll find that the more you write, the more frequently you come across grammar and formatting situations that are unclear. Grammar and style resources will be a great help. How To Use Common Punctuation Marks | Dictionary.com Blog Home » Symbols and Punctuation » How To Use Common Punctuation Marks How To Use Common Punctuation Marks October 7, 2015 by: Dictionary.com 2 Comments A discussion of each mark follows, in alphabetical order by name of mark. Also includes how to divide words; use of numerals/numbers; possessives; and common errors in punctuation. Apostrophe (‘) is used to indicate possession, contractions, and plurals. Possession: The possessive form of singular nouns ends in ‘s, including nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh.

For example: a dog’s life, a lass’s smile. The apostrophe follows the s for the possessive of plural nouns except for plurals which do not end in s. For example, you would write: zebras’ stripes, but children’s books. No apostrophe is used for personal pronouns like “hers,” “its,” “theirs;” indefinite pronouns require one: e.g., one’s friend. In compounds, the ‘s is added to the word nearest the object of possession. Joint possession is shown by putting the apostrophe on the last word of a series, e.g., Abelard and Héloise’s child. The apostrophe follows the s of a word with two sibilant sounds; e.g., Kansas’ and Moses’. The apostrophe is not used in “Pikes Peak,” the mountain in Colorado. Contractions: The apostrophe is used when leaving out a letter or number in a contraction. For example, “I can’t” (instead of “cannot”); “let’s dance” (instead of “let us”); “it’s a beautiful day in the neighborhood” (instead of “it is”).

Plurals: Plurals of letter abbreviations with periods and single letters use ‘s. For example: There are four s’s in . Plurals of letter combinations, numerals, and hyphenated nouns end in I with no apostrophe; for example: 1s and 0s. The apostrophe is not used in names of organizations unless actually part of the legal name. Braces ({ }) are used to show the relationship of elements in a group. Brackets ([ ]) are used to insert words in quoted matter, for explanatory, correctionary, or commentary reasons. Used to insert missing letters and to enclose insertions that take the place of or slightly alter the original text, e.g., [they] may replace a long list of names previously mentioned. Brackets are also used in unquoted matter for the same reasons. Used as parentheses within parentheses. Used in mathematical expressions (to show matter to be treated as a unit), chemical formulas, and for phonetic symbols.

Colon (:) Used to introduce explanatory information, lists; for salutations, as in “Dear so-and-so:” and in clock time “It was at 5:00 in the afternoon”; periodical reference (e.g., 4:3); and between book title and book subtitle (e.g., Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography). Used before a final clause that explains, or amplifies something in that sentence, e.g., The dissertation needs work: it lacks flow. Introduces a series or summarizing statement (e.g., The following is on our list of places to go: grocery store, toy store, doughnut shop. /She had one great love: him.) Used in proportions, e.g., 2:1, and as a ratio sign, e.g., 1:2::3:6. May introduce a quotation, especially a long one. Used in dialogue text, e.g., Juliet: O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? Used in correspondence for headings and introductory terms (To: From: Re:) and to separate writer/typist and carbon-copy abbreviation from the recipients.

Comma (,) is most commonly used to separate or set off items that might otherwise be misunderstood, such as: Members of a series used with “and,” “or,” or “nor.” Main clauses, or before the conjunction in a compound sentence. Two verb phrases in a sentence. Subordinate clauses/phrases within sentence. An apposite (noun referring to previous noun, e.g., my sister, Nancy) or contrasting words/phrases (e.g., I need you, not anyone else.) Introductory items, e.g., Sir, are you listening? Interrupting or parenthetic items. Before quotation following an introductory phrase, e.g.: She said quietly, “I love you.” Inside a closing quotation mark, e.g.: I said “wash,” not “drawer.” To show omission, e.g., The thing is, we need time. Between compound qualifiers, e.g., He has big, broad shoulders. Between name and title, title and organization, name and degree, surname and Junior/Jr./Senior/Sr. In an inverted name, e.g., Shakespeare, William; Kipfer, Barbara Ann. To separate thousands, millions, etc. in number of four or more digits, e.g., 2,000.

To set off the day of the month, e.g., Their anniversary is June 1, 1991, when they met. To set off elements of an address, e.g., Write to him at The Language Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, England EX4 4QH. After the salutation in informal correspondence, e.g., “Dear T.B.,” and after the complimentary close in all correspondence, e.g., “Respectfully,”. Dash (–) Used to denote a sudden change or break in a sentence, e.g. He was gone — heaven forbid — for an hour and no one knew where he was. No spaces are added before or after a dash and do not combine with a colon, comma, or semicolon. As a substitute for parentheses or commas in an attempt to clarify meaning or place emphasis, e.g., She has this to accomplish today — work, study, cook, and household duties — as well as take care of her child. Before an amplification, definition, explanation, or summary statement, e.g., To be or not to be — that is a question we each ask ourselves at night before we turn out the light.

At the end of an unfinished word or sentence, e.g., The story went on to say that–. To precede an author’s credit for a quotation and as a way of setting off something in page design, as for lists, outlines. The en dash is used in typeset material and is shorter than the em dash, which is represented in typewritten material by two hyphens. It is used as a replacement for a hyphen when the meaning intended is ‘up to and including’, e.g., “1987-91,” “Monday-Saturday.” A two-em (four hyphens) dash is used to show missing letters in a word. A three-em (six hyphens) dash is used to show that a word is left out or that an unknown word or number is to be supplied. Division of words: Guidelines for dividing words at the end of lines are: Pay attention to the way the word is pronounced (syllables) and do not break the word so that it would be mispronounced or misunderstood.

Divide between doubled consonants, except when it would divide a simple base form, e.g., “re-com-men-da-tion,” but “sell-ing,” “buzz-er.” When the doubled consonant comes before -ing, the second consonant stays with the -ing. Do not divide a one-syllable word, even if there is an inflected ending like -ed‘, e.g., spelled, bummed. Do not divide a word so that one or two letters is left either at the end of one line or the beginning of another. Division after a prefix, putting it at the end of a line, is permissible. Do not divide words of six letters or less. Divide hyphenated words at the hyphen. Do not divide before the following suffixes; they should not be at the beginning of a line alone nor should they be divided themselves: -able, -ceous, -cial, -cion, -cious, -geous, -gion, -gious, -ible, -sial, -sion, -tial, -tion, -tious.

When a vowel alone forms a syllable in the middle of a word, keep it with the previous syllable, e.g., physi-cal. A liquid or silent l syllable at the end of a word or part of an inflected ending should not be put on the next line alone, e.g., read-able, twin-kling. Proper nouns, numerals, and abbreviations should not be divided. Ellipsis points or ellipses or points of ellipsis or suspension points (…) Used when words are omitted: three periods in the middle of a sentence, four at the end of a sentence (unless the sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation point: then it is “…?” “or ‘…!”). May also indicate a break or suspension in speech. Punctuation that normally falls before or after the ellipsis points can be retained for clarity; a space precedes and follows ellipses. Exclamation point (!) Used to show surprise, incredulity, praise, a command — to show force in statement. May be used to replace a question mark when irony or an emphatic tone is meant, e.g., How could you! An exclamation point and question mark may be used together to show extreme force.

If the exclamation point ends a sentence in a quotation, the comma or period is dropped. Hyphen or (-): Used to connect the elements of some compound words, especially ones of three or more words. Used to divide a word at the end of a line. Used in fractions and compound numbers. Found in measurements with numbers and unit. Used in ages with number and unit. Used in prefixed words when a vowel is doubled or consonant is tripled. Used for certain prefixes such as ex-. Used to make a word clear from its homonym (“recover” and “re-cover”) between a prefix and the second word if it is a proper noun and proper noun compounds. Used for certain suffixes such as -elect. Used for compounds which begin with a single capital letter, such as H-bomb. Used for compound adjectives, including those where the first adjective ends in -ly, as in “scholarly-written piece” (but not for compound modifiers of adverb-and-adjective, such as “widely known author”). Used for directions, such as: north-northwest. Used for words spelled out letter-by-letter, as in “y-e-s.” Used to show stuttering speech.

Numerals/numbers: The most common, Arabic numerals, are 0, 1, 2, etc. Roman numerals use the letters I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), M (1,000) and are used to designate certain wars (WWI, WWII), sequence in family, rulers, vehicles, major headings in documents. Cardinal numbers are 0, zero, 1, one, etc. Ordinal numbers are 1st, first, 2nd, second, etc. In general, write out the first nine cardinal (1-9) numbers (except for address numbers 2-9, dates, decimals, game scores, highways, latitude/longitude, mathematical expressions, measurement/weight, money/financial data, percentages, proportion, scientific expressions, statistics, technical expressions, temperature, time, unit modifiers, votes, and numbers not written out in a proper noun) and any number that begins a sentence; use figures for 10 and above. The first nine ordinal (1st-9th) numbers are usually written out, especially when describing order in time or location.

Governmental, political, and military units numbering one hundred or less are usually written out. Labor unions and other organizations often use figures. Numbers of one million and above are easier to read if written as figures with the word “million,” “billion,” etc. Written-out numbers between 21 and 99 are hyphenated. Figures of four digits may be written with or without a comma. Numbers of checks, contracts, military hours, pages, policies, rooms/suites, streets, telephone numbers, and years are written without commas. Check, telephone, and serial numbers may contain hyphens. A fraction used as a modifier is hyphenated, e.g., three-quarter time. A fraction used with a whole number is written as a figure, e.g., 5 1/2, as are measurements that are fractions, e.g., “/10 mile. A measurement as a modifier is hyphenated, e.g., nine-pound boy. Numbers in a series or set are written alike, e.g., 50 to 60 participants. Street names that are numbers are written out, but may also be written as figures from 13 and over.

Document divisions are usually written as figures, e.g., Psalm 100, page 7. Ordinal numbers are not used in full dates; commas are not used in between just a month and year. Money designations of one or two words are often written out, e.g., one dollar. Times are usually spelled out in text and may be when used with “o’clock.” Figures are used for exact times, e.g., 8:13. Times may be used with “a.m./A.M.,” “p.m./P.M., “o’clock,” or “in the ~” but those designations should not be combined. Year and page numbers may omit hundreds and replace with a dash, e.g., 1989-90,” “pp 140-50. If an abbreviation or symbol is used with a number, it should be written as a figure. Numbers should not be divided at the end of lines. Plurals of written-out numbers are formed by adding s or es. Plurals of figures are formed by adding s or ‘s. Parentheses ( ) Used to enclose supplementary matter that is not intended to be part of the statement.

Appear in numeric data, including Arabic numerals confirming a spelled-out number, and in other mathematical expressions. Set off explanations, definitions, translations, alternatives. Enclose the abbreviation of the spelled-out word or the spelled-out form of an abbreviation. Used in bibliographical data, cross-references, and comments about the text. May appear in numbers or letters indicating an item in a series are enclosed such as: (1), (2), (3) and (a), (b), (c). At the end of a sentence, the period follows the closing parenthesis. A complete sentence within parentheses has its own punctuation. Period (.) Used at the end of a declarative sentence and after a question that is a suggestion and which does not require an answer. Used after a letter or number indicating an item in a series. Used as part of an ellipsis. Appears in numbers with integers and decimals. Used in some abbreviations. Used after a person’s initials. Centered, to indicate multiplication, i.e., 2·3=6. Possessives The possessive case of most nouns is formed by adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe and s.

Possessives for singular and plurals nouns not ending in an s or z sound are formed by adding ‘s. Possessives of singular nouns ending in an ‘s or z sound are usually formed by adding‘s, though some writers may prefer just an apostrophe. An exception is for multi-syllabic words if they are followed by a word beginning with an s or z sound. Possessives of plural nouns ending in an s or z sound are formed by adding only an apostrophe. An exception is for one-syllable irregular plurals: add s. In a phrase, individual possession is shown with a ‘s added to each noun, e.g., Barbara’s and Kyle’s bicycles; joint possession is shown by adding an apostrophe or s to the last noun in the series or by adding an apostrophe or s to each noun, e.g., Barbara and Paul’s house. Question mark (?) Used for punctuation after a direct interrogatory statement and one expressing doubt. Used after each element of an interrogative series when the series is not enumerated or lettered. Do not put a comma after a question mark that falls within quotation marks. Quotation marks (” “) Quotation marks are used for direct quotations.

Each part of an interrupted quotation begins and ends with quotation marks, as “I am getting worried,” she said, “that he has not called.” Used for expressions following introductory terms such as: entitled, the word, the term, marked, designated, classified, named, endorsed, cited as, referred to as, signed, all of which indicate a borrowing or special use. Placed around words referred to as words, such as: I said “tomato,” not “potato.”; and around sentences referred to as sentences, as in: An example of a question is, “Where the heck are they?” Quotations may be used around mottos, slang, misnomers, coined words, proverbs and maxims, ironical reference, and unspoken dialogue. Used for translations of foreign terms. Used for single letters within a sentence, e.g., His name begins with a “K.” Sometimes used to enclose document titles and parts, and addresses within a sentence, e.g.: Her book, “14,000 Things to be Happy About,” is a best seller. In American usage, punctuation that goes inside the closing quotation mark includes a period or comma (but not a colon or semicolon).

In British usage, the period and the comma go outside the quotation mark. The dash, question mark, and exclamation point fall inside quotation marks if they belong with the quoted matter but outside if they punctuate the sentence as a whole. For quotations which extend beyond one paragraph, a quotation mark begins each paragraph and the closing quotation mark is at the end of the last paragraph. Some writers now leave a preceding comma out before a quotation. Some writers leave periods and commas outside of quoted material if that punctuation belongs to the sentence as a whole. Semicolon (;) This punctuation sometimes is regarded as a weak period or strong comma, and is used in ways similar to periods and commas. A semicolon can mark the end of a clause and indicate that a clause following is closely related to it. A semicolon can also divide a sentence to make meaning clearer. A semicolon is placed outside quotation marks and parentheses. Separates independent clauses in place of a coordinating conjunction or ellipsis.

Separates independent clauses when the second begins with a conjunctive adverb as in: accordingly, all the same, also, as a result, besides, by the same token, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, in that case, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand, otherwise, still, then, therefore, and thus. These usually explain or summarize preceding matter. Clarifies meaning in long sentences and in those with several commas. The indication of a strong pause by the semicolon helps the reader understand the meaning. May be used before explanation phrases and clauses such as: for example, for instance, i.e., namely, that is. Separates lists or phrases in a series when the phrases themselves have commas. Single quotation marks (‘ ‘) Single quotation marks are used to enclose a quotation within a quotation. May be used around words that are special terms or for words referred to as words. The slash is punctuation also called the virgule, diagonal, solidus, oblique, or slant. It is mainly used to show that a word is not written out. A slash represents ‘or’ or ‘and/or’ in alternatives such as: yours/mine.

A slash may represent ‘and’, as in: 1990/91, Minneapolis/St. Paul. A slash may represent some prepositions, such as: at, for, versus, with, i.e., c/o addressee, w/dressing. A slash represents ‘per’ or ‘to’ in measures and ratios, as in: 2 ft./min., price/earnings ratio. A slash is used to separate numbers in dates, fractions, and telephone numbers. A slash may be used to separate parts of an address or divide lines of poetry when written as continuous text. A slash is used in pronunciations (phonemic transcriptions). Common errors in punctuation: Using the apostrophe for plurals: “plural’s” is incorrect, “plurals” is correct. Using the punctuation mark inside the quotation mark: correct for American usage; punctuation marks go outside the quotation marks in British English. Using punctuation in parentheses: the punctuation goes inside the parentheses if what is within the parentheses constitutes a complete sentence.

For deeper exploration of these punctuation marks, see our other posts: Patent WO1992019458A1 - Two new punctuation marks: the question comma and the exclamation comma - Google Patents Two new punctuation marks: the question comma and the exclamation comma WO 1992019458 A1 Abstract Using two new punctuation marks, the question comma and the exclamation comma: and respectively, inquisitiveness and exclamation may be expressed within a written sentence structure, so that thoughts may be more easily and clearly conveyed to readers. The new punctuation marks are for use within a written sentence between words as a comma, but with more feeling or inquisitiveness. This affords an author greater choice of method of punctuating, e.g., to reflect spoken language more closely. Moreover, the new punctuation fits rather neatly into the scheme of things, simply filling a gap, with a little or no explanation needed. Also, the interabang comma if the interabang is available. An example of usage follows. Readers encountering their first question comma in print may silently remark: 'Clever! funny I never saw one of those before'.

Claims(1) We claim: 1. A method of punctuating within a written sentence comprising the use of a mark between two words of said sentence, said mark being composed of both a comma and the upper part of an other mark: a question, exclamation or interabang mark, said comma being below said other mark's upper part and associated with said sentence's baseline. 2. A method of augmenting a font's punctuation mark selection comprised of combining a comma and the upper part of an other mark: a question, exclamation or interabang mark, said comma being below said other mark's upper part and base aligned with said font's other punctuation marks, and providing said combination for use along with said font's other punctuation. 3. A punctuation mark for use within a written sentence comprised of a comma and the upper part of an other mark: a question, exclamation or interabang mark, said comma being below said other mark's upper part and associated with a sentence's baseline. 4. An exclamation comma, question comma or a interabang comma punctuation mark for use within a written sentence as a comma, but with more feeling or inquisitiveness, or both, respectively. 5.

Published written material containing sentences punctuated within with a question comma, exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark. 6. A method of blanking out the lower part of a punctuation mark which is made of an upper part separated with a blank space from a lower part, comprised of: detecting said blank separat'ng space and blanking out said lower part below said blank separating space. 7. The method according to claim 6 wherein a comma is positioned in said lower part's blanked out space below said blank separating space. . A method of using a keyboard operated word processor, typese rer, desk top publishing device or the like, to make a punctuation mark on a printed page or display, said mark being composed of a comma and the upper part of an other mark: a question, exclamation or interabang mark, said method being comprised of an operator striking one or more respectively designated keys which initiate the placement of such a mark within a sentence between two words to be punctuated therebetween with inquisitiveness? or strong feeling J or both? respectively, and a comma. .

A font containing a question comma, an exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark which is used along with said font's other punctuation in composing type from said font with keyboard operated or computer controlled printing apparatus. 10. A font and means for making a question comma, exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark from said font's question mark, exclamation mark or interabang, respectively, and a comma which is used along with said font's other punctuation in composing type from said font with keyboard operated or computer controlled printing apparatus. 11. A printing plate, original for copying or the like, with a question comma, exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark thereon for use in making copies with apparatus such as a printing press, duplicator, copier or the like. 12. Storage memory means or the like in which is stored a question comma, exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark for use with computer controlled printing apparatus. \ 8 13. The combination of ink, toner or the like on a substrate forming the shape of a comma under the upper part of a question, exclamation or interabang punctuation mark. 14.

In printing apparatus or the like, the improvement comprising means for printing at least one of the following punctuation marks: a comma under the upper part a question mark, a comma under the upper part an exclamation mark or a comma under the upper part an interabang mark. Description the Question Comma ? and the Exclamation Comma ! This invention relates to printing methods and apparatus, more particularly to methods of punctuating and punctuation marks. "IN THE CONVEYANCE OF THOUGHT in writing or print, punctuation is of prime importance. It makes for clear expression and correct understanding." (Quoted from a treatise on punctuation by C. Ralph Taylor, M.A., in "Webster's New American Dictionary," page 3 J 86, Copyright � Books Incorporated, 1957.) Background of the Invention Ongoing inventive activity regarding punctuation in the print� ing fiei J is rather sparse, as if to suggest (at least to the uninitiated) that there be no new and sufficiently useful purpose served by an innovative method of punctuating or punctuation mark. For example, the interabang 1* ("bang" is a printer's term for a slam !

), expressing, e.g., incredulity and/or disbelief, was invented by Mark Speckter, an advertising man, and created by type designer RicharJ Isbell for use in a typeface called "Americana," which was introduced by American Type Founders in 1967. At that time insightful remarks included: "It makes a statement while asking a question; EMPHASIS with feedback." ϊ ost would agree that the interabang was not very successful. According to contemporary writer Sam Whitmore (Editor-in-Chief, PC Week magazine, from the March 4, 1991 issue): "No one knows why it [the interabang] died so young. The need for it existed then and still exists now." Notwithstanding Mr. Whitmore's statement that: "No one knows why ... ," applicants' theory explaining why the inlcrabang was not widely adopted is discussed below. According to reports, the interabang appears to be the first new punctuation mark to be introduced since the late 17th century, when quotation marks were invented. "Who cares?" is an example of usage of the two punctuation inventions of the past 300 years.

Summary of the Invention Applicants herein have invented new ways for an author to express inquisitiveness and exclamation within a written or printed sentence structure, so that hisAer thoughts may be more easily and/or clearly conveyed to and understood by readers, using two new punctuation marks; the question comma and the exclamation comma: ? and \ respectively. Shown in use and use described as follows: It's a heck of a tningj for example, for an author to pose a question near the beginning of a particular sentence he is writing only to discover that by the end of his sentence a question mark would be well out of context. Use a question comma ? as shown in use in the first line of the following paragraph. What could an author do? for example, to indicate surprise or other strong feeling in the beginning of a particular sentence when this emotion has dissipated well before the end of the sentence is reached. Use an exclamation comma J as shown in use in the first line of the previous paragraph. An exclamation comma or a question comma punctuation mark may be used within a written sentence between words as a comma, but with more feeling or inquisitiveness, respectively, as shown and described.

With applicants' method of punctuating and punctuation marks, writing may follow other forms of language more closely. That is to say, certain emotions or inquisitiveness, for example, that one may have when thinking or speaking, may now be more closely reflected when writing. In other words, the new punctuation allows a writer to more closely follow language. Similar to the way the period and comma differ [ . , ], and similar to the way the colon and semicolon differ [ : ; ], so do the exclamation mark and the exclamation comma [ ! ,' ], and so do the question mark and the question comma [ ? ? ]. In a way, use of these new punctuation marks involves moving the top part of the question or exclamation mark from the end of a sentence, leaving a plain period at the end of the sentence, and repositioning this top part over a comma which probably would be wanted, for example, after an interrogatory or exclamatory clause.

Applications and uses for the new punctuation include: print� ing, publishing, typesetting, advertising, newspapers, books, scripts, periodicals and documents, originals, original copies, printing plates and the like, headlines, text, fonts, font design, manufacture and circulation, presstype, printed matter, published written material, and communication thereof, and when many copies of written material are made, printing presses, duplicators, office copiers and the like, written material published on paper, fabric, metal, plastic and other substrata, and in electronic forms such as in storage memory chips and the like for computers, TV and visual display means, greeting cards, labeling, packaging, T-shirts, menus, titles, names, movies, signs, comics, and so forth, and reading the new punctuation marks in such or similar written, printed or communicated materials. The question now, of a question semicolon for example, is moot, because the structure of existing punctuation marks does not lend itself as it does for the question comma (this concern is discussed in more detail below). However, that is not to suggest that a sentence structure wanting a question semicolon may not best be served with a question comma as opposed to other alternatives.

Quoted from the treatise on punctuation cited above: "there is no unqualified imperative in punctuation ... good punctuation clarifies; bad punctuation obscures." With applicants' innovative punctuation techniques and marks, an author is afforded greater choice of method of punctuating, e.g., to reflect spoken language or thoughts more closely. Moreover in a way, as described below, the new punctuation marks do not appear out of place, nor is there any learning requirement worth mentioning, and they can be used immediately with present mechanized writing apparatus and fonts, as described below. For languages such as Spanish, the question comma and the exclamation comma may or may not also be used upside down within a sentence. [If used upside down, more space between lines ("leading") may be required.] Indeed, conventions of meaning and/or usuage of certain punctuation marks may vary from one language to the next.

For example, the quotation marks mentioned above were adopted into American English language convention as shown: "Jenny said, 'Who cares " but British usage reverses the order of use of single and double quote marks, using single quotes first, with double quotes for interior quotation, as shown: 'Jenny said, "Who cares?" ' and French and German use different quotation marks altogether, and also with different convention. Description of the Drawings Fig. 1 shows the new punctuation and how the new punc� tuation may be constructed for a font. For example, a question comma may be made by superimposing a question mark ( ? ) and [shown as an ampersand ( & ) in the Figs.] a comma ( , ) to equal [shown as a equal sign ( = ) in the Figs.] the new question comma ? i.e., as shown on two distinct lines in Fig. 1, and also shown within the following parentheses: ( ? & , = ? ). The horizontal lines shown to the left and right represent the font's baseline. Fig. 2 represents the "standardized" IBM PC keyboard layout, which is part of the ASCII 128 code set. Fig. 3 represents a PC layout with the new punctuation.

Figs. 4 to 8, similar to Fig. 1, also show the new punctuation and how the new punctuation may be constructed for a font. Various type styles and sizes are illustrated. The horizontal lines to the left and right represent respective font baselines. Detailed Description Referring to Fig. 1, a manufacturer of type fonts for the printing trade, the desktop publishing market or the like might provide his product with an augmented selection of punctuation marks. For example, a new mark may be composed by combining the upper part of a question mark with a comma below this upper part, this comma being base aligned as usual with the font's other punctuation marks. This combination may be provided for use along with the font's other punctuation. The same may be said in regard to applicants' exclamation comma. Applicants' new punctuation marks may be accessed for use within a sentence by keyboard operators like other punctuation marks, as described below. A font augmented with applicants' new punctuation marks may be structured as follows. For example, referring to the IBM PC keyboard layout, which is part of the ASCII 128 code set, as specified in the American Standards Institute brochure USAS X3.16-1966, and as shown in Fig.

2, .the font position occupied by the upside down caret [ Λ ], which is in the shift (cap position) of the number 6 key, might be replaced with the question ? comma. And, still referring to Fig. 2, the font position occupied by the tilde [ ~ ], which is in the shift position of the single quote mark, might be replaced with the exclamation j comma. The replaced caret and tilde are of little use for composing type anyway, since they are not useful as such for human language, but rather are intended for computer telecommunication coding. In any case, a keyboard operator using the IBM PC keyboard layout (or, e.g., apparatus operated by software) equipped with a font structured as described above and as shown in Fig. 3, may access, for display, printing, communication, storage, etc. purposes, the question ? comma by activating the shift of the number 6 key, and the exclamation J comma may be accessed by activating the shift position of the single quote mark, as s/he (another sign of our times) accesses other punctuation, such as the question mark which is the shift of the diagonal key, or the exclamation mark which is the shift of the number 1 key.

Also, typesetting, desktop publishing or word processing equip� ment, printing apparatus, computer controlled printing or print-out apparatus, and the like, could be improved and made sufficiently versatile to allow the following. A comma could be superimposed over a question mark, so as to substantially cover the lower part (the point or period) to make applicants' question comma on-the- spot. By putting the comma over the question mark in this manner, appropriate space along the type's baseline for the question comma (which is similar to the question mark) will be realized. For example, the Alphatype phototypesetting machine, circa 1965 to 1978, manufactured by Alphatype Incorporated in Skokie, Illinois, had a "non-set" key that allowed a keyboard operator to superimpose one character over another. On the Alphatype, with left aliened characters on its film fonts, a question comma could be made as described in the example following using an average font in which the width of a question mark is 10 units and the width of a comma is 4 units.

(Similar to Monotype, Alphatype fonts were based on an 18 unit fit system, i.e., 18 units to the em.) Example: hold the non-set key and hit the question mark key; indent 3 units; hit the comma key (which uses 4 units); indent another 3 units. A total of 10 units having escaped for the question comma, typing would continue with the word space key. In this way, the comma would be centered under the question mark's upper portion and would cover the question mark's lower part (the point or dot). (While neither letter nor punctuation mark, even character would be stretching it, the word space, a plain blank, was a major invention for written language, as were methods of varying word spaces within lines to form justified galleys of type. Please see for example, Ottomar Mergenthaler's U.S.

Patents, circa 1880, for his Linotype machine, the molten lead typesetter that dominated for about 100 years.) The EditWriter phototypesetting machine, the world's most populai phototypesetter, still in use here and abroad, manufactured by CompuGraphic Incorporated, has a feature that allows a keyboard operator to automatically center a "floating accent," which has no width assignment of its own, over a letter: hit the desired accent key followed by the letter it is to be placed over. Rather than a width assignment like other characters of a font, a floating accent mark is assigned a code, 128, in the font filmstrip's associated width assignment memory chip, typically today a 2716 EPROM chip, which is located in the width card. (See for example, Storch et al.'s U.S. Pat. No. 4,642,624.) Code 128 activates the feature described when the typesetting job is processed or printed.

The notable (for high quality) Mergenthaler VIP phototype� setting machine (circa 1967 to 1982) with its "oscillating" font drum, also incorporated a floating accent feature. The floating accent operation on the VIP was similar in principle to the EditWriter, although the VIP's fonts were right aligned and the EditWriter fonts were left aligned like Alphatype. According to Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, � 1959 by G. & C. Merriam Company, accents were invented in about the 7th century: "Punctuation: 1 2. The system of vowel signs and accents, invented about the 7th century A.D., used in the Masora." A comma has a width assignment, which is needed when a comma is used normally, i.e., as a plain comma, while a floating accent has no width assignment, but the comma's width assignment could be ignored when making a question comma. The comma may be centered in the width space assigned for the question mark, and placed under the question mark, on the type baseline as usual.

(Most floating accent marks were placed on the font so as to fit over a character.) Width space requirement may not be an issue when using an exclamation mark and a comma as described above to make an exclamation comma since exclamation marks and commas may have similar space requirements anyway. And, according to the inventijn, a monospaced typewriter may be used with similar ease in making a question comma or an exclamation comma, in a manner effectively similar to that described above, using the backspace key, since all keys have similar spacing requirements. When a question comma is needed within a sentence, for example, type: the comma key, the backspace key and then the question mark key. Or, type: the question mark key, the backspace key and then the comma key. Aiso, a software product may be provided (like a software "utility"') to construct applicants' new punctuation marks as needed, similar in operation as described above for the EditWriter phototypesetter. For example, such a product might automatically superimpose a comma effectively centered left to right over the lower part of the question mark appropriately when outputting the following two consecutive keystrokes shown within the brackets: [ , ? ].

For example, when a question comma is needed within a sentence of a text file being typed using a word processing program, for example, the PC keyboard operator could type the comma key followed immediately by the question mark key (ASCII codes 44 63). During the print cycle (in preparation for a WYSIWYG video display, before storage, at some point, etc.) these two keystrokes, codes 44 63, may activate software to function as follows: a comma would be centered in the space allowed for the question mark of the font being used, and the question mark would also be positioned in that same space. Other means of typing the new punctuation are possible. Using the IBM (or an Apple�) PC keyboard for desk top publishing or woid processing, for example, the control key, the alternate key, escape key or the like, may be depressed while typing the question mark key to cause the question comma to be displayed on the CRT monitor and/or printed, as described.

Or, for example, when a question mark is typed (ASCII code 63) followed by a word space (ASCII code 32; yes, the word space has its very own ASCII code) and the next letter typed is a lower case letter (ASCII codes 97 to 122 inclusive), such sequences may be detected and used to cause the generation of a question comma, since a normal question mark, which ends a sentence, typically is followed by a capital letter (ASCII codes 65 to 90 inclusive) or the end of the paragraph. However, there may be cases where a question comma is followed by a capitalized word, such as a proper name, within a sentence. If this were the case, the typist may use alternate means to type a question comma (which precedes a capitalized word). Also, a grammar checker program, and/or a word checking routine, e.g., to detect if a word may be a proper name, may be employed to help determine if a particular typed question mark is used within a sentence or is used to end a sentence. With some atypical type styles the comma may not cover the lower part of the question mark (the point or period).

This point may extend past one or both sides of a superimposed comma some relatively small amount. In smaller type sizes this may not even be noticed and in larger sizes it may not be objectionable. However, when using a digitized type font (as opposed to a metal font, mechanical font or a film font) the lower part of the question mark may effectively be easily removed automatically when making a questicn comma, as described below. Or, it may be preferable to provide only the upper part of a question mark in a font (as opposed to a full question mark with the point) and automatically combine this upper "question" part with a period when a question mark is called for, and automatically combine this upper part with a comma when a question comma is called for. Software to do this may operate similar to that described above: type , ? for the question comma, or type . ? for the question mark, or, when a question mark key only is typed, it may automatically cause the period and the upper question part to be combined to make the question mark as if a full question mark were available normally.

Above, it was assumed that the point comprising the lower part of the question mark was effectively covered by the comma when a question comma was formed, e.g., in response to an operator typing [ , ? ]. However, software may also automatically "erase" the lower part of the question mark before combining with the comma. For example, with a discreetly sized bitmapped font in a Hewlett Packard 300 dpi laser printer format (HP's standard "SoftFont" format) the pixels comprising the question mark's lower part (the point) could effectively be turned off (or "erased") so that the space under the upper part of the question mark effectively becomes blank, and then the comma could be combined to make the question comma. Similarly, with a scalable "outline" font, (scalable to desired type sizes) such as a currently popular PostScript� font from Adobe Systems Inc., the portion of the outline defining the question mark's lower part (the point) could effectively be ignored (or "erased") so that the space under the upper part of the question mark effectively becomes blank, and then the comma could be combined to make the question comma.

In these examples the point being, with a discreetly sized bitmapped font or an outline defined font, the space separating the question mark's upper and lower parts may be sensed, so that the question mark's lower part below this separating space may effectively be removed or erased before the comma is combined to make t e question comma. In other words, a method of blanking I I out the lower part of a punctuation mark, which is made up of an upper part separated with a blank space from a lower part, would be to detect the blank separating space and effectively blank out the lovv er part below this blank separating space, so that a comma may then be positioned in the lower blanked out space below the blank separating space. Likewise to the above about the question comma [ ? ] for the exclamation comma [ ' ], and for the interabang comma [ ? ] Differences between applicants' interabang comma [ ? ] and Mark Speckter's prior art interabang [ ? ] are discussed below. For example, applicants' interabang comma is for use between words within a sentence, while Speckter's interabang is for use at the end of a sentence.

Indeed, the relationship between applicants' interabang comma and Speckter's interabang is similar to the relationship between applicants' question comma and a question mark. Also, while Speckter's interabang appears to be a question mark combined with an exclamation mark, the interabang punctuation mark may not be made by simply combining an existing exclamation mark and a question mark. It does not work, not even on typewriters. Research has shown that the result of simply combining a question mark and an exclamation mark may not be recognizable as such and/or is not aesthetically pleasing; if used as punctuation it obscures, or worse, detracts, which is an unforgivable sin (unless the writing is about grammar and punctuation). On some typewriters however, a usable? interabang may be made by typing a single quote or an apostrophe over a question mark (in this sentence the use of the ? is incorrect; the ? acts as an adverb and it separates a noun from its adjective). A proper interabang must be designed as a distinct character; it cannot be made by simply superimposing one character upon another, i.e., an exclamation mark and a question mark.

This is also the case with most printing ligatures. For example, proper ligatαres representing fi, fl and ff each need to be separately designed. For example, (using lay terminology) to make an interabang, the top part of the exclamation mark (above the point) may be altered, i.e., shortened or elongated, and/or the shape of the top of the question mark may be opened wider in an adjustment to accommodate the altered exclamation mark. This type of work is what type designer Richard Isbell did for American Type Founders Company, ATF, in 1967: he designed the new interabang for his new typeface, Americana. Notably, examination of samples of Americana suggests that Mr. Isbell designed the upper part of the Americana question mark to be wide enough — in anticipation of a truncated exclamation mark; the interabang resulting from this combination did not look out of place at all; in fact, it matched the distinctive and remarkably beautiful Americana question mark perfectly, precisely as prescribed by Mr. Isbell, of course. However, even with Mr.

Isbell's talent, an extra character is required, i.e., as just described, a modified exclamation mark (in addition to a regular size exclamation mark). Perhaps one reason the interabang never became widely adopted was because it cannot readily be made using a font's existing punctuation. Further, according to applicants' knowledge, Americana was the only typeface offered with the interabang? Under this circumstance, how could the interabang have caught on? Some font manufactures still offer Americana today with its interabang, however. Be that as it may, as described, things are different regarding the question comma and the exclamation comma. For example, most, if not all, presently existing fonts already in use (including Americana) may be used to make applicants' question comma and exclamation comma, as described above. If a typeface already has an interabang, such as ATF's Americana, applicants' interabang comma may be made simply with a comma and the top part of the interabang, similar to the description above for the question comma.

\ 3 Modifications and Other embodiments Also, "fonts" comprised of assorted, universally usable characters for use with many different type styles (including: pi characters, sorts, floating accents, ligatures, legal marks, math symbols, dingbats, legend symbols, chessmen, logos, and so forth) may be provided with one or more universally usable sets of the new punctuation, usable with a variety of different typeface designs. For example, a serif set and a sans serif set, including roman (normal upright) and matching italic, all in several type weights (e.g., light, book, regular, demibold, bold or extrabold) might be provided, each set containing a question comma, an exclamation comma, an interabang, and/or an interabang comma, or components therefor, to be used along with and/or combined with other punctuation marks of a variety of typeface designs (fonts). Parts for fonts may contain applicants' new punctuation marks. For example, removable pieces of film with "pi window characters" thereon could be made with the new punctuation marks.

Such pi windows, containing several characters or just one character, may be attached to film fonts provided with appropriately positioned blank windows (except for helpful associated alignment marks) therefor. Certain film fonts for the Alphatype and EditWriter phototypesetting machines mentioned above, for example, had such blank windows. Such parts of fonts with the new punctuation marks thereon could be used in the usual manner, similar to other characters, for example, taped in place on the film font using alignment marks provided on the removable pi window piece and with the font's blank window. Printing plates, stencils, masters, originals for copying and the like, using the methods and apparatus mentioned above, may be made with a question comma, exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark thereon. Such plates, etc. may be used with ink, toner, and the like, and they may be used to copy type with the new punctuation on apparatus such as a printing pres?*, duplicator, mimeograph, office copier, stamp, and so forth.

Storage memory means, such as magnetic or optical disc, or other media, etc., semiconductor chips, devices, etc., or the like, using the methods and apparatus mentioned above, may be loaded, recorded or otherwise made to contain or have stored therein or associated therewith a question comma, exclamation comma or an interabang comma punctuation mark. Such storage memory means may be used with laser, electron or other beams of energy or particles, for example, and ink, toner or the like on a substrate to form the new punctuation marks, and they may also be used to make copies of the new punctuation marks with printing apparatus or impioved printing apparatus, such as a printing press, laser printei, CRT, LED, ink jet, thermal or other imaging device, any desktop publishing output device, duplicator, mimeograph, office copier and so forth. Such devices may be keyboard or computer controlled, etc., to print the new punctuation. When positioning the comma physically or electronically as described under the top part of a question or exclamation mark, the lower part, the period, may be used as a reference.

In most cases fer example, the part of the superimposed or replacement comma above the baseline will match or be centered with the position of the covered or removed period. Seme fonts have been and some still are supplied with a letter character descriptively called the "no dot i" (i.e., the lower case letter i without a dot). This allows an accent mark (e.g., a floating accent mark) to be placed over the no dot i without interference from the i's dot. According to the invention however, a no dot i may be made on-the-spot, using the blanking technique described above to blank out the lower part of a question mark. For example, with a discreetly sized bitmapped font or an outline defined font, described above, the space separating the lower case letter i's dot from the lower part of the i may be sensed, so that the i's dot above this separating space may effectively be removed or erased before n accent is combined to make an accented lower case letter i.

In other words, a method of blanking out the upper part of a letter (punctuation mark, or other character) which is made up of an upper part separated with a blank space from a lower part, would be to detect the blank separating space and effectively blank out the upper part above this blank separating space, so that an accent, for example, may then be positioned in the upper blanked out space above the blank separating space. Figs. 4 to 8 show the construction of the new punctuation for several type fonts. Various roman and italic styles and sizes of type are selected to be representative. The horizontal lines to the left and rig-it represent respective font baselines as in Fig. 1. In Fig. 8, both roman and italic type are shown on each line. Figs. 1, 4 to 8 and this text include familiar, atypical and representative typeface "themes," such as: Century Text, Collegette, Cooper 75, Coronette, Futura, Helvetica, Jenny, Jenny Gothic, Olde Anglo and Times Roman, and others similar thereto. Certain changes and modifications of the invention disclosed herein may now be readily apparent to literate people.

It is the applicants' intention to cover by the claims all such uses of the invention and all those changes and modifications which could be made tt the invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, while described in particular for English, this new punctuation may be used, with appropriate adaptation, in other languages, and, while described in particular for the question comma, the exclamation comma and the intera� bang comma may be considered similar to the question comma. Patent Citations Butterflies that Punctuate: The Eastern Comma and the Question Mark | TrekOhio Hiking the Parks & Preserves of Ohio Butterflies that Punctuate: The Eastern Comma and the Question Mark Butterflies that Punctuate: The Eastern Comma and the Question Mark Standard by Deb Platt Updated on Apr. 19, 2016 9 Comments A short while ago I did a post on the Mourning Cloak butterfly . One of the odd things about this butterfly is that it looks like it only has four feet, but it actually has six feet like most insects. It’s just that the front two are tiny, little things that the butterfly holds near its body.

Someone thought the fuzzy, front feet looked like brushes, so that’s how an entire family of butterfly species became known as the Brushfoot family. Today I’m going to look at two other species that are members of this same family: the Eastern Comma and the Question Mark. Yes, they are both named after punctuation. We’ll soon see why. Soon you’ll know whether this is an Eastern Comma Butterfly or Question Mark Butterfly. Both species are a beautiful orange with dark markings. The outside edge of their wings also have a lovely curvature. Varying in size from 2.5 to 3.0 inches, the Question Mark is slightly larger than the Eastern Comma (2.0 to 2.5 inches). However I find it easier to distinguish between the two by looking at their markings. When viewed from the top, the Eastern Comma Butterfly has three dark spots in a row on each of its front wings. The Eastern Comma Butterfly (Polygonia comma); it has a row of three dots on its forewings. Below is a photo of a Question Mark Butterfly that Dendroica cerulea published under a Creative Commons License. Although it looks lighter than the Eastern Comma above, that’s mostly a question of lighting.

The real difference is in the number of spots on the front wing. The Question Mark butterfly has four spots in a row. As a mnemonic to remember which has the most dots, I tell myself that the Question Mark butterfly needs an extra dot because a question mark has a dot on its bottom. At this point you can look at this article’s topmost photo and try to figure out which species it is. The Question Mark Butterfly (Polygonia interrogationis); it has a row of four dots on its forewings. You may be wondering why these butterflies are named after punctuation. It turns out that there are markings on the underside of the hindwings that do kind of look like punctuation. The Question Mark butterfly has a mark that looks like a question mark turned on its side, while the Eastern Comma has a sideways comma. The underside of the Question Mark Butterfly’s hindwing has a question mark on it. The underside of the Eastern Comma Butterfly’s hindwing has a comma on it. Beyond the punctuation marks, the underside of both butterflies has a dark, mottled appearance. When the butterfly is at rest with its wings up, its wings look a lot like leaf litter or bark.

You might have also noticed in the photo above that it looks like the butterfly has two legs on each side of its body. By a stroke of luck, I believe that I have photographed one of the tiny, front legs after which the whole family is named. This tiny, little front foot reminds me of Tyrannosaurus Rex. 😀 During the summer there is an “umbrosa” form of both butterflies in which the hindwing takes on a dark brown color like the one below. Umbrosa form of the Question Mark butterfly. The reason that I’m seeing these butterflies already is that like the Mourning Cloak butterfly, both species hibernate as adult butterflies over the winter by hiding in nooks and crannies. This makes both species long-lived for a butterfly; they top off at about eight months. The host plants for the larva include elms, hackberry and nettles. The Eastern Comma also has a fondness for hops. Adults of both species get nourishment from mud puddles and animal scat. The Question Mark, like the Mourning Cloak, also likes rotten fruit and tree sap. Once in a while either of these adults may eat a little flower nectar. Additional Reading

Question: What is the name of the punctuation mark that is represented by a comma under a dot?
Answer: Semicolon