Trinidad and Tobago | history - geography | Britannica.com Trinidad and Tobago Alternative Title: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago National anthem of Trinidad and Tobago Official name Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Form of government multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [311]; House of Representatives [42]) Head of state Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TT$) Population Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate Male: (2010) 99.4% Country Data Overview (PDF) Trinidad and Tobago, island country of the southeastern West Indies . It consists of two main islands—Trinidad and Tobago—and several smaller islands. Forming the two southernmost links in the Caribbean chain, Trinidad and Tobago lie close to the continent of South America , northeast of Venezuela and northwest of Guyana . Trinidad, by far the larger of the two main islands, has an area of about 1,850 square miles (4,800 square km).

It is 7 miles (11 km) from the Venezuelan coast at its nearest point and is separated from it by the Gulf of Paria and two narrow channels, where there are several small islands and rocks. Tobago, much smaller, with an area of about 115 square miles (300 square km), lies 20 miles (30 km) to the northeast of Trinidad. Extending diagonally from southwest to northeast, Tobago is about 30 miles (50 km) long and more than 10 miles (16 km) across at its widest point. Little Tobago lies about a mile off Tobago’s northeastern coast. Also called Bird of Paradise Island, Little Tobago was once noted as the only wild habitat of the greater bird of paradise outside of New Guinea; however, the bird is no longer found there. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Beach on the island of Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago. © Corbis Trinidad and Tobago achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1962 and obtained membership in the Commonwealth and the United Nations that same year. It became a republic in 1976.

The capital of Trinidad and Tobago is Port of Spain , located on the northwestern coast of Trinidad. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest The forests on both Trinidad and Tobago are hunting grounds for small game, the most-sought-after being the paca, or lappe. Other animals include the agouti (a short-haired, short-eared, rabbitlike rodent), quenck (collared peccary; a wild hog), tattoo (an armadillo), prehensile-tailed porcupine, and iguana. Four main groups of reptiles are present on the islands: snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles (one kind, the caiman, related to the alligators). Trinidad’s other indigenous animals include howler monkeys and ocelots, but the latter have disappeared from the wild and the former are rare. In general, the island’s fauna has come under severe stress from rapid urbanization and industrial development. People Ethnic groups The original inhabitants of Trinidad migrated from the Orinoco River delta region of northeastern South America and probably spoke an Arawakan language .

It seems likely that by the time the Spanish established a presence there in the 16th century, there was also a population of Cariban speakers, mostly on the north coast. Today a group called the Santa Rosa Caribs of Arima claims partial descent from the original inhabitants and seeks to keep their heritage alive. Tobago was settled by Cariban-speaking Indians when Europeans first arrived there. Children at carnival celebration, Trinidad and Tobago. age fotostock/SuperStock The ethnic makeup of Trinidad is dominated by two groups, roughly equal in size: blacks, descended from slaves brought in to work on cotton and sugar plantations beginning in the late 18th century, and Indo-Trinidadians, or East Indians, whose ancestors were primarily labourers who immigrated from the Indian subcontinent as plantation workers after the abolition of slavery in the mid-19th century. People of mixed ethnicity constitute a slightly smaller third group. Migrants from Spain and other European countries, Africa, East and Southeast Asia , and the Middle East have all contributed to the ethnic composition of the islands’ population. Although English is the official language, most people speak Trinidad English, a creole language.

A few people, mostly in rural areas, speak a French-derived creole, Spanish, or Hindi. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. San Fernando, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago. Christianwelsh A somewhat different lifestyle prevails in villages inhabited by people predominantly of African descent, though many villages have both East Indian and African characteristics. The family unit is nuclear rather than extended and may be based upon marriage or upon a stable extralegal relationship. Families headed by women are common. These different rural cultural streams converge on the capital, Port of Spain . The city, with its mixed population and European influence (seen particularly in its architecture and its French Creole heritage), is notably cosmopolitan . The large city of San Fernando , located south of Port of Spain on the west coast, has a significant East Indian population. Scarborough , the chief town in Tobago, is an administrative centre and market town. Demographic trends The first census of Trinidad and Tobago, in 1851, recorded a relatively small population of roughly 70,000. By 1921 that figure had more than tripled.

However, by the late 20th century the population growth rate was moderating, the result of increased use of family-planning methods—with resulting declines in fertility and birth rates—and emigration from the islands. This was offset somewhat by considerable immigration to Trinidad from the Lesser Antilles and Guyana. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Economy The petroleum industry dominates the economy, which is thus subject to fluctuations in the global energy market. Tourism and manufacturing are of great importance. Privatization of some state-owned enterprises was undertaken during the 1980s and ’90s. In Tobago tourism is by far the largest sector of the economy. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Agriculture Agriculture’s contribution to the economy is negligible. Traditionally important agricultural export commodities included sugar, cocoa, and coffee; however, the sugar sector experienced a steep decline in the early 21st century when estate-based production of sugar was ended with the closure of the state-owned sugar-producing company. Other agricultural products include coconuts, citrus fruits, rice, poultry, and vegetables. Indo-Trinidadians dominate food production and comprised the majority of sugar workers.

In Tobago agriculture declined markedly after a disastrous hurricane in 1963. Resources Commercial petroleum drilling began in the early 20th century on Trinidad, and oil production subsequently expanded to offshore exploration as well. Large natural gas reserves off the coasts of Trinidad and Tobago are also exploited. Although oil production has declined from its peak in the late 1970s, both oil and natural gas contribute substantially to the country’s economy. Liquefied natural gas is a major export commodity. In addition to the large quantity of natural asphalt in Pitch Lake, Trinidad also has deposits of coal, gypsum, limestone, sand and gravel, iron ore, argillite, and fluorspar. Manufacturing Oil production and refining and the production of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are the major industries, but government policy has encouraged economic diversification to reduce dependence on imports and on petroleum and LNG production. Industrial plants are engaged in the manufacture of chemicals and iron and steel products and in the assembly of consumer durables, including motor vehicles and radio and television receivers. Trinidad has chemical and fertilizer plants and a steel mill. The large-scale production of liquefied natural gas began in the 1990s.

The government started fostering intensive industrial development in several areas in the late 20th century, notably in the central and southern area. Services and taxation While petroleum and natural gas continue to make the most substantial contributions to the national economy, services are a growth area, especially in the tourist sector. Tourism is based particularly in Tobago and on Trinidad’s northwestern peninsula. The beaches and the annual Carnival celebration are tourist draws. Yachting is expanding rapidly, with several marinas and related service activities, especially in the Chaguaramas area. Income and other taxes make up about one-third of government revenues. Beach on the island of Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago. © Philip Coblentz—Digital Vision/Getty Images Transportation The islands are served by a fairly well-developed network of highways and main and local roads, but there is heavy congestion in urban areas. State-owned shipping lines and airline services connect Tobago to Trinidad. Piarco International Airport in Trinidad and Crown Point International Airport in Tobago have interisland connections and links to elsewhere in the Caribbean, North and South America, and western Europe .

Port of Spain is the chief commercial port; petroleum exports are handled in ports in the south, such as Point Fortin, Pointe-à-Pierre, and Brighton. There are extensive port facilities at Point Lisas. Government and society Constitutional framework The first constitution of independent Trinidad and Tobago, promulgated as a British Order in Council (1962), provided for a governor-general appointed by the British monarch, a cabinet, and a bicameral Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Under the constitution adopted in 1976, Trinidad and Tobago is a republic. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the Parliament; the prime minister is the head of government. The president appoints the prime minister from the House of Representatives—almost always the leader of the majority party. President’s House, Port of Spain, Trinidad. Harrison Forman The members of the House of Representatives are elected by universal adult suffrage every five years; the members of the Senate are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister and the minority party leader, except for a number of independent senators appointed at the president’s sole discretion.

Senators serve until the dissolution of Parliament or upon the request of the president that they vacate office. The voting age is 18. Since 1980 Tobago has had a separate House of Assembly consisting of 12 members elected by district at a primary election, four appointed councillors, and a presiding officer, who may or may not be a member of the assembly. In January 1987 Tobago was granted full internal self-government, insofar as such self-government does not conflict with the unitary state as provided by the constitution. The legislation provides for a measure of devolution of executive powers in areas such as revenue raising and collection, agriculture, industry, tourism, environmental conservation, and social services. Trinidad is divided into 14 local government authorities: 2 city councils (Port of Spain and San Fernando), 3 borough councils (Arima, Chaguanas, and Point Fortin), and 9 counties. Health and welfare Demand for housing in the urban areas is high, but construction has been hampered by population movement, high construction costs, shortage of land, and inadequate long-term financing.

State provision for social security consists of noncontributory old-age pensions, noncontributory government employee pension plans provided out of public revenues, and workers’ compensation compulsorily paid by employers. A national health insurance program has been established. There is a network of public clinics and hospitals where treatment is free or low-cost, but concerns about the quality of the care they offer have led to a proliferation of private, fee-paying hospitals and clinics. Education Education is free at the primary and secondary levels and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 12. The government offers generous tuition grants to students at higher-education institutions. A campus of the University of the West Indies, offering courses in engineering, business administration, law, medicine, social science, natural science, education, agriculture, and humanities, is located in St. Augustine , about 10 miles (16 km) east of Port of Spain. The University of Trinidad and Tobago (established 2004), with campuses throughout the islands, provides technical and professional training in the sciences, technology, education, and other fields. The University of the Southern Caribbean (1927; Seventh-day Adventist) is a private degree-granting institution near St. Joseph, Trinidad.

There are also technical and vocational institutes and several nonuniversity tertiary-level institutions, both public and private. Cultural life The islands of Trinidad and Tobago have produced writers of international stature, including Samuel Selvon , Earl Lovelace , and Nobel Prize for Literature winner V.S. Naipaul , as well as the noted cultural historian and cricket writer C.L.R. James . The islands are known for steel-band and calypso music and for the dance known as the limbo. Derived from African music and dance forms, these are important features of the annual Carnival celebration, which to many represents the ultimate creative expression of the islands. Indo-Trinidadian music and dance underwent a renaissance beginning in the 1970s and are an important part of the country’s cultural scene. Cricket and football (soccer) are the most popular sports. History Colonial period When Christopher Columbus reached Trinidad in 1498 on his third voyage, the island was inhabited by Arawakan-speaking tribal groups originally from the Orinoco River delta region and a smaller number of Cariban speakers.

In the 16th century many of these Trinidadian Indians were captured by Spanish slave traders and sent to work in other Spanish possessions, but there was no effective Spanish presence on the island until 1592. In that year Antonio de Berrio came in search of Eldorado (the mythical land of gold); he took official possession of the island and founded San José of Oruña (now Saint Joseph), which served as the capital until 1784. Even after 1592 the development of the island proceeded slowly. Few Spaniards immigrated to Trinidad; only a handful of African slaves were imported; and there was little production or export. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, tobacco and, later, cacao were cultivated, using Trinidadian Indian labour, but after a disastrous failure of the cacao crop in the 1720s, the industry declined. The island remained undeveloped until the late 18th century. From 1776 the Spanish government encouraged Roman Catholics from the other Caribbean islands to settle in Trinidad with their slaves.

This immigration became significant after the cedula (decree) of 1783, which offered generous land and tax incentives to settlers, and transformed Trinidad’s population, economy, and society. Most of the settlers were French, and French influence became dominant. Many slaves were brought in from the other colonies and from Africa. Plantations were established, production of cotton and sugar began, and trade increased markedly. By 1797, when Britain seized the island from Spain, Trinidad had begun its development as a plantation economy and a slave society. Trinidad was formally ceded to Britain in 1802. Under British rule, Trinidad’s development as a sugar colony continued, although in 1806–07 the slave trade was completely prohibited. Slavery was abolished in two stages between 1834 and 1838, and the sugarcane planters were unable to secure the steady, tractable, and cheap labour they wanted. In 1845 the immigration of indentured workers from the Indian subcontinent began; it continued until 1917. As early as 1870, about one-fourth of the total population consisted of Indo-Trinidadians.

The original Trinidadian Indian inhabitants had by then virtually disappeared. Other immigrants came to Trinidad after 1838 from the smaller British Caribbean colonies, Africa (as free settlers rescued from foreign slave ships), Madeira, China, Syria , Lebanon , Venezuela, and the United Kingdom. Trinidad’s population became one of the most heterogeneous in the Caribbean. Tobago, also sighted by Columbus in 1498, did not have any permanent European settlement until the 18th century. Its development as a sugar colony began when it was ceded to Britain in 1763 and continued throughout the period from 1763 to 1814, during which time Tobago changed hands between Britain and France several times. Tobago’s sugar production peaked in the 1790s but began an irreversible decline after 1807. Tobago was ceded to Britain for the last time in 1814, but by then its importance as a sugar-exporting colony had already begun to wane. Tobago had its own bicameral legislature until 1874.

In 1889, with the island’s economy in shambles as a result of the collapse of its sugar industry, Tobago was amalgamated with Trinidad, while retaining a subordinate legislature and separate taxes. In this way the united colony of Trinidad and Tobago was created. In 1899 Tobago became a ward (administrative district) of Trinidad and Tobago. Unlike most of the other British West Indian colonies, including Tobago, Trinidad was never granted a bicameral legislature with an elected assembly. Instead, it was governed as a crown colony, with a governor and (from 1831) a legislative council consisting of top officials and so-called unofficial members nominated by the governor. The constitution of the crown colony underwent no significant modification until 1925. During the British colonial period, many activists sought to change the constitution to allow the inclusion of some elected members on the Trinidad and Tobago Legislative Council. In 1925 a constitutional reform did that, adding seven elected members.

Further agitation—especially an islandwide series of strikes and riots in 1937 under Grenadan-born labour leader Uriah Butler—led to the grant of universal suffrage in 1945 and other constitutional reforms that provided for a measure of self-government. For about 10 years after universal suffrage, politics in the colony were characterized by individualism and confusion, but in 1956 the People’s National Movement (PNM) won a victory at the polls and formed the first party-based cabinet government, under the PNM’s founder and leader, Eric Williams . Trinidad and Tobago attained independence in 1962 and became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1976. Independent Trinidad and Tobago The PNM won six consecutive elections and held power from 1956 to 1986. This continuity and stability in government were accompanied by economic problems and social unrest, which broke out in widespread disturbances in 1970–71. The oil boom in 1973–81 brought sudden prosperity to most sections of the population, and Trinidad and Tobago entered a period of rapid development and industrialization.

A substantial state sector and fairly comprehensive social welfare programs were created from the petroleum profits, while the private sector expanded rapidly. A collapse in oil prices, along with the PNM’s failure to win support from most Indo-Trinidadians and deep-seated corruption, led to a marked decline in the party’s popularity after 1981, the year of Williams’s death. In December 1986 the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), a coalition party led by A.N.R. Robinson, won the majority of seats on a program calling for divestment of most state-owned companies, reorganization of the civil service, and structural readjustment of the economy in the light of shrinking oil revenues. Although the NAR government succeeded somewhat in stimulating economic growth while keeping inflation low, its policies were widely resented, and the party was damaged by splits and defections. In July 1990 a small radical Muslim group attempted a coup, in which several ministers, including Robinson, the prime minister, were held hostage for six days. The NAR was defeated in elections in December 1991, and the PNM returned to power.

The PNM government of 1991–95 continued most of the economic and social policies inaugurated by its NAR predecessors. In 1995 the prime minister called an early general election. The result was a tie between the PNM and the main opposition party, the United National Congress (UNC), which was supported chiefly by Indo-Trinidadians; the two Tobago seats went to the NAR, led by Robinson. The latter gave his support to the UNC, whose leader, Basdeo Panday, thus became prime minister. Panday was the first Indo-Trinidadian prime minister, and his government was the first in Trinidad and Tobago to be controlled by a party whose electoral base was the Indo-Trinidadian population. After leaving office, Panday was charged in 2002 with having failed to declare assets to the parliamentary Integrity Commission. The UNC government pursued economic and social policies generally similar to those of the NAR and PNM governments of 1986–95. There was considerable new investment, especially in tourism, petrochemicals, and natural gas.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, Trinidad and Tobago has continued its rapid pace of industrial development, which included building liquefied natural gas plants and steel smelters. The state-owned sugar producer and refiner, Caroni Ltd., was closed down in 2003, but some independent cane farmers continued production for the rum industry. Others turned to the cultivation of alternative crops such as cassava and fruits, and a compensation plan was offered to former sugar-industry workers. Trinidad & Tobago Beaches Welcome to Trinidad & Tobago Beaches Beaches in Tobago Canoe Bay Resort - Located at Canoe Bay. Castara Beach - Located along North Side Road. 2400m / 1.5mi of beach. Englishman's Bay - Located along North Side Road past Castara Bay. 800m / 1/2mi. of beach King's Bay - Located along the Windward Road. 800m / 1/2mi. of beach Man 'O War Bay - On the Windward Road. 1600m / 1mi of beach Mount Irvine - This beach with about 800m / 1/2mi of sand.

It is close to one of Tobago's largest hotels, the Mt. Irvine Bay Hotel, which has one of the best golf courses in the Caribbean. Pigeon Point - Located on the leeward side of Tobago with over 1600m / 1mi of white sand. Speyside Beach - Follow the Windward Road past King's Bay and you will experience a most picturesque view of the coastline. The magnificent Speyside Bay Reef where the Brain Coral is among the largest in the world. Store Bay - This Tobago beach which is over 200m / 656ft long lies on the doorstep of a Store Bay hotel. Turtle Beach - Located at the Great Courland Bay. Beaches in Trinidad North-West Peninsula - Within easy reach of the capital, this well-developed area of coastline offers a variety of activities from offshore island exploration to watersports. Bombshell Bay - Eastern end of Gasparee Island. 40m / 131ft of beach. Chacachacare - A 20-minute boat ride from the mainland, this 900-acre island has eight beaches and a saltwater pond. Chagacabana - Chaguaramas.

Located on the Western Main Road. 125m / 410ft of beach. Chagville Beach - Chagville is located at Carenage Bay, opposite the Convention Centre in Chaguaramas. It is a man made beach, sandy and about 600m / 1/4mi long. Macqueripe - Located on the Tucker Valley Road. 117m / 384ft of beach. Paragrant Beach - Located in Northern Trinidad (Maraval Port of Spain) with views of Saut D�eau Island, the Caribbean Sea and Moka Golf Course. Scotland Bay - Only accessible by boat, but ideal for swimming. Williams Bay - Eastern end of Carenage Bay. 1100m / 3/4mi of beach. North Coast - enjoy a drive through the Northen Range and maracas Valley to these northern beaches. Blanchisseuse - In recent years, the once-secluded Blanchisseuse area has become a popular weekend getaway, with holiday homes and guesthouses springing up in increasing numbers.

Small bays and beaches nestle at the foot of lush rain forest, including the weekend favourite L'Anse Mitan opposite a small resort offering lunches and shark-and-bake. Marianne Bay,where the road ends, is the largest and most popular beach, with a freshwater lagoon at its eastern end. Las Cuevas - Approximately 8 km / 5 mi east of Tyrico is another popular beach at Las Cuevas Bay. The name "Las Cuevas" is derived from the Spanish word for caves and there are many caves on this beach. This bay is more sheltered than Maracas and is therefore calmer. The water is clear and provides excellent swimming with waves reaching to 0.82m / 3ft Maracas Bay - Maracas Beach is the most popular beach in the North. It can be accessed by the Saddle Road through Maraval or by the Saddle Road from San Juan through Santa Cruz, and again onto the North Coast Road. The beach is about 1850m / 1 1/4mi long and has off white sand. Waves are an average height of 1.0m / 3ft and are ideal for surfing.

Paria Beach and Waterfall - A popular hiking route. The trail to this deserted beach and refreshing waterfall begins where the North Coast road ends, at the suspension bridge across the Marianne River. The trek can take two to three hours each way. Tyrico - Just east of Maracas Bay is Tyrico Bay with a beach about 900m / 1/2mi long and fine grayish brown sand. Like Maracas it offers good sea and sun bathing with waves reaching to 0.80m / 3ft. North-East Coast - From November to April ocean swells approaching from the north-east produce good surf breaks. From May to September the waters are calm and idyllic, great for swimming. Still relatively rural, this area has some of Trinidad's most picturesque villages and seaside spots. The coast from Saline Bay to Toco is frequently rocky; from Toco to Grande Rivi�re is more easily accessible. Balandra - A narrow stretch of land shelters Balandra Bay, making it good for swimming. Good body-surfing as well, at the rougher end of the bay. Grande Rivi�re - The river meets the sea here, so you can combine sea bathing and river swimming.

During nesting months (March to August), leatherback turtles come ashore to lay their eggs. The village is one of Trinidad's most visitor-friendly communities, with a number of hotels, guest houses and cottages for rent. Local tour guides are available for rain forest hikes. Manzanilla - Manzanilla Bay located on the East Coast along the East Coast Road, can be reached via Sangre Gande and the Manzanilla-Mayaro Road. A long beach of about 4000m / 2.5mi with brownish grey fine sand, it is ideal for sunbathing. Matura - This protected beach is a major leatherback turtle nesting site. Mayaro - Located on the East Coast, Mayaro Bay has the longest beach in Trinidad. It can be accessed by the Mayaro-Guayaguayare Road. Saline Bay - A favourite resting point for those driving up to Toco - though it's also a good final destination if you're looking for a picnicking spot and a refreshing dip in the sea. Salybia Bay - Long, scenic bay. Often windswept with surging breakers. Sans Souci Bay - A slightly sloping bay with often-choppy waves.

Popular with surfers in the winter. South-West Coast - Some excellent beaches here for relaxation after a visit to the Pitch Lake and La Brea. Sediment from the Orinoco River means waters can sometimes appear muddy, discouraging bathing. Cedros - Near the tip of the south-western peninsula, one of the furthest points on the island from Port of Spain, Cedros has Trinidad's widest beach at low tide. Among the best vantage points for sighting the Venezuelan mainland. Guapo Beach - Access cia clifton Hill Road, Point Fortin. Granville - South Western peninsula. Access through the Granville Road. 900m / 1/2mi of beach. Quinam Beach - South Coast. Access by the Coora Road and the Penal-Quinam Road. 1600m / 1mi of beach. Vessigny - The beach lies west of Vessigny Village about 3 km / 2 mi south of La Brea and the Pitch Lake. The water is generally very calm and is cleaner during the dry season. Note: All beach images courtesy of Calvin Antoine.

IE 6.0 or higher/Firefox/Chrome compatible.This site uses frames, if you do not see frames click here . Page maintained by Roger James Copyright © 1996-2017 Last Revised: 06/01/2017 Dutch and Courlanders on Tobago. A history of the first settlements 1628-1677 - Colonial Voyage Tobago. Anonymous map of 1665 Dutch and Courlanders on Tobago. A history of the first settlements 1628-1677 in Central America and Caribbean , Courlandian Colonialism , Dutch Colonialism 3,698 Views Written by Marco Ramerini. English text revision by Dietrich Köster. This beautiful and rugged island of the Caribbean (with an area of about 300 square kilometres) lies in front of the delta of the Orinoco River. Its position is a rather strategic one. Indeed, from here one can dominate the coasts of Venezuela as well as that of Guyana and also the Caribbean Sea. Tobago is also full of good bays for anchorage. For these reasons this island was disputed by several European powers in the seventeenth century.

Tobago was discovered by Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo) in 1498, but Spain was not interested in the island until 1614 when Juan Rodriguez made a colonizing attempt which he abandoned after four months. In 1628 a Dutch ship with 68 colonists landed on the island (called by them Nieuw Walcheren). They founded a fort called Fort Flushing near today’s Plymouth in the Great Courland Bay. In 1629 and 1632 more ships arrived from Zeeland to strengthen the small Dutch settlement, which now was populated by about 200 colonists. The history of this first colony had a tragic conclusion on 1 January 1637, when a Spanish expedition destroyed the settlement and massacred the colonists. Map of Tobago island, with Dutch and Courlanders settlements.

Author and Copyright Marco Ramerini A few months later, in 1637, a Courlandian (Courland was a duchy situated in the present Republic of Latvia) ship with 212 colonists attempted to found a colony on the island, but both attempts and a subsequent one in 1639 ended in failure. In 1639 the English also attempted to found a settlement on Tobago, but the colonists were forced to withdraw in 1640. A renewed English attempt in 1642 met the same fate. In 1642 about 300 Courlanders made a third attempt to colonize Tobago, but the Caribs attacked and killed many of them. The survivors escaped to the Wild Coast (today’s Guyana). In 1647 a third English attempt also failed. Pigeon Point, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago. Author Paul Mannix On 20 May 1654, a Courlanders expedition of 80 families and 149 soldiers landed at Great Courland Bay. They renamed the island New Courland and started to build a fort named Fort Jacob.

In September 1654 a Zeelandian expedition under Pieter Becquart founded a settlement at Lampsins Bay on the opposite side of the island. This new settlement was named Nieuw Flushing. The Dutch built here three forts. The strongest was called Fort Lampsinsberg, the other two were Fort Beveren and Fort Bellavista. Thus the island was divided between the two nations. In 1657 reinforcements arrived from Courland and about 120 colonists were added. Meanwhile the Dutch settlement had had a swift growth and in 1658 about 500 Frenchmen settled under Dutch sovereignty. They founded a settlement (named Le Quartier des trois Rivières) in Little Courland Bay not far from the Courlanders colony. By 1658 1,200 persons peopled the Dutch colony. The Courlanders were in trouble, because the Baltic war was raging in their country and no reinforcements came from Courland. On 11 December 1659 the Courlanders surrendered the colony to the Dutch.

The Dutch colony was flourishing and it counted about 1,500 colonists (prevalently Zeelanders and Frenchmen) and 7,000 slaves in 1660. There were three churches and six or seven sugar mills. The island produced sugar, rum and cacao. There were about 120 plantations and 2 rum distilleries. Tobago. Anonymous map of 1665 In January 1666 the colony was forced to surrender to the British pirates from Jamaica. A few days later English troops arrived and assumed official English control of Tobago. A garrison of 50 Englishmen was left on the island. This garrison surrendered to the French in August 1666. A short time later the French must have abandoned Tobago. In fact, when the Dutch Admiral Abraham Crijnssen landed in April 1667, he found the island deserted and the forts and the houses of the colony in ruins. He had the fort restored and left a garrison of 29 men.

In December 1668 a Courlandian ship made an attempt to occupy the old site of Fort Jacob, but the Dutch were watchful and the Courlanders escaped. In 1672 about 500 Dutch colonists arrived. On 18 December 1672 an English expedition totalling 6 ships and 600 men conquered the colony after five or six hours of fight. The British destroyed the colony and the colonists were deported to Barbados. Tobago was again abandoned. Bird’s eye view of the bay and the fort of Nieuw Vlissingen on Tobago. Vingboons Atlas The second peace of Westminster in 1674 gave Tobago back to the Dutch, but they reoccupied the island only on 1 September 1676, when an expedition under the command of Jacob Binckes landed at Klip Bay and a new fort was built near the place where Nieuw Flushing used to stand. The new fort was called Fort Sterreschans; it was a star-shaped fort with four bulwarks. A small outpost was built on a hill overlooking the bay.

In February 1677 Dutch reinforcements (about 150 men) landed, but a few days later a French fleet totalling 24 ships and 4,000 men was sighted. The Dutch had 700 soldiers, 100 colonists and 15 ships anchored in the bay. On 21 February 1677 the French disembarked 1,000 men and attacked the fort but failed. After this on 3 March 1677 the French Admiral Count d’Estrées decided to attempt a dangerous attack on the Dutch by land and sea. The battle was destructive for both parties and the Dutch remained masters of the fort, but only three Dutch ships and 400 men survived the battle. All the French ships were damaged and four were lost. After this battle the French troops left Tobago. On 6 December 1677 a new French fleet totalling 21 ships under d’Estrées landed on Tobago. The Dutch now numbered only 700 men and 5 ships.

The French attacked the Dutch fort from the land side and a French “fire ball” fell near the powder magazine of the fort, causing an explosion. This terrific explosion killed Binckes and about 250 of his men. As the Dutch survivors surrendered, the French destroyed the remains of the Sterreschans and abandoned the island. This marked the end of the Dutch attempts to make Tobago a Dutch colony. Bird’s eye view of the bay and the fort of Nieuw Vlissingen on Tobago. Vingboons Atlas Pigeon Point, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago. Author Paul Mannix Tobago. Anonymous map of 1665 BIBLIOGRAPHY: – Archibald, D. “Tobago: melancholy isle, vol. I 1498-1771” 137 pp. Westindiana, 1987, Port of Spain, Trinidad & Tobago.

Chapter I, The Caribs of the Island of Tabaco; Chapter II, the European Presence 1498-1627; Chapter III, Early Settlements 1628-1637; Chapter IV, The Courland Adventure 1639-1690; Chapter V, the Dutch at Roodklyp Bay 1654-1678; Chapter VI, Captain John Poyntz 1666-1704; Chapter VII, A neutral Island 1679-1763; Chapter VIII, the British settle Tobago 1763-1771. – Bubberman, F. C. “Tobago en zijn Nederlands verleden” In: Various Authors “Vestingbouw overzee. Militaire architectuur van Manhattan tot Korea” pp. 37-43 Vestingbouwkundige bijdragen, Walburg Pers, 19–, NL. – Carmichael,Gertrude “The history of the West Indian Island of Trinidad and Tobago, 1498-1900” 463 pp.

8 plts. 1961, London, UK. – Edmundson “The Dutch in Western Guiana” English historical review: 1901 Vol. XVI 640 – 675 pp. An interesting article on the first period of Dutch settlements in Guiana and Tobago. There are also some information about the Courland attempts of colonizing Tobago. – Goslinga,C.Ch. “The Dutch in the Caribbean & on the Wild Coast 1580-1680” 647 pp. 12 maps Van Gorcum & C. 1971 Assen, The Netherlands. A detailed and a very interesting and complete study on the Dutch in the Caribbean area: Guyana and Caribbean Islands. This is the vol I of the study.

Index: The beggars and the Broom, dreamers and realists, the tardy interlopers, the truce, the rise of a brilliant star, the battle for salt, the first great designs, the silver fleet, the king’s veins, Pie de Palo, the Dutch pearls, the years of crisis, the decline of a brilliant star, black ebony, “that superb nation”, the Wild Coast, New Walcheren, the last Dutch stand. – Goslinga, C.Ch. “The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guianas 1680-1791” 712 pp. 13 maps Van Gorcum 1985 Assen, The Netherlands A detailed and a very interesting study on the Dutch in the Caribbean area: Guyana and Caribbean Islands. This is the vol II of the study.

Index: The rise and the decline of the new Dutch West India Company 1675-1770, the Dutch in West Africa, the Company and the colonists in the Curaçao islands, the Company and the colonists of the Dutch Leeward islands, the Dutch Caribbean slave trade, the “Kleine Vaart” in the Caribbean, Antillean colonial society, the colonists and the society of Suriname, Surinam: plantation colony, the Surinam Maroons, the Surinam slave trade, Essequebo and Demerara, the Berbice slave rebellion, a tale of two cities: Willemstad and Paramaribo, the Dutch black and red codes, the fall of the West India Company. – Oppenheim, Samuel “An early Jewish colony in Western Guiana, 1658-1666 and its relation to the Jews in Surinam, Cayenne and Tobago” in: A.J.H.S. n° 16, 1907 – Oppenheim, Samuel “An early Jewish colony in Western Guiana. Supplemental data” in: A.J.H.S.

n° 17, 1909 – Williamson, J. A. “English colonies in Guiana and on the Amazon 1604-1688” 191 pp. Clarendon Press, 1923, Oxford – Wise, K. S. “Historical sketches of Trinidad & Tobago” Vol I, 1934, articles IX, X, XI The Dutch settlements in Trinidad 1636, the Dutch settlements in Tobago 1633-1636, the Dutch attack on St. Joseph 1637.

Question: The island of Trinidad lies opposite the delta of which major river?
Answer: RIVER ORINOCO