Oliver Cromwell: Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector In 1649, after the proclamation of the republican Commonwealth, Cromwell led a punitive expedition into Ireland, especially remembered for the massacre of the royalist garrison at Drogheda. He then initiated a policy of systematic dispossession of the Irish, transferring their lands to Protestant proprietors. In 1650 he invaded Scotland and routed the Scottish royalists at Dunbar; later he defeated the Scots and Charles II himself at Worcester (1651) and left the rest of the conquest of Scotland to Gen. George Monck. Cromwell, now virtual dictator of the Commonwealth, dissolved the Rump Parliament in 1653 after it had failed to effect reforms demanded by the army and had sought to perpetuate its power. His attempt to replace it by the Nominated (Barebone's) Parliament (see Barebone, Praise-God ), appointed by himself from nominations of the Independent congregations, resulted in a reckless, hopelessly divided body that was finally forced to dissolve itself. A group of army officers then drew up the constitutional document known as the Instrument of Government (1653), by which Cromwell became lord protector (see Protectorate ).

The Parliament of 1654, which was elected under the terms of the same document, wanted to prepare a new constitution and was soon dissolved. After that Cromwell resorted to open military government, dividing England into 11 districts, each administered by a major-general. Another, more amenable Parliament was summoned in 1656, and in 1657 it presented to Cromwell a new constitution known as the Humble Petition and Advice and offered him the crown. He declined the crown but accepted (with some modifications) the Humble Petition, which further increased his power and set up a second legislative chamber. The second session of this same Parliament, however, challenged the new constitution, and Cromwell dissolved it (1658) seven months before his death. Cromwell's foreign policy was governed by the need to expand English trade and prevent the restoration of the Stuarts, and by the desire to build up a Protestant league and enhance the prestige of the English republic.

He approved the Navigation Act of 1651, which led to the first (1652–54) of the Dutch Wars , and he pressed the war against Spain (1655–58) as a means of encroaching on Spanish rights of colonization in America. The Dutch war resulted in several important naval victories for the English under Admiral Robert Blake , but the Spanish war, apart from the sinking of a Spanish fleet (also by Blake), brought only Jamaica and imposed a great strain on English finances. Sections in this article: Oliver Cromwell - British History - HISTORY.com Oliver Cromwell A+E Networks Introduction English solider and statesman Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) was elected to Parliament in 1628 and 1640. The outspoken Puritan helped organize armed forces after the outbreak of civil war in 1642, serving as deputy commander of the “New Model Army” that decimated the main Royalist force at the 1645 Battle of Naseby. After the death of Charles I, Cromwell served in the Rump Parliament and set to reform the legal system in part through the establishment of the Blue Laws.

He commanded campaigns in Ireland and Scotland in the early 1650s, and served as “lord protector” of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland from 1653 until his death. Google Although he became one of the most famous figures in English history, Oliver Cromwell began life as an ordinary country gentleman; when the English Civil War broke out in 1642, he was a middle-aged father of five children with no military training. Yet within a decade, according to one leading Royalist statesman and historian, he “mounted himself into the throne of the three kingdoms [England, Wales, and Scotland] without the name of a king but with greater power and authority than had ever been exercised or claimed by any king.” Cromwell’s power stemmed from his military ability and his unique relationship with his troops. As soon as the war began, the creation of a pious and professional army to serve the English Parliament became his principal concern, and in 1645 he pushed for the formation of a standing army, with central funding and central direction.

Under the command of Thomas Fairfax, with Cromwell as his deputy, this “New Model Army” quickly routed the main Royalist force at the Battle of Naseby (June 14, 1645), marking the beginning of a string of remarkable victories that within a year forced Charles I to surrender. Cromwell always led his cavalry from the front, although it took its toll: he sustained combat injuries and often laughed hysterically immediately before and after action. But close contact with his troops paid dividends, for Cromwell managed to lead his “Ironsides” back into battle when other units paused to plunder. The decision to execute the king in 1649 provoked a Royalist reaction in Ireland and Scotland that threatened the security of the new republic in England and forced Cromwell back into the field. He began his Irish offensive with a massacre of the combined forces of the Catholic Confederates and the Protestant Royalists at Drogheda (September 1649); the following month the town of Wexford, base of the Irish navy, met a similar fate.

Scotland’s decision to invade England in support of Charles II in 1650 forced Cromwell to leave the completion of the reconquest of Ireland to others while he focused his efforts on subduing the Scots. His stunning victories first at the Battle of Dunbar (September 3, 1650) and then at Worcester (September 3, 1651) not only forced Charles II to flee to the Continent for nearly ten years, but also effected the political integration of the three kingdoms-ruled after 1653 by Cromwell as lord protector, advised by the Council of State, and with a single Parliament meeting at Westminster-for the first time in their history. Cromwell, a committed Puritan, and his godly “Ironsides” attributed their successes on the battlefield to divine intervention and now set out to create a godly society by establishing a body of evangelical preachers, by reforming the legal system, and by introducing legislation such as the Blue Laws (1650) against blasphemy, cursing, drunkenness, and adultery.

Cromwell believed in liberty of conscience for his fellow Christians-“I meddle not with any man’s conscience”; a truly revolutionary concept for the day-but in every other respect he remained a social conservative. He feared the democratic ideas of the so-called Levellers (English radicals); he believed in rule by the godly, not by the people in general. After 1649 he genuinely strove to reconcile the traditional political nation to his regime; yet in 1657 he rejected a proposal, known as the “Humble Petition and Advice,” which implored him to become king. That the Protectorate rested on a bed of pikes-with a standing army of some sixty thousand men, together with a large navy-is no myth; but it was not until a Royalist rising broke out in March 1655 that Cromwell finally resorted to blatant military rule, placing the various regions of England and Wales under the command of senior army officers. In addition, his government pursued an aggressive foreign policy, fighting wars first against the Dutch (1652-1654) (see Anglo-Dutch Wars) and then against Spain (1656-1659).

Excoriated as a usurper and hypocrite by his adversaries and venerated as a savior and hero by his supporters, Cromwell died on September 3-the anniversary of two of his greatest victories-in 1658 of “a bastard tertian ague” (probably malaria). Almost as soon as his son, Richard, took over the reins of power, his subordinates in Scotland and Ireland began to plot the restoration of Charles II. The “British Republic” gave way to monarchy again in 1660. The Reader’s Companion to Military History. Edited by Robert Cowley and Geoffrey Parker. Copyright © 1996 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Tags Oliver Cromwell Became Lord Protector After Winning The Civil War | Historic Royal Palaces 1653-58 Famous for winning the English Civil War Cromwell emerged as the Lord Protector of England after leading the Parliamentarian side to victory. Although he’d fought to get rid of the Stuart kings, he ended up being rather like a king himself. Cromwell at Hampton Court Palace As Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell moved into Hampton Court Palace where he used the former queen’s bedroom for himself.

He travelled down from London to spend quiet weekends here. He enjoyed looking at Charles I ’s art collection, and also had several beautiful statues moved into the Privy Garden. One of these was the lovely statue of Diana that ended up in the middle of the Round Pond in Bushy Park. Some of Cromwell’s Puritan supporters thought that he took rather took much pleasure in looking at these statues of naked ladies! In 1660 Charles II was invited back to England to become King. English Civil War| Oliver Cromwell & England as a Republic The Commonwealth The Rump Parliament In December 1648 the Army had surrounded the House of Commons and only allowed in those MPs who supported putting King Charles on trial. This is known as ‘Pride’s Purge’. The remaining MPs made up the Rump Parliament. After the execution of King Charles I the members of the Rump Parliament passed a series of Acts transforming the nation into The Commonwealth. In March 1649 an Act was passed abolishing the office of King.

The office should not be held by one person as experience had shown that a King “… is unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the liberty, safety, and public interest of the people…” It would be considered treason to try and set up anybody as a King. An Act abolishing the House of Lords was also passed in March. This Act stated that they had found “…by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England…” Former members of the House of Lords who were loyal to the Commonwealth could still be elected to Parliament. In May 1649 an Act was passed declaring England to be a Commonwealth. It was to “…be governed as a Commonwealth and Free State by the supreme authority of this nation, the representatives of the people in Parliament…” and “… without any King or House of Lords.” The Rump Parliament also passed an Act creating a Council of State to help run the country. The members of this council were mostly Members of Parliament. The real power at this time lay with the leaders of the Army, which included Oliver Cromwell. Now that the monarchy had been abolished, Ireland and Scotland were independent of England. They were also considered a threat to the Commonwealth.

In Ireland, Irish Confederate Catholics and English Royalists had formed an alliance. In 1649 Parliament sent an army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, to crush the Irish Rebellion. Cromwell returned to England in May 1650. In 1653 the Irish finally surrendered. Under the terms of the Act for the Settlement of Ireland (1652) Catholic-Irish lands were divided up amongst loyal supporters of the Commonwealth. In Scotland Charles’ son had been proclaimed as Charles II. Oliver Cromwell defeated the Scottish army at Worcester on 3rd September 1651. Charles II fled to exile in Europe. Scotland was occupied by Cromwell’s army. General George Monck was appointed military governor. The Rump Parliament needed to maintain the support of the Army. The Army leaders, including Oliver Cromwell, thought that religious tolerance was important. In September 1650 Parliament repealed several laws brought in during the time of Elizabeth I, including those covered by the Act of Uniformity (1558). Some Independent churches were allowed. Everyone, however, still had to pay their tithes (church taxes) to the Church of England.

The Rump Parliament also made minor changes to the legal system. By an Act of November 1650, all legal proceedings were now required to be conducted in English. All law-books had to be written in English. The Rump Parliament was largely ineffective and only brought about limited reforms. On 20 April 1653 Oliver Cromwell, frustrated with the lack of reformist legislation, took an armed force to the House of Commons and dissolved the Rump Parliament. Cromwell believed that the MPs were more concerned with their own state of affairs. “… You have sat too long for any good you have been doing lately…In the name of God, go!” The Barebone’s Parliament Oliver Cromwell did not want to establish a military dictatorship. In July 1653 Cromwell replaced the Rump Parliament with a Nominated Assembly, a ‘Parliament of the Saints’. It was nicknamed the ‘Barebones Parliament’ after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone. This Parliament consisted of 144 Members who had been picked by the Army officers based on their “godly” religious ways.

On 12 December 1653 General John Lambert and a group of Army supporters voted to dissolve Parliament. They had written a constitution for the Republic of the British Isles called the Instrument of Government. This placed control in “a single person and a Parliament”. On 16 December 1653, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. The Protectorate The Instrument of Government The Instrument of Government was a written constitution which attempted to define the rights and powers of Parliament and the Lord Protector. The Protectorate was to be governed by the Lord Protector with the assistance of a Council of State. The title of Lord Protector was to be elective and not hereditary. Oliver Cromwell was nominated as Lord Protector for life. The Instrument of Government concentrated most of the power with the Executive. That is the Lord Protector and the Council of State. Many of those who made up the Council were military commanders, so the country was still ruled by the military. Although under the terms of the Instrument the Lord Protector had to call Parliaments. Legislative powers were to be given to elected members of Parliament.

Parliament was to be called at least once every three years and could not be dissolved for a minimum of five months, without its own consent. There was to be only one Parliament for England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. Scotland and Ireland were to send thirty Members each to represent them in Parliament. The other nations would be represented by four hundred MPs. The Lord Protector would be given twenty days to raise objections to any Bill passed. Parliament did not have to act on these objections and could pass the Bill anyway. The Instrument of Government also called for religious tolerance. Those that professed ‘faith in God by Jesus Christ’ were to have the freedom to worship. Roman Catholics and any others who wanted the return of Popery and Prelacy (bishops) were excluded from this. As Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell wanted to bring about the ‘healing and settling’ of the nation after the turmoil of the Civil Wars. The first Protectorate Parliament met on the 3rd September 1654. Many of the Members that had been elected had also served in the old Rump Parliament. They spent most of their time trying to turn the Instrument of Government to their own advantage or arguing about its content.

The size and political influence of the Army as well as the cost of maintaining it were particular sources of contention. Parliament was dissolved by Cromwell on the 22nd January 1655, five lunar months after it had first been called. It had passed no new laws. Army Rule The Royalist uprising led by Sir John Penruddock in March 1655 resulted in England being divided up into regions, each under the command of a Major-General, who was responsible for law and order. Oliver Cromwell brought in a decimation tax to finance the raising of local militia for each of these districts. This was an income tax of 10% on wealthy Royalists. There was still a fear of further uprisings. Royalists (and Catholics) were to be disarmed. Bonds had to be paid to secure their good behaviour and that of their servants. Permission had to be sought from the Major-Generals if they wished to travel. Unlawful assemblies were to be broken up to prevent Royalists or other conspirators gathering together in large numbers. They were also charged with keeping the highways safe from robbers and highway men.

Puritan England The Major-Generals each with the assistance of a commissioner were to enforce Puritan moral standards on the people of England. The Long Parliament had already brought in new laws concerning religious worship in England. In 1645 it brought in A Directory for the Public Worship of God. This stated the only holy day according to scripture was the Lords Day. Other ‘Festival days’ were not to be continued as they were not holy days. This included Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide. Puritans mostly objected to what they saw as the immoral behaviour and Popish ceremony that surrounded these ‘Festival days’. Further legislation was passed to ban other activities that encouraged immorality, such as stage-plays. Cock-fighting was declared an illegal assembly because it tended to lead to public disturbances and was usually accompanied with drunkenness, swearing, arguing and gambling. Laws were passed to try and raise the moral standards of the nation. Adultery was to be punishable by death. Swearing and cursing would result in a fine. Blasphemy was punished with imprisonment. This Puritan legislation was already in place before the rule of the Major-Generals, but it had not been thoroughly enforced.

The role of the commissioners was to ensure that it was now carried out properly. Oliver Cromwell saw the Major-Generals and their commissioners as securing “the peace of the nation” and for “…the supressing of vice and the encouragement of virtue.” The strongest opposition was to the way vice was supressed and virtue encouraged. The laws had already had an impact on ordinary people and their everyday lives. Nearly all forms of entertainment had been banned and traditional celebrations could not be held. Their enforcement under military authority served only to increase discontent with and opposition to the Protectorate and its strict Puritan values. The Humble Petition and Advice In September 1656 Oliver Cromwell called the Second Protectorate Parliament. Many had had enough of Army rule and the strict enforcement of the Puritan legislation. There were also questions of legality concerning the commissions of the Major-Generals and the decimation tax used to finance the local militias. In March 1657 Oliver Cromwell was presented with the Humble Petition and Advice. This document set out terms for a new constitution and had been written by Cromwell’s civilian supporters. Parliament would now consist of two Houses.

The ‘other House’ would be made up of between forty and seventy persons nominated by the Lord Protector and then approved by the House of Commons. The role of Lord Protector was still not hereditary but Cromwell was able to appoint the person who would succeed him on his death. Oliver Cromwell is offered the Kingship Part of this new written constitution was the offer of the crown to Oliver Cromwell. Some thought that England would have greater political stability if there was a King and so be less likely to end up in another civil war. They also hoped it might lessen the chances of the country being ruled by the military again. They did not want Charles II on the throne so instead they offered the Kingship to Oliver Cromwell. The Army argued that they had not fought to remove one King in order that they could replace it with another one. If Cromwell became King this might cause Charles Stuart (Charles II) to try and reclaim his throne again. After six weeks deliberation Cromwell declined the offer. He told Parliament that much blood had been shed during the Civil War over the issue of Kingship. It was God’s providence that had set aside the title of King and he wasn’t going to go against the will of God.

It’s also probable that Cromwell did not wish to antagonise the Army or lose their support. In January 1658 Parliament met again. Oliver Cromwell dissolved, what was to be his last Parliament, in less than two weeks. The House of Commons was still divided by fundamental political differences. There was much opposition to the new constitution of the Humble Petition. Staunch republican MPs disagreed with the whole idea of a Protectorate and wanted to see a return to the Long Parliament and the Commonwealth. One group argued that there must be a ‘balance of property’. They believed that a lasting commonwealth would never be established unless property and land were more equally distributed amongst the population. Some disagreed with the amount of power invested in one man, the Lord Protector; it seemed too similar to the Royal rule they had fought to remove. The role of the ‘other house’ was also questioned. Cromwell angered by the squabbling and lack of meaningful action dissolved Parliament stating “Let God be the judge between you and me”. Oliver Cromwell died of illness on 3rd September 1658. He was buried with much ceremony in Westminster Abbey. Richard Cromwell Lord Protector Richard Cromwell succeeded his father as Lord Protector.

Richard was not a military commander and lacked the support of the Army which he needed to rule successfully. In January 1659, Parliament was called. Richard Cromwell needed money to pay significant debts. Parliament was more interested in curtailing the power of the Army and reducing its size to cut costs. The Army wanted more political influence and a greater say in how the country was to be governed. Parliament was dissolved and in May 1659 Richard Cromwell resigned as Lord Protector. The Protectorate was abolished and power given back to the old Rump Parliament. The Royalists nicknamed Richard ‘Tumble-down Dick’. Richard Cromwell did not suffer any punishment for holding the title of Lord Protector, even after the Restoration. He went into exile in Europe and returned to England after about twenty years. He died in 1712 at the age of 85. Return of the King King Charles II There was no clear leadership in the newly re-instated Commonwealth. Political order broke down. Different groups and factions were at odds over how the country should be governed. The Army and the Rump Parliament each tried to gain authority. The nation was against a return to military rule.

There were calls for new elections, even the reinstatement of the Long Parliament. In February 1660, General George Monck marched on London with regiments of the New Model Army. Monck had been made the military Governor of Scotland by Oliver Cromwell. He took control of the political situation. Those Members of Parliament that had been excluded during Pride’s Purge were readmitted to the Rump Parliament. On 16 March 1660 the Long Parliament was officially dissolved. New elections were called for and a Parliament was to be held on 25 April 1660 at Westminster. This was known as the Convention. It wasn’t strictly a Parliament as it had not been called by the Monarch. It consisted of a House of Commons and a House of Lords. It contained a large proportion of moderate MPs and Royalists. In April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda in which he made a series of promises over what he would do upon restoration of the Crown. These included backdating Army pay, religious freedoms and the issuing of a general pardon (except to those named by Parliament). He promised that he would submit to any decisions Parliament made in this settlement.

With the political anarchy that had ensued at the end of the Protectorate people were willing to return to the old structures of Parliament and Monarchy. They certainly did not want to see a return to military rule. In May 1660 the Convention declared Charles II the lawful King and invited him back to claim the throne. On 25 May Charles II arrived at Dover. Cromwell’s body is exhumed On 29 August 1660 Charles II gave his Royal Assent to the Indemnity and Oblivion Act. This Act called for a general pardon except for those persons who had taken part in the regicide of King Charles I. They were to be tried for Treason and the murder of the King. Fifty-nine of the commissioners, who had sat in judgement upon King Charles at his trial, had put their signatures and seals to the death warrant. These men along with others who had participated in the trial or the execution of Charles I were named as regicides. Oliver Cromwell, as the third signatory to the Death Warrant of Charles I, was named as a regicide. His body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey and posthumously executed.

Cromwell’s body was hung in chains at Tyburn. His head was then set on a spike outside Westminster Hall and his body thrown in a pit. Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw were also posthumously executed in this way. The date of this ‘execution’ was 30 January 1661, the anniversary of the beheading of King Charles I. Why did Cromwell become Lord Protector In December 1653? - A-Level History - Marked by Teachers.com Why did Cromwell become Lord Protector In December 1653? Extracts from this document... Introduction Charlie Hanson Why did Cromwell become Lord Protector In December 1653? After completing the defeat of Scotland Cromwell returned to London and the problems caused by the form of government under which England, and now Scotland as well, was ruled. The Parliament, of course, continued its policy of making the English Church and the English society as narrowly Puritan as possible, restricting the authorization for the election of members of Parliament and maintaining the size of the Rump Parliament itself. It was in no rush to re-establish the broadly based Parliament that had first challenged and successfully subdued King Charles I.

The new system of government with its Council of State was proving to be unworkable as far as Cromwell was concerned. His experiences with the Army throughout the Civil Wars, in England, Ireland and Scotland had proven to him the benefits of strong executive power. He could now understand the dead King's point of view in his own frustrating dealings with the Rump Parliament. That wasn't any consolation to the slain King, of course, but it does give us some further insight into Cromwell's views. ...read more. Middle he asked, and then answered contemptuously: 'Take it away.' Then he dismissed the Council of State as well. The so-called 'Long Parliament' was finally ended. Yet another coup had taken place in England. Oliver Cromwell was dictator without even a submissive Parliament to which he had to answer. One thing the Rump Parliament had done that must have pleased the rapidly inflating ego of Oliver Cromwell was to grant him an allowance of four thousand pounds per year and the gift of Hampton Court palace as well. Despite his Puritan disregard for flamboyant displays he willingly accepted both and took to wearing the clothes befitting one of such high station.

It doesn't take very much to corrupt people, even those who might think of themselves as incorruptible. And Oliver certainly thought of himself in those terms. Apparently there was little or no dissent from Cromwell's latest actions. Some thought that they would eventually lead back to monarchy. Ultimately they were correct. Others, the more deeply religious Puritans, called, 'Fifth Monarchists' those who expected Christ to return and reign over the world would be disappointed when Jesus Christ failed to make his appearance. ...read more. Conclusion Cromwell had created another fiend that he couldn't control. This, too, had to be ended. And it was on 12 December 1653 the 'Barebones Parliament', under pressure from the army, voted its own dissolution. The army then presented Oliver Cromwell with a solution to the political problems facing the country. This was a document entitled, 'Instrument of Government', by which he would become the, 'Lord Protector'. It also proposed a new Parliament elected on a strictly property qualification contract, excluding royalists and Catholics, and another Executive Council to advise both the Parliament and the Protector.

Cromwell didn't hesitate in accepting the proposal as a 'Constitution' for the Commonwealth of England, Ireland and Scotland. It was England's first and to date its only written Constitution. Of course, it wouldn't have been created without the knowledge and consent of the person who was to be its nominated leader. Cromwell couldn't refuse leadership, so on 16 December 1653; Oliver Cromwell took the oath as Lord Protector. A new era was about to begin in a land still torn by political, social and religious differences and bitterness. ...read more. The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our AS and A Level British History: Monarchy & Politics section. Found what you're looking for? Start learning 29% faster today 150,000+ documents available BBC - iWonder - Was Oliver Cromwell the father of British democracy? Was Oliver Cromwell the father of British democracy? 1599 1658Cromwell's legacy A meteoric rise to the top Oliver Cromwell was a fanatical puritan who enforced the abolition of Christmas.

He rose from relative obscurity as an MP to become one of the most controversial figures in British history. Cromwell won the first civil war involving the whole of Britain and was the key figure in the execution of Charles I. Find out how a revolutionary who toppled a king, only to become a despot himself, paved the way for parliamentary democracy. 1599 An early religious radical Portraits showing Oliver Cromwell's wife Elizabeth and son Richard. Cromwell was born into a fairly wealthy family of landowners in Huntingdonshire. He was the only surviving son. His religious beliefs were shaped at school. He was influenced by his teacher, Thomas Beard, who wrote a well known puritanical book called The Theatre of God’s Judgement, which portrayed the Pope as the Antichrist. It likely made Cromwell more anti-Catholic. He studied briefly at Cambridge University, but chose sport over his books. After his father’s sudden death, Cromwell returned home to assume control of the house. 1628 Opposed to a despot Portrait of King Charles I by Sir Anthony Van Dyck. Cromwell became MP for Huntington. His first term in Parliament lasted less than a year, not enough time to make an impression.

King Charles I didn’t recall Parliament for another 11 years and Cromwell remained in obscurity. He became increasingly opposed to the King’s interpretation of Protestantism, which was at odds with his own austere puritan outlook. 1640 A radical, militant MP MPs who had supported the Scots rebels. Flight of the Five Members by John Seymour Lucas. When the King declared war on Scotland and was forced to recall parliament to raise taxes to pay for it, Cromwell became a leading opposition figure. He encouraged MPs to turn down the King’s request. Charles I responded by entering the House of Commons with troops to arrest five rebellious MPs, but they had already fled. A radical group formed with Cromwell as one of the leaders, which responded by demanding the surrender of much royal power to Parliament. Indignantly, Charles I refused. Britain was set on the path to civil war. 1644 Revered as a war hero Cromwell at the Battle of Marston Moor, 1644. Cromwell further established his military prowess at the Battle of Marston Moor, when Parliament took control of northern England for the first time. His horsemen broke the Royalist cavalry and successfully attacked their infantry from the rear.

Cromwell led from the front, even though he was injured in the neck. He returned to the battlefield to take part in the Parliamentarians' biggest victory to date. Now, Cromwell epitomised their cause. 1645 A supreme tactician You need to have JavaScript enabled to view this clip. Find out how the discipline of the New Model Army made it so effective. Clip from Roundhead or Cavalier: Which one are you? (BBC Four, 2012) Cromwell helped establish the New Model Army, for the first time a force recruited on merit, not social class - the basis of today's army. He introduced discipline into his troops, which allowed his officers to better control and direct their men. For the first time, the soldiers were paid their wages on a regular basis. The result was a loyal and dedicated army. The most feared section of the New Model Army was the ‘Ironsides’ cavalry. A devastatingly effective military force, it inflicted the Royalists’ biggest defeat at the Battle of Naseby in 1645. Within a year the Civil War was over and Charles I was under house arrest.

1649 Revenge became genocidal You need to have JavaScript enabled to view this clip. See how more butchery was unleashed, notably at Wexford, leaving an indelible mark on Anglo-Irish relations. Clip: Story of Ireland (BBC Two, 2011). The Royalists regrouped and allied with the rebellious Catholics in Ireland. They aimed to invade Britain and overthrow the parliamentary regime. Cromwell invaded Ireland and attacked a heavily fortified stronghold at Drogheda, on Ireland’s east coast. He stormed the city and slaughtered thousands – a bloody act, which he said was retribution for a Catholic massacre of Protestants in 1641. Cromwell returned to England and in 1651 crushed a Scottish invasion led by King Charles I’s son at the Battle of Worcester. Cromwell called it his ‘crowning victory’. Now Parliament had full control of the country. The man who could take Drogheda could take hell Sir Arthur Aston, Royalist commander of Drogheda 1653 Toppled any weakness Illustration of Oliver Cromwell ejecting the rump of the Long Parliament from the House of Commons.

After the fighting had ended, Cromwell turned his attention to replacing an English government he thought had become corrupt. He found a ‘Rump Parliament’ of MPs, who appeared determined to extend their rule indefinitely. Cromwell harangued them on the floor of the House of Commons for being self-serving and then his troops forcibly shut down Parliament. He replaced it with ‘the assembly of saints’, a nominated group of men he considered suitably puritan. But, when they too proved unsatisfactory, he had them removed as well. 1658 Cromwell's legacy The statue of Oliver Cromwell outside the Houses of Parliament. Cromwell died on September 3 of natural causes. An event still commemorated by the Cromwell Association. His son Richard inherited the title of Lord Protector, but he could not control the army. So in 1660 Charles I’s son was restored to the throne. When Charles II became King the British celebrated the end of Cromwell’s rule with arguably the biggest booze-up the country has ever seen. However the Restoration Settlement did not give back to the King financial control over the government and military. It was the start of the road to parliamentary democracy.

This was Cromwell’s greatest legacy, Oliver Cromwell, 17th century English soldier and statesman, (c1850). Pictures | Getty Images Oliver Cromwell, 17th century English soldier and statesman, (c1850). January 01, 1850 Licence Oliver Cromwell , 17th century English soldier and statesman, (c1850). Cromwell... Oliver Cromwell , 17th century English soldier and statesman, (c1850). Cromwell (1599-1658) commanded the forces of Parliament during the English Civil War. After the war England, Scotland and Ireland became a commonwealth. Cromwell was head of state as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth from 1653 until his death. Taken from the book Old England's Worthies, London, c1850. LessMore Biography of Oliver Cromwell » Biographies » Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell, 1599-1658 Rose from obscurity to become the most successful military and political leader of the Civil Wars.

Lord Protector of England from 1654-8, he was offered—and refused—the Crown itself. Oliver Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 and baptised at the church of St John four days later. He was the second son of the ten children of Robert Cromwell (d.1617) and Elizabeth Steward (d.1654). The family estate derived from Oliver's great-grandfather, Morgan Williams, a brewer from Glamorgan who settled at Putney in London. Williams married Katherine Cromwell, the sister of Thomas Cromwell, who became chancellor to Henry VIII. Through his association with Thomas Cromwell, Morgan Williams gained estates in Huntingdonshire after the confiscation of church lands at the Reformation. His son Richard changed the family name to Cromwell in honour of their benefactor. Oliver attended the free school attached to the hospital of St John in Huntingdon, where he was taught by Dr Thomas Beard, then spent a year at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. However, his university career was cut short by the death of his father in June 1617.

He returned home to manage his family estate and to look after his widowed mother and seven unmarried sisters. Militant Puritan In August 1620, Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665), daughter of Sir James Bourchier, a London merchant. The marriage was long and stable and produced nine children. Cromwell and his growing family settled in Huntingdon. Thanks to connections between the Cromwells and the powerful Montagu family, he was elected MP for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628 , where he became associated with the opposition to King Charles that culminated in the declaration of the Petition of Right in June 1628. At some time during the late 1620s, following a period of illness and depression, Cromwell experienced a profound spiritual awakening that left him with deep and uncompromising Puritan beliefs. In 1631, Cromwell's fortunes were in decline. He was forced to sell nearly all his property around Huntingdon and to lease a farmstead at St Ives, where he worked as a farmer for five years.

The tide turned in 1636 when Cromwell's childless and widowed maternal uncle Sir Thomas Steward died, leaving him a substantial inheritance, including a house next to St Mary’s Church in Ely and the position of collector of tithes in the two Ely parishes of St Mary's and Holy Trinity. Cromwell's improved social status and his connections with local Puritans led to his nomination as a freeman of the borough of Cambridge and election as MP for Cambridge in the two Parliaments of 1640. During the first week of the Long Parliament , he made a passionate speech that called attention to the injustice of the imprisonment of John Lilburne, and during the following month he was prominent in parliamentary attacks on episcopacy. Although he was not regarded as a fluent speaker, Cromwell's passion and sincerity gained him a reputation as a solid supporter of opposition leaders such as John Pym and Cromwell's own cousin, John Hampden. Cavalry Commander On the outbreak of the First Civil War in August 1642, Cromwell took up arms for Parliament.

He led one of the earliest military actions of the war when with 200 lightly-armed volunteers he prevented the King's men from carrying off the silver plate of the Cambridge colleges. Cromwell raised a troop of sixty horsemen and effectively secured Cambridgeshire for Parliament. In October 1642, Cromwell's troop joined the army of the Earl of Essex and was present during the later stages of the battle of Edgehill. The superiority of the Royalist horse impressed upon Cromwell the need for a well-trained Parliamentarian cavalry corps. Returning to East Anglia, he was careful to recruit only "godly, honest men" as his troopers and to lead them with firm discipline. His innate skills as a cavalry commander were in evidence at the skirmishing around Gainsborough in July 1643. Having helped to secure most of East Anglia for Parliament by the summer of 1643, Cromwell was appointed governor of Ely and promoted to colonel in the new Eastern Association army raised by the Earl of Manchester . Detail from Cromwell at Marston Moor by Ernest Crofts Rising to prominence in the Eastern Association, Cromwell attained the rank of lieutenant-general of horse in January 1644.

He played a major role in Parliament's victory at Marston Moor , where his troopers routed both Prince Rupert's and Lord Goring's cavaliers. Rupert himself is said to have coined the name "Ironside" for Cromwell, which became popular with the army and was extended to his regiment. However, Cromwell's encouragement of religious zealots among his officers and men drew criticism from Major-General Crawford , a Scottish Presbyterian attached to the Eastern Association. Cromwell became increasingly critical of the leadership of the Earl of Manchester, and denounced him before the House of Commons in November 1644 for his unwillingness to take decisive action against the Royalists. A leading supporter of the Self-Denying Ordinance , Cromwell was one of the few Members of Parliament exempted from resigning his commission in the army under its terms. He was officially appointed lieutenant-general of horse under Sir Thomas Fairfax in the New Model Army just before the decisive Parliamentarian victory at the battle of Naseby in June 1645, during which Cromwell routed Langdale's Northern Horse and rallied the Ironsides for a charge against the Royalist infantry that decided the outcome of the battle.

Despite having no military training or experience prior to 1642, Cromwell was generally regarded as one of the greatest soldiers in England by the time he and Fairfax received the surrender of Oxford in June 1646. Army Grandee Cromwell supported the Agitators in the conflict between the Army and Parliament of 1647. He was a firm advocate of parliamentary authority but he lost patience with those Presbyterian MPs who seemed willing to risk another civil war rather than settle the soldiers' grievances honourably. Acting independently of Fairfax, and in close association with his son-in-law Henry Ireton , he used the threat of military force to oust the Presbyterian Eleven Members from the House of Commons in August 1647. However, Cromwell opposed Leveller demands for manhood suffrage ("one man, one vote") and other social and political reforms. He tried to adopt a conciliatory attitude towards the King, proposing to restore him to power in the interests of achieving a peaceful settlement. This alienated radicals in the Army and in Parliament, who came to regard Cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by his own self-interest.

In any case, Cromwell's attempts to secure a peaceful settlement were frustrated by the King's refusal to compromise and by his negotiations to bring a Scottish army into England, thus provoking another civil war. The Second Civil War When war broke out In 1648, Cromwell marched to crush a Royalist uprising in South Wales while Fairfax dealt with the Royalists in Kent and Essex. Cromwell then went north to take command of Parliament's forces against the Duke of Hamilton's Engager army and their English Royalist allies. In August 1648, Cromwell led a daring campaign that resulted in the total defeat of the Scots at the battle of Preston . He then marched into Scotland and negotiated with the Marquis of Argyll to remove all Engagers and Royalist sympathisers from office in Scotland. Cromwell was in the north clearing up the last Royalist military resistance during the dramatic events of November and December 1648, when Ireton and the council of officers resolved to prosecute King Charles, the "Man of Blood". Cromwell delayed his return to London until the day after the Army's enemies in Parliament had been ejected in Pride's Purge.

He claimed to have known nothing of the design, but nevertheless expressed his approval of the purge. Having realised at last that Charles could not be trusted, and recognising that the Army was determined to avenge itself upon the King, Cromwell became a relentless supporter of the King's trial and subsequent execution in January 1649. He had come to believe that regicide was an act of justice and the will of God. Ireland and Scotland Cromwell in Ireland 1649-50 In 1649, Cromwell suppressed the Leveller mutinies in the New Model Army and prosecuted John Lilburne , whom he held personally responsible for the unrest amongst the soldiery. After meticulous preparations, Cromwell then took the army to Ireland (1649-50) where Royalist supporters of the Stuart dynasty had formed an alliance with the Irish Confederates. Cromwell's Irish campaign was a military success, and by the time he returned to England in May 1650, the provinces of Ulster, Leinster and Munster were substantially under the control of the English Commonwealth.

However, Cromwell's reputation was indelibly stained by notorious massacres that took place during the attacks on Drogheda and Wexford in the autumn of 1649, which have lived on in Irish folk memory, making his name into one of the most hated in Irish history. When Charles II was proclaimed King of Scots in Edinburgh with the support of the Covenanters , Fairfax declined to lead an army of invasion into Scotland and resigned his commission. Cromwell was appointed Captain-General and commander-in-chief of the Army in his place and marched into Scotland in July 1650. Although initially outmanoeuvred by Alexander Leslie, he succeeded in defeating the Scots at the battle of Dunbar (3 September 1650), which is regarded as the greatest of Cromwell's victories. After spending nearly a year trying unsuccessfully to persuade the Covenanters that Charles II was an unsuitable king for a godly nation, Cromwell lured Charles and the Scots into an attempt to invade England. Cromwell pursued from the north and decisively defeated the Scots and Royalists at the battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the anniversary of Dunbar and the last major battle of the civil wars.

The Commonwealth After the execution of Charles I and the declaration of the republic in 1649, the English Commonwealth was governed by the so-called Rump Parliament and the Council of State . The Rump Parliament was regarded as an interim government and was expected to prepare for a permanent representative but divisions arose between factions in Parliament and in the Army over what form the new government should take. When the military campaigns in Ireland and Scotland were over, Army leaders became increasingly impatient over Parliament's lethargy in formulating the new representative. Although Cromwell attempted to moderate the Army's more extreme demands, he too finally lost patience. On 20 April 1653, he led a body of musketeers to Westminster and forcibly expelled the Rump Parliament . His exact reasons for doing so are unclear; he may have come to believe that Parliament was planning to perpetuate itself. There were no plans for an alternative government in place and Cromwell made no attempt to take power himself. The Rump Parliament was replaced by the Nominated Assembly , popularly known as "Barebone's Parliament", which first met in July 1653.

Cromwell regarded the Assembly as a "Parliament of Saints" and expected it to bring righteous, godly government to the Commonwealth. The Nominated Assembly was the most radical constitutional experiment of the 1650s, but the legal and ecclesiastical reforms it tried to introduce were regarded as too extreme by moderates. In December 1653—less than six months after its inauguration—moderates manoeuvred to dissolve the Assembly and to hand power over to Cromwell, whom they regarded as having granted it to them in the first place. Lord Protector Protectorate coat-of-arms Headed by Major-General Lambert , the council of officers proposed a new constitution. In discussions with the officers, Cromwell made it clear that he did not want to be made king. Seeking to maintain links with the ancient constitution yet distance himself from the disgraced monarchy, Cromwell proposed a revival of the title "Lord Protector", which had precedents going back to the 15th century. Under the terms of the Instrument of Government , executive power now passed to an elected Lord Protector advised by a Council of State.

Cromwell was declared Lord Protector for life and formally installed at Westminster Hall on 16 December 1653. His decision to accept the office of Protector alienated many republicans and religious radicals, who regarded it as a betrayal of the principles for which the civil wars had been fought. In April 1654, Cromwell moved into Whitehall Palace, the former residence of King Charles. No man rises so high as he who knows not whither he goes. Cromwell, as recorded in the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz Domestic Policy Despite opposition from many quarters, Cromwell held on to power throughout the 1650s by retaining the loyalty of the Army. He also tended to grant important positions in civil and military government to those with personal attachments to himself or who had reason to be grateful to him for their advancement. Senior army commands were granted to officers who had served with him during the civil wars, particularly those connected to his own family such as his son-in-law Charles Fleetwood and brother-in-law John Disbrowe . The dependence of the Protectorate régime upon a standing army in England, armies of occupation in Scotland and Ireland as well as a powerful navy led to unprecedented levels of taxation.

Despite an aggressive foreign policy, Cromwell gradually reduced army numbers and levels of taxation, but this was never enough to satisfy his critics or to deal with arrears of pay in the army and navy. Cromwell's overriding concern in domestic policy was the creation of a broadly-based national church with toleration of radical Protestant groups who remained outside it but were prepared to keep the peace. During the first year of the Protectorate, a central commission of clergy and laymen was established to examine candidates for the ministry ("Triers") and local commissions were appointed to eject ministers who proved unsuitable ("Ejectors"). Although Cromwell's religious policy made steady progress towards reconciliation among the Protestant sects, the emergence of the Quakers , who opposed all organised churches, was disruptive and alarming. Foreign Policy Within months of his inauguration as Protector, Cromwell negotiated a treaty to bring the first Anglo-Dutch war to an end, having never been in favour of war against a Protestant nation. However, his hopes of forming a grand alliance of the Protestant states of Europe came to nothing, and during 1654, Cromwell became involved in secret negotiations with the two great Catholic powers France and Spain.

The two nations were at war with one another and each sought an alliance with the Protectorate against the other. Cromwell finally opted for an alliance with France and secretly promoted the Western Design to attack Spanish colonies in the West Indies. The Anglo-Spanish War resulted in the seizure of Jamaica in 1655 and Dunkirk in 1658, but Cromwell's anti-Spanish foreign policy was criticised as damaging to English trade and commerce. Miltary Rule In September 1654, Cromwell summoned the First Protectorate Parliament , which was elected on a wider franchise than any previous parliament and which included MPs representing Scotland and Ireland at Westminster for the first time. Distrust between the Army leaders and civilian politicians became strikingly clear, however. Heated constitutional debates, amendments to the Instrument of Government aimed at strengthening Parliament's powers at the expense of the Protector's, and criticism of Cromwell's leadership by republican MPs prompted him to dissolve this Parliament at the earliest possible opportunity, in January 1655. Following the Royalist insurrections in March 1655 ( Penruddock's Uprising ), Cromwell felt obliged to impose direct military rule rather than attempt to govern through another civilian assembly.

He had already come to regard the failure of the Western Design in its principal objectives as a sign of God's displeasure at the nation's progress. Consequently, England and Wales were divided into twelve districts, each governed by a Major-General answerable directly to the Protector. The Major-Generals were charged not only with maintaining security but also with enforcing moral reform in the localities. The Rule of the Major-Generals proved deeply unpopular. Growing civilian disquiet and the need to finance military operations against Spain forced Cromwell to call the Second Protectorate Parliament in September 1656. Bowing to pressure from MPs who insisted that the Major-Generals were unconstitutional and against law and custom, Cromwell agreed to abolish the system in January 1657. “King in all but Name” 19th century engraving of Matthew Noble's statue of Cromwell The Protectorate gradually adopted the trappings of a monarchy. Cromwell was usually addressed as "your Highness" and by 1656 he was rewarding his loyal followers with knighthoods.

In February 1657, a group of MPs headed by Lord Broghill presented a new constitution known as The Humble Petition and Advice under which Cromwell was formally offered the crown. This was primarily an attempt to stabilise the constitution under a civilian-led style of government. Cromwell's powers would be limited as king because they would then be defined by precedent. Furthermore, since the offer came from an elected Parliament, there could be no further doubts regarding the legality of the Cromwellian régime. However, after much agonising and in the face of strong opposition from republicans and army leaders, Cromwell finally decided to reject the offer, saying "I will not build Jericho again". The Humble Petition was modified to remove references to the royal title and Cromwell was re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657. The installation ceremony was still reminiscent of a coronation, with Cromwell wearing a robe of purple velvet lined with ermine and carrying a golden sceptre. He took an adapted form of the royal coronation oath and left Westminster Hall in a coach of state amid cries of "God save the Lord Protector".

Under the revised Humble Petition, he was now allowed to name his own successor. Lacking only a crown, Cromwell was "King in all but name". In 1658, Cromwell convened an Upper House of Parliament in which his nominees sat as peers. Republicans regarded this as too similar to the former House of Lords and MPs questioned the titles, rights and legitimacy of the Upper House. Amid fears that elements of the army supported the republicans, Cromwell went in person to Westminster on 4 February 1658 and abruptly dissolved the Second Protectorate Parliament. Discouraged by his failure to settle the constitution or to reconcile the Puritan sects in a cohesive national church, Cromwell withdrew from public affairs. Over the next few months his health went into a sharp decline, exacerbated by the death from cancer of his daughter, Elizabeth, in August 1658. Death and Beyond During a bout of the recurring malarial fever that had afflicted him since the 1630s, Oliver Cromwell died at Whitehall on 3 September 1658—the anniversary of his victories at Dunbar and Worcester.

A violent storm wracked England during the night of his death, said by his enemies to be the Devil carrying away his soul. He was buried in Westminster Abbey with a funeral service based upon that of King James I. Oliver's eldest son Richard was nominated to succeed him, but the Protectorate had ended within a year of Oliver's death, to be followed in due course by the return of the Stuart monarchy. After the Restoration, a vengeful Parliament ordered the exhumation and posthumous execution of Cromwell's corpse, along with those of the prominent regicides, Ireton and Bradshaw. Their bodies were removed from their tombs and dragged to Tyburn gallows, where they were publicly hanged and beheaded on 30 January 1661, the twelfth anniversary of the execution of Charles I. The headless corpses were thrown into an unmarked pit, but the heads were displayed on spiked poles above Westminster Hall, where they remained for several decades. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Cromwell's head became a collector's curiosity and was sometimes put on public exhibition.

After scientific analysis confirmed that the head was probably genuine, it was finally interred in 1960 in the chapel of Cromwell's old college Sidney Sussex, Cambridge, its precise location undisclosed. Sources:

Question: Who became Lord Protector of England in 1653?
Answer: OLIVER CROMWELL