human skin | anatomy | Britannica.com Human skin freckle Human skin, in human anatomy, the covering, or integument , of the body’s surface that both provides protection and receives sensory stimuli from the external environment . The skin consists of three layers of tissue: the epidermis , an outermost layer that contains the primary protective structure, the stratum corneum; the dermis , a fibrous layer that supports and strengthens the epidermis; and the subcutis, a subcutaneous layer of fat beneath the dermis that supplies nutrients to the other two layers and that cushions and insulates the body. Animation and microphotography showing the skin’s three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutis. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Distinctive features The apparent lack of body hair immediately distinguishes human beings from all other large land mammals. Regardless of individual or racial differences, the human body seems to be more or less hairless, in the sense that the hair is so vestigial as to seem absent; yet in certain areas hair grows profusely.

These relatively hairy places may be referred to as epigamic areas, and they are concerned with social and sexual communication, either visually or by scent from glands associated with the hair follicles. Human skin, whose cells are generated continuously by the body, serves as a protective barrier … © MinuteEarth (A Britannica Publishing Partner) The characteristic features of skin change from the time of birth to old age. In infants and children it is velvety, dry, soft, and largely free of wrinkles and blemishes. Children younger than two years sweat poorly and irregularly; their sebaceous glands function minimally. At adolescence hair becomes longer, thicker, and more pigmented, particularly in the scalp, axillae, pubic eminence, and the male face. General skin pigmentation increases, localized pigmented foci appear mysteriously, and acne lesions often develop. Hair growth, sweating, and sebaceous secretion begin to blossom. As a person ages , anatomical and physiological alterations, as well as exposure to sunlight and wind, leave skin, particularly that not protected by clothing, dry, wrinkled, and flaccid. Overview of why skin ages.

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz Similar Topics human skeletal system Human skin, more than that of any other mammal , exhibits striking topographic differences. An example is the dissimilarity between the palms and the backs of the hands and fingers. The skin of the eyebrows is thick, coarse, and hairy; that on the eyelids is thin, smooth, and covered with almost invisible hairs. The face is seldom visibly haired on the forehead and cheekbones. It is completely hairless in the vermilion border of the lips, yet coarsely hairy over the chin and jaws of males. The surfaces of the forehead, cheeks, and nose are normally oily, in contrast with the relatively greaseless lower surface of the chin and jaws. The skin of the chest, pubic region, scalp, axillae, abdomen, soles of the feet, and ends of the fingers varies as much structurally and functionally as it would if the skin in these different areas belonged to different animals. Section through human skin and underlying structures. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The skin achieves strength and pliability by being composed of numbers of layers oriented so that each complements the others structurally and functionally.

To allow communication with the environment, countless nerves—some modified as specialized receptor end organs and others more or less structureless—come as close as possible to the surface layer, and nearly every skin organ is enwrapped by skeins of fine sensory nerves. The dermis The dermis makes up the bulk of the skin and provides physical protection. It is composed of an association of fibres, mainly collagen , with materials known as glycosaminoglycans , which are capable of holding a large amount of water, thus maintaining the turgidity of the skin. A network of extendable elastic fibres keeps the skin taut and restores it after it has been stretched. Human Skin: Fact or Fiction? The hair follicles and skin glands are derived from the epidermis but are deeply embedded in the dermis. The dermis is richly supplied with blood vessels, although none penetrates the living epidermis. The epidermis receives materials only by diffusion from below. The dermis also contains nerves and sense organs at various levels. Blood and lymph vessels Ringling Bros.

Folds Its Tent Human skin is enormously well supplied with blood vessels ; it is pervaded with a tangled, though apparently orderly, mass of arteries, veins, and capillaries. Such a supply of blood, far in excess of the maximum biologic needs of the skin itself, is evidence that the skin is at the service of the blood vascular system, functioning as a cooling device. To aid in this function, sweat glands pour water upon its surface, the evaporation of which absorbs heat from the skin. If the environment is cold and body heat must be conserved, cutaneous blood vessels contract in quick, successive rhythms, allowing only a small amount of blood to flow through them. When the environment is warm, they contract at long intervals, providing a free flow of blood. During muscular exertion, when great quantities of generated heat must be dissipated, blood flow through the skin is maximal. In addition to its control of body temperature , skin also plays a role in the regulation of blood pressure . Much of the flow of blood can be controlled by the opening and closing of certain sphincterlike vessels in the skin.

These vessels allow the blood to circulate through the peripheral capillary beds or to bypass them by being shunted directly from small arteries to veins. Human skin is permeated with an intricate mesh of lymph vessels . In the more superficial parts of the dermis, minute lymph vessels that appear to terminate in blind sacs function as affluents of a superficial lymphatic net that in turn opens into vessels that become progressively larger in the deeper portions of the dermis. The deeper, larger vessels are embedded in the loose connective tissue that surrounds the veins. The walls of lymph vessels are so flabby and collapsed that they often escape notice in specimens prepared for microscopic studies. Their abundance, however, has been demonstrated by injecting vital dyes inside the dermis and observing the clearance of the dye. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Because lymph vessels have minimal or no musculature in their walls, the circulation of lymph is sluggish and largely controlled by such extrinsic forces as pressure, skeletal muscle action, massaging, and heat. Any external pressure exerted, even from a fixed dressing, for example, interferes with its flow.

Since skin plays a major role in immunologic responses of the body, its lymphatic drainage is as significant as its blood vascular system. The skin surface The intact surface of the skin is pitted by the orifices of sweat glands and hair follicles—the so-called pores—and is furrowed by intersecting lines that delineate characteristic patterns. All individuals have roughly similar markings on any one part of the body, but the details are unique. The lines are oriented in the general direction of elastic tension. Countless numbers of them, deep and shallow, together with the pores, give every region of the body a characteristic topography . Like the deeper furrows and ridges on the palms and soles, the skin lines are mostly established before birth. The fine details of each area of body surface are peculiar to each individual. Fingerprints are used as a means of personal identification because they have a high relief, more evident patternings, and can be easily obtained. Some of the lines on the surface of the skin are acquired after birth as a result of use or damage. For example, furrows on the forehead are an accentuation of preexisting congenital lines that become strongly emphasized in old age.

As the skin becomes less firm with aging, it also forms wrinkles. Certain occupations leave skin marks that, depending upon duration and severity, may be transient or permanent. The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are etched by distinct alternating ridges and grooves that together constitute dermatoglyphics . The ridges follow variable courses, but their arrangement in specific areas has a consistent structural plan. Though apparently continuous, the ridges have many interruptions and irregularities, branching and varying in length. Every small area of surface has ridge details not matched anywhere in the same individual or in any other individual, even in an identical twin. This infallible signature makes dermatoglyphics the best-known physical characteristic for personal identification. The epidermis Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies The epidermis is thicker on the palms and soles than it is anywhere else and is usually thicker on dorsal than on ventral surfaces. Omitting the fine details, it is divisible everywhere into a lower layer of living cells and a superficial layer of compact dead cells. General structure All the cells, living or dead, are attached to one another by a series of specialized surfaces called attachment plaques, or desmosomes.

Thus, instead of being completely fused, the membranes of adjacent cells make a zipperlike contact, with fluid-filled spaces between the contact areas. This structural pattern ensures a concatenation of cells to one another so that they cannot be sloughed off easily; at the same time, it allows nutrient fluids to seep in from the vessels in the dermis. Epidermal cells, which multiply chiefly at the base in contact with the dermis, gradually ascend to the surface, manufacturing keratin as they go. They finally die in the upper part, forming a horny layer. The epidermis is thickest on friction surfaces and thinnest over the eyelids, on the lower parts of the abdomen, and around the external genitalia. Unlike that of most other mammals, it has an intricately sculptured underside and does not lie flat upon the dermis. Seen from beneath, there are straight and branching ridges and valleys, columns and pits, all finely punctuated. Because of this unevenness, it is almost impossible to state the exact thickness of epidermal tissue. Furthermore, individual differences, sex, and age have an enormous influence on the structure of the underside.

Such labyrinthine patterns give human epidermis two unique advantages: it attains a more intimate connection with the subjacent dermis than if the surface were flat, and its source of dividing cells, the building blocks of the horny layer, is greatly increased. Major layers The clear stratification of the epidermis is the result of well-defined changes in its major constituent cells—the keratinocytes, or corneocytes—as they move peripherally from the basal layer, where they are continuously formed by mitosis , to the skin surface, where they are lost. In essence, the epidermis consists of a living malpighian layer, in contact with the basement membrane (which is attached to the dermis), and a superficial cornified (horny) layer of dead cells. The malpighian layer consists of both the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum of the epidermis. Trending Topics Eyjafjallajökull volcano The innermost cells of the malpighian layer, next to the basement membrane, make up the basal layer, or stratum basale. Immediately peripheral to the basal layer is the spinous, or prickle-cell, layer—the stratum spinosum.

Its cells have a spiny appearance due to the numerous desmosomes on their surface. Studies with the electron microscope have revealed that desmosomes are symmetrical, laminated structures in which some layers are contributed by the plasma membranes of adjoining cells and some form an intercellular component. The spinous layer is succeeded by the granular layer, or stratum granulosum, with granules of keratohyalin contained in the cells. These small particles are of irregular shape and occur in random rows or lattices. The cells of the outer spinous and granular layers also contain much larger, lamellated bodies—the membrane-coating granules. They are most numerous within the cells of the spinous layer. In the granular layer they appear to migrate toward the periphery of each cell and to pass into the intercellular spaces, where they discharge their waxy lipid components. Peripheral to the granular layer is the stratum corneum, or horny layer, in which the keratinocytes have lost their nuclei and most of their organelles and contents, including the keratohyalin granules. They become progressively flattened and filled with keratin and are ultimately desquamated.

Between the granular layer and stratum corneum, an unstainable stratum lucidum, or hyaline layer , can be recognized in palmar and plantar epidermis and some other regions (palmar and plantar refer to the palm surface of the hand and the bottom surface of the foot, respectively). Dynamics and organization Horizontal stratification is the most obvious histological feature of the epidermis. There is also, however, distinct evidence of vertical organization. In thin epidermis, though not in thick plantar skin, the cornified cells can be shown to be arranged in regular stacks, which must reflect the underlying dynamic mechanisms. It appears that several living spinous cells are precisely and symmetrically stacked beneath each cornified column and that these are related to their own basal cells; cells do not pass from one stock to another. All keratinocytes are formed by mitosis (cell division) in the lower region of the malpighian layer. Most of the dividing cells are found in the basal layer, although it is likely that about one-third of the divisions occur above this level.

Proliferating cells undergo a cycle: mitosis is followed by an interphase, this in turn is followed by a phase of DNA synthesis, and then another short resting phase occurs before mitosis begins again. The complete mitotic cycle takes about 12 to 19 days. The time for the passage of cells through the epidermis, from formation to desquamation, has been variously estimated at one to three months. In normal skin the production and loss of cells must be finely balanced; otherwise the thickness of the epidermis would fluctuate. When the epidermis becomes abnormally thick, as in the plaques of psoriasis, this balance is altered. Either the production of cells in the malpighian layer must be abnormally high or their time of passage must be decreased. It is now generally agreed that such conditions result from a greatly increased production of cells; in fact, the cells move more, not less, rapidly through the epidermis. There is, however, a further controversial problem. If all the basal cells were continuously cycling, greater production could be achieved only by a substantial reduction in the duration of the cell cycle.

An alternative hypothesis is that not all the cells are undergoing cycles at any one time, so that greater cell production can be achieved by recruiting resting cells into activity. It seems likely that the epidermis does indeed contain noncycling cells, which can become activated, and that the cell cycle in psoriatic epidermis is speeded up only about twofold, not twelvefold, as once proposed. When skin is wounded, there is a burst of epidermal mitotic activity about 40 hours later. It is evident, therefore, that local mechanisms of control must come into play; either inhibitors are dispersed by wounding, or stimulating hormones are released, or both. There is, on the one hand, some evidence of the existence of inhibitors, or chalones, but they have not been characterized. On the other hand, an epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been isolated from the salivary glands of mice and its chemical structure determined (a single-chain, folded polypeptide with 53 amino acid residues and three intramolecular disulfide bonds).

It is not, however, extractable from skin, though the receptor protein to which it attaches in order to perform its action is present in many skin cells, and a closely similar molecule has been isolated from human urine . The keratin layer The final product of the epidermis is the keratin that packs the cornified cells. The term keratin is applied generally to the hard keratins of hair, horn, and nails, and to the soft keratin of the epidermis. They are all insoluble filamentous proteins, composed of polypeptide chains that are stabilized by links using two atoms of sulfur. The source of the keratin of the stratum corneum has been a subject of controversy; but it is now generally accepted that about a third of its total mass is made up of proteins synthesized in the granular layer and the remainder from so-called intermediate filaments, which are present in keratinocytes from the basal layer outward. The barrier that prevents water loss from the body is situated in the lower part of the horny layer.

In this region the spaces between the compacted layers of keratin-filled cells contain lamellae of lipid (wax) that has been formed within the membrane-coating granules of the live epidermal cells below. Pigmentation The human skin is variously coloured and shows remarkable individual variations even within racial groups. The appearance of the skin is partly due to the reddish pigment in the blood of the superficial vessels. In the main, however, it is determined by melanin , a pigment manufactured by dendritic cells called melanocytes , found among the basal cells of the epidermis. Their numbers in any one region of the body, which range from about 1,000 to more than 2,000 per square millimetre, are roughly the same within and between races. Colour differences are due solely to the amount of melanin produced and the nature of the pigment granules. When the skin becomes tanned on exposure to sunlight, the melanocytes do not increase in number, only in activity. All melanocytes, whether resident in the basal epidermis or in the matrix of the hair, have migrated there during embryonic life from a region known as the neural crest.

Each epidermal melanocyte is associated with a group of neighbouring keratinocytes into which it transfers granules of pigment by way of long, branching dendrites. The whole has been termed an epidermal melanocyte unit. Once inside the epidermal cells, the melanin granules tend to move above the nucleus, forming a shroud over it. Such an orientation of melanin suggests that it is there to protect the cells from damaging ultraviolet rays, and experiments with tissue cultures support this view. Melanin is of two kinds: dark brown eumelanin and pale red or yellowish phaeomelanin. Both are formed within the melanocytes by the initial oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine with the aid of the enzyme tyrosinase; subsequently their synthetic pathways diverge. In addition to protecting the skin from ultraviolet radiation , epidermal pigmentation forms epigamic markings. The heavy pigmentation of the nipples and areolae of breasts, as well as that in the labia minora, penis, and scrotum, is related to sexual communication.

Immunoregulation and Langerhans cells Although synthesis of protective keratin is clearly a major function of the epidermis, the discovery of an immunoregulatory role for the epidermis has revolutionized concepts of its importance in the immune defense systems of the host. In addition to melanocytes, human epidermis contains another system of dendritic cells , which do not manufacture pigment. Their distribution extends farther toward the skin surface than that of the pigment cells. After their discovery by the German physician Paul Langerhans in 1868, their function remained obscure until it was realized that they are a vital part of the immunologic mechanism. Electron microscopic examination has revealed that the morphological hallmark of the Langerhans cell is a unique tennis-racket-shaped organelle, the Birbeck granule. Langerhans cells can be looked upon as “sentinel” cells of the immune system. By virtue of their situation, they are among the first cells to come into contact with foreign particulate substances encountering the skin. Their function is aided by the large surface area created by the dendritic processes of the cell.

By means of specialized receptors on the cell membrane, the Langerhans cell recognizes invading as opposed to host molecules. By conveying this information to the lymphoid system, the body is able to mount a defensive immunologic response to the foreign material. The concept that the role of keratinocytes themselves is confined to the synthesis of a horny protective outer covering for the skin has also become outmoded. Keratinocytes secrete a number of immunostimulatory high-molecular-weight peptides, collectively termed epidermal cytokines. One of these, the epidermal-cell-derived thymocyte-activating factor (ETAF), is also secreted by epidermal Langerhans cells. It has the function of enhancing the immune responsiveness of the lymphoid system as well as apparently being involved in the body’s systemic reaction to infection and injury. Because the whole blood volume circulates through the skin every few minutes, immunoregulatory substances released by the cells of the epidermis may have a profound influence on the body’s capacity to mount immune responses to viral or bacterial infections or to cancerous growths. Hair Human hair has little protective value, even in hirsute (excessively hairy) persons.

Eyelashes, eyebrows, and the hairs inside the external ears and nostrils have obviously useful functions, and scalp hair may be thick enough to provide some protection from the midday Sun. The beard and mustache, though, are embellishments, which establish maleness and are likely to be concerned with sexual or social communication; and axillary and pubic hair probably form part of scent-disseminating mechanisms. Learn how human hair grows. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz An important role for hair, however, is its participation in the body’s sensory apparatus. All hair follicles are surrounded by sensory nerves, and pressure on the hair shaft is transmitted to these nerves. Other mammals, including subhuman primates, have highly specialized sensitive hair follicles around the eyes, lips, and muzzle. These produce “tactile” hairs, known as vibrissae or whiskers, which are particularly large in nocturnal mammals. The follicles from which these hairs emerge are rich in nerves and are surrounded by a sinus filled with blood.

Humans are the only animals with no sinus hair follicles; but human hair follicles, particularly those of the face, are well supplied with nerves, and human skin is probably more sensitive than that of any other mammal. Hairs are manufactured by follicles. Essentially, these are tubelike pockets of the epidermis that extend through most or all of the depth of the skin and enclose a small papilla of dermis in their base. They lie at an angle to the skin surface. Two-thirds of the way up is a bulge, and attached to it are wisps of smooth muscle fibre that, on contracting, pull the follicle to a more or less perpendicular position. This action also puckers the skin into a mound on the surface—a so-called goose pimple. Exactly as in other mammals, the human hair is formed by division of cells in the region known as the bulb, at the base of the follicle. Pigment is incorporated from melanocytes in this region. Human hair follicles also go through cycles of activity. After a period of growth, the hair becomes clubbed, rather than cylindrical, in shape. Fibrous rootlets anchor the club to the surrounding follicular tissue.

While forming the club, the follicle shrivels up, the lower part becoming largely dissipated. A resting follicle can be recognized at once by the clubbed hair and by the follicle’s short size and unique structure. Follicles remain dormant for variable periods of time. When they become active again, they reconstruct a bulb that manufactures a new hair. As the new hair works its way to the surface, the club hair is loosened from its moorings and shed. The activity of the hair follicles in the scalp is not synchronized, so that there is a small but steady molt of about 50 to 100 hairs a day from a total of around 150,000 follicles. There is, nevertheless, evidence of seasonal fluctuation, with the greatest hair loss in late summer and fall. A follicle may continue its activity for a long time, and hairs sometimes grow for several years and attain considerable lengths. Even in the human scalp—where the hair follicles are dense and vigorously productive—baldness occurs in a large number of individuals.

Baldness is not a disease but is a systematic involution of hair follicles, culminating in organs similar to the primitive embryonic follicles; the numbers of follicles do not necessarily diminish. Until late in fetal life there is no line of demarcation between the forehead and scalp. After the fifth month of gestation the follicles in the rest of the scalp grow larger, but those of the forehead do not. After birth the hairs on the forehead become even smaller and nearly invisible. The hairline of newborn infants is usually indistinct; the familial hairline pattern is defined late in childhood through a process that is identical with that of baldness. When male-pattern baldness sets in, in the late 20s or earlier, the follicles affected undergo exactly the same changes as do those that establish the hairline. Male-pattern baldness and its female equivalent, which is usually more diffuse, are hereditary conditions. In males this type of baldness is believed to arise from defects in the hair stem cells, which are located in the hair bulb and eventually mature into progenitor hair cells that then develop into mature hairs.

Paradoxically, since male hormones ( androgens ) stimulate the growth of most other hair, this type of baldness occurs only if androgens are present. Hairs vary in colour, diameter, and contour . The different colours result from variations in the amount, distribution, and type of melanin pigment in them, as well as from variations in surface structure that cause light to be reflected in different ways. Hairs may be coarse or so thin and colourless as to be nearly invisible. Straight hairs are round, while wavy hairs are alternately oval and round; very curly and kinky hairs are shaped like twisted ribbons. Human hair grows at the rate of about one-third of a millimetre a day, and once keratinized it is inert. If the colour or shape of a hair is altered as it is formed, several days must elapse before the effect becomes visible. Hairs become white with aging because of the failure of the melanocytes to inject pigment into the cells as they are formed. Tales of hair becoming white overnight may perhaps arise from cases of rapid differential shedding of pigmented hairs from a mixed population of white and dark ones, but the suggestion that individual dark hairs can somehow rapidly turn white is not true.

The beard and mustache are the most obvious examples of hair that requires male sex hormones, or androgens, for its growth. Facial hairs begin to develop at puberty , about two years after the start of pubic hair growth. The rate of growth of the beard initially increases with age but levels out after 35. Hair on the chest—a traditional sign of masculinity—and that on the limbs are also androgen-dependent. Androgens cause longer hairs to be formed, partly by making them grow faster, but mainly by increasing the length of anagen, the growing phase. Fully formed hairs on the thigh are over three times longer in young men than in women; and the duration of anagen is around 54 days in males, compared with 22 days in females. Pubic and axillary hair are also dependent on androgens, but they differ from other body hair in that they are luxuriant in females as well as in males. Their growth requires lower levels of hormone. The lower triangle of pubic hair is present in persons with a rare disease known as male pseudohermaphroditism.

These individuals are genetic males who remain female in form until puberty because they lack an enzyme necessary to bind two atoms of hydrogen to the male hormone testosterone, which is responsible for male sex characteristics. Since persons with male pseudohermaphroditism lack facial hair, even when adults, it seems that beard growth requires the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone but that pubic hair growth does not. Sebaceous glands The sebaceous glands are usually attached to hair follicles and pour their secretion, sebum , into the follicular canal. In a few areas of the body, disproportionately large sebaceous glands are associated with very small hair follicles; in other areas there are glands that are altogether free of follicles. The outstanding feature of sebaceous glands is their holocrine mode of secretion, involving complete disintegration of the sebaceous cells. The glands consist of a series of lobes, or acini, each with a duct running toward the main sebaceous duct. The cells are generated by cell division around the periphery of each lobe. As they move toward the centre of the lobe and toward the duct, they synthesize and accumulate fat globules and become progressively larger and distorted.

Ultimately they disintegrate to form the secretion. Human sebum is a complex mixture of lipids—triglyceride fats (57.5 percent), wax esters (26 percent), squalene (12 percent), cholesterol esters (3 percent), and cholesterol (1.5 percent). The triglycerides are largely hydrolyzed by bacteria by the time the sebum reaches the skin surface, so that about a third of the surface fat consists of free fatty acids. The activity of the sebaceous glands is mainly controlled by androgens. The glands are quite large at birth because of the influence of maternal hormones during development, but they regress soon afterward. They become active again at, or somewhat in advance of, the first signs of puberty. Their rate of secretion is a little higher in adult men than in women, and it falls off gradually with age in both sexes. It is very low in eunuchs (castrated males) but has been shown to increase when they are treated with androgens.

That other factors—for example, pituitary hormones—may also influence secretion is suggested by the observation that sebum production is abnormally high in acromegaly, a disorder resulting from excessive secretion of growth hormone. The function of sebum has been greatly debated. Some scientists have theorized that it is important as an emollient to prevent too rapid loss of water from the superficial layers of the stratum corneum; others have held that it is a functionless product of now useless, or vestigial, organs. Yet humans have more and larger glands than most mammals, and there is a specific plan in their distribution: they are largest and most numerous on the face and around the anogenital surfaces. The skin around the nose, mouth, and forehead and over the cheekbones has beds of gigantic glands, the secretion of which keeps these surfaces constantly oily. The sebaceous glands evenly spaced in rows at the border of the eyelids—the meibomian glands —are so large that they are easily seen with the naked eye when the eyelids are everted. The glands on the genitalia produce copious amounts of sebaceous matter called smegma.

Only humans have rich populations of sebaceous glands on the hairless surfaces of the lips; these glands increase in number and size as persons mature. The inside of the cheeks also has many large sebaceous glands, and occasionally there are glands even on the gums and tongue. It seems highly unlikely, then, that sebum is functionless. While its significance is certainly not established, it is possible that it is concerned with subtle chemical communication by smell or taste. Such a function would bring human beings into line with other mammals. Sweat glands Sweat glands are coiled tubes of epidermal origin, though they lie in the dermis. Their secretory cells surround a central space, or lumen, into which the secretion is extruded. There are two distinct types: eccrine glands open by a duct directly onto the skin surface; apocrine glands usually develop in association with hair follicles and open into them. Most other mammals have numerous apocrine glands in the hairy skin; eccrine glands are usually absent from the hairy skin and limited to friction surfaces. In nonhuman primates there is a tendency for the number of eccrine sweat glands over the body to increase in progressively advanced animals at the same time that the number of apocrine glands becomes reduced.

Prosimians (primitive primates, such as lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers) have only apocrine glands in the hairy skin; eccrine glands begin to appear in some of the higher forms. The great apes either have equal numbers or have more eccrine than apocrine glands. Humans have the most eccrine glands, with apocrine glands restricted to specific areas. Strictly speaking, apocrine glands have nothing to do with sweating. They appear late in fetal development (5 to 51/2 months) nearly everywhere on the body. Most of these rudiments disappear within a few weeks except in the external ear canals, in the axillae, on the nipples of the breasts, around the navel, and on the anogenital surfaces; single glands may be found anywhere. From this, one might speculate that the ancestors of humans had apocrine glands widely distributed over the body, and the embryonic rudiments may be reminders of the history of a once widespread organ system. Where they appear, the apocrine glands are large and numerous.

In the axilla they are so large that the coils press upon each other, forming adhesions and cross-shunts of such complexity that the glands are more spongy than tubular. The complex of these large apocrine glands commingled with an equal number of eccrine sweat glands in the axilla composes what is known as the axillary organ, one of the most characteristic features of human skin. Other than humans, only chimpanzees and gorillas have axillary organs. In spite of their large size, apocrine glands secrete only small amounts of a milky, viscid fluid—pale gray, whitish, yellow, or reddish—which contributes very little to axillary sweat. If eccrine glands were not there, the axillae would be relatively dry. The odour of axillary secretion becomes more intense as it is decomposed by bacteria. Although axillary odours frequently seem unpleasant, they are not invariably so. The odour of individual human beings comes mostly from apocrine secretion, with some contribution from sebum. Since the body odours of all other animals have a social or sexual significance, it can be assumed that this is the archetypal purpose of apocrine secretion, even in humans.

The view that the axillary organs are scent glands is supported by the finding that androsterones—the compounds that are responsible for the odour of the boar to which the sow responds—also occur in human axillary secretions. Humans have 2,000,000 to 5,000,000 eccrine sweat glands, with an average distribution of 150 to 340 per square centimetre. They are most numerous on the palms and soles and then, in decreasing order, on the head, trunk, and extremities. Some individuals have more glands than others, but there is no difference in number between men and women. The specific function of sweat glands is to secrete water upon the surface so that it can cool the skin when it evaporates. The purpose of the glands on the palms and soles, however, is to keep these surfaces damp, to prevent flaking or hardening of the horny layer, and thus to maintain tactile sensibility. A dry hand does not grip well and is minimally sensitive.

The eccrine glands, then, can be divided into those that respond to thermal stimulation, the function of which is thermoregulation, and those that respond to psychological stimuli and keep friction surfaces moist. This makes a clear-cut distinction between the glands on the hairy surfaces and those on the palms and soles. In addition to thermal and psychological sweating, some individuals sweat on the face and forehead in response to certain chemical substances. The glands on the palms and soles develop at about 3 1/2 months of gestation, whereas those in the hairy skin are the last skin organs to take shape, appearing at five to 5 1/2 months, when all the other structures are already formed. This separation of events over time may represent a fundamental difference in the evolutionary history of the two types of glands. Those on palms and soles, which appear first and are present in all but the hooved mammals, may be more ancient; those in the hairy skin, which respond to thermal stimuli, may be more recent organs. The sweat glands in the hairy skin of subhuman primates possibly function subliminally, although they are structurally similar to those of humans. The skin of monkeys and apes remains dry even in a hot environment.

Profuse thermal sweating in humans, then, seems to be a new function. Eccrine sweat glands respond to a variety of drugs with different properties. They often respond differently in different individuals under nearly identical conditions and sometimes even respond inconsistently in the same individual. Notwithstanding these apparent vagaries, the eccrine glands function continuously, although their secretion may be imperceptible. Sweating is essential for keeping the human body from becoming overheated. Nails A major characteristic of primates is that their fingers and toes terminate in nails rather than in claws. One can speculate that the development of nails into flattened plates reflects the discontinuation of their use for digging or for defending and attacking. In a broad sense, nails are analogous to hair, having similar composition (keratin) and some common structural features. Even their genesis and mode of growth are comparable, but not identical, to those of hair. Although apparently simple structures, nails are formed by complex and still poorly understood structural entities referred to as nail organs. Unlike hair, nails grow continuously, with no normal periods of rest; if their free edges were protected from wear, they would extend to prodigious lengths, growing in a twisted fashion like a ram’s horns.

Nails grow about 0.1 millimetre per day, or roughly one-third as rapidly as hair. Growth is somewhat slower in winter than in summer and slower in infants and old people than in vigorous young adults. It requires about three months for a whole nail to replace itself. A number of factors can alter normal nail growth, among them age, trauma, poisons, and organic disorders. Habitual nail biting speeds up growth, and certain occupational practices can cause an increase in thickness. The nail-forming organ is particularly sensitive to physiological changes. During stressful periods or prolonged fever, or in response to noxious drugs, nails may become cracked, thinner, thicker, furrowed, or otherwise deformed, or they may be shed. Such sensitivity of response should make nails relatively good indexes of the health of individuals. But because of their ready response to so many internal and external factors, and because changes in them often occur without a known reason, signs of abnormality can be misleading or difficult to interpret. Like hair, the visible part of the nail plate is a dead structure. Defects inflicted upon it by mechanical means that do not disturb the underlying living tissue are eventually cast off at the free border.

Nails have a root, buried beneath the skin; a plate that is firmly attached to a nail bed underneath; and a free edge. Depending upon its thickness and the quality of its surface, the nail plate may be pink or whitish; the nail itself is translucent and colourless, allowing the colour of the blood in the superficial capillaries of the nail bed to show through. At its base the nail plate may have a whitish, arched marking called a lunule. Always present on thumbnails, lunules may be present or absent on the other fingers and are nearly always absent on the little finger. There are variations in different individuals and even between the two hands of the same person; such variations are probably controlled by genetic factors. The nail itself consists of firmly cemented keratinized cells, flattened horizontally to the surface. Whereas the surface of nail plates may appear to be smooth, it is lined by parallel, longitudinal furrows, more strongly etched in some persons than in others and typically more prominent in the aged. These markings have some correspondence to the more pronounced grooves and ridges on the undersurface of the plate. Nails grow from a matrix at the base of the nail root.

During the early part of their journey, matrix cells multiply and move forward, synthesizing keratin, underneath the fold of skin (eponychium) at the base of the nail. Once exposed to the surface, the nail is fully formed. The nail plate seems to glide over the nail bed, but it is firmly attached to it; the entire tissue, nail bed and plate, most likely moves forward as a unit. The nail bed has often been called sterile matrix, since it adds little or nothing to the nail plate. Yet under certain pathologic conditions, it assumes keratinizing activities that result in a variably thickened or deformed nail plate. Although less effective than claws for digging or gouging, the flattened nail is still an excellent adaptation that has added much to the development of manipulative skills. Nails not only protect the tips of fingers but also give them firmness and the ability to pick up or make contact with minute objects. Claws would be useless for such functions. Cutaneous sense organs The skin has both free nerve endings and so-called corpuscular endings, which include nonnervous elements. The corpuscular endings are further differentiated as encapsulated or nonencapsulated receptors.

Free nerve endings occur in the epidermis, in the superficial dermis, where they are arranged in tufts, and in hair follicles. Merkel cells, which are found in the basal layer of the epidermis, are an example of nonencapsulated corpuscular receptors. The most striking example of an encapsulated receptor is the Pacinian corpuscle, an ovoid structure that is about one millimetre in length and lamellated in section, like an onion; these receptors can be found deep in the dermis. Various other dermal sense organs—for example, Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles, Krause end bulbs, Meissner corpuscles, and Ruffini endings—have also been described. It can easily be demonstrated that touch, cold, warmth, and pain are each perceived in separate points on the skin surface. The various end organs were at one time, therefore, somewhat arbitrarily assigned as monitors of one or another of these qualities. A difficulty was that many of the receptors are present only in glabrous skin, even though hairy skin in similarly perceptive. These earlier ideas were undoubtedly too simple, but electrophysiologists have confirmed the view that the various end organs respond to specific stimuli.

The functional existence of mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and pain receptors has been established, though only some of these can be identified with classical end organs. The Merkel cells and Ruffini endings, for example, are “slowly adapting” mechanoreceptors; while the Meissner, Pacinian, and Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles and the hair follicle receptors are “rapidly adapting” mechanoreceptors. Skin, Hair, and Nails Skin, Hair, and Nails La piel, el cabello y las uñas Your skin is your largest organ. If the skin of a typical 150-pound (68-kilogram) adult male were stretched out flat, it would cover about 2 square yards (1.7 square meters) and weigh about 9 pounds (4 kilograms). Skin protects the network of muscles, bones , nerves, blood vessels , and everything else inside our bodies. Eyelids have the thinnest skin, the soles of our feet the thickest. Hair is actually a modified type of skin. Hair grows everywhere on the human body except the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and lips.

Hair grows more quickly in summer than winter, and more slowly at night than during the day. Like hair, nails are a type of modified skin — and they're not just for beauty. Nails protect the sensitive tips of our fingers and toes. Human nails are not necessary for living, but they do provide support for the tips of the fingers and toes, protect them from injury, and aid in picking up small objects. Without them, we'd have a hard time scratching an itch or untying a knot. Nails can be an indicator of a person's general health, and illness often affects their growth. Skin Basics Skin is essential to a person's survival. It forms a barrier that prevents harmful substances and microorganisms from entering the body. It protects body tissues against injury. Our skin also controls the loss of life-sustaining fluids like blood and water, helps us regulate body temperature through perspiration, and protects us from the sun's damaging ultraviolet rays. Without the nerve cells in our skin, we couldn't feel warmth, cold, or other sensations.

Our skin can also respond to situations and emotions: Muscles in the skin called erector pili contract to make the hairs on our skin stand up straight (goosebumps) when we are cold or frightened — for insulation and protection. Every square inch of skin contains thousands of cells and hundreds of sweat glands, oil glands, nerve endings, and blood vessels. Skin is made up of three layers: the epidermis (pronounced: ep-ih-DUR-mis), dermis, and the subcutaneous (pronounced: sub-kyoo-TAY-nee-us) tissue. continue Skin Cells and Layers The upper layer of our skin, the epidermis, is the tough, protective outer layer. It is about as thick as a sheet of paper over most parts of the body. The epidermis has four layers of cells that are constantly flaking off and being renewed. In these four layers are three special types of cells: Melanocytes (pronounced: meh-LAH-nuh-sites) produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color. All people have roughly the same number of melanocytes; the more melanin that is produced, the darker the skin.

Exposure to sunlight increases the production of melanin, which is why people get suntanned or freckled. Keratinocytes (pronounced: ker-uh-TIH-no-sites) produce keratin, a type of protein that is a basic component of hair and nails. Keratin is also found in skin cells in the skin's outer layer, where it helps create a protective barrier. Langerhans (pronounced: LAHNG-ur-hanz) cells help protect the body against infection. Because the cells in the epidermis are completely replaced about every 28 days, cuts and scrapes heal quickly. Below the epidermis is the next layer of our skin, the dermis, which is made up of blood vessels, nerve endings, and connective tissue. The dermis nourishes the epidermis. Without certain molecules in the dermis, our skin wouldn't stretch when we bend or reposition itself when we straighten up. These two types of fibers in the dermis, collagen and elastin, help the skin stretch and reposition itself when we move. Collagen is strong and hard to stretch and elastin, as its name suggests, is elastic.

In older people, some of the elastin-containing fibers degenerate, which is one reason why the skin looks wrinkled (most wrinkles are caused by sun exposure, though!). The dermis also contains a person's sebaceous glands. These glands, which surround and empty into our hair follicles and pores, produce an oil called sebum (pronounced: SEE-bum) that lubricates the skin and hair. Sebaceous glands are found mostly in the skin on the face, upper back, shoulders, and chest. Most of the time, the sebaceous glands make the right amount of sebum. As a person's body begins to mature and develop during the teenage years, though, hormones stimulate the sebaceous glands to make more sebum. This can lead to acne when pores become clogged by too much sebum and too many dead skin cells. Later in life, these glands produce less sebum, which contributes to dry skin in older people. The bottom layer of our skin, the subcutaneous tissue, is made up of connective tissue, sweat glands, blood vessels, and cells that store fat. This layer helps protect the body from blows and other injuries and helps it hold in body heat.

There are two types of sweat-producing glands. The eccrine (pronounced: EH-krun) glands are found everywhere in our bodies, although they are mostly in the forehead, palms, and soles of the feet. By producing sweat, these glands help regulate body temperature, and waste products are excreted through them. The other type of sweat-producing gland, the apocrine glands, develop at puberty and are concentrated in the armpits and pubic region. The sweat from the apocrine glands is thicker than that produced by the eccrine glands. Although this sweat doesn't smell, when it mixes with bacteria on the skin's surface, it can cause body odor. A normal, healthy adult secretes about 1 pint (about half a liter) of sweat daily, but this may be increased by physical activity, fever, or a hot environment. previous continue Hair Basics The hair on our heads isn't just there for looks. It keeps us warm by preserving heat. The hair in our nose, ears, and around our eyes protects these sensitive areas of the body from dust and other small particles. Eyebrows and eyelashes protect our eyes by decreasing the amount of light and particles that go into them.

The fine hair that covers our bodies provides warmth and protects our skin. Hair also cushions the body against injury. Human hair consists of the hair shaft, which projects from the skin's surface, and the root, a soft thickened bulb at the base of the hair embedded in the skin. The root ends in the hair bulb. The hair bulb sits in a sac-like pit in the skin called the follicle, from which the hair grows. At the bottom of the follicle is the papilla, where hair growth actually takes place. The papilla contains an artery that nourishes the root of the hair. As cells multiply and produce keratin to harden the structure, they are pushed up the follicle and through the skin's surface as a shaft of hair. Each hair has three layers: the medulla at the center, which is soft; the cortex, which surrounds the medulla and is the main part of the hair; and the cuticle, the hard outer layer that protects the shaft. Hair grows by forming new cells at the base of the root. These cells multiply to form a rod of tissue in the skin. The rods of cells move upward through the skin as new cells form beneath them.

As they move up, they are cut off from their supply of nourishment and start to form a hard protein called keratin in a process called keratinization (pronounced: ker-uh-tuh-nuh-ZAY-shun). As this process occurs, the hair cells die. The dead cells and keratin form the shaft of the hair. Each hair grows about ¼ inch (about 6 millimeters) every month and keeps on growing for up to 6 years. The hair then falls out and another grows in its place. The length of a person's hair depends on the length of the growing phase of the follicle. Follicles are active for 2 to 6 years; they rest for about 3 months after that. A person becomes bald if the scalp follicles become inactive and no longer produce new hair. Thick hair grows out of large follicles; narrow follicles produce thin hair. The color of a person's hair is determined by the amount and distribution of melanin in the cortex of each hair (the same melanin that's found in the epidermis). Hair also contains a yellow-red pigment; people who have blonde or red hair have only a small amount of melanin in their hair.

Hair becomes gray when people age because pigment no longer forms. previous continue All About Nails Nails grow out of deep folds in the skin of the fingers and toes. As epidermal cells below the nail root move up to the surface of the skin, they increase in number, and those closest to the nail root become flattened and pressed tightly together. Each cell is transformed into a thin plate; these plates are piled in layers to form the nail. As with hair, nails are formed by keratinization. When the nail cells accumulate, the nail is pushed forward. The skin below the nail is called the matrix. The larger part of the nail, the nail plate, looks pink because of the network of tiny blood vessels in the underlying dermis. The whitish crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail is called the lunula. Fingernails grow about three or four times as quickly as toenails. Like hair, nails grow more rapidly in summer than in winter. If a nail is torn off, it will regrow if the matrix is not severely injured. White spots on the nail are sometimes due to temporary changes in growth rate. Skin Problems Some of the things that can affect the skin, nails, and hair are described below.

Dermatitis Medical experts use the term dermatitis (pronounced: dur-mah-TY-tus) to refer to any inflammation that might be associated with swelling, itching, and redness of the skin. There are many types of dermatitis, including: Atopic dermatitis is also called eczema . It's a common, hereditary dermatitis that causes an itchy rash primarily on the face, trunk, arms, and legs. It commonly develops in infancy, but can also appear in early childhood. It may be associated with allergic diseases such as asthma or food, seasonal, or environmental allergies. Contact dermatitis occurs when the skin comes into contact with an irritating substance or a substance that a person is allergic to. The best-known cause of contact dermatitis is poison ivy. But lots of other things cause contact dermatitis, including chemicals found in laundry detergent, cosmetics, and perfumes, and metals like jewelry, nickel plating on a belt buckle, or the back of the buttons on your jeans. Seborrheic dermatitis, an oily rash on the scalp, face, chest, and back, is related to an overproduction of sebum from the sebaceous glands. This condition is common in teens.

Bacterial Skin Infections Impetigo . Impetigo (pronounced: im-puh-TY-go) is a bacterial infection that results in a honey-colored, crusty rash, often on the face near the mouth and nose. Cellulitis . Cellulitis (pronounced: sell-yuh-LY-tus) is an infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue that typically occurs when bacteria are introduced through a puncture, bite, or other break in the skin. The affected area is usually warm and tender and has some redness. Streptococcal and staphylococcal infections. These two kinds of bacteria are the main causes of cellulitis and impetigo. Certain types of these bacteria are also responsible for distinctive rashes on the skin, including the rashes associated with scarlet fever and toxic shock syndrome . Fungal Infections Fungal Infections of the Skin and Nails Candidal dermatitis. A warm, moist environment, such as that found in the folds of the skin in the diaper area of infants, is perfect for growth of the yeast Candida. Yeast infections of the skin in older children, teens, and adults are less common. Tinea infection ( ringworm ).

Ringworm, which isn't a worm at all, is a fungus infection that can affect the skin, nails, or scalp. Tinea (pronounced: TIH-nee-uh) fungi can infect the skin and related tissues of the body. The medical name for ringworm of the scalp is tinea capitis; ringworm of the body is called tinea corporis; and ringworm of the nails is called tinea unguium. With tinea corporis, the fungi can cause scaly, ring-like lesions anywhere on the body. Tinea pedis ( athlete's foot ). This infection of the feet is caused by the same types of fungi (called dermatophytes) that cause ringworm. Athlete's foot is commonly found in adolescents and is more likely to happen during warm weather. Other Skin Problems Parasitic infestations. Parasites (usually tiny insects or worms) can feed on or burrow into the skin, often resulting in an itchy rash. Scabies and lice are examples of parasitic infestations. Both are contagious — meaning they can be easily caught from other people. Viral infections.

Many viruses cause characteristic rashes on the skin, including varicella (pronounced: var-ih-SEL-uh), the virus that causes chicken pox and shingles; herpes simplex, which causes cold sores; human papillomavirus (HPV), the virus that causes warts ; and a host of others. Acne (acne vulgaris). Acne is the single most common skin condition in teens. Some degree of acne is seen in 85% of adolescents, and nearly all teens have the occasional pimple, blackhead, or whitehead. Skin cancer. Skin cancer is rare in children and teens, but good sun protection habits established during these years can help prevent skin cancers like melanoma (pronounced: mel-uh-NO-ma, a serious form of skin cancer that can spread to other parts of the body) later in life, especially among fair-skinned people who sunburn easily. In addition to these diseases and conditions, the skin can be injured in a number of ways. Minor scrapes, cuts, and bruises heal quickly on their own, but other injuries — severe cuts and burns, for example — require medical treatment.

Disorders of the Scalp and Hair Tinea capitis, a type of ringworm, is a fungal infection that forms a scaly, ring-like lesion in the scalp. It's contagious and common among school-age children. Alopecia (pronounced: ah-luh-PEE-sha) is an area of hair loss. Ringworm is a common cause of temporary alopecia in children. Alopecia can also be caused by tight braiding that pulls on the hair roots (this condition is called traction alopecia). Alopecia areata (where a person's hair falls out in round or oval patches on the scalp) is a less common condition that can sometimes affect teens. Surface Area of Human Skin - The Physics Factbook Surface Area of Human Skin Standardized Result "You've an enormous surface (~400 m2, with skin merely ~2 m2)." 2 m2 Bender, Arnold E. & David A. Bender. Body Surface Area . A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. The surface area of adults is about 18,000 cm2 (men) or 16,000 cm2 (women).

1.6–1.8 m2 Davis, F.A. Tabler's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. F.A. Davis Company, 1993. "The surface area may be calculated by multiplying 0.007184 times the weight in kilograms raised to the 0.425 power and the height in centimeters raised to the 0.725 power." [Assume a height of 5'8" (170 cm) and a mass of 150 lb (68 kg).] 1.8 m2 M.J. Farabee. Integumentary System . Estrella Mountain Community College, 1992-2000. "The skin is the largest organ in the body: 12-15% of body weight, with a surface area of 1-2 [square] meters." 1–2 m2 Environmental Research Foundation. Dangers of Dioxin Exposures: Absorption Through the Skin . RACHEL's Hazardous Waste Newsletter. No. 120.

(RACHEL = Remote Access Chemical Hazards Electronic Library.) "In the past, the theory has been that the skin (which has a total area of 1.8 square meters in the adult human) has served as a passive barrier to chemicals." 1.8 m2 The human body's largest organ is the skin. Skin protects body tissues against injuries and helps regulate body temperature by making the pores larger or smaller. The nerves in skin receive the stimuli that are then interpreted by the brain as touch, heat, and cold. Skin is composed of three layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fatty tissue. The interface between the epidermis and dermis is extremely irregular and consists of a succession of papillae, or fingerlike projections, which are smallest where the skin is thin and longest in the skin of the palms and soles. The papillae of the palms and soles are associated with elevations of the epidermis, which produce ridges that are the basis for fingerprint identification. Subcutaneous fatty tissue is the deepest layer of the skin. It is composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, and fat cells.

This layer binds the skin to underlying structures, insulates the body from cold, and stores energy in the form of fat. The skin forms a protective barrier against the action of physical, chemical, and bacterial agents on the deeper tissues and contains the special end organs for the various sensations commonly grouped as the sense of touch. Through the activity of its sweat glands and blood vessels, it is important in maintaining body temperature. One square inch (6.5 square centimeters) of skin contains up to 4.5 m of blood vessels, which have as one of their functions the regulation of body temperature. The skin varies in thickness from 0.5 mm on the eyelids to 4 mm or more on the palms and soles. The surface area of skin, or body surface area, can be measured in several different ways, the simplest is probably the Mosteller formula. Formulas for Estimating Body Surface Area [m2]. Source: Halls , Vu , Current Source (Year) What is The Difference Between the Skin On Your Face and Your Body? | HowStuffWorks What is The Difference Between the Skin On Your Face and Your Body?

NEXT PAGENEXT Veer.com Your skin may cover your entire body, but its thickness varies, padding parts of your body more prone to wear and tear with thick skin and placing thinner skin on the parts of your body that take less of a beating. The skin on your face is thinner than the skin on your body, with the exception of the chest, and deserves a bit more TLC, according to Valerie Goldburt, MD, PhD, and dermatologist at Advanced Dermatology and the Center for Laser and Cosmetic Surgery . Here's how to care for skin on different areas of the body: Cleansing Zinc: Should it be in your face cream? Just as skin thickness varies, the number and size of hair follicles on the body differs, as do the number and size of sweat and oil glands. Hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands are called the skin appendages and are reservoirs of skin cells and oil that are important in protecting and healing your skin, says Deirdre Hooper, MD, dermatologist at Audubon Dermatology in New Orleans. Areas with more appendage concentration (like the face) heal more quickly and are more tolerant of injury than sites with fewer appendages, like the neck and chest.

When you treat the skin with potentially irritating products like retinoids and hydroxy acids, you may need a lower concentration on the body than you do on the face, she says. [source: Dr. Hooper] A standard gentle cleanser will keep skin on the body in good shape, whereas you may want more power with the more visible skin on your face. After moistening your face with lukewarm water, work your cleanser all over your face using your fingers. A washcloth is likely to be lurking with bacteria after a few uses so rubbing that germy cloth all over your face to cleanse it won't be doing your skin any favors. [source: YouBeauty.com ] Make sure your face-cleansing routine takes about a minute to ensure you did it thoroughly, then pat skin dry gently with a clean towel, advises Dr. Wechsler. Limit cleansing to once a day, before you're going to bed. Over-cleansing on your face and your body can dry out your skin and cause it to produce more oil to compensate, says Dr. Wechsler. [source: YouBeauty.com ] Moisturizing The trick is finding a moisturizer that works for the skin type on your face, says Dr. Goldburt.

You can use that lotion for the rest of your body if you'd like, because the skin on your face is typically the most sensitive. She says that often there isn't much, if any, difference between face moisturizers and body moisturizers from a company. "Most of it is just marketing," she says. There are heavier types of moisturizers that are hard to work into the face that are used for people with very dry skin. Usually pasty, thick and harder to work into your skin, these white creams are best used for skin surfaces that are particularly dry, like elbows, knees, and hands. It's unlikely you're going to want to use those thick white creams on your face, she says. [source: Dr. Goldburt] Dr. Goldburt says she uses Vaseline, Aquaphor or extra virgin olive oil on her face, but she also suggests pricier argan oil. As for moisturizing the skin on your body, it depends on how dry your skin is. "I like to use Eucerin Anti-Itch Cream on my body. But, ultimately, it doesn't matter too much if you're using your face lotion on your body," she says.

"You can put fragrance lotion on the body, but I wouldn't recommend putting it on your face, especially the eyelids, as they are very sensitive," Dr. Goldburt says. Using fragrance lotion on the face might cause you to break out even if it didn't cause that reaction elsewhere on the body. [source: Dr. Goldburt] Treating Acne Body breakouts may be more challenging to treat than acne on the face, especially if it occurs in hard-to-reach areas like the back, also known as "bacne." Some causes could be hanging out in sweaty clothes for too long after a workout, not wearing clothes made of breathable fabrics, or having a bag rubbing up against your shoulders or back. These habits can result in bacteria clogging hair follicles, leading to breakouts. [source: MensFitness.com and AcneSkinGuide.com ] If your back acne or body acne only occurs occasionally, your best solutions might be an over-the-counter body wash that contains benzoyl peroxide or salicylic acid. Use it daily and cleanse gently, as aggressive scrubbing may worsen acne. If your body breakouts don't clear up after a few weeks, see your dermatologist. They might prescribe stronger washes or topical treatments.

[source: About.com ] It's also important to use a daily moisturizer and sun protection year-round for any exposed areas to keep skin healthy, glowing and limit sun damage.. Adequate hydration and use of a broad-spectrum sunscreen will help the skin protect itself from free radicals and harmful ultraviolet radiation that cause skin damage, discoloration, premature wrinkles and even skin cancer." [source: American Academy of Dermatology ] 1

Question: Where in the human body would you find the thinnest skin?
Answer: Eyelids