The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 Dennis Gabor The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 Dennis Gabor Prize share: 1/1 The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 was awarded to Dennis Gabor "for his invention and development of the holographic method". Photos: Copyright © The Nobel Foundation Share this: To cite this page MLA style: "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 18 Jan 2017. < Dennis Gabor Dennis Gabor Dennis Gabor (1900 - 1979) Hungarian-born electrical engineer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1971 for his invention of holography, a system of lensless, three-dimensional photography that has many applications. A research engineer for the firm of Siemens and Halske in Berlin from 1927, Gabor fled Nazi Germany in 1933 and worked with the Thomson-Houston Company in England, later becoming a British subject.

In 1947 he conceived the idea of holography and, by employing conventional filtered-light sources, developed the basic technique. Because conventional light sources generally provided either too little light or light that was too diffuse, holography did not become commercially feasible until the demonstration, in 1960, of the laser, which amplifies the intensity of light waves. In 1949 Gabor joined the faculty of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, where in 1958 he became professor of applied electron physics. His other work included research on high-speed oscilloscopes, communication theory, physical optics, and television. Gabor was awarded more than 100 patents. Main Page | About Us | All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. Timeline of Nobel Prize Winners is not affiliated with The Nobel Foundation. A Special Thanks to the 3w-hosting.com for helping make this site a success. External sites are not endorsed or supported by Copyright © 2003 All Rights Reserved. Nobel Prize in Physics - 2 | Britannica.com Nobel Prize in Physics This general category includes a selection of more specific topics.

Displaying 1 - 100 of 202 results Abrikosov, Alexey A. Russian physicist, who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2003 for his pioneering contribution to the theory of superconductivity. He shared the award with Vitaly L. Ginzburg of Russia and Anthony J. Leggett of Great Britain. Abrikosov received doctorates... Akasaki Isamu Japanese materials scientist who was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize for Physics for inventing blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs), paving the way for future innovation. He shared the prize with Japanese materials scientist Amano Hiroshi and Japanese-born... Alferov, Zhores Soviet physicist who, with Herbert Kroemer and Jack S. Kilby, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2000 for their work that laid the foundation for the modern era of computers and information technology. Alferov received a doctorate in physics... Alfvén, Hannes astrophysicist and winner, with Louis Néel of France, of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1970 for his essential contributions in founding plasma physics—the study of plasmas (ionized gases).

Alfvén was educated at Uppsala University and in 1940 joined... Alvarez, Luis American experimental physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1968 for work that included the discovery of many resonance particles (subatomic particles having extremely short lifetimes and occurring only in high-energy nuclear collisions).... Amano Hiroshi Japanese materials scientist who was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs). He shared the prize with Japanese materials scientist Akasaki Isamu and Japanese-born American materials scientist Shuji Nakamura.... Anderson, Carl David American physicist who, with Victor Francis Hess of Austria, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1936 for his discovery of the positron, or positive electron, the first known particle of antimatter. Anderson received his Ph.D. in 1930 from the California... Anderson, Philip W. American physicist and corecipient, with John H. Van Vleck and Sir Nevill F. Mott, of the 1977 Nobel Prize for Physics for his research on semiconductors, superconductivity, and magnetism.

Educated at Harvard University, Anderson received his doctorate... Appleton, Sir Edward Victor British winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1947 for his discovery of the so-called Appleton layer of the ionosphere, which is a dependable reflector of radio waves and as such is useful in communication. Other ionospheric layers reflect radio waves... Bardeen, John American physicist who was cowinner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in both 1956 and 1972. He shared the 1956 prize with William B. Shockley and Walter H. Brattain for their joint invention of the transistor. With Leon N. Cooper and John R. Schrieffer... Barkla, Charles Glover British physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1917 for his work on X-ray scattering, which occurs when X-rays pass through a material and are deflected by the atomic electrons. This technique proved to be particularly useful in the...

Basov, Nikolay Gennadiyevich Soviet physicist, one of the founders of quantum electronics, and a corecipient of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1964, with Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov of the Soviet Union and Charles H. Townes of the United States, for research leading to the... Becquerel, Henri French physicist who discovered radioactivity through his investigations of uranium and other substances. In 1903 he shared the Nobel Prize for Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie. He was a member of a scientific family extending through several generations,... Bednorz, J. Georg German physicist who, along with Karl Alex Müller, was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery of superconductivity in certain substances at temperatures higher than had previously been thought attainable. Bednorz graduated... Binnig, Gerd German-born physicist who shared with Heinrich Rohrer half of the 1986 Nobel Prize for Physics for their invention of the scanning tunneling microscope. (Ernst Ruska won the other half of the prize.) Binnig graduated from Johann Wolfgang Goethe University... Blackett, Patrick M.

S., Baron Blackett of Chelsea winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1948 for his discoveries in the field of cosmic radiation, which he accomplished primarily with cloud-chamber photographs that revealed the way in which a stable atomic nucleus can be disintegrated by bombarding... Bloch, Felix Swiss-born American physicist who shared (with E.M. Purcell) the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1952 for developing the nuclear magnetic resonance method of measuring the magnetic field of atomic nuclei. Bloch’s doctoral dissertation (University of Leipzig,... Bloembergen, Nicolaas Dutch-born American physicist, corecipient with Arthur Leonard Schawlow of the United States and Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn of Sweden of the 1981 Nobel Prize for Physics for their revolutionary spectroscopic studies of the interaction of electromagnetic... Bohr, Aage N. Danish physicist who shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for Physics with Ben R. Mottelson and James Rainwater for their work in determining the asymmetrical shapes of certain atomic nuclei. Bohr was educated at the University of Copenhagen, where he received...

Bohr, Niels Danish physicist who is generally regarded as one of the foremost physicists of the 20th century. He was the first to apply the quantum concept, which restricts the energy of a system to certain discrete values, to the problem of atomic and molecular... Born, Max German physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1954 with Walther Bothe for his probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. Born came from an upper-middle-class, assimilated, Jewish family. At first he was considered too frail to attend... Bothe, Walther German physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1954 with Max Born for his invention of a new method of detecting subatomic particles and for other resulting discoveries. Bothe taught at the universities of Berlin (1920–31), Giessen (1931–34),... Boyle, Willard physicist who was awarded, with American physicist George E. Smith, the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2009 for their invention of the charge-coupled device (CCD). They shared the prize with physicist Charles Kao, who discovered how light could be transmitted...

Bragg, Sir Lawrence Australian-born British physicist and X-ray crystallographer, discoverer (1912) of the Bragg law of X-ray diffraction, which is basic for the determination of crystal structure. He was joint winner (with his father, Sir William Bragg) of the Nobel Prize... Bragg, Sir William pioneer British scientist in solid-state physics who was a joint winner (with his son Sir Lawrence Bragg) of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1915 for his research on the determination of crystal structures. He was knighted in 1920. William Bragg came... Brattain, Walter Houser American scientist who, along with John Bardeen and William B. Shockley, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956 for his investigation of the properties of semiconductors—materials of which transistors are made—and for the development of the transistor.... Braun, Ferdinand German physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1909 with Guglielmo Marconi for the development of wireless telegraphy. Braun received his doctorate from the University of Berlin in 1872.

After appointments at Würzburg, Leipzig, Marburg, Karlsruhe,... Bridgman, Percy Williams American experimental physicist noted for his studies of materials at high temperatures and pressures. For his work he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1946. Bridgman was the son of a journalist. He entered Harvard University in 1900, receiving... Brockhouse, Bertram N. Canadian physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1994 with American physicist Clifford G. Shull for their separate but concurrent development of neutron- scattering techniques. Brockhouse was educated at the University of British Columbia... Broglie, Louis de French physicist best known for his research on quantum theory and for predicting the wave nature of electrons. He was awarded the 1929 Nobel Prize for Physics. Early life De Broglie was the second son of a member of the French nobility. From the Broglie... Chadwick, James English physicist who received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1935 for the discovery of the neutron. Chadwick was educated at the University of Manchester, where he worked under Ernest Rutherford and earned a master’s degree in 1913.

He then studied... Chamberlain, Owen American physicist, who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1959 with Emilio Segrè for their discovery of the antiproton. This previously postulated subatomic particle was the second antiparticle to be discovered and led directly to the discovery of... Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan Indian-born American astrophysicist who, with William A. Fowler, won the 1983 Nobel Prize for Physics for key discoveries that led to the currently accepted theory on the later evolutionary stages of massive stars. Chandrasekhar was the nephew of Sir... Charpak, Georges Polish-born French physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1992 for his invention of subatomic particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. Charpak’s family moved from Poland to Paris when he was seven years old.... Cherenkov, Pavel Alekseyevich Soviet physicist who shared the 1958 Nobel Prize for Physics with fellow Soviet scientists Igor Y. Tamm and Ilya M. Frank for the discovery and theoretical interpretation of the phenomenon of Cherenkov radiation. A peasant’s son, Cherenkov graduated...

Chu, Steven American physicist who, with Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William D. Phillips, was awarded the 1997 Nobel Prize for Physics for their independent pioneering research in cooling and trapping atoms using laser light. He later served as secretary of energy... Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas British physicist, joint winner, with Ernest T.S. Walton of Ireland, of the 1951 Nobel Prize for Physics for pioneering the use of particle accelerators in studying the atomic nucleus. Educated at the University of Manchester and St. John’s College,... Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude French physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1997 with Steven Chu and William D. Phillips. They received the award for their development of techniques that use laser light to cool atoms to extremely low temperatures. At such temperatures... Compton, Arthur Holly American physicist and joint winner, with C.T.R. Wilson of England, of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 for his discovery and explanation of the change in the wavelength of X rays when they collide with electrons in metals. This so-called Compton... Cooper, Leon N.

American physicist and winner of the 1972 Nobel Prize for Physics, along with John Bardeen and John Robert Schrieffer, for his role in developing the BCS (for their initials) theory of superconductivity. The concept of Cooper electron pairs was named... Cornell, Eric A. American physicist who, with Carl E. Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2001 for creating a new ultracold state of matter, the so-called Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). After studying at Stanford University (B.S., 1985),... Cronin, James Watson American particle physicist, corecipient with Val Logsdon Fitch of the 1980 Nobel Prize for Physics for an experiment that implied that reversing the direction of time would not precisely reverse the course of certain reactions of subatomic particles.... Curie, Marie Polish-born French physicist, famous for her work on radioactivity and twice a winner of the Nobel Prize. With Henri Becquerel and her husband, Pierre Curie, she was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics. She was the sole winner of the 1911 Nobel...

Curie, Pierre French physical chemist, cowinner with his wife Marie Curie of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903. He and Marie discovered radium and polonium in their investigation of radioactivity. An exceptional physicist, he was one of the main founders of modern... Dalén, Nils Swedish engineer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1912 for his invention of the automatic sun valve, or Solventil, which regulates a gaslight source by the action of sunlight, turning it off at dawn and on at dusk or at other periods of darkness.... Davis, Raymond, Jr. American physicist who, with Koshiba Masatoshi, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2002 for detecting neutrino s. Riccardo Giacconi also won a share of the award for his work on X-rays. Davis received a Ph.D. from Yale University in 1942. After military... Davisson, Clinton Joseph American experimental physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1937 with George P. Thomson of England for discovering that electrons can be diffracted like light waves, thus verifying the thesis of Louis de Broglie that electrons behave both...

Dehmelt, Hans Georg German-born American physicist who shared one-half of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1989 with the German physicist Wolfgang Paul. (The other half of the prize was awarded to the American physicist Norman Foster Ramsey.) Dehmelt received his share of... Dirac, P. A. M. English theoretical physicist who was one of the founders of quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. Dirac is most famous for his 1928 relativistic quantum theory of the electron and his prediction of the existence of antiparticles. In 1933 he... Einstein, Albert German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th... Englert, François Belgian physicist who was awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize for Physics for proposing the existence of the Higgs field, which endows all elementary particles with mass through its interactions with them. He shared the prize with British physicist Peter Higgs,...

Esaki, Leo Japanese solid-state physicist and researcher in superconductivity who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1973 with Ivar Giaever and Brian Josephson. Esaki was a 1947 graduate in physics from Tokyo University and immediately joined the Kobe Kogyo... Fermi, Enrico Italian-born American scientist who was one of the chief architects of the nuclear age. He developed the mathematical statistics required to clarify a large class of subatomic phenomena, explored nuclear transformations caused by neutrons, and directed... Fert, Albert French scientist who, with Peter Grünberg, received the 2007 Nobel Prize for Physics for his independent codiscovery of giant magnetoresistance. Fert received master’s degrees in mathematics and physics from the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1962.... Feynman, Richard American theoretical physicist who was widely regarded as the most brilliant, influential, and iconoclastic figure in his field in the post-World War II era. Feynman remade quantum electrodynamics —the theory of the interaction between light and matter...

Fitch, Val Logsdon American particle physicist who was corecipient, with James Watson Cronin, of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1980 for experiments conducted in 1964 that disproved the long-held theory that particle interaction should be indifferent to the direction of... Fowler, William American nuclear astrophysicist who, with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983 for his role in formulating a widely accepted theory of element generation. Fowler studied at the Ohio State University (B.S., 1933) and at... Franck, James German-born American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1925 with Gustav Hertz for research on the excitation and ionization of atoms by electron bombardment that verified the quantized nature of energy transfer. Franck studied at the... Frank, Ilya Mikhaylovich Soviet winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1958 jointly with Pavel A. Cherenkov and Igor Y. Tamm, also of the Soviet Union. He received the award for explaining the phenomenon of Cherenkov radiation. After graduating from Moscow State University...

Friedman, Jerome Isaac American physicist who, together with Richard E. Taylor and Henry W. Kendall, received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1990 for their joint experimental confirmation of the fundamental particles known as quarks. Friedman was educated at the University... Gabor, Dennis Hungarian-born electrical engineer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1971 for his invention of holography, a system of lensless, three-dimensional photography that has many applications. A research engineer for the firm of Siemens and Halske in... Geim, Sir Andre physicist who was awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize for Physics for his experiments with graphene. He shared the prize with his colleague and former student Konstantin Novoselov. Geim held dual citizenship in the Netherlands and Great Britain. Geim received... Gell-Mann, Murray American physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics for 1969 for his work pertaining to the classification of subatomic particles and their interactions. Having entered Yale University at age 15, Gell-Mann received a B.S. in physics in 1948 and...

Gennes, Pierre-Gilles de French physicist, who was awarded the 1991 Nobel Prize for Physics for his discoveries about the ordering of molecules in liquid crystals and polymers. The son of a physician, Gennes studied at the École Normale Supérieure. He was employed as an engineer... Giacconi, Riccardo Italian-born physicist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2002 for his seminal discoveries of cosmic sources of X-rays, which helped lay the foundations for the field of X-ray astronomy. Raymond Davis, Jr., and Koshiba Masatoshi also won a share... Giaever, Ivar Norwegian-born American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1973 with Leo Esaki and Brian Josephson for work in solid-state physics. Giaever received an engineering degree at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim in 1952... Ginzburg, Vitaly Lazarevich Russian physicist and astrophysicist, who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2003 for his pioneering work on superconductivity. He shared the award with Alexey A. Abrikosov of Russia and Anthony J. Leggett of Great Britain.

Ginzburg was also noted for... Glaser, Donald A. American physicist and recipient of the 1960 Nobel Prize for Physics for his invention (1952) and development of the bubble chamber, a research instrument used in high-energy physics laboratories to observe the behaviour of subatomic particles. After... Glashow, Sheldon Lee American theoretical physicist who, with Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979 for their complementary efforts in formulating the electroweak theory, which explains the unity of electromagnetism and the weak force.... Glauber, Roy J. American physicist, who won one-half of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2005 for contributions to the field of optics, the branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of light and its interactions with matter. (The other half of the award... Gross, David J. American physicist who, with H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2004 for discoveries regarding the strong force —the nuclear force that binds together quarks (the smallest building blocks of matter) and holds...

Grünberg, Peter Czech-born German scientist who, with Albert Fert, received the 2007 Nobel Prize for Physics for his independent codiscovery of giant magnetoresistance. Grünberg completed his undergraduate studies in physics in 1962 at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University... Guillaume, Charles Édouard French physicist whose exhaustive studies of ferronickel alloys culminated in the discovery of invar (a nickel–steel alloy) and gained him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1920. In 1883 Guillaume joined the International Bureau of Weights and Measures,... Haldane, Duncan British-born American physicist who was awarded the 2016 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on explaining properties of one-dimensional chains of atomic magnets and of two-dimensional semiconductors. He shared the prize with British-born American physicists... Hall, John L. American physicist, who shared one-half of the 2005 Nobel Prize for Physics with Theodor W. Hänsch for their contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy, the use of lasers to determine the frequency (colour) of light emitted by atoms and molecules.... Hänsch, Theodor W.

German physicist, who shared one-half of the 2005 Nobel Prize for Physics with John L. Hall for their contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy, the use of lasers to determine the frequency (colour) of light emitted by atoms and molecules.... Haroche, Serge French physicist who was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize for Physics for devising methods to study the quantum mechanical behaviour of individual photons. He shared the prize with American physicist David Wineland. Haroche received degrees in physics in... Heisenberg, Werner German physicist and philosopher who discovered (1925) a way to formulate quantum mechanics in terms of matrices. For that discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for 1932. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built... Hertz, Gustav German physicist who, with James Franck, received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1925 for the Franck-Hertz experiment, which confirmed the quantum theory that energy can be absorbed by an atom only in definite amounts and provided an important confirmation... Hess, Victor Francis Austrian-born physicist who was a joint recipient, with Carl D.

Anderson of the United States, of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1936 for his discovery of cosmic rays —high-energy radiation originating in outer space. Educated at the University of Graz,... Hewish, Antony British astrophysicist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974 for his discovery of pulsars (cosmic objects that emit extremely regular pulses of radio waves). Hewish was educated at the University of Cambridge and in 1946 joined the radio astronomy... Higgs, Peter British physicist who was awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize for Physics for proposing the existence of the Higgs boson, a subatomic particle that is the carrier particle of a field that endows all elementary particles with mass through its interactions with... Hofstadter, Robert American scientist who was a joint recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1961 for his investigations of protons and neutrons, which revealed the hitherto unknown structure of these particles. He shared the prize with Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer of... Hooft, Gerardus ’t Dutch physicist, corecipient with Martinus J.G.

Veltman of the 1999 Nobel Prize for Physics for their development of a mathematical model that enabled scientists to predict the properties of both the subatomic particles that constitute the universe and... Hulse, Russell Alan American physicist who in 1993 shared the Nobel Prize for Physics with his former teacher, the astrophysicist Joseph H. Taylor, Jr., for their joint discovery of the first binary pulsar. Hulse studied at Cooper Union College in New York City (B.S., 1970)... Jensen, J. Hans D. German physicist who shared half of the 1963 Nobel Prize for Physics with Maria Goeppert Mayer for their proposal of the shell nuclear model. (The other half of the prize was awarded to Eugene P. Wigner for unrelated work.) After obtaining his Ph.D.... Josephson, Brian D. British physicist whose discovery of the Josephson effect while a 22-year-old graduate student won him a share (with Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever) of the 1973 Nobel Prize for Physics. At Trinity College, Cambridge, Josephson studied mathematics before...

Kajita Takaaki Japanese physicist who was awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the oscillations of neutrinos from one flavour to another, which proved that those subatomic particles have mass. He shared the prize with Canadian physicist Arthur B.... Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike Dutch winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1913 for his work on low-temperature physics and his production of liquid helium. He discovered superconductivity, the almost total lack of electrical resistance in certain materials when cooled to a temperature... Kao, Charles physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2009 for his discovery of how light can be transmitted through fibre-optic cables. He shared the prize with physicists Willard Boyle and George E. Smith, who won for their work in inventing the... Kapitsa, Pyotr Leonidovich Soviet physicist who invented new machines for liquefaction of gases and in 1937 discovered the superfluidity of liquid helium. He was a corecipient of the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature...

Kastler, Alfred French physicist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1966 for his discovery and development of methods for observing Hertzian resonances within atoms. In 1920 Kastler went to Paris to study at the École Normale Supérieure. After serving on the science... Kendall, Henry Way American nuclear physicist who shared the 1990 Nobel Prize for Physics with Jerome Isaac Friedman and Richard E. Taylor for obtaining experimental evidence for the existence of the subatomic particles known as quarks. Kendall received his B.A. from Amherst... Ketterle, Wolfgang German-born physicist who, with Eric A. Cornell and Carl E. Wieman, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2001 for creating a new ultracold state of matter, the so-called Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). In 1986 Ketterle received a Ph.D. from the University...

Klitzing, Klaus von German physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1985 for his discovery that under appropriate conditions the resistance offered by an electrical conductor is quantized; that is, it varies by discrete steps rather than smoothly and continuously.... Kobayashi Makoto Japanese scientist who was a corecipient, with Yoichiro Nambu and Maskawa Toshihide, of the 2008 Nobel Prize for Physics. Kobayashi and Maskawa shared half the prize for their discovery of the origin of broken symmetry, which created at least six quarks... Koshiba Masatoshi Japanese physicist who, with Raymond Davis, Jr., won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2002 for their detection of neutrino s. Riccardo Giacconi also won a share of the award for his work on the cosmic sources of X rays. Koshiba earned a Ph.D. from the... Kosterlitz, Michael British-born American physicist who was awarded the 2016 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in using topology to explain superconductivity in two-dimensional materials. He shared the prize with British-born American physicists David Thouless and Duncan...

Kroemer, Herbert German-born physicist who, with Zhores Alferov and Jack S. Kilby, was awarded the 2000 Nobel Prize for Physics for their work that laid the foundation for the modern era of microchips, computers, and information technology. After receiving a Ph.D. (1952)... Kusch, Polykarp German-American physicist who, with Willis E. Lamb, Jr., was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1955 for his accurate determination that the magnetic moment of the electron is greater than its theoretical value, thus leading to reconsideration of... History of Holography History of Holography By Mary Bellis "You can't predict the future but you can invent it" - Dennis Gabor Around 1947, Scientist Dennis Gabor developed the theory of holography while working to improve the resolution of an electron microscope . A holograph is an image made by exposing film to the interference pattern created when two laser light sources shine on an object. Must people think of a holograph as a three-dimensional image of an object. For his work Dennis Gabor won the Nobel Prize for physics in 1971.

Holovideo - Holograph TV In 1989, the MIT Spatial Imaging Group created a new visual medium called electro-holography capable of producing realistic 3-D holographic images in real time. Dennis Gabor | British engineer | Britannica.com British engineer John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh Dennis Gabor, (born June 5, 1900, Budapest , Hung.—died Feb. 8, 1979, London , Eng.), Hungarian-born electrical engineer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1971 for his invention of holography , a system of lensless, three-dimensional photography that has many applications. Dennis Gabor, 1969. Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images A research engineer for the firm of Siemens and Halske in Berlin from 1927, Gabor fled Nazi Germany in 1933 and worked with the Thomson-Houston Company in England , later becoming a British subject. In 1947 he conceived the idea of holography and, by employing conventional filtered-light sources, developed the basic technique.

Because conventional light sources generally provided either too little light or light that was too diffuse, holography did not become commercially feasible until the demonstration, in 1960, of the laser , which amplifies the intensity of light waves. In 1949 Gabor joined the faculty of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, where in 1958 he became professor of applied electron physics . His other work included research on high-speed oscilloscopes, communication theory, physical optics , and television. Gabor was awarded more than 100 patents. Learn More in these related articles: holography means of creating a unique photographic image without the use of a lens. The photographic recording of the image is called a hologram, which appears to be an unrecognizable pattern of stripes and whorls but which—when illuminated by coherent light, as by a laser beam —organizes the... laser a device that stimulates atoms or molecules to emit light at particular wavelengths and amplifies that light, typically producing a very narrow beam of radiation. The emission generally covers an extremely limited range of visible, infrared, or ultraviolet wavelengths. Many different types of...

in optics: Theory ...an intermediate record is made of the complex optical field associated with the object. The invention of the wave-front reconstruction process (now called holography) was first described in 1948 by Dennis Gabor, a Hungarian-born physicist, with a specific application in mind—to attempt to improve the resolution of images formed with electron beams. The technique has, however, had most of... 2 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted Reference holography (in holography ) (in optics: Theory ) External Links Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources.

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The most obvious is light which gives us the possibility to see and to be pleased by colour and shape. Sound conveys the speech with which we communicate with each other and it also allows us to experience the tone-world of music. Light and sound are wave motions which give us information not only on the sources from which they originate, but also on the bodies through which they pass, and against which they are reflected or deflected. But light and sound are only two examples of waves which carry information, and they cover only very small parts of the electromagnetic and acoustic spectra to which our eyes and ears are sensitive. Physicists and technologists are working continuously to improve and broaden the methods and instruments which give us knowledge about waves which lie outside our direct perception capacity. The electron microscope resolves structures which are a thousand times smaller than the wavelength of visible light. The photographic plate preserves for us a picture of a fleeting moment, which perhaps we may make use of over a long time period for measurements, or it transforms a wave-field of heat rays, X rays, or electron rays to a visible image. And yet, important information about the object is missing in a photographic image. This is a problem which has been a key one for Dennis Gabor during his work on information theory.

Because the image reproduces only the effect of the intensity of the incident wave-field, not its nature. The other characteristic quantity of the waves, phase, is lost and thereby the three dimensional geometry. The phase depends upon from which direction the wave is coming and how far it has travelled from the object to be imaged. Gabor found the solution to the problem of how one can retain a wave-field with its phase on a photographic plate. A part of the wave-field, upon which the object has not had an effect, namely a reference wave, is allowed to fall on the plate together with the wave-field from the object. These two fields are superimposed upon one another, they interfere, and give the strongest illumination where they have the same phase, the weakest where they extinguish each other by having the opposite phase. Gabor called this plate a hologram, from the Greek holos, which means whole or complete, since the plate contains the whole information. This information is stored in the plate in a coded form. When the hologram is irradiated only with the reference wave, this wave is deflected in the hologram structure, and the original object's field is reconstructed. The result is a three dimensional image.

Gabor originally thought of using the principle to make an electron microscope image in two steps: first to register an object's field with electron rays in a hologram, and then to reconstruct this with visible light to make a three dimensional image with high resolution. But suitable electron sources for this were not available, and also for other technical reasons the idea could not be tested. However, through successful experiments with light Gabor could show that the principle was correct. In three papers from 1948 to 1951 he attained an exact analysis of the method, and his equations, even today, contain all the necessary information. Holography, as this area of science is called, made its break-through when the tool, which had so far been missing, became available, namely the laser as a light source. The first laser was successfully constructed in 1960, and the basic ideas were rewarded by the 1964 Nobel Prize in physics . The laser generates continuous, coherent wave-trains of such lengths that one can reconstruct the depth in the holographic image. At about the same time a solution was discovered to the problem of getting rid of disturbing double images from the field of view.

A research group at Michigan University in the United States, led by Emmett Leith, initiated this development. The fascinated observer's admiration when he experiences the three dimensional space effect in a holographic image is, however, an unsufficient acknowledgement for the inventor. More important are the scientific and technical uses to which his idea has led. The position of each object's point in space is determined to a fraction of a light wave-length, a few tenthousandths of a millimetre, thanks to the phase in the wave-field. With this, the hologram has, in an unexpected way, enriched optical measurement techniques, and particularly interferometric measurements have been made possible on many objects. The shape of the object at different times can be stored in one and the same hologram, through illumination of it several times. When they are reconstructed simultaneously, the different wave-fields interfere with each other, and the image of the object is covered with interference lines, which directly, in light wavelengths, correspond to changes of shape between the exposures. These changes can also be, for example, vibrations in a membrane or a musical instrument.

Also, very rapid sequences of events, even in plasma physics, are amenable to analysis through hologram exposures at certain times with short light flashes from modern impulse lasers. Gabor's original thought to use different waves for both steps within holography, has been taken up in many connections. It is especially attractive to use ultra sound waves for exposures, so that, in the second step, a sound field is reconstructed in the shape of an optical image. Despite significant difficulties there is work, with a certain amount of progress, being done in this area. Such a method should be of value for medical diagnosis, since the deflected sound field gives different information from that in X ray radiography. Professor Gabor, You have the honour and pleasure to have founded the basic ideas of the holographic method. Through your work and assiduous contributions of ideas you continue to add to the development of this field, and this applies especially now that you have the freedom of a professor emeritus. Your activity as a writer on culture shows that you belong to the group of physicists and technologists who are concerned about the use or damage to which technical development can lead for mankind.

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences wishes to give you hearty congratulations, and I now ask you to receive the Nobel Prize in physics from the hand of His Majesty the King. From Les Prix Nobel en 1971, Editor Wilhelm Odelberg, [Nobel Foundation], Stockholm, 1972 Holography (Inventions) In Depth Tutorials and Information Holography (Inventions) The invention: A lensless system of three-dimensional photography that was one of the most important developments in twentieth century optical science.

The people behind the invention: Dennis Gabor (1900-1979), a Hungarian-born inventor and physicist who was awarded the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics Emmett Leith (1927- ), a radar researcher who, with Juris Upatnieks, produced the first laser holograms Juris Upatnieks (1936- ), a radar researcher who, with Emmett Leith, produced the first laser holograms Easter Inspiration The development of photography in the early 1900′s made possible the recording of events and information in ways unknown before the twentieth century: the photographing of star clusters, the recording of the emission spectra of heated elements, the storing of data in the form of small recorded images (for example, microfilm), and the photographing of microscopic specimens, among other things. Because of its vast importance to the scientist, the science of photography has developed steadily. An understanding of the photographic and holographic processes requires some knowledge of the wave behavior of light. Light is an electromagnetic wave that, like a water wave, has an amplitude and a phase.

The amplitude corresponds to the wave height, while the phase indicates which part of the wave is passing a given point at a given time. A cork floating in a pond bobs up and down as waves pass under it. The position of the cork at any time depends on both amplitude and phase: The phase determines on which part of the wave the cork is floating at any given time, and the amplitude determines how high or low the cork can be moved. Waves from more than one source arriving at the cork combine in ways that depend on their relative phases. If the waves meet in the same phase, they add and produce a large amplitude; if they arrive out of phase, they subtract and produce a small amplitude. The total amplitude, or intensity, depends on the phases of the combining waves. Dennis Gabor, the inventor of holography, was intrigued by the way in which the photographic image of an object was stored by a photographic plate but was unable to devote any consistent research effort to the question until the 1940′s. At that time, Gabor was involved in the development of the electron microscope.

On Easter morning in 1947, as Gabor was pondering the problem of how to improve the electron microscope, the solution came to him. He would attempt to take a poor electron picture and then correct it optically. The process would require coherent electron beams—that is, electron waves with a definite phase. This two-stage method was inspired by the work of Lawrence Bragg. Bragg had formed the image of a crystal lattice by diffracting the photographic X-ray diffraction pattern of the original lattice. This double diffraction process is the basis of the holographic process. Bragg’s method was limited because of his inability to record the phase information of the X-ray photograph. Therefore, he could study only those crystals for which the phase relationship of the reflected waves could be predicted. Waiting for the Laser Gabor devised a way of capturing the phase information after he realized that adding coherent background to the wave reflected from an object would make it possible to produce an interference pattern on the photographic plate. When the phases of the two waves are identical, a maximum intensity will be recorded; when they are out of phase, a minimum intensity is recorded.

Therefore, what is recorded in a hologram is not an image of the object but rather the interference pattern of the two coherent waves. This pattern looks like a collection of swirls and blank spots. The hologram (or photograph) is then illuminated by the reference beam, and part of the transmitted light is a replica of the original object wave. When viewing this object wave, one sees an exact replica of the original object. The major impediment at the time in making holograms using any form of radiation was a lack of coherent sources. For example, the coherence of the mercury lamp used by Gabor and his assistant Dennis Gabor The eldest son of a mine director, Dennis Gabor was born in 1900 in Budapest, Hungary. At fifteen, suddenly developing an intense interest in optics and photography, Gabor and his brother sent up their own home laboratory and experimented in those fields as well as with X rays and radioactivity. The love of physics never left him. Gabor graduated from the Berlin Technische Hochschule in 1924 and earned a doctorate of engineering in 1927 after developing a high-speed cathode ray oscillograph and a new kind of magnetic lens for controlling electrons.

After graduate school he joined Siemens and Halske Limited and invented a high-pressure mercury lamp, which was later used widely in street lamps. In 1933, Gabor left Germany because of the rise of Nazism and moved to England. He worked in industrial research until 1948, improving gas-discharge tubes and stereoscopic cinematography, but he also published scientific papers on his own, including the first of many on communications theory. At the beginning of 1949, Gabor became a faculty member of the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London, first as a reader in electronics and later as a professor of applied physics. During his academic years came more inventions, including the hologram, an electron-velocity spectroscope, an analog computer, a flat color television tube, and a new type of thermionic converter. He also build a cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles and used it to study electron interactions. As interested in theory as he was in applied physics, Gabor published papers on theoretical aspects of communications, plasma, magnetrons, and fusion.

In his later years he worried deeply about the modern tendency for technology to advance out of step with social institutions and wrote popular topics outlining his belief that social reform should be given priority. Gabor became a member of Britain’s Royal Society in 1956 and was awarded its Rumsford Medal in 1968. In 1971 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing holography. He died in London in 1979. Ivor Williams was so short that they were able to make holograms of only about a centimeter in diameter. The early results were rather poor in terms of image quality and also had a double image. For this reason, there was little interest in holography, and the subject lay almost untouched for more than ten years. Interest in the field was rekindled after the laser (/ight amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) was developed in 1962. Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks, who were conducting radar research at the University of Michigan, published the first laser holographs in 1963. The laser was an intense light source with a very long coherence length.

Its monochromatic nature improved the resolution of the images greatly. Also, there was no longer any restriction on the size of the object to be photographed. The availability of the laser allowed Leith and Upatnieks to propose another improvement in holographic technique. Before 1964, holograms were made of only thin transparent objects. A small region of the hologram bore a one-to-one correspondence to a region of the object. Only a small portion of the image could be viewed at one time without the aid of additional optical components. Illuminating the transparency diffusely allowed the whole image to be seen at one time. This development also made it possible to record holograms of diffusely reflected three-dimensional objects. Gabor had seen from the beginning that this should make it possible to create three-dimensional images. After the early 1960′s, the field of holography developed very quickly. Because holography is different from conventional photography, the two techniques often complement each other. Gabor saw his idea blossom into a very important technique in optical science. Impact The development of the laser and the publication of the first laser holograms in 1963 caused a blossoming of the new technique in many fields.

Soon, techniques were developed that allowed holograms to be viewed with white light. It also became possible for holograms to reconstruct multicolored images. Holographic methods have been used to map terrain with radar waves and to conduct surveillance in the fields of forestry, agriculture, and meteorology. By the 1990′s, holography had become a multimillion-dollar industry, finding applications in advertising, as an art form, and in security devices on credit cards, as well as in scientific fields. An alternate form of holography, also suggested by Gabor, uses sound waves. Acoustical imaging is useful whenever the medium around the object to be viewed is opaque to light rays—for example, in medical diagnosis. Holography has affected many areas of science, technology, and culture. See also Color film; Electron microscope; Infrared photography; Laser; Mammography; Mass spectrograph; X-ray crystallography.

Question: Who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1971 for the invention of holography?
Answer: Dennis Gabor