Aristotle - Ancient History Encyclopedia Aristotle by Joshua J. Mark published on 02 September 2009 Aristotle of Stagira was a Greek philosopher who pioneered systematic, scientific examination in literally every area of human knowledge and was known, in his time, as "the man who knew everything", and, later, as "The Philosopher" (so named by Aquinas who felt one needed no other). In the European Middle Ages he is referred to as "The Master" in Dante's Inferno. All of these epithets are apt in that Aristotle wrote on, and was considered a master in, disciplines as diverse as biology, politics, metaphysics, agriculture, literature , botany, medicine, mathematics, physics, ethics, logic, and the theatre. He is traditionally linked in sequence with Socrates and Plato in the triad of the three greatest Greek philosophers. Aristotle was born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Greece , on the border of Macedonia. His father, Nichomachus, was the court physician to the Macedonian king and died when Aristotle was ten years old.

His uncle assumed guardianship of the boy and, as a teenager, Aristotle was sent to Athens to study at Plato's Academy where he remained for the next 20 years. He was an exceptional student, graduated early, and was awarded a position on the faculty teaching rhetoric and dialogue. It appears that Aristotle thought he would take over the Academy after Plato's death and, when that position was given to Plato's nephew Speusippus, Aristotle left Athens to conduct experiments and study on his own in the islands of the Greek Archipelago. Aristotle's writings, like Plato's, have influenced virtually every avenue of human knowledge pursued in the west and the east. In 343 BCE Aristotle was summoned by King Philip II of Macedonia to tutor his son Alexander (who, of course, would become Alexander the Great ) and held this post for the next seven years, until Alexander ascended to the throne and began his famous conquests. The two men remained in contact through letters, and Aristotle's influence on the conqueror can be seen in the latter's skillful and diplomatic handling of difficult political problems throughout his career.

Alexander's habit of carrying books with him on campaign and his wide reading have been attributed to Aristotle's influence as has Alexander's appreciation for art and culture. Aristotle returned to Athens to set up his own school, The Lyceum, a rival to Plato's Academy. Aristotle was a Teleologist, an individual who believes in `end causes' and final purposes in life, and believed these `final purposes' could be ascertained from observation of the known world. Plato, who also dealt with final causes, considered them more idealistically and believed they could be known through apprehension of a higher, invisible, plane of truth he called the `Realm of Forms'. Aristotle could never accept Plato's Theory of Forms nor did he believe in positing the unseen as an explanation for the observable world when one could work from what one could see backward toward a First Cause. While Plato claimed that intellectual concepts of the Truth could not be gained from experience, Aristotle claimed that they could be and taught these precepts to his students at the Lyceum.

Aristotle's habit of walking back and forth as he taught earned the Lyceum the name of the Peripatetic School (from the Greek word for walking around, peripatetikos). His favorite student at the school was Theophrastus who would succeed Aristotle as leader of the Lyceum. Alexander and Aristotle - Livius Alexander and Aristotle Alexander was educated by the great philosopher Aristotle of Stagira . The school at Mieza can still be visited (a little to the east and below modern Naousa). The Greek author Plutarch of Chaeronea describes the school in sections 7-8 of his Life of Alexander . The translation was made by Mr. Evelyn and belongs to the Dryden series. Alexander and Aristotle [7.4] As a place for the pursuit of their studies and exercise, he assigned the temple of the Nymphs, near Mieza , where, to this very day, they show you Aristotle 's stone seats, and the shady walks which he was wont to frequent.

[7.5] It would appear that Alexander received from him not only his doctrines of Morals and of Politics, but also something of those more abstruse and profound theories which these philosophers, by the very names they gave them, professed to reserve for oral communication to the initiated, and did not allow many to become acquainted with. [7.6] For when he was in Asia, and heard Aristotle had published some treatises of that kind, he wrote to him, using very plain language to him in behalf of philosophy, the following letter. [7.7] Alexander to Aristotle, greeting. You have not done well to publish your books of oral doctrine; for what is there now that we excel others in, if those things which we have been particularly instructed in be laid open to all? For my part, I assure you, I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my power and dominion. Farewell.

[7.8] And Aristotle, soothing this passion for pre-eminence, speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these doctrines as in fact both published and not published: [7.9] as indeed, to say the truth, his books on metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless for ordinary teaching, and instructive only, in the way of memoranda, for those who have been already conversant in that sort of learning. [8.1] Doubtless also it was to Aristotle that he owed the inclination he had, not to the theory only, but likewise to the practice of the art of medicine. For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe them their course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may find in his epistles. [8.2] He was naturally a great lover of all kinds of learning and reading; and Onesicritus informs us that he constantly laid Homer 's Iliad , according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, called the casket copy, with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge.

[8.3] When he was in the upper Asia, being destitute of other books, he ordered Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him with Philistus' History, a great many of the plays of Euripides , Sophocles , and Aeschylus , and some dithyrambic odes, composed by Telestes and Philoxenus. [8.4] For a while he loved and cherished Aristotle no less, as he was wont to say himself, than if he had been his father, giving this reason for it, that as he had received life from the one, so the other had taught him to live well. [8.5] But afterwards, upon some mistrust of him, yet not so great as to make him do him any hurt, his familiarity and friendly kindness to him abated so much of its former force and affection, as to make it evident he was alienated from him. However, his violent thirst after and passion for learning, which were once implanted, still grew up with him, and never decayed. This page was created in 2000; last modified on 16 October 2016.

Alexander the Great Biography - family, children, parents, death, history, wife, mother, young, son Alexander the Great Biography Babylon Macedonian king Alexander the Great was one of the best-known rulers in ancient history. By the time of his death at thirty-two, he ruled the largest Western empire of the ancient world. Education by tutors Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. to King Philip II of Macedon (382–336 B.C.E. ) and Queen Olympias (375–316 B.C.E. ). Growing up, Alexander rarely saw his father, who was usually involved in long military campaigns. Olympias, a fierce and possessive mother, dominated her son's youth and filled him with a deep resentment of his father. Nonetheless, their son's education was important to both parents. Alexander the Great. One of Alexander's first teachers was Leonidas, a relative of Olympias, who struggled to control the defiant boy. Philip hired Leonidas to train the youth in math, archery, and horsemanship (the training and care of horses). Alexander's favorite tutor was Lysimachus. This tutor devised a game in which Alexander impersonated the hero Achilles.

Achilles was a heroic Greek warrior from a famous ancient poem called the Iliad. Achilles became the model of the noble warrior for Alexander, and he modeled himself after this hero. This game delighted Olympias because her family claimed the hero as an ancestor. In 343 Philip asked Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E. ), the famous Greek philosopher and scientist, to tutor Alexander. For three years in the rural Macedonian village of Mieza, Aristotle taught Alexander philosophy, government, politics, poetry, drama, and the sciences. Aristotle wrote a shortened edition of the Iliad, which Alexander always kept with him. Beginnings of the soldier Alexander's education at Mieza ended in 340 B.C.E. . While Philip was away fighting a war, he left the sixteen-year-old prince as acting king. Within a year Alexander led his first military attack against a rival tribe. In 338 he led the cavalry (troops who fight battles on horseback) and helped his father smash the forces of Athens and Thebes, two Greek city-states. Alexander's relationship and military cooperation with his father ended soon after Philip took control of the Corinthian League.

The Corinthian League was a military alliance made up of all the Greek states except for Sparta. Philip then married another woman, which forced Alexander and Olympias to flee Macedon. Eventually Philip and Alexander were reunited. Alexander as king In the summer of 336 B.C.E. at the ancient Macedonian capital of Aegai, Alexander's sister married her uncle Alexander. During this event Philip was assassinated by a young Macedonian noble, Pausanias. After his father's death Alexander sought the approval of the Macedonian army for his bid for kingship. The generals agreed and proclaimed him king, making Alexander the ruler of Macedon. In order to secure his throne, Alexander then killed everyone who could have a possible claim to the kingship. Although he was the king of Macedon, Alexander did not automatically gain control of the Corinthian League. Some Greek states rejoiced at Philip's murder, and Athens wanted to rule the League. Throughout Greece independence movements arose. Immediately Alexander led his armies to Greece to stop these movements. The Greek states quickly recognized him as their leader, while Sparta still refused to join. The League gave Alexander unlimited military powers to attack Persia, a large kingdom to the east of Greece.

Asian campaign In October 335 B.C.E. Alexander returned to Macedon and prepared for his Persian expedition. In numbers of troops, ships, and wealth, Alexander's resources were inferior to those of Darius III (380–330 B.C.E. ), the king of Persia. In the early spring of 334 Alexander's army met Darius's army for the first time. Alexander's army defeated the Persians and continued to move west. Darius's capital at Sardis fell easily, followed by the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus. The territories Alexander conquered formed the foundations of his Asian empire. By autumn 334 Alexander had crossed the southern coast of Asia Minor (now Turkey). In Asia Minor, Alexander cut the famous Gordian Knot. According to tradition, whoever undid the intricate Gordian Knot would become ruler of Asia. Many people began to believe that Alexander had godlike powers and was destined to rule Asia. Then in 333 Alexander moved his forces east and the two kings met in battle at the city of Issus. Alexander was outnumbered but used creative military formations to beat Darius's forces. Darius fled.

Alexander then attacked the Persian royal camp where he gained lots of riches and captured the royal family. He treated Darius's wife, mother, and three children with respect. With Darius's army defeated, Alexander proclaimed himself king of Asia. As a result of the defeat, Darius wanted to sign a truce with Alexander. He offered a large ransom for his family, a marriage alliance, a treaty of friendship, and part of his empire. Alexander ignored Darius's offer because he wanted to conquer all of Asia. Campaign in Egypt Alexander then pushed on into Egypt. Egypt fell to Alexander without resistance, and the Egyptians hailed him as their deliverer from Persian domination. In every country, Alexander respected the local customs, religions, and citizens. In Egypt he sacrificed to the local gods and the Egyptian priesthood recognized him as pharaoh, or ruler of ancient Egypt. They hailed Alexander as a god. Alexander then worked to bring Greek culture to Egypt. In 331 B.C.E. he founded the city of Alexandria, which became a center of Greek culture and commerce. More fighting in Persia In September 331 B.C.E. Alexander defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela.

The Persian army collapsed, and again Darius fled. Instead of chasing after him, Alexander explored Babylonia, which was the region that Darius had abandoned. The land had rich farmlands, palaces, and treasures. Alexander became "King of Babylon, King of Asia, King of the Four Quarters of the World." Alexander next set out for Persepolis, the capital of the Persian Empire. To prevent an uprising, Alexander burned Persepolis. In the spring of 330 he marched to Darius's last capital, Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). There Alexander set off in pursuit of Darius. By the time Alexander caught up with Darius in July 330, Darius's assistants had assassinated him. Alexander ordered a royal funeral with honors for his enemy. As Darius's successor, Alexander captured the assassins and punished them according to Persian law. Alexander was now the king of Persia, and he began to wear Persian royal clothing. As elsewhere, Alexander respected the local customs. Iran and India After defeating Darius, Alexander pushed eastward toward Iran. He conquered the region, built cities, and established colonies of Macedonians.

In the spring of 327 B.C.E. he seized the fortress of Ariamazes and captured the prince Oxyartes. Alexander married Oxyartes's daughter Rhoxana to hold together his Eastern empire more closely in a political alliance. In the summer of 327 Alexander marched toward India. In northern India, he defeated the armies of King Porus. Impressed with his bravery and nobility, Alexander allowed Porus to remain king and gained his loyalty. By July 325 the army continued north to the harsh and barren land in the Persian Gulf. The hardship and death that occurred after arriving brought disorganization to the army. It was also at this time that disorder began to spread throughout the empire. Alexander was greatly concerned with the rule of his empire and the need for soldiers, officers, and administrators. In order to strengthen the empire, Alexander then made an attempt to bind the Persian nobility to the Macedonians to create a ruling class. To accomplish this goal, he ordered eighty of his Macedonian companions to marry Persian princesses. Alexander, although married to Rhoxana, married Stateira, a daughter of Darius, to solidify his rule.

When Alexander incorporated thirty thousand Persians into the army, his soldiers grumbled. Later that summer, when he dismissed his aged and wounded Macedonian soldiers, the soldiers spoke out against Alexander's Persian troops and his Persian manners. Alexander arrested thirteen of their leaders and executed them. He then addressed the army and reminded his soldiers of their glories and honors. After three days the Macedonians apologized for their criticism. In a thanksgiving feast the Persians joined the Macedonians as forces of Alexander. Alexander's death In the spring of 323 B.C.E. Alexander moved to Babylon and made plans to explore the Caspian Sea and Arabia and then to conquer northern Africa. On June 2 he fell ill, and he died eleven days later. Alexander's empire had been a vast territory ruled by the king and his assistants. The empire fell apart at his death. The Greek culture that Alexander introduced in the East had barely developed. In time, however, the Persian and Greek cultures blended and prospered as a result of his rule. For More Information Briant, Pierre. Alexander the Great. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Green, Peter.

Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C. SparkNotes: Alexander the Great: Aristotle Alexander the Great Aristotle, page 2 page 1 of 2 When Alexander was thirteen, Philip, to this point not much involved in his son's upbringing, decided to choose a tutor for him. The result would become one of the most famous mentors-student relationships in history. Philip's reasons for choosing Aristotle were not purely academic. First, there was Aristotle's family connection: his father had served as court physician to an earlier Macedonian king. Moreover, Aristotle had previously served in the court of Hermeias in Atarneus, and an alliance there would be useful for Philip's plans to invade Persia. The position suited Aristotle as well. Not only did it offer a high honor and the chance to pursue his research under the most powerful of the Greek states, but it also gave him the opportunity to influence the development of that state's future leader. As the ultimate payment, Philip also restored Aristotle's native city of Stagira, which he had himself conquered years before.

Alexander's education took place in a setting removed from the capital city of Pella, in the more isolated village of Mieza, within the so-called Precinct of the Nymphs. In this rural seclusion, Alexander was joined by several of his most notable peers, some of them future kings themselves. At Alexander's departure, Philip urged his son to work hard and to learn to avoid repeating his father's mistakes. In response, Alexander rebuked his father for having had children by other women. In this regard, Alexander seems to have been troubled not so much by any moral compunction, but rather concerned for future conflicts over succession to his father's throne. Alexander's ambition was therefore evident even at this stage, if not earlier. Alexander's education was for the most part formal, not the kind of life training that we might envision in a mentor relationship. Rather, the curriculum consisted mainly of standard subjects such as poetry, rhetoric, geometry, astronomy, and eristics–the practice of arguing a point from either side. Alexander developed a particular interest in medicine–and not merely a theoretical interest, for he actually prescribed treatments for sick friends throughout his life.

When Alexander set off on his Asiatic invasion, he brought along with him a large group of zoologists and botanists, who returned with collected materials and information that would form the basis for several groundbreaking scientific works. Another of Alexander's favorite subjects was Greek poetry. He held an especially strong reverence for Homer, and he even saw the mythical Achilles as a model to follow in his own life. Though perhaps best known for his scientific treatises, Aristotle also published his Ethics and Politics, and his influence in these areas also reached Alexander. Aristotle asserted this influence particularly with regard to the so-called barbarians–a term that was used to characterize essentially all non-Greeks. Alexander himself was already passionately anti-Persian; and Aristotle provided him with the intellectual justifications for his fated and inherited mission. Aristotle believed that slavery was a natural institution, and that barbarians were by nature meant to be slaves. He therefore encouraged Alexander to be a leader to Greeks and a despot to barbarians, treating the former as friends and the latter as beasts. Aristotle saw barbarians as living only through and for their senses, incapable of rising above hedonism.

Alexander, in his desire to follow a heroic paradigm, naturally placed great value on honor, and with it the virtues of self-control and self-denial. Therefore, in his own life he ate sparingly, gave generously while keeping little for himself, and had a cautious attitude toward sex. In these respects, Aristotle's influence was likely essential, for he pushed Alexander along a path that diverged greatly from the more precarious model set by his father. 1 Alexander the Great [ushistory.org] 5g. Alexander the Great Alexander the Great was so impressed by the Indian use of elephants in battle, that he immediately enlisted them into his army. Elephants were particularly effective against horses, which would often bolt away in fear at the presence of the enormous beasts. Was Alexander the Great really great? A great conqueror, in 13 short years he amassed the largest empire in the entire ancient world — an empire that covered 3,000 miles. And he did this without the benefit of modern technology and weaponry. In his day, troop movements were primarily on foot, and communications were face to face. Not bad for a kid who became the King of Macedon at the age of 20.

Many of Alexander's accomplishments were made possible by his father, Philip of Macedon. Macedon, which existed roughly where the modern country of Macedonia lies today, was a kingdom located that lay geographically north of the Greek city-states. Alexander's the Great's tutor was the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In 338 B.C.E., King Philip of Macedon invaded and conquered the Greek city-states. Philip took advantage of the fact that the Greek city-states were divided by years of squabbling and infighting. Philip succeeded in doing what years of fighting between city-states had not done. He united Greece. Conquering the World Philip's next goal was to defeat Greece's age-old enemy to the east: Persia. For years, the massive Persian Empire threatened the very existence of the Greek way of life. But before he was able to pursue his second goal, Philip was assassinated. This map shows Alexander the Great's massive empire and the route he took to conquer it. When his son, Alexander, took the throne in 336 B.C.E., he vowed to complete the plans of his father.

In 334 B.C.E., Alexander invaded Persia, which lay across the Aegean Sea in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After three grueling years of warfare and three decisive battles, Alexander smashed the Persian armies at the Tigris River and conquered the mighty Persian Empire, including the legendary city of Babylon. For many Greeks, this victory marked a moment of sweet revenge against a bitter foe. (© 2000 by John J. Popovic, 1stMuse.com) Alexander was an amazing soldier who led his army to conquer much of the known world. At this point, at the age of 25, Alexander ruled an expansive empire. Nevertheless, his ambitions were not satisfied. While fighting the Persians, Alexander conquered Egypt and founded a city at the mouth of the Nile River. This city, which he named Alexandria after himself, became a cosmopolitan, diverse, bustling center of trade, the arts, and ideas. But Alexander was not done. He continued his campaign, driving farther east, until he reached India and the Indus River in 326 B.C.E. At this point, his exhausted troops refused to fight further.

They told Alexander that a truly great leader knows when it is time to stop fighting. Without the support of his army, Alexander had no choice but to turn back and begin consolidating and organizing his far-flung empire. On his way home, Alexander died from disease in 323 B.C.E. Though he was an unquestionably skilled and highly respected military leader, Alexander the Great was feared by those around him for his paranoia and dangerous temper. Alexander in Hindsight Alexander the Great's legacy is both far reaching and profound. First, his father was able to unite the Greek city-states, and Alexander destroyed the Persian Empire forever. More importantly, Alexander's conquests spread Greek culture, also known as Hellenism, across his empire. In fact, Alexander's reign marked the beginning of a new era known as the Hellenistic Age because of the powerful influence that Greek culture had on other people. Without Alexander's ambition, Greek ideas and culture might well have remained confined to Greece. Many historians see Alexander the Great in a different light. Although Alexander was both intelligent and handsome, he also had a darker side. He possessed a ferocious temper and from time to time would arbitrarily murder close advisors and even friends.

Also, toward the end of his many campaigns, he senselessly slaughtered thousands whose only crime was being in his way. Was Alexander the Great really great? Aristotle - definition of Aristotle by The Free Dictionary Aristotle - definition of Aristotle by The Free Dictionary Ar·is·tot·le (ăr′ĭ-stŏt′l) 384-322 bc. Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. aristotle 2.

old-fashioned the buttocks or anus [rhyming slang; in sense 2, shortened from bottle and glass arse] Aristotle (ˈærɪˌstɒtəl) n (Biography) 384–322 bc, Greek philosopher; pupil of Plato, tutor of Alexander the Great, and founder of the Peripatetic school at Athens; author of works on logic, ethics, politics, poetics, rhetoric, biology, zoology, and metaphysics. His works influenced Muslim philosophy and science and medieval scholastic philosophy Aristotle (ˈærɪˌstɒtəl) n (Celestial Objects) a prominent crater in the NW quadrant of the moon about 83 kilometres in diameter Ar•is•tot•le 384–322 B.C., Greek philosopher: pupil of Plato; tutor of Alexander the Great. Ar·is·tot·le (ăr′ĭ-stŏt′l) 384-322 b.c. Greek philosopher and scientist who profoundly influenced Western thought. Aristotle wrote about virtually every area of knowledge, including most of the sciences.

Throughout his life he made careful observations, collected specimens, and summarized all the existing knowledge of the natural world. He pioneered the study of zoology, developing a classification system for all animals and making extensive taxonomic studies. His systematic approach later evolved into the basic scientific method in the Western world. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. Aristotle - one of the greatest of the ancient Athenian philosophers; pupil of Plato; teacher of Alexander the Great (384-322 BC) entelechy - (Aristotle) the state of something that is fully realized; actuality as opposed to potentiality Translations Aristotle [ˈærɪˌstɒtl] n → Aristotele m Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content .

Link to this page: View in context After much debate, they concluded unanimously, that I was only RELPLUM SCALCATH, which is interpreted literally LUSUS NATURAE; a determination exactly agreeable to the modern philosophy of Europe, whose professors, disdaining the old evasion of occult causes, whereby the followers of Aristotle endeavoured in vain to disguise their ignorance, have invented this wonderful solution of all difficulties, to the unspeakable advancement of human knowledge. View in context Over conceits of this sort the poor gentleman lost his wits, and used to lie awake striving to understand them and worm the meaning out of them; what Aristotle himself could not have made out or extracted had he come to life again for that special purpose. View in context It is observable, accordingly, that scarcely in a single instance has any one of their disciples surpassed them; and I am quite sure that the most devoted of the present followers of Aristotle would think themselves happy if they had as much knowledge of nature as he possessed, were it even under the condition that they should never afterwards attain to higher.

View in context Amongst bony fish Conseil noticed some about three yards long, armed at the upper jaw with a piercing sword; other bright-coloured creatures, known in the time of Aristotle by the name of the sea-dragon, which are dangerous to capture on account of the spikes on their back. Socrates - Ancient History Encyclopedia Socrates by Joshua J. Mark published on 02 September 2009 Socrates (469/470-399 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and is considered the father of western philosophy . Plato was his most famous student and would teach Aristotle who would then tutor Alexander the Great . By this progression, Greek philosophy , as first developed by Socrates, was spread throughout the known world during Alexander 's conquests. Socrates was born c. 469/470 BCE to the sculptor Sophronicus and the mid-wife Phaenarete. He studied music, gymnastics, and grammar in his youth (the common subjects of study for a young Greek) and followed his father's profession as a sculptor.

Tradition holds that he was an exceptional artist, and his statue of the Graces , on the road to the Acropolis , is said to have been admired into the 2nd century CE. Socrates served with distinction in the army and, at the Battle of Potidaea, saved the life of the General Alcibiades . When he was middle-aged, Socrates' friend Chaerephon asked the famous Oracle at Delphi if there was anyone wiser than Socrates, to which the Oracle answered, "None." Bewildered by this answer and hoping to prove the Oracle wrong, Socrates went about questioning people who were held to be 'wise' in their own estimation and that of others. He found, to his dismay, "that the men whose reputation for wisdom stood highest were nearly the most lacking in it, while others who were looked down on as common people were much more intelligent" (Plato, Apology, 22).

The youth of Athens delighted in watching Socrates question their elders in the market and, soon, he had a following of young men who, because of his example and his teachings, would go on to abandon their early aspirations and devote themselves to philosophy (from the Greek 'Philo', love, and 'Sophia', wisdom - literally 'the love of wisdom'). Among these were Antisthenes (founder of the Cynic school), Aristippus (the Cyrenaic school), Xenophon (whose writings would influence Zeno of Cithium, founder of the Stoic school) and, most famously, Plato (the main source of our information of Socrates in his Dialogues) among many others. Every major philosophical school mentioned by ancient writers following Socrates' death was founded by one of his followers. Remove Ads Advertisement The diversity of these schools is testimony to Socrates' wide ranging influence and, more importantly, the diversity of interpretations of his teachings. The philosophical concepts taught by Antisthenes and Aristippus could not be more different, in that the former taught that the good life was attained by self-control and self-abnegation, while the latter claimed a life of pleasure was the only path worth pursuing.

It has been said that Socrates' greatest contribution to philosophy was to move intellectual pursuits away from the focus on `physical science ' (as pursued by the so-called Pre-Socratic Philosophers such as Thales, Anaximander , Anaximenes , and others) and into the abstract realm of ethics and morality. No matter the diversity of the schools which claimed to carry on his teachings, they all emphasized some form of morality as their foundational tenet. That the `morality' espoused by one school was often condemned by another, again bears witness to the very different interpretations of Socrates' central message. While scholars have traditionally relied upon Plato's Dialogues as a source for information on the historical Socrates, Plato's contemporaries claimed he used a character he called `Socrates' as a mouth-piece for his own philosophical views. Notable among these critics was, allegedly, Phaedo, a fellow student of Socrates, whose writings are now lost, and Xenophon, whose Memorablia presents a different view of Socrates than that presented by Plato. However his teachings were interpreted, it seems clear that Socrates' main focus was on how to live a good and virtuous life.

However his teachings were interpreted, it seems clear that Socrates' main focus was on how to live a good and virtuous life. The claim atrributed to him by Plato that "an unexamined life is not worth living" (Apology, 38b) seems historically accurate, in that it is clear he inspired his followers to think for themselves instead of following the dictates of society and the accepted superstitions concerning the gods and how one should behave. While there are differences between Plato's and Xenophon's depictions of Socrates, both present a man who cared nothing for class distinctions or `proper behavior' and who spoke as easily with women, servants, and slaves as with those of the higher classes. In ancient Athens, individual behavior was maintained by a concept known as `Eusebia' which is often translated into English as `piety' but more closely resembles `duty' or `loyalty to a course'. In refusing to conform to the social propieties proscribed by Eusebia, Socrates angered many of the more important men of the city who could, rightly, accuse him of breaking the law by violating these customs.

In 399 BCE Socrates was charged with impiety by Meletus the poet, Anytus the tanner, and Lycon the orator who sought the death penalty in the case. The accusation read: “Socrates is guilty, firstly, of denying the gods recognized by the state and introducing new divinities, and, secondly, of corrupting the young.” It has been suggested that this charge was both personally and politically motivated as Athens was trying to purge itself of those associated with the scourge of the Thirty Tyrants of Athens who had only recently been overthrown. Socrates' relationship to this regime was through his former student, Critias , who was considered to be among the worst of the tyrants and was thought to have been corrupted by Socrates. It has also been suggested, based in part on interpretations of Plato's dialogue of the Meno, that Anytus blamed Socrates for corrupting his son. Anytus, it seems, had been grooming his son for a life in politics until the boy became interested in Socrates' teachings and abandoned political pursuits.

As Socrates' accusers had Critias as an example of how the philosopher corrupted youth, even if they never used that evidence in court, the precedent appears to have been known to the jury. Aristotle quotes philosophy biography Alexander the Great ï¿½ Our characters are the result of our conduct. ï¿½ ï¿½ ï¿½ Poetry is more philosophical and of higher value than history; for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular. ï¿½ ï¿½ The life of Aristotle ï¿½ Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. at Stagirus on the coasts of Macedonian Thrace. His father was Court physician to King Amyntas III of Macedonia. As the son of a doctor, who would probably be expected to learn the same profession, he was probably introduced quite early in life to "secret" medical and biological knowledge. When he was about ten his father died however and this tended to deny him a doctor's training. In 367 B.C. he journeyed to Athens to study in Plato's celebrated Academy with the blessings of his guardian.

For the subsequent twenty or so years he continued to be based in Athens and to be occupied in the Academy firstly as a student and then as a teacher and researcher. ï¿½ Plato died in 347 B.C. with the headship of the Academy passing to his nephew Speusippus. Whether in disappointment at being passed over, or whether in reaction to a marked increase in anti-Macedonian sentiment that had arisen after Philip II of Macedon had sacked the city state of Olynthus, Aristotle left Athens relocating to the coastal town of Assos. ï¿½ Assos had a small, but notable, scholarly community and was under the princely authority of Hermias. Aristotle came to be the most prominent amongst the scholars there and even married Pythias, the eighteen year old niece of Hermias. One daughter issued from this marriage which lasted until Pythias death some ten years later. ï¿½ The scholarly associates made extensive biological and zoological observations at Assos and the nearby island of Lesbos that laid some of the foundations of the biological sciences.

He did not remain long at Assos as he transferred to the island of Lesbos where he established a small school modelled on Plato's Academy and continued with his scientific researches. ï¿½ In late 343 or early 342 B.C. the increasingly famous scholar was invited back to Pella the Macedonian capital by King Philip II - he had been a childhood companion of King Philip's. Macedon had, under Philip II's kingship become mighty and influential attaining a hegemony in the Greek world. Philip intended that his former companion should have a role in the education of Prince Alexander who wasï¿½ Philip's son and heir. This is the same Alexander who was to become "Alexander the Great" ï¿½ï¿½ Aristotle continued in this role for about five years and seems to have found the young teenage Prince keen to learn and enthusiastic about the free expression of ideas. He returned to Athens however after Alexander's succession to the Macedonian throne in 336 B.C. ï¿½ Several sources suggest that in his later course of extensive conquest of much of the known world Alexander kept with him a copy of Homer's Iliad that had been personally annotated by his famous tutor.

ï¿½ Once back in Athens Aristotle established a school at a grove sacred to Apollo Lykeios and the Muses. This school was given the name "the Lyceum" and soon became the most popular school in Athens. The Lyceum also became the site of a hitherto unsurpassed library. ï¿½ After the demise of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. and the subsequent fragmentation of the Macedonian Empire the pro-Macedonian government in Athens was overthrown. Because of his strong connections with Macedon Aristotle thought it wise to go into exile in case anti-Macedonian retributions should visit his door. ï¿½ He intended that The Athenians might not have another chance of sinning against philosophy as they had already done in the person of Socrates. He journeyed to Chalcis in Euobea where his mother's family were locally prominent and owned much property, he only survived for less than a year in Chalcis. His last will and testament shows him making considerate provision for his various dependants and also awarding his slaves their freedom. ï¿½ï¿½

Question: Which philosopher was a tutor to Alexander the Great?
Answer: Aristotle