Newton Isaac Newton 1642 - 1727 Sir Isaac Newton has been described by some as "one of the greatest names in human thought" (Cohen, 1985). Newton was responsible for discovering many outstanding scientific and mathematical concepts. Among those discoveries were his theories of motion and gravitation, the components of light and color and his development of the foundations of calculus. There were many interesting aspects of Newtons life which seemed at times to contradict each other. Newton, was born on Christmas day in 1642 to a family of farmers in the east central portion of England in Linconshire. Surprisingly young Isaac was not an exceptional student. He enjoyed spending much of his time making contraptions such as a windmill used to grind grain, a clock which was powered by water and other various inventions. Unfortunately because of the time he spent on his projects he did very poorly in school. His teachers described him as "idle" and "inattentive". His father died before he was born and mother remarried leaving him in the care of his grandmother. At the age of fourteen Newton was forced to leave school to help his mother with farming.

Isaac spent much of his time on the farm reading and ended up returning to school. At the bidding of an uncle, Newton began furthering his education in June of 1661, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He set out to get a degree in law and this limited his field of study was very during his first few years of college. However, by the third year he was allowed more freedom to pursue other interests. During this time he was able to study new mathematical and scientific methods from such scientists and mathematicians as Galileo, and Wallis. Newton graduated from Cambridge in 1665, without any particular honors. In the summer of 1665, Newton who had not been an exceptional student and appeared at times very average, seemed to under go a change. During an eighteen month period, in which the school he was at was shut down because of the plague, Newton came up with his theories of motion and gravitation, the components of white light, and calculus. The often told story of how Newton discovered gravity goes as follows: Newton was drinking tea as the British often do, and he observed an apple falling from a tree.

He deduced that the same force which caused the apple to fall to the ground causes the moon to orbit the earth (Cohen, 1985). As stated earlier, Newton helped developed what he called fluxions, which is now called calculus ( Burton, 1997). This branch of mathematics Newton discovered, could be used find the answers to such problems as finding the speed of a ball that has been thrown in the air at any moment in the balls flight. During the same time period a German mathematician named Gottfried Leibniz also discovered calculus. With Newtons's and Leibniz's new discoveries mathematicians and scientists were able to enter into new regions of discovery. As if that wasn't enough Newton made a third important discovery. He used a prism to show that white light is made up of many different colors. Before this scientists had thought that white light was a single entity. While Isaac was looking through a telescope, one day he noted how the light reflected many different colors and led him to this discovery. Newton was very sensitive to negative comments and had to be convinced by another scientist Edmond Halley to publish his findings.

After his book Principia Mathematica in which his various discoveries and ideas were presented, Newton enjoyed success in other realms. He became a member of the British Parliament and was a member of various mathematical organizations such as the Royal Society council to which he was later elected president. He died on March 31, 1727 in London. Newton had many interesting characteristics such as his study alchemy. Which is a blend of chemistry, magic and religion. Achlemists' goal was to find a way to produce gold out of different metals and also to find a magic potion which could cure ills and increase ones life. Isaac was modest, and generous to his family and those who helped him along the way. Some of Newton's discoveries were later refuted by Albert Einstein in reference to his theories of gravitational pull. However, Einstein and others still contend that Newton was indeed a very important force in man's quest for knowledge and is highly regarded for his contributions in many different areas of science. Contributed by Chris Pinaire Burton, D. (1997). The history of mathematics, an introduction, McGraw-Hill New York. Cohen, B. (1985) Sir Isaac Newton.The World Book Encyclopedia, Chicago.

Ihde, A. (1985) Alchemy. The World Book Encyclopedia, Chicago. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727): - creation.com by Ann Lamont Summary Isaac Newton is well known as one of the greatest scientists who ever lived. Less well known is his deep belief in God and his conviction that scientific investigation leads to a greater knowledge of God the Creator of the universe. Isaac Newton was born at Woolthorpe, Lincolnshire, England on Christmas Day 1642. On that cold winter night, the sick, premature baby seemed unlikely to live. Gradually, however, he gained strength to survive. But Isaac’s first few years were a struggle. His mother had become a widow two months before Isaac was born. Even with the help of her own mother, she had difficulty caring for Isaac in addition to running their farm while the Civil War in England raged around them. Several years later, his mother married the minister from nearby North Witham, but Isaac remained at Woolthorpe with his grandmother. As he grew, however, he visited his mother frequently. He eagerly read books from his stepfather's well-stocked library, in addition to reading the Bible regularly.

Isaac attended school at King’s College in nearby Grantham. Rather than playing outdoor games as a boy, he preferred to make models of such things as windmills and carts. Not only were these in exactly the right proportions, but all of the moving parts actually worked. Isaac’s mother was widowed for the second time when he was 14 years old. Isaac was taken out of school to run the family farm to support his mother and her three younger children. However, Isaac missed his studies greatly and his mother recognized this. When King’s College offered to waive tuition fees because of his ability and poor circumstances, Isaac returned and completed his schooling. Teachers and other students were impressed with the boy’s knowledge of the Bible. Intended to become a minister Isaac then went to Trinity College at Cambridge University with the intention of becoming a Church of England minister. Again, life was not easy for him. As he was unable to afford the tuition fees, he worked many hours each day serving meals and doing other jobs for the professors in order to pay his way. Isaac’s knowledge of the Bible continued to impress those around him.

At that time the ideas of the ancient Greek scholars still dominated what was taught in science, and recent scientific discoveries were largely ignored. This greatly annoyed Isaac Newton who firmly believed that ideas in science should be tested and only accepted if their usefulness could be demonstrated. He was committed to the experimental method of science. Isaac graduated in 1665, shortly before an outbreak of Black Death swept through London. All universities were closed while the plague raged. During this time, Isaac returned to his family’s farm, now run by his young half-brother. He continued his study and research, working on the binomial theorem, light, telescopes, calculus and theology. After supposedly seeing an apple fall in the garden, he investigated gravity, but was unable to solve the puzzle until some years later. (It should be noted that some authorities question this ‘apple’ story. They say that the first mention of it came through the antireligious French philosopher and skeptic, Voltaire, who reputedly heard it from Newton’s grandniece.) Revolution in Mathematics Newton applied his binomial theorem to infinite series and from there developed calculus, a revolutionary new form of mathematics.

For the first time it was possible to accurately calculate the area inside a shape with curved sides, and to calculate the rate of change of one physical quantity with respect to another. A similar system of mathematics was developed by German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz. For a long time there was great confusion, with each being accused of stealing the other’s work. It was a distressing time for both. Many years later, it was established that each had developed calculus independently at roughly the same time. Neither was a cheat. Sir Isaac Newton used prisms to show that sunlight was made up of all the colours of the rainbow. This proved that the ancient Greeks ideas about light were wrong. Optics When Cambridge University reopened in 1667, Isaac Newton returned to do a Masters Degree, while teaching and doing research. Newton used prisms to show that sunlight was made up of all the colours of the rainbow. This proved that the ancient Greeks’ ideas about light were wrong. In Newton’s time, astronomy was severely hampered because lenses in telescopes broke some of the light into unwanted colours, causing a somewhat unclear view.

Although not the first to consider using a curved mirror instead of a lens, Newton was the first to successfully construct a telescope using this principle—a principle still used today in many telescopes. The Royal Society In 1672, Newton became a member of the Royal Society—a group of scientists committed to the experimental method. He presented one of his new telescopes to the Royal Society along with his findings on light. The Royal Society set up a committee led by physicist Robert Hooke to evaluate Newton's findings. Hooke was a scientist employed by the Royal Society to evaluate new inventions. However, Hooke had his own ideas on light and was slow to accept the truth of Newton’s findings. This surprised and disappointed Newton, who even considered not circulating his discoveries in the future. While it is sometimes said that Newton was too sensitive to critical evaluation of his work, he was merely concerned that the time spent justifying past findings was preventing him from making new discoveries. Political Interference Isaac Newton lived at a time when politics, religion and education were not separated. King Charles II commanded that everyone who taught at places such as Trinity College, where Church of England ministers were trained, must themselves be ordained as Church of England ministers after seven years.

This included people such as Newton who taught only mathematics and science, not theology. Although a devout Christian, Newton was not in full agreement with all the doctrines of the Church of England. Thus, his conscience would not allow him to accept ordination. 1 He was also strongly opposed to political involvement in both religious matters and education. The only way for Newton to keep his job was for the king to make an exception in his case. Others who had previously asked for this had been refused. So Newton headed south to London for six weeks to plead his case before the king. During his time in London, he became better acquainted with other scientists in the Royal Society. Those who had known him only through his letters defending his discoveries had mistaken his confidence in his work for arrogance. His impatience to get on with new work had been mistaken for bad temper. Now the scientists realized what a friendly and considerate person he was and they rallied to his aid. Fortunately, for Newton and for science, the king granted Newton’s request to continue at Trinity College without being ordained. Focused on Gravity In Newton’s day, many people were superstitious or afraid of what they could not understand—such as the appearance of a comet, which was considered a sign of coming disaster.

Even scientists generally considered the motion of planets and the motion of bodies on the earth as separate problems. In contrast, Newton reasoned that since the same God created the heavens as well as the earth, the same laws should apply throughout. In 1684, Newton again began to consider gravity. He developed his theory of universal gravitation, which used what is known as the inverse square law. He developed his three laws of motion (movement) and proved mathematically that the same laws did, in fact, apply both to the heavens and the earth. His faith had focused his thoughts in the right direction. When Newton was investigating the movement of the planets, he quite clearly saw the hand of God at work. He wrote: ‘This most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent Being. … This Being governs all things, not as the soul of the world, but as Lord over all; and on account of his dominion he is wont to be called “Lord God” Παντοκράτωρ [Pantokratōr cf. 2 Corinthians 6:18], or “Universal Ruler”.

… The Supreme God is a Being eternal, infinite, absolutely perfect.’ 2 ‘Opposition to godliness is atheism in profession and idolatry in practice. Atheism is so senseless and odious to mankind that it never had many professors.’ 3 Again Newton encountered difficulties with his old rival Robert Hooke. A number of scientists believed that an inverse square law probably applied, but they had not been able to prove that this would produce the elliptical orbits observed by famous German astronomer Johannes Kepler. Despite Hooke's boasts to the contrary he too failed to be forthcoming with proof. In contrast, Newton succeeded; but Hooke wanted some of the credit. The Royal Society did not wish to be seen to take sides. This, together with shortage of finances, made the Royal Society reluctant to publish Newton’s landmark book Principia Mathematical. Newton’s friend, astronomer Edmond Halley, came to his aid and privately financed the publication of Newton’s three-part book in 1687.

(Halley later used Newton’s laws in his work on comets which, like the planets, move in elliptical orbits around the sun.) Royal Opposition After 1685, Newton again encountered the problem of a monarch who tried to mingle politics, religion and education. The new king, James II, wanted Trinity College to award unearned degrees to those whose religious beliefs agreed with his own. Because they would not do this, Newton and eight other teachers from Trinity College were brought before the High Court on trumped-up charges. Although the charges were rightfully dismissed, the episode had been a great strain on the men. Isaac Newton’s times of hardship and struggle throughout his lifetime did not produce bitterness. Instead, Newton’s own words show that this brought him closer to God. ‘Trials are medicines which our gracious and wise physician gives because we need them; and the proportions the frequency and weight of them to what the case requires. Let us trust his skill and thank him for the prescription.’ Nervous Breakdown Isaac Newton represented Cambridge University as a Member of Parliament in 1689 and 1690. In 1690, his health failed.

This illness was probably a nervous breakdown brought on by many years of working long hours and enduring too much stress. Eventually he fully recovered. For the next few years, Newton pursued his other great love—studying the Bible. The books he wrote included Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel. In 1696, the government appointed Newton to the post of Warden of the Mint. He supervised the replacement of England’s old and damaged coins with those which were new and more durable, and even helped break up a counterfeiting ring. In 1701, Newton began another short term as parliamentarian. Two years later he was elected president of the Royal Society. His re-election to that position every year for the rest of his life showed the high esteem in which he was held by fellow scientists. Now that he had returned to science, Newton published his earlier work on light. His book, Optiks, contained both his own findings and suggestions for further research. His country officially recognized his work in 1705 when he became the first person to receive a knighthood for scientific achievement. Newton died in 1727, at the age of 84.

He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Isaac Newton’s contributions to science were many and varied. They covered revolutionary ideas and practical inventions. His work in physics, mathematics and astronomy is of importance even today. His contributions in any one of these fields would have made him famous; collectively, they make him truly outstanding. But Newton remained a modest man who loved his Lord and Saviour. He loved God and believed God’s Word—all of it. He wrote, ‘I have a fundamental belief in the Bible as the Word of God, written by men who were inspired. I study the Bible daily.’ (Quotes by Newton are taken from the book by J.H. Tiner, Isaac Newton—Inventor, Scientist and Teacher, Mott Media, Milford (Michigan), 1975.) References (added by editor) Some have accused him of Arianism, but this is rejected by Pfizenmaier, T.C., Was Isaac Newton an Arian? Journal of the History of Ideas 68(1):57–80, 1997.

A very detailed defense of Newton’s Trinitarianism is Van Alan Herd, The theology of Sir Isaac Newton , Doctoral Dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 2008. This documents much evidence, including Newton’s words refuting tritheism and affirming Triniarian monotheism: That to say there is but one God, ye father of all things, excludes not the son & Holy ghost from the Godhead becaus they are virtually conteined & implied in the father. … To apply ye name of God to ye Son or holy ghost as distinct persons from the father makes them not divers Gods from ye Father. … Soe there is divinity in ye father, divinity in ye Son, & divinity in ye holy ghost, & yet they are not thre forces but one force. Return to text . Principia, Book III; cited in; Newton’s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953. Return to text . A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, p.

347, by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1855. Return to text . (Also available in Vietnamese ) What did Sir Isaac Newton do with math? | Reference.com What did Sir Isaac Newton do with math? A: Quick Answer Newton was one of two people credited with the creation of calculus, but even though he developed his ideas first, he did not get them printed first. A German mathematician, by the name of Leibniz, released his findings almost 9 years before Newton did. Both men approached the concept of calculus differently and held different views, so often both men are credited with its creation. Isaac Newton Isaac Newton 1643-1727 Sir Isaac Newton has long been regarded as one of the most brilliant scientist who ever lived, as well as one of greatest mathematicians in England's history. However, Newton's character and life was one made of long flashes of brilliance and followed by unexplainable eccentric behavior. Isaac was born on Christmas day in a village in Lincolnshire, England. His mother described Isaac as being so tiny he could fit into a quart jar, while his father hoped that his new son would grow to manage the farm someday.

Growing up Isaac barely maintained average grades and often lacked attention in school. Villagers looked upon his daydreaming, habits of reading for hours at a time, and keeping records of his interests as mere eccentricity. However, the first hints of Newton's brilliance could be found in his boyhood inventions. He was responsible for creating sundials, an accurate wooden clock, water wheels, and even a kite with an enclosed lantern, which fooled the locals into seeing ghosts! One of his most practical adolescent inventions was a mill, which mechanically ground wheat into flour via mouse power. Newton's father died when he turned fifteen. Luckily, Newton's uncle saw the potential of his nephew's scientific talents, and enrolled him in Cambridge University. It was here that Newton was first exposed to the world of mathematics. Having come across Euclid's Elements in a bookstore, Newton was able to quickly follow the work, although he had little mathematical background to begin with. Having found the work easy reading, Newton became fascinated by mathematics and he quickly mastered Descartes' difficult work, Geometry. From this point on, having been exposed to just the surface of the worlds of science and math, Newton's appetite for both exploded exponentially.

Newton quickly earned the respect of his peers and professors at Cambridge. For instance, at the end of his second year, Newton had taken the place of his professor, Dr. Isaac Barrow, who resigned in recognition of Newton's superior mathematical skills. In 1664, the Great Plague struck England and the university closed for a period to allow students and professors return home to prevent an outbreak at school. From 1664 to 1666, Isaac made his greatest contributions to mathematics. Relying on the works of Galileo, Kepler, and Descartes, Newton invented calculus, discovered the law of universal gravitation, and he did extensive work on spectrums. The creation and development of his calculus was said to be the first achievement of mathematics, however, Newton would not publish his calculus until much later in his life. This was a mistake which would repeat itself continuously throughout Newton's works and writings. For the next twenty years he continued to lecture on mathematics. So advanced was his mathematics that other mathematicians spent nearly fifty years trying to understand it all. Finally, in 1684, Newton began writing Principia or Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, to help summarize his discoveries about the physical world.

In this work, Newton placed an emphasis on motion. In it, he formulated the three laws of motion, the third of which is essential to the understanding of modern rocket power and jet propulsion. Furthermore, he discussed the motion of bodies in free space, the motion of bodies in a resisting medium, and the solar system and celestial movements. This work consumed Newton until its completion. He wrote often for 18 to 19 hours daily, while ignoring meals and having little sleep. In addition to Principia, Newton wrote The Universal Arithmetic, which help to substantiate and advance his theory of equations. He also wrote papers concerning calculus, curves, optics, and analytical geometry. Again many of these works went unpublished until long after they were written. Newton, who was often reluctant to publish his writing, was finally coaxed into printing up his work with the urging of his mathematician friends. This proved too little too late for his most beloved creation, calculus. Although he had discovered calculus in 1666, he did not publish its description until the year 1693. During that time, a German mathematician named Leibiniz had created an identical mathematical work to calculus and published these results in Germany in 1684.

As a result, Leibiniz was referred to as calculus' creator, and when this news came to England Newton was enraged. While the debate raged on and both sides about who honestly claimed the rights to calculus, all communications broke down between Germany's mathematicians and England's mathematicians. As a result France used the work done by Newton and Leibniz and perfected calculus and advanced mathematics in their country. Newton refused to give up his fight and continued to believe that England would eventually be victorious until his death. Newton continued on however, remaining the humble professor, but with increasing absentï¿½mindedness. Friends laughed at him when visiting his home when they saw the sight of his front door. He had cut two holes in his front door, one for a cat and one for the cat's kitten. Often he would wander off from dinner guests after forgetting what day it was or after his thoughts had drifted away upon mathematics. He never married and lived well thanks to several wise business investments he made during his life. In 1699 he was appointed Master of the Mint by England, in honor of his service to the country. Newton took this job as well as other public service endeavors in the twilight of his career.

Finally, Newton spent the remainder of his life and career tackling mathematical problems that had long baffled other mathematicians. Often solving these problems in a matter of hours, he would send the answers anonymously to his peers, such as Bernoulli as a form of professional humor. Newton died at the age of 85 in London and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Newton - 17th Century Mathematics - The Story of Mathematics The Story of Mathematics 17TH CENTURY MATHEMATICS - NEWTON Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) In the heady atmosphere of 17th Century England, with the expansion of the British empire in full swing, grand old universities like Oxford and Cambridge were producing many great scientists and mathematicians. But the greatest of them all was undoubtedly Sir Isaac Newton. Physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian, Newton is considered by many to be one of the most influential men in human history.

His 1687 publication, the "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (usually called simply the "Principia"), is considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, and it dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Although largely synonymous in the minds of the general public today with gravity and the story of the apple tree, Newton remains a giant in the minds of mathematicians everywhere (on a par with the all-time greats like Archimedes and Gauss ), and he greatly influenced the subsequent path of mathematical development. Over two miraculous years, during the time of the Great Plague of 1665-6, the young Newton developed a new theory of light, discovered and quantified gravitation, and pioneered a revolutionary new approach to mathematics: infinitesimal calculus. His theory of calculus built on earlier work by his fellow Englishmen John Wallis and Isaac Barrow, as well as on work of such Continental mathematicians as Ren� Descartes , Pierre de Fermat , Bonaventura Cavalieri, Johann van Waveren Hudde and Gilles Personne de Roberval.

Unlike the static geometry of the Greeks , calculus allowed mathematicians and engineers to make sense of the motion and dynamic change in the changing world around us, such as the orbits of planets, the motion of fluids, etc. Differentiation (derivative) approximates the slope of a curve as the interval approaches zero The initial problem Newton was confronting was that, although it was easy enough to represent and calculate the average slope of a curve (for example, the increasing speed of an object on a time-distance graph), the slope of a curve was constantly varying, and there was no method to give the exact slope at any one individual point on the curve i.e. effectively the slope of a tangent line to the curve at that point. Intuitively, the slope at a particular point can be approximated by taking the average slope (�rise over run�) of ever smaller segments of the curve. As the segment of the curve being considered approaches zero in size (i.e. an infinitesimal change in x), then the calculation of the slope approaches closer and closer to the exact slope at a point (see image at right).

Without going into too much complicated detail, Newton (and his contemporary Gottfried Leibniz independently) calculated a derivative function f �(x) which gives the slope at any point of a function f(x). This process of calculating the slope or derivative of a curve or function is called differential calculus or differentiation (or, in Newton�s terminology, the �method of fluxions� - he called the instantaneous rate of change at a particular point on a curve the "fluxion", and the changing values of x and y the "fluents"). For instance, the derivative of a straight line of the type f(x) = 4x is just 4; the derivative of a squared function f(x) = x2 is 2x; the derivative of cubic function f(x) = x3 is 3x2, etc. Generalizing, the derivative of any power function f(x) = xr is rxr-1. Other derivative functions can be stated, according to certain rules, for exponential and logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions such as sin(x), cos(x), etc, so that a derivative function can be stated for any curve without discontinuities.

For example, the derivative of the curve f(x) = x4 - 5x3 + sin(x2) would be f �(x) = 4x3 - 15x2 + 2xcos(x2). Having established the derivative function for a particular curve, it is then an easy matter to calcuate the slope at any particular point on that curve, just by inserting a value for x. In the case of a time-distance graph, for example, this slope represents the speed of the object at a particular point. Integration approximates the area under a curve as the size of the samples approaches zero The �opposite� of differentiation is integration or integral calculus (or, in Newton�s terminology, the �method of fluents�), and together differentiation and integration are the two main operations of calculus. Newton�s Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations, so that, if a function is first integrated and then differentiated (or vice versa), the original function is retrieved. The integral of a curve can be thought of as the formula for calculating the area bounded by the curve and the x axis between two defined boundaries.

For example, on a graph of velocity against time, the area �under the curve� would represent the distance travelled. Essentially, integration is based on a limiting procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking it into infinitesimally thin vertical slabs or columns. In the same way as for differentiation, an integral function can be stated in general terms: the integral of any power f(x) = xr is xr+1⁄r+1, and there are other integral functions for exponential and logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions, etc, so that the area under any continuous curve can be obtained between any two limits. Newton chose not to publish his revolutionary mathematics straight away, worried about being ridiculed for his unconventional ideas, and contented himself with circulating his thoughts among friends. After all, he had many other interests such as philosophy, alchemy and his work at the Royal Mint. However, in 1684, the German Leibniz published his own independent version of the theory, whereas Newton published nothing on the subject until 1693.

Although the Royal Society, after due deliberation, gave credit for the first discovery to Newton (and credit for the first publication to Leibniz ), something of a scandal arose when it was made public that the Royal Society�s subsequent accusation of plagiarism against Leibniz was actually authored by none other Newton himself, causing an ongoing controversy which marred the careers of both men. Newton's Method for approximating the roots of a curve by successive interations after an initial guess Despite being by far his best known contribution to mathematics, calculus was by no means Newton�s only contribution.

He is credited with the generalized binomial theorem, which describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial (an algebraic expression with two terms, such as a2 - b2); he made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences (mathematical expressions of the form f(x�+�b) - f(x�+�a)); he was one of the first to use fractional exponents and coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations (algebraic equations with integer-only variables); he developed the so-called �Newton's method� for finding successively better approximations to the zeroes or roots of a function; he was the first to use infinite power series with any confidence; etc. In 1687, Newton published his �Principia� or �The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy�, generally recognized as the greatest scientific book ever written. In it, he presented his theories of motion, gravity and mechanics, explained the eccentric orbits of comets, the tides and their variations, the precession of the Earth's axis and the motion of the Moon.

Later in life, he wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible, devoted a great deal of time to alchemy, acted as Member of Parliament for some years, and became perhaps the best-known Master of the Royal Mint in 1699, a position he held until his death in 1727. In 1703, he was made President of the Royal Society and, in 1705, became the first scientist ever to be knighted. Mercury poisoning from his alchemical pursuits perhaps explained Newton's eccentricity in later life, and possibly also his eventual death. Isaac Newton and his Contributions to Mathematics | 3010tangents Isaac Newton and his Contributions to Mathematics Sir Isaac Newton. Image: Arthur Shuster & Arthur E. Shipley, via Wikimedia Commons.. In class we discussed the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and how Isaac Newton contributed to it, but what other discoveries did he make? Sir Isacc Newton was born on January 4, 1643, but in England they used the Julian Calender at that time and his birthday was on Christmas Day 1642.

He was born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father had already passed prior to his birth and his mother remarried after his birth and left Isaac to live with her mother. He went to The King’s School, Grantham from the time he was twelve until he was seventeen. His mother removed him from school after the death of her second husband, but later allowed him to return by the encouragement of the school’s headmaster. He rose to be at the top in rankings in his school, mainly motivated to get revenge towards a bully. He began attending Trinity College in Cambridge in 1661. After receiving his degree he developed his theories on calculus over the span of two years during the plague [1] . Newton’s work in calculus intitially started as a way to find the slope at any point on a curve whose slope was constantly varying (the slope of a tangent line to the curve at any point). He calculated the derivative in order to find the slope. He called this the “method of fluxions” rather than differentiation.

That is because he termed “fluxion” as the instantaneous rate of change at a point on the curve and “fluents” as the changing values of x and y. He then established that the opposite of differentiation is integration, which he called the “method of fluents”. This allowed him to create the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which states that if a function is integrated and then differentiated the original function can be obtained because differentiation and integration are inverse functions [2] . Controversy later arose over who developed calculus. Newton didn’t publish anything about calculus until 1693, but German mathematician Leibniz published his own version of the theory in 1684. The Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism in 1699 and the dispute caused a scandal to occur in 1711 when the Royal Society claimed Newton was the real discoverer of calculus. The scandal got worse when it was discovered that the accusations against Leibniz were actually written by Newton. The dispute between Newton and Leibniz went on until the death of Leibniz. It is now believed that both developed the theories of Calculus independently, both with very different notations.

It should also be noted that Newton actually developed his Fundamental Theory of Calculus between 1665 and 1667, but waited to publish his works due to fear of being criticized and causing controversy [1] . Newton not only discovered calculus but he is also credited for the discovery of the generalised binomial theorem. This theorem describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial. He also contributed to the theory of finite differences, he used fractional exponents and coordinate geometry to get solutions to Diophantine equations, he developed a method for finding better approximation to the zeroes or roots of a function, and he was the first to use infinite power series. His work and discoveries were not limited to mathematics; he also developed theories in optics and gravitation. He observed that prisms refract different colors at different angles, which led him to conclude that color is a property intrinsic to light. He developed his theory of color by noting that regardless if colored light was reflected, scattered, or transmitted it remained the same color. Therefore color is the result of objects interacting with colored light and objects do not generate their own colors themselves [1] . Sir Isaac Newton was a truly amazing mathematician and scientist.

He achieved so much in his lifetime and the amount of discoveries he made can seem almost impossible. He helped make huge advancements in mathematics and created theorems that we still use heavily to this day. Newton, Isaac | Larson Calculus – Calculus 10e Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Isaac Newton wrote, “. . . to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.” History, of course, sees him very differently. Newton is revered as one of the first to develop the calculus and as the founder of the sciences of dynamics and spectroscopy. He is often credited with inaugurating the Age of Reason. Newton was born prematurely in 1642 in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, in England. His mother claimed that he was so small at birth that he would have fit in a quart mug; in fact, he was not expected to live. Newton’s father died several months before Isaac’s birth.

When Newton’s mother remarried two years later, he was sent to live with his grandmother on an isolated farm. The loneliness and ill health that marred Newton’s childhood led to a lifelong interest in intellectual pursuits, to the exclusion of all else. He never married, cared nothing for his appearance, and frequently forgot to eat. His friends were few; his later years were tarnished by bitter quarrels. Because his physical frailty barred him from participation in the village children’s games, the young Newton occupied himself with solitary pastimes. He particularly enjoyed building miniature working models of carriages, waterwheels, and the like. This skill, developed in childhood, served him well when later in life he sought to construct experimental devices with lenses to prove his theories on the properties of light. Newton was an unremarkable student until the day when he was kicked in the stomach by the school bully. Newton was, surprisingly, able to defeat his opponent, apparently by strength of will if not of body. Having thus tasted victory, Newton determined to surpass his rival, a highranking scholar, at his studies as well. Within a short time Newton rose to the head of his class. This was nearly the end of his academic success.

Newton’s mother’s second husband died when Newton was 14 years old, and Newton was withdrawn from school to work on his mother’s farm. It soon became apparent, however, that this was an occupation for which Newton was woefully unsuited. He had no interest in crops or stock, preferring instead to read or dream. Newton’s mother acknowledged defeat: in 1661, when Newton was 18 years old, she permitted him to enter Trinity College at Cambridge University. While at Cambridge, Newton came to the attention of Isaac Barrow, a professor of mathematics and a gifted scientist and classicist. Newton had done nothing to distinguish himself academically during his first years at the university; nevertheless, Barrow recognized the young man’s “unparalleled genius.” Soon after Newton received his bachelor’s degree in 1665, Barrow relinquished his academic post and was instrumental in securing the professorship for Newton. Thus by the time he was 26 years old, Newton had attained a position of distinction that left him free to pursue his own interests, since his responsibilities were not very taxing.

He was required to lecture only once each week on some aspect of mathematics, astronomy, geography, or optics, and to devote two hours per week to consultation with students. The subject on which he chose to lecture that first year was optics. Newton had been drawn to the investigation of light and colors during the previous 18 months, spent at his home in Woolsthorpe when an outbreak of the plague necessitated the temporary closing of Trinity. During that same period, he also developed the fundamentals of calculus and formulated his law of universal gravitation! It has been suggested that those 18 months were the most productive in all the history of creative imagination. Unfortunately, a fear of criticism restrained Newton from immediately publishing his discoveries. In 1672, Newton submitted his reflecting telescope, an invention arising from his study of light, to the Royal Society of London. This community of scientists immediately recognized the value of Newton’s work and appointed him a Fellow of the Royal Society, England’s highest scientific honor. Thus encouraged, Newton published through the Royal Society a report of his analysis of light and color. The paper failed to win for him the accolade he craved; instead, the Royal Society was besieged with objections.

At first, Newton tried to explain his conclusions to his detractors. When his efforts failed to convince them, he grew angry and bitter, and resolved to publish nothing more. For more than a decade Newton labored in relative obscurity at Cambridge, until the day in 1684 when he was visited by Edmund Halley, the celebrated British astronomer and mathematician. Halley and his associates Robert Hooke and Christian Huygens had been hindered in their research by their inability to apply Johannes Kepler’s laws to determine the orbit of a planet, and sought Newton’s opinion. Newton immediately supplied Halley with the answer, that the orbit was an ellipse. From this, Halley was able to deduce that Newton had discovered the law of gravity, and begged him for his calculations. At Halley’s tactful but insistent urging Newton was persuaded to publish his theorems and proofs, with Halley bearing the cost of printing. The resulting masterpiece, the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, met with instant and virtually universal acclaim upon its release in 1687. The Principia, as it is known, is comprised of three books.

The first defines Newton’s three laws of motion and describes the importance of several laws of force; the second concerns motion in various types of fluids; and the third proves the existence of universal gravitation. Taken together, the three books constitute an enormous body of scientific knowledge with extraordinary significance. Newton appears to have suffered some sort of emotional collapse following the publication of the Principia. He grew increasingly suspicious and argumentative, and all scientific inquiry ceased. In 1696, Newton terminated his position at Cambridge. Through the influence of the English philosopher John Locke, Newton was appointed Warden and later Master of the Royal Mint in London, a lucrative government post. Unfortunately, Newton’s free time was spent not in the pursuit of knowledge, but in acrimony. He used the influence of his position as president of the Royal Society, an honor bestowed on him in 1703, to launch a brutal attack on the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, whom Newton unjustly accused of plagiarizing his invention of calculus. History contends that Leibniz arrived at his discovery of calculus independently, using the same sources as Newton.

Since Newton had ignored his mentor Isaac Barrow’s suggestion that he publish his notes at the time they were written, there was little substantiation for Newton’s claim of priority. Newton also engaged in bitter and protracted battles with Hooke and the astronomer John Flamsteed. It has been noted that a quarrel accompanied virtually all of Newton’s achievements. Though the last 30 years of his life were barren of discovery, Newton was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 in recognition of his inestimable contribution to scientific knowledge. He was buried in Westminster Abbey after his death at the age of 84 in March, 1727. Links Leibniz, Gottfried (1646-1716) - HistoriaRex.com Home Middle Earth World History Ancient Mediterranean Arda Old Testament Contact Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) - German mathematician who independently developed calculus at roughly the same time as Isaac Newton . While not as famous as Newton, Leibniz's notation of the new math won out and is the one used in calculus today.

Without calculus, space flight would be impossible which shows how forward thinking both Newton and Leibniz were. He is also credited with developing the binary system which is the language of modern computers. Although his father, Friedrich, died when Gottfried was only six, he still managed to indirectly influence his son's future. Friedrich was a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig and, upon his death, Gottfried inherited his extensive library. Young Leibniz began studying from it at the age of seven and quickly excelled academically. Because much of his father's library consisted of volumes written in Latin , Gottfried was fluent in the language by the age of 12. As an adult, Leibniz became embroiled in a controversy with Newton over who was the first to formulate calculus. In 1670, Leibniz invented one of his calculating machines (he was, in fact, one of the most prolific inventors of early calculators). Three years later, he traveled to England and visited the Royal Society (of which Newton was a member). There he gave a demonstration of his calculating machine to those in attendance.

They were so impressed that they voted to make Leibniz a foreign member of the Royal Society. A year later (1674), he began his work on calculus, and published his math in 1684. When Isaac Newton learned of this, he accused Leibniz of stealing his work (apparently while he was in England). Newton claimed he began his work on calculus as early as 1666, but did not make any reference to it publicly until his Principia was published in 1687, three years after Leibniz published. The debate raged even after both men died, and it was finally decided that they each conceived their ideas independent of one another.

Question: Which German mathematician developed calculus at about the same time that Isaac Newton did so?
Answer: Gottfried Leibniz