Introduction Introduction to Graphology Graphology, sometimes called handwriting analysis, is the study of handwriting with the aim of revealing the character and personality of the writer and his or her strengths, weak­nesses and abilities. Psychological methods (psychometric tests) have been developed, particularly for industry, to ascertain the person­ality of potential recruits and probe the inner secrets of their characters. These tests are taken by the applicants under supervision, and their answers to specific questions are then evaluated. However, the recruits have to be there in person and may know what is expected of them. Graphology has no such fetters. It can be carried out anywhere, by mailing the candidate’s handwritten letter of application to the grapholo­gist and awaiting his or her report. The candidates will no doubt be aware that their handwriting is being examined and should have no fear of this being done. The assessment must, however, be carried out by a fully experienced analyst who is conversant with the industry concerned and who has a basic understanding of psychology as well as a practical knowledge of people. Handwriting springs from the unconscious and contains a great deal of information which can form the basis of character interpretation.

Each time we write we are under the influence of inner feelings and emotions that dictate our mood at the time of writing. Handwriting is, in fact, ‘brain-writing’ which transmits instructions through the motor ner­vous system to the hand holding the pen. These instructions make the fingers expand and contract to produce writing. This is an expressive movement, a mixture of conscious thought and unconscious automatic responses to stimulation learned as a part of bodily movement. An individual’s hand­writing is as unique as his or her voice pattern and finger­prints: no two are exactly alike. We therefore produce a graphic picture of ourselves every time we put pen to paper, and a graphologist can interpret this picture in terms of personality expression and character – not only the way the writer wishes to be seen, but how he or she really is. Of course a piece of writing can be studied at any time after it has been written, whether after 2 minutes or 200 years, as in the case of historical documents. And since an individual’s personality changes overtime, these changes can be studied in handwriting samples, for instance to help in a biography or in the case of a disputed will.

Graphology is a way of fully understanding friends, colleagues and relatives, or indeed anyone whose handwriting you can examine, and of discovering the way they think – whether by logic, intuition or both. It can also highlight behavioural characteristics such as argumentative tendencies and aggression, an ostentatious manner which perhaps compensates for feelings of inferiority, genuine friendliness and emotional control, conventional habits, manipulation or jealousy, so paving the way for a more rewarding relationship. You may ask, ‘Can anyone be a graphologist?’ The answer is yes, particularly if you are interested in people and have a fair ability for observation and deductive perception. It depends of course upon how deeply you want to go into the subject – whether merely for interest or as a serious study. People will tell you that their handwriting changes. Yes, of course it does: it depends upon how you are feeling at the time of writing – depression, optimism, happiness, anxiety and other emotional states will affect the script slightly. But the basic structure is unlikely to change. If you suspect that it has changed, see another sample of writing written at a time: when the writer was not under the influence of extraor­dinary conditions.

A memorandum to oneself or a diary will also look different from a letter of application for a job. And of course, as a person progresses through life, any mental or emotional changes will gradually be reflected in his or her writing over the years. A ‘copybook’ writer, who adheres to the basic form of letters as taught at school, may say, ‘I write as my teacher did.’ But the teacher will undoubt­edly have been writing copybook forms for clarity rather than as their natural style. You cannot tell, except by intuition, whether a piece of writing is by a man or woman. There are feminine men and masculine women. Age cannot be ascertained through hand­writing either. Some people are mature at an early age while others are still immature at an advanced age. Graphology cannot foretell the future, nor is it a way of telling the writer’s fortune, but it can point to the way they are progressing – or not. Nor will it reveal what the writer actually does as an occupation or profession. It may tell you what they should be doing, but many people are in jobs for which they are not suited while their actual inclinations and abilities lie elsewhere.

And, of course, a person’s colour is not evident in his or her script. Graphology | Define Graphology at Dictionary.com graphology noun 1. the study of handwriting, especially when regarded as an expression of the writer's character, personality, abilities, etc. 2. Linguistics. the study of systems of writing; grammatology. Origin of graphology [graf-uh-loj-ik] /ˌgræf əˈlɒdʒ ɪk/ (Show IPA), graphological, adjective graphologist, noun Examples from the Web for graphology Expand Criminal Psychology Hans Gross graphology, for instance, is naturally related to the functional action and to the characteristics of the hand itself. Pedagogical Anthropology Maria Montessori In this study, as in that of graphology and chiromancy, a deductive power of mind is required. British Dictionary definitions for graphology Expand the study of handwriting, esp to analyse the writer's character 2. (linguistics) the study of writing systems Derived Forms Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.

1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for graphology Expand n. "study of handwriting," 1882, from French graphologie, coined 1868 by Abbé Jean-Hippolyte Michon (1806-1881) from comb. form of Greek graphein "to write" (see -graphy ) + logos "a speaking, a dealing with" (see logos ). Especially, "character study based on handwriting" (1886). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper What is Graphology? | British Institute of Graphologists Useful Links What is Graphology? We were all taught to write in a specific way when we were children at school, but it is evident that no one continues to write exactly the way they were taught and everyone's handwriting looks different.

In fact as soon as someone can write, he or she gradually alters the shapes and sizes of letters in accordance with individual likes and dislikes. Why is this? The reason is that our personalities affect the way our handwriting develops after we were taught to write. This is because handwriting is the pattern of our psychology expressed in symbols on the page and these symbols are as unique as our own DNA. When you get to know a person's handwriting well enough, you recognise whose script it is, just as if it were a well-known painting or photograph. Graphology is based on the principle that every individual's handwriting has a character of its own and this is entirely due to the uniqueness of the writer's personality. So it is the writer's deviations from the copybook learnt that allows expert graphologists to assess, with the greatest accuracy, the character and capabilities of the writer. In fact graphologists are exceptionally fortunate in that they see before them, in black and white, the pattern in symbolic form of a writer's whole psychological profile. By contrast, psychoanalysts and psychotherapists all over the world must formulate their own opinions solely on the basis of what is told to them over a period of time by the client in question. How does graphology work?

Graphology is a blend of art and science. It is a science because it measures the structure and movement of the written forms - slants, angles and spacing are accurately calculated and the pressure is observed in magnification and with precision. And it is an art because the graphologist has constantly to keep in mind the total context in which the writing is taking place: the 'gestalt' of the writing as a whole. Writing consists of three things - movement, spacing and form. A graphologist studies these variations as they occur in each of these aspects of writing, and attaches psychological interpretations to them. Expert graphologists can achieve a very high degree of accuracy. The uses of graphology Do you think you are a good judge of character? Have you always been right? Or have you sometimes found that your first impressions have been wrong? The truth is that appearances can be deceptive, but handwriting never lies. Handwriting reveals how the writer thinks, feels and behaves, and it does so directly and immediately. It shows the motivation that lies behind actions, and outlines the writer's propensity to behave in ways that may not be expected.

Graphology not only examines behaviour, but the subconscious or the whys that lie behind actions, providing information that could not be established in any other way or in such a quick time. This makes graphology a very powerful tool. Handwriting analysis is therefore highly effective in a wide variety of practical situations. It can be used for personality assessment in any area of human activity where people interact. It is ideal, for example, within the following areas: Recruitment where it is an invaluable aid because an experienced graphologist can pick out the best candidates, and advise over suitability. Management selection in commerce and industry where it is employed in conjunction with psychometric testing. Corporate training where it can highlight staff strengths and flag up weaknesses, potential and motivation. Security checking and the evaluation of honesty and integrity. Career guidance for those seeking employment or a change of direction. Compatibility assessments for business and personal relationships. Personality profiling for individuals seeking self awareness for self development. Child and family guidance to help resolve sensitive issues. Historical profiling for genealogists and biographers who want to learn more about people who have died. Document examination and forensic analysis for assessing forgeries and poison pen issues. (Note: B.I.G.

tutors do not teach this specialist area.) Graphology as a professional skill For those wishing to become professional graphologists, the Institute offers a series of exams leading to diploma level (M.BIG). The B.I.G. not only fosters best practice and the highest standards of graphology but also, through its diploma course, trains experts to apply accurate graphological interpretation and to give a clear and thorough account of their findings. The Diploma from The British Institute of Graphologists is recognised throughout the world. A list of qualified members offering tuition in various formats, e.g. classes, private tuition, correspondence courses, etc., is provided by the Institute, purely for information purposes. For details see Education What is Graphology? | Learn Graphology What is Graphology? What is Graphology? Graphology is the study of how an individual’s handwriting indicates their character traits. This is based on the psychological concept of ‘deviance’. The way we learn to write in school is standard. School teachers teach their students to write in a uniform way. Nevertheless, we usually choose to ‘deviate’ from how the teacher taught us. This is why every individual's handwriting reflects what is unique about them.

Over a decade ago many school systems, including ours, adopted D'Nealian Manuscript for writing instruction. Lower case letters are primarily rounded, written at normal speed and with average writing pressure. Let's say someone who was taught this system, diverges. Instead of the round traditional way, now varies and writes angular in its place. Angles cut, like knives. This may indicate a hurtful trait. This writing is speedy. This usually impatient nature could specify a tendency toward quick temper, when considering the hurtful trait. Additionally, the script is written with heavy pressure, which signifies getting very uptight and reacts to what they might see as criticism. The definitions of the sum of these components express aggressiveness. Then, the astute graphologist looks if the writer repeats these nuances, i.e., is this a pattern? If there is a pattern, this is conclusive evidence that the trait of aggressiveness exists. Requirements for a graphologist: Although a background in psychology is an advantage, simply, the desire to know what makes people tick is helpful. If you are privileged with the wish to help others with your talent, you are blessed. Learn Graphology Course Your handwriting is unique like your fingerprints. Fingerprints identify your physical body.

Handwriting reveals your whole personality – your mind, heart and soul. The LearnGraphology Course will teach you how to reveal personality traits through handwriting analysis. It is an art and a science, a branch of psychological studies. When a person writes, it is his hand that does the writing, but his brain that does the dictating. There have been many cases of amputees who, having lost the hand or arm with which they wrote, relearned the art with either the other hand, or the feet, or the mouth. Aside from a certain understandable shakiness caused by the difficulties of the feat, the writings were extremely similar to the originals. Trained graphologists had no trouble recognizing the same individual. From this, we see that it is the personality that is expressed on paper by the handwriting. When a person writes in a given fashion, it represents a particular personality trait, which comes directly from the brain. As a child you were taught to write. Why don’t you continue to write the way you were taught? The fact that you don’t is the reason The Learn Graphology Course exists…. Register for your FREE E-Book! First Name What is Graphology? | Handwriting Analysis | North Court What is Graphology?

29May, 2015 Graphology is the study of handwriting, focusing on unique characteristics about a person that can be understood from their writing. It is a combination of art and science said to reveal a person’s psychological profile through the study of form, spacing, and movement. Though its use is controversial and it is considered by some to be a pseudoscience, handwriting analysis dates back to 3,000 years ago in ancient China. It was also practiced by the Romans and at various points throughout history, with the oldest known book on handwriting analysis dating to the late 1500s. A series of books published in the 1830s by Jean-Hippolyte Michon and his follower Jules Crepieux-Jamin are considered to be the foundation of modern graphology. The theory behind graphology Graphology is based on the idea that no matter how a person is taught to write, personal traits and characteristics will influence his or her handwriting. Thus everyone has a unique style, but experts can spot consistent traits through the analysis of more than 300 different aspects of handwriting. No handwriting sample will contain all of the 300 features, and no single feature says something absolute about a person.

But through looking at a combination of the features present in a person’s writing sample, a graphologist can identify trends and piece together likely personality traits to form a coherent picture of the person. Handwriting analysis What exactly are graphologists looking at? Though a trained expert l ooks at hundreds of small variations, a few basic aspects can be explained in this short article. Slant If a person writes with no slant, he is generally thought to have an independent personality, while a right slant indicates that a person is communicative. Left slanting prose shows a person who is more reserved. Pressure A person who writes with light pressure upon the page is said to be sensitive and empathetic, while a heavy pressure shows a serious nature. Overly heavy pressure can indicate a person who is uptight and defensive. Size As you might expect, a person with large handwriting is believed to be more extroverted and outgoing, while a person with smaller than average handwriting tends to be an introverted thinker or academic. Attempts at scientific proof Beginning in the mid-twentieth century, studies attempted to confirm the accuracy of graphology to predict personality traits and various aspects of job performance.

In the 1980s, studies concluded that graphologists were unable to predict how test takers would score on the Myers-Briggs or Eysenck Personality Questionnaire by studying handwriting samples. Other studies in the 1980s and 1990s, including one that evaluated research compiled from over 200 earlier studies, mostly failed to show a correlation between study participants and the analyses of graphologists. Uses of the technique Despite the lack of scientific findings to back up claims, many still believe that skilled graphologists can be highly accurate in evaluating a person’s character. Proponents claim that graphology can shed light on a person’s motivation, feelings, and actions and can quickly provide information useful for analysing behaviour. Because graphology supposedly allows for a rapid and accurate personality analysis, it is often used in corporate environments. It can be a tool in recruiting the right person for the job or determining good candidates for management. It can be used for personality profiles and career counselling to help people find a good fit between personality and profession. According to the British Institute of Graphologists (B.I.G), graphology can even be used in security settings. A graphologist can evaluate a person’s integrity and honesty.

Highly trained specialists can help spot document forgeries and participate in forensic analysis. Call us on 020 3283 8741 or contact us here to discuss further how we can help you with your personal situation. Categories graphology, handwriting analysis - how graphologists and handwriting experts analyse handwriting - free graphology techniques and theory training graphology - handwriting analysis graphology training guide - how graphology experts analyse handwriting Graphology - the study of handwriting and handwriting analysis - is now an accepted and increasingly used technique for assessment of people in organizations. Handwriting analysis is an effective and reliable indicator of personality and behaviour, and so is a useful tool for many organizational processes, for example: recruitment, interviewing and selection, team-building, counselling, and career-planning. This is a free introductory guide to graphology, and a free handwriting analysis tool pdf download, with examples of techniques that graphologists and handwriting analysis experts use to analyse a person's personality from a sample of handwriting. This free article is contributed by Elaine Quigley BA Hons., MBIG Dip, a leading expert graphologist, and chair of the British Institute of Graphologists.

Elaine describes graphology is 'brainwriting' - the handwriting comes directly from the writer in a uniquely personal and individual way, irrespective of how the person has been taught to write: an expert graphologist understands the styles of the different countries and languages and makes allowances for 'taught' influences. Also largely irrelevant to the actual analysis is the content of the written text. The science of graphology uses at least 300 different handwriting features in its investigative approach. The graphologist's interpretation skill is in the psychological art of understanding the particular blend of handwriting features - an expert is able to see the writer 'step off the page'. graphology theory and history A person's handwriting - the script - and its placing on the page express the unique impulses of the individual: logically, the brain sends signals along the muscles to the writing implement they control. By examining a handwriting sample, an expert graphologist is able to identify relevant features of the handwritten script, and the way the features interact. The features, and interaction between them, provide the information for the analysis. (No single handwriting sample will exhibit all 300 different features of course - a typical analysis will involve far less).

No single handwriting feature proves anything specific or absolute by itself; a single feature alone can only identify a trend. It is the combination of features, and the interaction between them that enable a full and clear interpretation. Graphology is actually a very old and respected science - the study of handwriting and its analysis was first developed by the Chinese 3,000 years ago. The Romans used graphology, and through the centuries since then various civilisations and cultures have analysed handwriting to identify the essence of the person who produced it. The modern approach to handwriting analysis was established by a group of French clerics, led by Abbe Michon, who defined key aspects of the science in the 1870s, after 30 years of study. This work formed the basis of modern graphology, although the science is still being researched and expanded today. Professional graphologists operate to a strict code of ethics, and these experts are constantly in demand; those who use it recognise its value in the workplace as an additional method of understanding character. It is therefore an extremely useful tool in identifying the quality and capacity of an individual's talents and potential, particularly in career guidance and improving relationships.

Like other powerful behavioural or intuitive models, it is not easy to explain how and why graphology works, nevertheless it continues to be used, respected and appreciated by many because it achieves a high level of results. graphology - an introductory guide to handwriting features As previously stated there are around 300 features - this introductory article attempts to explain some of the basic ones that can be readily understood and which give interesting information. slant Right slant indicates a response to communication, but not how it takes place. For example, the writer may wish to be friendly, manipulative, responsive, intrusive, to sell, to control, to be loving, supportive, just to name some possibilities. If the handwriting is generally upright, this indicates independence. A left slant tendency shows emotion and reserve. This writer needs to be true to self first and foremost and can be resentful if others try to push for more commitment from them. size Handwriting is made up of three zones - or cases - middle, upper and lower. A basic average measure - or benchmark - by which size can be judged is 3mm per zone. This gives a benchmark for a non-remarkable full height of 9mm. More than this is large; less than this is small.

Large size handwriting can mean extravert and outgoing, or it can mean that the writer puts on an act of confidence, although this behaviour might not be exhibited to strangers. Small size can, logically, mean the opposite. Small size handwriting can also indicate a thinker and an academic, depending upon other features in the script. If the writing is small and delicate, the writer is unlikely to be a good communicator with anyone other than those on their own particular wavelength. These people do not generally find it easy to break new ground socially. pressure Heavy pressure indicates commitment and taking things seriously, but if the pressure is excessively heavy, that writer gets very uptight at times and can react quickly to what they might see as criticism, even though none may have been intended. These writers react first and ask questions afterwards. Light pressure shows sensitivity to atmosphere and empathy to people, but can also, if the pressure is uneven, show lack of vitality. upper zone or case (as in l, t, h, etc) Tall upper strokes are reaching towards goals and ambitions or, if they are very extended, there may be unrealistic expectations of what the person feels they must achieve.

If there are reasonably proportioned upper zone loops, this indicates someone who likes to think things through and use their imagination in a sensible way. Wider upper zone loops indicate more of a tendency to dream up ideas and mull them over. If the up-stroke goes up and then returns on top of itself, the writer may be squeezing out imagination and keeping to the basic requirement of getting down to the job in hand. lower zone (as in g, y, p, etc) Lower loops are also varied and have different meanings. For example a straight stroke shows impatience to get the job done. A 'cradle' lower stroke suggests an avoidance of aggression and confrontation. A full loop with heavy pressure indicates energy/money-making/sensuality possibilities, subject to correlation with other features. A full lower loop with light pressure indicates a need or wish for security. If there are many and varied shapes in the lower zone, the writer may feel unsettled and unfocused emotionally. Again the handwriting analyst would look for this to be indicated by other features in the script. word spacing The benchmark by which to judge wide or narrow spacing between words is the width of one letter of the person's handwriting. Wide spaces between words are saying - 'give me breathing space'.

Narrow spaces between words indicate a wish to be with others, but such writers may also crowd people and be intrusive, notably if the writing lacks finesse. line spacing Handwriting samples are always best on unlined paper, and particularly for exhibiting line-spacing features. Wide-spaced lines of handwriting show a wish to stand back and take a long view. Closely spaced lines indicates that that the writer operates close to the action. For writers who do this and who have writing that is rather loose in structure, the discipline of having to keep cool under pressure brings out the best in them. page margins The sides of the page each have a meaning. The left side margin shows the roots and beginnings/family. The right side shows other people and the future. The top is goals and ambitions. The foot of the page shows energy, instincts and practicality. Therefore margins are very informative. If the writer has a wide left margin, the interest is in moving on. If it is narrow, caution and wanting to avoid being pushed before they are ready is indicated. Narrow right margin shows impatience and eagerness to get out there and on with things. Wide right margin shows that there may be some fear of the unknown.

middle zone or case (as in a, c, e, etc) These middle zone shapes can give some particularly interesting information. The middle zone in the script represents the ego - from it we get a lot of information as to how the writer feels and acts in public settings - what makes them tick socially and at work. Some people's handwriting consists of only one single style, but many people will have a mixture of two handwriting styles or more. Again this provides useful information. All of these features have potentially positive and negative connotations; the analyst uses the flow and facility (ease, smoothness) of the script to infer a positive or negative interpretation. arcade This means that the middle zone of the writing is humped and rounded at the top like a series of arches. It is in the basic style of copy-book, though it is not taught in all schools. Writers who use this can be loyal, protective, independent, trustworthy and methodical, but negatively they can be secretive, stubborn and hypocritical when they choose. The most important characteristic is group solidarity against outsiders. garland Garland is like an inverted 'arcade' and is a people-orientated script.

These writers make their m's, n's and h's in the opposite way to the arcade writer, like cups, or troughs, into which people can pour their troubles or just give information. The Garland writer enjoys being helpful and likes to be involved. angle Angled middle zone is the analytical style, the sharp points, rather than curves, give the impression of probing. The angle writer, is better employing talents at work and for business or project purposes, rather than nurturing, which is the strength of the garland writer. As with any indicators of personality style, the interpretation doesn't mean that each writer needs to be categorised and prevented or dissuaded from spreading their talents and interests, but the analysis can helpfully show where the person's strengths can be best employed. thread Thread handwriting is like unravelled wool, waiting to be made up into something fresh. These writers are mentally alert and adaptable, but can also be elusive and lack patience. They are responders, rather than initiators. They can be very clever at drawing together strands of information and making something of them. Therefore they observe and bide their time, so that decisions are made at the most appropriate moment.

wavyline Wavyline handwriting is often an amalgam of all or most of the other forms and is usually written by people who are mentally mature and skilful. It shows that they can call on a variety of responses, to suit the occasion and indicates good coping mechanisms. They are adaptable and resourceful. These features and interpretations provide a small but useful guide as to the way people behave, and particularly how they handle their social requirements. Check your own handwriting against these pointers to see what you can learn or confirm about yourself, and see also how effective even just a few simple graphology techniques can be in revealing personality style. Understanding the personality through handwriting is a valuable way of making the best of both personal awareness and interpersonal situations for the benefit of all concerned. The aim in using graphology to analyse a person's handwriting must always be positive. The interpretation should enable people analysed to use the understanding gained, to help them live their lives to the highest level of satisfaction that they choose. In a professional or organizational context, graphology can play an important part in enabling working relationships to be forged that will enhance the quality of the group or team performance.

As a child you were taught to write, but it's not likely that you still write in the way you were taught. The fact that you don't helps to explain the reason graphology exists and why graphology can be used to interpret personality. Elaine Quigley BA Hons., MBIG (Dip) is a leading graphologist, psychologist and past chairman of the British Institute of Graphologists . (She now edits the Insitute's journal). Elaine offers advice for staff selection, counselling, lecturing, exhibition presentations, public speaking, and for TV, radio and newspaper articles. Elaine's background in dealing with individual clients and national companies has given her the flexibility and experience to provide valuable support in decision-making and interpersonal perception. Elaine Quigley is offering a special introductory price analysis of your handwriting for £50. This is a special offer to visitors of this page, so please mention the businessballs website if you contact Elaine to arrange your analysis. The contribution of this article is gratefully acknowledged. If you'd like to find out more or arrange handwriting analysis please contact Elaine Quigley direct.

Elaine Quigley BA Hons., MBIG (Dip) - email: elainequigley@tiscali.co.uk see also Handwriting Analysis, Graphology, Personality Profile Readings Graphology is the study of handwriting. By analyzing a person's writing, a behavioral profile can be determined to gain insight into physical, mental, and emotional states of the writer. Handwriting reveals the essentials of personality and character. Graphology will help you understand your inner being. Examples. Learn how the experts decipher what your handwriting means. What does your handwriting say about you? Website: Handwriting analysis, graphology, depicts an individual's physiological and psychological functions. The tactile and visually expressive behavior of writing uniquely fulfills the requirements for a projective personality test. Writing involves a complex neural pathway that dynamically integrates perception, motion, and cognition. This website presents a theoretical basis for correlating graphic expressive elements with behavioral traits. Each graphic indicator specifically describes and defines a characteristic behavior. A systematic training approach is suggested by grouping more than 200 traits by their graphic similarities to illustrate their behavioral nuances. Handwritingpro's Working Papers are designed for both the novice and the expert to record and rate handwriting traits prior to a personality analysis.

Using the Working Papers is a simple method to evaluate individual traits found in your handwriting. Handwritingpro offers logical reasons why graphology is an objective, practical, and economical personality test. Handwritingpro supplies graphology's legal status and its limitations. Handwritingpro displays more than a 350-book bibliography with a recommended reading list. The Assessment of Graphology — Central Intelligence Agency 22 SEPT 93 SECRET A professional assessor supports the amateur graphologist's appeal for validity tests, although not sharing his enchantment with the art. THE ASSESSMENT OF GRAPHOLOGY E. A. Rundquist Two threads of argument run through the foregoing article on handwriting analysis. The first asserts the great need for research studies because "a proper test run has never been devised and carried out, at least not in the United States, to determine whether any graphologist can consistently deliver accurate results in the area of character delineation." The second asserts the value of graphology here and now as an assessment technique, making sweeping claims of what it can do. The arguments are essentially incompatible. If the claims are correct, the research is unnecessary; if there is no research evidence, the claims are unsupported.

With the need for research to establish the value of graphology as an assessment technique I am in full agreement. I disagree with the claims for its current effectiveness. The article makes a number of cogent points. It distinguishes between the well-established branch of graphology devoted to problems of personal identification and the branch devoted to character analysis; it stresses the need for research studies; it recognizes many of the pitfalls that need be avoided in carrying out such studies; it acknowledges that traditional psychological assessment is preferable to handwriting analysis when direct access to the individual is possible. With these points I am in general agreement. A little elaboration of all but the first, which is too well established to require comment, may be helpful. Scope of Research In evaluating graphology--or any other assessment technique--not just one, but many studies are required. Studies of agreement among graphologists, the development of objective techniques for measuring characteristics of handwriting, refinements in the methods used, hypotheses such as "small handwriting with closed and knotted o's and a's indicates secretiveness"--all these are useful and interesting, but they do not answer the main question: How well does it in fact predict behavior? Or in the terms psychologists like to use: What is its validity?

Studies should therefore be concentrated in this area, a point I stress not in disagreement with Mr. Laycock, but because of its importance. Validation studies in the area of personality assessment are not easy to do. There are many complicating factors--getting a representative sample of persons to participate, getting the same kind of information about each, getting information in sufficiently specific terms on the behavior one is trying to predict. This last problem is recognized by Mr. Laycock as a semantic one. "What is a brave man?" he asks. If there is no agreement on what a brave man is, there is obviously no means of checking on anyone's assertion that a person is brave. More Pitfalls This semantic problem has another aspect which is often overlooked. It is not hard to write a personality description that applies to the vast majority of people. This "Barnum effect," as it has been called, is one of the charlatan's best friends. Psychologists prepare such descriptions to show their students that a person's agreement with the correctness of a personality description is not proper evidence of the value of any assessment technique. I once capitalized on the Barnum effect when instructing a group of twelve European intelligence officers, most of whom were favorably inclined toward graphology.

I asked them for handwriting specimens, and after a suitable interval produced personality descriptions for each of them, which ten of the twelve agreed fit very well. Then they were allowed to discover that I had given them all the same identical description, one I found in a German periodical before I left the States. To demonstrate further the dangers of accepting agreement with a personality description as evidence in favor of any assessment technique, I asked the twelve to describe themselves by answering true or false to a number of personality statements. All answered true to two of the statements--"You have a tendency to be critical of yourself" and "You prefer a certain amount of change and variety and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and limitations." And ten answered true to a third statement--"While you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them." Experimenting thus with a few more questions, one would soon have enough "true" statements to write a full description which every member of a group would agree applied to himself. This kind of demonstration underscores the passages in Mr. Laycock's article which call for specific, objective, and understandable items of behavior as the criterion or yardstick by which the validity of any assessment technique must be judged.

Capabilities of Psychological Assessment "Where full access is possible, a battery of tests, particularly of the real-situation type used in OSS, and a careful study of the subject's past performance and reputation will give as reliable a result as we can expect at this stage of our knowledge of man and yield something like a scientific picture of his inner workings." I take this to mean that direct assessment of the kind done by my staff in the CIA Office of Training is to be preferred over the graphological technique when access to the individual is possible. With this view, of course, I should like to agree wholeheartedly. But this brings me back to the article's claim that "In most cases, competent graphologists can supply reliable estimates on ... disposition to talk too much . . . emotional stability under stress . . . aggressiveness, resistance, and tenacity . . . attitude toward money . . . disposition to deceive . . . inclination toward opportunism . . . desire for power . . . willingness to follow the lead of others . . . rebelliousness . . . rashness" and "reasonably good estimates on ... capacity for abstract thinking and logic . . .

ability to deal with people, powers of observation, imagination" as well as "a good educated guess" about "sex difficulties . . . disposition to engage in criminal activities ... disposition to engage in violence against persons." Even for the extremely thorough assessment process conducted by my staff I would not claim so much. Either our own methods have greater capabilities than we credit them with, or the article errs in conceding the superiority of "direct-access" assessment over handwriting analysis. If evidence can be produced to establish that graphology can do all this, I shall hasten to incorporate it into our assessment process and eliminate much of the interviewing and testing we do. "There are certain things a graphologist can not tell," writes Mr. Laycock. Certainly my list here would be much longer than his. But I am genuinely puzzled by some of the things included in this list, and by the statement that "the graphologist is entitled to know the writer's age, sex, national origin, and profession, since he cannot tell these facts from the specimens, and they are invaluable interpretive aids." I am confused by the inclusion of sex, because there are studies indicating quite clearly that differences in handwriting do exist 1 which permit determination of sex at a better than chance level.

I haven't seen any studies on the other characteristics, but except for exact profession they are the kind of thing I would think might be inferred from handwriting at a little better than chance level. Psychologists are impressed by the difficulty of making predictions about a changing individual in a changing environment. They are very much aware that such predictions can refer only to probabilities. Psychologists desire, therefore, as the core of their assessment process, means and techniques which have been validated by methodical research. Tests of general intellectual ability, of some aptitudes, and of interests, along with information about past behavior, are among these means. New means can be developed only by testing claims for special techniques in the same methodical way. Prospects for Graphology Up until recently the evidence concerning graphology as an assessment technique has been so negative that psychologists generally have preferred to concentrate on techniques that showed more promise. The negative evidence came from studies of graphological tenets equating specific handwriting characteristics, such as upward sloping lines, with specific traits, such as ambition. On the basis of such studies, graphology as a means of assessment has been lumped with astrology, phrenology, and other systems for reading character from physical characteristics such as length of fingers or color of hair.

Handwriting is, however, the product of a person. There is therefore some reason to expect it might tell something about him. This reasoning, fostered by graphology itself as it became concerned with the movements underlying handwriting rather than the handwriting itself, has led to the devising of different kinds of studies. These studies, while not yet convincing, do make it clear that the value of graphology is not yet a closed question. One of the better ones, for example, found that a graphologist trying to infer from handwriting how 50 neurotics would answer 27 questions (1,350 items in all) achieved an accuracy of 62 percent as against the 50 percent to be expected by chance. 2 The graphologist may have been helped by knowing that all were neurotics, and so the 62 percent may be a bit high. Even taking the data at face value, these predictions turned out not much better than chance results; but the study suggests that research in this area might be more worthwhile than many had thought. It also points to the need for more research to pin down just what kinds of things can be predicted and what kinds of things cannot. In Mr.

Laycock's list of things a graphologist can determine is included "important changes in character (by comparison of present with past calligraphies)." Research on change in handwriting over time and under various conditions appears to offer some promise. At least common observation suggests that changes are caused by illness, either physical or mental. At the present time I do not consider the evidence for graphology as an assessment technique sufficiently impressive to include it in assessments for which we have direct access to the individual. I don't sponsor research on it for this purpose as a matter of economics. I have only so many dollars, and I think I will get a better return from other assessment techniques. And even if we did not have access to the individual, I'd still place my bets on investigation of his past behavior, his education, his jobs, social status, income, and so on. It is interesting that graphologists, according to the article, require some of this investigative information (sex, age, national origin, and profession) as a prerequisite for their analysis. They also get the informational content of the handwriting specimens themselves. From these data a number of inferences are already possible.

Consider, for example, the differences in characteristics one might assume with confidence between an age 50 female English secretary and a 21-year-old male German lawyer. I'd be inclined to rely on the implications of this information, and would be extremely cautious in accepting inferences, whatever their source, that were inconsistent with it. The article claims, for example, that "most accountants and bookkeepers can tell you, without even thinking, how a man feels about money by the way he writes a check." I'd rather have the evidence on how he uses his money that can be obtained by looking at his cancelled checks. So, I guess, would the banker, who lends money on investigation of background and permanence of job, not on handwriting analysis. It is dangerous to allow inferences from less well validated information to influence those obtained from valid sources. For the clandestine services, however, graphology as a validated assessment technique might have application in a sufficient number of instances, those where background investigation is impossible, to warrant considerable research to determine its effectiveness. I would like to see these studies start on whatever simple verifiable characteristics graphologists are willing to try. Should these prove successful, studies of more complex traits can be undertaken. I can agree with Mr.

Laycock that the study should cover the abilities of a number of particular graphologists-that graphology may be an art, but certainly is not a science. In my mind there is even the nagging question whether it is a practical art. A problem with an art is that a particular person's skill in applying it may change over time. There is no way of knowing whether a practitioner's predictions a year later will have the same value as those he made when he was tested. It is for this reason that psychologists, as scientists, keep trying to find ways to convert the art of judging people to a science. They try to tease out, objectify, and measure the basis for their predictions, so that the assessment skill can be communicated to others and used reliably with a variety of persons in a variety of situations. Mr. Laycock is greatly concerned with getting some research started. So am I; for until we get more information on the validity of graphology for specific purposes, the differences between his views and mine on graphology as an assessment technique, and my concern over the danger of unwarranted credence in graphological findings, will persist. Psychologists charged with personnel assessment are ready to cooperate in such studies.

Their only requirement is that the research be so conducted that a group of scientists will agree on the kinds of conclusions that can be drawn from it. 1 A. Anastasi & J. P. Foley, Jr., Differential Psychology (Revised edition; New York: Macmillan, 1949) p. 663; C. L. Hull, Aptitude Testing (Yonkers-on-Hudson: World Book Company, 1928) p. 147. 2 H. J. Eysenck, "Graphological Analysis and Psychiatry: An Experimental Study," British Journal of Psychology, 1945, 35, 70-81. SECRET

Question: Of what is graphology the study?
Answer: Handwriting