President Clinton, Prime Minister Blair Agree on Open Access to Human Genome Sequence - National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) President Clinton, Prime Minister Blair Agree on Open Access to Human Genome Sequence June 26, 2000 Archived Page This page has been archived and is provided for historical reference purposes only. The content and links are no longer maintained and may now be outdated. The Human Genome Project: Benefiting All Humanity March 2000 "Later this year, researchers will complete the first draft of the entire human genome, the very blueprint of life. It is important for all our fellow Americans to recognize that federal tax dollars have funded much of this research, and that this and other wise investments in science are leading to a revolution in our ability to detect, treat, and prevent disease." President Clinton January 27, 2000 State of the Union Address At today's Medals of Science and Technology awards ceremony, the President will announce that he and Prime Minister Tony Blair have agreed on a statement of principle to ensure that discoveries from the human genome are used to advance human health.

Their joint statement, to be issued in the United States and the United Kingdom today, applauds researchers who have made their human genome sequence data freely available to the global scientific community and calls upon others to follow their lead. The statement also acknowledges the importance of intellectual property protection as an incentive for the development of important, new, gene-based health care products. ACCESS TO FUNDAMENTAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE HUMAN GENOME WILL IMPROVE HEALTH. The United States and the United Kingdom are the leading partners in the Human Genome Project, the international effort to map and sequence the 3 billion "letters" and to locate and identify the roughly 100,000 genes that make up the human genetic code. This project will revolutionize the practice of medicine, providing the means to custom tailor treatments to the needs of each patient, and prolong healthy life by predicting and preventing diseases. Unencumbered access to the raw human sequence data will promote its use by scientists all over the world in their efforts to understand human biology and disease at the level of individual genes. The single most important development in human biology in the short term will be the completion of the sequencing of the human genome. Government-funded research activities have made important contributions to this result.

The private sector has also made significant advances in recent years. The single biggest challenge to humankind will be to take this vast storehouse of information and rapidly develop new products to diagnose and treat human disease. That process will require continued support for government research. It will also require a suitable environment for the private sector to develop new products, including appropriate intellectual property protection. The president's budget calls for a $1 billion increase for biomedical research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), to nearly $18.8 billion. These funds will support merit-based, peer-reviewed research, largely conducted by individual investigators. Biomedical research continues to pave the way toward better diagnostics, treatments and cures. Recent breakthroughs have led to techniques that hold promise for treating Parkinson's disease, diabetes, heart disease and many other debilitating disorders. As new health risks arise, prevention of disease also requires increased attention. With the increase requested for FY 2001, NIH plans to focus on the following four themes: exploiting the power of genomics; reinvigorating clinical research; harnessing the expertise of allied scientific and engineering disciplines that contribute to biomedical research; and reducing disparities in health.

The increase will support research in areas such as diabetes, brain disorders, cancer, genetic medicine, disease prevention strategies and development of an AIDS vaccine. Research & Development (R&D) Budget - a Bold Course of Strategic Growth and Prosperity Through Discovery. The President and the Vice President remain unwavering in their support for science and technology as crucial investments in our future. These investments enable our nation to compete aggressively in the global marketplace, protect our environment and manage our natural resources in a sustainable manner, safeguard our national security from emerging threats, and spur the technological innovation that has contributed so much to our economic prosperity and quality of life. The FY 2001 budget for R&D continues the important R&D trends established by the President and Vice President: This is the eighth consecutive year that the President and Vice President have proposed increased investments in civilian research and development. Civilian R&D is up 43 percent since they have taken office. It boosts funding for basic research by 7 percent -- a $1.3 billion increase. Funding for basic research is up 52 percent since 1993. R&D support to Universities increases 8 percent -- a $1.3 billion increase.

R&D support to universities is up 53 percent since 1993. And perhaps most importantly, this budget presents a balanced R&D portfolio, which recognizes the interdependence among the scientific disciplines. Gains in one field are often dependent on advances in others. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT FACT SHEET Benefiting All Humanity. The Human Genome Project (HGP), an international effort formally begun in October 1990, was planned to last 15 years, but rapid technological advances have accelerated the expected completion date by at least two years. The project's goals [ornl.gov] are to discover all of the approximate 100,000 human genes (the human genome) and make them accessible for further biological study and to determine the complete sequence of the 3 billion DNA subunits (bases). As part of the HGP, parallel studies are being carried out on selected model organisms such as the bacterium E. coli to help develop the technology and interpret human gene function. The HGP is also the first large scientific undertaking to address the ethical, legal and social issues that may arise from such a project.

The National Institutes of Health's National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) and the Department of Energy's Human Genome Program together make up the U.S. Human Genome Project, the world's largest centrally coordinated biology research project ever undertaken. The U.K.'s Wellcome Trust, a private philanthropy, also contributes to the global initiative and supports one of the five principal large-scale human genome sequencing centers. Longer Lives and Better Health. The project will reap enormous benefits for humankind, some that we can anticipate and others that will surprise us. Biologists and researchers will have access to detailed DNA information that is key to understanding the structure, organization and function of DNA in chromosomes. Genome maps of other organisms will provide the basis for comparative studies that are often critical to understanding more complex biological systems. Information generated and technologies developed will revolutionize future biological explorations. Technology and resources generated by the HGP and other genomics research are already having a major impact on research across the life sciences. For example, the HGP has produced detailed maps that can be used to help pinpoint genes associated with particular diseases, leading to better treatment and prevention methods.

A prime example is that families at risk of hereditary colon cancer can now be screened and lessen their chances of dying from this illness with surveillance and dietary measures. The potential for commercial development of genomics research also presents U.S. industry with a wealth of opportunities, and sales of DNA-based products and technologies in the biotechnology industry are projected to exceed $45 billion by 2009. BBC - History : British History Timeline 15 August 1947 India gains independence from Britain India was regarded as the most valuable British imperial possession. World War Two forced Britain to realise that it could not maintain a global empire and the British agreed to Indian self-government. However, they could not find a political solution that was acceptable to both Hindus and Muslims, and the country was partitioned into India and Pakistan. The British were unable to prevent the resulting inter-communal violence which resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths. 22 June 1948 Post-war immigration from the Commonwealth begins The liner 'SS Empire Windrush' docked at Tilbury carrying nearly 500 Caribbean immigrants to Britain, many attracted by offers of work.

This arrival represented the beginning of significant immigration to Britain from the Commonwealth, particularly the Caribbean, and later the Indian subcontinent. 5 July 1948 National Health Service is established The National Health Service, established by the post-war Labour government, represented a fundamental change in the provision of medical services. The General Practitioner (GP) service became organised on the basis of a 'capitation fee' paid by the government on every patient registered with a doctor. Voluntary and municipal hospitals were integrated under state control, exercised by the Ministry of Health 25 July 1948 Berlin Airlift begins after Soviet forces blockade the city In June 1948, the Soviet Union began a blockade of Berlin, which had been divided into occupation zones by the victorious Allies at the end of the war. They hoped to drive the western Allies out of Berlin. The following month, British and American aircraft began to airlift supplies to West Berliners. In total, there were more than 277,000 flights to deliver food, fuel and medicine. In May 1949, the Soviets backed down and lifted their blockade.

29 July 1948 Olympic Games open at Wembley Stadium in London The so-called 'Austerity Games' were held in London while rationing was still in force in Britain. Fifty nine nations took part, but the defeated powers of Germany and Japan were excluded. London saw the first Olympic photo finish, in the 100 metres, and the introduction of starting blocks for sprinters. These were the first Games since Berlin in 1936. The 1940 Games went to Tokyo, then Stockholm, but were cancelled - as were the 1944 games - due to World War Two. 18 April 1949 Republic of Ireland comes into being The Republic of Ireland Act (1948) came into force on Easter Monday, April 1949, ending vestigial British authority in Eire. Under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, the British crown had retained some authority in the Irish Free State, although this was limited by the 1937 constitution. The 1948 Act repealed the External Relations Act and took Eire out of the Commonwealth.

8 June 1949 George Orwell's novel 'Nineteen Eighty-Four' is published Orwell's novel was a bleak political account of the future, in which big government had created a destructive totalitarianism which denied both human values and the truth. The novel made a major impact - such that it contributed the phrase 'Big Brother' to the language - and was seen as an attack on the Soviet Union. 23 February 1950 Labour wins the general election with Clement Attlee returned as prime minister Labour remained in government but its majority fell greatly, to only five seats, as the electorate's enthusiasm for Labour's post-war vision dwindled away. 29 August 1950 British troops arrive to support US forces in the Korean War British troops were sent to help the US-led United Nations force repel the Communist invasion of South Korea by North Korea. The conflict set the pattern for the Cold War, with South Korea backed by the US and its allies, and North Korea backed by the Soviet Union and China. An armistice was agreed in July 1953 and Korea was partitioned.

Approximately two million Korean civilians, 1.5 million Communist troops and 450,000 UN and South Korean troops were killed. No peace treaty was ever agreed. 3 May 1951 Festival of Britain is opened by George VI The Festival sought to sustain a mood of post-war optimism and confidence - or at least interest - in new solutions. The site chosen for the Festival, on the South Bank of the Thames, London, had been extensively bombed in World War Two. The dominant artistic mood of the Festival was neo-Romantic, apt for the traditionalist 1950s, although the Royal Festival Hall itself was a Modernistic work. 23 October 1951 Conservatives under Winston Churchill win the general election The Labour government fell as the Conservatives won a clear majority. Remarkably, Winston Churchill became prime minister again at the age of 76. He focused on foreign affairs, including reducing escalating Cold War tensions and maintaining the 'special relationship' with America, which he had done so much to develop during World War Two. Other foreign concerns included the Malayan emergency and the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya.

6 February 1952 Elizabeth II succeeds her father, George VI Princess Elizabeth was in Kenya when news of her father's death reached her. She immediately returned to Britain and was crowned on 2 June 1953. Elizabeth II proved an experienced and skilful adviser of successive prime ministers, but was careful to main constitutional conventions and not take a political stand publicly. Nonetheless, she held strong opinions, not least a belief in the Commonwealth. Under Elizabeth, members of the royal family maintained their important charitable role. 25 April 1953 Watson and Crick publish their discovery of the structure of DNA Scientists James Watson and Francis Crick were the first to describe the structure of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, which makes up the genes that pass hereditary characteristics from parent to child. They received the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, which they shared with another DNA pioneer, Maurice Wilkins. A hugely important discovery, it has since formed the basis for a wide range of scientific advances. 5 April 1955 Winston Churchill retires as prime minister Winston Churchill was by now 80 and his health was declining.

He was succeeded as prime minister by Anthony Eden, who had also served as Churchill's Foreign Secretary and was widely recognised as his 'heir apparent'. Conservatives win the general election, with Sir Anthony Eden as prime minister This Conservative victory, with 345 seats to Labour's 277, strengthened the Conservatives' parliamentary position. 22 September 1955 Commercial television starts with the first ITV broadcast The monopoly of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was broken when commercial television companies, financed by advertising, began broadcasting under the name of Independent Television (ITV) following the Television Act of 1954. The BBC started broadcasting a second channel, BBC Two, in 1964, and Channel 4 started broadcasting in 1982. 11 February 1956 'Cambridge spies' surface in Moscow after disappearing in 1951 Two British diplomats, Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean, were among five men recruited by the Soviet secret service, the KGB, at Cambridge University in the 1930s. The others were Harold (Kim) Philby, Anthony Blunt and John Cairncross.

All had been involved in passing to the Soviets highly damaging military information, and the identities of British agents. Burgess and Maclean, who had fled Britain five years before, suddenly reappeared in the Soviet Union where they denied being spies. 8 May 1956 John Osborne's play 'Look Back in Anger' is staged The 'Angry Young Men' generation of writers rejected what they saw as Britain's vulgar 'materialist' society, which they believed was disagreeable in itself and frustrating to them as individuals. Social values were lacerated by Osborne's play and in the novels 'Room at the Top' (1957) by John Braine, 'Saturday Night and Sunday Morning' (1958) by Alan Sillitoe, and 'This Sporting Life' (1960) by David Storey. 5 July 1956 Worsening pollution prompts the passing of the Clean Air Act The Clean Air Act was part of a general move towards a cleaner environment, directed in particular against the burning of coal in urban areas. The Act was in response to the severe London smog of 1952, which killed more than 4,000 people.

Another Clean Air Act followed in 1968. 17 October 1956 Britain switches on its first nuclear power station Calder Hall, Britain's first nuclear power station - and the first in the world to supply substantial quantities of electricity to a national system - was opened by Elizabeth II. 5 November 1956 Britain and France invade Egypt after nationalisation of the Suez Canal The Suez Crisis was sparked when Britain and France, allied with Israel, invaded Egypt over its decision to nationalise the Suez Canal - a vital waterway connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. Under American pressure, the canal was handed back to Egypt and the invasion force was withdrawn. The crisis revealed Britain's declining world status and its subordination to the US. 9 January 1957 Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden resigns and is replaced by Harold Macmillan The Suez Crisis of 1956 ruined Anthony Eden's reputation and fatally compromised his political career. His health seriously diminished as a result. His successor, Harold Macmillan, had been chancellor of the exchequer under Eden. Macmillan was the third Conservative prime minister in as many years.

6 March 1957 Ghana becomes the first British colony in Africa to gain independence The British colony of Gold Coast gained its independence, with Kwame Nkrumah as its first leader, following election victories for Nkrumah's nationalist Convention People's Party (CPP). The country was renamed Ghana in the declaration of independence. This event marked the beginning of rapid decolonisation in Africa. 15 May 1957 Britain tests its first hydrogen bomb Following tests over Christmas Island in the Pacific Ocean, the government announced that Britain had joined the Soviet Union and the US as a nuclear power, with its own hydrogen bomb. The tests led to a debate in Britain about the dangers of nuclear weapons, and to the foundation in 1958 of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). 5 December 1958 Motorway system opens with the M6 Preston bypass The opening of the M6 Preston bypass by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan was the first stage in the motorway system. The following year, the M1 was punched through the Midlands from Watford to Birmingham. The developing motorway system encouraged a major rise in long-distance private and goods travel by road.

8 October 1959 Conservatives under Harold Macmillan win the general election In a massive personal triumph for Harold Macmillan, the Conservatives won by 365 seats (and 49.3% of the vote) to 258 for Labour. The Conservative campaign slogan 'you've never had it so good' reflected the growing affluence of the electorate. 14 January 1963 France vetoes Britain's entry to the European Common Market President of France Charles de Gaulle announced the French veto on Britain's application to join the European Common Market, the forerunner of the European Union. De Gaulle said the British government lacked 'commitment' to European integration. October 1963 New universities open and students get state support The Robbins Report on Higher Education (1963) was followed by the state-funded growth of universities. Government support was seen as necessary, not least in order to change the social composition of the student body. State-paid fees and maintenance were designed to help increase the percentage of working-class students. New universities were established, including Essex, Lancaster, Kent and Sussex.

19 October 1963 Conservative Sir Alec Douglas-Home becomes prime minister Sir Alec Douglas-Home became Conservative party leader and prime minister following the resignation of Harold Macmillan on health grounds. He became the fourth Conservative prime minister since 1951. The preceeding three - Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden and Macmillan - all resigned for a variety of reasons. 1964 Abolition of Resale Price Maintenance prompts the rise of supermarkets Resale Price Maintenance (RPM) obliged shops to sell goods at standard prices set by suppliers, and thus prevented the search for better business through undercutting. This helped small independent shopkeepers in their resistance to larger traders. Abolition of RPM opened the way to the rise of supermarkets and the transformation of the retail industry. 15 October 1964 Labour wins the general election, with Harold Wilson as prime minister Labour, under Harold Wilson, narrowly won the general election, by 317 seats to 304 for the Conservatives. Considered something of an intellectual, Wilson successfully contrasted his 'meritocratic' beliefs against his 'establishment' opponent, Conservative Alec Douglas-Home.

12 July 1965 Comprehensive education system is initiated Circular 10/65', issued by the Labour government's education secretary, Anthony Crosland, obliged local education authorities to draw up plans for replacing the existing division between 'grammar' and 'secondary modern' schools in order to create all-inclusive 'comprehensive' schools. It represented the first step towards a comprehensive education system that served all pupils on an equal basis. 8 November 1965 Death penalty is abolished The abolition of the death penalty for murder - one of the few remaining crimes for which capital punishment could still be handed down - effectively meant the final abolition of the death penalty. This was a major symbolic act in the reduction of the power of the state. The death sentence for treason and piracy with violence remained on the statue books until 1998 when they were abolished by the Crime and Disorder Act. 31 March 1966 Labour strengthens its parliamentary position in the general election Labour's share of the vote went up from 44.1% in the 1964 general election to 48%, and the Conservatives down from 43.4 to 41.9.

The shift in seats, from 317 to 364, compared with 304 to 253, was more dramatic, leaving Harold Wilson, the Labour prime minister, with a much-improved majority of nearly 100. 30 July 1966 England win the football World Cup England defeated West Germany in the World Cup final, which was held at Wembley and watched by 93,000 people in the stadium and 400 million people around the world on television. Geoff Hurst became the first - and thusfar only - player to score a hat-trick in a World Cup final when he powered home his third goal in the final moments of extra time, giving England a decisive 4-2 victory. 1967 Abortion and homosexuality are legalised A number of Acts of Parliament in this period reflected the changing social climate. As well as the 1967 Sexual Offences Act, which legalised homosexuality between men over 21, and the 1967 Abortion Act which legalised abortion under certain conditions, there was also the 1969 Divorce Reform Act and the 1970 Equal Pay Act.

1 June 1967 Beatles release 'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band' This was the Beatles' eighth album, and is widely recongnised as one of the most influential records ever released. The album was heavily influenced by the group's increasing use of drugs, and enjoyed immediate critical and popular success at the start of the 'psychedelic era'. Peter Blake's collage for the album cover has become iconic. 2 March 1969 Concorde, the world's first supersonic airliner, makes its maiden flight The first supersonic (above the speed of sound) airliner was developed jointly by Britain and France. It did not begin commercial flights until 1976. The fleet was grounded in 2000 after Concorde's first and only major fatal accident in July of that year. Concorde was finally retired in 2003. 18 June 1970 Conservatives win the general election, with Edward Heath as prime minister The Conservatives won the general election by 330 seats to 287 for Labour. This unexpected result appears to have reflected doubts about Labour's economic management, a view focused by a poor set of trade figures.

The failure of Labour to motivate its own supporters was also important. Evidence suggested that voters had turned against Harold Wilson, rather than towards the uncharismatic Edward Heath. 6 February 1971 First British soldier is killed in Northern Ireland's 'Troubles' The first British soldier, Gunner Robert Curtis (aged 20), was killed in Northern Ireland's 'Troubles' by the self-styled 'Irish Republican Army' (IRA). He was shot while on foot patrol in North Belfast. British troops had been sent to Northern Ireland in 1969 in a 'limited operation' to restore law and order. 15 February 1971 Decimalised currency replaces 'pounds, shillings and pence' The old sterling denominations of pounds, shillings and pennies were phased out over a period of 18 months, and replaced with decimal pounds and pennies. The decimalisation of the pound came to be blamed for an increase in inflation. 20 August 1971 North Sea oil concessions are auctioned The discovery of oil under the North Sea was a major boost to British public finances.

Drilling and exploration concessions were auctioned to maximise government income, and the first oil was piped ashore at Teesside in 1975. Full scale exploitation of the fields would not begin until the 1980s, when rising oil prices made it economically viable. 30 January 1972 British army kills 14 in Londonderry, Northern Ireland, on Bloody Sunday British troops opened fire on a crowd of civil rights protestors in Londonderry, Northern Ireland, killing 13 civilians and injuring a further 17. The crowd of between 7,000 and 10,000 people had been marching in protest at the policy of detention without trial. The sequence of events on 'Bloody Sunday' remains highly controversial, with accusations that senior IRA figures were present on the day and shot at British troops. 4 August 1972 Idi Amin expels Uganda's Asians and many settle in Britain On 4 August, Ugandan President Idi Amin gave his country's Asian population just 90 days to leave, claiming god had told him to do it in a dream.

Over half of the 55,000 Asians expelled from Uganda came to Britain and many settled permanently. Their resettlement came to be viewed as a success story. In 1991, President of Uganda Yoweri Museveni invited them to 'return home' to help the Ugandan economy. 1 January 1973 Britain joins the European Economic Community Britain, Ireland and Denmark joined the European Economic Community (EEC), bringing the total number of member states to nine. The three countries, together with Norway, signed an accession treaty in 1972, but Norwegians rejected the treaty in a referendum. Britain held a referendum on the matter in 1975, after renegotiating its terms of entry, and 67% voted in favour of staying in the EEC. 28 February 1974 Election ends in a 'hung parliament' with Harold Wilson as prime minister The Conservatives won more votes than Labour (37.9% of the popular vote to 37.1%), but Labour won more seats (301 to 297). Neither party had achieved an outright majority, resulting in a 'hung parliament'.

The Liberals, with 19.3% and 14 seats, held the balance of power. Edward Heath initially held on to office in the hope of persuading the Liberals to enter into a coalition, but the Liberals rejected this idea and Harold Wilson returned to head a minority administration. 10 October 1974 Labour wins a tiny majority in the election with Harold Wilson as prime minister In order to tackle his party's minority status following the 'hung parliament' produced by the general election of February 1974, Harold Wilson called a new election, which he won with a small overall majority. Labour's percentage of the vote went up from 37.1 to 39.2, while Conservative percentage fell from 37.9 to 35.8. 16 March 1976 Prime Minister Harold Wilson resigns and is replaced by James Callaghan Harold Wilson's resignation after 13 years as Labour leader and nearly eight as prime minister was completely unexpected, and has never been properly explained. It was probably related to his awareness of the early onset of Alzheimer's disease and a feeling that he was losing control.

On 5 April, James Callaghan was elected Labour Party leader and became the new prime minister. September 1976 Britain is forced to borrow money from the International Monetary Fund A crisis in sterling forced the Labour government to turn to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), making Britain the first major Western state to be forced into this humiliating course of action. In return for the loan, the IMF demanded cuts in government spending. After a political battle within the British government, the IMF terms were accepted and imposed in December. 25 July 1978 World's first test-tube baby is born in Oldham Louise Brown, the first 'test-tube baby', was a success for 'in vitro' fertilisation (IVF), a method by which egg and sperm are mixed in a glass dish, and the embryos inserted into the womb. By the end of the 20th century, about 1,400 IVF babies were being born each year. Winter 1978/79 Strikes paralyse Britain during the so-called 'Winter of Discontent' Industrial action by petrol tanker and lorry drivers was followed by hospital ancillary staff, ambulance men and dustmen going on strike.

Hospitals were picketed, the dead left unburied, and troops called in to control rats swarming around heaps of uncollected rubbish. The large number of simultaneous strikes, the violence and perceived mean-mindedness of the picketing (which included the turning away of ambulances) created a sense of alarm in the electorate about the decline of British society. 1 March 1979 Scotland and Wales reject devolution The referenda required the support of 40% of the electorate, not simply the majority of votes. This was not obtained in Scotland, although the majority of votes were in favour of devolution. Devolution was heavily defeated in Wales. As a result of the referenda, the Scottish Nationalists joined the Conservatives and Liberals in passing a vote of no confidence in the government, and Labour lost control of the House of Commons - a bad prelude to the general election. 3 May 1979 Conservative Margaret Thatcher becomes Britain's first female prime minister Margaret Thatcher, party leader since 1975, became Britain's first female prime minister with a majority of 43 seats.

The Conservatives won 43.9% of the votes and 339 seats, Labour 36.9% and 269 seats, and Liberals 13.8%. She came to power on the promise that the Conservatives would cut income tax, reduce public expenditure, make it easier for people to buy their own homes and curb the power of the unions. 27 August 1979 IRA kill the Queen's cousin Lord Mountbatten Elizabeth II's cousin, Lord Louis Mountbatten, one of his teenage grandsons and two others were killed by a bomb on his boat at Mullaghmore in county Sligo, Ireland. On the same day the IRA also killed 18 soldiers at Warrenpoint in County Down. 11 April 1981 Racial tensions spark riots in Brixton and other areas Serious rioting in Brixton following the arrest of a local black man marked the start of violent unrest across England. In London's Southall, Toxteth in Liverpool, Moss Side in Manchester, and to a lesser extent other centres such as Derby, crowds rioted, looted, and fought the police.

Many of the riots reflected specific local problems, especially poor relations between predominantly black communities and the police. 24 June 1981 Humber Bridge opens, the longest single-span bridge in the world The Humber Bridge was built between 1972 and 1980. At the time, it was the longest single-span bridge in the world at nearly 2,200m. 3 October 1981 Hunger strike by Republican prisoners ends after ten deaths Republican prisoners at the Maze prison near Belfast had begun their hunger strike over the right to be treated as political prisoners rather than criminals. A first strike, begun in late 1980, was called off with no deaths. But failure to secure concessions resulted in a second, led by Bobby Sands. It began in March 1981. The British government refused to concede. Ten men, including Sands, starved themselves to death, while 61 people were killed outside the prison in related violence. 26 January 1982 Economic recession leads to high unemployment Unemployment breached the psychologically significant barrier of three million as manufacturing was hard hit by a deep economic recession.

2 April 1982 Argentina invades the British territory of the Falkland Islands Three days after the invasion, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sent a naval task force to liberate the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic. The subsequent conflict cost the lives of 655 Argentine and 255 British servicemen, many of them sailors who died during attacks on Royal Navy warships. The conflict ended on 14 June when the commander of the Argentine garrison at Port Stanley surrendered to British troops. 10 June 1983 Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher is re-elected by a landslide The Conservatives were re-elected with 379 seats and an enormous majority of 144 seats. Labour's share crashed to 209 seats. The Social Democratic-Liberal 'Alliance' won 23 seats. The Conservatives benefited from division among their opponents and doubts about Labour's competence on the economy and defence. Thatcher's government used its majority to embark on a radical programme of privatisation and deregulation, trade union reform and tax cuts.

12 March 1984 12-month 'Miners' Strike' over pit closures begins A local strike on 5 March over a threatened pit closure in Yorkshire had, within a week, broadened into a national miners' strike. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher pitted her personal authority against that of the militant socialist president of the National Union of Mineworkers, Arthur Scargill. There were violent clashes between striking miners and policemen. The strike failed and was called off after a year, allowing the pit closures to go ahead. The strike left a legacy of deep bitterness. 12 October 1984 IRA bombers strike at the Conservative conference in Brighton The bombing by Irish Republican Army terrorists of the Grand Hotel Brighton during the Conservative Party conference killed five and left more than 30 injured. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher narrowly escaped the blast. It was the closest the IRA had come to killing a British prime minister. 8 December 1986 Major national industries are privatised The privatisation of British Gas was a major step in the Conservative government's policy of privatisation.

It paved the way for the privatisation of British Aerospace, Cable and Wireless, Britoil, the National Bus Company, British Airways, Rolls Royce, British Steel, British Telecom, the electricity-generating industry and the water companies. These sales cut government expenditure, by bringing in large sums of money and by reducing the need for state subsidies. 11 June 1987 Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher wins a third term Margaret Thatcher was re-elected for an historic third term, with an overall majority of 101 - less than in 1983, but still significant. The Conservatives had 376 seats (42.3 % of the vote), Labour 229 (30.8%) and Alliance 22 (22.5%). It paved the way for Thatcher to become the longest serving prime minister for more than 150 years. Signs of a Labour recovery appeared in Scotland, where they won 50 of the 72 seats.

1989 Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web In 1989, while working at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Switzerland, Tim Berners-Lee came up with the idea of the World Wide Web, a new way of using existing internet technology to share information. He wrote the first web browser the following year, and went on to found the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in 1994. 31 March 1990 Introduction of new local taxes sparks 'poll tax' riots in London The Conservative plans for a 'poll tax', introduced in England and Wales on 1 April 1990, provoked vocal opposition across Britain in the form of anti-poll tax rallies and acts of civil disobedience. A largely peaceful march in London, attended by 70,000 people, degenerated into serious rioting centred on Trafalgar Square. The unpopularity of the tax contributed to the downfall of Margaret Thatcher. Her successor John Major replaced the poll tax with the council tax.

22 November 1990 Margaret Thatcher resigns and John Major becomes prime minister Faced by large-scale opposition within her own parliamentary party, Margaret Thatcher, who was widely seen as remote and autocratic, resigned as prime minister and leader of the Conservative Party. The crisis of confidence in her leadership had been sparked by her attitude to Europe, while her support for the so-called 'poll tax' had undermined her standing with the electorate. Five days later, John Major succeeded her as party leader and prime minister. 17 January 1991 Liberation of Kuwait begins as Allies launch Operation Desert Storm Iraqi President Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 and refused to withdraw. Following a massive military build up, US-led forces backed by a United Nations mandate launched 'Operation Desert Storm' to liberate Kuwait. A huge aerial bombardment preceded the ground attack on 24 February. The Iraqi army fell into headlong retreat and on 27 February, US President George Bush declared that Kuwait had been liberated. Saddam Hussein remained in power in Iraq.

9 April 1992 Conservatives win the general election, returning John Major as prime minister A poor Labour campaign by leader Neil Kinnock squandered significant support for the opposition and helped Conservative John Major to a surprise general election victory, with a slim overall majority of 21. The Conservatives won 326 seats, Labour 271. 6 May 1992 Channel Tunnel opens, linking London and Paris by rail The Channel Tunnel provided an unprecedented rail link between London and Paris, something that had been planned for over a century. The tunnel became the longest undersea tunnel in the world, measuring 50km in total, with 39km of it under the sea. Three tunnels - two for trains and one for service - lie an average of 40m below the sea bed. 16 September 1992 'Black Wednesday' forces withdrawal of sterling from the ERM Sterling, under strong financial pressure from speculation on the money markets, was pulled out of the European Union's Exchange Rate Mechanism. This was a major blow to the Conservatives' reputation for economic competence, but it relieved pressure on Britain's economy by ensuring that the currency could float independently.

1994 First women priests are ordained by the Church of England The decision to ordain women to the priesthood in the Church of England was taken in 1992 and implemented in 1994. It was a controversial step, welcomed by most of the church but rejected by traditionalists, some of whom joined the Catholic Church in protest. 1 May 1997 Labour wins the general election, with Tony Blair as prime minister Tony Blair had become leader of the Labour Party in 1994 after the sudden death of John Smith. Blair continued the modernisation of the party begun by Smith. Voters responded to 'New Labour' in the 1997 election, giving the party a huge majority of 179 seats. One of the new Labour government's first acts was to give the Bank of England control of interest rates. It also embarked on a programme of far-reaching constitutional reform. 1 July 1997 Britain hands Hong Kong back to China After more than 150 years of British rule, Hong Kong was returned to Chinese control.

Britain had held the New Territories north of Hong Kong under a 99-year lease that expired in 1997, requiring the 'handing back' of the colony to China. Under the 'One Country, Two Systems' policy, Hong Kong retained its own legal system, currency, customs policy and immigration laws for a minimum 50 years after the handover. 31 August 1997 Diana, Princess of Wales, dies in a car crash in Paris Diana was the ex-wife of the heir to the British throne, Charles, Prince of Wales. A controversial figure in life, Diana's death in a car crash in Paris provoked widespread public mourning. On 6 September, one million people lined the streets of London for her funeral. It was later discovered that the driver of the car in which he, Diana and her friend Dodi Al Fayed were killed had more than the legal limit of alcohol in his blood and was travelling at over 100mph.

September 1997 Scotland and Wales vote in favour of devolution In two referenda, a large majority in Scotland (74.9% of those who voted), and a smaller one in Wales (50.3%), provided the basis for the creation of national assemblies with legislative powers. The assemblies first met in 1999, with the Scottish Parliament, but not the Welsh Assembly, gaining tax-varying powers. 10 April 1998 Good Friday Agreement establishes a devolved Northern Irish assembly An agreement between Northern Ireland's nationalists and unionists was reached after 30 years of conflict, as a result British government negotiations and US pressure on Sinn Féin, the political wing of the Irish Republican Army. It set out plans for devolved government and provided for the early release of terrorist prisoners and the decommissioning of paramilitary weapons. Referenda in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland endorsed the agreement on 22 May. The assembly met on 1 July. 1 January 1999 Britain decides not to join the European Single Currency Widespread British unease about the European single currency obliged Prime Minister Tony Blair, who was keen on the project, to stay out.

The 'euro' was launched as an electronic currency used by banks, foreign exchange dealers, big firms and stock markets in 1999. Euro coins first hit the streets of the 12 'eurozone' countries on 1 January 2002. 1 January 2000 Britain celebrates the new millennium There were widespread celebrations of the new millennium and relief that the 'millennium bug', which had been predicted to cause global computer meltdown, failed to materialise. Elizabeth II and Prime Minister Tony Blair joined a party at the ill-starred Millennium Dome in Greenwich, east London. The controversial dome was considered a massive flop and only stayed open until December 2000. March 2000 Global stock markets tumble as the 'dotcom bubble' bursts The late 1990s saw a profusion of start-up companies selling products or services either using or related to the internet. There was a speculative frenzy of investment in these 'dotcom' companies, much of it by small investors. The bursting of the 'dotcom bubble' saw the collapse of many of these companies and marked the beginning of a mild yet lengthy recession.

2001 Foot-and-mouth disease wreaks havoc on rural Britain The nine-month epidemic of 'foot-and-mouth' disease resulted in the culling of millions of animals and devastated large sections of the rural economy. The crisis brought the countryside to a virtual standstill and the cost to British farming was put between £800 million and £2.4 billion. The Labour government was heavily criticised for its handling of the crisis. 7 June 2001 Labour wins the general election, with Tony Blair returned as prime minister Labour won a commanding majority of 167 seats. Prime Minister Tony Blair's second term came to be dominated by controversial foreign policy issues, mainly the 'war on terror' begun after the terror attacks in the United States on 11 September. The Conservative leader, William Hague, resigned after the party showed little sign of electoral recovery. 11 September 2001 Islamic terrorists crash aircraft on targets in New York and Washington Nineteen mainly Saudi Arabian terrorists used hijacked planes to destroy the twin towers of the World Trade Centre in New York and part of the Pentagon building in Washington. A fourth plane crashed in Pennsylvania, killing all on board.

Among the approximately 3,000 people killed in the attacks were 67 Britons. In response, US President George W Bush declared a worldwide 'war on terror'. 7 October 2001 Britain joins the US in strikes on Taleban-controlled Afghanistan British forces contributed to the initial US military strikes against the Islamic fundamentalist Taleban regime in Afghanistan - the first retaliation to the terrorist attacks of '9/11'. The Taleban, who had allowed the terrorist organisation al-Qaeda to use Afghanistan as a base, was overthrown and replaced with a US-backed administration. Coalition forces, including British troops, remain in Afghanistan. Osama Bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader responsible for the '9/11' attacks, was not found. 20 March 2003 Britain joins the US in an invasion of Iraq Despite significant opposition at home, the British government gave military support to the controversial United States-led invasion of Iraq. Crucially, the action was not backed by a United Nations mandate, sparking debate over the legality of the invasion. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was overthrown and captured.

Iraq now has a democratically elected government, but the country remains deeply unstable as a result of the deliberate stoking of sectarian tensions by terrorist groups. 1 May 2004 Ten new states join the European Union Ten new states from eastern and southern Europe joined the European Union, making it the largest trading bloc in the world by population. Their inclusion sparked fears, stoked by lurid media stories, of a huge influx of 'economic migrants' from the poorer eastern countries to the wealthier western countries such as Britain. 16 February 2005 Kyoto Protocol on measures to control climate change comes into force The agreement required countries to cut emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases by 5.2% by 2012. The treaty was signed by 141 countries but the world's largest economy - and largest polluter - the United States, did not ratify it. Climate scientists argued that the 5.2% target was far too low, and a 60% cut was needed to make an impact on climate change caused by human activity. 5 May 2005 Labour wins a third consecutive term with Tony Blair as prime minister Labour won, but with a substantially reduced majority.

Tony Blair joined Margaret Thatcher as the only post-war prime ministers to have won three successive general elections. Nonetheless, he quickly announced his intention not to stand for a fourth term, sparking ongoing speculation about when he would hand over to his annointed successor, Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown. Conservative leader Michael Howard resigned to make way for a younger leader. 7 July 2005 Suicide bombers kill 52 people on London's transport system Three men blew themselves up on London Underground trains, while a fourth exploded his bomb on a double-decker bus. Fifty two people were killed and more than 700 injured. On 21 July there were four more attempted suicide bombings in London, but none of the devices exploded. Islamic terrorist organisation Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility, but it is thought that the bombers, all British Muslims, acted alone. December 2005 Civil partnerships give same-sex couples legal rights Civil partnerships between same-sex couples were introduced in the 2004 Civil Partnership Act and came into law in December 2005. Partnered couples gained the same legal rights as married couples and were permitted to hold wedding-style 'civil union' ceremonies.

Question: Who was the British Prime Minister at the beginning of the year 2000?
Answer: Tony Blair