Sugar palm tree is one of multipurpose trees grown in Malaysia. It is a member of the Palmae family and naturally a forest species. It belongs to the subfamily Arecoideae and tribe Caryoteae. Haris1 reported that sugar palm have approximately around 150 local names indicating its multiple uses by the villagers. The names includes, Arenga pinnata, Areng palm, Black fibre palm, Gomuti palm, Aren, Irok, Bagot and Kaong. One of the most important products of the sugar palm tree is palm sugar locally known as neera sugar. Neera sugar usually used as food sweeterner in traditional food. Palm sugar can be consumed freshly or let it be fermented for a while to become palm wine2. It has been reported that sugar palm was the first sources of sugar, fermented drinks and syrup3. Besides yielding neera sugar, it also provides a great variety of products such as ropes, filters, brooms and roof materials. Sugar palm tree can also produce juices from its fruits. The fruits are white in colours which are taken from its fruit bunch.

They can be preserved in heavy syrup for canned Physico-chemical and Thermal Properties of Starch Derived from Sugar Palm Tree (Arenga pinnata) J. SAHARI1, S.M. SAPUAN1,2,3,*, E.S. ZAINUDIN2,3 and M.A.

MALEQUE4 1Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Institute of Advanced Technology, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 3Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 4Department of Manufacturing and Materials Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia *Corresponding author: E-mail: sapuan@upm.edu.my; drsapuan@gmail.com Received: 18 April 2013; Accepted: 27 August 2013; Published online: 15 February 2014; AJC-14677 Petroleum based polymers are extremely stable and commonly used in various industries include food packaging, furniture and automotive. However, the waste that come from petroleum based polymer material has brought negative impact not only for human being, but also create the serious environmental problems.

Hence, biopolymers that come from natural source such as starches are now being considered as an alternative to the existing petrochemical based polymers. This study was aimed to examine the potential of sugar palm starch extracted from sugar palm tree (Arenga pinnata) as a new biopolymer. The important properties of sugar palm starch studied were the chemical properties, thermal properties, particle size and morphological surface. The starches isolated from sugar palm tree contained comparable amounts of amylose (37.60 %) which were higher than tapioca, sago, potato, wheat and maize. The results showed significant differences in the chemical content as well as in the granule sizes of sugar palm starch. Thermal characteristic studies using thermogravimetry analysis and differential scanning calorimetry showed that sugar palm starch was thermally stable than other starches. Study on morphological surface indicated that sugar palm starch were rounded and oval-shaped. Keywords: Sugar palm starch, Biopolymer, Chemical properties, Thermal properties. product and the fruits can be cooked with sugary syrup for desserts. The outer part of the stem consists of wood which is extremely hard and durable. It can be processed for flooring, furniture and hand grips of tools.

It is also reported that the sugar palm’s roots are useful for medicine4,5. Nowadays, researchers are more focusing on production of bioethanol that can be derived from neera sugar via fermentation process6,7. Apart from that, sugar palm starch (SPS) also accumulates in the core of the stem of the sugar palm. The common indus- trial starches are typically derived from cereals (corn, wheat, rice, sorghum), tubers (potato, sweet potato), roots (cassava) and legumes (mung bean, green pea). Sugar palm starch is the example of starch derived from another source, the stem of sugar palm same as commercial starch extracted from sago palm. It has been documented that one tree of sugar palm can produce 50 to 100 kg of starch8. Due to unique behaviour of starch, many researchers have been using it as biopolymer9. Teixeira et al.10 used plasticized cassava starch as a biopolymer and combined it with cassava bagasse cellulose nanofibrils as reinforcing materials. Asian Journal of Chemistry; Vol. 26, No.

4 (2014), 955-959 Prachayawarakorn et al.11 prepared biodegradable polymer from thermoplastic rice starch (TPRS). Vallejos et al.12 applied corn and cassava starchs plasticized with 30 wt % glycerin as biopolymer and using fibrous material obtained from ethanol- water fractionation of bagasse as reinforcement. However, up till today, there is no research been carried out to evaluate the potential of sugar palm starch as biopolymer. Hence, this study was done in order to investigate the properties of sugar palm starch and to explore their potential to be used as a new alter- native biopolymer. Extraction of sugar palm starch: The sugar palm starch (SPS) was collected from sugar palm tree at Jempol, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Fig. 1 shows the extraction method of sugar palm starch. Firstly, the matured sugar palm tree was felled using chainsaw and the mixture (woody fibres and starch powder) was obtained from the interior part of the stem. This mixture was then carried out for washing process to obtain the starch.

In washing process, water was added to the mixture and then the mixture was kneaded by hand. The fibers remain on the top of the sieve while the water carrying the starch granules in suspension passes through the sieve and was caught in container. The starch settles on the bottom and the excess water flows over the sides. After washing process, the fibrous remnants were discarded and the wet starch was taken out from the container. Then starch was kept in an open air for a moment and dried in an air circulating oven at 120 ºC for 24 h. Outer part of trunk where ρ is the density of fibre, m is the mass of fibre, V is the volume of water. Determination of amylose: Amylose content of sugar palm starch was determined according to IRRI method13 using spectrophotometer. Determination of ash: An accurately sample (5 g) was weighted and incinerated in a muffle oven at 600 ºC until a constant weight was achieved. Ash content was calculated as the weight of the residue divided by the original weight of the sample, expressed as percentage. Determination of moisture content: Sugar palm starch was weighted using a weighing balance and recorded as M1.

The samples were dried in the oven at 105 ºC for 24 h and reweighted (M2). The moisture content was calculated using formula shown below: where, M1 = weight of air dried sample (g), M2 = weight of oven dried sample (g). Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy: The spectra were obtained using an IR spectrometer (100 Series type, Perkin-Elmer). About 2 mg of sample which is in powder form was mixed with potassium bromide (KBr) and pressed into a disc of ca. 1 mm thick. The FT-IR spectra of the sample were collected in range of 4000-200 cm-1. FTIR allows the measurements of variations on samples because of the chemical treatments. FTIR of the samples were recorded in the trans- mittance mode. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA): Sugar palm starch was prepared for TG analysis.

The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) conditions were: a nitrogen atmosphere, a flow rate of 20 mL min-1, a heating rate of 10 ºC min-1 and a temperature range from ambient to 800 ºC. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC): DSC measu- rements were carried out in a Shimadzu TA-50WSI Thermal Analyzer equipped with DSC-50 modules. The scans were carried out from room temperature to 500 ºC at a heating rate of 10 ºC min-1, using a nitrogen atmosphere with a flow of 20 mL min-1. Particle size analysis: Particle size and distribution was analysed by using Mastersizer 2000 E (Malvern Instruments, Malvern, UK) fitted with the Qspec Dry powder Feeder. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Hitachi S-3400N operating at an accele- ration voltage of 0.3-30 kV was performed to study the surfaces morphology of the native sugar palm starch.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Chemical properties: It is known that sugar palm starch and other commercial native starches contain 10-20 % moisture under normal atmospheric conditions. Since starch is very sensitive to water, the amount of water absorbed by starch granules is dependent on the relative humidity (RH) and the temperature of the atmosphere in which they have been stored. The starches isolated from sugar palm starch contained 956 Sahari et al. Asian J. Chem. comparable amounts of amylose (37.60 %) which were higher than that of tapioca (17 %), sago (24-27 %), potato (20-25 %), wheat (26-27 %) and maize (26-28 %). All kinds of starch contain two types of glucose polymers i.e., an essentially linear molecule termed amylose and a highly branched polymer termed amylopectin. Amylose molecules consist of 200- 20,000 glucose units which form a helix as a result of the bond angles between the glucose units.

Amylopectin is a highly branched polymer containing short side chains of 30 glucose units attached to every 20-30 glucose units along the chain. Amylopectin molecules may contain up to two million glucose units (Fig. 2). The amylopectin content is calculated from: amylose content + amylopectin content = 100 %. Fig. 2. Unit structure of amylose and amylopectin31 Proportion of the polysaccharides amylose and amylo- pectin become the most critical criteria that determine starch behaviour14,15. Most amylose molecules (molecular weight ~ 105-106 Da) are consisted of (1→4) linked α-D-gluco- pyranosyl units and formed in linear chain. But, few molecules are branched to some extent by (1→6) α-linkages16,17.Amylose molecules can vary in their molecular weight distribution and in their degree of polymerization (DP) which will affect to their solution viscosity during processing and their retrogra- dation/recrystallization behaviour, which is important for product performance.

Meanwhile, amylopectin is the highly branched polysaccharide component of starch that consists of hundreds of short chains formed of α-D-glucopyranosyl residues with (1→4) linkages. These are interlinked by (1→6)- α-linkages, from 5-6 % of which occur at the branch points. As a result, the amylopectin shows the high molecular weight (107-109 Da) and its intrinsic viscosity is very low because of its extensively branched molecular structure. For ash contents, sugar palm starch shows 0.2 % ash content same as tapioca, sago and wheat starches. The ash content can be determined as the residue after ignition of the starch at 600 ºC. From the table, it is found that potato starch has a relatively high ash-content compared because of the presence of phosphate groups. As metals, the ash of native starches contains mainly calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium18. FTIR analysis: The FTIR technique detects the absorption of different bond vibrations in starch molecules and it is sensi- tive to changes in molecular structure such as starch chain conformation, helicity, crystallinity and moisture content.

FTIR was used in order to detect the presence of the functional groups existed in sugar palm starch. Fig. 3 shows the FT-IR spectrum of sugar palm starch. The intense peaks at 3500-3200 cm-1 shown in figure indicated the presence of O-H groups in sugar palm starch. This prove that starches are very sensitive to water molecule due to the present of hydroxyl groups. Meanwhile, the strong peaks at 3000-2850 cm-1 assigned to the C-H stretching and peaks at 1030-990 cm-1 was characteristic of the anhydro- glucose ring O-C stretch19. The peaks at around 1450 and 1200 cm-1 were characteristic of C-O-H. While, peaks at 1600-1500 cm-1 attributed to the bending of water in starch20. 120 Fig. 3. FT-IR spectrum of sugar palm starch Thermal properties: Thermogravimetric analysis is one of the thermal analysis techniques used to measure the mass change, thermal decomposition and thermal stability of mate- rial. Figs.

4 and 5 demonstrate the TG and DTG curve of sugar palm starch. The molecular structure of sugar palm starch will be degraded when heated. The mass loss below 100 ºC may be attributed to evaporation of absorbed moisture21. The large degradation at 310 ºC appears to involve further elimination of the polyhyroxyl groups, accompanied bydepolymerization and decomposition22. It has been documented earlier that at higher temperatures, depolymerization of the macromolecules takes place with the formation of b-(1,6) anhydro D-gluco- pyranose (levoglucosan), 2-furaldehyde (furfural) and a range of lower molecular-weight volatile and gaseous fragmentation products. A carbonaceous (substance rich in carbon) residue remains after all the volatile products have been driven off23. DSC is a thermal analysis technique that measures the temperature and heat flow associated with transition in mate- rials as a function of temperature and time. One of the most widely used applications of DSC is the determination of glass transition (Tg), melting point (Tm) and energy of fusion24-27. From the curves in Fig.

6, Tg and Tm of sugar palm starch was around 242.14 and 279.84 ºC, respectively. These value were higher than Indica rice starch where Tg values was 237 ºC and Tm was 276 ºC28. Luiz et al.29 have been reported that melting Vol. 26, No. 4 (2014) Physico-chemical and Thermal Properties of Starch Derived from Sugar Palm Tree 957 120 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 Fig. 6. DSC curve of sugar palm starch point of cassava starch occurred at 169.2 ºC. Thermal charac- teristic studies using thermogravimetry analysis and differential scanning calorimetry showed that sugar palm starch was thermally stable than other starches. Particle size: Starches from various sources are chemically similar and their granules are heterogeneous with respect to their size, shape and molecular constituents. Fig.

7a shows the particle size analysis of sugar palm starch. It was revealed that the sugar palm starch had the highest mean diameter (36.308 µm) with a particle size distribution ranging from 0.020-1000 µm. The results observed for the sugar palm starch peak are comparable to the tapioca starch as shown in Fig. 7b. (a) 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Fig. 7. Particle size distribution of (a) sugar palm starch and (b) tapioca The particle size of starch is one of the most important charac- teristics, which may influence other physicochemical properties such as swelling power and water-binding capacity30. Fig. 8. Scanning electron microscopy of sugar palm starch Scanning electron micrographs: The scanning electron micrographs of sugar palm starch granules was shown in Fig.8. The starch granules of sugar palm starch when viewed by SEM were rounded and oval-shaped granules with smooth surfaces. From the micrographs, it is estimated that the granule size ranges from approximately 10-100 µm, which is in agreement with the study on particle size.

Conclusion The sugar palm starch was successfully extracted from sugar palm tree. The important properties of sugar palm starch studied were the chemical properties, thermal properties, particle size and morphological surface. The starches isolated from sugar palm tree contained comparable amounts of amylose (37.60 %) which were higher than tapioca, sago, potato, wheat and maize. The results showed significant differences in the chemical content as well as in the granule sizes of sugar palm starch. Thermal characteristic studies using thermogravimetry analysis and differential scanning calorimetry showed that sugar palm starch was thermally stable than other starches. 958 Sahari et al. Asian J. Chem. Study on morphological surface indicated that sugar palm starch were rounded and oval-shaped. From this study we concluded that sugar palm starch derived from sugar palm tree have a potential to be used as a new alternative biopolymer. The authors are grateful for the financial supports from Ministry of Higher Education under the 10th Malaysia Plan via the MyBrain15 program and to Universiti Putra Malaysia for their support during the research that have been conducted. REFERENCES 1. T.C.N. Haris, Ph.D.

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Singh Sodhi and B. Singh Gill, Food Chem., 81, 219 (2003). 31. J. Sahari and S.M. Sapuan, J. Polym. Mater., 29, 153 (2012). Vol. 26, No. 4 (2014) Physico-chemical and Thermal Properties of Starch Derived from Sugar Palm Tree 959 CitationsCitations2 ReferencesReferences23 Tapioca Recipes: Tapioca Food Recipes Tapioca Hindi Name: Sabudana Tapioca is a starch extracted from the cassava plant. It is also called as sago or sabudana. It is made by crushing raw tapioca roots in a tank and the juice obtained is stored till it turns into a paste. This paste is then made into small round white balls through a machine. They are soft, spongy and chewy in taste. The sabudana pearls are easily digestible. Usage During the festival of Navratri, people in India cook dishes like sabudana khichdi, kheer or papads.

These tiny white pearl like granules are also used to make puddings and bubble tea worldwide. You can even add it in soups or make sabudana vada, which is famous in India. It is a pure source of carbohydrates and gives a quick boost of the much-needed energy during fasts. Tapioca is a staple food in some regions and is used worldwide as a thickening agent, mainly in foods. Tapioca is gluten-free, and almost completely protein-free. Tapioca is commonly used instead of wheat flour in South America, the West Indies and India. Bubble Tea, also known as Pearl Milk Tea, is a popular Taiwanese drink. The drink has a tea base with milk or fruits and chewy tapioca pearls. This drink has become quite popular in India too. The most popular use of tapioca in the Western world is a milk-based dessert pudding with milk and sugar. In the tropics, it is also popular prepared as a pudding with fruit or fruit juice. Sago powder can be used as a thickening agent in gravy dishes, and sago or tapioca flour can be used to make flat-breads. Sago can be made into vadas and boiled and sun-dried and made into pappadums.

Nutritional Value 1. Sabudana is full of starch or is therefore a very good energizer. It is for this reason that it is mostly consumed as a breakfast item or to break fast in Indian festivals. It is great for a quick boost of energy, and hence often served in India for breaking fasts during religious festivals. 2. It has a cooling effect in the body and is therefore given to people who have excess bile. 3. It is not very high on nutrition because it is basically just starch. It is low in fat and also in protein, does not contain minerals or vitamins. It is for this reason that sabudana is never consumed alone. It is made into savory dishes or consumed with milk. 4. Sago gruel is also great when you're sick because it gives you quick energy and is easy to digest. According to Indian medicine, sago and rice have a cooling effect on the system, hence sago gruel is given if you have excess bile 5. Sabudana does not contain any minerals or vitamins and has very low amounts of calcium, iron, and fiber, it is rich in carbohydrates Did you know? It is often referred as the 'poor man's food'.

Sabudana is known to have been the main meal of the refugees during World War II. Thickeners | CraftyBaking | Formerly Baking911 Thickeners Copyright © 2000 Sarah Phillips CraftyBaking.com All rights reserved. Food thickeners frequently are based on either Polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin), or proteins. A flavorless powdered starch used for this purpose is a fecula (from the Latin faecula, diminutive of faex meaning "dregs"). This category includes starches as arrowroot, cornstarch, katakuri starch, potato starch, sago, tapioca and their starch derivatives. Vegetable gums are used as food thickeners include alginin, guar gum, locust bean gum, and xanthan gum. Proteins used as food thickeners include collagen, egg whites, furcellaran, and gelatin. Sugars include agar and carrageenan. Other thickening agents act on the proteins already present in a food. One example is sodium pyrophosphate, which acts on casein in milk during the preparation of instant pudding.

(Wikipedia) Substituting one for another is tricky; Different thickeners may be more or less suitable in a given application, due to differences in taste, clarity, and their responses to chemical and physical conditions. For example, for acidic foods, arrowroot is a better choice than cornstarch, which loses thickening potency in acidic mixtures. At (acidic) pH levels below 4.5, guar gum has sharply reduced aqueous solubility, thus also reducing its thickening capability. If the food is to be frozen, tapioca or arrowroot are preferable over cornstarch, which becomes spongy when frozen. STARCH THICKENERS: These silky powders are used to thicken sauces, gravies, pie fillings, and puddings. They're popular because they thicken without adding fat or much flavor, but some tolerate heat better than others. Starch is the major storage product of the world's most important food crops and is found in large quantities in the seeds of cereals (such as wheat, corn and rice), in legumes (such as pea) and in tuber and root crops such as potato and yam.

Cornstarch, flour, and tapioca are the most popular starch thickeners. They have different strengths and weaknesses, so it's a good idea to stock all three in your pantry. I seldom use arrowroot. Although flour is the traditional thickening agent in French cooking, cornstarch is a more powerful thickener because it is a purer form of starch. It will also create a clearer, shinier sauce. Starch thickeners give food a transparent, glistening sheen, which looks nice in a pie filling, but a bit artificial in a gravy or sauce. If you want high gloss, choose tapioca or arrowroot. If you want low gloss, choose cornstarch. Cornstarch is the best choice for thickening dairy-based sauces. Arrowroot becomes slimy when mixed with milk products. Choose arrowroot if you're thickening an acidic liquid. Cornstarch loses potency when mixed with acids. Sauces made with cornstarch turn spongy when they're frozen. If you plan to freeze a dish, use tapioca starch or arrowroot as a thickener. Starch thickeners don't add much flavor to a dish, although they can impart a starchy flavor they're undercooked.

If you worried that your thickener will mask delicate flavors in your dish, choose arrowroot. It's the most neutral tasting of the starch thickeners. Tapioca starch thickens quickly, and at a relatively low temperature. It's a good choice if you want to correct a sauce just before serving it. Starch thickeners often lump if not added to the liquids properly. To avoid lumps, mix the starch with an equal amount of cold liquid until it forms a paste, then whisk it into the liquid you're trying to thicken. Once the thickener is added, cook it briefly to remove the starchy flavor. Don't overcook--liquids thickened with some starches, such as flour and arrowroot, will thin again if cooked too long or at too high a temperature. If you get lumps in your sauce from a thickener, blend the sauce in a blender or food processor until it's smooth or strain it. ARROWROOT: A starch obtained from the rhizome of a West Indian plant. Sold as a dried and milled white powder. Does not mask or alter natural flavors. Produces sauces and pastes of remarkable clarity.

Use as a thickening agent in place of flour or cornstarch for fruit sauces, puddings, salad dressings, dessert sauces, vegetable sauces, and meat glazes. Do not use to make gravy. Arrowroot reaches maximum thickening at lower temperatures than other thickeners, thus it is ideal for use with heat sensitive foods. Because it begins to thicken long before the boiling point of fruit fillings in pies, arrowroot is not a desirable choice. CLEARJEL® = ClearJel® starch = Clear-jel: This modified cornstarch is the secret ingredient that many commercial bakers use in their fruit pie fillings. Unlike ordinary cornstarch, ClearJel® works well with acidic ingredients, tolerates high temperatures, and doesn't cause pie fillings to "weep" during storage. ClearJel® is an especially good choice if you're canning homemade pie fillings, since it doesn't begin thickening until the liquid begins to cool. This allows the heat the be more evenly distributed within the jar during processing.

ClearJel comes in a powdered form, just like cornstarch, and you basically mix liquid and sugar with it, heat over medium heat and stir with a heavy spoon until thick, add a little lemon juice and boil 1 minute. Then stir in fruit and cool and use, or you can cool it and then stir in fruit. It freezes well, and it's perfect for processing canned pie fillings. ClearJel® is available from the supermarket or online CORNSTARCH: made from corn, is a fine, white powdery starch ingredient (carbohydrate) that is used to thicken pie fillings, sauces, gravies, and puddings, as well. Cornstarch is called cornflour or maize cornflour in Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. Don't confuse cornstarch with the finely ground cornmeal that Americans call corn flour. Go to THICKENERS - HOW TO USE CORNSTARCH Cornstarch has twice the thickening power of flour, but like flour, it imparts a slightly starchy taste, especially true in juicy summer fruit pies; that's why I recommend cooking part of the fruit and cornstarch before baking a pie.

It yields the smoothest texture and does not thin when reheating a slice of pie. But, it must be used properly. Cornstarch doesn't stand up to freezing or prolonged cooking, and it doesn't thicken well when mixed with acidic liquids. It can be kept indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place. Corn starch mixtures that don't thicken at all, or thicken during cooking, then thin out during cooling are disappointing. One or more of the following may have caused the problem: (from argostarch.com) * Too Little Liquid: If there is not enough liquid (water, milk, juice) in the mixture, the corn starch granules will not fully swell and remain thickened when the mixture cools. Adding a little more liquid (not more corn starch) is likely to solve the problem. * Too Much Sugar: A higher proportion of sugar than liquid (water, milk, juice) in a mixture can interfere with the swelling of the corn starch granules and prevent thickening during cooking and/or cause thinning during cooling. Adding more liquid (not more corn starch) will often solve the problem.

* Too Much Fat: An excessively high proportion of fat or egg yolks in a mixture can interfere with the swelling of the corn starch granules and prevent thickening during cooking and/or cause thinning during cooling. Adding more liquid (not more corn starch) will usually solve the problem. * Too Much Acid: Acid ingredients such as lemon juice, lime juice or vinegar will reduce the thickening ability of the starch or prevent the mixture from thickening. Increase the starch level slightly or stir acid ingredients in after cooking. * Too Much Stirring: Excessive or rough stirring with a wire whisk or even a spoon may break the starch cells and cause the mixture to thin out. * Excessive Cooking: Simmering or boiling a corn starch thickened mixture for an extended period of time may cause the starch cells to rupture and the mixture to thin. * Undercooking: Weeping or the release of water is usually a sign of slight undercooking. In the early stage of cooking, the water is held rather "loosely" by the corn starch granules, and when the mixture cools, the water simply runs out. It's simple to stop weeping.

Just be sure to bring the corn starch mixture to a full boil over medium heat and, stirring constantly, boil for 1 minute. * Tasting: The digestive enzymes in a person's mouth will cause a properly thickened mixture to thin dramatically in just a few minutes. Be sure to use a clean spoon when tasting a corn starch thickened mixture to correct the seasoning. * Freezing: Freezing corn-starch thickened mixtures will rupture the starch cells and cause the mixture to thin out. FLOUR (See also, Roux): Wheat flour is a good thickener for pie fillings, gravies, gumbos, and stews, since it gives them a smooth, velvety texture. It's best to mix it with fat first, either by making a roux or beurre manié, or by flouring fruit for a pie first before filling a pie shell. If making stovetop sauces, cornstarch and flour mixtures start to thicken at 144 to 162 degrees F. These starches complete the final thickening process at 205 degrees F. Under-cooking does not allow starches to reach their maximum thickening capability.

Sauces thickened with flour become opaque, and they may become thin again if they're cooked too long or if they're frozen and then thawed. NOTE: High amounts of acid in food may prevent starches from setting. FLOUR - INSTANT BLENDING: = instantized flour = quick-mixing flour: You can sprinkle this finely milled all-purpose flour into liquids without getting many lumps, so it's perfect for making gravies and batters. It's also good for breading fish. Wondra flour and Shake & Blend are popular brands. POTATO STARCH (POTATO FLOUR): Gluten-free potato starch is 100 percent starch, whereas potato flour is about 85 percent starch, the rest being largely fiber, protein, fat, and sugar. Potato starch is pure white, while potato flour is yellowish, having traces of color and flavor from the potato. Potato starch is used to thicken soups and gravies, and does a better job at thickening fruit pies than potato flour, which tends to clump and turn opaque, rather than clear.

Its main advantage over other starch thickeners is that it's a permitted ingredient for Passover, unlike cornstarch and other grain-based foods. Liquids thickened with potato starch should never be boiled because it will loose its power to thicken. Supermarkets often stock it among the Kosher products. ROUX: This is a thickener that's made from equal weights of flour and a fat, like butter or meat drippings, whisked together in a saucepan over heat in order to ameliorate the flavor of the flour and to remove lumps. It is then added to sauces and gravies to thicken while cooking together. Or, additional ingredient are added such as cream, cheese, tomatoes, herbs, egg yolks, white wine, lemon, onions, peppers, etc. or combinations thereof can be added creating different sauces. The most basic white sauce is based on a roux, which are equal volumes of butter and flour. The thickness of the sauce is easily varied by changing the proportion of roux to liquid. For a thinner sauce, use 1 tablespoon each of butter and flour to 1 cup of liquid; for a medium sauce, 2 tablespoons each; for a thick sauce, 3 tablespoons each.

These two basic sauces, a béchamel and a velouté, are the basis for classic French white sauces. To make Roux, heat the fat in a pan, then gradually whisk in the flour. Cook the mixture, stirring constantly, for at least several minutes, then gradually whisk in the hot liquid you're trying to thicken. It must be cooked for at least 30 minutes in order to rid itself of the flour's starchy flavor, to thicken the liquid and to get rid of the flour's white color. TAPIOCA: Tapioca is made from starch extracted form the root of the cassava plant, also called manioc or yuca. It comes in various forms, with pearl (also known as pellet or bead), (non-wheat) flour , and the tiny-grained instant or quick (or Minute, a trademark) being the most common. Go to THICKENERS - HOW TO USE TAPIOCA Pearl tapioca, which comes in various sizes, and is used almost exclusively to make tapioca pudding, lending body and texture. They need to be hydrated where the white pearls become translucent, slightly swollen, and jelly-like.

If you find only pearl tapioca, just place it in a spice grinder, blender, or food processor and grind away. Now you have small tapioca beads, but it has to be hydrated. Tapioca (non-wheat) flour has considerably less thickening power than pearl tapioca. Commercial establishments use it mostly for soups, fruit fillings, and glazes. In Asian cuisine it is called tapioca starch and is almost as popular as cornstarch for use as a thickener in both sweet and savory dishes. It creates a perfectly smooth filling and imparts a high gloss for a tasty-looking result. Instant or quick-cooking tapioca are little white "beads". It is made by mixing tapioca flour and water to form a dough, which is slowly cooked and stirred. The dough is then dried, pulverized, and cooled, forming more uniformly sized and shaped granules, which do not require hydrating before using, but they they only need to be moistened and heated in order for the tiny pellets to swell and become opaque in color. It is most desirable in puddings and in juicy summer fruit pie fillings in a two-crust pie.

And, to use as smaller partcles, just place it in a spice grinder, blender, or food processor and grind away. SARAH SAYS: Start with adding 3-4 tablespoons of instant tapioca for 6 cups of juicy fruit, or a generous, rounded 1 1/2 teaspoons per cup of fruit. If your fruit is a little less juicy, use a scant 1 1/2 teaspoons per cup. You can adjust the thickening to your tastes. OTHER THICKENERS Each thickener has a different attribute and is used based upon the recipe being made. AGAR AGAR: Agar agar is a gelling agent made from a combination of algae from the species gelidium. Other names include dai choy goh, Japanese isinglass, or kanten, in reference to the dish in which it is commonly used. The name, agar agar, is Malaysian in origin, and the harvest of the long red and purple fronds goes back hundreds of years. The fronds are freeze dried and dehydrated naturally, producing colorless sheets which are shaped into bars. Agar is available in the traditional bars, flakes, and powder, all of which can be used interchangeably for gelling purposes.

Long strands of agar are one of the ingredients in the seaweed salad served at sushi restaurants. The mechanics of cooking with agar differ slightly from those of gelatin. Generally, powdered agar can be substituted in equal measure for powdered plain gelatin. In substituting agar for gelatin, remember that agar may not set when mixed with vinegar or foods high in oxalic acid, like spinach, chocolate, or rhubarb. Agar gelled liquids will stay solid at room temperature, while gelatin will eventually melt. To use agar bars, rinse them in cold water, wring them out and tear in small pieces, then add to the cooking liquid. One agar bar is equal to four tablespoons of flakes or two teaspoons of powder, and one bar or its equivalent will gel two cups of liquid. Unlike gelatin, all forms of agar need to simmer for a while to dissolve, and letting them soak in the liquid for an hour or two gives you a head start. from CHOCOLATE: Did you know that ounce-for-ounce unsweetened chocolate has more thickening power than bittersweet? Cocoa solids are rich in starches, with unsweetened having more.

When it was used in a Ganache filling recipe, it was significantly stiffer and also had a viscous, gummy quality. When made only with bittersweet chocolate, it had a pleasantly smooth and creamy texture. Comparable amounts of bittersweet or semisweet chocolate and unsweetened chocolate plus sugar will not produce identical recipes. While a direct swap might work well enough in fudgy brownies, it could wreak havoc on a delicate custard or filling. COCOA POWDER: Cocoa powder is a starch thickener and is used in savory dishes. DAIRY: Cream , once reduced, gives sauces a rich texture and flavor as it thickens them, but it's high in fat. To make a low-fat cream sauce, use evaporated milk mixed with a starch thickener. Yogurt is a popular soup thickener in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. EGGS: Egg yolks make wonderful thickeners--imparting both a rich flavor and velvety smooth texture. You can't just whisk them into a simmering sauce--they'd curdle on contact.

Instead, you need to "temper" them by adding some of the hot liquid to the egg yolks, whisking the mixture together, and then adding it to the sauce. Finally, never cook sauces with egg yolks in aluminum pans or they'll turn gray. GELATIN: Unflavored gelatin is an odorless, tasteless and colorless thickening agent, which must be rehydrated in cold water, heated and melted and then dispersed, before the liquid will become jelled when cooled, especially when refrigerated to set. It is a much more powerful thickener than eggs, so it gives the recipes (custard) enough body to hold its shape when sliced. HOW TO USE GELATIN IN A RECIPE . Gelatin is used in such recipes as Café Brûlot Chiffon Pie , Lemon Mousse , Chocolate (Stabilized) Whipped Cream or in cheesecakes, as well as fillings custards or other desserts to thicken and stabilize it. SARAH SAYS: Let a gelatin-set custard cool and thicken slightly before folding in any whipped cream or beaten egg whites to assure maximum volume.

Gelatin commonly found in grocery stores is pure protein derived from animals, but there are other forms of gelatin to fit all types of diet restrictions, including vegetarian and kosher. Gelatin comes in a granulated from the grocery store or sheet form, called leaves, available from specialty stores or online. SARAH SAYS: I prefer to use the granulated kind because it is readily available in the supermarket. I use Knox gelatin, which is widely available and is considered the standard in the US. It comes packaged in boxes of 1/4-ounce envelopes and is also available in bulk. Leaf gelatin comes in packages of paper-thin sheets. Gelatin's setting power has to do with the density of the liquid being set. Gelatin is always used in a ratio to liquids in the recipe: usually 1/4 ounce of powdered gelatin is needed to set 16 ounces of liquid. To obtain a "semi-solid" consistency, increase the liquid to 32 ounces. It is extremely important to achieve the correct ratio of gelatin to water, and the recipe will always tell you how much to use.

For example, a finished cream firmed with gelatin, should have a tender and smooth texture, yet have structure. If it is incorrect, it will be either runny or too firm and rubbery. Unprepared gelatin has an indefinite shelf-life as long as it is wrapped airtight and stored in a cool, dry place. Note that certain fresh fruits contain enzymes that break down the gelatin, such as figs, pineapple, kiwi, papaya, mango, and guava. They should be cooked before being used in a gelatin-set custard to denature their enzymes. (Canned fruit does not need to be precooked because it is pasteurized at a high enough temperature to denature their enzymes.) PECTIN: Pectin is a high-fiber carbohydrate with thickening properties that occurs naturally in the cell walls of various fruits. Pectin is what makes jam happen. It's a natural thickening substance found in many fruits like strawberries and apples etc. Usually fruits that are slightly underripe are highest in pectin. This is why many older recipes (ones that you don't add powdered or liquid commercial pectin) call for ripe fruit and underripe fruit.

For the pectin to set you need both acid and sugar. This is why you can NOT deviate from the recipe in jam making. Old fashioned recipes will ask you to cook the mixture to the "jam stage" which is when you spoon some mixture and let it slide off the spoon. If it is not done it will just run off, if it is cooked correctly it will slide off, but leave a "sheet" attached to the spoon. Newer recipes that call for added commercial pectin will have very specific directions. These directions are for the purpose of setting up the pectin and must be followed to the letter. In most recipes powdered pectin is added to preserves and jams, and liquid pectin is used in jellies. SARAH SAYS: 2 tablespoons liquid pectin = 4 teaspoons powdered pectin. VEGETABLE GUMS: Vegetable gums used as food thickeners include alginin, Guar Gum , and Xanthan Gum . Locust bean gum, also known as St. John's bread, carob bean gum; A vegetable gum derived from the seeds of the carob tree. Other Recipes

Question: Which dessert is obtained from the starch of a palm-tree?
Answer: Sago