Y by Mark Wallinger > View an interview with Mark Wallinger discussing Y Further Information The University of Oxford and its constituent colleges have a long and distinguished history of commissioning the leading architects and artists of their day, from Sir Christopher Wren’s Sheldonian Theatre , which was erected to provide an appropriate secular venue for the principal meetings and public ceremonies of the University, to Sir Jacob Epstein’s haunting Lazarus in New College Chapel . There have been few opportunities for the finest artists in the 21st century, but this has now changed with Magdalen College’s 550th anniversary commission to Mark Wallinger. Wallinger’s Y is a two-faced sculpture formed in square section steel and has a silvery, metallic finish. It is positioned in the small clearing at the east end of Bat Willow Meadow among a mature stand of trees and faces westwards, towards the main College buildings, to reflect the setting sun of midsummer. Y alludes to the history of Magdalen College, its architecture and its deer, and the abundant vegetation in its grounds. "The bifurcating forks or tines," the artist explains, "are like the branches of the College’s ancestral tree or the antlers of the College deer.

The repeated figure references divining rods, typically cut from the trees found in Bat Willow Meadow, and the structure echoes the Gothic tracery, which is present within the architecture of the College. The forks represent the life force - the encoded mathematics of creation, the order of things - pushing out to the future, while the divining fork takes us back to our source, the earth. This reaching out and drawing back is implied in the map of a family tree, when we place ourselves as the trunk, when we surely know we are the furthest tiniest branch. In the sculpture each branch of the tree represents a progenitor going back seventeen generations to the year 1458, when the College was established." The artist has used the golden ratio to generate the linear form of his sculpture. The golden ratio is the name given to an irrational proportion, known at least since the time of the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, which has often been thought to possess aesthetic virtue, some hidden harmonic proportion in tune with the universe. In mathematics and the arts, two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ratio between the sum of those quantities and the larger one is the same as the ratio between the larger one and the smaller.

In practice, this works out at about 8:13. A whole host of other contexts are also referenced in Wallinger’s work. In mathematics, for example, the y-axis is the vertical axis in a plane coordinate system and one of the three axes of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In biology, Y-chromosome DNA is a type of DNA that is only carried by men and it is only inherited from their fathers. Men who share a common paternal ancestor will have virtually the same Y-DNA, even if that male ancestor lived many generations ago. Significantly, in the system of Greek numerals the letter upsilon, whose upper case form closely resembles the letter Y in the Latin alphabet, has a value of 400. In the system of medieval Roman numerals, however, the letter Y has a value of 150. By adding these two values together we arrive at the number 550, which is the very anniversary for which the work has been commissioned.

Included in the artworks on display to the public in Magdalen College is the best surviving copy of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper by a close Milanese follower, where it is displayed in a late 15th-century setting high on the wall of the Chapel. In Chaplain’s Quadrangle there is a bronze sculpture of Christ and Mary Magdalen presented to the College by David Wynne in 1964. To these exceptional pieces can now be added Mark Wallinger’s Y, a bold and uncompromising sculpture by one of today’s supreme artists. Education notes Magdalen College has asked freelance educator Miranda Millward to create a set of education notes to provide some initial guidance for group visits to see Mark Wallinger’s sculpture Y. The notes are not key stage specific, but we hope that they will be relevant to both secondary art and design teachers and fine art foundation tutors. Older pupils and students may also find the notes useful for their critical and contextual studies and project ideas. The works discussed are reproduced at A4 size so that they can be printed out and used as a resource in the classroom or studio.

The notes aim to give a few jumping-off points to explore not just the sculpture in College, but also the artist’s work more generally and they can be downloaded as a PDF . A Treasury of Anglican Art: George Eatman, James Simpson: 9780847824670: Amazon.com: Books A Treasury of Anglican Art Page 1 of 1 Start over Sponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it. To learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here . Jonathan's Shield Channing Turner A Historical Novel Set in the Time of David The future of Israel is tied to the virtue of their king, and King Saul's honor has long since fled.

The Hermitage Museum of Saint Petersburg Russia: Part 1 (Rob In Russia Book 4) Robert E Brown The splendor of the Hermitage Museum of Saint Petersburg, one of the oldest and largest museums in the world with the largest collection of paintings Kindle Edition Catherine's Gift: Krasnodar Russia (Rob In Russia Book 3) Robert E Brown An expat living in Russia captures the culture and architecture through the lens. Amazing 14th-16th century russian orthodox churches and much more Kindle Edition Churches of Russia: Rob In Russia Volume 1 Robert E. Brown An expat living in Russia captures the culture and architecture through the lens. Amazing 14th-16th century russian orthodox churches. Kindle Edition Ad feedback Special Offers and Product Promotions Editorial Reviews About the Author Fr. James B. Simpson, recently deceased, was an Episcopal priest and resident of Washington, D.C. He received degrees in journalism, art history, and theology from Northwestern University and the University of Edinburgh. Fr. Simpson was formerly an editor at Associated Press and NBC, as well as the director of the Episcopal Book Club and editor of its Anglican Digest. George H.

Eatman, a life-long Episcopalian, is an attorney who presently lives between London and New York. The Reverend Canon John Andrew was for twenty-four years the Rector of St. Thomas Episcopal Church, New York. Born in England, he served a decade as chaplain to Michael Ramsey, former Archbishop of York and Canterbury. Don't have a Kindle? Get your Kindle here , or download a FREE Kindle Reading App . Ignite your imagination with these editor's picks from Kindle books. See more Product Details Publisher: Rizzoli (February 8, 2003) Language: English Shipping Weight: 3.1 pounds ( View shipping rates and policies ) Average Customer Review: ByA customeron December 13, 2003 Format: Hardcover|Verified Purchase Most people are familiar with the sacred art of the Catholic Church - but few realize that the Anglican Communion has made a significent contribution as well - particulary in the 19th century when Sacred art elsewhere as stagnent or waning. From the stain glass of Tiffany to the sculpture of August Saint-Guadens, Anglican Churches, particular those in America, set the standard.

But this book also covers much more - the from ancient English cathedrals to small chapels in the Caribbean there is suprise on every page. It is especailly refreshing to see so many contemporar works that are carrying on this tradition and at the same time, paving new ground. my only "problem" with this book is it did not contain Fred. Hart's beautiful carvings at the National Cathedral in Washington -no only one of the great works of Sacred art in recent years, but probably one of the most overlooks masterworks of the 20th century By Sacerdote on November 3, 2004 Format: Hardcover This book is a must for every Episcopalian and would make a wonderful Christmas present (especially for your favorite Episcopal priests!) The Anglican Communion is the largest world wide body of Christians after the Roman Catholic Church -- but is not nearly as well known in the United States .

The unfortunate media coverage which our beloved church has received recently makes it seem like a loony liberal cult rather than the heir of a magnificent Christian trqadition.The beautiful photographed pictures and well written descriptions of art and architecture throughout the Anglican world is sorely needed during this time of uncertainty and division between traditionalists and revisionists within our church. Just viewing these beautiful pages is just the right prescription for all Anglicans to remind us of what is truly lasting and essential, and puts the right perspective on the petty and self serving transitory "issues" which so preoccupy so many of the American Church hierarchy. Get this book today -- you will be glad you did! By Richard Seto on January 11, 2004 Format: Hardcover The volume is a good introduction to a neglected aspect of religious art. The range is good although there are some notable omissions. The contribution of many of the womens' religious communities could have had a little more coverage as many were famous for their artwork as well as their contributions to the Gothic Revival and Arts and Crafts movements. There are a few technical problems with the book in that at least 17 of the illustrations are reproduced in reverse i.e. in mirror image.

The western rose window of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine on pg. 24 is upside down. The frontispiece illustration is incorrectly identified as by Raphael, it is one of the Barbarini tapestries illustrating the life of Christ, the illustration on pg. 68 is not from the Litlyington missal (it looks like a 13th text on Gregory the Great?), the caption on pg. 157 'monastic' should read 'canonical' as York Minster was never a monastic cathedral, it was served by secular canons. Culture of England - New World Encyclopedia Culture of England Next (Culture of Korea) View from Prior Park, Bath over gardens and the Palladian Bridge towards the city of Bath. The culture of England is sometimes difficult to separate clearly from the culture of the United Kingdom , so influential has English culture been on the cultures of the British Isles and, on the other hand, given the extent to which other cultures have influenced life in England. From the relatively tiny island in the North Atlantic , England has influenced virtually every other nation in the world. The country has played a central and significant role in history as one of the world's most influential centers of cultural development.

It is known throughout the world for its distinctive culture, habits, values, and traditions, and for its rich and colorful history. Places, people, buildings, monuments, myths, and legends hold intrigue for many. Contents 20 Credits Many of the most important figures in the history of modern western scientific and philosophical thought were either born in, or at one time or other resided in, England. Major English thinkers of international significance include scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton , Francis Bacon , Charles Darwin and New Zealand-born Ernest Rutherford , philosophers such as John Locke , John Stuart Mill , Bertrand Russell , and Thomas Hobbes , and economists such as David Ricardo , and John Maynard Keynes . The British Airways London Eye. Architecture The dome of St Paul's Cathedral designed by Sir Christopher Wren. Terraced houses are typical in inner cities and places of high population density The Grand Canal, Venice by J. M. W. Turner, painted 1835. Thomas Gainsborough's Blue boy, painted 1770. Salisbury Cathedral by John Constable, c.1825.

A Beefeater in everyday undress uniform Morris dancing in the grounds of Wells Cathedral, Wells, England - Exeter Morris Men The earliest remnants of architecture in the United Kingdom are mainly Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury , and Roman ruins such as the spa in Bath. Many castles remain from the medieval period and in most towns and villages the parish church is an indication of the age of the settlement, built as they were from stone rather than the traditional wattle and daub. Over the two centuries following the Norman conquest of 1066, and the building of the Tower of London, many great castles such as Caernarfon Castle in Wales and Carrickfergus Castle in Ireland were built to suppress the natives. Windsor Castle is the largest inhabited castle in the world and the oldest in continuous occupation. Large houses continued to be fortified until the Tudor period, when the first of the large gracious unfortified mansions such as the Elizabethan Montacute House and Hatfield House were built. The English Civil War (1642-1649) proved to be the last time in British history that houses had to survive a siege.

Corfe Castle was destroyed following an attack by Oliver Cromwell 's army, but Compton Wynyates survived a similar ordeal. Inigo Jones, from just before the Civil War, and who is regarded as the first significant British architect, was responsible for importing Palladian architecture to Britain from Italy . The Queen's House at Greenwich is perhaps his best surviving work. Following the Great Fire of London in 1666, one of the best-known British architects, Sir Christopher Wren , was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London, although his master plan for rebuilding London as a whole was rejected. It was in this period that he designed the building that he is perhaps best known for, St Paul's Cathedral. In the early eighteenth century baroque architecture—popular in Europe—was introduced, and Blenheim Palace was built. However, baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. The Georgian architecture of the eighteenth century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such as Woburn Abbey and Kedleston Hall are in this style.

Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors, neoclassicism and Romanticism , were Robert Adam , Sir William Chambers, and James Wyatt. In the early nineteenth century the romantic medieval gothic style appeared as a backlash to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. By the middle of the nineteenth century, as a result of new technology, construction incorporated steel. One of the greatest exponents of this was Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace. Paxton also continued to build such houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular retrospective English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity and development British architecture embraced many new methods of construction, but ironically in style, such architects as August Pugin ensured it remained firmly in the past. At the beginning of the twentieth century a new form of design—arts and crafts—became popular. The architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the nineteenth century designs of such architects as George Devey, was championed by Edwin Lutyens. Arts and crafts in architecture is symbolized by an informal, non-symmetrical form, often with mullioned or lattice windows, multiple gables and tall chimneys.

This style continued to evolve until World War II . Following the Second World War reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced by Modernism , especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town center redevelopments—criticized for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as the Hayward Gallery. Many Modernist-inspired town centers are today in the process of being redeveloped. In the immediate post-war years, perhaps hundreds of thousands of council houses in vernacular style were built, giving working class people their first experience of private gardens and indoor sanitation. Modernism remains a significant force in English architecture, although its influence is felt predominantly in commercial buildings. The two most prominent proponents are Lord Rogers of Riverside, who created Rogers' the iconic London Lloyd's Building and the Millennium Dome, and Lord Foster of Thames Bank, who created the Swiss Re Buildings (also known as "The Gherkin") and the City Hall (London). Since England has one of the highest population densities in Europe, housing tends to be smaller and more closely packed, particularly compared to North America.

The British have a particular affinity with the terraced house, dating back to the aftermath of the Great Fire of London. The majority of surviving housing built before 1914 is of this type, and consequently it dominates inner residential areas. In the twentieth century the process of suburbanization led to a spread of semi-detached and detached housing. In the aftermath of the Second World War , public housing was dramatically expanded to create a large number of council estates, although most units in these have since been bought by their tenants. Art The oldest art in the United Kingdom can be dated to the Neolithic period, and is found in a funerary context. But it is in the Bronze age that the first innovative artworks are found. The Beaker people, who arrived in Britain around 2500 B.C.E. , were skilled in metal refining, working at first in copper , but later bronze and gold . The Wessex culture excelled in making gold ornaments. Works of art placed in graves or sacrificial pits have survived. In the Iron Age, the Celts made gold ornaments, but stone and most likely wood was also used. This style continued into the Roman period, and would find a renaissance in the Medieval period.

It also survived in the Celtic areas not occupied by the Romans, largely corresponding to the present-day Wales and Scotland . The Romans brought with them the classical style, glasswork and mosaics. Christian art from the fourth century, has been preserved in mosaics with Christian symbols and pictures. Celtic and Scandinavian art have in common the use of intricate, intertwined patterns of decoration. Anglo-Saxon sculpting was outstanding for its time in the eleventh century, as proved by pre-Norman ivory carvings. Celtic high crosses show the use of Celtic patterns in Christian art. Scenes from the Bible were depicted, framed with the ancient patterns. Some ancient symbols were redefined. Murals were painted on the white-chalked walls of stone churches, and stained glass was used in church and other windows. As a reaction to abstract expressionism , pop art emerged originally in England at the end of the 1950s. Significant figures in English art include William Blake , William Hogarth , J.M.W. Turner , and John Constable in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Twentieth century artists included Francis Bacon , David Hockney, Bridget Riley, and the pop artists Richard Hamilton, and Peter Blake.

New York-born Sir Jacob Epstein was a pioneer of modern sculpture . More recently, the so-called Young British Artists have gained some notoriety, particularly Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin. Notable illustrators include Aubrey Beardsley, Roger Hargreaves, and Beatrix Potter . England is home to the National Gallery, Tate Britain, Tate Liverpool, Tate St. Ives, and the Tate Modern. Cinema England has been influential in the technological , commercial, and artistic development of cinema and probably second only to the United States in producing the greatest quantity of world-wide film stars. Despite a history of successful productions, the industry is characterized by an ongoing debate about its identity (including economic and cultural issues) and the influences of American and European cinema, although it is fair to say a brief "golden age" was enjoyed in the 1940s from the studios of J. Arthur Rank and Korda. Modern cinema is generally regarded as descending from the work of the French Lumière brothers in 1892, and their show first came to London in 1896.

However, the first moving pictures developed on celluloid film were made in Hyde Park, London in 1889 by William Friese Greene, a British inventor, who patented the process in 1890. The film is the first known instance of a projected moving image. The first people to build and run a working 35 mm camera in Britain were Robert W. Paul and Birt Acres. They made the first British film Incident at Clovelly Cottage in February 1895, shortly before falling out over the camera's patent. Clothing There is no specifically British national costume. In England, certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard are considered to be symbolic of Englishness, though they are not official national costumes. Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional English May dance are cited by some as examples of traditional English costume. This is in large part due to the critical role that British sensibilities have played in world clothing since the eighteenth century. Particularly during the Victorian era , British fashions defined acceptable dress for men of business. Key figures such as Beau Brummell, the future Edward VII and Edward VIII created the modern suit and cemented its dominance.

As such, it could be argued that the national costume of the British male is a three-piece suit, necktie and bowler hat—an image regularly used by cartoonists as a caricature of Britishness. Cuisine The Sunday roast consisting of roast beef, roast potatoes, vegetables and Yorkshire pudding. Fish and chips. Although highly-regarded in the Middle Ages, English cuisine later became a source of fun among Britain's French and European neighbors, being viewed until the late twentieth century as crude and unsophisticated by comparison with continental tastes. However, with the influx of non-European immigrants (particularly those of south and east Asian origins) from the 1950s onwards, the English diet was transformed. Indian and Chinese cuisine in particular were absorbed into English culinary life. Restaurants and takeaways appeared in almost every town in England, and "going for an Indian" became a regular part of English social life. A distinct hybrid food style composed of dishes of Asian origin, but adapted to British tastes, emerged and was subsequently exported to other parts of the world. Many of the well-known Indian dishes, such as Tikka Masala and Balti, are in fact Anglo-Indian dishes of this sort.

Chicken Tikka Masala is often jokingly referred to as England's national dish, in a reference both to its English origins and to its enormous popularity. Dishes forming part of the old tradition of English food include: Apple pie, bangers and mash, bubble and squeak, cornish pasty, cottage pie, egg salad, fish and chips, full English breakfast, gravy, jellied eels, Lancashire hotpot, Lincolnshire sausage, mince pies, pie and mash, pork pie, shepherd's pie, spotted Dick, steak and kidney pie, Sunday roast, toad in the hole, and Yorkshire pudding. Engineering and innovation Engraving after Enoch Seeman's 1726 portrait of Sir Isaac Newton. As birthplace of the Industrial Revolution , England was home to many significant inventors during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges .

Other notable English figures in the fields of engineering and innovation include: Richard Arkwright, industrial spinning machine inventor; Charles Babbage, computer inventor (nineteenth century); Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web , http, html, and many of the other technologies on which the Web is based; James Blundell, a physician who performed the first blood transfusion; Hubert Cecil Booth, vacuum cleaner inventor; Edwin Beard Budding, lawnmower inventor; George Cayley, seat belt inventor; Christopher Cockerell, hovercraft inventor; John Dalton, pioneer of atomic theory ; James Dyson, dual cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner inventor; Thomas Fowler, thermosiphon inventor; Robert Hooke, who proposed Hooke's law of elasticity; E.

Purnell Hooley, Tarmacadam inventor; Isaac Newton , who defined universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, infinitesimal calculus; Stephen Perry, rubber band inventor; Percy Shaw, "cat's eye" road safety device inventor; George and Robert Stephenson, (father and son) railway pioneers; Joseph Swan light bulb developer; Richard Trevithick, builder of the earliest steam locomotive ; Alan Turing and Tommy Flowers, inventors of the modern computer and its associated concepts and technologies; Frank Whittle jet engine inventor; and Joseph Whitworth, inventor of numerous modern techniques and technologies of precision engineering. Folklore A bronze Arthur plate armor with visor raised and with jousting shield wearing Kastenbrust armor (early fifteenth century) by Peter Vischer. Many of the England's oldest legends share themes and sources with the Celtic folklore of Wales, Scotland and Ireland , a typical example being the legend of Herne the Hunter, which shares many similarities with the traditional Welsh legend of Gwyn ap Nudd. Successive waves of pre-Norman invaders and settlers, from the Romans onwards, via Saxons, Jutes, Angles, Norse, to the Norman Conquest, have all influenced the myths and legends of England.

Some tales, such as that of The Lambton Wyrm show a distinct Norse influence, while others, particularly some of the events and characters associated with the Arthurian legends show a distinct Romano-gaulic slant. The most famous body of English folk-tales concerns the legends of King Arthur , although it would be wrong to regard these stories as purely English in origin as they also concern Wales and, to a lesser extent, Ireland , and Scotland . They should therefore be considered as part of the folklore of the British Isles as a whole. Post-Norman stories include the tales of Robin Hood , which exist in many forms, and stories of other folk heroes such as Hereward The Wake, and Dunn of Cumbria who, although being based on historical characters, have grown to become legends in their own right. There are historical figures (such as Sir Francis Drake and "Drake's Drum") who have legends associated with them. Heritage In recent years, Stonehenge has become a focus for modern summer solstice celebrations Stonehenge is believed by many English people and foreigners alike to hold an iconic place in the culture of England.

Other built structures such as cathedrals and parish churches are associated with a sense of traditional Englishness, as is often the palatial 'stately home'; a notion established in part by English author Jane Austen 's work Pride and Prejudice. The English country house and the rural lifestyle forms an interest among many people as typified by visits to properties managed by English Heritage or the National Trust. Landscape gardening as developed by Capability Brown set an international trend for the English garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits, fueled somewhat by the perception of England as a nation of eccentric amateurs and autodidacts. In many, usually rural places, people gather for May Day festivals on the first of May to celebrate "the awakening of the flowers"—the beginning of summer. This traditionally involves the local schoolchildren skipping around a maypole—a large pole erected on the village green (historically a tree would have been specially cut down) - each carrying a colored ribbon, resulting in a multi-colored plaited pattern. The festival traditionally features Morris dancing and various festivities, culminating in the crowning of a 'May Queen'—a pupil from the local school.

Many regional variations of the festivals exist, including the Rochester Sweeps' Festival and the "'Obby 'Oss" festival of Padstow, which is the oldest May Day festival still practiced today, dating back to the fourteenth century. Language Countries where English has official status or is widely spoken. English people traditionally speak the English language, a member of the West Germanic language family. The modern English language evolved from Old English, with lexical influence from Norman- French , Latin, and Old Norse. Cornish, a Celtic language originating in Cornwall, is currently spoken by about 3,500 people. Historically, another Brythonic Celtic language, Cumbric, was spoken in Cumbria in North West England, but it died out in the eleventh century although traces of it can still be found in the Cumbrian dialect. Because of the nineteenth-century geopolitical dominance of the British Empire and the post- World War II hegemony of the United States , English has become the international language of business, science, communications, aviation, and diplomacy. English is the native language of roughly 350 million people worldwide, with another 1.5 billion people who speak it as a second language.

Literature Chaucer: Illustration from Cassell's History of England, circa 1902. Media BBC Television Centre in West London. England has an unrivaled number of media outlets, and the prominence of the English language gives it a widespread international dimension. The BBC is England's publicly-funded radio and television broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest broadcaster in the world. Funded by a compulsory television license, the BBC operates several television networks and BBC Radio stations both in England and abroad. The BBC's international television news service, BBC World, is broadcast throughout the world and the BBC World Service radio network is broadcast in 33 languages globally. Most digital cable television services are provided by NTL:Telewest, and free-to-air digital terrestrial television by Freeview. British newspapers are either quality, serious-minded newspaper (usually referred to as "broadsheets" due to their large size) and the more populist, tabloid varieties. For convenience of reading, many traditional broadsheets have switched to a more compact format, traditionally used by tabloids.

The Sun has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in the UK , with approximately a quarter of the market; its sister paper, The News of The World similarly leads the Sunday newspaper market, and traditionally focuses on celebrity-led stories. The Daily Telegraph , a right-of-center broadsheet paper, has overtaken The Times (tabloid size format) as the highest-selling of the "quality" newspapers. The Guardian is a more liberal (left-wing) "quality" broadsheet. The Financial Times is the main business paper, printed on distinctive salmon-pink broadsheet paper. A number of British magazines and journals have achieved world-wide circulation including The Economist and Nature. Music The composer Sir Edward Elgar is primarily remembered for his orchestral music, some of which develops patriotic themes. Composers from England have not achieved recognition as broad as that earned by their literary counterparts, and particularly during the nineteenth century, were overshadowed in international reputation by other European composers; however, many works of earlier composers such as Thomas Tallis , William Byrd , and Henry Purcell are still frequently performed throughout the world today.

A revival of England's musical status began during the twentieth century with the prominence of composers such as Edward Elgar , Gustav Holst , William Walton, Eric Coates, Ralph Vaughan Williams , Frederick Delius, and Benjamin Britten . In popular music, however, English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles , The Who, The Rolling Stones , Pink Floyd , Deep Purple, The Smiths, Led Zeppelin, The Clash, Black Sabbath, The Cure, Iron Maiden, David Bowie , Queen, Spice Girls, Oasis, The Police, Robbie Williams, Sir Elton John, and Radiohead are among the biggest selling in the world. England is also credited with being the birthplace of many pop-culture movements such as hard rock , British invasion, heavy metal , britpop, glam rock, drum and bass, grindcore, progressive rock, indie , punk, goth, shoegazing, acid house, and UK garage.

Religion Ever since the break with the Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth century, the English have predominantly been members of the Church of England, a branch of the Anglican Communion , a form of Christianity with elements of Protestantism and Catholicism . The Book of Common Prayer is the foundational prayer book of the Church of England and replaced the various Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. Today, most English people practicing organized religion are affiliated to the Church of England or other Christian denominations such as Roman Catholicism and Methodism (itself originally a movement within the Anglican Church). In the 2001 Census, a little over 37 million people in England and Wales professed themselves to be Christian. Jewish immigration since the seventeenth century means that there is an integrated Jewish English population, mainly in urban areas. 252,000 Jews were recorded in England & Wales in the 2001 Census; however this represents a decline of about 50 percent over the previous 50 years, caused by emigration and intermarriage.

Immigration to Britain from India and Pakistan since the 1950s has resulted in a large number of England's populations practices Islam (818,000), Hinduism (467,000), or Sikhism (301,000). The 2001 census also revealed that about seven million people, or 15 percent of English people, claim no religion. The Church of England functions as the established church in England. Both the Church of England and the Catholic Church in England and Wales trace their formal history from the 597 Augustinian mission to the English. Other churches which had their start in England include the Methodist church, the Quakers and the Salvation Army . Science and philosophy Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton , Michael Faraday , J. J. Thomson , Charles Babbage , Charles Darwin , Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren , Alan Turing , Francis Crick, Joseph Lister , Tim Berners-Lee, Andrew Wiles, and Richard Dawkins. England played an important role in the development of Western philosophy, particularly during the Enlightenment .

Jeremy Bentham , leader of the Philosophical Radicals, and his school are recognized as the men who unknowingly laid down the doctrines for Socialism . Bentham's impact on English law is also considerable. Aside from Bentham, major English philosophers include Francis Bacon , Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , Thomas Paine , John Stuart Mill , Bernard Williams , Bertrand Russell , and A.J. Ayer . Theatre William Shakespeare , chief figure of the English Renaissance, is here seen in the Chandos portrait. Theatre was introduced to England from Europe by the Romans who built auditoriums across the country. By the medieval period theatre had developed with the mummers' plays, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such as Saint George and the Dragon , and Robin Hood . These were folk tales re-telling old stories, and the actors traveled from town to town performing for their audiences in return for money and hospitality. The medieval mystery plays and morality plays, which dealt with Christian themes, were performed at religious festivals. The reign of Elizabeth I in the late sixteenth century and early seventeenth century saw a flowering of drama.

Perhaps the most famous playwright in the world, William Shakespeare , wrote around 40 plays that are still performed in theaters across the world to this day. They include tragedies, such as Hamlet (1603), Othello (1604), and King Lear (1605); comedies, such as A Midsummer Night's Dream (1594—1596) and Twelfth Night (1602); and history plays, such as Henry IV, part 1—2. The Elizabethan age is sometimes nicknamed "the age of Shakespeare" for the amount of influence he held over the era. Other important Elizabethan and seventeenth-century playwrights include Ben Jonson , Christopher Marlowe , and John Webster. Aphra Behn was the first professional woman playwright. During the Interregnum (1642—1660), English theaters were kept closed by the Puritans for religious and ideological reasons. When the London theaters opened again with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, they flourished under the personal interest and support of Charles II.

Wide and socially mixed audiences were attracted by topical writing and by the introduction of the first professional actresses (in Shakespeare's time, all female roles had been played by boys). New genres of the Restoration were heroic drama, pathetic drama, and Restoration comedy . The Restoration plays that have best retained the interest of producers and audiences today are the comedies, such as William Wycherley's The Country Wife (1676), The Rover (1677) by the first professional woman playwright, Aphra Behn , John Vanbrugh 's The Relapse (1696), and William Congreve 's The Way of the World (1700). Restoration comedy is famous or notorious for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged by Charles II (1660–1685) personally and by the rakish aristocratic ethos of his court. In the eighteenth century, the highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy lost favor, to be replaced by sentimental comedy, domestic tragedy such as George Lillo's ''The London Merchant'' (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera .

Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the English music hall. These forms flourished at the expense of legitimate English drama, which went into a long period of decline. By the early nineteenth century it was no longer represented by stage plays at all, but by the closet drama, plays written to be privately read in a "closet" (a small domestic room). A change came in the late nineteenth century with the plays on the London stage by the Irishmen George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde and the Norwegian Henrik Ibsen , all of whom influenced domestic English drama and revitalized it. The West End of London has a large number of theaters, particularly centered around Shaftesbury Avenue. A prolific composer of the twentieth century, Andrew Lloyd Webber, has dominated the West End for a number of years and his musicals have travelled to Broadway in New York and around the world, as well as being turned into films. Sport Tennis originated in the UK. The Wimbledon championships Grand Slam tournament is held in London every July. Cricketer Andrew Flintoff of England bowling.

A number of modern sports were codified in England during the nineteenth century, among them cricket, rugby union and rugby league , football , tennis, and badminton. Of these, association football, rugby and cricket remain the country's most popular spectator sports. England contains more UEFA five-star and four-star rated stadia than any other country, and is home to some of the sport's top football clubs. The England national football team are considered one of the game's superpowers, having won the World Cup in 1966 when it was hosted in England. Since then, however, they have failed to reach a final of a major international tournament, though they reached the semi-finals of the World Cup in 1990 and the quarter-finals in 2002 and 2006 and Euro 2004. The England national rugby union team and England cricket team are often among the best performing in the world, with the rugby union team winning the 2003 Rugby World Cup, and the cricket team winning The Ashes in 2005, and being ranked the second best Test Cricket nation in the world.

Rugby union clubs such as Leicester Tigers, London Wasps and the Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup. At rugby league, the England national rugby league team competed more regularly after 2006, when England became a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, when that team retired. Thoroughbred racing originated under Charles II of England as the "Sport of Kings" and is a royal pastime to this day. World-famous horse races include the Grand National and the Epsom Derby. Many teams and drivers in Formula One and the World Rally Championship are based in the England. The country also hosts legs of the Formula One and World Rallying Championship calendars and has its own Touring Car Racing championship, the BTCC. British Formula One world champions include Mike Hawthorn, Graham Hill (twice), Jim Clark (twice), John Surtees (who was also successful on motorcycles ), Jackie Stewart (three times), James Hunt, Nigel Mansell, and Graham Hill's son, Damon Hill. British drivers have not been as successful in the World Rally championship, with only Colin McRae and the late Richard Burns winning the title.

Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. The 2012 Summer Olympics are to be hosted by London , England. London will become the first city to have hosted the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and 1948. Symbols Saint George's Cross, the English flag. The English flag is a red cross on a white background, commonly called the Cross of Saint George. It was adopted after the Crusades . Saint George , later famed as a dragon-slayer, is also the patron saint of England. The three golden lions on a red background was the banner of the kings of England derived from their status as Duke of Normandy and is now used to represent the English national football team and the English national cricket team, though in blue rather than gold. The English oak and the Tudor rose are also English symbols, the latter of which is (although more modernized) used by the England national rugby union team. England has no official anthem; however, the United Kingdom's "God Save the Queen" is currently used.

Other songs are sometimes used, including "Land of Hope and Glory" (used as England's anthem in the Commonwealth Games), "Jerusalem," "Rule Britannia," and "I Vow to Thee, My Country." Moves by certain groups are encouraging adoption of an official English anthem following similar occurrences in Scotland and Wales. References Goldthorpe, John H., Catriona Llewellyn, and Clive Payne. 1980. Social mobility and class structure in modern Britain. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198272472 Macfarlane, Alan. 1987. The culture of capitalism. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 9780631136262 Macfarlane, Alan. 1979. The origins of English individualism: the family, property, and social transition. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521295703 Sampson, Anthony. 1982. The changing anatomy of Britain. New York: Random House.

ISBN 9780394531434 External links cultureofengland - englishculture4 cultureofengland CULTURE OF ENGLAND The culture of England is sometimes difficult to separate clearly from the culture of the United Kingdom, so influential has English culture been on the cultures of the British Isles and, on the other hand, given the extent to which other cultures have influenced life in England. Art English art is a term referring to a body of art originating from England. Nikolaus Pevsner attempted a definition in his 1956 book The Englishness of English Art. It has developed over several centuries to current movements, such as Brit art, and encompasses all forms - painting, sculpture and performance art. Notable English artists presently working range from Lucian Freud and Damien Hirst. Oil painting came comparatively late to England. Hans Holbein, an imported talent, is generally credited with founding an English school of portrait painting. The rich ecclesiastical decoration of English churches was, in great measure, lost during the iconoclasm of the Reformation.

And although Charles I of England built up a great royal collection of art, the disposal of these treasures during the English Commonwealth and the subsequent democratisation of society meant that the patronage of the state never formed great palace collections such as seen in other European states. It is often considered that English landscape painting typifies English art, mirroring as it does the development of the country house and its landscaping. English cuisine England being the first industrialised country in the world, urbanised workers were in many cases cut off from regional food traditions. As a result, English cuisine has suffered from a widespread image of blandness and lack of distinctiveness. The openness of English diners to exotic dishes has also meant that English cooking does not enjoy as high a profile as other nations' culinary traditions. More recently, a new style of cooking called Modern British has emerged that combines traditional British ingredients with foreign culinary influences. The Full English breakfast remains an enduring tradition for many, despite the increasing popularity of the continental-style breakfast, or no breakfast at all, for busy workers. Tea and beer are typical drinks. Cider is produced in the West Country, and the south of England has seen the reintroduction of vineyards producing high quality white wine on a comparatively small scale.

England produces a range of cheeses in various regions, including: England being the first industrialised country in the world, urbanised workers were in many cases cut off from regional food traditions. As a result, English cuisine has suffered from a widespread image of blandness and lack of distinctiveness. The openness of English diners to exotic dishes has also meant that English cooking does not enjoy as high a profile as other nations' culinary traditions. More recently, a new style of cooking called Modern British has emerged that combines traditional British ingredients with foreign culinary influences. The Full English breakfast remains an enduring tradition for many, despite the increasing popularity of the continental-style breakfast, or no breakfast at all, for busy workers. Tea and beer are typical drinks. Cider is produced in the West Country, and the south of England has seen the reintroduction of vineyards producing high quality white wine on a comparatively small scale. Folklore Morris dancing is one of the more visible English folk traditions, with many differing regional variations. English folklore is the folk tradition which has evolved in England over a number of centuries. Some English legends can be traced back to their roots, even as far as before the Roman invasion of Britain, while the origin of others is fairly uncertain or disputed.

England abounds with folklore, in all forms, from such obvious manifestations as the traditional semi-mystical Arthurian legends and semi-historical Robin Hood tales, to contemporary urban myths and facets of cryptozoology such as the Beast of Bodmin Moor. Morris dance and related practices such as the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance preserve old English folk traditions, as do Mummers Plays. The utopian vision of a traditional England is sometimes referred to as Merry England. English mythology is no longer widely believed. Whereas some folklore legends were formerly believed nationally across the whole of England, most can generally be divided into regional areas of England. Heritage In recent years, Stonehenge has become a focus for modern summer solstice celebrations Stonehenge holds an iconic place in the culture of England. Other built structures like cathedrals and parish churches are associated with a sense of Englishness. The English country house and the lifestyle associated for centuries with an élite minority now forms an interest among many people in England as typified by visits to properties managed by English Heritage or the National Trust. Landscape gardening as developed by Capability Brown set an international trend for the English garden. Gardening and visiting gardens are also a facet of the culture of England for many people.

Literature William Hogarth's depiction of a scene from Shakespeare's The Tempest is an example of how English literature influenced English painting in the 18th century Main article: English literature The term English literature refers to literature written in the English language, or literature composed in English by writers who are not necessarily from England. Writers noted for expressing Englishness, or associated particularly with regions of England, include William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy (Wessex), A. E. Housman (Shropshire), Rupert Brooke, Jane Austen, Arnold Bennett and the Lake Poets (Lake District). But Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Salman Rushdie is Indian: all have enriched English literature. England has a long and rich musical history. The United Kingdom has, like most European countries, undergone a roots revival in the last half of the 20th century. English music has been an instrumental and leading part of this phenomenon, which peaked at the end of the 1960s and into the 1970s.

The achievements of the Anglican choral tradition following on from 16th century composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner and William Byrd have tended to overshadow instrumental composition. The semi-operatic innovations of Henry Purcell did not lead to a native operatic tradition, but George Frederick Handel found important royal patrons and enthusiastic public support in England. The rapturous receptions afforded by audiences to visiting musical celebrities such as Haydn often contrasted with the lack of recognition for home-grown talent. However, the emergence of figures such as Edward Elgar and Arthur Sullivan in the 19th century showed a new vitality in English music. Ralph Vaughn Williams and others collected English folk tunes and adapted them to the concert hall. Cecil Sharp was a leading figure in the English folk revival. Finally, a new beat out of Liverpool emerged in 1962. The Beatles: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, became the world's most popular musicians of all time. The "Fab Four" opened the doors for British acts such as The Rolling Stones, The Who, Queen and Led Zeppelin to the globe.

Some of the leading contemporary artists include Kaiser Chiefs, Robbie Williams and Coldplay The Church of England functions as the established church in England. Other churches which have started in England include the Methodist church, the Quakers and the Salvation Army. Literature Sherlock Holmes, played here by Jeremy Brett, was created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle. The earliest native literature of the territory of the modern United Kingdom was written in the Celtic languages of the isles. The Welsh literary tradition stretches from the 6th century to the 21st century. Irish poetry represents a more or less unbroken tradition from the 6th century to the present day, with the Ulster Cycle being of particular relevance to Northern Ireland. Anglo-Saxon literature includes Beowulf, a national epic, but literature in Latin predominated among educated elites. After the Norman Conquest Anglo-Norman literature brought continental influences to the isles. English literature emerged as a recognisable entity in the late 14th century, with the rise and spread of the London dialect of Middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer is the first great identifiable individual in English literature: his Canterbury Tales remains a popular 14th-century work which readers still enjoy today.

Following the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, the Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the fields of poetry and drama. From this period, poet and playwright William Shakespeare stands out as arguably the most famous writer in the world. The English novel became a popular form in the 18th century, with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones (1745). After a period of decline, the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in vernacular literature, the rhyming weavers of Ulster being especially influenced by literature in Scots from Scotland. The following two centuries continued a huge outpouring of literary production. In the early 19th century, the Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance two hundred years earlier, with such poets as William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and Lord Byron.

The Victorian period was the golden age of the realistic English novel, represented by Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Emily and Anne), Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. The Celtic Revival stimulated new appreciation of traditional Irish literature, however, with the independence of the Irish Free State, Irish literature came to be seen as more clearly separate from the strains of British literature. The Scottish Renaissance of the early 20th century brought modernism to Scottish literature as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and was greatly enriched by immigrant writers. It remains today the dominant English literary form. Other well-known novelists include Arthur Conan Doyle, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Salman Rushdie, Mary Shelley, Zadie Smith, J. R. R. Tolkien, Virginia Woolf and J.K. Rowling. Important poets include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, T. S. Eliot, Ted Hughes, John Milton, Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Alexander Pope, and Dylan Thomas.

Theatre The United Kingdom also has a vibrant tradition of theatre. Theatre was introduced to the UK from Europe by the Romans and auditoriums were constructed across the country for this purpose William Shakespeare, chief figure of the English Renaissance, is here seen in the Chandos portrait By the medieval period theatre had developed with the mummers' plays, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such as Saint George and the Dragon and Robin Hood. These were folk tales re-telling old stories, and the actors travelled from town to town performing these for their audiences in return for money and hospitality. The medieval mystery plays and morality plays, which dealt with Christian themes, were performed at religious festivals. The reign of Elizabeth I in the late 16th and early 17th century saw a flowering of the drama and all the arts. Perhaps the most famous playwright in the world, William Shakespeare, wrote around 40 plays that are still performed in theatres across the world to this day.

They include tragedies, such as Hamlet (1603), Othello (1604), and King Lear (1605); comedies, such as A Midsummer Night's Dream (1594—96) and Twelfth Night (1602); and history plays, such as Henry IV, part 1—2. The Elizabethan age is sometimes nicknamed "the age of Shakespeare" for the amount of influence he held over the era. Other important Elizabethan and 17th-century playwrights include Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, and John Webster. Aphra Behn was the first professional woman playwright. During the Interregnum 1642—1660, English theatres were kept closed by the Puritans for religious and ideological reasons. When the London theatres opened again with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, they flourished under the personal interest and support of Charles II. Wide and socially mixed audiences were attracted by topical writing and by the introduction of the first professional actresses (in Shakespeare's time, all female roles had been played by boys). New genres of the Restoration were heroic drama, pathetic drama, and Restoration comedy.

The Restoration plays that have best retained the interest of producers and audiences today are the comedies, such as William Wycherley's The Country Wife (1676), The Rover (1677) by the first professional woman playwright, Aphra Behn, John Vanbrugh's The Relapse (1696), and William Congreve's The Way of the World (1700). Restoration comedy is famous or notorious for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged by Charles II (1660–1685) personally and by the rakish aristocratic ethos of his court. In the 18th century, the highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy lost favour, to be replaced by sentimental comedy, domestic tragedy such as George Lillo's The London Merchant (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the English Music Hall. These forms flourished at the expense of legitimate English drama, which went into a long period of decline.

By the early 19th century it was no longer represented by stage plays at all, but by the closet drama, plays written to be privately read in a "closet" (a small domestic room). A change came in the late 19th century with the plays on the London stage by the Irishmen George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde and the Norwegian Henrik Ibsen, all of whom influenced domestic English drama and vitalised it again. Today the West End of London has a large number of theatres, particularly centred around Shaftesbury Avenue. A prolific composer of the 20th century Andrew Lloyd Webber has dominated the West End for a number of years and his musicals have travelled to Broadway in New York and around the world, as well as being turned into films. The Royal Shakespeare Company operates out of Shakespeare's birthplace Stratford-upon-Avon in England, producing mainly but not exclusively Shakespeare's plays.

Important modern playwrights include Alan Ayckbourn, John Osborne, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, and Arnold Wesker Music Possibly the most famous band the world has ever seen, The Beatles grew up in Liverpool Composers William Byrd, Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, John Blow, Henry Purcell, Edward Elgar, Arthur Sullivan, William Walton, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten and Michael Tippett have made major contributions to British music, and are known internationally. Living composers include John Tavener, Harrison Birtwistle, Andrew Lloyd Webber, and Oliver Knussen. Britain also supports a number of major orchestras including the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Because of its location and other economic factors, London is one of the most important cities for music in the world: it has several important concert halls and is also home to the Royal Opera House, one of the world's leading opera houses. British traditional music has also been very influential abroad.

The UK was, with the US, one of the two main countries in the development of rock and roll, and has provided bands including The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, The Who, Pink Floyd, Queen, Status Quo, The Smiths, the Sex Pistols, the Manic Street Preachers, Oasis, Radiohead and Coldplay. It has provided inspiration for many modern bands today, including Kaiser Chiefs, Bloc Party, Arctic Monkeys and Franz Ferdinand. [[Since then it has also pioneered in various forms of electronic dance music including acid house, drum and bass and trip hop, all of which were in whole or part developed in the United Kingdom. Acclaimed British dance acts include Underworld, Massive Attack, The Chemical Brothers and Portishead. Visual Art The oldest art in the United Kingdom can be dated to the Neolithic period, and is found in a funerary context. But it is in the Bronze age that the first innovative artworks are found. The Beaker people, who arrived in Britain around 2500 BC, were skilled in metal refining. At first, they worked mainly in copper, but around 2150 BC they learned how to make bronze.

As there was a ready supply of tin in Cornwall and Devon, they were able to make take advantage of this new process. They were also skilled in the use of gold, and especially the Wessex culture excelled in the making of gold ornaments. Works of art placed in graves or sacrificial pits have survived, showing both innovation and high skill. Anglo-Saxon sculpting was outstanding for its time in the 11th century, as proved by pre-Norman ivory carvings. In the Iron Age, the Celtic culture spread in the British isles, and with them a new art style. Metalwork, especially gold ornaments, was still important, but stone and most likely wood was also used. This style continued into the Roman period, and would find a renaissance in the Medieval period. It also survived in the Celtic areas not occupied by the Romans, largely corresponding to the present-day Wales and Scotland. Thomas Gainsborough's Blue boy, painted 1770 The Romans, arriving in the 1st century BC, brought with them the Classical style. Many monuments have survived, especially funerary monuments, statues and busts. They also brough glasswork and mosaics.

In the 4th century, a new element was introduced as the first Christian art was made in Britain. Several mosaics with Christian symbols and pictures have been preserved. The style of Romano-British art follows that of the continent, but there are some local specialities, to some extent influenced by Celtic art. Roman rule was replaced by a number of kingdoms with different cultural backgrounds. The Celtic fringe gained back some of the power lost in the Roman period, and the Celtic style again became a factor influencing art all over Britain. Other peoples, such as the Saxons, Jutes and Danes, brought with them Germanic and Scandinavian art styles. Celtic and Scandinavian art have several common elements, such as the use of intricate, intertwined patterns of decoration. Leaving the debate over which style influenced the other most aside, it seems reasonable to say that in Britain the different style to some extent fused into a British Celtic-Scandinavian hybrid. The Grand Canal, Venice by J. M. W. Turner, painted 1835. Christianity, before the religion of parts of the Roman ruling class, started spreading among the peoples of Britain from the end of the 6th century.

There was little change in the art style at first, but new elements were added. The Celtic high crosses are well-known examples of the use of Celtic patterns in Christian art. Scenes from the Bible were depicted, framed with the ancient patterns. Some ancient symbols were redefined, such as the many Celtic symbols that can easily be interpreted as referring to the Holy Trinity. One new form of art that was introduced was mural paintings. Christianity provided two elements needed for this art form to take root: Monks who were familiar with the techniques, and stone churches with white-chalked walls suitable for murals. As the artists were often foreign monks, or lay artists trained on the continent, the style is very close to that of continental art. Another art form introduced through the church was stained glass, which was also adopted for secular uses. The English Renaissance, starting in the early 16th century, was a parallel to the Italian Renaissance, but did not develop in exactly the same way. It was mainly concerned with music and literature; in art and architecture the change was not as clearly defined as in the continent. Painters from the continent continued to find work in Britain, and brought the new styles with them, especially the Flemish and Italian Renaissance styles.

The Peacock Skirt As a reaction to abstract expressionism, pop art emerged originally in England at the end of the 1950s. New York-born Sir Jacob Epstein was a pioneer of modern sculpture, boldly challenging taboos through his public works. Notable visual artists from the United Kingdom include John Constable, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough, William Blake and J.M.W. Turner. In the 20th century, Francis Bacon, David Hockney, Bridget Riley, and the pop artists Richard Hamilton and Peter Blake were of note. More recently, the so-called Young British Artists have gained some notoriety, particularly Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin. Notable illustrators include Aubrey Beardsley, Roger Hargreaves, and Beatrix Potter. Notable arts institutions include the Allied Artists' Association, Royal College of Art, Artists' Rifles, Royal Society of Arts, New English Art Club, Slade School of Art, Royal Academy, and the Tate Gallery. Architecture The earliest remnants of architecture in the United Kingdom are mainly neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury, and Roman ruins such as the spa in Bath.

Many castles remain from the medieval period and in most towns and villages the parish church is an indication of the age of the settlement, built as they were from stone rather than the traditional wattle and daub. Over the two centuries following the Norman conquest of 1066, and the building of the Tower of London, many great castles such as Caernarfon Castle in Wales and Carrickfergus Castle in Ireland were built to suppress the natives. Large houses continued to be fortified until the Tudor period, when the first of the large gracious unfortified mansions such as the Elizabethan Montacute House and Hatfield House were built. The Civil War 1642—49 proved to be the last time in British history that houses had to survive a siege. Corfe Castle was destroyed following an attack by Oliver Cromwell's army, but Compton Wynyates survived a similar ordeal. After this date houses were built purely for living, and design and appearance were for ever more important than defence. Just prior to the Civil War, Inigo Jones, who is regarded as the first significant British architect, came to prominence.

He was responsible for importing the Palladian manner of architecture to Britain from Italy; the Queen's House at Greenwich is perhaps his best surviving work. St Paul's Cathedral was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and built between 1675 and 1708. Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 an opportunity was missed in London to create a new metropolitan city, featuring modern architectural styles. Although one of the best known British architects, Sir Christopher Wren, was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London, his master plan for rebuilding London as a whole was rejected. It was in this period that he designed the building that he is perhaps best known for, St Paul's Cathedral. In the early 18th century baroque architecture—popular in Europe—was introduced, and Blenheim Palace was built in this era. However, baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. The Georgian architecture of the 18th century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such as Woburn Abbey and Kedleston Hall are in this style.

Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors, neoclassical and romantic, were Robert Adam, Sir William Chambers, and James Wyatt. In the early 19th century the romantic medieval gothic style appeared as a backlash to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. By the middle of the 19th century, as a result of new technology, construction was able to develop incorporating steel as a building component; one of the greatest exponents of this was Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace. Paxton also continued to build such houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular retrospective Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity and development British architecture embraced many new methods of construction, but ironically in style, such architects as August Pugin ensured it remained firmly in the past. At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of design arts and crafts became popular, the architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the 19th century designs of such architects as George Devey, was championed by Edwin Lutyens.

Arts and crafts in architecture is symbolized by an informal, non symmetrical form, often with mullioned or lattice windows, multiple gables and tall chimneys. This style continued to evolve until World War II. Following the Second World War reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced by Modernism, especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town centre redevelopments—criticised for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as the Hayward Gallery. Many Modernist inspired town centres are today in the process of being redeveloped, Bracknell town centre being a case in point. However, it should not be forgotten that in the immediate post-War years many thousands (perhaps hundreds of thousands) of council houses in vernacular style were built, giving working class people their first experience of private gardens and indoor sanitation. Modernism remains a significant force in U.K. architecture, although its influence is felt predominantly in commercial buildings. The two most prominent proponents are Lord Rogers of Riverside and Lord Foster of Thames Bank.

Rogers' iconic London buildings are probably Lloyd's Building and the Millennium Dome, while Foster created the Swiss Re Buildings (aka The Gherkin) and the Greater London Authority H.Q. Science and technology Ever since the scientific revolution, the United Kingdom has been prominent in world scientific and technological development. The philosopher Francis Bacon put forward his Baconian method in his 1620 book, Novum Organum. This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution. Newton's Principia is one of the most influential works in the history of science. Possibly the most famous of all British scientists, Isaac Newton, is considered by historians of science to have crowned and ended the scientific revolution with the 1687 publication of his Principia Mathematica, which ushers in what is recognisable as modern physics. He is most famous for realising that the same force is responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, and discovering gravity. It is commonly reported that he made this realisation when he was sitting underneath an apple tree and was hit on the head by a falling apple; this story is, however, apocryphal.

He is also famous as the father of classical mechanics, formulated as his three laws and as the co-inventor (with Gottfried Leibniz) of differential calculus. Less famously, he also created the binomial theorem, worked extensively on optics, and created a law of cooling. Since Newton's time, figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science. Examples include James Clerk Maxwell, who unified the electric and magnetic forces in what are now known as Maxwell's equations; James Joule, who worked extensively in thermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy; Paul Dirac, one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics; Charles Darwin, author of On the Origin of Species and discoverer of the principle of evolution by natural selection; and Harold Kroto, the discoverer of buckminsterfullerene. Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either Oxford or Cambridge University, with laboratories such as the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right. In modern times, other institutions such as the Red Brick and New Universities are catching up with Oxbridge.

For instance, Lancaster University has a global reputation for work in low temperature physics. The Royal Society serves as the national academy for sciences, with members drawn from many different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is the oldest learned society still in existence. Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the industrial revolution, with innovations especially in textiles, the steam engine, railroads and civil engineering. Famous British engineers and inventors from this period include James Watt, Robert Stephenson, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Richard Arkwright. Since then, the United Kingdom has continued this tradition of technical creativity. Frank Whittle (inventor of the jet engine), Charles Babbage (who devised the idea of the computer) and Alexander Fleming (discoverer of penicillin) were all British. The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations today, providing inventions as diverse as the World Wide Web and Viagra (created by Tim Berners-Lee and Pfizer respectively).

Other famous scientists, engineers and inventors from the UK include: Michael Faraday, Robert Baden-Powell, John Logie Baird, William Caxton, Richard Trevithick, Humphry Davy, Robert Watson-Watt, Henry Bessemer and others. Religion Although today one of the most 'secularised' states in the world, the United Kingdom is traditionally a Christian country, with two of the Home nations having official faiths: Anglicanism, in the form of the Church of England, is the Established Church in England. The Queen is Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Presbyterianism (Church of Scotland) is the official faith in Scotland. The Anglican Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920. The Anglican Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1871. Other religions followed in the UK include Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism.

While 2001 census information [2] suggests that over 75 percent of UK citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, Gallup International reports that only 10 percent of UK citizens regularly attend religious services, compared to 15 percent of French citizens and 57 percent of American citizens. A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44 percent of UK citizens believe in God, while 35 percent do not [3]. The disparity between the census data and the YouGov data has been put down to a phenomenon described as "cultural Christianity", whereby many who do not believe in God still identify with the religion they were bought up as, or the religion of their parents. Education University College, Oxford was founded in the 13th century The education system in the United Kingdom varies in important respects between England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Education is devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland. Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of five and sixteen. Most children in the UK are educated in state funded schools financed through the tax system and so parents do not pay directly for the cost of education.

Less than ten percent of the UK school age population attend independent fee-paying schools. Many prominent independent school, often founded hundreds of years ago, are known as public schools of which Eton, Harrow and Rugby are three of the better known. Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory school uniforms. This is a contentious point with generations of school children who would like to see them abolished, only to support their retention once they become parents, this is due to people wanting to have a 'uniform' appearance in schools and it reduces the brand logo culture from coming out in educational establishments. Due to the multicultural nature of England, some allowances have had to be made in the uniform regulations to accommodate the needs of some children's religious beliefs. Most schools came under state control in the Victorian era, a formal state school system was instituted after the Second World War. Initially schools were separated into infant schools (normally up to age 4 or 5), primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocational secondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become comprehensive schools.

Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day to day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of Local Education Authorities.

Question: New York-born Sir Jacob Epstein worked in which branch of the arts?
Answer: Sculpture