Is Carrageenan Safe? - Healthy Eaton | Healthy Eaton Is Carrageenan Safe? July 19, 2014 2 Flares 2 Flares × How many of you have heard of the ingredient: Carrageenan? You might have noticed it on the labels of foods like non-dairy milks, ice cream, cottage cheese, yogurt, deli meat, etc. This hard-to-pronounce little additive is actually a bit controversial in the health world. What is Carrageenan? According to the Oxford dictionary: A substance extracted from red and purple seaweeds, consisting of a mixture of polysaccharides. It is used as a thickening or emulsifying agent in food products. There are plenty of perfectly good edible seaweeds, like kelp and Nori. This must be the same, right? Well…not so much. Carrageenan is not digestible and has no nutritional value. The USDA and food manufacturers justify the use of this additive because it is naturally derived, despite the controversial studies that have been done.

It is often used to thicken and emulsify products to improve their texture, and it is even often found in organic and “natural” products – including the Tom’s Toothpaste I used to use! There are actually two different kinds of carrageenan: degraded and undegraded. Undegraded is approved for human consumption while degraded (also known as poligeenan) is not. In 2001, studies with animals showed a link to cancer from giving high doses of poligeenan. They also linked it to intestinal damage. A rat study showed no ulcerations or lesions after 90 days of exposure and after 83 days, and being given carrageenan at 5%, pigs showed abnormalities in the intestines but no ulcerations or tumors. Limited human studies showed an increase in inflammation (which is the root cause of many serious diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s and cancer) wreak havoc on gut health, potentially causing autoimmune reactions similar to colitis, as well as other health complications like intestinal irritation and colon ulcers. A study published in Nature, from researchers at Georgia State University, found that it altered the balance and composition of gut bacteria and also produced an inflammatory effect in the bowels.

Bottom Line: Carrageenan reacts differently within different species making it difficult to understand the effects in humans. There have not been enough studies done to make a ruling one way or another. I’m yet to see any research touting its health benefits. Personally, I am not willing to take that risk when there are other options. If you agree, be sure to know where to look for it. When you start reading labels, you’ll be amazed at the number of products that have it. Here are some brands that are carrageen-free! Ice Cream: Alden’s, Castle Rock Organic Farms, Crystal Ball Farms, Green and Black’s Organic, Publix, Stonyfield, Strafford Organic Creamery, Strauss Family Creamery, Three Twins Non-Dairy Milk: 365 Whole Foods, (some) Trader Joe’s, Organic Valley, Soy Dream, Earth Balance, Tofu Shop, or Make Your Own!

Yogurt: Hawthorne Valley Farm, Horizon, Kalona Supernatural, Organic Valley, Wallaby Organic, (some) Trader Joe’s, Stonyfield Cottage Cheese: Kalona Supernatural, Nancy’s, Organic Valley Sour Cream: 365 Whole Foods, Horizon, Organic Valley, Wallaby Organic, Nancy’s Carrageenan Seaweed Extract Safety and Health Risks | Shape Magazine Q: My friend told me to stop eating my favorite yogurt because it has carrageenan in it. Is she right? A: Carrageenan is a compound extracted from red seaweed that is added to improve the texture and mouth feel of foods. Its widespread use as an additive in foods began in the 1930s, initially in chocolate milk, and now it is found in yogurt, ice cream, soy milk, almond milk, deli meats, and meal replacement shakes. For decades different groups and scientists have been trying to get the FDA to ban carrageenan as a food additive due to potential damage that it can cause to the digestive tract.

More recently, this argument has been reignited with a consumer report and petition by the advocacy and food policy research group Cornucopia entitled, "How a Natural Food Additive Is Making Us Sick." However, the FDA has yet to reopen the review on the safety of carrageenan, citing that there is no new data to be considered. The FDA doesn’t seem to be acting stubborn here, as just last year they considered and subsequently rejected a petition by Joanne Tobacman, M.D., a professor at the University of Illinois, to ban carrageenan. Dr. Tobacman has been researching the additive and its impacts on inflammation and inflammatory diseases in animals and cells for the last 10 years. Carrageenan: The carcinogen hiding in your {cow, coconut, rice, almond, soy} milk | Body Unburdened The carcinogen hiding in your {cow, coconut, rice, almond, soy} milk If you buy {cow, coconut, rice, almond, soy} milk from the grocery store, you may be purchasing a product with a potential carcinogen in it: carrageenan. Oh, you buy organic? Well it still might be in there.

Carrageenan is a substance that is extracted from red seaweed (so naturally-derived) and widely used in the food industry for its thickening and stabilizing properties. It is most commonly used in milk and milk products including non-dairy milk alternatives such as coconut, rice, soy, and almond milk. Carrageenan is one of the additives that has been ushered through the National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) technical review process in the scandal that has been referred to as the “ Organic Watergate .” In essence, it really should not have been approved for use in organic food (or any food!) but due to corporate pressure, now appears in many brands of “organic” as well as non-organic milk and milk-alternative products. So why shouldn’t carrageenan be in our food? As much as 25% of the carregeenan on the market is characterized as “degraded.” Furthermore, all carrageenan can degrade in the body, in the gastrointestinal tract and liver, where it causes serious inflammation and intestinal abnormalities. These side effects are well-known among the scientific community as carrageenan is given to lab animals to produce inflammatory symptoms in order to test anti-inflammatory drugs.

What’s more, degraded carrageenan is also a potential carcinogen. In fact, the World Health Organization’s International Agency for Research on Cancer and the National Research Council of the United States have deemed carrageenan to be a carcinogen. What can you do? If you are a cow milk drinker, the best option is buying raw milk from a local farmer you trust and who does not use hormones or antibiotics. Living in the city, I get my raw milk from a local co-op that gets a bi-weekly shipment from Lancaster, PA. If you prefer non-dairy alternatives, consider making your own almond milk ( click here to get the recipe ) or coconut milk ( click here to get the recipe ). Otherwise, check out Cornucopia Institute’s Shopping Guide to Avoiding Organic Foods with Carrageenan to find a store-bight milk without carrageenan. Get access to my FREE library of resources! Healthy living is made easy with these super handy handouts and guides + get exclusive info and fun offers (like coupons and giveaways!) straight to your inbox GET ACCESS! Success! I'm sending you an email right now... There will be no spam, ever. I respect your privacy and time like it's my own.

Standard FTC disclosure: In order for me to support my blogging activities, I may receive monetary compensation or other types of remuneration for my endorsement, recommendation, testimonial and/or link to any products or services from this blog. However, I only support and endorse products that I use personally and feel would benefit readers. Thank you for supporting Body Unburdened and the work I do to help readers live non-toxic, healthy lives! Disclaimer: The content of Body Unburdened either through this website, social media pages, or any other materials distributed by Body Unburdened is intended to provide helpful and informative material. I am not a doctor or a “registered dietitian,” and I do not provide medical advice or treat diseases. […] Non-dairy milk alternatives are also great, but be sure to avoid harmful additives such as carrageenan. […] May 3, 2013 • 8:38 am • Thanks for linking to my homemade almond milk recipe! June 2, 2013 • 8:14 pm • Jimena Is this also true for red seaweed or just this derived product? is it the process that makes it carcinogen?

June 8, 2013 • 12:55 pm • Why soy is NOT a health food | Body Unburdened […] If you are relying on soy as a source of vegan protein, it’s time to diversify. There are plenty of other sources of vegan protein out there: nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables, quinoa, beans, sprouted grains. If you are a soy milk drinker, consider making a switch to other non-dairy milks such as coconut, hemp, or almond milk (just be sure to avoid this carcinogen hiding in your milk). […] July 11, 2013 • 6:44 pm • Thanks for getting the word out! Not many people are educated about carrageenan. August 23, 2013 • 11:35 pm • Sarah What about carrageen in toothpaste? You endorsed Tom’s of Maine in one of your posts, but it does have carrageen in it. I can understand not directly ingesting it (such as drinking a glass of dairy/nondairy milk), but what about toothpaste?

I work at a natural food store, and they carry multiple fluoride/SLS/triclosan-free brands, but most, it not all, have carrageen in it. It seems just about everything, even plant-based, has some sort of toxin! September 28, 2013 • 9:09 am • Missy Wyld My brand of coconut milk (low fat too) ‘Ayam’ has no Carrageenan in it/ I buy it at my local supermarket (Woolies) in Aust. It comes from Malaysia. October 19, 2013 • 11:10 pm • Mella Silk Almond Milk doesn’t have that ingredient. November 19, 2013 • 11:14 am • Tacha Many chocolate milks have Carrageenan in it. My lo loves chocolate milk and so far the only one we found that doesn’t have that ingredient is Organic Valley. November 19, 2013 • 3:16 pm • Sheryle Carrageenan is in a lot of other things too! Deli meats (even Hormel, the ‘natural’ brand).

I also noticed that almost all canned dog foods have it too! This is a carcinogen for them too! and does ‘guar gum’ the same effect? because if a product doesn’t have carageenan in it, it usually has that or a substitute 🙁 November 20, 2013 • 2:36 pm • […] we’re talking derivatives of coal tar and petroleum here, not some plant-derived product like carrageenan which needs some more serious […] November 20, 2013 • 7:19 pm • giulia love your blog – this is totally unrelated – I LOVE your nail polish in the picture! What color/brand? I am a serial nail polish collector – I use organic products for all my beauty needs but I will never be able to give up my chanel/diors. thank you for everything, your blog has rekindled my passion and set me on the right path! January 28, 2014 • 4:26 am • What is the reference that shows carrageenan is a carcinogen?

April 14, 2014 • 6:28 pm • Nadia I have the source at the very bottom – Cornucopia Institute. April 14, 2014 • 7:00 pm • Gabriel Kogel you’re naive if you think cow’s milk is safe to drink. All the pollution that lands on the crops gets concentrated in the cow’s fat reserves, and is released into her milk. You’re drinking Dioxin and Perchlorate, and all the petroleum based pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers that accumulate in her feed, unless it’s organic milk (what does raw mean to you? There is no such thing as raw milk). And even if it’s organic you’re getting all the hormones the cow naturally produces during her pregnancy. Want breast or prostate cancer? keep drinking that moo-juice. April 16, 2014 • 2:49 am • Nadia There is really no need for such hostility, particularly when the fact that I drink RAW milk from pasture-raised cows was not the point of the post. This post is about carrageenan.

If you want to learn about RAW milk and the health benefits, remember: Google is your friend. I simply refuse to respond to bullies – no mature dialogue would result. Also, I highly suggest you know your facts before you respond so rudely: “There is no such thing as raw milk.” May you find mindfulness. Namaste. April 16, 2014 • 8:19 am • […] *If you don’t consume dairy, certainly feel free to use a non-dairy milk substitute instead. Just remember to look for one that’s organic and made without carrageenan. […] August 17, 2014 • 8:14 pm • Michael DeMutis The problem with these alternatives is its not sustainable for everybody. If we all decided that we should be drinking raw milk from the local farmer, the local farmer would not have enough to supply us all. What needs to change is getting these carcinogens out of our food supply through lobbying and government. We need to tell the food producers we don’t want this in our food. If enough noise is raised maybe then something will be done about it.

August 26, 2014 • 4:59 am • Nadia I couldn’t agree more (I’m not telling other people to drink raw milk, that’s just what I choose to do). August 26, 2014 • 8:39 am • Paul Morton Good article. My wife and I have eliminated dairy and grain fed beef from our diet. I’m currently reading ” never fear cancer again ” by Raymond Francis. It has lots of info on what foods To avoid and why. Regards Paul. November 8, 2014 • 4:56 pm • Laurie B Raw milk, for those who don’t know, is unpasteurized milk. It’s milk taken direct from the cow to you with no processing in between. Unless you know the farmer well and know what he feeds his cows, you may be getting other unwanted things in your milk, and drinking unpasteurized milk can have other risks. But even if you want to drink this, in most states it’s illegal to sell so you can’t even get it unless you raise your own cow.

Carrageenan, which apparently was approved because it’s considered ‘natural’, since it’s derived from seaweed, has become prevalent everywhere. There is virtually no dairy product other than milk itself that doesn’t contain it. Even if it wasn’t carcinogenic (which I don’t know if it is or isn’t), it still causes gastrointestinal problems for many people who, like me, have become sensitive to it. I can no longer eat anything with carrageenan in it without suffering hours of severe stomach cramps afterward. This has taken heavy cream, eggnog, buttermilk, ice cream, and chocolate milk, all of which I love, completely out of my diet in the past year. All because there is not a brand of any of these products to be found in my local grocery stores without it. Even most substitutes such as soy milk (which was the original product that started my stomach problems) contain this stuff. I now have to look into making my own ice cream and eggnog at home, as well as buttermilk and heavy cream substitutes made from milk and half-and-half (which luckily is still carrageenan-free).

I wish we could go back to whatever they were using before carrageenan, because it didn’t make me sick! Now, if only I could find pasteurized eggs for my eggnog…. November 17, 2014 • 12:42 pm • Nadia Here’s a resource to help find raw milk: November 17, 2014 • 2:56 pm • Marianne Janz Carrageenan | Define Carrageenan at Dictionary.com carrageenan [kar-uh-gee-nuh n] /ˌkær əˈgi nən/ Spell noun 1. a colloidal substance extracted from seaweed, chiefly used as an emulsifying and stabilizing ingredient in foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Origin of carrageenan carrageen + -an suffix of chemical compounds, here synonymous with -in 2 Dictionary.com Unabridged British Dictionary definitions for carrageenan Expand noun 1.

a carbohydrate extracted from carrageen, used to make a beverage, medicine, and jelly, and as an emulsifying and gelling agent (E407) in various processed desserts and drinks Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 carrageenan car·ra·geen·an or car·ra·geen·in (kār'ə-gē'nən) n. Any of a group of closely related colloids derived from several red algae, widely used as a thickening, stabilizing, emulsifying, or suspending agent in pharmaceuticals. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.

Will Carrageenan Remain in Organic Food? - Cornucopia Institute Will Carrageenan Remain in Organic Food? June 22nd, 2016 Removal of Carcinogenic Substance Uncertain Due to Industry Lobbying [This article was previously published in the summer issue of The Cultivator , Cornucopia’s quarterly newsletter.] by Linley Dixon, PhD Farm and Food Policy Analyst at The Cornucopia Institute Source: Adobe Stock The FDA is responsible for ensuring the safety of more than 9,000 food additives used in conventional foods, a number that former Deputy Commissioner Taylor admits is beyond their capacity. Evaluating the continued use of food additives in organic food, however, is the responsibility of the National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), which sets a much higher bar according to the regulations set forth in the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA). This year, assessing the safety of carrageenan for continued use in organic foods is on the NOSB’s agenda. Carrageenan is commonly found in dairy products, deli meats, salad dressings, toothpaste, pet food, and vegan products.

Carrageenan, derived from red seaweed, is considered a “synthetic substance” due to its extraction process and is mandated for an NOSB review by Congress every five years. Carrageenan’s use as an emulsifier and thickener is highly controversial, because independent research indicates it is a potent trigger of inflammation and a possible carcinogen. To remain on the National List of materials allowed in organic production, carrageenan must meet all three of the following OFPA criteria: 1) essential to organic products; 2) safe to humans and the environment; and, 3) compatible with organic practices. After assessing written and oral public comments at two semi-annual meetings, the NOSB will vote this fall to determine whether carrageenan should remain on the National List. Cornucopia, along with several farmer and consumer groups, including the National Organic Coalition, Consumer Reports, Center for Food Safety, and Organic Consumers Association, testified at the spring NOSB meeting that carrageenan does not meet the OFPA criteria. Decades of independent research demonstrate its role in inflammation, colitis, cancer, and diabetes.

A number of labs around the world have studied the inflammatory effects of carrageenan, and approximately 10,000 references occur in PubMed when “inflammation and carrageenan” is searched. Several groups that profit from carrageenan, including carrageenan manufacturers, food processors, and hired lobbyists and scientists, lined up for public comment to assure NOSB members that food-grade carrageenan is safe, and that those stating otherwise were citing bad science and “fear-mongering.” There was not one scientist or industry representative that testified in support of the safety of carrageenan that doesn’t stand to profit from its use. In reality, the carrageenan used in thousands of inflammation studies is high-molecular-weight and extracted by the same processes used to obtain food-grade carrageenan. The distinctions the industry makes between food-grade carrageenan and the majority of the carrageenan used in inflammation research are unfounded. Various companies that either produce carrageenan or that receive funding from the industry have aligned in a group called “United 4 Food Science.” They include FMC Corp., Cargill, International Dairy Foods Association, International Food Additives Council, Marinalg International (an industry lobby group), and many others.

Nearly all studies demonstrating the safety of carrageenan can be traced back to the members of United 4 Food Science. The industry is leading a coordinated effort to discredit public research. These tactics resemble those of the tobacco and fracking industries and must not go unchallenged. In contrast, Cornucopia and other non-profits attempted to let consumers know that quality, peer-reviewed, published research exists that demonstrates the mechanisms by which carrageenan can cause harm to human health. Several studies show harm in normal human colonic epithelial cells resulting from consuming amounts less than those in the typical diet, based on an average carrageenan consumption of 250 mg/day. Unfortunately, the industry-disseminated propaganda was repeated in the summary on carrageenan presented by Zea Sonnabend, the NOSB member leading the carrageenan review. Ms. Sonnabend repeated the industry line that public research had not been repeated, despite Cornucopia’s written and oral testimony citing published work (e.g., Korea University’s College of Medicine study on the effects of high- molecular-weight carrageenan on insulin resistance and inhibition of insulin signaling).

The published research on carrageenan was again presented to the NOSB as “split,” meaning that there are just as many studies pointing to its safety as there are those indicating harm. However, Ms. Sonnabend failed to point out that there is not one study demonstrating its safety that isn’t funded by the carrageenan industry. Whereas, there are thousands of studies done by independent labs using high-molecular-weight carrageenan to cause inflammation. Over a dozen industry-funded scientists and representatives presented testimony in-person at the meeting. Some individuals testified that those sounding the alarm on carrageenan are simply confused between poligeenan and carrageenan. Both carrageenan and poligeenan are extracted from red seaweed, but poligeenan is produced by subjecting carrageenan to acid and high temperatures, and has a much lower average molecular weight. Cornucopia pointed to research showing that food-grade carrageenan always contains a percentage of the harmful, carcinogenic low-molecular-weight form. The industry doesn’t readily admit that the higher “average” molecular weight of food-grade carrageenan does not preclude the presence of smaller amounts of harmful low-molecular-weight forms.

The term “average” in various publications would, by definition, obscure the presence of small amounts of harmful low-molecular-weight carrageenan. The presence of this low-molecular-weight carrageenan in food-grade carrageenan is confirmed by studies that are both publicly and industry-funded. Many labs around the world continue to investigate the effects of these low-molecular-weight forms in the diet. Read our full, updated report on carrageenan , along with a scorecard identifying safe organic foods without carrageenan. You might be interested in: carrageenan - definition of carrageenan in English | Oxford Dictionaries Definition of carrageenan in English: carrageenan noun [mass noun] A substance extracted from red and purple seaweeds, consisting of a mixture of polysaccharides. It is used as a thickening or emulsifying agent in food products.

Example sentences ‘Similar vegetable gums, with the same possible adverse effects, are carrageenan, gum tragacanth, and carob or locust bean gum.’ ‘Also, ingredients such as carrageenan provide added stability.’ ‘Most commercial ice cream is made with carrageenan, a seaweed extract.’ ‘Neutral-type applications such as these require specific types of carrageenan to attain stability.’ ‘Keep in mind, too, that most commercial soy milks, especially the fortified ones, contain added salt and sweeteners (cane juice, usually) and are thickened with carrageenan (extracted from seaweed).’ ‘Some alternatives which produce results similar to gelatin are agar-agar, carrageenan, tapioca, sago, guar gum, pectin, and rennet.’ ‘In addition, stabilizers such as kappa carrageenan help prevent the cocoa particles from settling out in chocolate milk.’ ‘A stabilizer such as carrageenan can help keep the calcium in suspension.’ ‘The organisation is similarly developing carrageenan and is sponsoring a large safety study in women attending a family planning clinic in South Africa.’ ‘The use of carrageenan as a stabilizing agent has become widespread and is very effective in keeping the cocoa

 ingredient bound to the milk protein.’ ‘It also reduced the paw edema induced by carrageenan in rats.’ Origin Which is the correct spelling?

luntch Which is the correct spelling? watch Which is the correct spelling? bench Which is the correct spelling? besmirtch Which is the correct spelling? mismach Which is the correct spelling? approach Which is the correct spelling? crosshatch Which is the correct spelling? slouch Which is the correct spelling? fetch Which is the correct spelling? botch You scored /10 practise again? Retry Most popular in the world Australia Irish moss | algae | Britannica.com Irish moss See Article History Alternative Titles: carrageen, Chondrus crispus Irish moss, also called carrageen, (Chondrus crispus), species of red tufted seaweed with thin fronds from 5 to 25 cm (2 to 10 inches) long that grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of the British Isles , continental Europe , and North America . The plant is cartilaginous, varying in colour from a greenish yellow to a dark purple; when sun-dried and bleached it has a yellowish, translucent, hornlike aspect and consistency. The principal constituent of Irish moss is a gelatinous substance, carrageenan , which can be extracted by boiling.

Carrageenan is used for curing leather and as an emulsifying and suspending agent in pharmaceuticals, food products, cosmetics, and shoe polishes. In North America it is harvested from shallow water by dredging with special rakes; in Europe it is usually obtained from plants cast ashore. Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) has a range of colours that includes white, greenish … © Debbie MacKenzie/ in red algae Some red algae are important foods (e.g., laver, dulse). They may retain both their colour and gelatinous nature when cooked. Industrially, Irish moss (Chondrus) is used as a gelatin substitute in puddings, toothpaste, ice cream, and preserves. Some species of Corallina and its allies are important, along with animal corals, in forming coral reefs and islands. Agar, a gelatin-like... 2 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References occurrence at coastlines (in seaweed ) uses of red algae (in red algae ) External Links Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later.

Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later.

Close Date Published: August 25, 2009 URL: Access Date: January 20, 2017 Share Cat Food - Luv British Katz Cat Food Products We Do Not Recommend Alpha lipoic acid - Also referred to as lipoic acid. Why – It's an antioxidant that increases production of glutathione and can cause gastrointestinal distress and low blood sugar in cats. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BHA and BHT – Also known as Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) and Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT). BHA and BHT are manufactured chemicals added to oils (fats) as preservatives. Both can be found in pet foods and treats. Why – These are known to be carcinogens (cancer causing agents) and often cause kidney and liver damage in rats. BHT has been banned as a food preservative for humans in Australia, Japan, Romania, and Sweden; yet, it has not been banned for people or pets in the United States. It is best that your pet’s food and treats have no preservatives at all, but vitamins C and E are safer choices.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Carrageenan – A substance extracted from red and purple seaweeds, consisting of a mixture of polysaccharides. It is used as a thickening agent in pet foods. Why – First, it’s a complex sugar which is not good for cats. Second, the International Agency for Research on Cancer recognizes degraded carrageenan as a “possible human carcinogen,” based on research showing that it leads to higher rates of colon cancer in lab animals. Carrageenan processors claim that food-grade carrageenan falls entirely in the undegraded category; however, one study showed that not a single sample of food-grade carrageenan could confidently claim to be entirely free of the potential cancer-causing material. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Carob (Locust) gum – Locust bean gum (LBG, also known as carob gum, carob bean gum, carobin, E410) is a galactomannan vegetable gum extracted from the seeds of the carob tree, mostly found in the Mediterranean region. It consists chiefly of high-molecular-weight hydrocolloidal polysaccharides; LBG is used as thickening agent in pet food.

Why – First, it’s a complex sugar which is not good for cats. Second, it is very close in structure to cassia gum. See cassia gum for more information. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cassia gum – A food additive made from the endosperm of Senna obtusifolia (also called Cassia obtusifolia or Cassia tora). It is a polysaccharide used as a thickener and gelling agent in pet food, and has E-number E499. Why – First, it’s a complex sugar which is not good for cats. Second, there have been biological studies done on Cassia gum effects on cats, dogs, and rats in 1980’s for FDA, where kittens that were administered high dose (2.5% of daily nutrition) and kittens that were administered moderate dose(0.75% of daily nutrition) of cassia gum per day all died after 2-3 weeks; Their mothers and fathers were given cassia gum before and throughout pregnancy period. There was also a decrease in appetite and changes in digestive processing due to the fact that cassia gum absorbs much of moisture inside the digestive tract.

Another interesting thing is that in the group where higher dosage was administered there were a lot more still born births and neonatal deaths. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Dairy – Dairy products include milk, cream, butter, cheese, cottage cheese, yogurt, whey, sour cream, kefir, casein, and ice cream. Milk is a hormonal growth fluid produced by a mother for her young of the same species. Why – A weaned cat isn't equipped with the enzymes needed to digest the protein and sugar in dairy products. Plus, studies with cats show that casein (a protein in milk) interferes with the absorption of other nutrients. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Chocolate – Known to be toxic to cats. Why – chocolate contains the alkaloid theobromine which is toxic to cats. It also contains caffeine and may contain sugar. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ethoxyquin – A quinoline-based antioxidant used as a food preservative and a pesticide. It is commonly used as a preservative in pet foods to prevent the rancidification of fats. It’s also known to be a cancer causing agent.

Why - Ethoxyquin is a chemical pesticide, in most countries it is not accepted to be used in human foods, and indeed there are many concerns regarding its use in cat and dog foods. It has been shown to cause death in fish, and has been linked to health problems in cats and dogs, including liver and skin damage, depression, convulsions, coma, death, skin, and cancer. Ethoxyquin may, or may not, be on the label of the pet foods that it is used in. This is part of the problem, however it is used to preserve “by-products”, and legally is considered to be part of the by-product and as such many pet foods are not listing Ethoxyquin on the label. In other cases it is used to preserve “animal fat”, and as the manufacturer did not add the Ethoxyquin they do not have to list it, however they will be aware if it is in the fat they used or not, and as such foods that list ingredients as Human Grade Ingredients, will not contain Ethoxyquin. Many American made cat and dog foods continue to use Ethoxyquin, including Hills Science Diet, Purina, Iams, Royal Canin, Nutro, and Eukanuba (and others).

As a cheap preservative it is also commonly found in the less expensive cat and dog foods, and in many pet foods that contain fish as it is used to preserve fish products. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Fillers in cat foods - In processed animal foods, filler is an ingredient added to provide dietary fiber, bulk or some other non-nutritive purpose. Products like corn and corncobs, feathers, soy, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, citrus pulp, screening, weeds, straw, and cereal by-products are often included as inexpensive fillers or low-grade fiber content. Other fillers include but not limited to oats, oatmeal, wheat, rice, bulgur, quinoa, rye, grits, bran, pasta, whole grains, potatoes, and different by-products. Why – It is added to pet food as filler and is not a good source of protein or energy for cats. Cats have hard time processing fillers and do not benefit from this type of food. Often, they develop allergies, kidney problems, cancer, and many other problems because of these fillers. Potatoes in particular can cause improper thyroid function in cats when used as filler in their everyday diet.

In addition, by nature cats are strictly carnivorous which means that they require 90% of their diet to be pure meats in order to thrive. Their body is not designed to process high amounts of grains, vegetables, bones, feathers, hoofs, and many other types of filler that are commonly added to pet foods. Therefore, it is also worthwhile to note that carbohydrates (good vegetables as a source of fiber) should be limited to not more than 10% in feline diet; about 5-7% is the best. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Fish – Fish is a good source of DHA and Omega-3 that is good for cats’ brain development, eyesight, skin and fur, but it should only be fed as a treat and in small amounts, not more than once a week. Better would be once in every ten days and only the best such as wild sardines, Alaskan wild salmon, and albacore tuna; preferably freshly cooked and not from tin cans. Why – The fish used in canned pet foods usually includes bones, and are high in phosphorus and magnesium, which can be an issue in cats with a history of urinary tract disorders or kidney disease.

Quite a few cats tend to develop urinary tract infections and blockages if they eat much fish–even boneless fish. Fish-based foods have high levels of histamine, a protein involved in allergic reactions. While cats can synthesize their own Vitamin K from most food sources, fish-based foods may not support sufficient Vitamin K synthesis. Vitamin K is necessary for proper blood clotting. The most common synthetic Vitamin K supplement, menadione, has toxicity issues. There is also a known link between the feeding of fish-based canned cat foods and the development of hyperthyroidism in older cats. ***When fed as treat, fish should always be cooked, because raw fish contains an enzyme that destroys vitamin B1 (thiamin). A deficiency of this vitamin results in brain damage, and potential death. It is also deficient in vitamin E and has the potential to transmit diseases. Vitamin E deficiency leads to the fatal steatitis, or yellow fat disease. Feeding raw salmon can result in salmon poisoning; an infectious disease caused by a rickettsia that uses a parasitic fluke on salmon as a host. It can cause serious illness and death.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Grapes and Raisins - There have been recent reports of toxicity due to grape and raisin ingestion. Why – Grapes contain lots of sugars and acids that eventually can turn into alcohol once they get into digestive system and alcohol is known to be very toxic and even deadly to cats. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Guar gum – A soluble fiber extracted from the seed of the leguminous shrub Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, it’s a natural high molecular weight polysaccharide used as a thickening agent in pet foods. Why – First, it’s a complex sugar which is not good for cats. Second, it is very close in structure to cassia gum. See cassia gum for more information. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Meat by-products – meat by-products or animal by-products are often added to the pet foods as meat sources. These include: pork by-products, chicken by-products, meat by-products, beef by-products, turkey by-products, and by-products from other cattle or animals.

Why – by products are not good sources of meats and often include high volume of bones, hooves, feathers, skins, hair, unclean intestines of animals, still born animals, animals that have died of diseases or unknown cause, old or sick animals such as horses that were taken to slaughter house because of their old age or sickness, heads of animals, and meats that did not pass USDA policies in order to be sold for human consumption. These are bad sources of protein and energy for cats and may cause many diseases, cancer, and digestive problems in cats. Also, these are often preserved with Ethoxyquin a carcinogen which may not be even labeled on pet food products. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Onions and Garlic – These are known to be toxic to cats. Why –Ingestion of onions and garlic are related to destruction of red blood cells, because both raw and cooked onions and garlic contain N-propyl disulphide, a compound that, while harmless to humans, can destroy the red blood cells in cats, dogs, horses, sheep and cattle. The resulting condition is called Heinz body hemolytic anemia. They may also irritate the gastrointestinal system.

There's still debate about the harmful effects of garlic as many people including holistic vets have used it in cats without problem. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Pork and pork fats or products – The flesh of a pig used as food. Why – While fat is generally beneficial to cats, the fat globules in pork are larger than the fat globules in other meats, and can clog the small blood vessels of a cat. Avoid any pork products, especially bacon, which contains the hazardous preservative, sodium nitrate. In addition, pork is the unhealthiest meat that a person or animal can eat in their life and often causes cancer and other illnesses. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Propylene Glycol (PG) – Propylene Glycol is a humectant, or moistening agent, found in certain soft dog treats (Bil-Jac, Pup-Peroni, etc). Why - It is a chemical derivative of ethylene glycol (EG), also known as antifreeze, which is extremely toxic for any animal (or person) to consume. PG is touted as being non-toxic, tasteless, and unable to be absorbed by your pet, therefore it has a much higher margin for safety than ethylene glycol.

PG was previously used in canned cat foods, but cats’ propensity to develop Heinz body anemia motivated the FDA to ban PG’s inclusion in feline products—it can still be found in dog food and treats. Consider that in a multi-pet household, a cat could potentially consume treats containing PG intended for a dog if they were accidentally left in an easily accessible location. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Rice – A swamp grass (Oryza sativa) that is widely cultivated as a source of food. Used as filler in pet foods. Why – A study done about 10 years ago found that rice bran depletes taurine when fed to cats, and because brown rice includes the bran, researchers speculated that it may also cause problems. Taurine deficiency can cause blindness as well as congestive heart failure in cats. Here is what the rice bran study concluded: Although rice bran or whole rice products are included in commercial cat foods at levels between 5 and 20% diet (DM), this study shows that feline diets containing these materials may need a higher content of taurine than that in similar products without them.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Soy – The soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. In pet food it’s used as filler or sometimes as thickening agent. Why – It contains compounds that may negatively affect cats by interfering with nutrient absorption, normal growth, thyroid function, and hormonal development. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sugars – chemically-related sweet-flavored substances, most of which are used as food. They are carbohydrates, composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Why - Much research concludes that cancer cells thrive on sugar as do many other disease processes. Cats also have hard time processing sugars because their body was not designed to process sugars. Sugar comes in many forms, including beet, raw, brown, cane, fructose, corn sweetener, corn syrup, date, dextrin, dextrose, glucose, lactose, maltose, manitol, polydextrose, sorbital, sorghum, sucanat, sucrose, turbinado, barley malt, molasses, honey, polysaccharides, saccharine, and maple syrup. Xylitol, a sweetener that occurs naturally is known to be toxic to cats..

It can be found in berries, fruit, vegetables and mushrooms. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Tara gum – Tara gum is produced by separating and grinding the endosperm of C. spinosa seeds. The major component of the gum is a galactomannan polymer similar to the main components of guar and locust bean gums. Tara gum is used as a thickening agent in pet foods. Why – First, it’s a complex sugar which is not good for cats. Second, it is very close in structure to cassia gum. See cassia gum for more information. Also, it induces muscle toxicity in animals when administered at ≥70ppm total anthraquinones. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Xanthan gum – Xanthan gum is made by fermenting corn sugar with bacteria called xanthomonas campestris. It’s the same bacteria that create black spots on broccoli and cauliflower. The result is slimy goo that is then dried up and ground into a fine white powder. Why – It’s a fermentation process of sugar which most of the time forms alcohol.

Also, it’s made of corn sugar and corn sugars and corn starches in the USA are almost always GMO; unless an organic corn is used for this process which is highly unlikely. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Yeasts – Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with 1,500 species currently described. Why - This is a fungus that many cats cannot tolerate. It may cause allergic reactions, bloating, digestive and urinary problems. Different forms include brewer's, nutritional, baker's, torula, and primary yeasts. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Other things that should be avoided – Aspirin, acetaminophen, antihistamines, decongestants, ibuprofen, NSAIDs, salicylates, sodium phosphate enemas, alcohols, aloe, lilies, marijuana, mistletoe, tulips, bergamot, buckwheat, jasmine, eucalyptus, bittersweet, grapefruit, hibiscus, lemon, lime, orange, sweet potatoes, potatoes, tobacco, yarrow, yucca, yew, tea tree oil, neem oils, menthol, artificial colors and flavors, and camphor.

There are many more so these are not all of them, and it is best for every pet owner to do a research on which diet is best for their loved pet(s). Remember that fruits are not good for cats because they are contain sugars, and some vegetables are allowed, but not more than 10% of the kitty's daily food intake. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Avoid pet foods that contain products which are not appropriately labeled – such can be labeled as “meat”, “starch”, “fat”, “animal fat”, “oil”, animal plasma, fish, etc. Why – Improperly labeled product may contain harmful ingredients such as pork products, GMO, GEA, fish high in mercury, and many other that are unknown to the people buying these products. Note that companies in USA are not required to label genetically modified (GM) products and it would be nice to get your vote so they will start labeling these appropriately. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7. CARRAGEENAN 7. CARRAGEENAN There are several carrageenans, differing in their chemical structure and properties, and therefore in their uses. The carrageenans of commercial interest are called iota, kappa and lambda.

Their uses are related to their ability to form thick solution or gels, and they vary as follows. Iota Elastic gels formed with calcium salts. Clear gel with no bleeding of liquid (no synaeresis). Gel is freeze/thaw stable. Strong, rigid gel, formed with potassium salts. Brittle gel forms with calcium salts. Slightly opaque gel, becomes clear with sugar addition. Some synaeresis. No gel formation, forms high viscosity solutions. The carrageenan composition in red seaweeds differs from one species to another. Chondrus crispus mixture of kappa and lambda. Kappaphycus alvarezii mixture of kappa and lambda. 7.1 Carrageenan production methods There are two different methods of producing carrageenan, based on different principles. In the original method - the only one used until the late 1970s-early 1980s - the carrageenan is extracted from the seaweed into an aqueous solution, the seaweed residue is removed by filtration and then the carrageenan is recovered from the solution, eventually as a dry solid containing little else than carrageenan. This recovery process is difficult and expensive relative to the costs of the second method.

In the second method, the carrageenan is never actually extracted from the seaweed. Rather the principle is to wash everything out of the seaweed that will dissolve in alkali and water, leaving the carrageenan and other insoluble matter behind. This insoluble residue, consisting largely of carrageenan and cellulose, is then dried and sold as semi-refined carrageean (SRC). Because the carrageenan does not need to be recovered from solution, the process is much shorter and cheaper. 7.1.1 Refined carrageenan and filtered carrageenan Refined carrageenan is the original carrageenan and until the late 1970s-early 1980s was simply called carrageenan. It is now sometimes called filtered carrageenan. It was first made from Chondrus crispus, but now the process is applied to all of the above algae. The seaweed is washed to remove sand, salts and other foreign matter. It is then heated with water containing an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, for several hours, with the time depending on the seaweeds being extracted and determined by prior small-scale trials, or experience.

Alkali is used because it causes a chemical change that leads to increased gel strength in the final product. In chemical terms, it removes some of the sulphate groups from the molecules and increases the formation of 3,6-AG: the more of the latter, the better the gel strength. The seaweed that does not dissolve is removed by centrifugation or a coarse filtration, or a combination. The solution is then filtered again, in a pressure filter using a filter aid that helps to prevent the filter cloth becoming blocked by fine, gelatinous particles. At this stage, the solution contains 1-2 percent carrageenan and this is usually concentrated to 2-3 percent by vacuum distillation and ultrafiltration. FIGURE 44 Sun drying semi-refined carrageenan (alkali treated K. alvarezii). FIGURE 45 Flow chart for the production of refined carrageenan (after Porse, 1998). The processor now has a clear solution of carrageenan and there are two methods for recovering it as a solid, both rather similar to those described previously for agar production. An alcohol-precipitation method can be used for any of the carrageenans.

A gel method can be used for kappa-carrageenan only, and the gel can be dehydrated either by squeezing or by subjecting it to a freeze-thaw process. In the alcohol method, isopropanol is added until all the carrageenan is precipitated as a fibrous coagulum that is then separated using a centrifuge or screen (a fine sieve). The coagulum is pressed to remove solvent and washed with more alcohol to dehydrate it further. It is then dried and milled to an appropriate particle size, 80 mesh or finer. For the process to be economic the alcohol must be recovered, both from the liquids and the dryer, and recycled. The gel method relies on the ability of kappa carrageenan to form a gel with potassium salts. The gel may be formed in various ways. For the freeze-thaw process it is convenient to form it as spaghetti-like pieces by forcing the carrageenan solution through fine holes into a potassium chloride solution. The fine "spaghetti" is collected and washed with more potassium chloride to remove more water, pressed to remove surplus liquid and then frozen.

When allowed to thaw, separation of water occurs by synaeresis, the pieces are washed with more potassium chloride, chopped up and dried in a hot air dryer. Inevitably the product contains some potassium chloride. The alternative to freeze-thaw is to force water out of the gel by applying pressure to it, using similar equipment to that used for agar (Figure 10). After squeezing for several hours the sheets of gel are chopped, dried in a hot air dryer and milled to an appropriate particle size. Many agar processors are now using their equipment and similar techniques to produce kappa carrageenan as well. Figure 45 summarizes the above processes. 7.1.2 Semi-refined carrageenan and seaweed flour Semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) was the name given to the product first produced by the second method of processing noted in Section 7.1. This is the method in which the carrageenan is never actually extracted from the seaweed. In the production of SRC, Kappaphycus alvarezii, contained in a metal basket, is heated in an alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide for about two hours.

The hydroxide part of the reagent penetrates the seaweed and reduces the amount of sulphate in the carrageenan, increases the 3,6-AG so the gel strength of the carrageenan in the seaweed is improved. The potassium part of the reagent combines with the carrageenan in the seaweed to produce a gel and this prevents the carrageenan from dissolving in the hot solution. However, any soluble protein, carbohydrate and salts do dissolve and are removed when the solution is drained away from the seaweed. The residue, which still looks like seaweed, is washed several times to remove the alkali and anything else that will dissolve in the water. The alkali-treated seaweed is now laid out to dry; in hot climates, like the Philippines, usually on a large concrete slab (Figure 44). After about two days it is chopped and fed into a mill for grinding to the powder that is sold as SRC or seaweed flour. The above process is summarized in Figure 46 (seaweed flour branch). However, the seaweed flour is coloured, often has a high bacterial count and is not suitable for human consumption.

Nevertheless it immediately found a large market in canned pet food because it is a good gelling agent and was so much cheaper than refined carrageenan. The temperatures used in the canning process destroy any bacteria so the high bacterial count in the SRC is not a problem. Sometimes the dried product is just chopped into pieces, not milled, and sold as a raw material to refined carrageenan processors. It is called alkali treated cottonii (ATC) or alkali treated cottonii chips (ATCC), or even simply cottonii chips. If this treatment is done in the country of origin of the seaweed, such as the Philippines or Indonesia, this means processors in Europe and United States of America have cheaper transport costs per tonne of carrageenan, compared with shipping dried seaweed. They have also left behind some waste products, which reduces their waste treatment costs. FIGURE 46 Flow chart for the production of seaweed flour and PES/PNG carrageenans (after Bixler, 1996). Kappaphycus alvarezii is used in this process because it contains mainly kappa carrageenan and this is the carrageenan that forms a gel with potassium salts.

Iota-containing seaweeds can also be processed by his method, although the markets for iota carrageenan are significantly less than those for kappa. Lambda carrageenans do not form gels with potassium and would therefore dissolve and be lost during the alkali treatment. The simplicity of the process means the product is considerably cheaper than refined carrageenan. There is no alcohol involved that must be recovered, no distillation equipment to purify alcohol, no equipment for making gels, no refrigeration to freeze the gels, nor any expensive devices to squeeze the water from the gel. 7.1.3 Philippine natural grade (PNG) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (PES) Producers in the Philippines developed a higher quality product, suitable for human consumption, by modifying the process just described for SRC. After the alkali treatment and water washing, the product is chopped and treated with bleach to remove the colour (chopping improves penetration by the bleach, and bleach also helps to reduce the bacterial count). After washing to remove any bleach, the product is dried in a closed dryer.

In this type of dryer, indirectly heated hot air passes up through a bed of the unground pieces or chips that are being carried through the dryer on a chain-type belt. This closed system dryer is usually sufficient to keep the bacterial count low enough to make a human-food grade product. If bacteria reduction is required, the dried chips can be milled and then washed with alcohol (ethanol) followed by vacuum evaporation to recover the alcohol. A simpler process is to treat the milled powder with superheated steam. The above process is summarized in Figure 46 (PES/PNG carrageenan branch). The product was originally called Philippine natural grade carrageenan (PNG). Attempts to market this product as food grade in the United States of America and Europe resulted in strong opposition from the producers of refined carrageenan who did not wish to lose market share to this cheaper product. Eventually in the United States of America, the Food and Drug Administration declared it suitable for use in human food and to be labelled as "carrageenan", the same status as that of the refined product.

In Europe, both refined and PNG are permitted in human food, but carry different labels: refined carrageenan is labelled "carrageenan" and E-407; while Philippine natural grade is labelled "processed Eucheuma seaweed" or "PES", and E-407a. So PNG and PES are the same grade of carrageenan. The main difference between refined carrageenan and PNG is that PNG contains the cellulose that was in the original seaweed while in refined carrageenan this has been removed by filtration during the processing. Refined carrageenan will therefore give a clear solution, while PNG gives a cloudy solution. Where clarity of a user's product is of no consequence, PNG is suitable. For further details Detailed information on any methods of carrageenan extraction are not easy to find. As Stanley (1987) said, they are closely guarded as trade secrets by the several manufacturers. Some information can be found in Stanley (1987), Stanley (1990) and Therkelsen (1993).

7.2 Carrageenan producers and distributors A summary of the capacity of carrageenan producers according to their broad geographical location is given in Table 8, and the principal producers and distributors are listed in the next section. TABLE 8 Carrageenan processors. Capacity in tonnes (2001) Alcohol process 7.3 Carrageenan uses Before discussing uses, some explanations of the properties of carrageenans are necessary. Both kappa and iota carrageenan form gels with potassium and calcium salts. Aqueous solutions of both carrageenans must be heated above 60°C for the carrageenan to dissolve, and after addition of the salt, the gel forms as the solution cools. For kappa, as little as 0.5 percent in water and 0.2 percent in milk is sufficient to form gels. Kappa forms gels most strongly with potassium salts, followed by calcium salts. Potassium gives a rigid, elastic gel while calcium produces a stiff, brittle gel. Kappa gives the strongest gels of all carrageenans, but they are also the ones most likely to bleed (most subject to synaeresis). This liability can lessened in a couple of ways.

If iota and lambda carrageenans are blended in with the kappa, bleeding can be reduced, so will also the rigidity and brittleness of the gel; however, the gel strength may also be lowered. Synaeresis can also be reduced by adding locust bean gum (obtained from the seeds of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), growing in Spain, Italy, Cyprus, etc.). This gum also allows the amount of kappa to be reduced while still maintaining the same gel strength. The kappa can be reduced to one-third of the concentration that would be needed if no locust bean gum were used. The resulting gels are more resilient than those with kappa alone. As long as locust bean gum is cheaper than kappa there is also an economic advantage. However, the cost of locust bean gum can fluctuate depending on the harvest and demand. Iota forms gels most strongly with calcium salts, followed by potassium salts - the reverse of kappa reactivities. Calcium gels are soft and resilient and are virtually free of bleeding. They can be frozen and thawed without destroying the gel.

They show an unusual property for a gel: thixotropic flow; this means the gel can be stirred and it will flow like a thick liquid, but if left to stand it will gradually reform a gel. A similar thixotropic behaviour is found with very low concentrations of kappa carrageenan in milk; a weak gel forms that is easily made to flow by shaking. The weak gel is strong enough to suspend fine particles in the milk, such as cocoa in chocolate milk. Protein reactivity of carrageenans is an important property that is utilized in several applications. Carrageenan molecules carry negative charges; this is what enables them to combine with positively charged particles like the potassium found in potassium salts. They can also combine with positively charged proteins. Carrageenan will combine with the protein in milk (casein) to form a three-dimensional gel network. The exact nature of the interaction of proteins with carrageenans appears to be more complex than this simple explanation, and the interested reader can find more detail in the references suggested in Section 7.3.8. 7.3.1 Dairy products The main applications for carrageenan are in the food industry, especially in dairy products.

Frequently, only very small additions are necessary, 0.01-0.05 percent. For example, kappa carrageenan (at 0.01-0.04 percent) added to cottage cheese will prevent separation of whey, and a similar amount added to ice cream also prevents whey separation that may be caused by other gums that were added to the ice cream to control texture and ice crystal growth. The cocoa in chocolate milk can be kept in suspension by addition of similar amounts of kappa; it builds a weak thixotropic gel that is stable as long as it is not shaken strongly. Dry instant chocolate mixes, to be mixed with water or milk, can have improved stability and mouth feel using lambda or a mixture of carrageenans. Lambda or a mixture can also improve liquid coffee whiteners by preventing the separation of fat; these applications require 0.2-0.3 percent additions, but much smaller quantities will prevent fat separation in evaporated milks. Those small containers of UHT sterilized milk found in the refrigerators of some hotels may have kappa added to prevent fat and protein separation.

Lambda or kappa may be added to natural cream to help maintain the lightness (incorporated air) if it is whipped. Many more uses in milk and dairy products can be found in the references below. 7.3.2 Water-based foods With the appearance of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or mad cow disease) and foot-and-mouth disease, efforts have been made to find suitable substitutes for gelatin. Gelatin jellies have long been favoured because they melt at body temperature, giving a smooth mouth feel and easy release of flavours. However, if they are stored for a day or two, they toughen and are less pleasant to eat. Gels made from iota carrageenan have the disadvantage of a high melting temperature, so they are not as smooth to eat as gelatin gels. They do not melt on hot days and do not require refrigeration to make them set, so these are advantages in hot or tropical climates, and a further advantage is that they do not toughen on storage. In the last two years there have been several claims by food ingredients companies for products, made from a mixture of hydrocolloids, that imitate the properties of gelatin.

Carrageenan producers find that by combining various carrageenans with locust bean gum, konjac flour and starch, they can provide a variety of melting and non-melting gels and gel textures to meet the requirements of most of their clients. Long-life refrigerated mousse desserts, based on carrageenan and pectin rather than gelatin, are suitable for vegetarians and some ethnic groups. Conventional fruit jellies are based on pectin and a high sugar content to help set the jelly. In a low- or non-calorie jelly the pectin must be replaced, and mixtures of kappa and iota have proved to be suitable. Fruit drink mixes to be reconstituted in cold water contain sugar (or aspartame), acid and flavour. Addition of lambda carrageenan gives body and a pleasant mouth feel. Sorbet is a creamy alternative to ice cream with no fat; use of a mixed kappa and iota together with locust bean gum or pectin provides a smooth texture to the sorbet. Low-oil or no-oil salad dressings use iota or kappa to help suspend herbs, etc., and to provide the mouth feel that is expected from a normal salad dressing.

The low oil content of reduced-oil mayonnaise normally gives a thin product, rather like a hand lotion; additives are needed to thicken it and to stabilize the oil-in-water emulsion. A combination of carrageenan and xanthan gum is effective. Xanthan gum is made by a bacterial fermentation process; its development was pioneered in the early 1960s by the Kelco Company, then the largest producer of alginate; it is now an accepted and widely used food additive. The interaction of carrageenan and protein can be used in the clarification of beer, with the complex formed precipitating from the wort. More water-based applications of carrageenan are given in the references below. 7.3.3 Meat products In preparing hams, addition of carrageenan to the brine solution used in pumping improves the product because the carrageenan binds free water and interacts with the protein so that the soluble protein is retained. For successful penetration, the brine solution must have a low viscosity, but dissolved carrageenan would increase the viscosity.

The carrageenan is therefore dispersed in the water after the brine salts are added; the carrageenan does not dissolve because of the high salt concentration, but as the ham cooks it does dissolve and is then effective. There is a growing consumer demand for pre-cooked poultry products such as chicken and turkey pieces. Poultry processors were concerned about the loss of water during cooking (this lowered their yield per unit weight of product) and the loss in texture and eating quality that resulted. By injecting a brine containing salt, phosphate and carrageenan into the muscle of the meat, these problems are overcome. As the meat cooks, the carrageenan binds water within the poultry muscle and improves texture and tenderness. The processors are pleased because they now have a higher yield; in fact they find that he can even add some extra water to the poultry and it will be retained. The consumer receives a better product. The carrageenan producer is pleased because about 0.5 percent carrageenan is added, much more than the 0.05-0.1 percent used in dairy products. The future looks bright for this kind of application in meat products.

Hydrocolloids are being tried as fat replacements in low-fat products, with varying degrees of success. When fat or salt are reduced, meat and poultry can suffer loss of tenderness, juiciness and flavour. Low-fat products formulated with phosphates and carrageenan can have the juiciness and tenderness restored. Kappa carrageenan has been used with some success in replacing half the normal fat in frankfurters. Reduction of fat in ground meat products like hamburgers results in a different mouth feel and dry taste, which consumers do not always accept. Iota can be mixed with fresh ground beef and when cooked it provides fat-like characteristics and moisture retention that make the product more acceptable. This was the basis for McDonald's "MacLean" hamburger. 7.3.4 Pet food This is the largest application for SRC, known as seaweed flour (see Section 7.1.2), using about 5 500 tonnes annually. Refined carrageenan could also be used, but its cost is too high and seaweed flour is about one-quarter of its price.

Seaweed flour becomes an even better proposition because when combined with locust bean gum, less carrageenan is required, but this combination still gives an excellent product and it is very affordable. The meat used in canned pet foods is usually waste cuts from the abattoir. It is chopped into chunks or smaller pieces, mixed with water, flavours, seaweed flour (kappa carrageenan) and locust bean gum, canned and cooked. The two hydrocolloids help to bind the meat together and, depending on the concentrations used, either provide a thickened gravy around the meat pieces or a flavoured jelly, either of which enhances the appearance of the product as it is removed from the can. Konjac (or konjaku) gum, made from the konjac tuber or elephant yam (Amorphophallus konjac), can be used in place of locust bean gum. Konjac gels are clearer than locust bean gels and can help with costs when the price of locust bean gum rises, as it does occasionally. 7.3.5 Air freshener gels When you need to improve the odours in your room, air freshener gels are one of the products available at supermarkets.

They are made from kappa carrageenan, a potassium salt, water and perfume. When mixed, the perfumed gel forms and it is moulded to a shape to fit the holder. When purchased, the holder is sealed; to use, the holder is opened slightly and the moisture plus perfume are gradually released from the gel. Eventually the gel dries out leaving a small residue in the holder, which is then discarded. About 200 tonne/year of seaweed flour grade of carrageenan is the estimated consumption for this application. 7.3.6 Toothpaste The essential ingredients in toothpaste are chalk or a similar mild abrasive, detergent, flavour, water and a thickening agent that will provide enough body to the paste to ensure that the abrasive is kept in suspension and that there is no separation of water. A thixotropic thickener is preferable, i.e. that has gel-like properties when allowed to stand but that will flow when pressure is applied to it. Iota carrageenan, at about 1 percent, is one of the most useful thickening agents, it meets the above criteria and gives a paste that is easily rinsed from the toothbrush.

When the size of the toothpaste market is considered, even at 1 percent concentration this represents a large market for iota. 7.3.7 Immobilized biocatalysts This application was discussed for alginates in Section 5.3.3. Carrageenan gels are another medium for immobilizing enzymes or whole cells. Kappa carrageenan gives the strongest gels and beads made from this show sufficient mechanical strength for packing in columns, and yet they are permeable to most substances. 7.3.8 For further details More information about the properties and applications of carrageenans can be found in the following references, the first two of which are probably the most useful: Stanley (1990), Therkelsen (1993), Nussinovitch (1997), Stanley (1987). For quick reference to a list of uses and the concentrations of carrageenan required, see Tables 3.4 and 3.5 in Thomas (1997). 7.3.9 Refined grade vs natural grade Natural grade carrageenan is cheaper to make and requires a smaller capital outlay, therefore its price is lower than the refined or filtered grade.

Natural grade is now approved for human use in most applications and jurisdictions. For a very useful and interesting discussion of the pros and cons of refined versus natural grades in regard to their purity, composition, and comparative performance in various applications, see Bixler (1996). 7.4 Markets and marketing of carrageenan A summary of carrageenan markets is shown in Table 9. The total market has a value of about US$ 300 million. The marketing of carrageenan poses similar problems to those previously described in Section 5.4 for alginate. The original companies invested heavily in processing equipment and provided strong research and development facilities to assist customers and promote sales. These companies are now part of large multinationals and have a strong commitment to selling the refined carrageenan that they have always produced, and they operate at about 80-85 percent capacity. With the introduction of the simpler processing required for seaweed flour, many small companies entered that market, which required very little R&D because sales were mainly to pet food producers who knew exactly what they wanted and how to use it. Some of these companies then expanded their operations to produce the PES/PNG grade for human consumption.

They make a few basic kappa and iota carrageenans for use in meat products, and to a lesser degree in dairy products. However, they lack the technical marketing skills to sell their products against the larger multinationals. These smaller companies are mainly in the Philippines and Indonesia, and operate at probably about 50 percent capacity and some are possibly struggling to survive. Despite this, new production facilities continue to be built in China and eastern Africa. While there are difficulties in production of carrageenan, marketing can be even more difficult without adequate technical expertise to assist customers in the use of the product. Producers of refined carrageenan are not especially interested in selling the less expensive PES grade if such sales are going to replace sales of their refined grade. So there are opportunities for PES producers to penetrate the human food market with their less expensive product, if they are willing to invest in the technical expertise needed to service those sales. This has already occurred in the United States of America, where about 20 percent of the market is now PES grade. There appear to be similar opportunities awaiting PES producers in European markets that are still predominantly users of the refined grade (H.R.

"Pete" Bixler, 2002, pers. comm.). TABLE 9 Source: H. Porse, CP Kelco ApS, 2002, pers. comm. 7.5 Future prospects In developed markets, such as the United States of America, Europe and Japan, all known applications are almost fully exploited. There could be some expansion by replacement of some of the gelatin market because of health concerns about bovine spongiform encephalopathy, but also due to a growing vegetarian population. Elderly people tend to use more processed foods in their diets and as this population increases so too will carrageenan consumption. Taking these factors into account, a 2-4 percent growth per annum can be expected in developed countries, and there the market splits about 50:50 between dairy and meat applications. In areas such as Central and South America, Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia, growth will be stronger. Here the per capita consumption of carrageenan should increase by 50 percent over the next five years, due to market penetration alone. Allowing for population growth and assuming a moderate economic growth, an expansion of carrageenan consumption by 5-7 percent per annum is likely.

At present the market is split into approximately 20 percent dairy and 80 percent meat applications, but this is likely to change with a gradual increase in the dairy foods market (H.R. "Pete" Bixler, 2002, pers. comm.). For further details, see Bixler (1996), who discusses recent developments in the manufacturing and marketing of carrageenan and is excellent reading for anyone interested in obtaining an overall view of the carrageenan industry.

Question: Carrageenan is a substance extracted from red and purple what?
Answer: Seaweed