Petrology - definition of petrology by The Free Dictionary Petrology - definition of petrology by The Free Dictionary The branch of geology that deals with the origin, composition, structure, and alteration of rocks. pet′ro·log′ic (pĕt′rə-lŏj′ĭk), pet′ro·log′i·cal (-ĭ-kəl) adj. pet′ro·log′i·cal·ly adv. pe·trol′o·gist n. petrology (Geological Science) the study of the composition, origin, structure, and formation of rocks. Abbreviation: petrol petrologic, petrological adj the scientific study of rocks, including petrography and petrogenesis. [1805–15] pet•ro•log•ic (ˌpɛ trəˈlɒdʒ ɪk) pet`ro•log′i•cal, adj. pet`ro•log′i•cal•ly, adv. pe•trol′o•gist, n. pe·trol·o·gy The scientific study of the origin, composition, and structure of rocks.

petrology the branch of geology that studies the origin, structure, composition, changing, and classification of rocks. — petrologist, n. — petrologic, petrological, adj. Petrology | Define Petrology at Dictionary.com petrology the scientific study of rocks, including petrography and petrogenesis. Origin of petrology [pe-truh-loj-ik] /ˌpɛ trəˈlɒdʒ ɪk/ (Show IPA), petrological, adjective petrologically, adverb Examples from the Web for petrology Expand James Geikie Marion I. Newbigin The more technical portions of the subject, such as petrology and palontology, he considers in much less detail. James Geikie Marion I. Newbigin British Dictionary definitions for petrology Expand the study of the composition, origin, structure, and formation of rocks petrol Derived Forms Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.

1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for petrology Expand 1811 (erroneously as petralogy), from petro- (1) "rock" + -ology . Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper How to Become a Petrologist | EnvironmentalScience.org Employers What is a Petrologist? Petrology is a sub-category of geological study associated with the history, composition, structure, and overall distribution of rocks. What Does a Petrologist Do? Petrologists find certain types of rocks and analyze them in a lab, determining their exact composition and how to best extract valuable minerals and natural resources from them. Using geological data, these scientists advise their employers on how to best approach resource extraction from certain sites or how to approach particular kinds of rock. They may also use this data to determine the geological history and formation of a specific area for research purposes.

In addition, a Petrologist may act as a consultant to their employer, which involves effectively communicating their findings. Where Does a Petrologist Work? Petrologists spend most of their time out in the field collecting samples or in a laboratory. These scientists may travel to particular sites or locations to identify particular rock formations, study rock strata, examine the geological structure of an area, or take samples from rocks of interest. Performing fieldwork may require extensive outdoor work being exposed to adverse weather conditions and possibly spending a lot of time in remote areas. In the lab, many Petrologists utilize various advanced technologies to examine and analyze the collected samples. Some may even test the samples to determine how the rocks act under duress, chemical intervention, and other situations. Most work full-time, but may be subject to long hours or irregular schedules when performing fieldwork. What Is the Average Petrologist Salary? Petrologists make an average of $90,890 a year, with the highest 10% earning around $187,200 and the lowest 10% earning around $48,270.

Most of these scientists work for private companies in the mining and oil industries, but may also be employed by museums and universities. State Table data taken from BLS ( What Is the Job Demand for Petrologists? The job demand for Petrologists is expected to grow 16% in the next 10 years, which is faster than the average occupation. The increased interest in environmental safety, as well as accelerated demand for certain natural resources, contributes to growth in the field. The larger the population, the more scientists we will need for extracting resources like oil, gold, and diamonds from rocks. What Are the Education Requirements to Become a Petrologist? Petrologists require a bachelor's degree at minimum to lock down entry-level positions in the field. Majoring in geology or geosciences is recommended, though physics, chemistry, or biology may also be accepted if take in conjunction with geology courses. Familiarizing yourself with computers is essential to becoming a Petrologist, as they commonly use industry-specific software for analyzing rock composition and other data points. It is important to note that many of these scientists perform best professionally with a master's degree.

Those who go earn to earn their doctorate typically enter the world of academia and spent the majority of their time performing research. Petrology - Related Degrees MBA in Sustainability and Compliance Degree What Kind of Societies and Professional Organizations Do Petrologists Have? Petrologists and those who wish to enter the field can also browse through these organizations and websites for valuable resources: The Society of Organic Petrology (TSOP) is an international professional society that promotes research in organic petrology by distributing information among members and encouraging professional dialogue. They also teach about different up-and-coming technologies in the field through newsletters and industry-specific publications. Professional meetings and field trips are organized every year for members. American Geosciences Institutes (AGI) is a non-profit organization that promotes education and dialogue between the different geosciences, including Petrology. They provide an exceptional network of scientists and geologists, creating a diverse community that encourages professional development. A number of fellowships are also offered by the organization. In addition, AGI participates in a number of community outreach efforts and takes an active role in monitoring relevant public policy. Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) is a professional society that works to advance the geosciences, including Petrology.

The group provides a number of different programs and journals intended to perpetuate knowledge of the field, as well as industry-specific information. In addition, the MSA gives away multiple medals recognizing excellence in the field. geology | science | Britannica.com Geology Alternative Titles: geological science, geological sciences Related Topics Geology, the fields of study concerned with the solid Earth. Included are sciences such as mineralogy, geodesy, and stratigraphy. A rock formation called “faux amphibolite,” from the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt in … Jonathan O’Neil An introduction to the geochemical and geophysical sciences logically begins with mineralogy , because Earth ’s rocks are composed of minerals—inorganic elements or compounds that have a fixed chemical composition and that are made up of regularly aligned rows of atoms.

Today one of the principal concerns of mineralogy is the chemical analysis of the some 3,000 known minerals that are the chief constituents of the three different rock types: sedimentary (formed by diagenesis of sediments deposited by surface processes); igneous (crystallized from magmas either at depth or at the surface as lavas); and metamorphic (formed by a recrystallization process at temperatures and pressures in the Earth’s crust high enough to destabilize the parent sedimentary or igneous material). Geochemistry is the study of the composition of these different types of rocks. Pahoehoe lava flow, Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, November 1985. J. D. Griggs, U. S. Geological Survey During mountain building, rocks became highly deformed, and the primary objective of structural geology is to elucidate the mechanism of formation of the many types of structures (e.g., folds and faults) that arise from such deformation . The allied field of geophysics has several subdisciplines, which make use of different instrumental techniques.

Seismology , for example, involves the exploration of the Earth’s deep structure through the detailed analysis of recordings of elastic waves generated by earthquakes and man-made explosions. Earthquake seismology has largely been responsible for defining the location of major plate boundaries and of the dip of subduction zones down to depths of about 700 kilometres at those boundaries. In other subdisciplines of geophysics, gravimetric techniques are used to determine the shape and size of underground structures; electrical methods help to locate a variety of mineral deposits that tend to be good conductors of electricity; and paleomagnetism has played the principal role in tracking the drift of continents. Similar Topics glacial landform Geomorphology is concerned with the surface processes that create the landscapes of the world—namely, weathering and erosion. Weathering is the alteration and breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface caused by local atmospheric conditions, while erosion is the process by which the weathering products are removed by water, ice, and wind . The combination of weathering and erosion leads to the wearing down or denudation of mountains and continents, with the erosion products being deposited in rivers, internal drainage basins, and the oceans.

Erosion is thus the complement of deposition . The unconsolidated accumulated sediments are transformed by the process of diagenesis and lithification into sedimentary rocks, thereby completing a full cycle of the transfer of matter from an old continent to a young ocean and ultimately to the formation of new sedimentary rocks. Knowledge of the processes of interaction of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere with the surface rocks and soils of the Earth’s crust is important for an understanding not only of the development of landscapes but also (and perhaps more importantly) of the ways in which sediments are created. This in turn helps in interpreting the mode of formation and the depositional environment of sedimentary rocks. Thus the discipline of geomorphology is fundamental to the uniformitarian approach to the Earth sciences according to which the present is the key to the past. Earth sciences: Geologic sciences Geologic history provides a conceptual framework and overview of the evolution of the Earth. An early development of the subject was stratigraphy, the study of order and sequence in bedded sedimentary rocks.

Stratigraphers still use the two main principles established by the late 18th-century English engineer and surveyor William Smith , regarded as the father of stratigraphy: (1) that younger beds rest upon older ones and (2) different sedimentary beds contain different and distinctive fossils, enabling beds with similar fossils to be correlated over large distances. Today biostratigraphy uses fossils to characterize successive intervals of geologic time, but as relatively precise time markers only to the beginning of the Cambrian Period , about 540,000,000 years ago. The geologic time scale, back to the oldest rocks, some 4,280,000,000 years ago, can be quantified by isotopic dating techniques. This is the science of geochronology , which in recent years has revolutionized scientific perception of Earth history and which relies heavily on the measured parent-to-daughter ratio of radiogenic isotopes (see below). Britannica Stories Scientists Ponder Menopause in Killer Whales Paleontology is the study of fossils and is concerned not only with their description and classification but also with an analysis of the evolution of the organisms involved.

Simple fossil forms can be found in early Precambrian rocks as old as 3,500,000,000 years, and it is widely considered that life on Earth must have begun before the appearance of the oldest rocks. Paleontological research of the fossil record since the Cambrian Period has contributed much to the theory of evolution of life on Earth. Earth: Fact or Fiction? Several disciplines of the geologic sciences have practical benefits for society. The geologist is responsible for the discovery of minerals (such as lead, chromium, nickel, and tin), oil, gas, and coal, which are the main economic resources of the Earth; for the application of knowledge of subsurface structures and geologic conditions to the building industry; and for the prevention of natural hazards or at least providing early warning of their occurrence. (For further examples, see below Practical applications .) Astrogeology is important in that it contributes to understanding the development of the Earth within the solar system . The U.S. Apollo program of manned missions to the Moon , for example, provided scientists with firsthand information on lunar geology, including observations on such features as meteorite craters that are relatively rare on Earth.

Unmanned space probes have yielded significant data on the surface features of many of the planets and their satellites. Since the 1970s even such distant planetary systems as those of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus have been explored by probes. Study of the composition of the Earth Mineralogy As a discipline, mineralogy has had close historical ties with geology. Minerals as basic constituents of rocks and ore deposits are obviously an integral aspect of geology. The problems and techniques of mineralogy, however, are distinct in many respects from those of the rest of geology, with the result that mineralogy has grown to be a large, complex discipline in itself. Nepheline (greasy light gray), sodalite (blue), cancrinite (yellow), feldspar (white), and … Courtesy of Northwestern University Geology Department, Evanston, Illinois; photograph, Katherine H. Jensen/EB Inc. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest About 3,000 distinct mineral species are recognized, but relatively few are important in the kinds of rocks that are abundant in the outer part of the Earth.

Thus a few minerals such as the feldspars, quartz, and mica are the essential ingredients in granite and its near relatives. Limestones , which are widely distributed on all continents, consist largely of only two minerals, calcite and dolomite. Many rocks have a more complex mineralogy, and in some the mineral particles are so minute that they can be identified only through specialized techniques. It is possible to identify an individual mineral in a specimen by examining and testing its physical properties. Determining the hardness of a mineral is the most practical way of identifying it. This can be done by using the Mohs scale of hardness, which lists 10 common minerals in their relative order of hardness: talc (softest with the scale number 1), gypsum (2), calcite (3), fluorite (4), apatite (5), orthoclase (6), quartz (7), topaz (8), corundum (9), and diamond (10). Harder minerals scratch softer ones, so that an unknown mineral can be readily positioned between minerals on the scale.

Certain common objects that have been assigned hardness values roughly corresponding to those of the Mohs scale (e.g., fingernail [2.5], pocketknife blade [5.5], steel file [6.5]) are usually used in conjunction with the minerals on the scale for additional reference. Other physical properties of minerals that aid in identification are crystal form, cleavage type, fracture, streak, lustre, colour, specific gravity, and density. In addition, the refractive index of a mineral can be determined with precisely calibrated immersion oils. Some minerals have distinctive properties that help to identify them. For example, carbonate minerals effervesce with dilute acids; halite is soluble in water and has a salty taste; fluorite (and about 100 other minerals) fluoresces in ultraviolet light; and uranium-bearing minerals are radioactive. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies The science of crystallography is concerned with the geometric properties and internal structure of crystals . Because minerals are generally crystalline, crystallography is an essential aspect of mineralogy.

Investigators in the field may use a reflecting goniometer that measures angles between crystal faces to help determine the crystal system to which a mineral belongs. Another instrument that they frequently employ is the X-ray diffractometer, which makes use of the fact that X-rays, when passing through a mineral specimen, are diffracted at regular angles. The paths of the diffracted rays are recorded on photographic film, and the positions and intensities of the resulting diffraction lines on the film provide a particular pattern. Every mineral has its own unique diffraction pattern, so crystallographers are able to determine not only the crystal structure of a mineral but the type of mineral as well. When a complex substance such as a magma crystallizes to form igneous rock , the grains of different constituent minerals grow together and mutually interfere, with the result that they do not retain their externally recognizable crystal form. To study the minerals in such a rock, the mineralogist uses a petrographic microscope constructed for viewing thin sections of the rock, which are ground uniformly to a thickness of about 0.03 millimetre, in light polarized by two polarizing prisms in the microscope .

If the rock is crystalline, its essential minerals can be determined by their peculiar optical properties as revealed in transmitted light under magnification, provided that the individual crystal grains can be distinguished. Opaque minerals, such as those with a high content of metallic elements, require a technique employing reflected light from polished surfaces. This kind of microscopic analysis has particular application to metallic ore minerals. The polarizing microscope, however, has a lower limit to the size of grains that can be distinguished with the eye; even the best microscopes cannot resolve grains less than about 0.5 micrometre (0.0005 millimetre) in diameter. For higher magnifications the mineralogist uses an electron microscope , which produces images with diameters enlarged tens of thousands of times. Trending Topics Open Door policy The methods described above are based on a study of the physical properties of minerals. Another important area of mineralogy is concerned with the chemical composition of minerals. The primary instrument used is the electron microprobe . Here a beam of electrons is focused on a thin section of rock that has been highly polished and coated with carbon .

The electron beam can be narrowed to a diameter of about one micrometre and thus can be focused on a single grain of a mineral, which can be observed with an ordinary optical microscope system. The electrons cause the atoms in the mineral under examination to emit diagnostic X-rays, the intensity and concentration of which are measured by a computer. Besides spot analysis, this method allows a mineral to be traversed for possible chemical zoning. Moreover, the concentration and relative distribution of elements such as magnesium and iron across the boundary of two coexisting minerals like garnet and pyroxene can be used with thermodynamic data to calculate the temperature and pressure at which minerals of this type crystallize. Although the major concern of mineralogy is to describe and classify the geometrical, chemical, and physical properties of minerals, it is also concerned with their origin. Physical chemistry and thermodynamics are basic tools for understanding mineral origin. Some of the observational data of mineralogy are concerned with the behaviour of solutions in precipitating crystalline materials under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Certain minerals can be created synthetically under conditions in which temperature and concentration of solutions are carefully monitored. Other experimental methods include study of the transformation of solids at high temperatures and pressures to yield specific minerals or assemblages of minerals.

Experimental data obtained in the laboratory, coupled with chemical and physical theory, enable the conditions of origin of many naturally occurring minerals to be inferred. Petrology Petrology is the study of rocks, and, because most rocks are composed of minerals, petrology is strongly dependent on mineralogy. In many respects mineralogy and petrology share the same problems; for example, the physical conditions that prevail (pressure, temperature, time, and presence or absence of water) when particular minerals or mineral assemblages are formed. Although petrology is in principle concerned with rocks throughout the crust, as well as with those of the inner depths of the Earth, in practice the discipline deals mainly with those that are accessible in the outer part of the Earth’s crust. Rock specimens obtained from the surface of the Moon and from other planets are also proper considerations of petrology. Fields of specialization in petrology correspond to the aforementioned three major rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Apollo 17 astronaut and geologist Harrison Schmitt (left) and scientist Andrea Mosie (right) … Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis Igneous petrology Igneous petrology is concerned with the identification, classification, origin, evolution, and processes of formation and crystallization of the igneous rocks. Most of the rocks available for study come from the Earth’s crust, but a few, such as eclogites, derive from the mantle. The scope of igneous petrology is very large because igneous rocks make up the bulk of the continental and oceanic crusts and of the mountain belts of the world, which range in age from early Archean to Neogene, and they also include the high-level volcanic extrusive rocks and the plutonic rocks that formed deep within the crust. Of utmost importance to igneous petrologic research is geochemistry, which is concerned with the major- and trace-element composition of igneous rocks as well as of the magmas from which they arose.

Some of the major problems within the scope of igneous petrology are: (1) the form and structure of igneous bodies, whether they be lava flows or granitic intrusions, and their relations to surrounding rocks (these are problems studied in the field); (2) the crystallization history of the minerals that make up igneous rocks (this is determined with the petrographic polarizing microscope); (3) the classification of rocks based on textural features, grain size, and the abundance and composition of constituent minerals; (4) the fractionation of parent magmas by the process of magmatic differentiation, which may give rise to an evolutionary sequence of genetically related igneous products; (5) the mechanism of generation of magmas by partial melting of the lower continental crust, suboceanic and subcontinental mantle, and subducting slabs of oceanic lithosphere; (6) the history of formation and the composition of the present oceanic crust determined on the basis of data from the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP); (7) the evolution of igneous rocks through geologic time; (8) the composition of the mantle from studies of the rocks and mineral chemistry of eclogites brought to the surface in kimberlite

 pipes; (9) the conditions of pressure and temperature at which different magmas form and at which their igneous products crystallize (determined from high-pressure experimental petrology).

The basic instrument of igneous petrology is the petrographic polarizing microscope, but the majority of instruments used today have to do with determining rock and mineral chemistry. These include the X-ray fluorescence spectrometer , equipment for neutron activation analysis, induction-coupled plasma spectrometer, electron microprobe, ionprobe, and mass spectrometer. These instruments are highly computerized and automatic and produce analyses rapidly (see below Geochemistry ). Complex high-pressure experimental laboratories also provide vital data. With a vast array of sophisticated instruments available, the igneous petrologist is able to answer many fundamental questions. Study of the ocean floor has been combined with investigation of ophiolite complexes, which are interpreted as slabs of ocean floor that have been thrust onto adjacent continental margins. An ophiolite provides a much deeper section through the ocean floor than is available from shallow drill cores and dredge samples from the extant ocean floor. These studies have shown that the topmost volcanic layer consists of tholeiitic basalt or mid-ocean ridge basalt that crystallized at an accreting rift or ridge in the middle of an ocean.

A combination of mineral chemistry of the basalt minerals and experimental petrology of such phases allows investigators to calculate the depth and temperature of the magma chambers along the mid-ocean ridge. The depths are close to six kilometres, and the temperatures range from 1,150 °C to 1,279 °C. Comprehensive petrologic investigation of all the layers in an ophiolite makes it possible to determine the structure and evolution of the associated magma chamber. In 1974 B.W. Chappell and A.J.R. White discovered two major and distinct types of granitic rock—namely, I- and S-type granitoids. The I-type has strontium-87/strontium-86 ratios lower than 0.706 and contains magnetite, titanite, and allanite but no muscovite . These rocks formed above subduction zones in island arcs and active (subducting) continental margins and were ultimately derived by partial melting of mantle and subducted oceanic lithosphere .

In contrast, S-type granitoids have strontium -87/strontium-86 ratios higher than 0.706 and contain muscovite, ilmenite , and monazite . These rocks were formed by partial melting of lower continental crust. Those found in the Himalayas were formed during the Miocene Epoch some 20,000,000 years ago as a result of the penetration of India into Asia , which thickened the continental crust and then caused its partial melting. In the island arcs and active continental margins that rim the Pacific Ocean , there are many different volcanic and plutonic rocks belonging to the calc-alkaline series. These include basalt ; andesite ; dacite ; rhyolite ; ignimbrite ; diorite ; granite ; peridotite ; gabbro ; and tonalite, trondhjemite, and granodiorite (TTG). They occur typically in vast batholiths , which may reach several thousand kilometres in length and contain more than 1,000 separate granitic bodies. These TTG calc-alkaline rocks represent the principal means of growth of the continental crust throughout the whole of geologic time.

Much research is devoted to them in an effort to determine the source regions of their parent magmas and the chemical evolution of the magmas. It is generally agreed that these magmas were largely derived by the melting of a subducted oceanic slab and the overlying hydrated mantle wedge. One of the major influences on the evolution of these rocks is the presence of water, which was derived originally from the dehydration of the subducted slab. Sedimentary petrology The field of sedimentary petrology is concerned with the description and classification of sedimentary rocks , interpretation of the processes of transportation and deposition of the sedimentary materials forming the rocks, the environment that prevailed at the time the sediments were deposited, and the alteration (compaction, cementation, and chemical and mineralogical modification) of the sediments after deposition. A banded-iron formation (BIF) rock recovered from the Temagami greenstone belt in Ontario, Canada, … Prof. Dr. Michael Bau/Jacobs University Bremen There are two main branches of sedimentary petrology. One branch deals with carbonate rocks, namely limestones and dolomites , composed principally of calcium carbonate ( calcite ) and calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomite).

Much of the complexity in classifying carbonate rocks stems partly from the fact that many limestones and dolomites have been formed, directly or indirectly, through the influence of organisms, including bacteria , lime-secreting algae, various shelled organisms (e.g., mollusks and brachiopods), and by corals. In limestones and dolomites that were deposited under marine conditions, commonly in shallow warm seas, much of the material initially forming the rock consists of skeletons of lime-secreting organisms. In many examples, this skeletal material is preserved as fossils. Some of the major problems of carbonate petrology concern the physical and biological conditions of the environments in which carbonate material has been deposited, including water depth, temperature, degree of illumination by sunlight , motion by waves and currents, and the salinity and other chemical aspects of the water in which deposition occurred. The other principal branch of sedimentary petrology is concerned with the sediments and sedimentary rocks that are essentially noncalcareous.

These include sands and sandstones, clays and claystones, siltstones, conglomerates, glacial till, and varieties of sandstones, siltstones, and conglomerates (e.g., the graywacke-type sandstones and siltstones). These rocks are broadly known as clastic rocks because they consist of distinct particles or clasts. Clastic petrology is concerned with classification, particularly with respect to the mineral composition of fragments or particles, as well as the shapes of particles (angular versus rounded), and the degree of homogeneity of particle sizes. Other main concerns of clastic petrology are the mode of transportation of sedimentary materials, including the transportation of clay , silt , and fine sand by wind; and the transportation of these and coarser materials through suspension in water, through traction by waves and currents in rivers, lakes, and seas, and sediment transport by ice. Sedimentary petrology also is concerned with the small-scale structural features of sediments and sedimentary rocks. Features that can be conveniently seen in a specimen held in the hand are within the domain of sedimentary petrology.

These features include the geometrical attitude of mineral grains with respect to each other, small-scale cross stratification , the shapes and interconnections of pore spaces, and the presence of fractures and veinlets. Instruments and methods used by sedimentary petrologists include the petrographic microscope for description and classification, X-ray mineralogy for defining fabrics and small-scale structures, physical model flume experiments for studying the effects of flow as an agent of transport and the development of sedimentary structures, and mass spectrometry for calculating stable isotopes and the temperatures of deposition, cementation, and diagenesis. Wet-suit diving permits direct observation of current processes on coral reefs, and manned submersibles enable observation at depth on the ocean floor and in mid-oceanic ridges.

The plate-tectonic theory has given rise to much interest in the relationships between sedimentation and tectonics, particularly in modern plate-tectonic environments—e.g., spreading-related settings (intracontinental rifts, early stages of intercontinental rifting such as the Red Sea, and late stages of intercontinental rifting such as the margins of the present Atlantic Ocean), mid-oceanic settings (ridges and transform faults), subduction-related settings (volcanic arcs, fore-arcs, back-arcs, and trenches), and continental collision-related settings (the Alpine-Himalayan belt and late orogenic basins with molasse [i.e., thick association of clastic sedimentary rocks consisting chiefly of sandstones and shales]). Today many subdisciplines of sedimentary petrology are concerned with the detailed investigation of the various sedimentary processes that occur within these plate-tectonic environments. Metamorphic petrology Metamorphism means change in form. In geology the term is used to refer to a solid-state recrystallization of earlier igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks .

There are two main types of metamorphism: (1) contact metamorphism, in which changes induced largely by increase in temperature are localized at the contacts of igneous intrusions; and (2) regional metamorphism, in which increased pressure and temperature have caused recrystallization over extensive regions in mountain belts. Other types of metamorphism include local effects caused by deformation in fault zones, burning oil shales, and thrusted ophiolite complexes; extensive recrystallization caused by high heat flow in mid-ocean ridges; and shock metamorphism induced by high-pressure impacts of meteorites in craters on the Earth and Moon. Metamorphic petrology is concerned with field relations and local tectonic environments; the description and classification of metamorphic rocks in terms of their texture and chemistry, which provides information on the nature of the premetamorphic material; the study of minerals and their chemistry (the mineral assemblages and their possible reactions), which yields data on the temperatures and pressures at which the rocks recrystallized; and the study of fabrics and the relations of mineral growth to deformation stages and major structures, which provides information about the tectonic conditions under which regional metamorphic rocks formed.

A supplement to metamorphism is metasomatism: the introduction and expulsion of fluids and elements through rocks during recrystallization. When new crust is formed and metamorphosed at a mid-oceanic ridge , seawater penetrates into the crust for a few kilometres and carries much sodium with it. During formation of a contact metamorphic aureole around a granitic intrusion, hydrothermal fluids carrying elements such as iron, boron, and fluorine pass from the granite into the wall rocks. When the continental crust is thickened, its lower part may suffer dehydration and form granulites. The expelled fluids, carrying such heat-producing elements as rubidium , uranium , and thorium migrate upward into the upper crust. Much petrologic research is concerned with determining the amount and composition of fluids that have passed through rocks during these metamorphic processes. The basic instrument used by the metamorphic petrologist is the petrographic microscope, which allows detailed study and definition of mineral types, assemblages, and reactions. If a heating/freezing stage is attached to the microscope, the temperature of formation and composition of fluid inclusions within minerals can be calculated.

These inclusions are remnants of the fluids that passed through the rocks during the final stages of their recrystallization. The electron microprobe is widely used for analyzing the composition of the component minerals. The petrologist can combine the mineral chemistry with data from experimental studies and thermodynamics to calculate the pressures and temperatures at which the rocks recrystallized. By obtaining information on the isotopic age of successive metamorphic events with a mass spectrometer, pressure–temperature–time curves can be worked out. These curves chart the movement of the rocks over time as they were brought to the surface from deep within the continental crust; this technique is important for understanding metamorphic processes. Some continental metamorphic rocks that contain diamonds and coesites (ultrahigh pressure minerals) have been carried down subduction zones to a depth of at least 100 kilometres (60 miles), brought up, and often exposed at the present surface within resistant eclogites of collisional orogenic belts—such as the Swiss Alps, the Himalayas, the Kokchetav metamorphic terrane in Kazakhstan, and the Variscan belt in Germany .

These examples demonstrate that metamorphic petrology plays a key role in unraveling tectonic processes in mountain belts that have passed through the plate-tectonic cycle of events. Economic geology The mineral commodities on which modern civilization is heavily dependent are obtained from the Earth’s crust and have a prominent place in the study and practice of economic geology. In turn, economic geology consists of several principal branches that include the study of ore deposits, petroleum geology, and the geology of nonmetallic deposits (excluding petroleum), such as coal, stone, salt, gypsum, clay and sand, and other commercially valuable materials. Coal barges on the Finow Canal at Eberswalde, Germany. © Caio Garrubba/Madeline Grimoldi The practice of economic geology is distinguished by the fact that its objectives are to aid in the exploration for and extraction of mineral resources. The objectives are therefore economic. In petroleum geology , for example, a common goal is to guide oil-well drilling programs so that the most profitable prospects are drilled and those that are likely to be of marginal economic value, or barren, are avoided. A similar philosophy influences the other branches of economic geology.

In this sense, economic geology can be considered as an aspect of business that is devoted to economic decision making. Many deposits of economic interest, particularly those of metallic ores, are of extreme scientific interest in themselves, however, and they have warranted intensive study that has been somewhat apart from economic considerations. The practice of economic geology provides employment for a large number of geologists. On a worldwide basis, probably more than two-thirds of those persons employed in the geologic sciences are engaged in work that touches on the economic aspects of geology. These include geologists whose main interests lie in diverse fields of the geologic sciences. For example, the petroleum industry, which collectively is the largest employer of economic geologists, attracts individuals with specialties in stratigraphy, sedimentary petrology, structural geology, paleontology, and geophysics. Geochemistry Chemistry of the Earth Geochemistry is broadly concerned with the application of chemistry to virtually all aspects of geology. Inasmuch as the Earth is composed of the chemical elements, all geologic materials and most geologic processes can be regarded from a chemical point of view.

Some of the major problems that broadly belong to geochemistry are as follows: the origin and abundance of the elements in the solar system, galaxy , and universe ( cosmochemistry); the abundance of elements in the major divisions of the Earth, including the core, mantle, crust, hydrosphere, and atmosphere; the behaviour of ions in the structure of crystals; the chemical reactions in cooling magmas and the origin and evolution of deeply buried intrusive igneous rocks; the chemistry of volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks and of phenomena closely related to volcanic activity , including hot-spring activity, emanation of volcanic gases, and origin of ore deposits formed by hot waters derived during the late stages of cooling of igneous magmas; chemical reactions involved in weathering of rocks in which earlier formed minerals decay and new minerals are created; the transportation of weathering products in solution by natural waters in the ground and in streams, lakes, and the sea; chemical changes that accompany compaction and cementation of unconsolidated sediments to form sedimentary rocks; and the progressive chemical and mineralogical changes that take place as rocks undergo metamorphism. One of the leading general concerns of geochemistry is the continual recycling of the materials of the Earth.

This process takes place in several ways: (1) It is widely believed that oceanic and continental basalts crystallized from magmas that were ultimately derived by partial melting of the Earth’s mantle. Much geochemical research is devoted to the quantification of this extraction of mantle material and its contribution to crustal growth throughout geologic time in the many stages of seafloor formation and mountain building. (2) When the basalts that formed at the mid-oceanic ridge are transported across the ocean by the process of seafloor spreading, they interact with seawater, and this involves the adding of sodium to the basaltic crust and the extraction of calcium from it. (3) Geophysical data confirm the idea that the oceanic lithosphere is being consumed along the Earth’s major subduction zones below the continental lithosphere—e.g., along the continental margin of the Andes Mountain Ranges . This may involve pelagic sediments from the ocean floor, oceanic basalts altered by seawater exchange, gabbros, ultramafic rocks, and segments of the underlying mantle. Many geochemists are studying what happens to this subducted material and how it contributes to the growth of island arcs and Andean-type mountain belts.

(4) The behaviour of dissolved materials in natural waters, under the relatively low temperatures that prevail at or near the surface of the Earth, is an integral aspect of the crustal cycle. Weathering processes supply dissolved material, including silica, calcium carbonate, and other salts, to streams. These materials then enter the oceans, where some remain in solution (e.g., sodium chloride), whereas others are progressively removed to form certain sedimentary rocks, including limestone and dolomite, and, where conditions are conducive for the formation of deposits by means of evaporation, gypsum (hydrous calcium sulfate), rock salt (halite), and potash deposits may occur. The behaviour of biological materials and their subsequent disposition are important aspects of geochemistry, generally termed organic geochemistry and biogeochemistry . Major problems of organic geochemistry include the question of the chemical environment on Earth in which life originated; the modification of the hydrosphere , and particularly the atmosphere , through the effects of life; and the incorporation of organic materials in rocks, including carbonaceous material in sedimentary rocks. The nature and chemical transformations of biological material present in deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas lie within the scope of organic geochemistry.

Organic chemical reactions influence many geochemical processes, as, for example, rock weathering and production of soil, the solution, precipitation, and secretion of such dissolved materials as calcium carbonate, and the alteration of sediments to form sedimentary rocks. Biogeochemistry deals chiefly with the cyclic flows of individual elements and their compounds between living and nonliving systems. Geochemistry has applications to other subdisciplines within geology, as well as to disciplines relatively far removed from it. At one extreme, geochemistry is linked with cosmology in a number of ways. These include the study of the chemical composition of meteorites , the relative abundance of elements in the Earth, Moon, and other planets, and the ages of meteorites and of rocks of the crust of the Earth and Moon as established by radiometric means. At the other extreme, the geochemistry of traces of metals in rocks and soils and, ultimately, in the food chain has important consequences for humans and for the vast body of lesser organisms on which they are dependent and with whom they coexist. Deficiencies in traces of copper and cobalt in forage plants, for example, lead to diseases in certain grazing animals and may locally influence human health.

These deficiencies are in turn related to the concentrations of these elements in rocks and the manner in which they are chemically combined within soils and rocks. The chemical analysis of minerals is undertaken with the electron microprobe (see above). Instruments and techniques used for the chemical analysis of rocks are as follows: The X-ray fluorescent ( XRF ) spectrometer excites atoms with a primary X-ray beam and causes secondary (or fluorescent) X-rays to be emitted. Each element produces a diagnostic X-radiation, the intensity of which is measured. This intensity is proportional to the concentration of the element in the rock, and so the bulk composition can be calculated. The crushed powder of the rock is compressed into a disk or fused into a bead and loaded into the spectrometer, which analyzes it automatically under computer control. Analysis of most elements having concentrations of more than five parts per million is possible. Neutron-activation analysis is based on the fact that certain elements are activated or become radiogenic when they are bombarded with a flux of neutrons formed from the radioactive decay of uranium-235 in a nuclear reactor .

With the addition of the neutrons, the stable isotopes produce new unstable radionuclides, which then decay, emitting particles with diagnostic energies that can be separated and measured individually. The technique is particularly suitable for the analysis of the rare earth elements, uranium, thorium , barium, and hafnium , with a precision to less than one part per million. The induction-coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometer can analyze over 40 elements. Here, a solution of a rock is put into a plasma, and the concentration of the elements is determined from the light emitted. This method is rapid, and the ICP spectrometer is particularly suited to analyzing large numbers of soil and stream sediment samples, as well as mineralized rocks in mineral exploration. Isotopic geochemistry Isotopic geochemistry has several principal roles in geology. One is concerned with the enrichment or impoverishment of certain isotopic species that results from the influence of differences in mass of molecules containing different isotopes. Measurements of the proportions of various isotopic species can be used as a form of geologic thermometer .

The ratio of oxygen-16 to oxygen -18 in calcium carbonate secreted by various marine organisms from calcium carbonate in solution in seawater is influenced by the temperature of the seawater. Precise measurement of the proportions of oxygen-16 with respect to oxygen-18 in calcareous shells of some fossil marine organisms provides a means of estimating the temperatures of the seas in which they lived. The varying ocean temperatures during and between the major advances of glaciers during the ice ages have been inferred by analyzing the isotopic composition of the skeletons of floating organisms recovered as fossils in sediment on the seafloor. Other uses of isotopic analyses that involve temperature-dependent rate processes include the progressive removal of crystals from cooling igneous magmas. Another role of isotopic geochemistry that is of great importance in geology is radiometric age dating. The ability to quantify the geologic time scale—i.e., to date the events of the geologic past in terms of numbers of years—is largely a result of coupling radiometric dating techniques with older, classical methods of establishing relative geologic ages.

As explained earlier, radiometric dating methods are based on the general principle that a particular radioactive isotope (radioactive parent or source material) incorporated in geologic material decays at a uniform rate, producing a decay product, or daughter isotope. Some radiometric “clocks” are based on the ratio of the proportion of parent to daughter isotopes, others on the proportion of parent remaining, and still others on the proportion of daughter isotopes with respect to each other. For example, uranium-238 decays ultimately to lead-206, which is one of the four naturally occurring isotopic species of lead. Minerals that contain uranium-238 when initially formed may be dated by measuring the proportions of lead-206 and uranium-238; the older the specimen, the greater the proportion of lead-206 with respect to uranium-238.

The decay of potassium-40 to form argon-40 (calcium-40 is produced in this decay process as well) is also a widely used radiometric dating tool, though there are several other parent-daughter pairs that are used in radiometric dating, including another isotope of uranium (uranium-235), which decays ultimately to form lead-207, and thorium-232, which decays to lead-208. Uranium-238 and uranium-235 decay very slowly, although uranium-235 decays more rapidly than uranium-238. The rate of decay may be expressed in several ways. One way is by the radioactive isotope’s half-life—the interval of time in which half of any given initial amount will have decayed. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4,510,000,000 years, whereas the half-life of uranium-235 is about 713,000,000 years. Other radioactive isotopes decay at greatly differing rates, with half-lives ranging from a fraction of a second to quadrillions of years.

It is useful to combine a variety of isotopic methods to determine the complete history of a crustal rock. A samarium -147– neodymium -143 date on a granitic gneiss, for example, may be interpreted as the time of mantle–crust differentiation or crustal accretion that produced the original magmatic granite. Also, a lead-207–lead-206 date on a zircon will indicate the crystallization age of the granite. In contrast, a rubidium-87–strontium-87 date of a whole rock sample may give the time at which the rock became a closed system for migration of the strontium during the period of metamorphism that converted the granite to a granitic gneiss. When potassium-40 breaks down to argon-40, the argon continues to diffuse until the rock has cooled to about 200 °C; therefore, a potassium-40–argon-40 date may be interpreted as the time when the granite cooled through a blocking temperature that stopped all argon release. This may reflect the cooling of the granite during late uplift in a young mountain belt.

Since the 1980s two technological advancements have greatly increased the geologist’s ability to compute the isotopic age of rocks and minerals. The SHRIMP (Sensitive High Mass Resolution Ion Microprobe) enables the accurate determination of the uranium-lead age of the mineral zircon, and this has revolutionized the understanding of the isotopic age of formation of zircon-bearing igneous granitic rocks. Another technological development is the ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer), which is able to provide the isotopic age of zircon, titanite, rutile, and monazite. These minerals are common to many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon (carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable isotopes) with a half-life of 5,570 years. Carbon-14 is incorporated in all living material, for it is derived either directly or indirectly from its presence in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The moderately short half-life of carbon-14 makes it useful for dating biological materials that are more than a few hundred years old and less than 30,000 years old.

It has been used to provide correlation of events within this time span, particularly those of the Pleistocene Epoch involving the Earth’s most recent ice ages. Page 1 of 3 petrology | Definition, meaning & more | Collins Dictionary petrology in American English (pəˈtrɑlədʒi ; pəträlˈəjē) Definitions noun the branch of geology that deals with the classification , location , composition, structure, and origin of rocks Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, compiled by the editors of Webster’s New World Dictionaries. Copyright © 2010 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. All rights reserved. What is Earth Science | Earth Sciences Newton Horace Winchell School of Earth Sciences What is Earth Science Obviously, the 'study of the earth' is quite a broad concept, so there are many subdisciplines within the Earth sciences. In general, geology is the scientific study of the earth- the material of which it is made, the processes that act on these materials, the products formed, and the history of the planet and its life forms since origin.

Geology now includes the study of other planets as well. And geophysics focuses on the application of physical laws and principles to a study of the earth. However, these two very broad categories can be broken down futher into many subdisciplines. Listed below is a brief description of some of the major research areas currently being conducted in our department. If you wish to contact a professor regarding research in any of these areas, please click here for more information and links. Biomagnetism : The study of magnetic bacteria and their relationship to the earth's magnetic field. Environmental Geology : The interdisciplinary study of the interaction of humans with the geologic environment including the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and to some extent the atmosphere. Exploration Geophysics : Application of seismology, gravity and magnetics to the location of petroleum and ore deposits. Fluid Dynamics : Application of physics and mathematics to the flow of fluids and solids. Geobiology : The study of processes at the interface between organic and inorganic materials, and the role of microbes on the origin of life.

Geochemistry : The study of the distribution and amounts of chemical elements and their isotopes in minerals, ores, rocks, soils, waters, and the atmosphere. Geochronology : Study of time in relationship to the history of the earth. Geofluids : Study of fluids in and on Earth and other planets. Geologic Mapping and Resource Evaluation : Determining the distribution of different rocks at the earth's surface and economic implications. Geostatistics : Application of statistics to the analysis of geological and geophysical data. Hydrogeology : The study of water flow and chemistry at and below the earth's surface. Limnology : The study of lake sediments, most often used to determine past climate and ecological environments. Mineral Physics : The study of how minerals respond to forces. Mineralogy : The study of minerals: formation, occurrence, properties, composition, crystal structure, and classification. Numerical Modeling : Supercomputer applications to a wide variety of problems involving flow of geological materials. Oceanography : The study of the ocean, including its boundaries and bottom topography, the physics and chemistry of sea water, the types of currents, and the many phases of marine biology. Paleoclimatology : The study of past climatic and ecological environments.

Paleomagnetism : The study of the magnetic record in rocks and implications for plate tectonics and the origin of the earth's magnetic field. Paleontology : The study of life in past geologic time, based on fossil plant and animals, their relationships to existing plants, animals and environments, and the chronology of Earth's history. Petrology : The study of the formation of rocks at depth in the earth. Rock and Mineral Magnetism : The study of how rocks and minerals record magnetic information. Sedimentology : The scientific study of sedimentary rocks and the processes by which they were formed: the description, classification, and interpretation of sediments. Includes basin analysis, river studies, surface processes, stratigraphy, and geochronology. Seismology : Study of seismic waves to determine the internal structure of the earth and the origin and location of earthquakes. Structural Geology and Tectonics : The study of mountain building, movement of tectonic plates, and deformation of the earth's crust. Volcanology : The scientific study of the dynamics of volcanoes. These sciences are interdisciplinary in nature as geoscientists need to know the core sciences of chemistry, physics, and math.

Earth is where we live- what affects it, affects us. Therefore, there are crossovers to many other areas of study, some of which are Archaeology © 2012 Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved. The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer Twin Cities Campus: igneous petrology - Geology 306 with Tozer at University of Oregon - StudyBlue what does low & high resistance to flow mean? low: thick, runny lava where do igneous rocks come from? magma and lava, as opposed to sedimentary or metamorphic rocks what is the first division of igneous rocks? first division: 1. rocks formed from cooling & solidification (freezing) 2. rocks formed from explosive volcanism (later) what is the second division of igneous rocks? second division of (1) rocks cooled and solidified: 1a. rocks that cooled BELOW the surface 1b.

rocks that cooled ON the surface rocks that cooled slowly and solidified deep WITHIN THE EARTH: plutonic rocks = intrusive rocks rocks that cooled quickly and solidified AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE: volcanic rocks = extrusive rocks how can you tell the difference between plutonic/intrusive rocks & volcanic/extrusive rocks? visible distinction = CRYSTALS! rocks all crystals, all groundmass, a uniform featureless hunk of rock, or isolated crystals in a background matrix or groundmass groundmass crystals that grew below ground and have some large crystals standing out w/i or against a featureless background. this is an example of extrusive volcanic rocks volcanic rock intermediate in composition between basalt and rhyolite. associated between subduction zones

Question: Of what is Petrology the study?
Answer: ROCKS