SparkNotes: The Republic: Important Terms Important Terms Overview Philosophical Themes, Arguments & Ideas Aporia - Aporia is the Greek term for the state of helplessness—the inability to proceed—that ends all of Plato’s early dialogues. Through his pointed questioning, Socrates succeeds in showing that his interlocutors have no appropriate definition for the topic under consideration (be that topic piety, love, courage, justice, or whatever else), but nor is he able to supply one himself. In Book I of The Republic Socrates brings his friends to a state of aporia on the topic of justice, but then in the next nine books he manages to move beyond the aporia and give an actual answer to the question at hand. Appetite - Appetite is the largest aspect of our tripartite soul. It is the seat of all our various desires for food, drink, sexual gratification, and other such pleasures.

It contains both necessary desires, which should be indulged (such as the desire to eat enough to stay alive), unnecessary desires, which should be limited (such as the desire to eat a ten pound sirloin steak at every meal), and unlawful desires, which should be suppressed at all costs (such as the desire to eat one’s children). Though the appetite lusts after many things, Plato dubs it “money-loving,” since money is required for satisfying most of these desires. In a just man, the appetite is strictly controlled by reason and reason’s henchman, spirit. Auxiliary - Plato divides his just society into three classes: the producers, the auxiliaries, and the guardians. The auxiliaries are the warriors, responsible for defending the city from invaders, and for keeping the peace at home. They must enforce the convictions of the guardians, and ensure that the producers obey. Belief - Belief is the second lowest grade of cognitive activity. The object of belief is the visible realm rather than the intelligible realm. A man in a state of belief does not have any access to the Forms, but instead takes sensible particulars as the most real things.

Elenchus - Elenchus is the Greek term for Socrates’s method of questioning his interlocutors. In an elenchus he attempts to show that their own beliefs are contradictory, and thus to prove that they do not have knowledge about some topic about which they thought they had knowledge. Empirical - When something is an empirical question, that means that the question can only be settled by going out into the world and investigating. The question, “What percentage of the population of the United States likes ice cream” is an example of an empirical question, which can only be answered through empirical investigation. The question “What is the square root of two,” on the other hand, is not an empirical question. In order to answer this question all you have to do is think about the mathematics involved; you do not have investigate evidence in the world. Epistemology - The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge, belief, and thought. Epistemological questions include: What is knowledge? How do we form beliefs based on evidence? Can we know anything? Form - According to Plato’s metaphysical theory, there is an aspect of reality beyond the one which we can see, an aspect of reality even more real than the one we see.

This aspect of reality, the intelligible realm, is comprised of unchanging, eternal, absolute entities, which are called “Forms.” These absolute entities—such as Goodness, Beauty, Redness, Sourness, and so on—are the cause of all the objects we experience around us in the visible realm. An apple is red and sweet, for instance, because it participates in the Form of Redness and the Form of Sweetness. A woman is beautiful because she participates in the Form of Beauty. Only the Forms can be objects of knowledge (that is, Forms are the only things we can know about). Form of the Good - Among the Forms, one stands out as most important. This is the Form of the Good. Plato is unable to tell us exactly what the Form of The Good is, but he does tell us that it is the source of intelligibility and of our capacity to know, and also that it is responsible for bringing all of the other Forms into existence. He compares its role in the intelligible realm to the role of the sun in the visible realm. The Form of the Good is the ultimate object of knowledge; it is only once one grasps the Form of the Good that one reaches the highest grade of cognitive activity, understanding.

Therefore, it is only after he grasps the Form of the Good that a philosopher-in-training becomes a philosopher-king. Guardian - Plato divides his just society into three classes: the producers, the auxiliaries, and the guardians. The guardians are responsible for ruling the city. They are chosen from among the ranks of the auxiliaries, and are also known as philosopher-kings. Hesiod - Hesiod was a famous Greek poet. His long poem Works and Days outlines the traditional Greek conception of virtue and justice. Imagination - Imagination is the lowest grade of cognitive activity. Someone in the state of imagination takes mere images and shadows as the most real things. Probably, this means that such a person derives his ideas about himself and the world from products of art, such as poetry in Plato’s day and movies and television in our own. See also Belief, Thought, Understanding. Instrumental reason - Instrumental reason is reason used to attain some end, by engaging in means-end analyses. These ends are dictated by a part of the soul such as appetite or spirit, or even reason itself. Intelligible realm - Plato divides all of existence up into two parts: the visible realm and the intelligible realm.

The intelligible realm cannot be sensed, but only grasped with the intellect. It consists of the Forms. Only the intelligible realm can be the object of knowledge. Kallipolis - Kallipolis is the Greek term for Plato’s just city. Knowledge - According to Plato, knowledge can only pertain to eternal, unchanging truths. I can know, for instance that two plus two equals four, because this will also be the case. I cannot know, however, that Meno is beautiful. For this reason, only the intelligible realm, the realm of the Forms can be the object of knowledge. See also Opinion. Lover of sights and sounds - “Lovers of sights and sounds” is Socrates’s term for the pseudo-intellectuals who claim to have expertise regarding all that is beautiful, but who fail to recognize that there is such a thing as the Form of the Beautiful, which causes all beauty in the visible realm. Socrates is adamant that lovers of sights and sounds be distinguished from philosophers, who grasp the Forms, and thus have knowledge. Lovers of sights and sounds have no knowledge, only opinion. Metaphysics - The branch of philosophy concerned with asking what there is in the world.

The theory of Forms is a metaphysical theory, as is the theory of the tripartite soul. Opinion - Since only eternal, unchanging truths can be the objects of knowledge, all other truths are relegated to opinion. Opinion is the highest form of certainty that we can hope for when it comes to the visible realm, the realm of sensible particulars. Philosopher-king - The philosopher-king is the ruler of the kallipolis. Also called guardians, philosopher-kings are the only people who can grasp the Forms, and thus the only people who can claim actual knowledge. Since the philosopher-king yearns after truth above all else, he is also the most just man. Pleonexia - A Greek term meaning “the desire to have more,” pleonexia refers to the yearning after money and power. In Book I, Thrasymachus presents the popular view that justice is nothing more than an unnatural restraint on our natural pleonexia. Producers - Plato divides his just society into three classes: the producers, the auxiliaries, and the guardians. The producing class is the largest class of society; it is a catch-all group that includes all professions other than warrior and ruler.

Framers and craftsmen are producers, as are merchants, doctors, artists, actors, lawyers, judges, and so forth. In a just society, the producers have no share in ruling, but merely obey what the rulers decree. They focus exclusively on producing whatever it is that they are best suited to produce (whether that be metal work, agriculture, shoes, or furniture). Reason - Reason is one aspect of our tripartite soul. It lusts after truth and is the source of all of our philosophic desires. In the just man, the entire soul is ruled by reason, and strives to fulfill reason’s desires. See also Appetite, Spirit. Sensible particular - Sensible particulars are the objects that we experience all around us—trees, flowers, chairs—any physical objects. They are “sensible” because we can sense them with our sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch; they are “particular,” because they are particular items that undergo change over time, rather than universal, unchanging ideas. According to Plato’s metaphysical picture, the visible realm is made up of sensible particulars. According to his epistemological picture, sensible particulars cannot be objects of knowledge but only of opinion.

Sophist - The Sophists were teachers-for-hire who educated the wealthy men of Athens in the fifth century B.C. Though they were a diverse group with diverse opinions, they tended to share a disregard for the notion of objective truth and knowledge. This disregard extended to the notion of objective moral truth, which means that they did not believe in such a things as “right” and “wrong.” One of the guiding motivations in all of Plato’s work was to prove the Sophists wrong: to show that there is such a thing as objective truth, and that we can have knowledge of this objective truth. Specialization - The principle of specialization states that every man must fulfill the societal role to which nature best suits him, and should refrain from engaging in any other business. Those naturally suited to farm should farm, those naturally suited to heal should be doctors, those naturally suited to fight should be warriors, those naturally suited to be philosophers should rule, and so on. Plato believes that this simple rule is the guiding principle of society, and the source of political justice. Spirit - Spirit is one aspect of our tripartite soul. It is the source of our honor-loving and victory-loving desires. Spirit is responsible for our feelings of anger and indignation.

In a just soul, spirit acts as henchman to reason, ensuring that appetite adheres to reason’s commands. Thought - Thought is the second highest grade of cognitive activity. As with understanding, the objects of thought are the Forms of the intelligible realm. Unlike understanding, though, thought can only proceed with the crutches of images and hypotheses (i.e. unproven assumptions). See also Belief, Imagination, Understanding. Tripartite soul - According to Plato, the human soul has three parts corresponding to the three classes of society in a just city. Individual justice consists in maintaining these three parts in the correct power relationships, with reason ruling, spirit aiding reason, and appetite obeying. Understanding - Understanding is the highest grade of cognitive activity. Understanding involves the use of pure, abstract reason, and does not rely on the crutches of images and unproven assumptions. Understanding is only achieved once the Form of the Good is grasped. See also Belief, Imagination, Thought. Visible realm - Plato divides existence up into two realms, the visible realm and the intelligible realm. The visible realm can be grasped with our senses. It is comprised of the world see around us—the world of sensible particulars.

The objects which comprise the visible realm are not as real as those which comprise the intelligible realm; in addition, they are not the proper objects of knowledge (i.e., we cannot “know” anything about them), but of opinion. More Help Forms of Government | Scholastic Forms of Government From The New Book of Knowledge Grades 3–5, 6–8, 9–12 Government comprises the set of legal and political institutions that regulate the relationships among members of a society and between the society and outsiders. These institutions have the authority to make decisions for the society on policies affecting the maintenance of order and the achievement of certain societal goals. This article provides an overview of the types of government, the ways authority can be distributed, the divisions of government, and the functions of government. Separate articles deal with the origins and development of the concept of the state, the theoretical and practical development of representation, law, and the study of government (see political science). The power of a government over its own citizens varies, depending on the degree to which it is free of limitations and restraints. The power of a government abroad also varies, depending on the human and material resources with which it can support its foreign policy.

Governments range in size and scope from clans, tribes, and the shires of early times to the superpowers and international governments of today. Until recent times some governments were strong enough to establish empires that ruled not only their own people but other peoples and states across national, ethnic, and language boundaries. The present-day counterpart of the empire is the superpower that is able to lead or dominate other countries through its superior military and economic strength. Within the modern nation-state, government operates at many different levels, ranging from villages to cities, counties, provinces, and states. Types of Government Aristotle, a Greek political philosopher of the 4th century B.C., distinguished three principal kinds of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and polity (a kind of enlightened democracy). The differences among them chiefly concerned whether power were held by one, by a few, or by many. Aristotle thought that the selfish abuse of power caused each type to become perverted, respectively, into tyranny, oligarchy, and a lower form of democracy characterized by mob rule. Monarchy tended to become tyrannical because it vested authority in a single ruler.

Aristocracy, a government based on birth and privilege, in which the rulers governed for the good of the whole society, tended to become oligarchy as a consequence of restricting political power to a special social and economic class; only a few members of the class would have enough drive and ability to acquire the power to govern. The polity, likewise, would deteriorate into ochlocracy, or mob rule, if the citizens pursued only their selfish interests. Aristotle's classifications suited the societies of ancient times, but they do not correspond to the power structure of later societies. Modern writers have developed a variety of schemes for classifying governments, based on the nature of the ruling class, the economic system, the government's political institutions, the principles of authority, the acquisition and exercise of power, and other factors. Some influential writers on government include Thomas Hobbes, Baron de Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, and the sociologist Max Weber. Monarchy The most common form of government from ancient times to the early part of the 20th century was monarchy, or rule by a hereditary king or queen.

Monarchy passed through three basic stages, varying according to the nation and the political and economic climate. The first stage was that of the absolute monarch. In the Christian part of the world during the Middle Ages, a conflict developed between the pope and the kings who recognized his spiritual authority. The pope wanted to expand the power of the church beyond spiritual matters to include the temporal realm. But some kings proclaimed that God had given them the right to rule, and by proclaiming this divine right they were able to give legitimacy to their reigns and limit the pope's power. (See church and state; investiture controversy.) Limited monarchy was the second stage. Kings depended on the support of the most powerful members of the nobility to retain their thrones. In England and some other Western European countries, the nobility placed limits on the power of the ruler to govern. This was done in England, for example, through the Magna Carta. Threatened with the loss of political and financial support, even the strongest kings and emperors had to accept a system of laws that protected the rights and privileges of powerful social and economic classes. The third stage in the evolution of monarchy was the constitutional monarchy.

Present-day monarchs are nearly all symbolic rather than actual rulers of their countries. (A few exceptions can be found in Africa and Asia.) In such monarchies as Great Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Spain, governing power is now in the hands of the national parliaments. Constitutional Government Today most governments derive their legitimacy from national constitutions that provide a legal framework for their rule and specify how power is to be exercised and controlled. Even one-party states, such as the traditional Communist countries and other nations in Africa, Asia, and South America, have found it necessary to establish formal constitutions. In democratic countries the constitution can be amended or replaced by popular vote, either directly or through a system of elected representatives. In authoritarian one-party systems, however, all political power, including that of revising the constitution, resides with the leaders of the party. The constitution may thus be only a paper facade, and in order to understand how the country is governed one must examine the actual political process. Democracy Representative government in the modern world is based not only on a constitution that provides for it but on the actual rule of law—the assurance that provisions of the constitution will be enforced.

It requires that citizens be free to organize competing political parties, engage in political campaigns, and hold elections according to agreed-upon rules. Democratic governments vary in structure. Two common forms are the parliamentary and the presidential. In the parliamentary form of government, as in Australia, Britain, Canada, or India, all political power is concentrated in the parliament or legislature. The prime minister or premier and the officers of the cabinet are members of the parliament. They continue in office only as long as parliament supports—or has "confidence" in—their policies. In the presidential form of government, as in France and the United States, the voters elect a powerful chief executive who is independent of the legislature but whose actions are delimited by constitutional and other legal restraints. Dictatorship As a form of government, dictatorship is principally a 20th-century phenomenon. The dictator, often a military leader, concentrates political power in himself and his clique. There is no effective rule of law. The regime may or may not have a distinctive political ideology and may or may not allow token opposition. The main function of a dictatorship is to maintain control of all governmental operations.

There have been some cases—Indira Gandhi in India and several military dictatorships in Latin America—in which authoritarian rulers have relaxed their control and have even allowed open elections. In certain Soviet-bloc countries of Eastern Europe dictators were forced from power in bloodless coups or voluntarily relinquished their authority to popularly elected officials as Soviet power declined. The totalitarian dictatorship, as in Nazi Germany, Communist China, and the former USSR, is much more thoroughgoing. It seeks to control all aspects of national life, including the beliefs and attitudes of its people. It has a set of ideas that everyone is expected to embrace, such as revolutionary Marxism or counterrevolutionary fascism. At its most extreme, as during the leadership of Joseph Stalin in the USSR, the power of the dictator may become more absolute than in any of the earlier forms of tyranny. Such gross power in the hands of one person results inevitably in the development of what has been called a cult of personality. The leader is credited with almost infallible wisdom, because to admit that he or she may be wrong would deprive the regime of its authority. In some Communist countries the cult of personality appears to have given way to the dominance of a group of party leaders—a ruling oligarchy.

The administrative complexities of managing a modern industrial state are too great to be monopolized by an individual leader such as Stalin or Mao Zedong(Mao Tse-tung). The successor regime in China, for example, continues to claim infallibility for its policies and doctrines but not for the leaders. Examples of 20th-century dictators in addition to those already mentioned include Idi Amin Dada(Uganda), Kemal AtatÃ¼rk (Turkey), Fulgencio Batista and Fidel Castro (Cuba), Francisco Franco (Spain), Saddam Hussein(Iraq), Ferdinand Marcos (Philippines), Benito Mussolini (Italy), Juan Peron (Argentina), and AntÃ³nio Salazar (Portugal). Distribution of Authority Effective government in any form requires a workable method for distributing authority within the country. The larger and more diverse the jurisdiction of the government, the stronger the tendency toward a federal system in which authority is "layered" or distributed among different levels. In countries with a relatively homogeneous population and with a common tradition, language, and sense of national history, the central governments may not be federal but unitary—that is, they may retain most of the administrative power at the center.

Loosely allied autonomous states sometimes join together to create a type of central government known as a confederation, in which the central government exists only at the pleasure of the sovereign members. Federal Systems The United States and India with their state governments and Canada and China with their provincial governments are examples of workable federal systems in large nations with very diverse populations. Other federal states include Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria, and Germany. The national governments of these countries are clearly more powerful than those of their subdivisions, even though the constitutions delegate many powers and responsibilities to the subnational units. In certain prescribed policy areas a state government may have a high degree of autonomy. In the United States, for example, state legislatures pass laws having to do with state affairs; state administrators carry them out; and state judiciaries interpret them. Federal systems also include autonomous local governments such as county governments and municipal governments—in cities, boroughs, townships, and villages local governments may stand in a relationship to their state governments that corresponds to that of state governments with the national government. The citizens in each jurisdiction elect many of the public officials. In addition, certain special districts exist with a single function, such as education or sanitation, and have their own elected officials.

The layers of government in a federal system may not be clearly defined in practice. Often the different levels compete for control of functions and programs. In the United States and other countries the tendency over the years has been for the national government to become much more involved in areas that once were the exclusive domain of state or regional governments. In addition, the distribution of authority has become even more complex and varied with the rise of large metropolitan areas—the megalopolis—and the corresponding new local governmental organizations such as the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Unitary States In unitary states the national government performs all the governmental functions. Subnational national units administer matters within their jurisdiction, but their powers are set and delegated by the national authority. The national government retains the police power—the inherent power to provide for the health, safety, and welfare of its citizens. Taxation and major lawmaking powers also rest almost entirely with the national government. Most nations are unitary states, but their institutions and processes may differ markedly. Great Britain, for example, is considered a unitary system, yet a certain degree of regional autonomy exists in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and local county governments perform certain fairly autonomous functions.

In France, however, strict control over the administrative territorial subdivisions is exercised by the national government. In other unitary states there exists only token territorial decentralization. Confederations Confederation produces the weakest central government. Member states in a confederation retain their sovereignty, delegating to the central government only those powers that are essential for its maintenance. The individual states jealously guard their power to tax and to make their own laws. The central government serves as a coordinating instrument to protect the interests of all its members. It also represents the confederation in dealings with outside governments, but its actions are subject to the review and approval of the confederated states. The weakness of the confederate form of government led the United States to abandon that system in 1789 after only eight years. Confederations, however, have also served other nations—Germany and Switzerland, for example—as a preliminary step toward a more unified government. No modern nation-state is organized along confederate lines, yet some international organizations, such as the British Commonwealth of Nations, the European Union (formerly the European Community), and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, have some aspects of a confederation. Divisions of Government Various political thinkers have distinguished types of government activity.

Montesquieu was the first, however, to urge the creation of three separate institutions or divisions of government—the executive, legislative, and judicial—a distinction that became common in almost all modern constitutions. Some governmental structures, notably that of the United States, are based on the principle of separation of powers at nearly every level. Executive, legislative, and judicial powers are divided into three branches of government, creating a system of checks and balances among them and helping to protect citizens from arbitrary and capricious actions on the part of any of the three branches. Such protection is crucial in the area of civil rights—those constitutionally guaranteed rights that shield the citizen from tyrannical actions bygovernment. Often, in times of grave national emergency, when the central government needs more power, the public is willing to grant it. The executive branch usually predominates at such time (see president of the United States). Proponents of the separation of powers bring an additional argument in its favor: they point out that the system diminishes the influence of special-interest groups over any one branch of government or over the government as a whole.

It is difficult for even the strongest faction to dominate a government in which the executive is elected by the entire population, members of the legislature represent different geographical constituencies, and the judges are appointed by the executive with the approval of the legislature. Not all states, of course, have such clear divisions of government, nor do divisions necessarily guarantee personal liberties. Parliamentary democratic systems, for example, tend to merge legislative and executive functions yet control the exercise of power by constitutional methods of sharing it. Authoritarian states may, however, be constitutionally bound to have separate organs of government yet actually concentrate power in the executive. Functions of Government Maintenance of Authority One of the principal functions of government is to remain in power. Governments do not relinquish their authority unless compelled to do so. Many of the actions of politicians and civil servants can be explained by the need to maintain and enhance their power. Every government strives to increase its legitimacy in the eyes of the people. It may identify itself with ancient traditions, with hope for the future, or with fear of a common enemy. Some governments employ repression, never relaxing their vigils against real or imagined opponents.

Even democracies, when threatened, are likely to engage in a search for subversives and "enemies of the people." When a regime draws its main support from a privileged class or group that decreases in numbers and strength, when a government becomes ineffective in handling domestic affairs or countering external threats, or when a society's consensus on the principles and goals of government evaporates, a government tends to lose authority. The French monarchy in the 18th century and the Russian monarchy in the 20th century were based on aristocracies that had lost much of their legitimacy in the eyes of the people. Eventually these regimes were unable to enforce their laws, and revolutions swept them from power. Governments tend, therefore, to foster widespread ideological commitment to the nation through patriotic ceremonies, propaganda, and civic education; they employ armed forces and intelligence-gathering organizations for national defense; they maintain police and prison systems to ensure domestic order; and they undertake the administration of supervisory and regulatory functions to carry out national goals by establishing various bureaucracies to handle each complex function. Administration All governments recognize the principle that the public must be protected and served.

The citizen, in effect, surrenders a degree of individual sovereignty to the government in return for protection of life and property and the delivery of essential services. Governments supervise the resolution of conflicting interests, the workings of the political process, the enforcement of laws and rights, and the monitoring of national income (see income, national) and international trade; they regulate economic and social relationships among individuals and private organizations; and they carry out enterprises such as production of military goods, provision of postal services, and ownership of power utilities and public works. Among the most basic services provided by government are the printing and coining of money, the provision of roads, sewers, water, education, and social and welfare services. With the growth of the welfare state, governments began to provide services such as social security and health insurance. But the scope of government regulation is now much broader. In the United States the government sets minimum wages, limits the rates charged by public utilities, buys farm commodities to keep prices up, forbids the sale of harmful foods and drugs, sets standards for gasoline consumption by automobiles, requires manufacturers to install antipollution devices, and monitors the safety of factories. Federal, state, and local governments in the United States also engage directly in economic activity.

They impose taxes, produce and consume goods, sell electric power, lend money to farmers, and insure bank deposits. In other countries governments intrude even further into the workings of the economy. In Western Europe governments own and operate telephone, radio, and television services, railroads, coal mines, and aircraft companies. In some countries, such as Sweden and Great Britain, the entire health system is also run by the state. In countries with Communist governments, such as the former USSR, North Korea, China, and Cuba, the state has attempted to control the entire economic life of the nation. All economic planning is centralized in the government and its bureaucracies. When the system fails to produce the goods and services expected by the people, the government is forced to increase the level of repression of its citizens in order to remain in power. Internal Conflicts The end of the cold war and the loss of control by the superpowers over international events have led to a different type of stress on many governments. The threats to their sovereignty are no longer external. Many nations, especially those artificially carved out of old empires that expired during both World Wars, are finding that the arbitrary power that maintained the central governments is no longer sufficient for the task.

The communication revolution, through radio and the satellite transmission of television, has truly created a "global village." Citizens no longer live in isolation. They demand the rights and privileges enjoyed by others. Another kind of demand governments must try to meet comes from ethnic and religious groups that in some cases seek autonomy from the government. Some of these conflicts result in attempts at genocide, and the rest of the world appears powerless to intervene. These problems are not limited to Third World countries. NATO has revised its original purpose of preventing an invasion of western Europe to a strategy of maintaining smaller mobile forces to prevent the internal breakup of nations. But these internal conflicts continue to have the potential to produce anarchy and chaos, threatening entire regions. International Government In modern times national governments have become increasingly involved with one another in supranational systems. The League of Nations, established in 1919, grew to include more than 90 members. It collapsed in World War II but was succeeded by the United Nations (UN). The UN, like the League, is a voluntary association generally without power to act unless the five permanent members of the Security Council agree. It has, however, served as a forum for international debate and a convenient meeting ground for negotiations.

The UN has also committed military forces of member nations in an attempt to limit the scope of conflicts that cannot be solved by national governments. UN forces have suffered casualties in some of these conflicts. The United Nations is now an international government in both theory and reality, and the organization will continue to face many serious challenges in many parts of the world. Associated with the UN are a number of specialized organizations that perform important governmental functions. They include the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Court of Justice (World Court), the International Labor Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Health Organization, and the International Telecommunication Union. The specialized agencies have enabled national governments to cooperate in many practical matters such as setting standards, extending technical and financial assistance to developing countries, eliminating or controlling epidemic diseases, and establishing an international monetary system. Regional associations of nations have usually existed in a loose confederation for national security purposes or for vaguely defined geographical and political purposes. The European Union of 15 member nations has taken the concept of regional association to a much higher level. It has moved to create a political union among sovereign states, and its Common Market constitutes one of the major economies of the world. Reviewed by Thomas B.

Hartmann How to Cite This Article: MLA (Modern Language Association) style: Hartmann, Thomas B. "Government." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Online, 2014. Web. 1 July 2014. (use the date you accessed the page) Chicago Manual of Style: Hartmann, Thomas B. "Government." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Online (accessed July 1, 2014). (use the date you accessed the page) APA (American Psychological Association) style: Hartmann, T. B. (2014). Government. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 1, 2014, (use the date you accessed the page) from Grolier Online A Brief Lexicon of Greek Terms A Brief Lexicon of Greek Terminology This lexicon is not class specific. It has been used by classes on Greek history and mythology. Some of the terms may be relevant to your class, some may not. This chart is to serve as a study and memnonic aid. This lexicon is brief not only in the number of terms offered but also in the definitions. Relevant terms will be discussed at greater length in class.

For further information, check out also the Oxford Classical Dictionary . If you are linking to this page from another website, most terms have an anchor of the same name. acropolis, (akropolis) upper or higher city, hence the citidal or fortified part of the city. frequently holds major sanctuaries which serve as the treasury and archives of the city. Used esp. in reference to the Athenian Acropolis ( plan ; photo ). adyton a place "not to be entered"; the inner-most sacred shrine. Frequently, such shrines are associated with chthonic deities. One existed in the temple to Apollo at Delphi, perhaps a left-over from Gaia's worship there (cf. the Oresteia). aegis This is Zeus's shield of power. Athena gets to borrow it and is frequently depicted as wearing it around her chest. The name implies that it was made of a goat skin and is depicted as fringed. These fringes develop into snakes on Athena's aegis , possibly as a result of her placing the head of Medusa, the gorgon, in the middle . As you may know, Medusa had snakes in place of hair.

agoge The Spartan system of military education introduced by Lycurgus during the Archaic age. Beginning at age 7, children left their families and entered disciplined military training. This weakened family loyalties while increasing group solidarity among peers who would serve together in the military. agon literally, a struggle or contest. agon can refer to athletic contests, such as the Olympics. It can also signify a battle or a trial (a legal battle). Thus it may also be a speech delivered in a court or the main argument of a speech. From this, it becomes the technical term for the main debate or rhetorical argument/contest in an Old Comedy. agora marketplace and place of public assembly. Used esp. in reference to the Athenian Agora . cf. the Roman forum . aidos "undying, unperishing;" see kleos aphthiton Apologia a "defense", referring to books 9-12 of the Odyssey in which Odysseus recounts his adventures and defends why he is the sole survivor. Cf. Plato's Apology (the defense speech of Socrates from his trial) and the early Christian Apologists (defending their faith).

archon annual magistracy at Athens; there were several different archons, though their numbers and organizations differed over time. The lead civic magistrate was called the eponymous archon (or just "the" archon) as he gave his name to that year (thus the Athenians reckoned dates). aristeia heroic deeds and the reward for such; in heroic epic: a formulaic type scene in which a hero performs his greatest battle at� folly, blindness, delusion esp. as sent by the gods; ruin (i.e., the results of the folly), destruction; personified as Goddess of mischief and destruction. Cf. (in Iliad ) Agamemnon; Phoinix's allegory in book 9. In tragedy, the final consequence of koros boul� Council or assembly; a governing body, e.g., the boul� of 500 at Athens which met at the Pnyx. barbaros A pejorative term used to refer to non-Greek foreigners. This notion of Greek superiority seems to have been a by-product of the Greek-Persian wars of the early 5th cent. B.C.E.

Prior to this time, the word xenos (stranger) was used to refer to both Greek and non-Greek strangers/foreigners. This language shift is noted by both Herodotus and Thucydides. caduceus Hermes' "magic" wand, pictured with two snakes wrapped around it; now the symbol of the AMA chthonic (adj.) having to do with the earth, fertility, the underworld, death deme local territorial districts or the villages throughout Attica which Cleisthenes used as the base of his reforms and thus can also refer to official or constitutional demes; membership in the latter became requisite for Athenian citizenship. Demes were the center of local religious life and had their own assemblies. The main magistrate of a deme was the demarch. An example of an attic deme is Thorikos . Citizens were identified by the demotic rather than patronymic (i.e., Outis of Thorikos rather than Outis son of Laertes). ekphora ek = out; phora = carry; the carrying out of the body from the house during a formal funeral procession. Cf. the end of Sophocles' Ajax.

ephebes, ephebeia Athenian citizen-youths between 18-20 years old, fulfilling a required military service, manning the border forts of Attica. There is much debate and controversy over the origins of the institution ephebeia and how far back in history it may be dated. epichoric (adj.) localized, in or related to a specific location or region. Contrast with panhellenic eranos (pl. eranoi) a feast or festival, a wedding banquet, a sacred banquet, a subscription dinner (i.e., one to which each participant has contributed), a permanent religious association or club eris strife, quarell, debate, rivalry, discord, jealous; but also good meaning: zeal for something. Cf. Hesiod and Perses in Works and Days and Agamemnon and Achilles in Iliad. ethnos (pl. ethne) a nation, a people, a caste, an ethnic group (i.e., one with a shared heritage and {mythological} geneology).

sometimes used of non-Greek or marginally Greek people as opposed to poleis of the Greeks) exegetes an interpreter of oracles, dreams, or omens, also, at Athens, one who interprets sacred rites or customs, modes of burial, expiation, etc., a religious expert Hellas The modern name for Greece, used also in ancient times to refer to the all the Greek peoples or the Greek geographical country (but the Greeks mostly thought of themselves in terms of more localized ethnic and political groupings: the Athenians, the Spartans, the Dorians, etc.). Originally just the name for one small district in Greece. It housed a religious confederacy associated with the Delphic oracle (a sort of U.N.) and through that may have come to be used in its wider sense. See also Hellenes (below) and panhellenic . Hellenes The modern name for the Greek people. In ancient times, originally referred to one small group of Greeks, but at some point came to be used as a general term for all the Greek peoples. See also Hellas (above) and panhellenic . Our word 'Greek' comes from the Latin 'Graeci' used by the Romans.

herm a boundary marker, frequently with the head of Hermes, Dionysos, or Herakles on top of a square pillar with ithyphallic genitalia below. click here for a vase depicting herms. heroon a shrine to a hero, usually identified with his tomb or a cenotaph (empty tomb, no body); many were founded around the remains of bronze age tholos tombs ( click here for an example of a tholos tomb, the so-called treasury of Agamemnon ). Cf. Lefkandi hetaira (pl. hetairai) also spelled hetaera, -ae. Female companions or courtesans. Educated prostitutes (slave, freed, or foreign women) (cf. porn� a term used of lower class prostitutes -- a class but not legal distinction). Some hetairai were quite wealthy and influential (e.g. Aspasia). Click here for a brief article on hetairai. hetaireiai private social clubs of hetairoi (male comrades, usually elite citizens and not to be confused with hetairai above). While these were drinking and dining associations, they frequently had political connotations.

In Athens, they were associated with the multilation of the herms and the profaning of the Mysteries in 415 B.C.E. and the oligarchic coups of 411 and 404. horns of consecration a frequently found Minoan symbol, often rendered in stone , interpreted by Sir A. Evans as sacred bull's horns. Here pictured on the Hagia Triada sacropagus: hybris pride, arrogance, insolence, violent transgression, outrage, gross insult, assault (including sexual assault, i.e. rape). In tragedy, the initial result of koros . isonomia the term for the Cleisthenic constitution: iso= equal; nomia = law -- i.e., all citizens are equal under the law; our term demokratia only came into vogue later. cf. the eunomia of Sparta and Solon. katabasis a descent, journey downwards. a technical term for a trip to the underworld kleos, kleos aphthiton fame, undying fame: the goal of heroic epic and counterpart to t im�.

This formulaic phrase (kleos aphthiton) appears also in Sanskrit in a Vedic epic. koros satiety, excess, and the consequences thereto (insolence) labrys, labyrinth a labrys is a double axe, a frequent Minoan symbol. It is found in many forms, from minature golden versions to rough inscriptions on pillars (purpose of the latter unknown, one of a number of inscriptional signs which lead Sir A. Evans to theorize a "pillar cult" in the Minoan world {now largely dismissed}). Here are some pictured on the Hagia Triada sacropagus. The non-Greek suffix -nthos is thought to mean "the place of," hence the word labyrinth (which has come to mean a maze) originally may have meant "the place of the double axe." Labrys was also a non-Greek word. It has been suggested that it comes from Lydian (?) and is related to the weapon of Zeus Labraundeus worshipped at Labraundea in Caria (cf. Plutarch, Quaest. Graec. 45. and Hdt.1.171-173).

logos see mythos + logos megaron Used as an architectual type of building with a front portico with columns and an inner hall. Picture taken from the main hall at Pylos. Click here for more info on the Megaron. miasma pollution, defilement (esp. by murder or other crime), the taint of guilt mnestrophonia mnestro = suitor; phonia = slaughter, the killing of the suitors at the end of the Odyssey. You find the same stem in Klytemnestra's name. Can you take her name apart? What does it mean? Keeping in mind her sister, Helen's story, do you see a familial significance in this name? mystes (pl. mystai) an initiand, one who has been initiated mythos + logos mythos = anything delivered by word of mouth, word, speech, conversation, story, tale (esp. poetic tale). logos = thought, reason, word, language, "study of." Mythology = the study of tales/stories nemesis indignation or anger at injustice; vengence or jealousy at undeserved good fortune (esp.

of the gods); reapportioning/redistribution (of disproportionate goods/fortune; the goddess of retribution Nekuia Visiting the dead; usually part of a katabasis nomos anything assigned, a usage, custom, law, ordinance. It comes from a verb neim� meaning to deal out, distribute or dispense. Notably, much of our early Greek poetry is concerned with the just distribution of goods and honors (cf. Iliad and Works and Days). Another related word to both nomos and neim� is Nemesis , goddess of retribution and vengence who takes care of any unjust distribution. Hesiod, an early Greek poet, suggests that one's own customs or culture controls one's perceptsion of the world (Custom is the King of all). omphalos literally "belly-button;" refers to Earth's (Gaia's) belly button which is centered at Delphi (she is an "out-y") and represented by a domed stone. Cf. the opening scene of the Eumenides.

ostracism At Athens, a sort of election using ostraka or pot-sherds to write on; the "winner" (the most popular man in Athens) would then be exiled for 10 yrs, but upon his return he would receive all property and rights back again. Used as a tool to prevent tyranny. panhellenic (adj.) pan = allhellenic = Greek; having to do will all Greeks or all of Greece; contrast to epichoric parabasis a diviation or digression. In Old Comedy, parabasis was when the Chorus came forward to directly address the audience in the Poet's name. Similar "asides" can be found in post-classical drama as well. phratry lit. "brotherhood", a group theoretically based on kinship ties which served as the basis for citizenship in Athens before the Cleisthenic reforms (ca. 508 B.C.E). A father would present his sons (and daughters?) to the phratry for recognition as legitimate offspring. Remained important religiously even after the reforms. phyl� lit.

"tribe;" a major political unit at Athens into which the demes were divided under the Cleisthenic reforms; the basis of organization for the boul� , the military, and the choruses at the dithyrambic festivals at the Greater Dionysia. pithos (pl. pithoi) a large storage jar. Click here for a fun scene of Eurystheus hiding in a pithos when Herakles brings Cerebus, the hound of hell, to him (the snakes at the edge of the scene are part of Athena' aegis ) polis (pl. poleis) city-state, the body of citizens which comprise a state, the right of citizenship. Sometimes taken as abbrev. for acropolis , as opposed the the rest of the city. Asty was the term for "city" as an urban location opposed to chora (the "country" or rural outlining areas). potnia theron lit. "mistress of wild animals," godess of the whole of wild nature: fish, birds, land-animals. In historic period, used in reference to Artemis, but seems to go back even to the Paleolithic.

prothesis the laying out of the body and preparing it for burial. click here for illustration. proxenos (pl. proxenoi) a local citizen who would serve as a sort of official diplomatic representative of a foreign polis . It developed out of earlier practices of hopitality (see xenia ) in which families would form hereditary relationships with foreign families. The proxenos would be a citizen of the state in which he served, not the one he represented but honors would be bestowed upon the proxenos by the state he represented in return for his (and his family/descendants) services. Both Cimon and Alcibiades were proxenoi of Sparta.

prytany executive committee of boul� at Athens (50 men), organized by phyl� and rotating, one phyl� per Attic month; also name for the building in agora manned by the prytany psychopomp(os) psych = soul, pomp = escort; a title and function of Hermes as escort for the souls of the dead to the underworld pythia the female priestess to Apollo at Delphi who gives prophecies while in a mantic or ecstatic state sophrosyn� soundness of mind (as opposed to mania or insanity), prudence, discretion, a sense of shame and decorum, moderation in sensual desires, self-control, temperance, (for women) chastity. Can be used politically, of a moderate form of government. temenos an enclosed, sacred precinct or marked-off plot of land thalassocracy thalassa = sea, cracy = rule: a maritime empire. Used esp. of the Minoan control of the Aegean basin and mainland Greece, until the revolt by the latter. Mythologically represented in the story of King Minos, Theseus of Athens, and the Minotaur.

theos + gonos theos = god+ gonos = birth; Theogony = Birth of the Gods Themis that which is laid down or established; law, justice, what is right. Sometimes specifically divine or natural law as contrasted to nomos . Also, a divine goddess who, according to Hesiod, is married to Zeus. Through his marriage to Themis (Justice) and Metis (Wisdom), Zeus was able to establish a lasting reign and avoid the problems of oppression which plagued his father's and grandfather's rule. therapon attendant, comrade in arms, servant; ritual sacrificial substitute (e.g. Patrokles for Achilles) tholos tombs circular buildings, frequently cut into a hillside, with a "beehive" roof (corbelled vault) and a corridor (dromos) leading to the entrance. Used in Mycenean times (Bronze Age, 15th cent B.C.E.) for burials. Later (in the Archaic and Classical ages) frequently the site of hero worship. ( click here for images ). For more on the tholos tombs, click here .

tim� honor in which one is held, respect (for mortals), worship (for immortals and heroes in cult); position or rank of honor; compensation, penalty or payment for wrong doing; counterpart to kleos xenia

Question: A form of government called by the Greek term 'thalassocracy' refers to a state with power in what realm?
Answer: Sea