Norway rats, Rattus norvegicus, their management and control Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus) Click image for larger picture. For additional Norway rat control information click Rats Diagram that helps one distinguish rats from mice. Click for larger image. Identification Habitat The Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus, Fig. 1) is a stocky burrowing rodent, unintentionally introduced into North America by settlers who arrived on ships from Europe. Also called the brown rat, house rat, barn rat, sewer rat, gray rat, or wharf rat, it is a slightly larger animal than the roof rat (Fig. 2). Adult Norway rats weigh an average of 1 pound (454 g). Their fur is coarse and usually brownish or reddish gray above and whitish gray on the belly. Blackish individuals occur in some locations. Range First introduced into the United States around 1775, the Norway rat has now spread throughout the contiguous 48 states. It is generally found at lower elevations but may occur wherever humans live. Habitat Norway rats live in close association with people.

In urban or suburban areas they live in and around residences, in cellars, warehouses, stores, slaughterhouses, docks, and in sewers. On farms they may inhabit barns, granaries, livestock buildings, silos, and kennels.They may burrow to make nests under buildings and other structures, beneath concrete slabs, along stream banks, around ponds, in garbage dumps, and at other locations where suitable food, water, and shelter are present. Although they can climb, Norway rats tend to inhabit the lower floors of multistory buildings. Food Habits Norway rats will eat nearly any type of food. When given a choice, they select a nutritionally balanced diet, choosing fresh, wholesome items over stale or contaminated foods. They prefer cereal grains, meats and fish, nuts, and some types of fruit. Rats require 1/2 to 1 ounce (15 to 30 ml) of water daily when feeding on dry foods but need less when moist foods are available. Food items in household garbage offer a fairly balanced diet and also satisfy their moisture needs. General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior Norway rats are primarily nocturnal. They usually become active about dusk, when they begin to seek food and water.

Some individuals may be active during daylight hours when rat populations are high. Rats have poor eyesight, relying more on their hearing and their excellent senses of smell, taste, and touch. They are considered color-blind. Therefore, for safety reasons, baits can be dyed distinctive colors without causing avoidance by rats, as long as the dye does not have an objectionable taste or odor. Rats use their keen sense of smell to locate food items and to recognize other rats. Their sense of taste is excellent, and they can detect some contaminants in their food at levels as low as 0.5 parts per million. Norway rats usually construct nests in below-ground burrows or at ground level (Fig. 3). Nests may be lined with shredded paper, cloth, or other fibrous material. Litters of 6 to 12 young are born 21 to 23 days after conception. Newborn rats are hairless and their eyes are closed, but they grow rapidly. They can eat solid food at 2 1/2 to 3 weeks. They become completely independent at about 3 to 4 weeks and reach reproductive maturity at 3 months of age.

Females may come into heat every 4 or 5 days, and they may mate within a day or two after a litter is born. Breeding often peaks in spring and fall, with reproductive activity declining during the heat of summer and often stopping completely in winter, depending on habitat. These seasonal trends are most pronounced in more severe climates. The average female rat has 4 to 6 litters per year and may successfully wean 20 or more offspring annually. Norway rats have physical capabilities that enable them to gain entry to structures by gnawing, climbing, jumping, swimming, and other tactics. For more detailed information on their physical abilities and the resulting need to design rodent-proof structures, see the chapter Rodent-Proof Construction and Exclusion Methods. Studies indicate that during its daily activities, a rat normally travels an area averaging 100 to 150 feet (30 to 45 m) in diameter. Rats seldom travel farther than 300 feet (100 m) from their burrows to obtain food or water. Rats constantly explore and learn about their environment, memorizing the locations of pathways, obstacles, food and water, shelter, and other elements in their domain.

They quickly detect and tend to avoid new objects placed into a familiar environment. Thus, objects such as traps and bait stations often are avoided for several days or more following their initial placement. Place baits and bait stations near, but not on, rat runways. Rats will quickly find them and after a short period of avoidance, will cautiously investigate them. Baited but unset traps will aid in overcoming rats’ fear of them; expanded-trigger traps set directly on travel routes may immediately catch rats. Rats will at first avoid novel food items placed in their environment. They may eat very small amounts, and subsequent feeding will depend on the flavor of the food and its physiological effect. If the food contains poison or some other substance that soon produces an ill effect but not death, the food will often be associated with the illness. This “bait shyness” was a major problems when single-dose acute toxicants were the main rodenticides in use. Today, only two rodenticides registered for Norway rat control, red squill and zinc phosphide, possess characteristics that make bait shyness a potential problem. Bait shyness can persist for weeks or months and may be transferred to nontoxic foods of similar types.

Pre-baiting, that is, training rats to feed repeatedly on nontoxic bait for a period of days prior to applying the toxicant in the bait, will largely prevent sublethal doses and thus bait shyness. It will also lead to successful control, with very few rats left to become bait-shy. Prebaiting will almost always increase control success when zinc phosphide or red squill baits are used. Because anticoagulant rodenticides are slow-acting, the rats’ subsequent illness is not associated with the bait even if a sublethal dose is consumed; thus, bait shyness does not usually occur. These baits serve, in effect, as their own prebait. Damage and Damage Identification Norway rats consume and contaminate foodstuffs and animal feed. They may damage crops in fields prior to and during harvest, and during processing and storage. Rats also damage containers and packaging materials in which foods and feed are stored. Rats cause structural damage to buildings by burrowing and gnawing. They undermine building foundations and slabs, cause settling in roads and railroad track beds, and damage the banks of irrigation canals and levees.

Rats also may gnaw on electrical wires or water pipes, either in structures or below ground. They damage structures further by gnawing openings through doors, window sills, walls, ceilings, and floors. Considerable damage to insulated structures can occur as a result of rat burrowing and nesting in walls and attics. Among the diseases rats may transmit to humans or livestock are murine typhus, leptospirosis, trichinosis, salmonellosis (food poisoning), and ratbite fever. Plague is a disease that can be carried by a variety of rodents, but it is more commonly associated with roof rats (Rattus rattus) than with Norway rats. Rat Sign The presence of rats can be determined by a number of signs described below: Droppings may be found along runways, in feeding areas, and near shelter. They may be as large as 3/4 inch (2 cm) long and 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) in diameter. Fresh droppings are soft in texture. Tracks, including footprints or tail marks, may be seen on dusty surfaces or in mud (Fig. 4).

A tracking patch made of flour can be placed in pathways overnight to determine if rodents are present. Urine, both wet and dry, will fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Urine stains may occur along travelways or in feeding areas. Runs or burrows may be found next to walls, along fences, next to buildings, or under bushes and debris. Rats memorize pathways and use the same routes habitually. Smudge marks (rub marks) may occur on beams, rafters, pipes, and walls as a result of oil and dirt rubbing off rats’ fur along frequently traveled routes (Fig. 5). Gnawing may be visible on doors, ledges, in corners, in wall material, on stored materials, or other surfaces wherever rats are present. Fresh accumulations of wood shavings, insulation, and other gnawed material indicate active infestations. Size of entry holes (often 1 1/2 inches [4 cm] in diameter or less for mice, 2 inches [5 cm] or larger for rats) or tooth marks can be used to distinguish rat from mouse gnawing.

Rats keep their paired incisor teeth, which grow continuously at the rate of about 5 inches (13 cm) per year, worn down by gnawing on hard surfaces and by working them against each other. Sounds such as gnawing, climbing in walls, clawing, various squeaks, and fighting noises are common where rats are present, particularly at times of the day when they are most active. Estimating Rat Numbers Rat sign and visual sightings are of limited value in accurately estimating rat numbers, but they are the simplest and often the only practical method available. Search premises thoroughly when looking for rats. In structures, searches should include attics, basements, around foundations, crawl spaces, and behind and under stored materials. The following estimates can then be made: No sign: no rats or few present. If only a few rats are present they may have invaded only recently. Old droppings and gnawing common, one or more rats seen by flashlight at night, or no rats observed in daytime: medium numbers present. Fresh droppings, tracks, and gnawing present, three or more rats seen at night, or rats seen in daytime: large numbers present.

Since rats are normally nocturnal and somewhat wary of humans, usually many more rats are present than will be seen in the daytime. Under certain conditions, rats may become quite bold in the presence of humans, and then a high percentage of the population may be visible. A conservative estimate of rat numbers can be made from measuring their food consumption. You can do this by feeding the rats for a while on finely ground grain (whole grains or pelleted foods may be carried off uneaten). When offered over a period of time, the ground grain will usually be accepted and eaten by rats. Consumption may gradually increase to a maximum level over the period of a week or so as the rats’ natural fear of novel foods is overcome. Divide the total amount of food eaten per day by 1/2 ounce (15 g); this will give a minimum estimate of the rats present. Some rats eat more than 1/2 ounce (15g) daily, but rats will probably also be using other foods in their environment. If too much alternative food is available, this technique will not give an adequate estimate. 0.025 *Second-generation anticoagulants especially useful for the control of warfarin-resistant rats and mice.

does not always have to be on consecutive days. When anticoagulants are eaten daily, however, death may occur as early as the third or fourth day. For optimal lethal effects, several feedings should occur within a 10-day period with no longer than 48 hours between feedings. All anticoagulants provide good to excellent Norway rat control when prepared in acceptable baits. A new second-generation anticoagulant, difethialone, is presently being developed and EPA registration is anticipated in the near future. The characteristics of the various anticoagulant rodenticides are described further in the Pesticides section. Because of their similarity in mode of action, all anticoagulant baits are used in a similar fashion. Label directions commonly instruct the user to “maintain a continuous supply of bait for 15 days or until feeding ceases,” thus ensuring that the entire rat population has ample opportunity to ingest a lethal dose of the bait. Anticoagulants have the same effect on nearly all warm-blooded animals, but the sensitivity to these toxicants varies among species.

If misused, anticoagulant rodenticides can be lethal to nontarget animals such as dogs, pigs, and cats. Additionally, residues of anticoagulants which are present in the bodies of dead or dying rodents can cause toxic effects to scavengers and predators. In general, however, the secondary poisoning hazard from anticoagulants is relatively low. Brodifacoum and bromadiolone baits, because of their potential to be lethal in a single feeding, can be more effective than the other anticoagulants in certain situations. Chlorophacinone (RoZol®) and diphacinone (Ramik®, Ditrac®) are similar in potency and are more toxic than the anticoagulant compounds developed earlier. Thus, they are formulated at lower concentrations. Chlorophacinone and diphacinone may kill some rats in a single feeding, but multiple feedings are needed to give adequate control of an entire rat population. Pindone (Pival®, Pivalyn®) is also less potent than chlorophacinone or diphacinone, and it is regarded as slightly less effective than warfarin against Norway rats.

It has some properties that resist insects and growth of mold in prepared baits. Warfarin (Final® and other trade names) was the first marketed anticoagulant and therefore became the best known and most widely used. It is effective against Norway rats, although some products may contain small quantities of contaminants that apparently can reduce bait acceptance. This problem was resolved by the development of micro-encapsulated warfarin. Anticoagulant Resistance. Within any population of Norway rats, some individuals are less sensitive to anticoagulants than others. Where anticoagulants have been used over long periods of time at a particular location, there is an increased potential for the existence of a population that is somewhat resistant to the lethal effects of the baits. Such resistant populations of rats have been identified at a number of locations throughout the United States. Although not common, resistance may be underestimated because documentation of resistance is usually not pursued by persons involved in operational rat control programs. Resistance, if and when it occurs, is of little consequence in the control of Norway rats, especially with the newer rodenticides presently available.

When anticoagulant resistance to the first-generation anticoagulants is known or suspected, use of these compounds should be avoided in favor of the second-generation anticoagulants or one of the non-anticoagulant products. Anticoagulant Bait Failure. Resistance is only one (and perhaps the least likely) reason for failure in the control of rats with anticoagulant baits. Control with baits that are highly accepted may fail for one or more of the following reasons: —Too short a period of bait exposure. —Insufficient bait and insufficient replenishment of bait (none remains from one baiting to the next). —Too few bait stations and/or too far apart. In some situations, stations may have to be within 20 to 30 feet (7 to 10 m) of one another. —Too small a control area, permitting rats to move in from untreated adjacent areas. —Genetic resistance to the anticoagulant. Although this is unlikely, it should be suspected if about the same amount of bait is taken daily for a number of weeks.

Control with anticoagulant baits that are poorly accepted may fail for one or more of the following reasons: —Poor bait choice, or bait is formulated improperly. Other foods are more attractive to the rats. —Improperly placed bait stations. Other foods are more convenient to the rats. —Abundance of other food choices. —Tainted bait: the bait has become moldy, rancid, insect-infested, or contaminated with other material that reduces acceptance. Discard old bait periodically, and replace it with fresh bait. Occasionally, rats accept bait well and an initial population reduction is successful. Then bait acceptance appears to stop although some rats remain. In such instances it is likely that the remaining rats never accepted the bait either because of its formulation or placement. The best strategy is then to switch to a different bait formulation, place baits at different locations, and/ or use other control methods such as traps. Other Rodenticides. The older rodenticides, formerly referred to as acute toxicants, such as ANTU, arsenic trioxide, phosphorus, and Compound 1080, are no longer registered for rat control.

The widespread availability of ready-to-use anticoagulants and their relative effectiveness have resulted in the reduced use of these older materials over the last 20 years. At present, four non-anticoagulant rodenticides (Table 2) are registered by EPA against Norway rats: bromethalin, cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), red squill, and zinc phosphide. All are potentially useful for controlling anti-coagulant-resistant populations of rats. Of these active ingredients, bromethalin and cholecalciferol are formulated to serve as chronic rodenticides, applied so that rats will have the opportunity to feed on the baits one or more times over the period of one to several days. Bait acceptance is generally good when formulations appropriate for rats are selected. Zinc phosphide and red squill differ in that prebaiting (offering rats similar but nontoxic bait prior to applying the toxicant-treated bait) is recommended to increase bait acceptance. These two rodenticides are not designed to be left available to rats for more than a few days, as continued exposure is likely to result in bait shyness within the population.

Be sure to follow label recommendations on any specific product to achieve best success. Non-anticoagulant rodenticides, particularly zinc phosphide, remain useful tools to achieve quick reductions in rat populations. When rat numbers are large, the cost of baiting with these materials may be lower than for the anticoagulants. Bromethalin (Assault®, Vengeance®) is formulated in a ready-to-use bait as a chronic rodenticide, applied so that rats will have the opportunity to feed on the bait one or more times over a period of one to several days. Because it is a slow-acting in comparison to zinc phosphide or red squill, bait shyness is not usually a problem, nor is prebaiting necessary to get good control in most situations. Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3, Quintox®) is similarly formulated in a ready-to-use bait, serving as a chronic rodenticide. Death occurs 3 or 4 days after ingestion of a lethal dose. Because the toxicant is slow-acting, bait shyness is not reported to occur. It is claimed that rodents cease feeding once a lethal dose has been ingested.

Red squill is a relatively selective and safe toxicant for use only against Norway rats. It acts as an emetic, which provides some degree of protection to certain nontarget species that might accidentally consume the bait. Rats, which cannot vomit, are unable to rid themselves of the toxicant once it is consumed. In the past, one problem was the variation in the quality of the material, which is derived from a plant. Red squill must be stored in a sealed container, as moisture will cause loss of potency. Zinc phosphide is a dark gray powder, insoluble in water, that has been used extensively in the control of rodents. It is available in ready-to-use dry baits and also in concentrates for use by persons trained in rodent control who may wish to prepare their own baits. Its strong garlic-like odor appears to be attractive to rodents that are not bait-shy. Oils and fats make excellent binders for zinc phosphide and increase absorption of the toxicant when ingested. An effective bait is made from mixing zinc phosphide with meat such as canned fish-flavored cat food. Rats will readily accept this bait, especially if adequate prebaiting has been done beforehand.

The following general steps are recommended to obtain good bait acceptance, and therefore good rat control, when using zinc phosphide baits: Prebait rats for a minimum of 3 to 5 days to get the rats accustomed to eating the nontoxic bait material. Do not change types of bait during the prebaiting or baiting operation. Apply prebait at many locations, wherever there is rat activity. Where bait is completely eaten overnight, double the amount of prebait at that location the next day. Repeat this procedure until the amount of bait eaten every night no longer increases. Use only high-quality grains and fresh ready-to-use baits. Where rats have access to abundant amounts of grain, meat such as canned fish-flavored cat food may be a good substitute. Obtain a sufficient quantity to complete the project without changing brands or flavors. Wait until prebait consumption has peaked before applying toxic baits. Remove any uneaten prebait and place the toxic bait at the same locations that the prebait was applied. Usually, the amount of toxic bait needed will be about half the amount used on the last day that prebait was applied.

It may be helpful to wait one day between the last application of prebait and application of toxic bait. That way, rats will be hungrier. Mix the toxicant into the bait ingredients according to label directions, if preparing your own baits from a concentrate. Avoid handling the toxic bait or rodenticide concentrate with bare hands; use rubber or latex gloves. Clean thoroughly any tools or containers used in bait mixing, or safely dispose of them as well as bait packaging materials. Confine or restrain any pets, livestock, or other animals that may otherwise gain access to and feed on the bait. It may also be necessary to place prebait and toxic bait into bait boxes for safety. Following toxic bait application, pick up and dispose of available dead rats and all uneaten bait by incineration or deep burial. Normally, bait should be exposed for only 1 or 2 nights; the greatest consumption occurs on the first night. Control remaining rats by using anticoagulant baits or by using traps or burrow fumigants. Bait Selection and Formulation Contrary to popular belief, rats prefer fresh, high-quality foods and will reject spoiled or inferior foods item when given a choice.

Therefore, rodent baits should be made from high-quality food materials. Usually corn, oats, wheat, or barley are the grains most preferred by Norway rats. Preference will vary between rat populations and among individual rats. Baits similar to foods rats are accustomed to eating are often a good choice, particularly if their normal foods are limited or can be made less available to them. Some people trained in rodent control prefer to mix their own baits. Ground cereal grains are often mixed with 5% powdered sugar and 3% to 10% vegetable oil. A toxicant concentrate is added to this mixture in the proper amount. Certain anticoagulants, as well as zinc phosphide, can be purchased in concentrate forms for use in formulating baits. Under some conditions, baits made with fruits, vegetables, meat, or fish may be highly accepted. Use of such bait materials, however, may increase the risk of poisoning cats, dogs, domestic animals, and other nontarget species. To determine bait preference in rats, conduct a bait-choice test by placing about 4 ounces (115 g) of each of several nontoxic baits about one foot (30 cm) apart in several locations where rats are present.

Check baits for the next few days to find out which foods rats preferred. Keep in mind that rats are suspicious of new objects and novel foods; therefore, they may not accept a new bait until the third or fourth day. The ready-to-use baits most available to the public are anticoagulant rodenticides. Several types are available. Grain-based baits in a loose meal or pelleted form are available in bulk or packaged in small, 4- to 16-ounce (112to 454-g) plastic, cellophane, or paper “place packs” (Fig. 10). These packets keep bait fresh and make it easy to place baits into burrows, walls, or other locations. Rats will gnaw into these bags to feed on acceptable baits. Pelleted baits can more easily be carried by rats to other locations. Such hoarding of food by rats is not uncommon. It may result in amounts of bait being moved to places where it is undetected or difficult to recover and may, if accessible, be hazardous to nontarget species. Anticoagulant baits have also been formulated into wax and extruded blocks (Fig. 11).

These are particularly useful in sewers or where moisture may cause loose grain baits to spoil. Rats accept paraffin block baits less readily than loose or pelleted grain baits, but acceptance of extruded bait blocks is high. Sodium salts of anticoagulants are available as concentrates to be mixed with water, making a liquid bait (Fig. 12). Since rats require water daily, they can be drawn to water stations where other water sources are scarce. Water baits are particularly useful in grain storage structures, warehouses, and other such locations. Rodents are more easily able to detect anticoagulants in water baits than in food baits; therefore, up to 5% sugar is sometimes added to liquid baits to increase rats’ acceptance of the bait solution. Since water is attractive to most animals, use water baits in ways that prevent nontarget animals from drinking them. Bait Stations Bait stations (bait boxes) may increase both the effectiveness and safety of rodenticides. They came into general use after the development of the first-generation anticoagulants, which require that a continuous supply of bait be made available to rodents.

Bait stations are useful because they: —protect bait from moisture and dust; —provide a protected place for rodents to feed, allowing them to feel more secure; —keep other animals (pets, livestock, desirable wildlife) and children away from hazardous bait; —allow placement of bait in locations where it would otherwise be difficult because of weather or potential hazards to nontarget animals; —help prevent the accidental spilling of bait; —allow easy inspection of bait to see if rodents are feeding on it. Kinds of Bait Stations. Bait stations can contain solid baits liquid baits, or both. Bait boxes can be purchased from commercial suppliers or made at home. Manufactured bait boxes made of plastic, cardboard, or metal (Fig. 13) are sold to pest control companies and to the public in sizes for rats or mice. Some farm supply and agricultural chemical supply stores have them in stock or can order them. Bait boxes can be built from scrap materials, and homemade stations can be deigned to fit individual needs. Make them out of sturdy materials so they cannot be easily knocked out of place or damaged. Where children, pets, or livestock are present, be careful to construct the stations so that the bait is accessible only to rodents.

Locks, seals, or concealed latches are often used to make bait boxes more tamperproof. In some situations, stations should be secured in place. Clearly label all bait boxes or stations with “Poison” or “Rodent Bait — Do Not Touch,” or with a similar warning. Some rodenticides or situations may require use of tamper-resistant bait stations. If so, use only bait boxes or stations which are so designated, and also be sure to secure them to buildings by nailing or gluing them to walls or floors in a way that will not permit a person or animal to knock them over or shake the bait out. Bait Station Design. Bait stations should be large enough to allow several rodents to feed at once. They can be as simple as a flat board nailed at an angle to the bottom of a wall (Fig. 14), or a length of pipe into which bait can be placed (Fig. 15). More elaborate stations are completely enclosed and can contain liquid as well as solid baits (Fig. 16). A hinged lid with a childproof latch can be used for convenience in inspecting permanent stations.

Bait stations for rats should have at least two openings approximately 2 1/2 inches (6 cm) in diameter. The two holes should be on opposite sides of the station because rodents can see an alternate escape route as they enter the station. Bait Station Maintenance. Baits must be fresh and of high quality. Rats will reject spoiled or stale foods. Provide enough fresh bait to allow rodents to eat all they want. When you first put bait boxes out, check them daily and add fresh bait as needed. After a short time, rodent numbers and feeding will decline, and you will need to check the boxes only every 2 weeks or once a month. If the bait becomes moldy, musty, soiled, or insect-in-fested, empty the box and clean it, and then refill it with fresh bait. Dispose of spoiled or uneaten bait in accordance with the label. Follow all label directions for the product you are using. Placement of Bait Stations. Proper placement of bait stations is just as important as bait selection. Rats will not visit bait stations, regardless of their contents, if they are not conveniently located in areas where rodents are active.

Where possible, place bait between the rodents’ source of shelter and their food supply. Put bait boxes near rodent burrows, against walls, or along travel routes. Since rats are often suspicious of new or unfamiliar objects, it may take several days for them to enter and feed in bait stations. On farmsteads, bait station placement depends on building design and use. In swine confinement buildings, it may be possible to attach bait boxes to wall ledges or the top of pen dividing walls. Bait boxes may be placed in attics or along the floors or alleys where rodents are active (Fig. 17). Rodent tracks visible on dusty surfaces and their droppings often give clues to where they are active. Never place bait stations where livestock, pets, or other animals can knock them over. Spilled bait may be a potential hazard, particularly to smaller animals. Where buildings are not rodent-proof, permanent bait stations can be placed inside buildings, along the outside of building foundations, or around the perimeter. Bait stations will help keep rodent numbers at a low level when maintained regularly with fresh anticoagulant bait. Rodents moving in from nearby areas will be controlled before they can reproduce and cause serious damage. Tracking Powders.

Toxic dusts or powders have been successfully used for many years to control rats and mice. When rodents walk through a patch of toxic powder, they pick some of it up on their feet and fur and later ingest it while grooming. Tracking powders are useful in controlling rats where food is plentiful and good bait acceptance is difficult to achieve. Rats are more likely to ingest a lethal amount of a poorly accepted toxicant applied by this method than if it is mixed into a bait material. There is little likelihood of toxicant shyness developing when using tracking powders. Because the amount of material a rat may ingest while grooming is small, the concentration of active ingredient in tracking powders is considerably higher than in food baits that utilize the same toxicant. Therefore, these materials can be more hazardous than food baits. For the most part, tracking powders are used by professional pest control operators and others trained in rodent control. Currently, the only tracking powders registered for use against Norway rats contain anticoagulants. Place tracking powders in rat burrows, along runways, in walls, behind boards along walls, or on the floor of bait stations.

Placement can be aided by using various types of sifters, shakers, or blowers. Dampness may cause the powder to cake and lessen its effectiveness. Care must be taken to place tracking powders only where they cannot contaminate food or animal feed, or where nontarget animals cannot come into contact with them. Do not place tracking powders where rats can track the material onto food intended for use by humans or domestic animals. Tracking powders are not generally recommended for use in and around homes because of potential hazards to children and pets. Where possible, remove tracking powder after the rodent control program is completed. Fumigants Fumigants (toxic gases) are most commonly used to control rats in their burrows at outdoor locations. Compounds including aluminum phosphide, chloropicrin, and gas cartridges, are registered for this purpose. The incendiary gas cartridge burns, producing carbon monoxide and other gases that suffocate rodents in their burrows. Methyl bromide is presently registered only for fumigation of structures by qualified professionals. Anhydrous ammonia is not recommended for use as a burrow fumigant because it is not registered for this purpose.

For further information on fumigants, see the Pesticides section. Rat Poison – RATCONTROLTRICKS.COM The Encyclopedia of Rat Extermination Rat Poison Rats are prime suspects in the vectors of several diseases communicable to humans, and gravitate to areas of dense human populations in search of food and water sources. Rats survive by scavenging, meaning that they subsist by searching out and eating dead plant or animal materials that are readily available in their environment. When humans are less than conscientious in discarding of food waste, populations of rats will be drawn into closer contact. An abundance of discarded food will create increasing reproduction rates in the rodents, compounding the problem. Rat infestations are generally dealt with via the use of rat poisons and traps . Rat poisons or rodenticides are a group of chemicals known to be fatal to rodents. In general most of the toxic rat poison ingredients do not cause immediate death to the animal; depending on the class of rodenticide utilized, the term of effectiveness can be from a few days to a couple of weeks. Rats are anatomically and neurologically incapable of emesis (vomiting).

Vomiting is a coordinated muscular response to toxic substances which forcefully expels stomach contents back up into the esophagus and out of the mouth. The rat esophagus is long and there is a strong barrier between stomach and esophagus which makes forceful expulsion impossible. The rat neural network lacks the connections that coordinate the diverse muscle systems (abdomen, throat, shoulders) involved in emesis. Rats are capable of regurgitation which is a passive means of material moving out of the stomach and into the throat, whereas vomiting is characterized as an active process due to unified action of muscle groups. Because rats lack the ability to forcefully expel a contaminated or poisonous substance once ingested, they have adapted other means to avoid such materials. The rat’s first line of defense is to “sample” food in small amounts, if a small portion doesn’t make them sick, they will return and eat more of it. They also have keen senses of taste and smell—and can detect harmful substances with these markers in minute amounts. They are also capable of observing the cause and effect of one of their number dying quickly after eating a particular material, resulting in the colony learning to avoid that food in future.

Types of Rodenticides Warfarin, also known as Coumadin and by several other brand names, is recognized by most people as a human medicine instrumental in controlling the formation of blood clots in people who are prone to them. In fact, Warfarin was first developed in the 1940s as a rat poison, only later was its beneficial medical use discovered.The best rat poison has historically been that which is odorless, tasteless and which does not have a nauseating or immediately lethal effect. This has resulted in the development of several classes of rodenticides, the most popular and enduring of which are the anticoagulant based rat poisons. Anticoagulant rat poisons suppress the animal’s ability to metabolize Vitamin K, which is vital in the formation of blood clots. Blood clotting (when not pathologic) is beneficial; limiting the amount of blood lost from an injury and paving the way for the healing process to begin. Suppression of vitamin K synthesis results in “thin” blood unable to clot which in turn causes diffuse internal hemorrhage. In rats this process can take between seven to fourteen days to end in the desired lethal outcome.

One of the shortcomings of this class of rat poisons is that the extended death trajectory allows the animals to return to various haunts to die, many of them inaccessible to humans. Most rats killed by this method returned to their nests—which are usually in walls or roof rafters, subfloors or foundations. The unexpected consequence is structures contaminated with the odors of decomposition; sometimes for months after the poison is administered. The first wave of anti-coagulant rodenticides were low dose; meaning they contained the rat poison in small amounts which required several feedings over many days for the animal’s body to reach lethal levels. So called “second generation” anti-coagulants were later introduced which were promised to be one dose effective and shorten the time leading to death. These rat poisons contained high doses of the anti-coagulant agent. This had the drawback of making them even more prone to secondary poisoning occurrences than the first generation poisons. What is “Secondary Poisoning”? Secondary poisoning refers to the exposure of non-target animals and people to the effects of the anti-coagulant ingredients of the rat poison.

Wildlife and pets can consume rat carcasses—or the poison bait itself– which retain high levels of the poisons and in turn be sickened and die. Human children, especially toddlers, may encounter the rodenticide and being at that stage of human development where everything must go into the mouth to be tasted, accidentally ingest the poisons. Secondary poisoning led to the further development of other classes of rat poison, including the use of metal phosphides; Vitamin D2 and D3 based rodenticides (which result in calcium overload affecting internal organs), Bromethalin (chemical compound which causes brain swelling) as well as sulfamide derivatives, which induce lethal seizures. None of these, with the possible exception of the phosphides, which convert to phosphine gas when in contact with rat stomach acids, are free from the stigma of secondary poisoning. Even phosphides when used as a fumigant rat poison, can be lethal if pets or wildlife are exposed to the gas. Aside from direct exposure or ingestion, it is also possible for rat poisons to permeate soil or contaminate water sources, and thereby create another avenue for pets, wildlife and children to be exposed to their toxic effects. How quickly does rat poison work?

The length of time a rodenticide takes to kill the rat depends on the type and class of rat poison used. As already noted, anti-coagulant based poisons take anywhere from a few days to two weeks to work, largely dependent on which generation of anti-coagulant poison is used. Vitamin D derivative rodenticides work by increasing calcium levels in the blood of the rat. This hypercalcemia leads to heart and kidney failure as organs and blood vessels mineralize. One feeding by the rat is usually all that is required, with death occurring between two to four days after ingestion. Zinc Phosphide rat poison kills by means of phosphine gas being released when the substance comes into contact with the stomach acids of the rat. It can take anywhere from one to two days for the effect to occur. Bromethalin developed in 1985 as a solution against anti-coagulant resistant rat colonies is highly toxic, designed to kill in one feeding. A neurotoxin, it attacks the central nervous system resulting in convulsions, paralysis and death. This rodenticide usually leads to a lethal outcome within 24 to 36 hours after ingestion.

To avoid the chances of accidental secondary poisoning, all rodenticides should be used only in conjunction with tamper resistant bait traps that enclose the rat poison away from the reach of pets and young children. Traps are best placed along the rat’s usual path of travel between nest and food sources. Recognizing rodenticide side effects The side effects of rat poison are variable, depending on which class of rodenticide is involved and whether the affected is human or animal. Anti-coagulant side effects in humans are usually related to the inability of blood to clot after coming into contact with the rat poison. Rat poison in humans will usually require a few days for symptoms to manifest. Depending on the level of exposure (and the age and body size of the victim) this side effect may be relatively minor or may result in massive internal hemorrhage. Signs include increased bruising, nosebleeds, blood in urine or feces, bloody gums, dizziness, and fatigue. Digestive disruptions including blood tinged diarrhea and vomiting are common. Like humans, the side effects of anti-coagulant rat poison in dogs and cats take time to manifest; they also depend on the length of exposure to the poison.

A single large dose may be less toxic than several repeated ingestions due to the relatively quick excretion of the one dose in the animal’s feces as opposed to repeated, prolonged exposure. The age and general health of the animal are factors as well. In cats onset of signs and symptoms are usually delayed to their characteristically lower exertion levels compared to dogs. Some of the most common symptoms are depression, lethargy, non-specific fevers, weakness, pale gums, confusion, cold extremities and high heart rates. Sadly, some pets will exhibit no symptoms at all, and be found dead after a sudden collapse, usually because a severe internal hemorrhage into a large body cavity, the brain or the heart occurs. Secondary anti-coagulant poisoning has been found to be treatable in both pets and humans with doses of Vitamin K1. The length of time that the antidote must be taken can amount to several weeks for both animals and humans. Other classes of rat poisons will present with other symptoms. Bromethalin rat poison exposure will present with excitability, running fits, depression, seizures, and severe muscle tremors, especially in dogs and usually within 8 to 10 hours of ingestion.

Also included in aftereffects: loss of ability to bark, loss of appetite, and lethargy. No antidote currently exists, but symptoms are treated with corticosteroids. The vitamin D based rat poisons ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol work by increasing calcium absorption, eventually leading to calcium crystals building up in blood vessels and organs. Depression, lethargy and anorexia are three of the earliest symptoms to present; kidney failure due to mineralization generally occurs well into the poisoning process. Difficulty in breathing and symptoms of heart failure may also be observed. Phosphide rat poisons (most often zinc phosphide) cause similar side effects in humans and animals. Tightness in the chest (in humans), difficulty breathing and cough; fluid in the lungs and irregular heartbeat may all be in evidence. Phosphides also cause liver failure which is detectable by yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes. In later stages, coma resulting from toxin build up in the brain (caused by liver failure) can occur. Fortunately phosphides tend not to build up in rat tissue, reducing the chance of secondary poisoning somewhat. Where can I buy rat poison? Rodenticides are widely available for purchase.

Chain home improvement stores like Lowes or Home Depot generally carry a wide range of rat poisons as well as traps and bait stations . Big Box retailers such as Wal-Mart are also sources for rodenticides. Hardware stores, Feed and Grain stores as well as Farmer Co-ops also often have rat poisons for sale. Online sources abound as well. The Environmental Protection Agency of the United States, in an effort to cut down on the secondary poisoning of wildlife, pets and children placed restrictions on certain classes of rodenticides, their sale and distribution. In May 2008 restrictions were announced which were to be phased in to become fully effective in 2011. These are the restrictions that affect the purchase of rat poison by consumers for personal/home use: • 2nd generation anti-coagulant rodenticides will no longer be available for consumer purchase. Only lower dose first generation anti-coagulant rat poisons will now be available for home use. • Only farmers, livestock owners and certified pest control technicians will be able to purchase rat poison in bulk. No bag or container of rat poison in excess of 8 pounds will be sold to the consumer market • Loose pellets will no longer be available for home use.

Nor will pastes, powders, blocks or other poisons which are not contained in tamper resistant packaging. • Rat poisons are to be kept above ground and only in EPA approved tamper resistant bait stations. These restrictions were resisted by rodenticide maker Reckitt Benckiser, Inc. which sells poison rat baits under the brand name “d-Con”. Reckitt Benckiser previously launched a legal appeal with three other rodenticide manufacturers, refusing to implement the new regulations. As of January 2013 Reckitt Benckiser has found itself facing an “EPA order of cancellation” as the result of their failure to comply to the new EPA standards. This order will prohibit the sale of twelve of the company’s d-Con products. Until the cancellation is fully implemented, the affected d-Con products will remain available for purchase. This still leaves at least 30 compliant rat poisons available to the consumer market, and provides better protections—even if they are not perfect—for wildlife, pets and children against secondary poisoning by rodenticides. 64 thoughts on “Rat Poison” Andrew says:

Question: What are rats unable to do which makes them highly susceptible to poison
Answer: Vomit