The Cantons The Cantons Protecting cultural and natural heritage of universal value From the medieval Old Town of Berne to the futuristic city of Brasilia, from the tiny convent of Müstair to the imposing cathedral of Chartres, from the fertile terraced vineyards of Lavaux to the vast desert of Ténéré – all have one thing in common: they are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Mountain records Switzerland is synonymous with mountains. Not only do they cover one third of the country’s surface area, but they are also of major historical, geopolitical and economic importance. The mountains, for example, have been the selling point of the Swiss tourist industry for more than 100 years. Print page The Cantons Switzerland is made up of 26 cantons which enjoy a high degree of autonomy vis-à-vis the federal government. The dome of the Federal Palace © The Swiss Parliament Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons. Each is an independent and sovereign entity, with their own capital town or city. The cantons vary greatly as to size, culture, religion and socioeconomic structure.

With 1.4 million inhabitants, the canton of Zurich is the most heavily populated, while Appenzell-Innerrhoden, with a mere 15,400 inhabitants, is the most sparsely populated canton in Switzerland. Origins The cantons are the collection of stand-alone states which joined forces in 1848 to form a Confederation, although this required them to surrender some of their sovereignty. The number of cantons remained the same until 1979 when Jura split from the canton of Bern and became Switzerland's 26th canton. Six cantons, historically referred to as “half-cantons”, send only one deputy to the Council of States (upper house of the Federal Assembly). They are Obwalden, Nidwalden, Appenzell-Innerrhoden, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden, Basel-Stadt and Basel-Land. Role of the cantons Each canton has its own constitution, parliament, government and courts. According to the principle of subsidiarity enshrined in the Federal Constitution, all powers that are not expressly granted to the Confederation fall within the competence of the cantons.

The cantons enjoy a high degree of autonomy in areas like education, health and policing. The cantonal parliaments vary in size, with the number of popularly elected deputies ranging from 58 to 180. The five- or seven-member cantonal governments are also directly elected by the people. The cantons of Appenzell-Innerrhoden and Glarus still practice a type of direct democracy that is the only form of its kind in the world – the “Landsgemeinde”, or people’s assembly. Once a year, the citizens of these cantons converge on their capital's main square to elect, with a show of hands, the members of the executive, and to cast their vote on draft cantonal legislation. The results are more an estimate than an exact calculation. In all other cantons, the electorate cast their vote at the ballot box.

Capodistrias and the independence of Switzerland, - napoleon.org Home History of the Two Empires Articles Capodistrias and the independence of Switzerland, Capodistrias and the independence of Switzerland, Author(s) : ZAKHARIS Thomas facebook In the years immediately preceding the French Revolution, Switzerland though proud of its ancient democratic traditions was nevertheless made up of a rather mixed bag of cantons, each with a specific polity, some oligarchic, others democratic and still others where inhabitants had no political rights whatsoever. Traditionally, Swiss relations with France were close, and had been so since the 16th century; indeed for three hundred years Swiss mercenaries had served the kings of France, and Louis XVI was no exception. This special relationship was enshrined in the alliance with France of 1777 with what were known as the “XII Orte” (the 12 places or cantons which traditionally made up the Helvetic Confederation). And perhaps as a result of this closeness the French Revolution was to have a significant effect on Switzerland in general and to reveal the weakness of the Swiss system, both internationally and at home.

The Revolution in France and Switzerland The Revolution itself brought about a great deal of debate and a certain amount of civil upheaval. In 1790, debating societies were founded and petitions for political renewal were composed and sent. And Swiss soldiers were even to play an – albeit ambiguous – role in the French Revolution. On 31 August 1790 the Chateauvieux regiment in Nancy, composed in the main of recruits from the Vaud area, mutinied over pay delays, holding its officers hostage. The harsh suppression of the ranks and file, including hangings and dispatching to the hulks in Brest, brought about a lively vocal reaction both in France and in Switzerland. Montagnards seized upon the event to derive political capital, highlighting this case of rank and file soldiers being abused by privileged officers. Another external cause célèbre for Franco-Swiss relations was the infamous massacre of Louis XVI swiss guard by Revolutionaries 10th August 1792. Here many of the 2,000 Swiss mercenaries in the Tuileries palace trying to prevent the mob from seizing Louis XVI and his family were massacred and dismembered, provoking horror and dismay in Switzerland.

Unlike the problems in Nancy, here Swiss troops were seen as synonymous with reactionary, old regime politics. In the meantime, in Switzerland, the Revolution continued its rocky path. Facing resistance to their modernisation plans, Swiss revolutionaries looked to France for military support and assistance. Indeed, with the decree to assist other nations in their quest for revolutionary freedom, the famous Edict of Fraternity of 19 November 1792, revolutionary France was only too happy to oblige. And all the more so since with Switzerland as a French sphere of influence France's south eastern border was to an extent protected. But Franco-Swiss sympathy did not preserve the country from external conflict; nor did the fact that in 1792 Switzerland had proclaimed her neutrality. She nevertheless remained an ideological hunting ground of both British and French influence. So after five years of relatively peaceful relations with France (mercenary service had however been abandoned), and as a direct result of the coup d'état of Fructidor in September 1797, the Directory decided to invade Switzerland, invited by patriots such as Frédéric César de Laharpe (1754-1838).

Laharpe had been Alexander I's tutor and although he proclaimed himself protector of Swiss independence, he nevertheless was against Bern's domination of Switzerland and so called upon the French army to intervene. Certain have claimed that the Directory was merely interested in sequestering gold in held in Bern. Be that as it may, whether for financial or for ideological reasons (perhaps indeed both), France took control of Switzerland when they entered Bern on 5 March 1798. During the occupation, the French gave this Helvetic Rebublic a constitution which, like its French parent, had five elected directors and two chambers (a Grand Council and a Senate). It was not however to be fixed in stone but was changed six times in the following five years. Nor was Swiss resistance merely political. In certain cantons there was also armed resistance and many uprisings were put down. And during the re-occurrence of hostilities in the spring of 1799 Switzerland found herself on the front line of a Franco-Russo-Austro conflict, which anti-French interest in Switzerland welcomed and tried to use in attempts to dislodge French influence.

Despite initial allied success (the Archduke Charles beat Masséna at Zurich on 4-5 June 1799), Masséna restored French hegemony when he defeated Korsakov at Zurich on 25-26 September of the same year. In 1800, with the whole of eastern and southern Switzerland ravaged by the previous year's campaign, the constitution changed again – on 7 January the two chambers were supplanted by a single Legislative body and the directory was suppressed and replaced by a provisional executive committee of seven (and later nine) members, presided over by a Landammann. This new system did not however bring national unity, and supporters of a united Switzerland remained at loggerheads with those of a more federalist persuasion. As a way out of the impasse, Swiss politicians decided to approach the First Consul for arbitrage. The Constitution of Malmaison of May 1801 was the result. Although the country's neutrality was subsequently enshrined in the Treaty of Lunéville, nevertheless the Malmaison Constitution's attempts to chart a middle way pleased none of the parties and successive coups d'état took place.

Frustrated by this instability, Bonaparte removed his troops from Switzerland in August 1802. The result was civil war, with conservatives fighting in Eastern Switzerland and federalists bobarding Zurich. With the Swiss government ready to flee to Savoy, France issued an ultimatum and order was restored by Rapp and Ney. Bonaparte then summoned all the parties to Paris to a ‘consulte', and on 19 February 1803 the Act of Mediation was passed, with Bonaparte chosen as mediator. The party of national unity was the loser since the act definitively enshrined the federal nature of the state. According to the new legislation there were to be 19 cantons, although only six of the ‘old' cantons could provide the rotating president, the Landammann, and host the federal diet. The act also brought influence to Swiss patrician reactionaries. Napoleon had hoped to win them over by the act, but he was to remain fixed in their imagination as the heir of the Revolution, particularly in his imperial guise. The ‘betrayal' of 1814 was therefore inevitable.

1813 and after After the preternaturally calm decade, Switzerland was naturally caught up in the disintegration of the Empire. As the allies met in Frankfurt in late 1813 to discuss the aftermath of the French retreat after Leipzig, the Austrians (supported by the British) suggested invasion of France through Switzerland since this would be the best way of avoiding French fortresses. Russia on the other hand preferred the Prussian scheme of invading through Flanders. The Czar in fact suspected that Austria secretly wished to occupy Switzerland and to establish as an offensive/defensive base against France. So the Russian ruler turned to the Corfu notable, Ioannis Kapodistrias (1776-1831), at this time head of the Russian diplomatic service in Switzerland, to wage his part of the diplomatic skirmish. His Austrian counterpart was Baron Lebzeltern. Austria had given Lebzeltern three instructions: 1) To detach Switzerland from France 2) To obtain the Swiss governments consent to allow Austrian troops to pass through the country 3) To give them a new constitution.

On hearing the Austrian's instructions, Alexander remarked: “I totally approve of your election as envoy, because I am certain that you will treat the Swiss, who are an unsophisticated and upright nation and whose virtues I have learned to appreciate since I was a child, with docility and grace. You have to break the natural affiliation that binds the Swiss people with Napoleon, but we have to respect Swiss neutrality. We must not neglect the fact that Napoleon respected the country's independence. That is the reason why we cannot go farther and fare worse than him. You are of course aware that flies are more easily captured with honey than vinegar.” The Czar ended his short speech telling Lebzeltern to pay attention to Kapodistrias. “He is tough”, he said, “and he has abilities. He is not a diplomat, but you will guide him.” Despite this apparent leaving of the Swiss question in Austrian hands, Alexander in fact was sure that Kapodistrias would impose his policy. The two envoys left Frankfurt with passports which presented them as merchants named Leipold and Conti. On 15th November,they arrived at Schaffhausen on the west bank of the Rhine.

They were here informed that on 18th November there would be an extraordinary meeting or council to approve the decision that would declare Switzerland neutral (earlier in the year, they had allied themselves with Napoleon.) The envoys finally reached Zurich on 21st November, the day on which the council published the proclamation for the nation of Switzerland which stated: “Strict neutrality has guaranteed for centuries, under the protection of the Almighty, the country's liberty and peace; today as in the past, this is the only proper attitude, granted the circumstances and our needs. We will respect this and defend it with all the means we have are our disposal.” The Swiss then mobilised 20,000 men under commander in chief, Nicola de Wattenwyl, in an attempt to protect the frontiers with Austria and Germany. They also sent representatives to Paris and Frankfurt to notify the belligerent parties of Swiss decisions. In this context, the true identities of Lebzelten and Kapodistrias were revealed, and this plunged them into a quandary. They had neither guidelines for such a situation nor any official capacity. Worse still, the two countries they represented had conflicting interests.

In this difficult situation, Lebzelten began negotiating with the Swiss unbeknownst to Kapodistrias, but giving the impression that he was speaking on his account too. Kapodistrias however was not to be left standing. He too began confidential talks. His talks were with the Landammann Hand de Rheinhardt and a majority of the council members. He convinced them to allow the allied armies to pass through Basel if Napoleon did not give back to the confederation the Valais and other Swiss regions annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. Whilst things appeared to be progressing smoothly, two unexpected incidents occurred. First, the reinstatement in Bern of the regime of the XII Orte, which meant that the Vaud and the Aargau ceased to recognised as independent cantons; and second; Austrian troops under Prince Karl Philip von Schwarzenberg marched into Swiss territory. Lebzelten received a note/ultimatum from Vienna with instructions to hand it to the Landammann telling him that the Czar had consented to the territorial violation.

It also bid the Swiss to accept the Austrian army as a friend, and to understand that their neutrality was incompatible with the war but that when the war was over naturally their neutrality would once again be recognised. Lebzeltern received the text at dawn on 20th December 1813 with an order to sign it after Kapodistrias had done the same. When the Austrian woke his Russian colleague, the latter read the documents and was furious, first and foremost because he had received no briefing from the Czar in this matter. “Sign this?” he roared, “Never. How can I disregard that the Emperor, my master, is against the passage and it consequences. Is there a single Russian soldier in your army? My duty and my honour forbid me to sign. And I do not understand how Count Metternich in his orders decides on what I will do, without my government's approval.” Lebzeltern tried to appease his counterpart with the following words: “You are right. But if we let our dissent be overt, then everything that we have achieved so far will be destroyed. Swiss unity will case to exist, the factions will start fighting and constitutional reform of the country will never take place.

At the same time, you will damage the case we both serve. It's up to you to balance these general points of view as well as your personal ones.” The Greek asked to be left alone. After an hour's reflection he signed, and then immediately left for Alexander's headquarters in Freiburg im Breigau, the capital of Baden. On his arrival, the Czar greeted with the words “I hope you didn't sign the Austrian note.” “On the contrary,” replied Kapodistrias, “I signed it, and I am coming to announce to you its advantages, that Switzerland and the European case can obtain from this unexpected embroilment.” “I signed this note, because the events in Bern, which were caused by the Austrian secret agent Count Senft von Pilsach, would lead to Swiss disunity. Those who would oppose themselves to the reinstatement of the old regime, which the oligarchy of Bern sought, would cooperate overtly with Napoleon, particularly if they spotted dissent amongst the Allies. By signing and leaving, in order to come here and take your orders, I left the factions too weak to act.

Now you can demand that the Austrians renounce Senft, and if they refuse, do not ratify my signature on the note. But the Austrians cannot their agent's mission as official and they will accept. Besides, the Austrian army has already entered Switzerland.” The establishment of the Russian headquarters in Freiburg was a sign to Kapodistrias that Alexander did not view with displeasure the allied armies' invasion of Switzerland, despite the fact that it had occurred against his will, because it enabled him to demand in return that Austria abandon the plan for the establishment of regime favourable to Austria. This is why he approved of Kapodistrias' actions. He subsequently asked for and received Senft's removal. In this way Russian policy succeeded in presenting the Austrians as having attempted to support a reactionary coup in Bern and as responsible for the invasion. This was one of Kapodistrias first great diplomatic victories, all the more remarkable given the relative inexperience of the Greek diplomat. And Alexander, as he decorated the Greek with the Grand Cross of St Ann, recognised that Kapodistrias would have a career which would take him far beyond the cantons of Switzerland. Notes Sources: A World restored.

Metternich, Castlereagh and the problems of peace, 1812-22, Henry Alfred Kissinger, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 1957. [Aperçu de ma carrière publique depuis 1798 jusqu'à 1822. English ] letter to the Tsar Nicholas I, Ioannes Kapodistrias, London: Doric publications, 1977 Histoire de la diplomatie, ed. V. Potiemkine. Tome 3. 1919-1939. Traduit du russe par I. Levin, J. Tarr et Boris Metzel, Paris: Librairie de Médicis, 1947 I?ann?s A. Kapodistrias: h? genes?

tou Hell?nikou kratous (The Founder of the Greek State – Ioannis Kapodistrias), Gr?gorios Daphn?s, [Athens] : Ikaros, 1976 More 20,000 BC to the Roman era As far as we know, Neanderthal Men were the first inhabitants of the region that we now call Switzerland. That was between 20,000 and 4,000 BC. Neanderthal tools have been found in the canton of Neuchâtel, in the west of Switzerland. Later trails were cut through the mountains and trade slowly developed. Celtic groups left Southern Germany for current Switzerland in the 1st century BC. This tribe is known as the Helvetii. Eventually, they came up against the Romans. They were pushed back into Switzerland by Caesar's army in 58 BC. The Romans founded their province of Helvetia in current Switzerland in 15 BC. The Celtic population became assimilated into Roman civilization during the first two centuries of our era. Peace and prosperity reigned. The first passes were opened, such as the Julier-, Splügen- and Oberalp pass.

Several cities were founded as well, such as Augst (near Basel) and the capital of that time, Avenches (near the lake 'Lac de Morat' between Bern and Lausanne). The peaceful period ended with the invasion of the Roman Empire by German Alemannians in 260. The Alps became temporary border provinces under military occupation. The Romans finally had to evacuate their Alpine territories around the year 400. The Alemannians did not manage to conquer Rhaetia (the current canton of Graubünden). The Rhaetian Romans who lived here had been settled in parts of current Austria as well, and offered great resistance against the Alemannians. They managed to keep their territory and lived autonomously for a long time. At this point the language Rhaeto-Romanic came into existence, which still is spoken in Graubünden. The Alemannians occupied the West, where Christian Burgundians finally settled. The Burgundians adopted the language Latin from the Romans. In the South a similar process took place. The four languages that are currently spoken in Switzerland came into existence around this time.

The invasion of the Alemannians caused the North to become completely German-speaking around the year 900. In the West, vulgar Latin evolved into a French dialect. The South stuck to Latin which gradually developed into Italian. The separated Graubünden stuck to its Rhaeto-Romanic. 1291: formation of the Swiss Confederation The Franks occupied the Burgundian territory in 534, which resulted in several Frankish families ruling this region successively. The region finally became a part of a large empire that was divided into East Francia (Germany), West Francia (France) and Middle Francia (the bigger part of current Switzerland) by means of the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Eventually, the rulers of East and West Francia came in charge of Middle Francia. The kingdom of Burgundy came into being in the late 9th century. West Switzerland and the French department of Savoie belonged to it. The German empire conquered the area in 1032. But its power declined, while that of the duke of Savoie increased. A number of dynasties slowly gained power in the North and East.

The Austrian Habsburg family eventually ruled over parts of this area, which resulted into a lot of resistance. When the emperor of Habsburg died, some regions took their chance and met to enter into a permanent alliance in order to become independent; the cantons of Schwyz, Unterwalden and Uri formed the Swiss Confederation on August 1, 1291. This event turned out to be the birth certificate of current Switzerland, and August 1 is still a national holiday to be celebrated annually. 14th to 18th century: the foundation of Swiss neutrality The cantons of Luzern, Zürich, Glarus, Zug and Bern acceded to the confederation between 1332 and 1353, so that the end result was a confederation of 8 cantons. The confederation endured attacks from Savoie and Burgundy, which flourished again. The successful confederation developed a tendency to expansion. It succeeded in ruling over Milan and the current canton of Ticino in 1513 and had entered into an alliance with Geneva and Graubünden.

In 1515, the confederation lost a battle against a combined force of the French and Venetians. This setback resulted into a redefinition of the objectives: the confederation no longer aimed at expansion, and it declared itself to be a neutral state. It was laid down in a 'perpetual' treaty with the French, which is still the basis of Swiss policy today. The Swiss Reformation was launched in Zürich. The Catholics started their resistance in 1550. Catholic and Protestant cantons were at one another's throats for many years to come. When the Catholics were first defeated in 1712, the Treaty of Aarau resulted into freedom of religion and spreading power between the Catholic and Protestant cantons. 19th century: formation of a unitary federal democratic state The industrialization began between 1700 and 1800. The textile industry flourished in the northern and eastern parts of the country, while the watch- and clock-making industry developed in the west. It made Switzerland the most highly industrialized country on the European continent. Scientists such as Albrecht von Haller made significant contributions to science.

He was a doctor, poet and professor of anatomy, surgery and botany. Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler invented the dynamics laws for fluids and developed the first method to measure blood pressure. Switzerland's neutrality remained intact until 12 January 1798, when the French army, commanded by Napoleon, invaded the Swiss Jura in the west. France was mainly interested in the Alpine passes, since they were of strategic importance for a direct route from Paris to Milan. However, the Swiss were not easy to negotiate with, and the Frenchmen decided to withdraw their troops in 1803. Six new cantons were added to the confederation and three others followed in 1815. The cantons received the advantage of a great extent of independence, which was laid down in a treaty. Unfortunately, the treaty resulted in a lack of clarity, which was even strengthened by the many different languages and religions. A severe economical crisis started in 1845 followed by a potato blight which struck all of Europe. Another war broke out in 1847, which ended in a victory for the protestant general Dufour.

The constitution of 1848 transformed Switzerland from a loose confederation into a unitary federal state . It is the oldest federal democracy in the world after the United States. The new constitution guaranteed freedom of domicile, freedom of religion; internal trade barriers were lifted. The precursor of the famous Swiss postcar, the horse post coach, started its services in 1849. The democrats gained power in 1869. From now on, the government was elected directly by the people and all parliamentary bills had to be submitted to popular vote. 19th to 20th century: railroad construction The construction of international railroads made it easy for neighboring countries to import cheap grain from other countries than Switzerland. This resulted in a difficult situation for the Swiss agricultural sector. The farmers managed to compensate the losses by joining together to form agricultural co-operatives and exporting dairy products like chocolate, condensed milk and cheese. The chemical industry and the machine-building industry developed and complemented the textile industry and watch- and clock-making industry. Railway building was a significant factor in this expansion in order to be able to export products quickly.

The amount of track was more than doubled between 1865 and 1885, and the major achievement was the opening of the Gotthard tunnel in 1880. The horse post coaches were replaced by post cars from 1906. Trains and post cars still play a major role in today's transportation. Most places in Switzerland can be reached by public transport, or sometimes by public transport only. The rail station and post office often are central places in many towns, where one also finds other services like the tourist information, ATMs and shops. Early 20th century: First and Second World War Switzerland maintained its neutrality during the First World War between 1914 and 1918, although there were differing opinions among Swiss communities. The civilian army was mobilized which affected wages, while food prices doubled. This period shows a shift away from production towards services, which is still an important sector in Switzerland. Switzerland also did not get involved in the Second World War between 1939 and 1945. Germany made clear that it did not appreciate a country with such a cultural diversity, as it did not fit their racist philosophy and propaganda.

Certain Swiss politicians inclined towards a policy of conciliation with the Nazis. Censors tried to suppress journalistic resistance against the Nazis, and the granting of asylum to refugees was severely limited at the German's behest. Switzerland emphasized its ability to defend itself in order to prevent being attacked, and mobilized everyone eligible for militairy service. With a lot of difficulty Switzerland managed to maintain its neutrality again. Late 20th century: holding on to neutrality In many respects, thriving Switzerland makes rather progressive choices. There are far-reaching measurements in order to protect the environment and living conditions, the services sector is of excellent quality, there is modern industry, a good network of transportation and the population has a great deal of influence on political decisions such as the construction of major infrastructural projects. However, in other areas, choices that have been made in surrounding countries are adopted by the Swiss rather late: it was not until 1971 that the Swiss chose to entitle women to vote. The choice to be neutral and independent that had been made 500 years earlier resulted in a large majority of the population that voted against joining in the UN (United Nations) in 1986.

Switzerland did accept to actively join some special agencies and UN-programs. One of the results was the establishment of the European UN headquarters in Geneva. A small majority of the population decided in 1992 not to participate in the EEA (European Economic Area) either, which has been confirmed by 77% of the population in March 2001. In 1960, Switzerland did join other countries that did not strive for a centralized European administration by participating in the EFTA (European Free Trade Association) with Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein. Switzerland does not share the opinion of many other countries to have a single European currency. For the time being, the country holds on to its Swiss franc while surrounding countries are using the Euro. 21th century: Switzerland joins the UN and Schengen Swiss neutrality remains subject of discussion. A bilateral agreement between Switzerland and the EU (European Union) entered into force on January 1, 2002. By that, many trading barriers between the involved countries were cleared. In March 2002, the Swiss people again got the chance to express their opinion on participating in the UN (United Nations).

This time, 55% of the voters followed the advice of president Kaspar Villiger to vote for the membership. The UN welcomed their 190th member on 11 September 2002, and added the Swiss flag to the flags in front of the headquarters of the UN in New York. President Villiger emphasized that Switzerland joins the UN as a neutral country, always in accordance with the wishes of the Swiss people but in the interest of global solidarity as well. "We are not an island on this planet", the president said. Further improvement of international collaboration was reached on June 5, 2005, when 55% of the Swiss voters agreed to participate to the Schengen treaty. It allowed Switzerland to simplify border checks as surrounding countries were Schengen members already, and checks on the external borders of Schengen are very strict. Active participation to Schengen started on 12 December, 2008. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union or the Eurozone (countries using the Euro as their currency). Meanwhile, other important decisions have been made too. Switzerland is a major transit country for both passengers and freight between Northern and Southern Europe.

The Swiss people voted for expanding rail traffic rather than road traffic. As a result, sensitive Alpine regions remain attractive to locals and tourists, CO2 emission is limited, traveling times are reduced and transport capacity is growing. On the Bern to Italy route, the Lötschberg base tunnel was opened in 2007. On the Lucerne to Italy route, the Gotthard base tunnel has been opened in December 2016. At the forum Visit Switzerland Online Visit Switzerland Online Switzerland's independence and neutrality have long been honored by the major European powers, and Switzerland was not involved in either of the two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN and international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and international organizations, but retains a strong commitment to neutrality . Switzerland is a country in Central Europe . The main religion is christianity. The main languages are German , French and Italian . Switzerland became independent from the Austrians in Germany in 1499.

The country is a federal parliamentary democratic republic Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures, which have heavily influenced the country's languages and cultural practices. Switzerland has four official languages -- German, French, Italian, and Romansch (based on Latin and spoken by a small minority in the Canton Graubuenden). The German spoken here is predominantly a Swiss dialect, but newspapers and some broadcasts tend to use High German. Many Swiss speak more than one language. English is widely known, especially among professionals. More than 75% of the population lives in the central plain, which stretches between the Alps and the Jura Mountains and from Geneva in the west to the Rhine River and Lake Constance in the east. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 19% of the population. Almost all Swiss are literate. Switzerland's 12 institutes of higher learning enrolled 91,400 students in academic year 1996-97, of which 19% were foreign students. The constitution guarantees freedom of worship.

Switzerland is a federal state composed of 26 cantons (20 are "full" cantons and six "half" cantons for purposes of representation in the federal legislature) that retain attributes of sovereignty, such as fiscal autonomy and the right to manage internal cantonal affairs. Under the 1874 constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. Switzerland's federal institutions are: A bicameral legislature -- the Federal Assembly; A collegial executive of seven members -- the Federal Council; and A judiciary consisting of a single, regular court, the Federal Tribunal, in Lausanne and special military and administrative courts. The Federal Insurance Tribunal is an independent division for social security questions (the seat of the latter is in Lucerne, but it is part of the Federal Tribunal). The constitution provides for separation of the three branches of government. The Federal Assembly is the primary seat of power, although in practice the executive branch has been increasing its power at the expense of the legislative branch. The Assembly has two houses -- the Council of States and the National Council. These two houses have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation.

Legislation cannot be vetoed by the executive nor reviewed for constitutionality by the judiciary, but all laws (except the budget) can be reviewed by referendum before taking effect. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from each half canton) are directly elected in each canton. The 200 members of the National Council are elected directly under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. The Assembly meets quarterly in 3-week sessions and can be legally dissolved only after a popular vote calling for a complete constitutional revision. All citizens 18 or older have the right to vote and run for office in national, cantonal, and communal elections unless individually disqualified by the relevant legislature. A strong emphasis on the initiative and the referendum arises out of the traditional Swiss belief that the will of the people is the final national authority. As a limitation on the power of referendum, the Assembly can declare an act to be too urgent to allow time for popular consideration, but this is rare. The top executive body is the Federal Council.

Although the constitution provides that the Assembly chooses and supervises the Council, the latter gradually has assumed a preeminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws. The Council has seven Councilors elected for 4-year terms by the Assembly. Each year, the Assembly elects from among the seven a president and vice president, following the principle of seniority. The member who is vice president one year traditionally is elected president the next. Under an arrangement called the "magic formula," which has been in effect since 1959, two Councilors are elected from each of three major parties (Christian Democrats, Social Democrats, and Free Democrats) and one from a smaller fourth party (Swiss People's). Councilors constitutionally act collectively in all matters, not as individual ministers or as representatives of the parties to which they belong. Each Councilor heads one of seven federal departments and is responsible for preparing legislation pertaining to matters under its jurisdiction. The president, who remains responsible for the department he heads, has limited prerogatives and is first among equals. The administration of justice is primarily a cantonal function. The only regular federal court, the Federal Tribunal, is limited in its jurisdiction.

Its principal function is to hear appeals of civil and criminal cases. It has authority to review cantonal court decisions involving federal law and certain administrative rulings of federal departments, but it has no power to review legislation for constitutionality. The Tribunal's 30 members are elected for 6-year terms by the Assembly. The cantons regulate local government. The basic unit of local government, which administers a village, town, or city, is the commune or municipality. Citizenship is derived from membership in a commune and can be conferred on non-Swiss by a commune. Cantons are subordinate to federal authority but keep autonomy in implementing federal law. POLITICAL CONDITIONS Although it has a diverse society, Switzerland has a stable government. Most voters support the government in the armed neutrality underlying its foreign and defense policies. Domestic policy poses no major problems, but the changing international environment has generated a significant re-examination of Swiss policy in key areas such as defense, neutrality, and immigration. Quadrennial national elections typically result in few major changes in party representation. The constitution limits federal influence in the formulation of domestic policy and emphasizes the roles of private enterprise and cantonal government.

However, the Confederation has been compelled to enlarge its policymaking powers in recent years to cope with national problems such as education, agriculture, energy, environment, organized crime, and narcotics. Principal Government Officials Foreign Affairs -- Flavio Cotti (President for 1998) Interior -- Ruth Dreifuss (President for 1999) Finance -- Kasper Villiger Ambassador to the United States -- Alfred Defago (since April 1997) Switzerland maintains an embassy in the United States at 2900 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008. Consulates General are in Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco. Swiss national tourist offices are in Chicago, New York, and San Francisco. HISTORY Originally inhabited by the Helvetians, or Helvetic Celts, the territory comprising modern Switzerland was conquered by Julius Caesar during the Gallic wars and made part of the Roman Empire. It remained a Roman province until the 4th century AD. Under Roman influence, the population reached a high level of civilization and enjoyed a flourishing commerce.

Important cities, such as Geneva, Basel, and Zurich, were linked by military roads that also served as trade arteries between Rome and the northern tribes. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Switzerland was invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and west. Some tribes, such as the Alemanni in central and northeastern Switzerland, and the Burgundians, who ruled western Switzerland, settled there. In 800, the country became part of Charlemagne's empire. It later passed under the dominion of the German emperors in the form of small ecclesiastic and temporal holdings subject to imperial sovereignty. In 1291, representatives of the three forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed the Eternal Alliance. This united them in the struggle against "foreign" rule by the Hapsburgs, who then held the German imperial throne. At the battle of Morganten in 1315, the Swiss defeated the Hapsburg army and secured quasi-independence within the German Empire as the Swiss Confederation. Under the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, European countries recognized Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.

In 1798, armies of the French Revolution conquered Switzerland. The Treaty of Vienna and the Second Peace of Paris in 1815 re-established Swiss independence, and the powers participating in the Congress of Vienna agreed to recognize Swiss permanent neutrality. Switzerland adopted a federal constitution in 1848, modeled in part on the U.S. Constitution. The Swiss amended their constitution extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterized Swiss history. The Swiss did not participate in either world war. Here is a concise History of Switzerland. SOURCE Switzerland Some Celtic tribes occupied the territory of Switzerland before Roman colonization. The most important of these were the Helvetians, who settled in the Alps and the Jura mountains. The area was strategically important for Rome, with access to its dominions. Consequently, the Alpine valleys north of the Italian peninsula were conquered by Julius Caesar in 58 BC. The Germanic tribes north of the Rhine invaded from the year 260 onwards.

Between the 5th and 6th centuries the Germans established permanent settlements in the region east of the Aar river, together with Burgundian and Frankish groups. By 639 they had founded the kingdoms that would later become France. The Christian survivors from Roman times had completely disappeared when St Columba and St Gall arrived in the 6th century. These missionaries created the dioceses of Chur, Sion, Basel, Constance and Lausanne. Monasteries were built, in Saint-Gall, Zurich, Disentis and Romainmotier. Until the partition of Verdun in 843 these territories belonged to Charlemagneï¿½s empire. Thereafter, the region west of the Aar was allotted to Lothair, while the east remained in the hands of Louis the German. The French and German influence formed a peculiar blend with the Latin tradition of the Roman Catholic Church. Around 1033, for dynastic and political reasons, Helvetia became a part of the Holy Roman Empire, remaining so during the Middle Ages. In the 11th century the region was divided after the re-establishment of imperial authority and its disputes with the Papacy.

Dukes, counts, and bishops exerted virtually autonomous local power. Walled cities served as administrative and commercial centers, and protected powerful families seeking to expand their possessions through wars against other lords and kingdoms. In the 13th century, Rudolf IV of Hapsburg conquered most of the territories of Kyburg and became the most powerful lord in the region. In the cities independence gradually developed in opposition to the nobility. Meanwhile the peasant communities in the most inaccessible valleys practiced economic cooperation to survive the harsh conditions, rejecting forced labor and payment of tithes in cash or kind. In 1231 the canton (area) of Uri fell under the authority of the Holy Roman Empire, and in 1240 Schwyz and Nidwald were subjected to Emperor Frederick II, although retaining the right to choose their own magistrates. The Hapsburg overlords questioned this freedom and uncertainty remained until Rudolf of Hapsburg was crowned king of Germany in 1273. He exercised his imperial rights in Uri and inherited rights over Schwytz and Unterwald until his death in 1291. These regions thereafter constituted the Perpetual League.

As with other circumstantial alliances among the regions, the Perpetual League constituted an agreement for dispute arbitration, putting law above armed strength. The honorary magistrates had to be residents of those cantons. The league of the Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwald cantons was joined by the city of Zurich, constituting the first historic antecedent of the Swiss Confederation. This confederation was consolidated with the victory of Margarten in 1315, defeating an army of knights sent to impose imperial law in the region by the Hapsburgs. The Confederation was supported by new alliances. In 1302 the League signed a pact with the city of Luzern, previously dependent on Vienna. In 1315 Zurich reaffirmed its union and in 1353 it was joined by Bern. The Glarus and Zug cantons joined later, forming the core of an independent state within the Germanic Empire. During the second half of the 14th century, the rural oligarchy was defeated, and their lands and laws given over to city councils.

This democratic rural movement gave birth to the ï¿½Landesgemeindeï¿½, a sovereign assembly of canton inhabitants and a similar movement was led by the city guilds. The Confederation soon launched into territorial conquest. During the 15th century the union grew to 13 cantons, it made alliances with other states, and the institution of government known as the Diet was formed where each canton was represented by two seats and one vote. In 1516, after the defeat of the Helvetians, the King of France forced a peace treaty with the cantons. In 1521 an alliance gave France the right to recruit Swiss soldiers. Only Zurich refused to sign this alliance, maintaining military and economic links with the Old Confederation until its end in 1798. The Reformation came to Switzerland with Huldrych Zwingli, a priest who preached against the mercenary service and the corruption and power of the clergy. Popular support for Zwingli strengthened the urban bourgeoisie. The Reformation became more radical in rural areas where harsh repression re-established the domination of cities over peasants.

Zwingliï¿½s attempt to alter the federal alliance to benefit the reformed cities was frustrated by the military victory of the Catholic rural areas. The second national peace of Kappel, signed in 1531 gave the Catholic minority advantages over the Protestant majority. The areas where both religions coexisted were subject to constant tension, but cooperation was required to preserve the union of the federation. In Catholic regions agriculture prevailed, while in Protestant areas trade and industry flourished, aided by French, Italian and Dutch refugees. Popular consultation disappeared in the 17th century. The power of the cities caused uprisings, such as the great peasant revolt of 1653, which were harshly repressed. Three years later when a further war ensued the prerogatives of the Catholic cantons were re-established. During the European conflicts of the 17th and 18th centuries Switzerland remained neutral because of its religious division and its mercenary armies. Neutrality became a condition for the Confederationï¿½s existence. The policy of armed neutrality, which still holds, was first formulated by the Diet in 1674.

In 1712 the Protestant victory in the second battle of Villmergen ended religious struggles, ensuring the hegemony of cities which were undergoing industrial expansion. Switzerland became the most industrialized country in Europe. Industry was based on labor at home, completely transforming work in the countryside. Throughout the 18th century, a series of popular revolts against the urban oligarchy called for the reform of the Swiss Constitution. In March 1798, the Old Confederation fell under pressure from Napoleonï¿½s army. The Helvetic Republic was proclaimed ï¿½whole and indivisibleï¿½ with sovereignty for the people. Between the unitary Republic and the 1848 Federal Constitution, Switzerland was shaken by coups, popular revolts, and civil wars. The new federal pact marked a final victory for liberalism in the country. Two legislative bodies were established guaranteeing the rights of the small Catholic cantons. A state monopoly was created for custom duties and coin minting, while weights and measures were standardized, so satisfying the industrial and commercial bourgeoisieï¿½s economic requirements. The 1848 Constitution thus removed the obstacles to capitalist expansion.

Nepotism and the concentration of capital benefited only the few and fuelled growing opposition to the institutional system. The 1874 Constitution partially addressed these issues, and introduced the mechanism of referendum as an element of direct democracy. Expansion of the home labor system delayed organization of the Swiss workersï¿½ movement in relation to the countryï¿½s industrialization. The Swiss Workersï¿½ Federation, created in 1873 had only 3,000 members, and the Swiss Workersï¿½ Union, which replaced it in 1880, only exceeded this figure ten years later. The first achievement of the workersï¿½ movement was factory legislation, passed by parliament in 1877. The working day was limited to 11 hours with improved working conditions. In 1888 the Socialist Party was formed to give workers a political voice. In 1910, 15 per cent of the workers in Switzerland were foreign. Many were anarchists and socialists who had suffered persecution in their own countries and they consequently encouraged radical positions in the workersï¿½ movement.

The Swiss Workersï¿½ Union took up a platform of ï¿½proletarian class struggleï¿½, and the Socialist Party was inspired by the Second Internationalï¿½s Marxism. World War I brought great internal tensions to Switzerland, especially between the French- and German-speaking regions. Under the leadership of Ulrich Wile, the Swiss army cooperated with Germany. Tension only decreased after the French victory, when Switzerland formally approached the allies and became a member of the League of Nations. Clashes between trade unions and employers echoed the tensions between the different language regions. The 1918 general strike, although lifted three days later under pressure from the armed forces, led the bourgeoisie to form an anti-Socialist bloc. That year proportional representation was introduced. The elections in 1919 marked the end of the liberal hegemony, in place since 1848. The Socialists obtained 20 per cent of the vote, leading liberals to ally with the peasants who had 14 per cent, while the conservatives became the second power in the Federal Council. These changes produced noticeable consequences during the following years.

The 48-hour week was included in factory legislation, while in 1925 an article on old-age pensions was added to the constitution. Assistance to the unemployed improved and collective work contracts became more common. In the years before World War II, the Socialist Party was threatened by foreign and national fascism, and a sector split to form the Communist Party. The socialists were forced to include formal recognition of the state and national defence in their policies. During World War II, European powers recognized Swiss armed neutrality, but the country still suffered strong pressure from Nazi Germany. Throughout the war Switzerland maintained a delicate balance between accepting Hitlerï¿½s advances and defending its independence; a strategy that kept them out of the conflict. After the war, the West resented Switzerlandï¿½s relations with Germany, and the USSR refused to re-establish diplomatic relations, broken off 1918. However, the countryï¿½s financial power paved the way for its return to the international community. During the Cold War, Switzerland sided with the West but did not join the UN, in order to preserve its neutrality. The Swiss economy expanded greatly during the postwar period. The chemical, food, and machinery exporting industries became great transnational corporations.

In 1973 Switzerland was placed fourth in direct foreign capital investments, after the US, France, and Britain. Switzerlandï¿½s main transnational corporation, the food and babymilk manufacturer Nestlï¿½ AG, had 196,940 workers worldwide and sales worth $29.36 billion in 1989. The Swiss economic expansion attracted workers from Italy, Spain and other southern European countries. Between 1945 and 1974 the number of immigrants rose from 5 to 17 per cent. Several referenda called for an end to immigration forced thousands of people back to their countries. Due to its political neutrality, Switzerland did not join the European Economic Community in 1957. However, it has been a member of EFTA (European Free Trade Association) since 1960. In 1959, after 10 years of voluntary absence, the socialists joined the Federal Council with two representatives. The Executive consisted of two Radicals, two Christian Democrats, two Socialists, and a peasantsï¿½ representative. This meant that 80 per cent of the electorate was represented in government.

Women gained the right to vote in 1971, but some cantons retained male-only suffrage until 1985. In 1984, the first woman minister was elected when Elisabeth Kopp was made minister for justice and police. Switzerland is governed by consensus, but the population has increasingly abstained in referendums. In the 1979 elections participation was lower than 50 per cent for the first time. During the 1980s new opposition groups appeared, some feminist, some opposed to nuclear plants, and some youth groups fighting against the consumer society. A referendum in 1981 added a clause on equal rights to the Constitution. According to 1981 statistics, male students outnumbered female by three to one in Switzerland. Women accounted for no more than 32.5 per cent of the economically active population, while men made up 63.9 per cent. Since 1986 environmental problems have become more serious and the Government has taken measures to curb pollution, especially acid rain and pollution of the Rhine. In 1987 France, Germany and the Netherlands received compensation for damage caused by an accident in the Swiss chemical industry.

Another serious problem is the damage to the Alpine ecosystem. The rapid growth of cities in this area, and the increased transit of heavy trucks, have contributed to regional desertification. As a direct result, so-called natural disasters, such as floods and avalanches of rock, mud and snow have increased; events that would be less likely to occur if the area still had the protection offered by its natural tree coverage. The 1986 Chernobyl disaster had greatly concerned the Swiss population and in 1989, a series of demonstrations took place. A referendum proposed the gradual elimination of existing nuclear power plants, and the Federal Parliament cancelled the construction of a sixth nuclear station. Increasing social problems and the presence of immigrants have given encouragement to the Swiss extreme right. Although being small, the Swiss Democratic Party and the Party of Drivers xenophobic and opposed to social security policies, have both gained support since the fall of the Berlin Wall. Switzerlandï¿½s integration into the IMF was approved by a plebiscite in May 1992. In June 1993, Parliament approved the incorporation of Swiss troops into the United Nations peacekeeping forces. This represented an important change in Switzerlandï¿½s traditional policy of neutrality.

However, most of the Swiss voted against this proposal in a referendum in 1994. One of the main obstacles to Swiss integration into the European Union was the objection to the free movement of workers between countries. A referendum in the same year approved an anti-racism law which punished discrimination while another granted the police powers to use greater ï¿½severityï¿½ against illegal immigrants committing crimes within the country. This measure was widely criticized and considered a violation of the Swiss Constitution and the European Human Rights Convention. In the general elections of October 22 1995, the Social Democrats took 54 seats, the Radicals 45, the Christian Democrats, 34, the Swiss Peopleï¿½s Party 29 and the Greens 9. In July 1997, Swiss banks - sued internationally by individuals - released a list of names of account-holders with funds untouched since World War II. Most of these were Jews later exterminated by the Nazis. The World Jewish Congress, the main plaintiff, said this presentation was only a symbolic gesture, as the banks had taken advantage of the funds for over 50 years.

In September 1997, 50.8 per cent of voters in a referendum rejected the reduction in unemployment benefit proposed by the Government. Observers claimed this could complicate the planned economic austerity measures. The Government suspended the military intelligence chief on charges of having masterminded the operation leading to a multimillion dollar embezzlement by a former intelligence officer with the purpose of creating an underground army. The Minister of Defense, Adolf Ogi, who was in charge of the investigation, became a prominent political figure. The Democratic Union won the October elections under Ogiï¿½s leadership. He became President on January 2000. A 1998 government report established that anti-Semitism had flared up in Switzerland due to the controversy over its relations with Nazi Germany and also over the question of what Swiss banks had done with accounts belonging to Holocaust victims. A study sponsored by the US revealed in January 2000 that 16 per cent of the Swiss population had anti-Semitic feelings, and that this had increased during the 1990s. Encyclopedia Here are some great offers for Swiss flags and other related merchandise that is very reasonably priced. It is available from Flagline, with thousands of different items.

I do not sell these items here at VisitEuropeOnline. Click on any image and you will be connected with this great source of national pride items automatically. These helpful folks have everything you could ever want. Please use your back button to return to VisitEuropeOnline. Click on any image to go to the order page for each item. Switzerland Swiss: flags, magnets, patches, decals, pins, and on and on. <MAP NAME="boxmap-p16"><AREA SHAPE="RECT" COORDS="10, 322, 100, 329" HREF="" ><AREA COORDS="0,0,10000,10000" HREF="" ></MAP><img src="" width="468" height="336" border="0" usemap="#boxmap-p16" alt="Shop at Amazon.com"> 2004-2011 Copyleft An unusual word, copyleft. It means that you can use any of the material you find here as you choose. No need to ask for permission. Just grab and run.

Question: The European country of Switzerland is made up of how many cantons?
Answer: 26