UK Battlefields Resource Centre - Wars of the Roses - The Battle of Battle of Towton Battle of Towton 29th March 1461 The Act of Settlement signed by King Henry VI in October 1460 transferred the right of succession to Richard, Duke of York and his heirs. However Queen Margaret was, not surprisingly, unwilling to accept that her son should be disinherited. The Lancastrians once more attempted to resolve the matter through force of arms and three battles followed: Wakefield, 30 December 1460, at which the Yorkists were defeated and the Richard, Duke of York, killed; Mortimerï¿½s Cross, 2 February 1461, at which Edward, Richard's son, defeated a Lancastrian army; and St. Albans, 17 February 1461, where the Yorkists were defeated and Henry VI released from captivity. Despite this latter setback, the Earl of Warwick, 'The Kingmaker', saw to it that Edward became king in March 1461. England now had two kings, a matter that could only be resolved on the battlefield. After St.

Albans Henry's forces had retreated into the north and so, soon after his coronation, Edward set off to confront him. Edward was able to muster a large army as he marched north, though the claim that he had as many as 40,000 troops may be exaggeration. The Lancastrian army was of at least equal number to that of the Yorkists. The Lancastrians sent a vanguard forward to Ferrybridge and on the 28th March they contest Edward's attempt to cross the river Aire. But the Yorkist vanguard was dispatched north westward to cross at Castleford and so outflank the Lancastrian detachment. They had to retreat back towards their own army, leaving the main route open at Ferrybridge for the rest of Edward's army. It seems that the Yorkist vanguard caught and defeated the retreating Lancastrians on the main road from Ferrybridge to York at Dintingdale, just to the east of Saxton village. The scene was now set for what may have been the largest battle of the Wars of the Roses.

On Palm Sunday, following day (though a convincing argument is now proposed by Sutherland that all the events, including the actions at Ferrybridge and Dintingdale, took place on Palm Sunday), the two armies met in the open field between the villages of Towton and Saxton. It is said that Towton was the largest and longest battle fought on British soil, though it seems likely that, even more than usual, the medieval chronicles grossly exaggerate both the numbers engaged and the casualties incurred at Towton. What cannot be disputed is that Towton was of huge significant in both military and social terms. The political significance was also substantial, for it secured the throne for the Yorkists, although the Lancastrian cause was far from extinguished. Henry, his extremely ambitious wife Margaret, and his son and heir had all escaped. The battlefield remains undeveloped agricultural land. The open fields of the time of the battle were finally enclosed in the 18th and 19th centuries, but removal of many of the hedgerows in the latter part of the twentieth century has returned the landscape somewhat towards its medieval character.

Though two roads, the A162 and B1217, run north-south across the battlefield they are both busy and dangerous to walk, and unfortunately the site lacks a significant network of footpaths to give safe access. It is therefore a difficult battlefield to fully appreciate. However it is possible to park on the Lancastrian side, next to the cross, and to walk from there out to an interpretation panel to the west, on the edge of the steep scarp that forms the western edge of the battlefield, overlooking the Cock Beck. KEY FACTS TimeRef - Medieval and Middle Ages History Timelines - Wars of the Roses Wars of the Roses Red rose of Lancaster The Wars of the Roses (1455 - 1487) The battles of the Wars of the Roses took place between 1455 and 1487. The war was fought between supporters of several descendants of Edward III, the King of England from 1327 to 1377. The war was not a constant fight that affected the whole country and its population, but a series of battles spread out over the years between sets of supporters known as the Lancastrians and the Yorkists.

Some of the battles were fought by thousands of men. The Battle of Towton being the largest and the bloodiest. White rose of York Background to the War It is not truely known why the Lancastrians and Yorkists went to War. There may have been more than one reason. Was the conflict just a struggle between two factions of supporters eager to improve their positions of power in the country? A popular suggestion is that the two factions disagreed who was the rightful heir to the English throne. In 1399, some fifty years before the wars began, Richard II the King of England was overthrown by Henry Bolingbroke who claimed the English throne as Henry IV. Bolingbroke's claim to the English throne was through his father, John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. At the time there was a stronger claim to the throne and that was by Edmund Mortimer who was descended from Edward III's third son. Edmund was not old enough to rule the country and it was agreed that Henry Bolingbroke should become king. It would be more than half a century later that this unsafe claim to the English throne would become important.

Family tree Although slightly complicated, the following family tree of Edward III shows how both sides had claim to the English throne. The Red and White Roses The red and white roses were probably not used at the time of the war. It may have been William Shakespeare who invented the symbols when he used them in a scene from Henry VI, part 1. The scene takes place in the Temple garden between Richard, Duke of York, and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, in the presence of other important barons. Each choose a different coloured rose and ask those who support them to choose a rose of the same colour. A War in Three Phases The Wars of the Roses was not a constant fight but a series of battles that can the divided into three distinct phases. Phase One The start of the war During the late 1440's the country was being ruled poorly by King Henry VI. His wife Queen Margaret and her followers had a great influence over the weak king and in northern France many English held towns were falling to the French King Charles VII. Henry began to be openly criticised and these critisisms were being led by Richard, Duke of York.

Richard himself had a good claim to the English throne being descended from Lionel of Antwerp Duke of Clarence the second son of Edward III through the female line. The Duke had the support of two strong figures of the time and both members of the Neville family. One was the Duke's brother-in-law, Richard Neville the Earl of Salisbury, and the other was the Earl's son Richard Neville Earl of Warwick. The first battle of the Wars of the Roses took place at St. Alban's on May 22nd 1455 when the Yorkists tried to confront the King. The King had by his side the Dukes of Somerset and Buckingham, Lords Pembroke, Northumberland and Devon and around 2,000 Lancastrian men. They tried to hold the town against the Yorkists led by the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick but Warwick was able to enter the town through an unguarded spot and attack the flanks of the Lancastrian barricades. Although this battle was small it left the Duke of Somerset dead along with Lord Northumberland and Clifford. As a result of this victory power swung to the Yorkists although support from the Barons was not total.

Ricard, Duke of York, became Protector of the Realm and the powerful position of Captain of Calais was given to the Earl of Warwick. Return of the Lancastrians Led by Richard Earl of Salisbury the Yorkists in the north mobilised an army and headed south to meet the Duke of York at Ludlow. Salisbury was intercepted by a Lancastrian army led by Lord Audley on September 23rd 1459 at Blore Heath in Shropshire. The Lancastrians were the first to attack but their first and second cavalry charges were repulsed and when the Lancastrian foot soldiers were also repulsed they turned and fled. In the battle Audley was killed and although two of Salisbury's sons were captured they were quickly released. The Yorkists had won this battle. But the Yorkist control was soon to come crashing down. The Earl of Warwick with a force from Calais reached Ludlow and the combined army of the Yorkists attacked the King's army at Ludford Bridge near Ludlow on October 12th 1459. The men from Calais refused to fight their king and a weakened Yorkist army was defeated.

Richard Duke of York and his younger son escaped and fled to Ireland while Salisbury, Warwick and Edward of March (later Edward IV) fled to Calais. The King is captured The Yorkists' banishment did not last long and an army led by the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick landed on the south coast in June of 1460 at Sandwich. With them was the young Earl of March who would become the future king of England Edward IV. After securing Kent the Yorkists marched on London where the gates were opened and they were welcomed. The Lancastrians's Court was in Coventry at the time of the Yorkist rebels entering London. When news reached them the Lancastrians moved south to Northampton to meet the rebels. The Yorkists led by the Earl of Warwick wanted to talk but the Lancastrians led by the Duke of Buckingham wanted to fight. Although the Lancastrians had less men than the Yorkists, they did have control of a stronger position. The Yorkists managed to defeat the Lancastrians due to a section of the Lancastrian army led by Lord Grey of Ruthin moving away allowing the Yorkists through. Orders were given that the King and ordinary men should be spared, while the knights and lords should be killed.

When the fighting was over the casualties were light, but the Lancastrian leaders, Buckingham, Shrewsbury and Egremont were dead and the King was captured. Queen Margaret escaped capture and fled to Wales where she plotted her revenge. The Duke of York claims the throne In October 1460 Richard, Duke of York, returned from Ireland and claimed the English throne. But the nobles refused to accept his claim while King Henry was still alive. It was decided to allow Henry to remain king but after his death the Duke of York or one of his heirs would take the English throne. Attack from the North Queen Margaret had not wasted much time and had regrouped her forces with support from men in the north of England. Her army began attacking Yorkist controlled lands. The Duke of York took an army north to stop the Queen's progress but underestimated how much support she had. At the battle of Wakefield on December 30th 1460 the Lancastrian army defeated the Yorkists and the Duke of York along with his second son, Edmund the Earl of Rutland, were killed. Queen Margaret continued her progress south and at the Second Battle of St.

Albans on February 17 1461 the Yorkist army, led by the Earl of Warwick, was split in two and sections of the Yorkists defected to the Queen's side. The Yorkists were defeated and Warwick escaped. The King, who had been travelling with the Yorkists, was freed and he was reunited with his wife and son. Edward, Earl of March, proclaimed King Although King Henry was free the inhabitants of London refused the Lancastrians entrance to the city. They were concerned by reports they had heard that the Lancastrian army had pillaged St. Albans after the battle and did not want that to happen to London. Instead, on February 27th, the Londoners opened the gates to the Yorkists. In early March Edward Earl of March and Richard Earl of Warwick entered London. Edward, being the son of the late Duke of York and having a claim to the throne, was proclaimed King of England as Edward IV. The end of the first phase of the Wars of the Roses began at the Battle of Towton on March 29 1461. Edward took an army north to deal with the Lancastrians and they met at Towton in Yorkshire.

The battle is supposed to be the bloodiest battle fourght on English soil and was a major victory for the Yorkists. After the battle King Henry and the Queen retreated further north captuting some Northumbrian castles. But after a series of smaller battles over the next three years the Yorkists forced the remaining Lancastrians into exile. Phase Two The Earl of Warwick rebels The second phase of the Wars of the Roses centres around the rebellion of Richard Earl of Warwick (the 'Kingmaker') starting in 1469. Earlier, in 1464, Edward IV secretly married Elizabeth Woodville. For the Earl of Warwick there were two problems with this. The first was that the Woodville familly were Lancastrian supporters and second was that Warwick had contacted King Louis XI of France and had attempted to negotiate a marriage for Edward to a French princess. Warwick was losing control and his power over Edward. His plan involved Edward's brother George, the Duke of Clarence. If George was to marry Warwick's daughter Isabel and become king, Warwick would be back in a position of power. The marriage was arranged and took place in July 1469 in France.

The rebellion against King Edward started in early 1469 with the mysterious Robin of Redesdale in the north of England. King Edward took an army to deal with the rebels but the rebels proved too strong and defeated Edward's men at the Battle of Edgecote Moor on July 26th 1469. Shortly afterwards Edward was captured and several of the Woodville family were executed including Earl Rivers, Queen Elizabeth's father and also one of her brothers. This rebellion, orchestrated by Warwick, soon failed as Warwick did not have the support of Parliament and had to accept Edward as King. But Warwick tried again in 1470 with another revolt against the King using Sir Robert Welles. Sir Robert was captured and confessed that Warwick was behind the plot against the King. With their treachery uncovered, Warwick and the Duke of Clarence fled to France. Warwick joins the Lancastrians - Henry VI is King again In France Queen Margaret and the Earl of Warwick were persuaded by the Louis XI, the French King, to put their previous differences aside and combine their resources to remove Edward IV from the English throne. They met at Anger Cathedral in July 22, 1470.

Warwick promised to restore King Henry VI as the English King and as a act of faith both sides agreed that Warwick's youngest daughter Anne Neville would marry Queen Margaret's son Edward, the Prince of Wales. Equipped with over fifty ships and an army provided by King Louis, Warwick invaded England in September of 1470. King Edward was in the north at the time of the invasion and an act of treachery by John Neville, Warwick's brother, led to him fleeing the country. John Neville (Lord Montagu) had accepted Edward as King but when his title had been given to the Percies he turned against the King. Montagu had a larger army than Edward and Edward was given little option other than escaping with his life. Edward sailed with his brother Richard to the court of the Duke of Burgundy. King Henry was freed from the Tower of London and restored to the throne of England. Birth on an heir When King Edward fled the country he did so quickly that he left Queen Elizabeth who was pregnant and his children behind. Elizabeth was in fear of her life and managed to reach the safety of Westminster Abbey and sanctuary from the Lancastrians enemies. It was here at the Abbey that she gave birth to a son.

The boy was called Edward after his father. Meanwhile the marriage of Anne Neville and Queen Margaret's son, Edward, took place. Edward returns from exile and the Battle of Barnet King Louis declared war on the Duke Burgundy when he learnt that he was harbouring King Edward. In response, the Duke agreed to give Edward ships and men to return to England and take back the English throne. Edward landed back in England in March 1471. Because of bad weather his ships landed several miles apart on the north east of England but within days his army had regrouped and began to gain support. Edward's army was given a boost in numbers when his brother George, Duke of Clarence, abandoned Warwick's side and gave his support to Edward. By April Edward reached London where the citizens opened the gates to his army. King Henry was arrested and places back in the Tower of London. The Earl of Warwick had left Coventry to confront Edward. The armies met at Barnet just north of London in thick fog. The two battle lines overlapped and Warwick's Lancastrian men commanded by the Earl of Oxford were able to get around the Yorkists commanded by Lord Hastings. Hastings' men fled back to London with Oxford's men in hot pursuit.

On the other side of the battle the Yorkists, led by Richard, were outflanking the Lancastrians and took the advantage pushing their enemy back. When Oxford's men returned to the battle they were mistakenly fired upon by their fellow Lancastrians and fled. By early evening Lord Montagu and the Earl of Warwick were dead. The Lancastrians were defeated. Queen Margaret, the wife of Henry VI, and her son Edward the prince of Wales landed at Weymouth on the very same day as the Battle of Barnet. Their intention was to assist the Earl of Warwick, but she arrived too late. Determined to avenge the Barnet defeat, the Queen and her army marched north towards Wales and men she could count on to join her army. Edward had thought of this and to cut the Queen off from Wales, had taken control of the bridges across the River Severn. The Battle of Tewkesbury - Death of Henry VI The Yorkists led by Edward and Richard met the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury. Richard was able to outflank the Lancastrians led by Edmund Beaufort, the self-proclaimed Duke of Somerset.

Once Somerset's men had been dealt with, Richard attacked the rear of the Lancastrian line which broke apart and fled. Many of the Lancastrian leaders were caught and killed including Edward the Prince of Wales. Margaret of Anjou was also captured. King Edward returned to London and that night Henry VI was murdered in the Tower of London. A period of calm With the deaths of the Earl of Warwick, King Henry VI and his son Edward Prince of Wales the Lancastrian fight was over. Anne Neville, the widow of Prince Edward, married Richard, Duke of Gloucester, King Edward's brother. King Edward turned his attention to France and a plan to remove King Louis. Phase Three Battles of the Wars of the Roses Event Map Battles of the Wars of the Roses First Battle of St. Albans 22 May, 1459 As the result of a long standing power struggle involving Richard, Duke of York and Margaret of Anjou , wife of the Lancastrian King Henry VI , banners were unfurled at St. Albans in the first battle in the civil war which was later to be termed the Wars of the Roses. The opposing armies clashed at the town of St Albans.

The Yorkists made two frontal assaults down the town's narrow streets against Lancastrian barricades, to no effect. The Earl of Warwick lead his troops through back lanes and gardens, to launch a surprise attack on Lancastrian troops in the Market Square. The Lancastrians were routed. Warwick then issued orders to shoot those guarding the king, Henry seems at this point in the battle to have been wounded by an arrow. The Lancastrians troops stationed at the barricades realised they were ouflanked and fled. Henry VI was captured and escorted back to London by the victorious Yorkists. The leading Lancastrian Dukes of Somerset and Northumberland along with Lord Clifford were killed. Northhampton 10 July, 1460 Margaret of Anjou, fiercely defensive of the rights of her son, Edward of Lancaster, the Prince of Wales, remained utterly determined to crush the Yorkist claim to the throne. She gathered an army to advance her son's cause and York, Salisbury and Warwick were forced into flight before her. In response the Duke of York marched his forces from his base at Ludlow, but was intercepted by a Lancastrian army lead by Lord Audley.

Attempts at negotiation between Warwick and the Lancastrians proved fruitless as Henry refused to admit Warwick to his presence. The ensuing battle outside the walls of Northampton proved a significant Yorkist victory, the Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury and Lords Egremont and Beaumont were all killed whilst attempting to protect the king from the Yorkists closing on his tent. Henry was again captured and Margaret and her son were forced to flee. Wakefield 30 December, 1460 The resolute Margaret of Anjou responded to this victory by raising a further army. York and his brother-in-law and ally Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury advanced to meet the Queen. They defeated a Lancastrian advance guard lead by Andrew Trollope and arrived at Sandal castle in Yorkshire were they planned to spend Christmas. A large force of around 6,000, lead by the Duke of Somerset and Lord Clifford surrounded the castle. York impulsively lead his army down from the castle and into a trap. Two large forces of the Lancastrian army, commanded by the Earl of Wiltshire and Lord Roos, emerged from nearby woods and the jaws of the trap snapped shut on the Yorkist leader.

The Duke of York was killed in the ensueing slaughter. His son the Earl of Rutland was killed whilst in the course of escape, Salisbury was captured and executed. Their severed heads were displayed at York, that of York himself decorated in derision with a paper crown. The Battle of Mortimer's Cross 2 February, 1461 York's eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, took up the position of leader of the Yorkist cause. An efficient general, he presented as a formidable opponent to Margaret. Edward IV joined forces with the dead Salisbury's son, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, in London, determined to avenge his father's death. Edward marched into Hereford to engage the Lancastrian lords, Jasper Tudor and the Earl of Wiltshire, who were routed at Mortimer's Cross. Prior to the battle a complete parhelion appeared in the sky, from which phenomena it is believed, Edward adopted his badge of the Sun in Splendour. Jasper's father, Owen Tudor, was captured and beheaded after the battle. Second Battle of St.

Albans 17 February, 1461 A large Lancastrian army proceeded towards London, who were met by the Earl of Warwick, with the king in his train at the town of St. Albans on Barnard's Heath. Elaborate defences of caltraps, spiked nets and various traps were set up in anticipation of the arrival of the Lancastrian army. However, the attack did not materialise as Warwick had envisaged. The Lancastrian vanguard entered St Albans from the direction of Dunstable and pursued the Yorkist rearguard in retreat from the town. The main body of the Yorkist army was then attacked from the flank and the rear. Warwick marched west to join forces with the approaching Yorkist army under Edward, leaving London undefended. Terrrified by tales of Lancastrian pillaging and looting, the citizens of London refused to open the gates, forcing the Lancastrians to withdraw north to Yorkshire. Battle of Towton Palm Sunday, 29 March, 1461 The Battle of Towton, a bitter blood bath was fought in a fierce snowstorm on a plateau between the villages of Towton and Saxton in Yorkshire.

Both sides had amassed sizeable armies of around 50,000 each. Edward led the Yorkist centre, Warwick the right and Fauconberg the left. The Lancastrian army was led by the Duke of Somerset, who controlled the centre, the Earl of Northumberland commanding the right and the Duke of Exeter the left. The Lancastrian army occupied a good strategic position at the summit of the plateau. The Yorkist archers, greatly aided by the wind direction, were able to shoot much further than their Lancastrian counterparts. Finally the Lancastrians charged their opponents and ferocious hand to hand fighting ensued. Edward himself fought on foot. The Duke of Norfolk arrived on the scene with reinforcements ensuring a Yorkist victory. The routed Lancastrians fled, Some of the worst slaughter took place at the aptly named Bloody Meadow, where it was reported men crossed the River Cock over the bodies of their fallen comrades. The dead littered the fields all the way from Towton to Tadcaster. At Tadcaster some Lancastrian troops made a stand but were slaughtered. The rout lasted throughout the night and into the morning.

Towton proved to be the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil, with casualties reported to have been in excess of 28,000.Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou, and the Lancastrian Prince of Wales fled north to seek refuge in Scotland. The triumphant Earl of March was accepted as king and crowned as Edward IV at Westminster Abbey on 28 June, 1461. Hedgeley Moor 25 April, 1464 On his way to the border of Scotland to meet a group of envoys to discuss peace, John Neville, Lord Montague, brother of Warwick, whilst en route to Scotland, clashed with a Lancastrian force at Hedgeley Moor. The wings of the Lancastrian army were forced into flight and the remainder defeated. Battle of Hexham 14 May, 1464 On his return from the Scottish border, Montague again met the Lancastrians forces at Hexham, which resulted in a further Yorkist victory.

Many Lancastrian leaders were executed after the battle, severely limiting their effectiveness as a rival party for the crown Battle of Edgecote Moor 26 July, 1469 King Edward IV's unpopular marriage to the greedy and grasping Elizabeth Woodville eventually suceeded in alienating Warwick and his brother George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence . In 1469 in response to an uprising in Yorkshire Edward gathered an army and marched north, he was intercepted and defeated on the journey by a Lancastrian force. Warwick and Clarence had already landed in England from Calais to join the rebels under 'Robin of Redesdale'. Edward was captured and 'the Kingmaker 'Warwick assumed control of the country, albeit in his name. Battle of Losecote Field 12 March, 1470 Under the ruse of putting down an uprising, Edward IV raised an army in 1470 and attacked Warwick's forces at Empingham. Victory went to the royal forces. The battle acquired its name of 'Losecoat Field' due to the haste in which the rebels shed their coats in flight.

Warwick and Clarence fled to France, where they were encouraged by Louis XI to form an alliance with the exiled Margaret of Anjou, Warwick married his younger daughter, Anne Neville, to Margaret's son, the Lancastrian Prince of Wales. The Battle of Barnet 14 April, 1471 Warwick, returning from France, joined forces with his allies Montague, the Duke of Exeter and the Earl of Oxford at Coventry and marched toward London. Edward awaited them just north of the town of Barnet. A thick mist descended prior to the battle, obscuring sight of the enemy, resulting in both army's being incorrectly aligned, with their right wings were overlapping. The royal army duly advanced, the right wing outflanking Warwick's left. The same situation arose with the royal left wing, which was similarly outflanked and routed by Warwick's right, commanded by the Earl of Oxford, an excellent general. The King managed to deploy his reserve and attacked Warwick in the centre.

Oxford, who had been engaged in the pursuit of the fleeing Yorkists, returned to the battle, due to the thick mist, Montague's men mistook Oxford's banner for the Yorkist sun in splendour and opened fire on them. Oxford's contingent fled and the rebels were routed. The mighty Warwick was killed fleeing the battlefield in an attempt to reach his horse. Tewkesbury 4 May, 1471 Margaret of Anjou and her son, Edward, Prince of Wales, landed from France on the eve of the Battle of Barnet to hear the disquieting news of the Yorkist victory at Barnet and her ally, Warwick's death. Edward pursued them as they marched to Wales to join forces with the staunch Lancastrian, Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke and caught up with them at Tewkesbury, in Gloucestershire. The Prince of Wales and Lord Wenlock led the Lancastrian centre and the Earl of Devon, the left. Margaret retired to a nearby convent, to await the outcome of the battle. Edward IV himself commanded the centre of the Yorkist army, his youngest brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the left and William, Lord Hastings the right.

Edward attacked at dawn, following an exchange of artillery fire, the Yorkists advanced at which Somerset attacked the flank of the Yorkist left. The Yorkist's responded by attacking Somerset's flank. Somerset himself attacked and slew the aged Wenlock, whom he frenziedly accused of not supporting him. The remainder of the Lancastrians panicked and fled, pursued into Tewkesbury by the exultant Yorkists. The Prince of Wales was either killed fleeing the battle or shortly thereafter. Lancastrians who sought sanctuary in Tewkesbury Abbey were dragged out and executed. The Lancastrian cause was now utterly decimated, Margaret, crushed at last by the death of her son, was taken prisoner and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Bosworth 22 August, 1485 On the death of Edward IV, his young sons, Edward V and Richard, Duke of York. were imprisoned in the Tower of London, after which they were never again seen alive, and the throne was taken by his brother, who became Richard III . His right was challenged by Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who claimed to be the heir of Lancaster.

Henry landed at Milford Haven in Wales on August 7, 1485 and Richard III advanced to meet him. The two armies eventually faced each other south of the village of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. The ranks of the Yorkist army were infiltrated with treason. Lord Thomas Stanley and his brother Sir William who positioned their armies to the sides of the battle and their timely intervention ensured a victory for Henry Tudor, who suceeded to the throne as Henry VII . Richard III was killed in battle, having refused to flee. Henry later married Edward IV's eldest daughter, Elizabeth of York. Click for a fuller account of the battle. The Battle of Stoke 16 June, 1487 An imposter arose to challenge the newly established Tudor regime in 1487. Lambert Simnel, who posed as Edward, Earl of Warwick along with his die-hard Yorkist supporters, including John de la Pole Earl of Lincoln , Richard III's appointed heir, he planned an invasion of England. They were met by Henry VII's forces under the Earl of Oxford at East Stoke.

Initially the rebel army seemed to be gaining the upper hand, but after the arrival on the battlefield of Lancastrian reinforcements, they were eventually routed and Henry VII triumphant. Richard III Society | The Wars of the Roses The Wars of the Roses Introduction The Wars of the Roses is the popular name given to the civil conflict that dominated the late fifteenth century and which represented the claims of the rival descendants of Edward III - the Lancastrians and the Yorkists. This is a comparatively recent descriptor. Although the House of York occasionally used the white rose as an emblem it has been argued that the House of Lancaster did not. What is incontrovertible is that the eventual Lancastrian heir, Henry VII, combined the roses into the Tudor rose emblem having married the Yorkist heiress, Elizabeth. by Henry A Payne (1868-1940) Courtesy of Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery The term, Wars of the Roses, appears to have originated with the historian David Hume as late as 1761 and it was taken up in the nineteenth century by Sir Walter Scott. The rose emblems suited the mood of a romantic Victorian age which enthusiastically adopted them in history, art and literature.

The Wars were in fact a sporadic civil struggle that took place between 1455 and 1485. The battles, however, were not the only manifestations of the unrest as uprisings, resistance and rebellions were as much a feature of the times as the military set-piece battles. Foreign policy also intruded and inevitably tensions with neighbouring countries brought England into other military conflicts with Burgundy, France and Scotland. The Battle of Bosworth, however, did not conclude the wars and throughout his reign Henry VII faced challenges to his kingship. It was not until his son ascended the throne as Henry VIII, the heir of both York and Lancaster, that the fledgling Tudor dynasty found some security. All this conflict and strife was so entwined with the political history of the period that it is inseparable from the study of the life and times of King Richard III. In order to give context to King Richard's life and the aftermath of his reign, this section of the website examines all these troubling aspects of the late fifteenth century. The Political History of The Wars by Keith Dockray This brief history has been written specially for the website by the well-known historian and author Keith Dockray.

Much of the discussion derives from his book William Shakespeare, the Wars of the Roses and the Historians (2002) , and his three source books, Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou and the Wars of the Roses (2000), Edward IV (1999) and Richard III (1997). by Graham Turner Courtesy of Osprey Publishing Ltd The Wars of the Roses, so English historical tradition has it, were a series of bloody military conflicts dominating several decades during the second half of the fifteenth century. Royal houses of Lancaster and York, dynastic rivals for possession of England's ancient crown, fought each other in battle after battle; the country's ruling elite, especially its powerful landowning aristocracy, split asunder in support of one or the other; and the lives of ordinary folk were turned upside down by endemic civil strife and its appalling political, economic and social consequences. No wonder William Shakespeare, when writing his Plantagenet history plays for the London stage in the 1590s, eagerly seized on the dramatic potential of so clear and compelling a story. But is it true?

Certainly, kings did fight a series of battles between 1455 and 1487 and the crown itself changed hands several times. A high percentage of the nobility, and many gentry, became involved at one time or another; thousands of countryfolk and townsmen made up the rank and file of armies; and hundreds of lives were undoubtedly lost. Yet it is all too easy to exaggerate both the scale and impact of these wars, particularly if comparisons are made with the First and Second World Wars in the twentieth century. engraving by Martin Broshuut, First Folio 1623 Courtesy Geoffrey Wheeler Phases of more or less sustained conflict, such as that between 1459 and 1461, were very much the exception rather than the rule. England's ruling élite, particularly families having royal blood flowing through their veins, bore the brunt of it all, but even they often displayed considerable reluctance to take up arms. Many nobles were either killed in the fighting or faced execution for having backed the wrong side, but few, if any, prominent families became extinct as a direct result of civil strife.

Most people probably never became involved in the wars at all; material destruction was both intermittent and localised; agriculture and trade were only minimally disrupted; and the country's religious and cultural life continued to flourish throughout. Why, at a time when Henry V's spectacular victory over the French at Agincourt in 1415 and subsequent conquest of most of northern France were still within living memory, did England dissolve into civil war at all? The main blame must fall on the shoulders of his son, the third Lancastrian king, Henry VI (1422-1461), surely the most inept and incompetent of all rulers of the English realm since the Norman Conquest of 1066. Maybe, given his personal piety and deep religious convictions, he might have made a decent enough monk but he had none of the qualities required for successful kingship in the fifteenth century: he had few political or man-management skills; he had no military prowess or capacity for generalship; and, after he suffered a complete mental collapse in 1453, he probably became little more than a political cipher, all too easily manipulated by those around him.

He certainly could not hold a candle to Richard, Duke of York, no political genius himself, but who did have a strong claim to the throne and spearheaded opposition to the Lancastrian regime in the 1450s. Various factors help explain the onset of the Wars of the Roses: Lancastrian/ Yorkist dynastic rivalry and ideological controversy; the loss of virtually all Henry V's empire in France by the autumn of 1453; economic recession in general and the chronic condition of the royal finances in particular; private aristocratic feuds and escalating lawlessness; and growing resentment at the power, wealth and influence of the clique surrounding the king. Even so, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that, if Henry VI had not been the man he was and if his government had not developed along the lines it did, the Wars of the Roses might never have happened.

As early as February 1450 Henry VI's chief minister, William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, was impeached for treason and subsequently murdered; Jack Cade's rebellion, the most serious popular uprising since the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, engulfed south-eastern England in May and June; and, in the autumn, Richard of York openly challenged the Lancastrian regime. Early in 1452, having failed to rock the government by constitutional means, Richard of York resorted to armed force. That failed too but, when the king completely lost his marbles in the summer of 1453, York and his new northern aristocratic allies the Nevilles (Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury and his son Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick) eventually emerged triumphant and the duke became protector of the realm in March 1454. It was a short-lived victory.

Henry Vl recovered at least most of his senses at the end of the year; York's protectorate was terminated soon after; and, now excluded from the magic circle of high politics once more and feeling seriously threatened, York and the Nevilles proceeded to arm and, on 22 May 1455, successfully confronted their rivals at the first battle of St Albans. Although little more than a skirmish in the streets of an English market town between rival lords and their retinues, however, this fight is conventionally regarded as the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. by Graham Turner Courtesy As a result of St Albans the balance of political advantage changed again; Henry VI fell into Yorkist hands; and, when the king suffered another mental breakdown in November 1455, Richard of York again became protector for a few months. Again too, however, Henry's recovery put an end to that, not least as a result of the determination of his formidable queen, Margaret of Anjou. By the autumn of 1456, in fact, not only were York and his allies once more out of office but they had been largely replaced by men close to the queen.

Thereafter, Margaret threw herself into factional politics with ever-mounting vigour; by 1459 she was ready for a further showdown; and, in the autumn of that year, civil strife erupted with a vengeance. Indeed, in all probability, only Henry VI's own well-meaning if ultimately futile efforts to promote peace and reconciliation (for instance, the so-called Loveday of March 1458) and the reluctance of the majority of the nobility to take up arms against their anointed king had prevented an earlier renewal of conflict. When, on 23 September 1459, royal troops intercepted Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, in Staffordshire en route to join his son Warwick and Richard of York at Ludlow in Shropshire, the result was an indecisive engagement fought at Blore Heath near Newcastle-under-Lyme. Salisbury made it to Ludlow but on the night of 12/13 October, when faced by the prospect of fighting a much larger Lancastrian force, the Yorkist lords simply fled: Richard of York took ship for Ireland, while Salisbury, Warwick and York's eldest son Edward, Earl of March (the future Edward lV) escaped to Calais.

Soon afterwards the Coventry parliament (or the Parliament of Devils as it was dubbed in Yorkist propaganda) condemned them as traitors and declared their estates confiscated. Only force could now restore their position and so, in June 1460, the Nevilles and Edward, Earl of March, sailed for south-eastern England and secured control of London. On 10 July, battle was joined once more outside Northampton. In another reversal of fortunes victory went to the Yorkist lords, Henry VI fell into their hands (again!) and when, in the autumn, Richard of York at last returned from Ireland, he dramatically claimed the throne for himself. This seems to have taken virtually everyone by surprise. After a prolonged and probably heated debate in parliament, however, a compromise was cobbled together whereby Henry VI would retain the crown during his lifetime but, after his death, his son Edward of Lancaster would be disinherited in favour of the house of York. Ludlow Stalwart Lancastrians in general, and Queen Margaret of Anjou in particular, rejected the so-called Act of Accord out of hand and raised a new army. On 30 December 1460 at Wakefield the wheel of fortune turned yet again.

Richard of York was killed in the field; Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury was executed the following day; and, in January 1461, the queen and her largely northern army marched south. On 17 February it defeated a force commanded by Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, at the second battle of St Albans and Henry Vl was reunited with his wife once more. London, however, baulked at the prospect of hosting so notoriously undisciplined an army. Perhaps foolishly, the queen made no attempt to take the city by force but, instead, retreated back to the north. Meanwhile, Richard of York's eldest son Edward, Earl of March won the battle of Mortimer's Cross in Shropshire on 2 February, joined Warwick and, together, the two earls entered the capital amidst considerable enthusiasm. A few days later, on 4 March 1461, the eighteen-year-old Edward was proclaimed king.

Reproduced by kind permission of the artist Edward IV (1461-1483) could hardly have been a more striking contrast to his hapless predecessor: personally, he was tall, handsome, intelligent, vigorous, convivial and worldly-wise; politically, he was more cut out in every way for the tricky task of ruling England; and militarily he was no slouch either. At Towton near York on 29 March 1461, indeed, he fought and won the biggest and bloodiest battle of the entire Wars of the Roses. Even after this great victory and the flight of Henry Vl, Margaret of Anjou and their son, Edward of Lancaster, to Scotland, however, the new king's position on the throne remained far from secure. Lancastrian resistance to Yorkist rule continued, particularly in Wales and the north of England. Only when the Yorkists won a further major victory at Hexham in Northumberland in May 1464, and Henry VI fell into their hands in Lancashire in July 1465, did this phase of the Wars of the Roses come to an end.

During Edward IV's early years Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick was his most powerful supporter: indeed, Warwick's rôle in enabling the new king to seize the throne in the first place later earned him the soubriquet 'Kingmaker'. The earl's mounting discontent in the later 1460s, however, eventually brought a renewal of civil war at the end of the decade. Perhaps the origins of the rift can be found in Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464, the rise of the Woodville clan at court and, most particularly, Warwick's preference for an alliance with Louis XI of France rather than Burgundy (scotched by the marriage of the king's sister Margaret to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in 1468). Against Edward's wishes his brother George, Duke of Clarence, married Warwick's daughter Isabel and, on 26 July 1469, a Neville-sponsored northern rebellion culminated in a victory for the king's opponents at the battle of Edgecote and Edward's capture and imprisonment soon afterwards.

A few weeks later he was released, or escaped, and resumed his rule; moreover, the failure of another probably Neville-inspired rebellion in Lincolnshire in March 1470 (resulting in the flight of both Warwick and Clarence to France) seemed to mark the end of all the earl's hopes. Yet, improbably, the wily Louis XI managed to engineer a reconciliation between Warwick and the exiled Lancastrian queen Margaret of Anjou in July; a marriage was contracted between Edward of Lancaster and the earl's daughter Anne; and, in September, Warwick crossed to England, forced Edward IV to flee to Burgundy and, in October, restored Henry Vl to the throne: whatever his role in 1461, the earl was certainly a kingmaker in 1470. Reproduced by kind permission of the artist Clearly, Henry Vl was even less capable of governing now than he had been a decade earlier and the government established in his name was very much dominated by Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick.

Over the next six months he struggled to reconcile as many Yorkist supporters as he could, as well as trying to ensure continued Lancastrian backing for his fragile regime but, in practice, he found it almost impossible to satisfy one faction without alienating another. The failure of Margaret of Anjou and Edward of Lancaster to leave France hardly helped. Instead, it was Edward IV who landed in northern England in March 1471; he attracted increasing support as he marched south, including that of a now disgruntled George, Duke of Clarence, received an enthusiastic reception in London (as he had in 1461) and, on 14 April, the extraordinary battle of Barnet was fought in a thick mist. Here Edward won a famous victory and, most importantly, Warwick himself was killed in the field. Ironically, on the very same day as Barnet was fought, Margaret of Anjou set foot on English soil for the first time since 1463; the Lancastrians were forced into battle at Tewkesbury on 4 May; and, once more, Edward IV triumphed.

Edward of Lancaster lost his life, his mother was captured and, soon afterwards, Henry Vl was murdered in the Tower of London. Insofar as the fifteenth-century civil wars were dynastic struggles fought between the houses of Lancaster and York, they really ended in 1471. The final phases of the Wars of the Roses resulted from divisions within the York family itself, coupled with the emergence of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, as a new contender for the crown. When Edward IV died suddenly and prematurely on 9 April 1483 his eldest son was only a boy; the Yorkist court was split and the Woodvilles, in particular, were unpopular; and, as a result, the dead king's only surviving brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, became protector of the realm on 10 May. Within a few weeks, on 26 June 1483, he seized the throne for himself as Richard III. Since 1471, when he fought for Edward IV at both Barnet and Tewkesbury, he had served his brother loyally in the north of England and northerners formed the solid core of his support in 1483.

Many in southern England were disgruntled, however, and, as rumours spread that Richard III's nephews (Edward V and Richard, Duke of York) had been murdered in the Tower, a major rebellion broke out in the south and west. The new king responded vigorously and the rising collapsed ignominiously. Yet by then, ominously, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, had emerged as a potentially serious rival, particularly once his marriage to Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York was mooted. A Brief Chronology of Events 1450 • Insurrection broke out in this year in various parts of England, directed against the duke of Suffolk and his supporters, governing the country under Henry VI. The duke was impeached by the Commons on January 28, and committed to the Tower. He was later banished and murdered on his way to France. John Cade (calling himself Mortimer), raised an insurrection in Kent, in May, perhaps on behalf of the duke of York. Cade encamped on Blackheath, and plundered London but was later defeated and executed. • The duke of Somerset, Governor of Normandy, was recalled to England and took direction of affairs on behalf of Henry VI.

1452 • The duke of York took up arms, and demanded that Somerset should be brought to trial for his misdeeds. York was persuaded to lay down his arms, and was imprisoned. Shortly afterwards he was released and retired to his castle of Wigmore (in Herefordshire). • Richard of Gloucester, youngest son of the duke of York, born at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire on 2 October. 1453 • The king fell mentally ill and was totally incapacitated for government in November. The duke of York came forward again and was admitted into the kings council. He obtained the imprisonment of Somerset in December. 1454 • Parliament met on 14 February. The kings incapacity was agreed and the duke of York was appointed on 3 April protector and defender of the kingdom during the minority of King Henry's heir Prince Edward, born on 15 March. • Somerset was deprived of his offices and accused of treason, but the charge was not pursued. 1455 • The king recovered his health and revoked the duke of Yorks commission as Protector. Somerset was released from the Tower on 5 February.

The dukes of York and Somerset entered into bonds of 20,000 marks each (1 mark = 13s 4d = 67p = roughly one euro) to submit their disputes to arbitration on 4 March. Two days later, on the advice of the duke of Somerset, the duke of York was deprived of the Captaincy of Calais and took up arms. The armies met at the first battle of St Albans on 22 May, Somerset was killed and the duke of York gained a complete victory. • The captaincy of Calais was now given to the earl of Warwick, nephew of the duke of York. The king fell ill for a second time, and the duke of York was again made Protector, on 19 November, to remain in office until dismissed by Parliament. 1456 • The king recovered and revoked the dukes commission as Protector on 25 February. The duke and his chief supporters retired to their estates. 1458 • The queen and the duke of York were formally reconciled on 25 March. • An attempt was made to assassinate the earl of Warwick in London on 9 September.

He escaped to the north and arranged with his father, the earl of Salisbury, and the duke of York for their mutual defence. He then retired to Calais. 1459 • The earl of Salisbury marched to join the duke of York. On his way he defeated and killed Lord Audley, a Lancastrian, at Blore Heath in Staffordshire on 23 September. The earl of Warwick now also joined the duke of York at Ludlow and the Lancastrians, commanded by the queen, advanced against them. When the armies met on 13 October at Ludford Bridge the queen offered a pardon, and the duke's army deserted him. • The family of the duke of York, his wife Cecily, his two youngest sons George and Richard and his daughter Margaret were all taken prisoner and sent to the safe keeping of Anne, Duchess of Buckingham, Cecily's sister. • The duke of Somerset made an attempt to take Calais from the Yorkists but failed. The earls of Warwick and Salisbury fled there and the duke of York went to Ireland. • A parliament was held at Coventry on 20 November in which the duke of York and his chief supporters were attainted.

1460 • The Yorkist lords at Calais, invited by the people of Kent, landed at Sandwich, about mid-summer. They entered London with a large army on 2 July. The queen raised a force, which was totally defeated by the Yorkists at Northampton on 10 July. The duke of Buckingham, the queen's general, was killed and the king taken prisoner. The queen and her son fled to Scotland. • The duke of York returned from Ireland on 9 October, and made a formal claim to the crown on 16 October. A compromise was reached on 31 October, that Henry should retain the crown for life, and be succeeded by the duke of York. The proceedings of the parliament at Coventry in 1459 were set aside as illegal. • The Queen raised an army in the north and advanced against the Yorkists. On 2 December the Duke of York left London to oppose her. He was besieged by her forces in Sandal Castle near Wakefield, sallied out and attacked them on 30 December, but was defeated and killed. His son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, was killed and the earl of Salisbury who was also with him was executed afterwards.

• By the autumn of this year York's family (including Richard) were in the house of Sir John Fastolf in Southwark, London. 1461 • Duke Richard's eldest son Edward, now duke of York (and afterwards Edward IV) defeated Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, at the battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Wigmore, on 2 February. The earl's father, Owen Tudor, and several other prisoners were beheaded on the field of battle. The queen advanced southward, defeated the earl of Warwick at the second battle of St Albans on 17 February, and rescued the king. London closed its gates against her and she was obliged to retire to the north. • Edward, Duke of York, entered London on 28 February. He urged his claim before a council of peers, prelates and chief citizens, who declared him king on 3 March. He was solemnly installed at Westminster as king on 4 March, immediately marched into the north, and defeated the Lancastrians with great slaughter at the battle of Towton, near Tadcaster on 29 March. Henry, with his queen and son Edward and some of their supporters, escaped to Scotland.

Edward IV returned to London, and was crowned on 28 June. • The new king created his brothers, George and Richard, dukes of Clarence and Gloucester respectively. Richard possibly placed in the household of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, the king's cousin. 1463 • The duke of Somerset, Henry Beaufort, and many other Lancastrians abandoned Henry and made terms with King Edward. • Queen Margaret landed in Northumberland with French troops, and retired to Scotland after no English joined her. 1464 • Queen Margaret marched into England and captured several northern castles. She was again joined by Somerset and other supporters. John, Marquess of Montague, brother of the earl of Warwick, defeated the Lancastrians at a battle on Hedgley Moor, near Wooller, Northumberland, on 25 April, and again at Hexham, also in Northumberland, on 15 May. Henry found refuge in Lancashire; the queen and the prince retired to Flanders. The Duke of Somerset and many other prisoners were executed. • On 29 September Edward IV revealed his marriage to Elizabeth, the widow of Sir John Grey, a Lancastrian.

Edward immediately showed favour to her relatives, the Woodvilles, and thus aroused the jealousy of his brothers and his supporter, the earl of Warwick. 1465

Question: Which 1461 battle of the Wars of the Roses, the bloodiest fought on English soil, took place between Leeds and York?
Answer: Towton