The Arab League - Council on Foreign Relations Council on Foreign Relations Authors: Jonathan Masters , Deputy Editor, and Mohammed Aly Sergie Updated: October 21, 2014 See More of the Most Viewed Introduction Founded in March 1945, the League of Arab States (or Arab League) is a loose confederation of twenty-two Arab nations, including Palestine, whose broad mission is to improve coordination among its members on matters of common interest. The League was chartered in response to concerns about postwar colonial divisions of territory as well as strong opposition to the emergence of a Jewish state in Palestine, but it has long been criticized for disunity and poor governance. Critics also say it has traditionally been more representative of its various autocratic regimes than of Arab citizens. The organization had the opportunity to advance social interests with the push for Palestinian statehood at the UN and the unrest in many Arab countries in 2011.

Some critics see positive developments in the League's actions in Libya, where it supported a no-fly zone and the ouster of Muammar al-Qaddafi, and in Syria, where it orchestrated a fact-finding mission to observe the conflict and called on President Bashar al-Assad to step down after months of deadly clashes with protesters. A League of Their Own According to its charter , the founding members of the Arab League (Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, and Yemen) agreed to seek "close cooperation" on matters of economics, communication, culture, nationality, social welfare, and health. They renounced violence for the settlement of conflicts between members and empowered League offices to mediate in such disputes, as well as in those with non-members. Signatories agreed to collaborate in military affairs ; this accord was strengthened with a 1950 pact committing members to treat acts of aggression on any member state as an act against all. The charter established the Arab League headquarters in Cairo, created a permanent General Secretariat, and scheduled sessions to meet biannually, or at the request of two members in extraordinary circumstances.

A formal commitment to international human rights law entered League conventions in 2004 (it was ratified in 2008) when some members adopted the Arab Charter on Human Rights . The charter has an annex on the issue of Palestine. It affirms Palestinian independence and states that "even though the outward signs of this independence have remained veiled as a result of force majeure," an Arab delegate from Palestine should "participate in [the League's] work until this country enjoys actual independence." The Arab League has no mechanism to compel members' compliance with its resolutions, a void that has led critics like NYU Associate Professor Mohamad Bazzi to describe the organization as a "glorified debating society." The charter states that decisions reached by a majority "shall bind only those [states] that accept them," which places a premium on national sovereignty and limits the League's ability to take collective action. While some actions are taken under the aegis of the Arab League, they are executed only by a small faction.

Bazzi says, "During the Lebanese civil war, the Arab League had limited success trying to help negotiate a peace, but in the end it was the individual powers, in this case Syria and Saudi Arabia, that helped end the conflict by convening the Taif Agreement . Technically it was under League auspices, but it was really Saudi Arabia and Syria as the driving force." A Pan-Arab Pedigree The concept of an integrated Arab polity based on shared culture and historical experience, which is at the heart of the Arab League's charter, dates to the Islamic caliphates under the disciples of Mohammed. Modern pan-Arabism, or Arab nationalism, arose in opposition to Ottoman rule and nineteenth-century attempts to impose the Turkic language and culture on Arab subjects. During World War I, the Sharif of Mecca led an Arab revolt against the Ottomans in concert with British forces. The British government assured Arabs their support would be rewarded with the establishment of an independent state . However, a separate Anglo-French accord signed in 1916, known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement , betrayed this plan and carved up Arab lands into respective spheres of influence.

During World War II, the British once again pledged "full support" for Arab unity. This policy was expressed by Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden in his Mansion House speech in May 1941. Encouraged by the news, Arab leaders embarked on negotiations for a pan-Arab union that would bolster support for the Arabs of Palestine. The process culminated in 1944 with the Alexandria Protocol , the document that laid plans for the Arab League. In 1948, five nations of the newly formed regional body took up arms against the state of Israel following its declaration of independence. The conflict marked the first major action of the League and the first of several bloody conflicts between Arab and Israeli forces over the future of Palestine. The resulting Arab defeat, known as the Nakba or "catastrophe," was a defining moment. In his 1996 book Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, Charles D. Smith writes, "Many, especially of the younger generation, saw Israel's existence as symbolic of Arab humiliation at the hands of a superior power relying on Western technology that they were denied.

Here there existed a desire for revenge coupled with the fear of Israeli military might and possible future expansion." The Palestinian issue continues to be a catalyst for collective Arab action. The League emphasized the importance of the Palestinian cause in 1964 with the establishment of the Palestinian Liberation Order , whose charter states "the liberation of Palestine, from an Arab viewpoint, is a national duty." Following another significant defeat by the Israelis in 1967, the League issued the Khartoum Resolution , often remembered for its three "nos": "no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with it." The Arab League has maintained an official boycott of Israeli goods and companies since 1948 , but measuring the effects of the ban is difficult due to lax enforcement and limited trade flows. Still, policies toward the Jewish nation did not develop uniformly. These postures, as well as relations with one another, were shaped by factors including individual territorial ambitions, evolving Cold War alliances, and inter-Arab rivalries. Seeds of Conflict After WWII, the pan-Arab project gained its most charismatic champion in Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, but several critical international developments over the following decades exposed the limits of League solidarity.

The decline of British and French colonial empires and the emergence of a bipolar Cold War altered the architecture of power in the region. Inter-Arab antagonisms, the strategic implications of Mideast oil, and a U.S. policy of Soviet containment provided ample seeds of conflict for the newly formed League. "During the Lebanese civil war, the Arab League had limited success trying to help negotiate a peace, but in the end it was the individual powers, in this case Syria and Saudi Arabia, that helped end the conflict."—Mohamad Bazzi Under Nasser's leadership, Arab nationalism reached new heights. Nasser's assent to power in 1952, in the Arab world's first military coup, was seen as a victory against Western imperialism and an inspiration to other Arab states. Still, the pan-Arabism project suffered several setbacks under his reign. The brief political union of Egypt and Syria, known as the United Arab Republic, fell apart after only three years (1958-1961). The outbreak of civil war in Yemen in 1962 deteriorated into a disastrous eight-year proxy battle between Egyptian and Saudi-backed forces.

Even Palestine proved to be a source of contention as Arab League members vied to assert control over the PLO. "Arab politics were more chaotic than at any point in modern history. Nasser's revolution promised unity—but delivered fragmentation and discord," wrote Michael Scott Doran in Foreign Affairs in 2011. Perhaps the most pivotal event of the period was Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956. The ensuing crisis, while perceived as a victory for Nasser in the Arab world, convinced the Eisenhower administration to pursue a proactive role in the Middle East, and primed the region for Cold War polarization. Washington provided economic and military assistance, primarily to Israel, to counter similar flows of Soviet assistance to Egypt, Iraq, and Syria. This arms race culminated in the Six-Day War (1967), a defeat for Arab armies that included the Israeli occupation of the remnants of Arab Palestine. The decision by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat to open unilateral peace negotiations with Israel in 1979 further underscored Arab divisions. As a result, Egypt was suspended from the Arab League (but was readmitted in 1989).

An Opportunity for Reform The Arab League continues to struggle with disunity and dysfunction, and critics question whether the organization has any relevance in its current form. Though it achieved notable consensus over the Saudi-sponsored Arab Peace Initiative in 2002, the League failed to coordinate its policy over both the 1990-1991 Gulf War and the 2003 Iraq War. Interviews conducted by al-Jazeera in 2009 illustrated the Arab public's frustration with the organization. "If we are to measure competence in terms of results and achievements," said a twenty-four-year old Syrian, "then the Arab League is not competent simply because they have not achieved anything." Even the League's secretary-general , Nabil al-Araby, joined the chorus of criticism in September 2011, describing the organization as "impotent." The Arab revolts throughout the Middle East and North Africa in 2011 offered the League a new opportunity to reform. Some critics see the appointment of al-Araby as a step toward this end.

In a 2011 interview with CFR, Shadi Hamid of the Brookings Institution said, "Here is someone who is more in tune with Arab public opinion, who is respected among Arab activists, protestors, and members of the opposition. He's not someone who is a stooge of the regime by any stretch of the imagination. All of this suggests that the Arab League is changing." After rare action to topple Qaddafi in 2011, the Arab League turned its focus to the conflict in Syria. It suspended Syrian membership in November 2011, brokered an ill-fated peace agreement with the Assad regime , and, for the first time in its history, assembled a team of observers to monitor the implementation of its plan. Frustrated with a lack of compliance by Syria, the Arab League officially called for Assad to step down in January 2012 and requested a resolution from the UN Security Council to support this proposal. The Arab League eventually recognized the Syrian opposition as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people, but Assad-regime allies in the organization such as Iraq, Lebanon, and Algeria blocked the oppositions' full assumption of the role.

Tensions between Sunni and Shia Muslims , exacerbated by wars in Syria and Iraq, are creating new fissures among Arabs. Sunni leaders largely snubbed a 2012 summit in Baghdad, reflecting their rejection of a Shia-led Iraq with close ties to Iran. Those who did attend traded barbs during their speeches, dashing an opportunity to foster closer between Iraq and its Sunni-majority neighbors. Even as the Arab League condemns the Sunni extremist group known as ISIS , and Sunni powers such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Jordan, and the United Arab Emirates launch air strikes on the terrorist organization, few Arab countries are willing to coordinate efforts with the Iraqi government. Iraq, for its part, has invited Iranian military advisers and deployed Tehran-funded Shia militias in its battle against ISIS. Many mideast experts say the Arab League is likely to improve little on its record of collective action until members agree to sacrifice some sovereignty and comply with resolutions. And until democracy is the mainstay of the Arab world, the League will continue to struggle with issues of legitimacy.

Additional Resources Arab League signed in Cairo, March 22 | Christian News on Christian Today Arab League signed in Cairo, March 22 23 March 2004 Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Pin it Next Post >> x To view this video please enable JavaScript, and consider upgrading to a web browser that supports HTML5 video On 22 March, 1945 representatives from Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Transjordan (now Jordan), Saudi Arabia and Yemen signed the Arab League accord in Cairo, Egypt. Kings and heads of states of 22 Arab League nations participated and held discussion to improve human rights, including those of Christians, by amending the 1994 Arab Charter on Human Rights at a summit in Tunisia. It will specifically affirm every individual's right to life; the right to fair trial; the legal status of crime and punishment; the right to political asylum without extradition; and prohibitions on torture, deportation and revoking citizenship. The League played a key role to promote economic development, settle disputes between Arab countries, and coordinate political aims. It was established to unite Arab countries in their handling of a number of crucial crises.

Egypt is one of the most influential country's within the Arab League, and any changes there are believed to impact the whole region. The League's headquarters were moved from Cairo, Egypt, to the Tunisian capital of Tunis after the signing of the Egypt—Israel peace treaty in March 1979. Egypt's membership of the Arab League was suspended because of the conflicts over policy with Israel intensified. Ten years later Egypt's membership was reinstated and the headquarters were moved back to Cairo in 1990. The March 29-30 summit was expected to be also closely monitored by Christian human rights watchdogs, including the influential U.S. Copts Association, which has expressed especially concern about the persecution of Coptic. The U.S, Copts Association is also concerned about the vulnerable Coptic young women who have repeatedly threatened by the Muslim extremists who intent to convert them to Islam. Brief History The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan after 1946), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945.

These seven Arab states were all formerly subject to the Ottoman Empire and became independent after the defeat of Turkey during World War I. In their intention, the Arab League wanted to strengthen the links among the members and to further the joint interests of all Arab nations. From 1953 onwards, other regions still under colonial control were welcome to join on achieving independence. At the Cairo Summit of 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organization representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964 and in 1976 PLO was accepted in the Arab League. The succession of wars in the middle east in the past half century, from the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 to the Gulf War in 1991, have placed severe strains on the League and have prevented it from achieving a close cohesion. Egypt breaks ranks in 1979 by signing a peace treaty with Israel, resulting in expulsion from the League and the moving of the headquarters from Cairo to Tunis.

Egypt has been readmitted in 1989, and the headquarters returned to Cairo a year later. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 caused an even deeper rift, reflected in the fact that nearly all the neighbouring Arab states gave either practical or diplomatic support to the UN and NATO campaign against Iraq in the Gulf War. At the Beirut Summit on March 28, 2002 the League adopted the Arab Peace Initiative, a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab-Israeli conflict. The initiative offered full normalization of the relations with Israel. In exchange, Israel was demanded to withdraw from all occupied territories, including the Golan Heights, to recognize an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as a “just solution” for the Palestinian refugees. The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative.

Arab League's Structure and Governance While the Arab League is committed to respecting the established government in each member state and to guaranteeing its sovereignty and independence, the League set itself several objectives from the outset: to maintain and strengthen the solidarity among the Arab states in the face of external threats; to ensure cohesion and peace between the member states by offering to arbitrate in the event of conflict between two or more member states and by opposing any recourse to force; and to ensure the cooperation of member states in various areas, e.g. social, legal, parliamentary, financial, economic and cultural affairs. The principal institutions of the Arab League are: the Council of the League, the Joint Defence Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Committees and the Secretariat General. The Council of the League The Council of the League is the supreme organ. It is composed of representatives from the member states and holds general sessions twice a year. At the request of two members, extraordinary sessions can also be held whenever circumstances demand. The Council controls and coordinates the League’s activities; it sees that agreements passed by the various member states are implemented; and it appoints the Secretary General.

Each member state has one vote in the League Council, while The decisions of the Council are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The Joint Defence Council The Joint Defence Council was set up after the signing of the Treaty for mutual defence and economic cooperation in 1950. It is composed of the Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Defence from all the member states. The Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council was set up to replace the Economic Council which had been created following the Treaty in June 1950. Its aim is to establish the objectives of, and to promote the means for the economic and social development of the Arab world. It also coordinates the activities of the specialized agencies which have been set up in the framework of the League of Arab States. Among the most important of these are the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Arab Fund for Assistance to Arab and African Countries, the Arab Monetary Fund, the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development, the Industrial Development Centre for Arab States, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Council for Civil Aviation, the Arab Postal Union, the Arab Telecommunication Union, the Arab Labour Council, and the Council for Arab Unity.

The Committees The Committees fall into three different categories: - Committees set up by the main institutions of the League. Thus, at each General Session, the Council appoints Foreign Affairs Committees, Economic Committees, Social Committees, etc. The lifetime of these Committees is linked to the timing of the Session; - “ad hoc” Committees, responsible for carrying out specific tasks. They are dissolved when their mandate has been carried out; - “Permanent Committees”, which play a crucial part in the working of the League. They are neither temporary, hence their name, nor do they have a predetermined function, hence their importance. They study problems within, their sphere of competence and submit their findings to the Council of the League for approval. There are Permanent Committees for political matters, social questions, health, culture, economic matters, information, oil, finance and administration. The Secretariat General The Secretariat General is the institution of the League of Arab States responsible for implementing decisions taken by the Council of the League. It is headed by the Secretary General with the assistance of several Assistant Secretary Generals and a staff some of whom are permanent, and some temporary. The Secretary General is elected by a majority of two-thirds of the members, although in practice he has always been appointed unanimously.

The appointment is for five years. His is a key role; for it is he who represents the Arab world at the international level. Governance The Arab League is based on principles that support and promote a unified Arab nationalism and a common position among Arabic states on various issues. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland while respecting the sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League and the committees were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953. Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from the natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism, the feuds among Arab rulers, and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the League.

Arab League Encyclopedia > Social Sciences and the Law > Political Science and Government > International Organizations Arab League Arab League, popular name for the League of Arab States, formed in 1945 in an attempt to give political expression to the Arab nations. The original charter members were Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan (now Jordan), Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. A representative of Palestinian Arabs, although he did not sign the charter because he represented no recognized government, was given full status and a vote in the Arab League. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was granted full membership in 1976. Other current members include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea (pending in 1999), Kuwait, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates. The league is organized into a council, special committees, and a permanent secretariat; the secretariat has its headquarters in Cairo. The constitution of the league provides for coordination among the signatory nations on education, finance, law, trade, and foreign policy, and it forbids the use of force to settle disputes among members.

A joint defense treaty was signed in 1950. In 2005 an Arab Parliament was established; its members are drawn from each member nation's parliament. The issues the parliament may discuss, however, are restricted to the social, economic, and cultural spheres. Among the most important activities of the Arab League have been its attempts to coordinate Arab economic life; efforts toward this aim include the Arab Telecommunications Union (1953), the Arab Postal Union (1954), and the Arab Development Bank (1959, later known as the Arab Financial Organization). The Arab Common Market was established in 1965 and is open to all Arab League members. The common market agreement provides for the eventual abolition of customs duties on natural resources and agricultural products, free movement of capital and labor among member countries, and coordination of economic development. In 1945, the league supported Syria and Lebanon in their disputes with France and also demanded an independent Libya; in 1961, it supported Tunisia in a conflict with France. The league early announced opposition to the formation of a Jewish state in Palestine and demanded that Palestine as a whole be made independent, with the majority of its population Arab.

When the state of Israel was created in 1948, the league countries jointly attacked it, but Israel resisted successfully. The league continued to maintain a boycott of Israel and of companies trading with Israel. The summit conferences of 1964–65 established a joint Arab military command, which proved unsuccessful in implementing a united strategy for the liberation of Palestine. Egypt's membership was suspended from 1979 to 1989 because of its treaty with Israel, and the league's headquarters were moved to Tunis. In 1988 the league endorsed the PLO's plan for a negotiated settlement with Israel, and in 1991 Cairo once again became its headquarters. In 2002 the league for the first time offered Israel normal relations with Arab countries if it met certain conditions, but many of those conditions were not acceptable to Israel. For many years, closer political unity among members was hampered by a division between pro-Western member countries and neutralist or pro-Soviet ones; more recently the division has been between militant Islamic fundamentalists and Arab moderates.

The league ultimately supported Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War (1980–88) but was divided over the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 (see Persian Gulf War ). In 1993 the league issued a statement condemning all forms of terrorism. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: International Organizations Advertisement Advertisement Arab League - Informatiion - John A. Rand Arab League - Informatiion as consequence by repression CAUSED BY ISRAEL & ZIONISTS.. League Of Arab States - Arab League Secretariat Nabil el-Araby - Arab Parliament Ali Al-Daqbaashi - Alexandria Protocol 22 March 1945 Total area 13,333,296 km2 = 5,148,048 sq mi Population Time zone (UTC+0 to +4) Website - a. From 1979 to 1989, Tunis, Tunisia. b. Suspended. Arab League is regional organization of Arab states in North Africa, Northeast Africa (Horn of Africa) and Southwest Asia (Middle East).

It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945 Currently, League has 22 members Syria's participation was suspended since November 2011 as a consequence of repression during the ongoing uprising. League's main goal is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries".[4] Through institutions such as the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League's Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the Arab League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs designed to promote the interests of the Arab world.[5][6] It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, to settle some Arab disputes, and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Arab League has served as a platform for drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration.

One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter which sets out principles for economic activities in the region. Each member state has only one vote in the League Council, while decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The aims of the league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic, and social programs of its members, and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defense and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defense measures. In early 1970s, the Economic Council of the League of Arab States put forward a proposal to create Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across the European states. This led, under the decree of the League of Arab States no. K1175/D52/G, to the decision by the Arab governments to set up the Arab British Chamber of Commerce which was mandated to: “promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade” between the Arab world and its major trading partner, the United Kingdom.

Arab League has also played a role in shaping school curricula, advancing the role of women in the Arab societies, promoting child welfare, encouraging youth and sports programs, preserving Arab cultural heritage, and fostering cultural exchanges between the member states. Literacy campaigns have been launched, intellectual works reproduced, and modern technical terminology is translated for the use within member states. Arab League hencourages measures against crime and drug abuse, and deals with labour issues — particularly among the emigrant Arab workforce. Contents History Main article: History of the Arab League Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. It aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes, and coordinating political aims. Other countries joined the league at later dates. Each country was given one vote in the council.

The first major action was the joint intervention, allegedly on behalf of the majority Arab population that was being uprooted as the State of Israel emerged in 1948 (and in response to popular outcry in the Arab world), although in fact a main participant in this intervention, Transjordan, had agreed with the Israelis to divide up the Arab Palestinian state proposed by the UN General Assembly, while Egypt intervened primarily to prevent its rival in Amman from accomplishing its objective.[9] This was followed by the creation of a mutual defense treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965.[7] (Robert W. MacDonald, The League of Arab States: A Study in Regional Organization. Princeton, New Jersey, USA, Princeton University Press, 1965.) Geography Main article: Geography of the Arab League Administrative divisions in the Arab League. The area of members of the Arab League covers around 13,000,000 km2 (5,000,000 sq mi) and straddles two continents: Africa and Asia. Area consists of large arid deserts, namely the Sahara.

Nevertheless, it also contains several very fertile lands, such as the Nile Valley, the High Atlas Mountains, and the Fertile Crescent which stretches from Iraq over Syria, and Lebanon, Somalia, Jordan and Palestine. Area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia, as well as parts of the world's longest river Nile. The area witnessed the rise of many ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Phoenicia, Carthage, Kush, Ancient Somalia and the Nabateans, among others. Main article: Life in the Arab League Member states Main article: Member states of the Arab League See also: Enlargement of the Arab League Joining dates of member States; the Comoros (circled) joined in 1993. 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s The Arab League was founded in Cairo in 1945 by seven countries, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transjordan (Jordan from 1946), and Yemen.

There was a continual increase in membership during the second half of the 20th century, with additional 15 Arab States being admitted, with a current total of 21 member States due to Syria's suspension following the 2011 uprising. On 22 February 2011, following the start of the Libyan civil war and the use of military force against civilians, the Arab League Secretary-General, Amr Moussa, stated that Libya's membership in the Arab League had been suspended: "the organisation has decided to halt the participation of the Libyan delegations from all Arab League sessions". This makes Libya the second country in the League's history to have a frozen membership. Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi declared that the League was illegitimate, saying: "The Arab League is finished. There is no such thing as the Arab League." On 25 August 2011, Secretary-General Nabil Elaraby announced it was "about time" Libya's full member status was restored.

The National Transitional Council, the partially recognised interim government of Libya, will send a representative to be seated at the Arab League meeting on 17 August to participate in a discussion as to whether to readmit Libya to the organisation.[13] The Arab Parliament recommended the suspension of member states Syria and Yemen on 20 September 2011, over persistent reports of disproportionate violence against regime opponents and activists during the Arab Spring.[14] A vote on 12 November agreed to formally suspend Syria four days after the vote, giving Assad a last chance to avoid suspension. Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen voted against the motion, while Iraq abstained. Wave of criticism rose as the Arab League sent in December 2011 a commission "monitoring" Syria's violence (massacres) on its own people who protested against its tyranny. Commission was headed by Mohammad Ahmed Mustafa al-Dabi, who served as head of infamous Omar al-Bashir's military intelligence, while heinous war crimes including genocide were committed on his watch.

On 6 March 2013, the Arab League granted the Syrian National Coalition Syria's seat in the Arab League.[19] Political policy and administration Main articles: Government of the Arab League and Arab Parliament Headquarters of the Arab League, Cairo. The Charter of the Arab League[4] endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland while respecting the sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League[20] and the committees[21] were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953.[22] Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from the natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism, the feuds among Arab rulers, and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the league.

Mindful of their previous announcements in support of the Arabs of Palestine the framers of the Pact were determined to include them within the League from its inauguration.[23] This was done by means of an annex that declared:[4] “ Even though Palestine was not able to control her own destiny, it was on the basis of the recognition of her independence that the Covenant of the League of Nations determined a system of government for her. Her existence and her independence among the nations can, therefore, no more be questioned de jure than the independence of any of the other Arab States. [...] Therefore, the States signatory to the Pact of the Arab League consider that in view of Palestine's special circumstances, the Council of the League should designate an Arab delegate from Palestine to participate in its work until this country enjoys actual independence” At the Cairo Summit of 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. Girst Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Today, Palestine is a full member of the Arab League and is represented by the Palestine Liberation Organization.

At the Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative,[24] a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict. The initiative offered full normalisation of the relations with Israel. In exchange, Israel was required to withdraw from all occupied territories, including the Golan Heights, to recognise Palestinian independence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as a "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees. The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote initiative. Following Venezuela's move to expel Israeli diplomats amid 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, Kuwaiti member of parliament Waleed al-Tabtabai proposed moving Arab League headquarters to Caracas, Venezuela. On 13 June 2010, Amr Mohammed Moussa, Secretary-General of Arab League, visited the Gaza Strip, the first visit by an official of Arab League since the election of Hamas in 2007.

Summits Cairo: 13–17 January 1964. Alexandria: 5–11 September 1964. Casablanca: 13–17 September 1965. Khartoum: 29 August 1967. Rabat: 21–23 December 1969. Cairo (first emergency summit): 21–27 September 1970. Algiers: 26–28 November.1973. Riyadh (2nd emergency summit): 17–28 October 1976. Cairo: 25–26 October 1976. Baghdad: 2–5 November.1978. Tunis: 20–22 November 1979. Amman: 21–22 November 1980. Fes: 6–9 September 1982. Casablanca (3rd emergency summit): 7–9 September 1985.

Amman (4th emergency summit): 8–12 November 1987. Algiers (5th emergency summit): 7–9 June 1988. Casablanca (6th emergency summit): 23–26 June 1989. Baghdad (7th emergency summit): 28–30 March 1990. Cairo (8th emergency summit): 9–10 August 1990. Cairo (9th emergency summit): 22–23 June 1996. Cairo (10th emergency summit): 21–22 October 2000. Amman: 27–28 March 2001. Beirut: 27–28 March 2002. Sharm el-Sheikh: 1 March 2003. Tunis: 22–23 May 2004. Algiers: 22–23 March 2005. Khartoum: 28–30 March 2006.

Riyadh: 27–28 March 2007. Damascus: 29–30 March 2008. Doha: 28–30 March 2009. Sirte: 27–28 March 2010. Baghdad: 27–29 March 2012. Doha: 21-27 March 2013. Two summits are not added to the system of Arab League summits: Anshas, Egypt: 28–29 May 1946. Beirut, Lebanon: 13 – 15 November 1958. Summit 14 in Fes, Morocco, occurred in two stages: On 25 November 1981: the 5-hour meeting ended without an agreed on document. On 6–9 September 1982. Economic resources Main article: Economy of the Arab League See also: List of countries by GDP (PPP) and List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita The Arab League is rich in resources, with enormous oil and natural gas resources in certain member states.

Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications. Within less than a decade, local companies such as Orascom and Etisalat have managed to compete internationally. Economic achievements initiated by the League amongst member states have been less impressive than those achieved by smaller Arab organisations such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).[27] Among them is the Arab Gas Pipeline, that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. Significant difference in wealth and economic conditions exist between the rich oil states of the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, and Algeria, and poor countries like the Comoros, Mauritania, and Djibouti. The Arab League agreed to support the Sudanese region of Darfur with US$500 million. Literacy in Arab league countries Main article: List of countries by literacy rate In collecting literacy data, many countries estimate the number of literate people based on self-reported data. Some use educational attainment data as a proxy, but measures of school attendance or grade completion may differ. Because definitions and data collection methods vary across countries, literacy estimates should be used with caution. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2010.

Rank Country Literacy rate Demographics of Arab League countries Main article: Demographics of the Arab League The Arab League is a culturally and ethnically one association of 22 member states, although the overwhelming majority of the League's population identifies as Arab (either on a cultural basis, or on an ethno-racial basis). As of 1 January 2007, about 340,000,000 people live in the states of the Arab League. Its population grows faster than in most other global regions. The most populous member state is Egypt, with a population of about 81 million.[33] The least populated is the Comoros, with over 0.6 million inhabitants.

Rank Country Population Density (/km2) Density (sq mi) Notes 1 Egypt 91,450,563 91 236 [34] 2 Algeria 37,100,000 16 41 [35] 3 Morocco 32,064,173 76 197 [36] 4 Iraq 31,234,000 71 184 [35] 5 Sudan 30,894,000 16 41 [37] 6 Saudi Arabia 28,146,658 12 31 [35] 7 Yemen 23,580,000 45 117 [35] 8 Syria 21,906,000 118 306 [35] 9 Tunisia 10,673,800 65 168 [38] 10 Somalia 9,133,000 14 

36 [35] 11 United Arab Emirates 8,264,070 99 256 [39] 12 Libya 6,733,620 3.8 9.8 [35][40] 13 Jordan 6,316,000 71 184 [35] 14 Lebanon 4,224,000 404 1,046 [35] 15 Palestinian National Authority 4,136,540 687 1,779 [41] 16 Kuwait 3,566,437 200 518 [35] 17 Mauritania 3,291,000 3.2 8.3 [35] 18 Oman 2,845,000 9.2 24 [35] 19 Qatar 1,699,435 154 399 [35] 20 Bahrain 1,

234,596 1,646 4,263 [42] 21 Djibouti 864,000 37 96 [35] 22 Comoros 691,000 309 800 [35] Total Pan-Arab States 400,652,486 26.6 68.1 The vast majority of the Arab League's citizens are Muslim, with Christianity being the second largest religion.

Over 20 million Christians live in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinian Authority, Sudan and Syria. Jurisdiction Rank Country Area (km2)[Note 1] Area (sq mi) % of Total Notes 1 Algeria 2,381,741 919,595 18.1% Largest country in Africa and in the Arab League. 2 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 830,000 16.4% Largest country in the Middle East. 3 Sudan 1,886,068 728,215 14.2% Formerly the largest country in Africa. 4 Libya 1,759,540 679,360 11.4% 5 Mauritania 1,030,700 398,000 7.8% 6 Egypt 1,022,600 394,800 7.6% Excluding the Hala'ib Triangle (20,580 km2/7,950 sq mi).

7 Somalia 637,657 246,201 4.9% 8 Yemen 527,968 203,850 4.0% 9 Morocco 446,550 172,410 3.4% Does not include Western Sahara (266,000 km2/103,000 sq mi). 10 Iraq 435,244 168,049 3.3% 11 Oman 309,500 119,500 2.4% 12 Syria 185,180 71,500 1.4% Including the part of the Golan Heights (1,200 km2/460 sq mi) currently administered by Israel.

13 Tunisia 163,610 63,170 1.2% 14 Jordan 89,342 34,495 0.7% 15 United Arab Emirates 83,600 32,300 0.6% 16 Djibouti 23,200 9,000 0.1% 17 Kuwait 17,818 6,880 0.1% 18 Qatar 11,586 4,473 0.08% 19 Lebanon 10,452 4,036 0.08% 20 Palestine 6,020 2,320 0.05% 21 Comoros 2,235 863 0.01% 22 Bahrain 758 293 0.005% See also Arab Charter on Human Rights Arab Cold War Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD) Arab Inter-parliamentary Union Arab

 League and the Arab–Israeli conflict Arab League boycott of Israel Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU) General Arab Insurance Federation General Union of Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture for Arab Countries International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions List of conflicts in the Arab League List of largest cities of the Arab League Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Pan Arab Games Summit of South American-Arab Countries United Arab Command Orange card system - motor insurance scheme of the Arab League Notes ^ Source, unless otherwise specified: (pdf) Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density.

United Nations Statistics Division. 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2010. Entries in this table giving figures other than the figures given in this source are bracketed by asterisks () in the Notes field, and the rationale for the figure used are explained in the associated Note. References Syria suspended from Arab League - The Washington Post Syria suspended from Arab League The inside track on Washington politics. Be the first to know about new stories from PowerPost. Sign up to follow, and we’ll e-mail you free updates as they’re published. You’ll receive free e-mail news updates each time a new story is published. You’re all set! By Liz Sly By Liz Sly November 12, 2011 Follow @LizSly BEIRUT — The Arab League approved on Saturday a sweeping package of measures censuring Syria, clearing the way for a significant escalation of international pressure against President Bashar al-Assad and deepening the isolation of his increasingly embattled government. The 22-member regional body said it would suspend Syria’s membership, impose sanctions and seek U.N. help unless the Syrian government stops using violence to suppress the country’s eight-month-old uprising.

At least 3,500 civilians have died in the crackdown, according to the United Nations. The Arab League also summoned opposition leaders to a meeting within the next three days to formulate “a unified view of the coming transitional period,” offering the clearest indication yet the region is moving closer to the Obama administration position that he should step down. The unexpectedly severe measures suggested that Arab states are already starting to plan for a post-Assad era. That will in turn increase pressure on other powers that have so far refrained from taking action against Syria, notably Russia, China and Turkey, opening the door to the kind of international consensus on Syria that the United States has been seeking to build, analysts said. “This is a diplomatic game-changer,” said Salman Shaikh, director of the Brookings Doha Center in Qatar. “It’s a significant moment that foretells greater international isolation and pressure on the Assad regime.” In Washington, President Obama issued a statement hailing the Arab move as evidence of “the increasing diplomatic isolation of a regime that has systematically violated human rights.” The resolution adopted at an emergency meeting in Cairo represented a rare display of Arab solidarity against a fellow regional power, marking only the third time a nation has been suspended.

Egypt was ejected from 1979 to 1989 for signing a peace treaty with Israel, and Libya was suspended in March after the uprising there. Just two countries voted against the measures, Yemen and Lebanon, with Iraq abstaining, demonstrating the extent of Syria’s isolation in the Arab world. The sanctions will be discussed at a ministerial meeting in the coming days, and the league said it would consider granting recognition to the Syrian National Council, an umbrella opposition body that has struggled to be accepted by the international community. The suspension is to take effect Wednesday, giving Syria a small window in which to implement an Arab League peace plan that had called for the withdrawal of troops from cities and a halt to attacks on protesters. The details of the proposed sanctions will be discussed at a meeting in the coming days, the league said. “Syria is a dear country for all of us, and it pains us to make this decision,” Qatar’s prime minister, Sheik Hamad Bin Jasim al-Thani, told reporters in Cairo.

“We hope there will be a brave move from Syria to stop the violence and begin a real dialogue toward real reform.” But after flouting the terms of the agreement for the past 10 days, launching a new offensive against the central city of Homs and killing more than 250 people nationwide, Syria seemed unlikely to suddenly pull back its forces, activists said. As protesters surged onto the streets of Syrian cities to stage demonstrations hailing the Arab League’s decision, the Local Coordination Committees, a group that monitors and supports protests, said 18 more civilians were killed. In Damascus, angry Assad supporters throwing stones and carrying sticks and knives attacked and damaged the Saudi Arabian Embassy, according to the kingdom’s Washington mission and news agency reports. On Sunday, tens of thousands of Syrians swarmed into central squares in the cities of Damascus and Aleppo to protest the decision, offering a reminder Assad can still count on significant support despite the uprising challenging his rule. Syria’s government was defiant, accusing the Arab League of bowing to American interests and warning of unspecified “consequences on the whole region.” “It’s obvious that they’re following the U.S.

agenda,” said Syria’s Arab League representative, Yousef Ahmad, according to the Syrian news agency SANA. Lifting Arab ‘cover’ The measures mark a significant setback for the Assad government, which has until now confidently boasted that regional and world powers won’t dare take meaningful action against Syria because of the potentially destabilizing impact of regime change in the strategically located and religiously mixed country. And until now, Arab states have indeed seemed hesitant to criticize Syria. The Arab League did not meet to discuss the spiraling violence until August, five months after the protests erupted, and Saturday’s measures came only after weeks of deliberation, deadlines and unfulfilled promises by the Assad government. The slow response contrasts with the swift measures taken to suspend Libya weeks after the February uprising, opening the door to the adoption of the U.N. resolution that authorized NATO airstrikes and helped bring about Moammar Gaddafi’s demise. The United States cited the Arab censure of Libya as being instrumental in determining its decision to support military action. International military intervention in Syria is still considered a remote possibility despite repeated calls by protesters for NATO to enforce a no-fly zone.

But the lifting of Arab “cover” will make it harder for Russia and China to justify their vetoes of tougher action, including possible sanctions, at the U.N. Security Council, said Shaikh. Turkey, which has repeatedly condemned Assad but taken no concrete steps against him, may also be encouraged to fall in line with the rest of the region and adopt economic sanctions that could have a significant effect on its neighbor’s economy, he said. Assad can count on the support of Iran as well as neighboring Lebanon, whose government is controlled by the militant Shiite Hezbollah movement. Fears of triggering a regionwide war in which Iran and Hezbollah spring to Syria’s defense are among the reasons why world powers have been reluctant to intervene. Arab League suspends Syria, pledges sanctions - Middle East - Jerusalem Post Arab League suspends Syria, pledges sanctions ByOREN KESSLER 13 November 2011 00:37 US, Europeans hail surprise move, which calls on Arab states to withdraw envoys from Damascus; Cairo-based bloc has suspended members only twice before in 66-year history. Arab League 311.

(photo credit:REUTERS/Mohamed Abd El-Ghany) The Arab League suspended Syria on Saturday, pledging new sanctions against the Bashar Assad regime for its bloody eight-month crackdown on protesters and urging member states to withdraw ambassadors from Damascus. The Arab bloc’s suspension – just the third since it was founded in 1945 – underlined the Assad government’s deepening international isolation over a brutal counterinsurgency campaign estimated to have killed more than 3,500 people. Be the first to know - Join our Facebook page. “We were criticized for taking a long time, but this was out of our concern for Syria,” Qatar’s Prime Minister Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim al-Thani told reporters at League headquarters in Cairo. “We needed to have a majority to approve those decisions. “We are calling all Syrian opposition parties to a meeting at the Arab League headquarters to agree to a unified vision for the transitional period,” said Sheikh Hamad, who is also foreign minister of Qatar, which holds the organization’s rotating chairmanship. Earlier this month the Arab League drafted a plan to stem the violence. That program called for Syrian forces to withdraw from major cities, as well as the release of political prisoners and official dialogue with opposition groups.

Damascus accepted the proposal, but took no visible steps to implement it. Since the plan’s announcement, more than 100 people have been killed in the protest hotbed of Homs alone, according to a Human Rights Watch report issued on Friday. Activists said at least six people were killed nationwide on Saturday. Walid Phares – a Mideast affairs adviser to US Republican presidential hopeful Mitt Romney and author of the recent book The Coming Revolution: Struggle for Freedom in the Middle East – said the League decision reflects the “internationalization” of the Syria crisis. “Expect Iranian counter-escalation to respond to this move. One concern here is that Syria, Hezbollah and Iran may trigger a regional, or a series, of clashes in multiple places to deter the Arab League leadership” from following through, Phares told The Jerusalem Post in an email. Qatar’s Sheikh Hamad said the League may ask the United Nations to step in to help protect the rights of Syrians. “If the violence and killing doesn’t stop, the secretary-general will call on international organizations dealing with human rights, including the United Nations,” he said.

Syria’s Arab League representative struck back that the decision was “not worth the ink it was written with.” It was clear that “orders were issued to them from the United States and Europe to hasten a decision against Syria,” Youssef Ahmed told Syrian state television. Saturday’s move was surprising given that the Arab League rarely condemns the actions of member states. In 1979, the bloc suspended Egypt for 10 years after Cairo signed a peace deal with Israel, and in February of this year it suspended Libya as the death toll mounted in the popular revolt against Muammar Gaddafi. Libya’s suspension from the 22-member League paved the way for the UN Security Council to support NATO intervention in the country. On Saturday, Syrian TV reported a demonstration outside the Qatari Embassy in Damascus, while Assad’s opponents hailed the League’s new resolve. “This gives a lot of strength to the position of the Syrian National Council. This is now an Arab position,” said Basma Qadmani, a member of the executive committee of the Syrian National Council, the most prominent opposition group.

The League was split between states such as Saudi Arabia and others that are hostile to Syria’s ally Iran, and countries such as Yemen, struggling to quell widespread unrest, and Lebanon, where Syria’s influence looms large. Yemen and Lebanon opposed the suspension and Iraq abstained in the vote, Hamad said. Political and economic sanctions would begin on Wednesday, he said, without elaborating on the sanctions’ exact nature. Sources familiar with the League’s deliberations said countries like Somalia and Mauritania had taken a cue from Sudan and backed the tougher stance on Syria, while Algeria was persuaded to switch camps under pressure from France. “Algeria took the same position, which was challenging for the Arab League to achieve because of the uprising Algeria had earlier in the year and its location close to Tunisia, Libya and Egypt,” a source at the League said. US President Barack Obama welcomed the decision, saying the suspension had further isolated Assad. “These significant steps expose the increasing diplomatic isolation of a regime that has systematically violated human rights and repressed peaceful protests,” Obama said in a statement from Honolulu, where he is hosting an Asia-Pacific summit.

“We will continue to work with our friends and allies to pressure the Assad regime and support the Syrian people as they pursue the dignity and transition to democracy that they deserve.” “The United States commends the principled stand taken by the Arab League and supports full implementation of its efforts to bring a peaceful end to the crisis,” the office of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton quoted her as saying in a statement. “The failure of the Assad regime, once again, to heed the call of regional states and the international community, underscores the fact that it has lost all credibility. As today’s Arab League decision demonstrates, the international pressure will continue to build until the brutal Assad regime heeds the calls of its own people and the world community,” Clinton said. French Foreign Minister Alain Juppé said it was time for international bodies to take more action. “France appeals to the international community to hear the message sent by the Arab states, to take its responsibilities and to thus act without further delay,” he said in a statement. German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle said the decision sent an important signal to those in the Security Council who had up to now prevented a clear resolution on Syria.

Andrew Tabler, a fellow at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy and author of the new book In the Lion’s Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington’s Battle with Syria, advised the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee last week to take a multi-pronged approach in confronting Damascus. Tabler identified seven key steps in applying pressure on the Assad regime: Form a contact group with regional allies and Syrian opposition leaders, help opposition leaders draft a coherent working strategy, work to persuade remaining Assad supporters to defect and push for more human-rights monitoring of the government. Tabler also urged lawmakers to prepare for militarization of the conflict, and to explore “the possibility of the creation of ‘nofly,’ ‘no-go’ or ‘buffer zones,’” and Security Council action. “Security Council resolutions will serve as the basis for maximizing multilateral pressure, especially comprehensive sanctions and possible future use of force,” he said. Farid Ghadry, president of the US-based Reform Party of Syria, called in his blog on Friday for robust international engagement in helping bring down Assad. “In politics, as in life, one either is more apt at making friends or at making foes. In the Middle East, no Arab regime has as many enemies as the Assad regime,” Ghadry wrote.

“Consider only a partial history of its actions against Syrians, Lebanese, Iraqis, Turks, Israelis, Jordanians, Palestinians and Americans, and you will get a sense of how easy it is to demolish this anomaly of terror,” he wrote. “Everyone wants this cancerous existence terminated.” Reuters contributed to this report. Relevant to your professional network? Please share on Linkedin Tags: Profile: Arab League - BBC News BBC News Read more about sharing. Close share panel The League of Arab States, or Arab League, is a voluntary association of countries whose peoples are mainly Arabic speaking or where Arabic is an official language. Its stated aims are to strengthen ties among member states, coordinate their policies and direct them towards a common good. It has 22 members including Palestine, which the League regards as an independent state. The idea of the Arab League was mooted in 1942 by the British, who wanted to rally Arab countries against the Axis powers. However, the league did not take off until March 1945, just before the end of World War II. At that time the issues that dominated the league's agenda were freeing those Arab countries still under colonial rule, and preventing the Jewish community in Palestine from creating a Jewish state.

At a glance Key players: Egypt, Saudi Arabia Members: 22 members including Palestine Population: 300 million (approx) Profile compiled by BBC Monitoring The highest body of the league is the Council, composed of representatives of member states, usually foreign ministers, their representatives or permanent delegates. Each member state has one vote, irrespective of its size. The council meets twice a year, in March and September, and may convene a special session at the request of two members. Day-to-day, the league is run by the general secretariat. Headed by a secretary-general, it is the administrative body of the league and the executive body of the council and the specialised ministerial councils. Secretary-general: Nabil el-Arabi Nabil el-Arabi was elected secretary-general of the Arab League in May 2011, succeeding fellow-Egyptian Amr Moussa. He took office in July. Image copyright AFP Image caption Nabil al-Arabi served for many years as an Egyptian diplomat Born in 1935 and a lawyer by training, Mr El-Arabi had a long career in the Egyptian diplomatic corps, and played a significant role in negotiations with Israel from the Camp David accords onwards.

During the uprising against President Hosni Mubarak in early 2011 Mr El-Arabi was one of a group of senior public figures who mediated the president's departure. He briefly served as foreign minister before taking up his post at the Arab League. All secretaries-general of the League have been Egyptians, except for the period 1979-1991 when Egypt was expelled over its peace treaty with Israel. Division between members a big issue The Arab League's effectiveness has been severely hampered by divisions among member states. For example, during the Cold War some members were Soviet-oriented while others fell within the Western camp. There has been rivalry over leadership, notably between Egypt and Iraq. Then there have been the hostilities between traditional monarchies - such as Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Morocco - and new republics, or "revolutionary" states such as Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Baathist Syria and Iraq, and Libya under Muammar Gaddafi. The league was severely tested by the US-led attack on Saddam Hussein's Iraq, with some backing the war, some opposing it and others standing on the sidelines.

Because decisions made by the Arab League are binding only on members who voted for them, these divisions have in effect crippled the league in the sphere of "high politics". 'Arab spring' brings new purpose Thus it failed to coordinate foreign, defence or economic policies, rendering core league documents such as the Treaty of Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation and key bodies such as the Joint Defence Council completely ineffectual. Image copyright AFP Image caption The Arab League sent monitors to Syria. They were derided by the president and treated with suspicion by the opposition More recently the League has shown a greater sense of purpose since the "Arab spring" uprisings in early 2011. It backed UN action against Muammar Gaddafi's forces in Libya. It also suspended Syria over it's repressions of nationwide protests, but its monitoring mission to Damascus fell apart over divisions between member-states who support a UN resolution against the Assad government and those that shy away from "internationalising" an Arab matter. Where members do agree on a common position, such as support for the Palestinians under Israeli occupation, this rarely if ever goes beyond the issuing of declarations.

Perhaps the sole exception has been the economic boycott of Israel, which between 1948 and 1993 was almost total. However, the Arab League has been a little more effective at lower levels, such as shaping school curricula, preserving manuscripts and translating modern technical terminology. It has helped to create a regional telecommunications union.

Question: Which country was suspended from the Arab League for ten years from 1979?
Answer: Egypt