Formula 1 Engine Formula 1 Engine To learn more about new 2014 rule change and new Formula 1 Power Units and ERS System follow this link. Very sophisticated and expensive part of equipment. Modern F1 engine is 2.4 liter V8 engine. Highly limited in development by FIA rules, engine is subjected to development freeze for next 5 or 10 years (to be decided). In the 1950s Formula One cars were managing specific power outputs of around 100 bhp / liter (bhp per liter); about what a modern road car can manage today. During a 'turbo age' of 1.5 liter turbo engines, some of them were producing anything up to 750 bhp / liter. Once the teams started using exotic alloys such as titanium and beryllium in the late 1990s, the FIA banned the use of exotic materials in engine construction, and only aluminum and iron alloys were allowed for the pistons, cylinders, connecting rods, and crankshafts. First in this field was Ilmor, producer of the Mercedes V10s used by McLaren.

Since 1998, Ilmor has manufactured pistons from an aluminum-beryllium alloy, thereby reducing their weight by a third, possibly more, and gaining enhanced thermal conductivity. The cost of this alloy, and the fact that fine beryllium dust particles arguably constitute a health hazard, has led to an effective ban on its use, imposed by the FIA. Under pressure from McLaren and Mercedes, however, this ruling, for which Ferrari lobbied hard, has been postponed to the end of season 2002. The basic configuration of a naturally aspirated Formula One engine has not been greatly modified since the 1967 Cosworth DFV and the mean effective pressure has stayed at around 14 bar MEP. Until the mid-1980s Formula One engines were limited to around 12,000 rpm due to the traditional metal valve springs used inside the engine to close the valves. The speed required to operate the engine valves at a higher RPM is much greater than the metal valve springs can achieve and they were replaced by pneumatic valve springs introduced by Renault.

Since the 1990s, all Formula One engine manufacturers now use pneumatic valve springs with the pressurised air allowing engines to reach speeds nearly 20,000 rpm. Thet was a real breakthrough. Pneumatic valve actuation offers precision of control, even at 20,000rpm, and consequently is now universal in Formula l. Almost each year the FIA has enforced material and design restrictions to limit power, otherwise the 3.0L V10 engines would easily have exceeded 22.000 rpm and well over 1000hp (750kW). Even with the restrictions the V10's in the 2005 season were reputed to develop 960hp (715kW), more than 300 bhp / liter. Since 2006, the regulations have required the use of 2.4 liter V8 engines, with power outputs falling around 10 percent.

The new 2.4L V8 engines are reported to develop between 720hp and 750hp (535 to 560 kW, thats mean 300hp (224 kilowatts) per litre of displacement, far higher than most naturally aspirated internal combustion engines.), with the Williams Cosworth unit from 2006 being the most powerful. By the FIA rules, 8 units per driver have to last all season, and it is interesting to see that highest use individuall engine can do a total of 3,073 kilometres, which includ all of the season races as well as six Friday practice sessions. Number of engines per seasson later was reduced to six, and for 2014 to five. Teams always plan to use a new engine for Turkey, Spa and Monza in particular and these units would probably not do a third race. Each one of a driver’s new engines is given a shakedown test on the dyno for 150 kilometres before going off the race track to be fitted into a car.

It’s amazing to look back on the days when each team would bring as many as 10 engines to each race and bolt in a fresh one every day. What has come with the freeze in V8 engine regulations is a deeper understanding of the engines, which has brought amazing reliability. The ceramic pistons today, for example, are lighter than those on qualifying engines of 10 years ago when they were just about strong enough to last for an hour’s qualifying session. And yet now they last 3,000kms! The imense power a Formula One engine produces is generated by operating at a very high rotational speed, up to 18,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). This contrasts with road car engines of a similar size which operate safely at typically less than 7,000 rpm. However, the torque (turning force at a given speed) of a Formula One engine is not much higher than a conventional petrol engine.

For example, the 2006 2.4 litre Toyota RVX-06 V8 engine produces 552 kW (740 bhp) at 19,000 rpm and outputs 274 Nm of torque giving the engine a 14.3 bar (1.43 MPa) mean effective pressure. This is less than the 15.1 bar maximum MEP of the 2009 Ferrari 458 Italia , the best production car in this respect. Consequently, high power is obtained by making an engine turn faster. Another challenge during 2011 season was dealing with simultaneous KERS and DRS deployment without hitting the rev limiter on the straights. This was done through gearing, of course, because interestingly simultaneous deployment of DRS and KERS adds an extra 1,000 revs at the end of the straight and you don’t want to hit the rev limiter because that adds 15-20% more engine stress. Formula 1 engine on dynamometric test bench, and enormous heat from exhaust of an F1 engine.

But dynos can only tell you so much, there is little substitute for the real world testing. First Formula One engine to reach 20,000 rpm on track was Cosworth CA in 2006. From 1906 through to 2006, Grand Prix engine speeds rose ever higher, from less than 2000 rpm to ultimately a mind-boggling 20,000 rpm. Then the rule-maker abruptly halted the march of progress with a 19,000 rpm rev limit for 2007, subsequently reduced to the current 18,000. It is generally agreed that no rival surpassed it as the benchmark before rev limiting was imposed. It is widely agreed that BMW reached 19,000 rpm first, in 2002. However, engine mileage requirements were lengthened in 2004 and 2005, which had the effect of pegging the ongoing crankshaft speed rise.

Representative of the top 2005 V10s was the Toyota that ran to a maximum of 19,200 rpm and produced an estimated 930 bhp mid-season. All of the 2005 V10s exceeded 900 bhp but it is not thought that any exceeded 950 bhp, with the possible exception of the Honda at the end of the season. Cosworth's 2005 V10 was the TJ model, which had its max RPM at 19,000 rpm. With next year model CA, Cosworth took the uncompromising approach of targeting 20,000 rpm from the outset. This was the first time it had produced such a high-speed V8. At 20,000 rpm the CA's maximum piston acceleration was 10,616 g while the load imparted on each crankpin by the associated piston and con rod reached a very substantial 5937 kg at that unprecedented speed.

To put that into context, an anti-ballistic missile attains a g-force of only 100 g while 5937 kg is approximately two and a half times the weight of a Rolls Royce Wraith! Cosworth, to counteract high friction that can counteract horsepower gain, applyed a Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) coating to the piston skirts. Revving to 18,000 RPM, a modern Formula One engine will consume a phenomenal 450 liters of air every second, with race fuel consumption typically around the 65 l/100 Km. Revving at such massive speeds equates to an accelerative force on the pistons of nearly 9000 times gravity (9000 G). Formula 1 piston Of course, the biggest challenge has been holding everything together as reciprocating and rotating parts are worked ever faster, and generate increasingly fierce loadings. Even at "only" 12,000rpm there are seven tons of load going up a con rod, which responds by growing longer, then 12 tons going down it, which unavoidably shortens it somewhat!

F1 piston travels only about 40 millimeters and acceleration from 0 to 100kmh has been measured at 0.0005 seconds. The bore is roughly 98 millimeters (called supersquare bore (wider than higher)). The engines produce over 100,000 BTU per minute (1,750 kW) of heat that must be dumped, usually to the atmosphere via radiators and the exhaust, which can reach temperatures over 1,000 degrees Celsius. Nonetheless a Formula One engine is over 20% more efficient at turning fuel into power than even the most economical small car. Unsurprisingly, engine-related failures remain one of the most common causes of retirements in races. The engine oil capacity is about 3 litre or so. This is because of the dry sump system. The engine is a stressed component within the car, bolting to the carbon fiber ' tub ' and having the transmission and rear suspension bolted to it in turn. Therefore it has to be enormously strong.

But a conflicting demand is that it should be light, compact and with its mass in as low position as possible, to help reduce and lover car's centre of gravity and to enable the height of rear bodywork to be as low and compact as possible. Again, this kind of engine arrangement was invention of Colin Chapman . Chapman was on the look out for a new engine for 1967, but he struggled to find one. He then contacted his old friends Mike Costin and Keith Duckworth, the founders of the Cosworth engine tuning company. Using a Ford four cylinder as a base, the Cosworth team first developed a 16-valve 1600 cc FVA engine for Formula 2. It would form the basis for the three litre V8 readied for the 1967 season. Dubbed the DFV (Double Four Valve), the new engine was completely cast from aluminium in the Cosworth factory. Cosworth DFV was exceptionally rigid and Chapman used this to the fullest when he designed the Lotus 49 F1 car. The race car used an aluminium monocoque chassis that stretched no further than the bulkhead behind the driver.

The new V8 was bolted directly onto this chassis and took all of the rear suspension load, which was a much lighter and cleaner solution than using a rear subframe. Old TAG-McLaren Engine Management System, and "new" common "MES-Microsoft-McLaren Electronic Systems" TAG-310B ECU common ECU -Electronic Control Unit- used, by the FIA rules, in all F1 cars. Produced in cooperation by McLaren and Microsoft. Having run the McLaren Electronics Systems TAG-310B ECU since 2006, teams will have an upgraded ECU to run in 2013. The TAG-320 is the same physical size, but has far greater performance and more interfaces. Although useful, for 2013 this has no real impact on the teams, as the ECU is aimed at supporting the complex "power units" to be introduced in 2014. On a typical race weekend in Europe, every team brings about 5 engines and 8 engine people which includes race engineers who fine-tune the engine for every part of the track and software specialists to look after the hundreds of sensors associated with the complex engine management system.

Although the solutions to producing a winning engine are shrouded in secrecy, the basic design parameters for a modern F1 engine are well understood. The engine's centre of weight should be as low as possible, some teams like Renault in 2001 went with 111 degrees V angle to lower the engine to the track. The production of torque /power needs to be smooth and responsive across the largest possible rev range, the dimensions of the engine should be as compact as possible, and it needs to be reliable in the harsh racing environment. The engine startup procedure, includes their preliminary systems check-ups with system laptop computer, along with priming the engine with oil. Also the engine needs to be at 80 deg C, before they can start it up. The really tight tolerances need to open up, before they can fire up the engine, or it would simply seize. They pump heated water through the system. Cooling system runs water only, along with some corrosion inhibitors. Left: Before they plug the starter motor into the gearbox , they run a manual check with a ratchet spanner and an attachment similar to the starter socket.

This is to check that the pneumatic systems on the valvetrain are working properly and engine is not seized and need more heating. In case of an issue with a system, some malfunction like an open valve could spell disaster for the engine. One cylinder engine in Ferrari museum. Produced 1992, 290ccm, 14.500RPM Production and testing of an F1 engine start with one cylinder model. Basically that is cutt-off 1 cylinder of real engine to be. Full sized engine will be too expensive to build only for basic testing in beginning of development of an engine. On this model, engineers can see all good and bad things in concept and modify parts to find solutions for the problems. They can see quality of fuel explosion inside cylinder chamber, measure propagation, speed and distribution of exploded gases, measure vibrations. With one cylinder engine like this is much cheaper and faster to make any modification.

Main parts of an F1 V10 engine - Hours checking a new cylinder head with computer tomography: 20 - Number of engines brought to each GP: 5 - In terms of specific fuel consumption - power per litre of fuel burnt - an F1 engine is 20% more efficient than that in a small-capacity road car such as a Ford Fiesta or Renault Clio, and produces about the same amount of CO2 per kg of burnt fuel. - In an 18-race season, the entire F1 grid burns the same amount of fuel as a Boeing 747 does in one flight from London to Japan. Numbers on a typical UBS CHINESE GRAND PRIX (Shanghai) The back straight at Shanghai International Circuit covers 1170m, equivalent to 21.4 percent of the total lap distance. This is the longest straight encountered during the 2011 Formula One season, closely followed by Abu Dhabi’s Yas Marina (1140m), Italy’s Monza (1120m) and Korea’s Yeongam (1050m).

The engine spends a full 17 seconds at wide open throttle, which represents approximately 18 percent of last year's pole position time. This is the second longest period at wide open throttle of any circuit: it is exceeded only by Spa, where the run from La Source to Les Combes (including Eau Rouge) lasts for 23.5 seconds (Monaco has the shortest: 7.5 seconds). In terms of the percentage of the lap spent at wide open throttle, Shanghai is actually among the least demanding circuits of the year: 62 percent of the lap compared to the maximum value of 83 percent in Monza. A piston will complete over 12,000 cycles, and the crankshaft 24,000 rotations, during every lap in Shanghai - this can be translated to nearly 2km of distance travelled by the piston. Out of that, 450m are accounted for in the back straight. At peak revs, the pistons will be subjected to accelerations of 81,000m/s2.

This acceleration equates to more than 8,250G and the force held by the piston exceeds 50kN - equivalent to the weight of more than three standard road cars. For the valves, life is even tougher: they experience higher accelerations, with impact pressures almost 30 times greater than those endured by the pistons during combustion. At 18,000 rpm, the engine admits around 450 liters of air per second - which would equate to 27,000 liters per minute at maximum revs. By way of comparison, a Mercedes-Benz C-Class Estate has a load capacity of 485 liters. The regulation changes for 2009 and 2010 From year 2009, new FIA rules stipulate one engine for three races. Until now it was stipulated to use engine for two races. In a move designed to boost reliability still further, rev limits will be cut from 19,000 to 18,000 rpm. Teams will be limited to eight engines per season - eight for each race driver and an additional four for testing.

Just one team - Renault - has been allowed to make performance modifications to their engine for 2009 and again in 2010 in order to help equalise power outputs. Formula 1 stakeholders have reached an agreement for grand prix cars to use a new type of 'green' engine from 2013 The sport will switch from the current 2.4-litre V8s to 1.6-litre four-cylinder turbo engines with energy recovery systems and fuel restrictions. The new rules could be confirmed by governing body the FIA on 10 December 2010. The move was opposed for some time by Mercedes and Ferrari because they felt it did not make any sense to commit to spending millions designing a new type of engine at a time when the sport was trying to cut costs, and teams were facing problems finding sponsorship as the global economic crisis bit. F1 commercial boss Bernie Ecclestone put it this way to me when I spoke to him about the prospect of the new rules: "It's not necessary. We have a very good engine formula. Why should we change it to something that is going to cost millions of pounds and that nobody wants and that could end up with one manufacturer getting a big advantage?

"We don't need to do it; all the manufacturers are doing it (in their road cars) already." Power of energy-recovery systems to double Overall power to remain at approx 750bhp Checks and balances to ensure costs are contained and performance across all engines remains comparable Plan for advanced 'compound' turbos to be introduced in subsequent years The new generation of F1 engines for 2014 is small capacity single turbo V6 engines. They will turn the page as far as engine technology is concerned and will re-introduce engines as performance differentiators, at least to start with. Without getting too technical, Article 1.22 of the Technical Regulations now refers to what's called a 'Power Unit'. This comprises an ICE (Internal Combustion Engine, traditional engine), an ERS (Energy Recovery System) and all the ancillaries needed to make them work. But why a Power Unit? Well, today's V8 essentially features a "bolt-on" KERS Hybrid system that was added during the engine's life. The 2014 Power Unit has been designed with integrated hybrid systems from the very beginning.

However, great care has been taken by both the FIA, the manufacturers and the teams to ensure that the new engine formula doesn’t turn into a spending war. Many areas of the engine architecture are fixed, such as the bore size, the crankshaft height, the single turbo and so on. The key to building a great engine rather than just a good one will be getting power from the given fuel flow. The engines will be high revving. You don’t get the maximum fuel flow rate until you are above 10,500rpm, and the maximum revs are at 15,000rpm. Engine has 15% less moving. One important aspect of change will be to see the “power unit” as a whole entity, so that each driver will have 5 “power units” for the season (currently he has 8 engines). So if he has a failure of ERS, turbo, an exhaust, battery or control electronics failure you will have to use a sixth power unit and incur a 10 place penalty. Today it’s only the engine itself which attracts a penalty.

Whereas today’s engines need to last for 2,000kms, the 2014 units will therefore need to last for 4,000 kms, which interestingly also makes them usable in the Le Mans 24 hours race. KERS will be dropped in favor of ERS (Energy Recovery System), which will store and inject 120kW of power back into the engine, which will make a huge difference. Whereas KERS isn’t that noticeable, ERS will make a very significant difference to lap time. Heat recovery from the exhaust is part of a system which will harvest five times the energy KERS does currently. This is one of the key areas of development. To addition to single KERS system used today, which gives around 80hp boost for 7 seconds per laps, the 2014 units will also harvest energy from ERS. It's like KERS on steroids. They will still be able to harvest energy from and deploy energy to the rear axle, and to addition to that they can now do the same from the turbocharger.

The kinetic machine is called MGUK (Motor Generator Unit Kinetic) and the machine on the turbo an MGUH ('h' for heat). All of which will boost the output to 161hp for 33 seconds per lap (4MJ compared to 400 kJ). The unit can store 10 times more energy than the current KERS units and harvest 5 times more energy at the rear axle. Current thermal efficiency is 30%, and Mercedes has said that it is aiming for a thermal efficiency of 40% with its new turbo engine - a figure markedly more efficient than even the best road-car diesel engines, which are in the region of 35%. As the driver on average demands full power for 50 seconds per lap, this means that the hybrid aspect will be a very significant contributor to lap time.

For 2014, the rules specify a maximum race fuel allowance of 100 kg - compared to a typical race fuel load of around 150 kg before 2014 (although that 150kg are not fixed by the rules) so the engineers need to find a 30% improvement in efficiency compared to today’s engines, while maintaining the same power output. The 2014 engines will use Direct Injection, pressurized to 500bar. The regulations are aimed at reducing fuel consumption, with savings of 35% on the current fuel usage, which will save around 55kg of fuel per car per race. But the rules also allow the engineers some freedom to innovate, with certain key parameters controlled, which seems like a good compromise. Another important point is that with the engine architecture fixed, it’s easy for teams to switch from one manufacturer to another if they find they aren’t competitive. This will keep the engine builders on their toes.

With the new generation hybrid devices and because of turbocharger, the engine is going to produce a lot more torque than the V8 and over a wider power band, and this will lead to the cars stepping out more at the rear as they exit corners, That means the car is going to be grip limited on corner exit. Getting on top of that will be important, but so will the efficiency of the power units themselves. The pressure will be on tire supplier Pirelli to produce tires that can cope with the increase in sliding. There will be a single exhaust, exiting down the centre of the engine cover, onto the rear wing. This will make exhaust blowing into the diffuser a huge challenge, but as the gains are so great it will be fascinating to see how the aerodynamicists manage to channel the air. As for many fans’ fears that the sound will be disappointing, with a rev limit of 15,000 the engines will scream and with six exhaust pipes going into one turbocharger engine will sound very nice. It is noticeably less of a high-pitched wail at peak revs, as the maximum is now 15,000rpm, rather than the 18,000 previously.

And the turbo, which revs to a maximum 125,000rpm will also be audible. The engine note will not be as loud as the V8 because of two factors: the lower engine speed and the fact that the turbocharger sits in the exhaust flow, recovering energy from it that would otherwise be lost as heat and sound, and muffling it. The manufactures have agreed to homologate the engines on March 1st 2014, so they have until then to develop them. Books to read Some useful links: - f1technical.net , a great site with a lot of technical information’s and explanations. Site is updated daily with news from F1 word. - autosport.com , This site is a legend. A bible for racing lovers. News from all around the word. Unfortunately, to get access to all news, interviews and to open the site completely you should be subscribed to Autosport magazine. Anyway, great read. - JA.F1 site (or blog) ovned by ITV Sport’s lead commentator on Formula 1 James Allen - joesaward is the Joe Saward official blog about Formula 1 world.

Joe is an journalist, who write primarily about politics in and around motorsport, specifically on the FIA Formula 1 World Championship - vitalf1.com/ is another great site for Motor Sports fan’s like me. Site is relatively new, but great fun, with great discussion forum , Formula 1 news and forum . - f1.gpupdate.net , Site with fresh news from Formula 1 - planetf1 , another site with many different articles, news and statistics. Biased toward British teams, but anyway good read. - gurneyflap.com , Great history site. You can learn a lot from this site. Pictures, cars and many many more. Great. - 4ormula1 is a database of Formula 1 history and statistics of drivers, teams, grand prix, and all results since 1950 - Racecar Engineering , an online magazine with a lot to learn from, a lot of technical information’s and explanations - fia.com , La Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile, representing the interests of motoring organisations and motor car users. Head organisation and ruler in auto sport. - wikipedia.org , I don’t believe that I have to tell you anything about this site.

It’s not about Formula 1 technology, but you can learn a lot about that too. - carbibles.com , a great site for normal car users. Here you can find explanations of almost everything about your car and how it works. Technical reviews and explanations of some in-car gadgets. - Daretobedifferent.org Susie Wolff and UK governing body of UK motorsport have joined forces to launch Dare To Be Different, a high-profile new initiative which is about increasing female participation, not just on the track but in all aspects of the sport. Formula One engines - F1technical.net Formula One engines By Steven De Groote on 18 Jul 2009 Although F1 racing engines have lost some of the attractiveness they used to have when the regulations allowed more freedom, every single design currently in use is still a highly advanced piece of engineering that has required lots of time and thought. An engine is the only power source of a Formula One car - apart from the KERS systems in 2009 which are indirectly charged by the power generated by the engine - and is a structural part of the chassis.

Facts and figures Because of the regulations and engineering optimisations, all current engines are of a similar type, and feature the following similarities: All F1 engines are naturally aspirated V8's of 2400cc Engines are limited to 18,000rpm The weight is exactly 95kg (each manufacturer easily reaches this regulated minimum weight) Engine blocks are constructed of forged aluminium alloy, because of the weight advantages it gives in comparison to steel. Other materials would maybe give some extra advantages, but to limit costs, the FIA has forbidden all non-ferro materials. Crankshaft and piston rods are Iron based for strength. At its maximum pace the current V8 engines consume around 60 litres of petrol for 100km of racing. It's not exactly known how much oil such a top engine contains, but this oil is for 70% in the engine, while the other 30% is in a dry-sump lubrication system that changes oil within the engine three to four times a minute. Before its first track time and after each race, each engine is tested on an engine dyno to validate its performance and identify problems.

A video clip of Renault's RS24 on the dyno can be found here . Evolution of engine design All current engines run by the competing F1 teams are very similar due to the very stringent regulations that have increasingly come into play since 2006. Until that time, all car manufacturers involved in F1 were effectively out-racing each other in a spending race. It is not a lie to claim that in the years after 1995, the manufacturer who invested most and could hire most people could produce the best engine. Back in 1997, Ford Cosworth started a furious battle for weight reduction as their CR1 at the time was at least 25kg lighter than any other. Although they suffered some reliability problems throughout the season, the engine was an example for the others, as it allowed the team to shift ballast in the car to benefit the car's handling. As a reaction to this weight shedding, the the 1998 Mercedes-Benz engine was possibly one of the most revolutionary engines ever built, making performance gains and drastic weight cuts at the same time. It quickly proved good enough to be the basis of Mika Hakkinen's two consecutive world titles with McLaren Mercedes.

When in 2000, the FIA decided to limit the use of Beryllium alloys - to a maximum of 5 mass percentage - due to being poisonous in high quantities, Mercedes struggled for years to recover from that setback - they could not match any more the power of the at that time mighty Ferrari and BMW engines. By the end of 2005, most of the teams had converged their designs to 3 litre V10's with an internal angle of 90°. The teams' designers had come to the conclusion that 90° was the best compromise between performance and stiffness of the engine itself. That same year, some 3l V10 engines were producing more than 980hp and running very close to the 1000hp mark, a figure that was never reached since the ban on turbo engines. It was a sign for F1's governing body to change the regulations as top speeds at Monza of 370km/h were deemed hazardous for the drivers as well as the spectators. The maximum capacity was thus reduced to 2.4l and the cylinder count to 8.

Additionally, the FIA ruled that an engine freeze would come into effect a year later to put an end to the spending race. Only 2 years later however, halfway through 2008, the FIA and several teams who strictly followed the rules - including the likes of Toyota and Renault - found that the regulations still allowed too much freedom. It appeared that over the last year, Mercedes and Ferrari had been able to add up to 40hp to their engines as so called "reliability updates", while others had followed the engine freeze more strictly. Several meetings with FIA officials and the teams' principals then resulted in an equalisation of the engines, in which the less powerful could put on several updates to be on par in the next years. Even so, without fiercely looking for improvements, a current F1 engine is a highly interesting piece of engineering, in total consisting of 5000 separate parts, 1500 of which are moving. It is estimated that when in operation, a new F1 engine can produce around 720hp, but would be able to reach up to 780hp and above 20,000rpm if there would not be a limit on engine revolutions.

Difference with road engines Higher volumetric efficiency. VE is used to describe the amount of fuel/air in the cylinder in relation to regular atmospheric air. If the cylinder is filled with fuel/air at atmospheric pressure, then the engine is said to have 100% volumetric efficiency. Turbo chargers for instance can increase VE to above 100% while normally aspirated engines typically run anywhere between 80% and 100%. In this region however, a Formula One engine usually can achieve a higher VE than normal road engines because of their highly optimised intake manifolds. Unfortunately, from the total fuel energy that is put into the cylinders, averagely less than 1/3 ends up as usable horsepower. Ignition timing, thermal coatings, plug location and chamber design all affect the thermal efficiency (TE). Low compression street engines may have a TE of approximately 0.26, a racing engine may reach approximately 0.34. This seemingly small difference results in a difference of about 30% (0.34 - 0.26 / 0.26) more horsepower than before. From all that power generated, part of it is used by the engine to run itself.

The left over power is what you would measure on a dynamometer. The difference between what you would measure on the dyno and the workable power in the cylinder is the mechanical efficiency (ME). Mechanical efficiency is affected by rocker friction, bearing friction, piston skirt area, and other moving parts, but it is also dependent on the engine's RPM. The greater the RPM, the more power it takes to turn the engine. This means limiting internal engine friction can generate a large surplus in power output, and where in F1 the stress is on power, on the road it is also on fuel consumption. These main optimization necessities are what makes Formula One engine design difficult. At the end of the line, an F1 engine revs much higher than road units, hence limiting the lifetime of such a power source. It is especially the mechanical efficiency that causes Formula One engines to be made of different materials. These are necessary to decrease internal friction and the overall weight of the engine, but more importantly, limit the weight of internal parts, e.g. of the valves, which should be as light as possible to allow incredibly fast movement of more than 300 movements up and down a second (this at 18.000 rpm).

Another deciding point trying to reach a maximum of power out of an engine is the exhaust. The minor change of length or form of an exhaust can influence the horsepower drastically. Although variable outlet systems are not allowed, the exhaust system on a race car does not feature a muffler, lacks a katalysator and is specially made to withstand temperatures as high as 1200°C, a lot more than what is achieved with a regular road engine. Engine design philosophies Considering internal combustion engines (thus leaving out oscillating and Wankel rotary combustion engines), there are basically three different ways of building an engine. The difference here is how the cylinders are placed compared to each other. Inline engines, where all cylinders are placed next to (or after) each other are not used in Formula One since the 60's. While the engines are small, they are long and therefore require a heavy crankshaft. Boxer engines are actually one of the best ways to build an engine, if all external factors allow it. Two cylinder rows are placed opposed to each other. You could consider a boxer engine as being a 180° V-angle engine design.

These engines became popular in F1 because of the low centre of gravity and the average production costs, but later on disappeared out of the picture as this type of engine is not sufficiently stiff enough to withstand the car's G-forces in cornering conditions. Ferrari for instance have run 12 cylinder boxer engines from 1970 to 1980 before moving to a 120° V-angle engine. V-type engines, as currently used in all F1 cars. The V is in fact the geometrical angle that separated the two cylinder banks from each other where the crankshaft can be considered the origin of the angle. Obviously for this type of engine the size of the V is a major factor and must be decided in the first phases of the engine design. Previously, engines have been designed with angles such as 60° V12 or 72° V10. Although it has historically been an interesting evolution to see the differences between the teams' engines, the FIA have fixed the engine type to 90° V8 models.

Since the introduction of the Ford Cosworth DFV, an engine in a F1 car is a stressed member of the chassis, meaning that it is an integral part of the car. Before that idea, a chassis was built as a tube frame with the engine placed in it afterwards, while now a chassis would fall apart if no engine was fitted. A current engine is bolted in between the rear end of the monocoque and the frontal side of the gearbox. As of that time, V-type engines have gradually pushed out any other engine type because they are compact and can be constructed very rigidly without requiring further strengthening to the chassis to ensure stiffness. Contrary to boxer or flat engines, V-angled combustion engines pose an extra design problem, as it is crucial for an engine's performance that the V-angle is chosen wisely. This angle important to ensure a correct firing sequence and hence also influences its primary balance. Calculating possible V angles for a specific number of cylinders is fortunately not a daunting task.

If you consider that every combustion cycle takes 2 turns - intake and combustion phase - of the crankshaft, and a full circle is 360°, the engine's included V-angle x the number of cylinders must be a function of 720 in order to achieve evenly spaced cylinder firing and primary balance. That is also why a boxer engine is an ideal layout. The cylinders are opposed at 180° so having 2 or 4 or 6 or 8 or 10 or 12 isn't that big. Perfect primary balance is easy to achieve, as long as the reciprocating and rotating parts are in balance and, the firing order is always evenly spaced. A few examples make it clear why several specific angles have been very popular in F1 engine design: As mentioned earlier, Ferrari have used a 60° V12 or 120° V12 engine. As for the first option, divide 720° by 12 cylinders and you get 60. You get 120° when you imagine a V12 as two aligned V6 engines. Renault's extremely successful 72° V10 engines share the same thoughts.

It is the perfect bank angle for any V10 engine if a boxer is not an option. One cylinder is fired every time the crankshaft has completed 72° so that after 2 turns every single piston has gone through one complete cycle. Currently every team runs 90° V8 engines but not only because the regulations prescribe so. Also this is a perfect angle and meets the size requirements set by the aerodynamicists. Contrary to these optimal choices, there have also been unusual uses. For instance the 2005 90° V10 engines that everyone but Renault were using. While they may have been more interesting for other reasons, it's performance could theoretically not beat Renault's RS25 that was a 72° V10. The 90° V10 engines hence had either offset crank pins or a funny firing order. Before their RS24 Renault was trying a revolutionary design as they designed a 112° V10. Although the engine evolved from RS21 to RS23 and was beneficial in terms of the centre of gravity it was finally abandoned. The engine could not reach competitively high rpms since the uneven firing order introduced unwanted vibrations in the engine.

Crankshaft design Although the V8 with the now compulsory cylinder angle of 90 degrees may look like a sawn-off V10, technically it is an entirely separate concept with its own specific requirements. The V8 has a distinct firing sequence and demands a fundamentally different crankshaft design. Whereas a 72-degree offset crankshaft was used in most V10 Formula One engines, V8 powerplants can feature crankshafts with either four throws spaced at 90 degrees or four throws spaced at 180 degrees. Standard production engines are fitted with 90-degree crankshaft variants due to their better dynamic attributes, but a 180-degree crankshaft is favoured in racing car engine design. The improved performance this allows offsets the disadvantages in terms of dynamics. Cooling With such a low thermal efficiency, cooling of any internal combustion engine is vital for its correct operation. Basically, an F1 cooling system is the same as in any regular road car, as engine coolant and oil is pumped through a radiator to cool down before completing another cycle through the engine. However, due to the space restrictions and aerodynamic requirements of a race car, the positioning of these components is completely different.

The following shows the internals of a championship winning Renault R25 of 2005, included with its Renault RS25 engine (2). The flat panels located nearly vertically in the front of the side pods are the radiators (4). While in this picture the radiator is covered with a protective hose, it is not during running as air passes through the aluminium fins of the radiator. Their position however varies considerably in different cars as they are influenced by the aerodynamic and weight distribution requirements of a car. Contrary to popular belief, the air inlet above the driver's head is not part of the cooling system but instead provided the engine's cylinders with air to be mixed with fuel for combustion. It is commonly thought that the purpose of this is to 'ram' air into the engine like a supercharger, but the airbox does the opposite. The carbon fibre duct (1) gradually widens out as it approaches the engine, effectively creating a venturi and a suction effect on the small air inlet. The shape of this ducts and inlet however must be carefully designed to both fill all cylinders equally and not harm the exterior aerodynamics of the engine cover, all to optimize the volumetric efficiency.

Marked with (3) is the engine exhaust system while (5) and (6) identify the rear suspension that is fitted onto the gearbox. Transmission The transmission of any car is considered to be all intermediate gears and systems to get the engine rotational power to the wheels. In reality this comes down to the gearbox and differential, which are both assembled into the gearbox casing. Just as with the engine, this casing - often made of titanium or carbon fibre - is also a structural part of the chassis and is firmly bolted onto the rear end of the engine. More can be found in the specific article about F1 transmissions . Regulations The current regulations on Formula One engines can be summarised as follows. These specifications have become more strict during recent years in an attempt to limit costs and decrease performance. You can find an evolution of the most important regulations per era in the safety section . As this is only an excerpt of the most important regulations on engines, you would need to see the official FIA technical regulations before you start to design a Formula One engine yourself. Specification Only 4-stroke engines with reciprocating pistons are permitted. Engine capacity must not exceed 2400 cc.

Crankshaft rotational speed must not exceed 18,000rpm. Supercharging is forbidden. All engines must have 8 cylinders arranged in a 90 degree V configuration and the normal section of each cylinder must be circular. Engines must have two inlet and two exhaust valves per cylinder. Only reciprocating poppet valves are permitted. The sealing interface between the moving valve component and the stationary engine component must be circular. Dimensions, weight and centre of gravity Cylinder bore diameter may not exceed 98mm. Cylinder spacing must be fixed at 106.5mm (+/- 0.2mm). The crankshaft centreline must not be less than 58mm above the reference plane. The overall weight of the engine must be a minimum of 95kg. The centre of gravity of the engine may not lie less than 165mm above the reference plane. The longitudinal and lateral position of the centre of gravity of the engine must fall within a region that is the geometric centre of the engine, +/- 50mm.

The geometric centre of the engine in a lateral sense will be considered to lie on the centre of the crankshaft and at the mid point between the centres of the forward and rear most cylinder bores longitudinally. Variable geometry systems are not permitted Materials Magnesium based alloys, Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and inter-metallic materials may not be used anywhere in an engine Coatings are free provided the total coating thickness does not exceed 25% of the section thickness of the underlying base material in all axes. In all cases the relevant coating must not exceed 0.8mm. Pistons must be manufactured from an aluminium alloy which is either Al-Si ; Al-Cu ; Al-Mg or Al-Zn based. Piston pins, crankshafts and camshafts must be manufactured from an iron based alloy and must be machined from a single piece of material. A supplementary device temporarily connected to the car may be used to start the engine both on the grid and in the pits. In Mechanics

Question: Which manufacturer makes the engines that power the Williams formula One cars?
Answer: TOYOTA