Red China's Capitalist Bomb · OverDrive: eBooks, audiobooks and videos for libraries History Military Nonfiction Professionally converted for accurate flowing-text e-book format reproduction, this paper examines why China developed an enhanced radiation weapon (ERW) but did not deploy it. ERWs, better known as "neutron bombs," are specialized nuclear weapons with reduced blast effects and enhanced radiation, making them ideal tactical and antipersonnel weapons. Declassified U.S. intelligence and Chinese press reports indicate the People's Republic of China (PRC) was interested in an ERW in 1977 and successfully tested a device on September 29, 1988. To date, however, these sources provide no evidence of deployment. This study exploits primary source documents to reconstruct the ERW program's history, assesses drivers behind decisions throughout the program, and considers broader implications for PRC decisionmaking on weapons development. This case study suggests a model of a "technology reserve" in which China develops a weapons technology to match the capabilities of another state but defers deployment.

This paper presents an analytic framework for examining how the technology reserve model might apply to China's decisionmaking on ballistic missile defense (BMD), antisatellite (ASAT), and hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) systems.China's nuclear force modernization and its lack of transparency have long been of interest to U.S. policymakers and analysts. One of the most opaque and debated aspects of this discussion is China's tactical nuclear weapons (TNWs), or nuclear weapons designed to be used on a battlefield. Enhanced radiation weapons (ERWs), better known as "neutron bombs," are specialized TNWs with reduced blast effects and enhanced radiation, making them ideal tactical and antipersonnel weapons. Current literature on China's ERW is limited, but one author claims Chinese leaders have expressed "an unusual degree of fascination with" ERWs. Declassified U.S. intelligence and Chinese press reports indicate the People's Republic of China (PRC) was interested in an ERW in 1977 and successfully tested a device on September 29, 1988. To date, however, these sources provide no evidence of deployment.

This study reconstructs the ERW program's history by exploiting primary source documents, and it considers the implications for analyses of PRC weapons development, including contemporary systems of concern.Analytic Framework and Variables * Case Study: Red China's Capitalist Bomb * Analysis and Implications for Today * Toward a "Technology Reserve" Model: Match Capabilities but Defer Deployment * Conclusions and Areas for Future Analysis Smashwords – Red China's Capitalist Bomb: Inside the Chinese Neutron Bomb Program - Development of an Enhanced Radiation Weapon (ERW) Nuclear Weapon, PRC Decisionmaking, Missile Units, Implications – a book by Progressive Management By Progressive Management Professionally converted for accurate flowing-text e-book format reproduction, this paper examines why China developed an enhanced radiation weapon (ERW) but did not deploy it. More Professionally converted for accurate flowing-text e-book format reproduction, this paper examines why China developed an enhanced radiation weapon (ERW) but did not deploy it. ERWs, better known as "neutron bombs," are specialized nuclear weapons with reduced blast effects and enhanced radiation, making them ideal tactical and antipersonnel weapons. Declassified U.S.

intelligence and Chinese press reports indicate the People's Republic of China (PRC) was interested in an ERW in 1977 and successfully tested a device on September 29, 1988. To date, however, these sources provide no evidence of deployment. This study exploits primary source documents to reconstruct the ERW program's history, assesses drivers behind decisions throughout the program, and considers broader implications for PRC decisionmaking on weapons development. This case study suggests a model of a "technology reserve" in which China develops a weapons technology to match the capabilities of another state but defers deployment. This paper presents an analytic framework for examining how the technology reserve model might apply to China's decisionmaking on ballistic missile defense (BMD), antisatellite (ASAT), and hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) systems. China's nuclear force modernization and its lack of transparency have long been of interest to U.S. policymakers and analysts. One of the most opaque and debated aspects of this discussion is China's tactical nuclear weapons (TNWs), or nuclear weapons designed to be used on a battlefield.

Enhanced radiation weapons (ERWs), better known as "neutron bombs," are specialized TNWs with reduced blast effects and enhanced radiation, making them ideal tactical and antipersonnel weapons. Current literature on China's ERW is limited, but one author claims Chinese leaders have expressed "an unusual degree of fascination with" ERWs. Declassified U.S. intelligence and Chinese press reports indicate the People's Republic of China (PRC) was interested in an ERW in 1977 and successfully tested a device on September 29, 1988. To date, however, these sources provide no evidence of deployment. This study reconstructs the ERW program's history by exploiting primary source documents, and it considers the implications for analyses of PRC weapons development, including contemporary systems of concern.

Analytic Framework and Variables * Case Study: Red China's Capitalist Bomb * Analysis and Implications for Today * Toward a "Technology Reserve" Model: Match Capabilities but Defer Deployment * Conclusions and Areas for Future Analysis Available formats: epub mobi pdf lrf pdb txt html Red China's Capitalist Bomb: Inside the Chinese Neutron Bomb Program Title : Red China's Capitalist Bomb: Inside the Chinese Neutron Bomb Program Descriptive Note : Journal Corporate Author : NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIV FORT MCNAIR DC INST FOR NATIONAL STRATEGIC STUDIES Personal Author(s) : Ray, Jonathan Report Date : Jan 2015 Pagination or Media Count : 63 Abstract : This paper examines why China developed an enhanced radiation weapon (ERW) but did not deploy it. ERWs, better known as neutron bombs, are specialized nuclear weapons with reduced blast effects and enhanced radiation, making them ideal tactical and antipersonnel weapons. Declassified U.S. intelligence and Chinese press reports indicate the People s Republic of China (PRC) was interested in an ERW in 1977 and successfully tested a device on September 29, 1988.

To date, however, these sources provide no evidence of deployment. This study exploits primary source documents to reconstruct the ERW program s history, assesses drivers behind decisions throughout the program, and considers broader implications for PRC decisionmaking on weapons development. This case study suggests a model of a technology reserve in which China develops a weapons technology to match the capabilities of another state but defers deployment. This paper presents an analytic framework for examining how the technology reserve model might apply to China s decisionmaking on ballistic missile defense (BMD), antisatellite (ASAT), and hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) systems. The framework considers five variables as potential drivers of China s ERW decisionmaking. Specifically, it assesses the strategic environment of the PRC, the strategic value and normative value of the ERW, as well as the resource demands and technical feasibility of the ERW program. The framework also considers coalition politics of the ERW program as an intervening variable that influenced each of the above variables throughout the program s history.

Descriptors : *BOMBS, *CHINA, *NEUTRON IRRADIATION, *NUCLEAR WEAPONS, ANTISATELLITE DEFENSE SYSTEMS, BALLISTIC MISSILE INTERCEPT SYSTEMS, BLAST, CASE STUDIES, DECISION MAKING, DEPLOYMENT, EXPLOSION EFFECTS, FEASIBILITY STUDIES, GUIDED MISSILES, HYPERSONIC VEHICLES, INTELLIGENCE, MODELS, NEUTRONS, RADIATION, RESOURCES, SOURCES, STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, VARIABLES, WEAPONS Subject Categories : Nuclear Weapons Red China’s “Capitalist Bomb”: Inside the Chinese Neutron Bomb Program > Institute for National Strategic Studies > News DOWNLOAD PDF Executive Summary This paper examines why China developed an enhanced radiation weapon (ERW) but did not deploy it. ERWs, better known as “neutron bombs,” are specialized nuclear weapons with reduced blast effects and enhanced radiation, making them ideal tactical and antipersonnel weapons. Declassified U.S.

intelligence and Chinese press reports indicate the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was interested in an ERW in 1977 and successfully tested a device on September 29, 1988. To date, however, these sources provide no evidence of deployment. This study exploits primary source documents to reconstruct the ERW program’s history, assesses drivers behind decisions throughout the program, and considers broader implications for PRC decisionmaking on weapons development. This case study suggests a model of a “technology reserve” in which China develops a weapons technology to match the capabilities of another state but defers deployment. This paper presents an analytic framework for examining how the technology reserve model might apply to China’s decisionmaking on ballistic missile defense (BMD), antisatellite (ASAT), and hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) systems. The framework considers five variables as potential drivers of China’s ERW decisionmaking. Specifically, it assesses the strategic environment of the PRC, the strategic value and normative value of the ERW, as well as the resource demands and technical feasibility of the ERW program.

The framework also considers coalition politics of the ERW program as an intervening variable that influenced each of the above variables throughout the program’s history. The ERW program’s history comprised three phases: 1. 1977–1980: Decision and Initial Research. In 1977, Chinese media followed the controversy over the U.S. decision to develop and deploy an ERW in Europe. Soviet media denounced the ERW and grew concerned at China’s silence on the controversy. After General Zhang Aiping [张爱萍] signaled the PRC’s interest in the ERW in the People’s Daily, scientists involved in the ERW program (herein referred as the weaponeers) began initial research and development (R&D). Some weaponeers argued against developing the ERW, worrying that it was unnecessary and would disrupt higher priority work on warhead miniaturization. Ultimately, they acquiesced to orders and combined the ERW and warhead miniaturization research to master common principles of the two systems. 2. 1980–1984: Research and Development. In 1980, General Zhang told a member of a visiting U.S.

delegation that China needed the ERW as a hedge against the Soviets. The weapon fit into China’s military strategic guideline of “active defense” to defend against a Soviet armored thrust and invasion. By then, the weaponeers were dividing the ERW problem into constituent parts, or “principles,” and solving them individually. From 1982 to 1984, China conducted five tests related to the ERW and warhead miniaturization. On December 19, 1984, the weaponeers conducted a successful “principles breakthrough” test. One weaponeer metaphorically described the successful test by saying that “the second generation of light boats has passed the bridge.” 3. 1985–1988: Pause and Reevaluation. In 1985, China halted nuclear testing for 30 months. The pause coincided with a Soviet moratorium on testing and a leadership reshuffle that neutralized ERW proponent General Zhang. In 1986, the weaponeers warned PRC leaders that the United States and Soviet Union could conclude a nuclear test ban treaty, and they proposed accelerated testing to complete warhead designs.

The Central Committee approved the report and provided funding. On September 29, 1988, China successfully tested an ERW design and added it to what one weaponeer called the “technology reserve.” No variable individually explains the ERW program’s decisions and outcomes. A tense strategic environment and the ERW’s high strategic value against Soviet armored divisions correlate with the program’s R&D but do not explain the final test in a more relaxed strategic environment. Similarly, the ERW’s normative value was initially high as a technological achievement, but a taboo against the weapon was firmly in place before the final test. Resource demands and technological feasibility were challenges at the program’s beginning, and even after the weaponeers combined ERW and miniaturization research to conserve resources, the program still stalled in 1985. The 1988 final ERW design test for China’s “technology reserve” reflects both a hedge against changes in China’s strategic environment and the culmination of research. The evidence is incomplete, but it indicates that an ERW coalition led by General Zhang Aiping championed the program from 1977 to 1984 but fell apart before the ERW’s completion.

This analytic framework and “technology reserve” model of matching a capability but deferring deployment help frame analyses of the PRC’s decisionmaking for its BMD, ASAT, and HGV programs. A cursory analysis indicates arms control possibilities for BMD, continued development of ASAT capabilities, and multiple possible outcomes for HGV development. Key themes and lessons from the ERW case study include the following: Strong leaders versus institutional capacity. Coalitions with strong leaders such as Deng Xiaoping and Zhang Aiping drove the ERW program in a time of weak institutions. Today, China’s weapons development processes are more institutionalized but are still susceptible to factional politics. Technology parity as an ideological imperative. Matching other states’ military technologies is an extension of Chinese techno-nationalism into weapons development decisions. Importance of potential adversaries’ reactions. Soviet alarm over the ERW as a disruptive capability made the weapon more attractive to Chinese leaders. U.S. reactions to contemporary PRC weapons systems should be calm. Need to update Chinese open-source research techniques. This research benefited from studies on Chinese open-source research techniques, but such literature is dated. Newer sources such as social media, blogs, chat rooms, and updated databases highlight the need for more current discussions.

Though It Seems Crazy Now, the Neutron Bomb Was Intended to Be Humane Though It Seems Crazy Now, the Neutron Bomb Was Intended to Be Humane Go to permalink Until the day he died, physicist Samuel Cohen declared that his invention, the neutron bomb, was a "moral" and "sane" weapon that would kill enemy combatants, while sparing civilians and cities. But, despite the support of fans like Ronald Reagan, this weapon of not-as-much mass destruction proved to be a hard sell. Advertisement Although Samuel Cohen never achieved the fame of Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, he had been part of the U.S. nuclear weapons program from its very inception. He had worked on the Manhattan Project, where he performed calculations related to the atomic bomb's yield of neutrons. After the war, he was a consultant at the Rand Corporation.

According to his memoir , Shame: Confessions of the Father of the Neutron Bomb, he hit upon his idea during a 1951 visit to Seoul, where he witnessed the devastation of the Korean War: "The question I asked of myself was something like: If we're going to go on fighting these damned fool wars in the future, shelling and bombing cities to smithereens and wrecking the lives of their surviving inhabitants, might there be some kind of nuclear weapon that could avoid all this?" A Kinder, Gentler Nuke Cohen's invention was, essentially, a smaller, "fun-sized" version of a hydrogen bomb with a few simple modifications under the hood. Advertisement Since a hydrogen bomb utilizes fusion as well as fission, it releases much more of its energy in the form of prompt radiation—especially neutrons—than a fission bomb does. Most of those neutrons, however, are absorbed by a "jacket" of uranium-238 that encases the fusion-fission device, in order to further increase the explosive yield of the bomb. A neutron bomb is a hydrogen bomb without the uranium-238. This lowers the explosive yield while letting the neutrons bust out all over.

So, when a fission bomb explodes, the released energy is distributed as: Advertisement 10% residual radiation (fallout) 5 % prompt radiation (gamma rays, neutrons, X-rays) Cohen believed that he could increase the output of prompt radiation to as high as 80%, while scaling back on the amount of energy released in the form of blast, heat and fallout. Advertisement As such, the neutron bomb would provide less bang for the buck. It would be a tactical nuke, explicitly used to kill enemy combatants on the battlefield while, supposedly, minimizing the amount of physical collateral damage. The official name for the bomb was an "Enhanced Radiation Weapon" (ERW). In order to be effective militarily, a neutron bomb would have to incapacitate its victims quickly. This requires a very high dose, in the neighborhood of 8,000 rems. For a one-kiloton ERW detonated at 1,500 feet, the required lethal dose would cover an area of about 0.8 square miles. Anyone in this kill zone would die in a particularly gruesome manner, as neutrons collided with protons inside living tissue.

The ionization would break down chromosomes, cause nuclei to swell and destroy all types of cells, especially those in the central nervous system. A Political Explosion Cohen and his colleagues at the nuclear weapons labs spent years lobbying government and military officials to develop the neutron bomb, arguing that it was a more discriminating weapon with both moral and military advantages. Advertisement Finally, they found support from President Richard Nixon's Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who was seeking the capability to conduct limited nuclear warfare "so that if deterrence were to fail…the use of nuclear weapons would not result in [an] orgy of destruction." This might be possible, he believed, through the use of "a sufficient accuracy-yield combination to destroy only the intended target and to avoid widespread collateral damage." The neutron bomb offered Schlesinger what he wanted. He remained the Secretary of Defense after Nixon's resignation and, in 1975, the Ford administration authorized development of the weapon, which would be overseen by the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA). The neutron bomb would be designed for tactical use to offset the Warsaw Pact's three-to-one advantage in tank forces.

The army requested neutron warheads for its Lance short-to-medium-range tactical missile and its 8-inch and 155 mm artillery pieces. Advertisement But, it was President Jimmy Carter who would inherit the program and make the final decision about deployment. There was just one small problem: nobody had bothered to tell Carter that the weapon was being built. The president found out about it the same way as the rest of the world….he read about it in the Washington Post. Reporter Walter Pincus had learned about the neutron bomb when he saw a congressional committee report that included testimony about its development. On June 6, 1977, he published an article with the dramatic headline, "Neutron Killer Warhead Buried in ERDA Budget." The article described the weapon as "specifically designed to kill people through the release of neutrons rather than to destroy military installations through heat and blast." Advertisement Most of the Carter administration had not been aware of the neutron bomb project. Those who had known about, including Secretary of Defense Harold Brown and James Schlesinger (who was now the Secretary of Energy), never imagined that it would be controversial.

Carter's aides knew differently—not least, because the president had made it a point to pledge in his inaugural address , "we will move this year a step toward our ultimate goal—the elimination of all nuclear weapons from this Earth." Domestic critics saw the neutron bomb as an escalation of the arms race. Others charged that, by making nuclear weapons less destructive, it made nuclear war easier to wage. Leftists even called it a "capitalist" bomb because it killed people while protecting property. Advertisement But criticism in the U.S. was calm compared to the backlash in Europe. The neutron bomb wasn't a strategic weapon to serve as a deterrent; it was a tactical weapon intended for actual use on the battlefield—and that battlefield happened to be located on European soil. Ironically, the supporters of the bomb had thought that it would ease European fears, by promising a technological breakthrough that would limit the worst effects of nuclear war. Instead it had the opposite effect and served as a rallying issue for Europe's growing anti-nuclear weapon movement, which had become increasingly convinced that the nuclear powers, despite their lip service to work toward disarmament, would continue to expand and modernize their arsenals. Advertisement The extent of the opposition across Europe was stunning.

A "Halt the Neutron Bomb" campaign in the Netherlands brought out 50,000 protesters, and delivered a petition to the Dutch parliament signed by 1.2 million. Polls in the UK found that 72% of voters who had heard of the neutron bomb opposed its deployment. But, while there was widespread grassroots opposition, some European governments felt differently. On July 22, 1977, National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski told Carter that, although NATO officials wanted the new weapon, "they are terrified by the political consequences of seeming to approve nuclear warfare on their territory and endorsing a weapon which seems to have acquired a particularly odious image." Advertisement Brzezinski later organized a compromise strategy: the U.S. announced that it would be willing to forego deployment if the Soviet Union, in turn, would forego deployment of its SS-20 intermediate range ballistic missile, and NATO publicly approved the plan. But then, without any warning, in April 1978, Carter announced that he was deferring production of the neutron bomb—a position that meant, in effect, he was canceling the program.

The president had privately reached the conclusion that European governments would be unable to muster support. Carter told his advisors "that the burden and political liability for this weapon, which as far as he could see nobody wanted, was being placed on his shoulders instead of being shared by the whole alliance." Carter's surprise decision frustrated European leaders who had spent political capital to support the deployment of a weapons system that would not be produced. The administration was widely criticized domestically for its handling of the entire affair. The Washington Post ran a cartoon depicting the president as an out-of-control missile. The caption read: "It's the Cartron bomb—it knocks down supporters without damaging opponents." Reagan's Raygun Ronald Reagan also criticized Carter's decision to halt production of the neutron bomb. He was excited about its potential, saying that: Advertisement Advertisement "Very simply, it is the dreamed of death ray weapon of science fiction. It kills enemy soldiers but doesn't blow up the surrounding countryside or destroy villages, towns and cities…..Here is a deterrent weapon available to us at much lower cost than trying to match the enemy gun for gun, tank for tank, plane for plane." After Reagan was elected president, he announced that he was reviving the neutron bomb program.

But, in Europe, opposition against deploying the weapon had hardened even further. Security experts openly warned against the potential consequences of using the neutron bomb. Some were convinced that, if the U.S. used tactical nuclear weapons, the Soviet Union would escalate the conflict and respond with strategic nuclear weapons. Advertisement Admiral Lord Hill-Norton, a former Chairman of the Military Committee of NATO wrote in The Times on August 18, 1980: "Once you cross the nuclear threshold you have taken an irreversible step which is almost bound to lead to a strategic nuclear exchange, which in turn is almost bound to lead to the end of civilization…I will go to my grave being certain that if you let off a neutron bomb anywhere in Europe you have gone 90% of the way toward triggering a strategic nuclear exchange." Another concern was that the decision to use the weapon would be placed in the hands of field officers. Brigadier Michael Harbottle, a retired British army officer, wrote in 1981 that: "Because it is a close combat weapon with an immediate response capability, the decision to use it is likely to be delegated to the tactical field commander at the point of attack.

The decision to fire will be tactical not strategic, and is unlikely to take into account the wider repercussions." And then, there was the claim that civilians would be spared from the "collateral" effects of the weapon. Although the "kill zone" was, in theory, limited to 0.8 square miles, there was also a considerably larger area (about 2.5 square miles) within which the dose, though not enough to incapacitate quickly, could still cause radiation sickness. Hence, 2.5 square miles would need to be considered the lethal area of the weapon as far as civilians were concerned. Advertisement Advertisement That posed a big problem, since Western Europe was such a densely populated region. In Germany, the average distance between populated places was only a little over a mile, so there were simply not many areas in the prospective battle zone where 2.5 square miles would not contain substantial numbers of noncombatants. Indeed, a large-scale Warsaw Pact invasion would have involved something like 20,000 tanks. And those tanks would not be conveniently deployed in closely-packed formations.

Surveillance of Warsaw Pact field exercises suggested that no more than 10 to 20 tanks would likely be within the effective area of a single weapon. Western forces, therefore, would have to detonate hundreds of neutron bombs. And, finally, the ultimate kicker. The warheads being built by the U.S. had not achieved the efficiency that physicist Samuel Cohen had envisioned decades earlier. They didn't yield 80% neutron radiation, but only 30%, while the blast and thermal energy yields had been reduced only marginally, to 40% and 25%. Under those circumstances, it was viewed as folly to believe that Western forces could minimize collateral physical damage in Europe. Advertisement Confronted with European refusal to allow deployment of the weapons, the bombs never left the U.S. and were dismantled during the first Bush administration. As precision-guided weaponry continued to mature and become more sophisticated, the rationale for building a neutron bomb faded. Samuel Cohen never forgave Ronald Reagan for what he deemed was a betrayal against him and his country. In 2006, the embittered physicist completed the third revision of his memoirs and published them for free on the Internet.

This edition of the book had a new title: Fuck You! Mr. President. Gear from Kinja Deals Is the Neutron Bomb Coming(Kommt die Neutronenbombe?) Title : Is the Neutron Bomb Coming(Kommt die Neutronenbombe?) Corporate Author : CALIFORNIA UNIV LIVERMORE RADIATION LAB Personal Author(s) : Kaplan, Fred M. Report Date : JUN 1978 Pagination or Media Count : 23 Abstract : The neutron bomb is the latest development in the apparently never ending search for new weapons, especially nuclear weapons, that can be used for highly specific purposes. Its official name is Enhanced Radiation Warhead (ERW). It was guarded as a secret for years and was disguised as a research and development project in ERDA (Energy Research and Development Administration). Its uncovering by reporters last summer stimulated a heated controversy which continues unabated. In the event of war, the neutron bomb's task is to kill more people with a single warhead than with a conventional nuclear weapon. At the same time, the damage to buildings, agriculture and materiel is to be reduced to a minimum.

At present, the military seems to be seriously thinking about the use of tactical atomic weapons as a means of waging war. These thoughts and the well-known horrible biological effects of neutron radiation have roused resistance from many quarters. Descriptors : *NUCLEAR WEAPONS, *BOMBS, RADIATION, WARFARE, DAMAGE, ENERGY, BUILDINGS, CONVENTIONAL WARFARE, GERMANY, TRANSLATIONS, RESPONSE(BIOLOGY), TACTICAL WEAPONS, GERMAN LANGUAGE, AGRICULTURE, NEUTRONS, WARHEADS. Subject Categories : Nuclear Warfare Nuclear Weapons - Chemistry LibreTexts Nuclear Weapons A nuclear weapon is commonly defined as a device, which uses a nuclear reaction for destructive means. Introduction The first nuclear weapon was successfully detonated on July, 16,1945. The nuclear weapon, code named “ Trinity”, yielded an explosion equivalent to 20 kilotons of Trinitrotoluene (TNT), and an unexpected shock wave, that could have been felt 100 miles away. Before we can fully understand the chemical complexity and appreciate the engineering elegance of a nuclear weapon, we must first grasp basic nuclear chemistry concepts.

Basic Nuclear Chemistry Definitions and Concepts Nuclear Fission- A nuclear reaction caused by nuclear decay of an unstable atom. As a result of the instability of the atom, the nucleus splits into 2 fission fragments also yielding free neutrons and exorbitant amounts of energy (both in the form of electromagnetic radiation and kinetic energy). Example of Fission Reaction 236U → fission fragments (many different combinations of fragments can form) + Neutrons + 3.20* 10-11 Joules Nuclear Fusion- Almost completely complimentary to fission. The nuclear reaction where two nuclei collide, at high velocity, and each of their respective nuclei squeeze together to form the nucleus of a different, heavier nucleus. Often times, the elements used in fusion processes today are the isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium. The reaction also yields free neutrons and exorbitant amounts of energy from binding energy.

Example: Fission of Deuterium and Tritium \[\ce{^2_1H + ^3_1H -> ^4_2He + ^1_0N} \;\;\;\; \Delta{E}=-17.6 MeV\] Fissile / Fissionable – An atom is fissionable if it is capable of undergoing a fission reaction. If an atom is fissile it is not only able to undergo fission, but it is also capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction Nuclear Chain Reaction- As stated earlier in the text, a nuclear fission reaction yields free neutrons. In a nuclear chain reactions, the free neutrons from a nuclear fission reaction bombard near by fissile isotopes resulting in multiple fission reactions. These reactions result in colossal amounts of kinetic energy and gamma radiation. Critical Mass- The amount of fissile isotope required to successfully start and sustain a nuclear chain reaction. If the fissile material is at a subcritical mass it cannot sustain a nuclear chain reaction. On the other hand, if the fissile material is at supercritical mass, it will undergo a chain reaction at a faster rate.

Nuclear Winter- A nuclear winter is a theorized outcome of a nuclear war. It is when enough nuclear detonations have taken place to scorch enough of the earth to release sufficient soot and ash into the earth's stratosphere to significantly diminsh sunlight and create excessively cool weather for up to years afterwards. Researchers estimate that the detonation of 100 Hiroshima type explosions in the subtropics would eject enough soot into the atmosphere to create a global climate change and a nuclear winter for most of Eurasia and North America for up to ten years, which would have catastrophic effects. Althought the effects of a nuclear winter would have other vast consequences, like depletion of the Ozone layer, the immediate consequences previously discussed are what are characteristic of a nuclear winter. Fallout Condition- Fallout refers to the radioactive material that "falls out" of the atmosphere after a nuclear explosion. It consists of dust and radioactive particles that can contaminate an area with radioactivity and pose a huge health hazard to biological organisms. It can contaminate the animal food chain which can have drastic effects on the affected region.

Weather has a huge impact on fallout, wind currents can spread radioactive fallout either over a large area, such as in the case of Castle Bravo, or not. A nuclear weapon can either undergo a nuclear fission reaction (atomic bomb) or a nuclear fusion reaction (H bomb or thermonuclear bomb). The first nuclear weapons built underwent pure nuclear fission. Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239 were the most common fissile isotopes used. (Since Uranium 235 is practically absent in nature, it requires human methods of artificial enrichment to become a fissile isotope). There are 2 basic nuclear fission weapon designs: Gun assembly- An uranium-235 bullet is fired through a barrel at a fissile Uranium-235 target. The collision of the two isotopes causes the uranium samples to squash together to form a critical mass, at which time the mass initiates a chain reaction. The gun design can only work with the uranium-235 isotope. Implosion- A critical mass of a fissile material (U-235 or Pu-239) is surrounded by highly explosive material.

When detonated, the explosives, usually TNT, compress the fissile material causing it to assume a state of supercritical mass. The supercritical mass then instantaneously takes part in a fission chain reaction. The first nuclear fusion weapons (also known as thermonuclear weapons) were designed to initiate a fission-based chain reaction. The fusion reaction between the hydrogen isotopes used, 31tritium and 21deuterium, would result in the free neutrons necessary to bombard a fissile isotope and start a nuclear chain reaction. The first thermonuclear weapon was detonated during the early 1950’s. Similar to the nuclear implosion design, thermonuclear weapons use the heat and radiation from a fission reaction to make the fissile material assume a state of supercritical mass. The supercritical mass then instantaneously undergoes a fusion chain reaction yielding exponentially more energy then a fission chain reaction. Nuclear Bombs Fission Bomb- In a fission bomb, neutrons given off from the radioactive decay of an element, usually uranium or plutonium, are used to cleave adjacent atomic nuclei in the respective radioactive isotope.

The neutron does this through force, like a bullet being shot at a piece of limestone, when the neutron hits the atomic nuclei, the large radioactive nucleus is split into two smaller nucleus' of different elements, depending on which radioactive element was used as the fissile reactant. The reaction of splitting the atom gives off an immense amount of energy, that was originally used to hold the nucleus together, and extra neutrons. The fission reaction in an atomic bomb begins when a given amount of TNT is detonated around a radiocative isotope such as plutonium. The explosion from the TNT compresses the plutonium to a super dense mass. Evenually the plutonium sample reaches its critical mass and the neutrons that are given off by the decaying nucleus' of the plutonium atoms cannot escape without bumping into an adjacent plutonium atom. When this happens, the hit atom is split which, in turn, gives off more neutrons which do the same thing. This fission reaction is the process used in the atomic bombs used against Japan during World War II. Little boy- "Little Boy" was the codename for the first atomic fission bomb used as a weapon.

The bomb was dropped by the United States on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 by a B-29 Superfortress named Enola Gay during World War II. It used a 600 milligram Uranium-235 core as the radioactive isotope and exploded with a force equivalent to approximately 13-18 kilotons of TNT. An estimated 140,000 died instantly with thousands more in the months that followed from injuries and radiation poisoning. Fat Man- "Fat Man" was the codename of the second atomic bomb used in World War II. The bomb was detonated over Nagasaki, Japan just three days after "Little Boy," on August 9, 1945. It used a Plutonium core similar to the Trinity bomb tested a month earlier in New Mexico, which was the first man made nuclear reaction. It was detonated 1,800 feet above Nagasaki and yeilded an explosive force of 21 kilotons of TNT. An estimated 39,000 deaths were sustained immediatly, with thousands more later from injuries.

Fusion Bomb- A fusion bomb, is a weapon that uses a fusion reaction instead of a fission reaction to derive its destructive force. It is much more powerful than a fission based bomb, but is triggered in a similar way. The fusion reaction is initiated by an initial explosion. However, due to the extreme quantities of heat and energy needed to start the fusion process, TNT is an inadequate source of energy. Instead, small atomic bombs are placed strategically around a core containing hydrogen isotopes, deuterium and tritium. Once the atomic fission bombs detonate, they create enough heat and compression for the two hydrogen isotopes to fuse together to create a normal helium nucleus, an extra neutron, and a tremendous amount of energy. Because fusion occurs at extremely high temperatures, equal to that of the sun, weapons that utilize this process are also known as Thermonuclear weapons, such as hydrogen bombs. Hydrogen Bomb- A Hydrogen bomb is a thermonuclear weapon first tested by the United States in 1952 in Bikini Atoll. It was codenamed Castle Bravo, it yielded much more fallout and energy than expected, it had energy equal to 1000 Hiroshima atomic bombs.

Tsar Bomba- The largest, most powerful bomb ever created by humanity. Roughly translated, it means "The King of Bombs." The Russian made bomb code named Ivan, was a type of hydrogen bomb that had an explosive yield of <50 megatons of TNT. It was a three stage thermonuclear weapon in that it went through a process identical to that of a normal hydrogen bomb, however after the fusion process was complete, the extra neutron given off by each helium nucleus formed, was used to create a small additional fission reaction with a small amount of uranium. So, in essence, it was three bombs put together, an atomic explosion to start the fission reaction and a tiny additional atomic explosion after the fusion reaction. The resulting explosion created a shock wave so powerful that it could be measured on its third trip around the world. Although the entire process lasted only about 39 nanoseconds, it yielded about 1.4% of the entire output of the sun during that time. Cobalt Bomb- A cobalt bomb in theory could be the most deadly bomb to ever be conceived.

It is in a class of bombs known as "Salted Bombs." It is similar to other fission-fusion-fission type bomb designs however instead of purely fissionable material being placed around the fusion fuel, to start the fusion process, much of the fissionable material is replaced with non-fissionable material such as cobalt. The idea behind this is that the non-fissionable material will absorb much of the released neutrons and become extremely radioactive. Although the explosion is not as large as that of other related thermonuclear devices, it is still large and it leaves the targeted area so radioactive that it becomes uninhabitable to all living things, with the fallout half life being about 5.25 years. It is its ability to kill all life with fallout that this type of bomb has become known as a type of doomsday device. However, there are a few problems with this concept as a doomsday weapon. The first problem is the cost and size of such the.

Although there is no limit to the size of a thermonuclear weapon, the amount of cobalt needed to fatally contaminate earths surface is 0.002 lbs of radioactive 60Co, or 1 gram, for every square kilometer. This translates into roughly 1,142,400 lbs of cobalt needed to be transmuted into 60Co and then scattered over earths surface. The size, cost to make, and practicality of such a weapon are, alone, enough of a problem to deter anyone from ever building such doomsday device. Another problem is that 60Co might not be equally scattered over each square kilometer equally, due to wind and other natural factors, which would cause some areas of earth to not be lethally contaminated. One more problem with such an idea, is that if not everyone is killed within a short time from the radiation, humans being the intelligent beings tha we are, would learn to take shelter and shield ourselves from the radiation and/or clean up the contamination. So far, it is public knowledge that no cobalt bomb has ever been built. If one has, then it is a highly classified secret of some nation's government.

Neutron Bomb- A type of thermonuclear weapon, made in the united States in 1958, that is intended to release its deadly force in the form of deadly radiation instead of blast or heat energy. However, since it is a thermonuclear weapon it still has considerable blast and heat properties that far exceed the potential of conventional bombs, it is only about a tenth as strong as a fission type atomic bomb. It is known as an Enhanced Radiation Weapon (ERW). It undergoes a process of fission-fusion however, its casing is typically made of Nickel or Chromium to allow all the neutrons to escape instead of being captured. It was originally developed during the Cold War as an anti-tank weapon since, tank personnel would be protected from considerable heat and blast damage. It releases about 80 Gy of radiation, which is over 13 times the lethal dose of radiation for a human. It also has the ability to make the armor on a tank become radioactive which would contribute to the effectiveness of its purpose.

Incapacitating radiation poisoning occurs within the first few minutes of exposure to its radiation up to 690-1350 meters away from ground zero, depending on the protection of individual soldiers, with death occurring within the hour. Because of the slow, sadistic method of death brought on by this weapon, it was originally opposed by President John F. Kennedy. Dirty Bomb- A dirty bomb is not a nuclear style bomb. It is rather a conventional bomb with radioactive material attached to it. It is the largest danger from terrorist or any insidious person that gets there hands on radioactive material or waste. Most of the damage from a dirty bomb occurs from the conventional bomb and not the radioactive material. The main danger from a dirty bomb is simply the scattering of radioactive material which, although said to be unlikely based on incidents like Chernobyl, can cause sickness and death from the extended radiation. Testing Bikini Atoll- Aside from inspiring the name of the two piece swim suit, Bikini Atoll is a ring of Islets in the Pacific that are part of Micronesia.

It has been the testing ground of many nuclear bombs since the 1950's, with probably the most famous case being that of the test of the Hydrogen bomb, Castle Bravo. In the testing of Castle Bravo a whole island was, for the most part, destroyed with much of two neighboring islands suffering the same consequence. Problems 1. Given the following nuclear fusion reaction, what particle corresponds to \(\ce{x}\)? \[\ce{^2_1H + ^2_1H -> X } + \text{energy}\] \(\ce{^4_2He}\) Glossary [Nagasaki to Overpressure] | atomicarchive.com See; Ballistic Missile Defense . National Technical Means (NTM) Intelligence gathering systems under national control, such as photo-reconnaissance satellites and ground based radars, used to monitor compliance with agreed arms limitations Neutron A neutral particle of approximately unit mass, present in all atomic nuclei, except those of ordinary hydrogen. Neutrons are required to initiate the fission process, and large numbers of neutrons are produced by both fission and fusion reactions. See; Nucleus .

Neutron Bomb The neutron bomb differs from standard nuclear weapons insofar as its primary lethal effects come from the radiation damage caused by the neutrons it emits. It is also known as an enhanced-radiation weapon (ERW). The augmented radiation effects mean that blast and heat effects are reduced so that physical structures, including houses and industrial installations, are less affected. Because neutron radiation effects drop off very rapidly with distance, there is a sharper distinction between areas of high lethality and areas with minimal radiation doses. See; Neutron . Neutron Radiation In fission bombs the neutrons are produced in the fission process. They are emitted from the highly excited fission products. The way that neutrons interact with matter is quite different from the way that gamma rays interact. Neutrons have negligible interaction with atomic electrons. Their only direct interaction is with nuclei. Neutron interaction in the human body can produce ionizing radiation and subsequent doses of radiation. See; Ionizing Radiation .

Non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) Under the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, these are states that had not detonated a nuclear device prior to January 1, 1967, (that is, all states other than the United States, the Soviet Union [now Russia], the United Kingdom, France, and China). Nonproliferation Prevention of the spread of weapons of mass destruction. Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) Signed in 1968, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) provides that signatory nations without nuclear weapons will not seek to build them and will accept safeguards to prevent diversion of nuclear material and technology from peaceful uses to a weapons program. States possessing nuclear weapons at the signing of the NPT agreed not to help non-nuclear states gain access to nuclear weapons, but to offer them access to peaceful nuclear technology. All states agree to work towards the eventual elimination of nuclear weapons.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established on April 4, 1949, by representatives from 12 nations (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States; Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955, and Spain in 1982) who gathered in Washington, D.C., to sign the North Atlantic Treaty, which had as its purpose the deterring of potential Soviet aggression in Europe. The signing of the treaty paved the way for the first peacetime alliance participated in by the United States. Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy refers to the energy consumed or produced in modifying the composition of the atomic nucleus. Nuclear energy also powers electricity-generating plants in countries throughout the world. It is seen by many as the source of inexpensive, clean power; but, because of the hazardous radiation emitted in producing that power and the radioactivity of the materials used, others feel that it may not be a viable energy alternative to the use of fossil fuels or solar energy.

Nuclear Freeze Movement The nuclear freeze movement advocates an agreement between the United States and the USSR to halt (freeze) the production and deployment of nuclear weapons and delivery systems. First formulated in 1980 by Randall Forsberg, director of the Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies in Brookline, Mass., the freeze proposal attracted growing support in the United States during the next two years, when the administration of President Reagan was increasing military spending and preparing to deploy more nuclear missiles in Europe. A series of antinuclear protests culminated in a vast demonstration by nearly half a million people from the United States and other countries in New York City on June 12, 1982 Nuclear power plant An electrical generating facility using a nuclear reactor as its heat source to provide steam to a turbine generator. Nuclear Radiation Particulate and electromagnetic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei in various nuclear processes. The important nuclear radiations, from the weapons standpoint, are alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons. All nuclear radiations are ionizing radiations, but the reverse is not true; X rays, for example, are included among ionizing radiations, but they are not nuclear radiations since they do not originate from atomic nuclei.

Nuclear Reactor A device in which nuclear fission may be sustained and controlled in a self-supporting nuclear reaction. The varieties are many, but all incorporate certain features, including fissionable material or fuel, a moderating material (unless the reactor is operated on fast neutrons), a reflector to conserve escaping neutrons, provisions of removal of heat, measuring and controlling instruments, and protective devices. The reactor is the heart of a nuclear power plant. See; Light-Water Reactor , Pressurized-Water Reactor , Reactor . Nuclear Regulatory Commission The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is an independent U.S. government agency. The NRC came into existence in 1975 under the provisions of the 1974 Energy Reorganization Act. The major concern of the NRC is the use of nuclear energy to generate electric power. It licenses the construction and operation of nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities as well as the possession, use, processing, transport, handling, and disposal of nuclear materials. (The U.S. Department of Energy has authority over U.S. nuclear weapons plants). Nuclear Waste Nuclear waste refers to the entire array of radioactive materials created by all aspects of nuclear technology.

The most widely known wastes are those produced by the civilian nuclear industry and the nuclear weapons program. Other sources of nuclear waste include radioactive materials produced for medical, research, and industrial applications, and the contaminated sections of dismantled nuclear facilities. Nuclear Weapon (or Bomb) A general name given to any weapon in which the explosion results from the energy released by reactions involving atomic nuclei, either fission, fusion or both. Thus, the A- (or atomic) bomb and the H- (or hydrogen) bomb are both nuclear weapons. See; Fission , Fusion , Thermonuclear . Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (NWFZ) A geographical area in which nuclear weapons are not allowed to be built, possessed, transferred, deployed, or tested. Nuclear weapon states The five states that detonated a nuclear device prior to January 1, 1967 (China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Nuclear Weapon-cable States Those states not party to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty but which have the ability to build nuclear weapons (India, Israel, and Pakistan).

Nuclear Winter A potential consequence of nuclear war, where smoke from burning cities would cause a severe worldwide drop in temperatures, lasting for weeks or months with large scale ecological impacts. Nucleon See; Nucleus . Nucleus The small, central, positively charged region of an atom which carries essentially all the mass. Except for the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. The nuclei of isotopes of a given element contain the same number of protons, but differ in the number of neutrons. Thus, they have the same atomic number, and so are the same element, but they have different mass number (and masses). The nuclear properties (e.g. radioactivity, fission, neutron capture, etc.) of a given element are determined by both the number of neutrons and the number of protons. See; Electron , Neutron , Proton . Outer Space Treaty Prohibits the placement of WMD in orbit around the earth, on the moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise in outer space.

The treaty also stipulates that the exploration and use of outer space be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries, and that the moon and other celestial bodies are to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes. Overpressure The transient pressure, usually expressed in pound per square inch, exceeding the ambient pressure, manifested in the shock wave from an explosion. The peak overpressure is the maximum value of the overpressure at a given location and is generally experienced at the instant the shock wave reaches that location.

Question: What is the better known name of the 'ERW' or 'Enhanced Radiation Weapon'?
Answer: NEUTRON BOMB