War of Jenkins' Ear War of Jenkins' Ear War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Top Surnames William Mears (1710 - 1739) William Mears was born in England in 1710. He came to America with Mr. Olethorp in 1735. He was lost at sea and left his widow, Elizabeth Gilbert and their son, John. The widow married Benjamin Tyudall... The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748, with major operations largely ended by 1742. Its unusual name, coined by Thomas Carlyle in 1858, relates to Robert Jenkins, captain of a British merchant ship, who exhibited his severed ear in Parliament following the boarding of his vessel by Spanish coast guards in 1731. This affair and a number of similar incidents sparked a war against the Spanish Empire, ostensibly to encourage the Spanish not to renege on the lucrative asiento contract (permission to sell slaves in Spanish America).

After 1742 the war was subsumed by the wider War of the Austrian Succession involving most of the powers of Europe. Peace arrived with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Background At the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 gave Britain a thirty-year asiento, or contract-right, to supply an unlimited number of slaves to the Spanish colonies, and 500 tons of goods per year. This provided British traders and smugglers potential inroads into the (traditionally) closed markets in Spanish America. However, Britain and Spain were often at war during this period, fighting one another in the War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–20), the Blockade of Porto Bello (1726) and the Anglo-Spanish War (1727–1729). In the Treaty of Seville (1729), following the Anglo-Spanish War, Britain had accorded Spanish warships the right to stop British traders and verify if the asiento right was respected.

Over time the Spanish became suspicious that British traders were abusing the contract and began to board ships and confiscate their cargoes. After very strained relations between 1727 and 1732, the situation improved between 1732 and 1737, when Sir Robert Walpole supported Spain during the War of Polish Succession. But the causes of the problems remained and when the opposition against Walpole grew, so did the anti-Spanish sentiment amongst the British public. Walpole gave in to the pressure and approved the sending of troops to the West Indies and a squadron to Gibraltar under Admiral Haddock, causing an immediate Spanish reaction. Spain asked for financial compensation, which led to the British demand to annul the "Visitation Right" agreed to in the Treaty of Seville (1729). In reaction, King Philip V of Spain annulled the "Asiento Right" and had all British ships in Spanish harbours confiscated. The Convention of Pardo, an attempt to mediate the dispute, broke down. On 14 August, Britain recalled its ambassador to Spain and officially declared war on 23 October 1739. Despite the Pacte de Famille, France remained neutral.

Walpole was deeply reluctant to declare war and reportedly remarked of the jubilation in Britain "they are ringing their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands". Nomenclature Further information: Robert Jenkins (master mariner) The incident that gave its name to the war had occurred in 1731 when the British brig Rebecca was boarded by the Spanish coast guard La Isabela, commanded by Julio León Fandiño. After boarding, Fandiño cut off the left ear of the Rebecca's captain, Robert Jenkins, who had been accused of piracy. Fandiño told Jenkins, "Go, and tell your King that I will do the same, if he dares to do the same." In March 1738, Jenkins was ordered to attend Parliament, presumably to repeat his story before a committee of the House of Commons. According to some accounts, he produced the severed ear when he attended, although no detailed record of the hearing exists. The incident was considered alongside various other cases of "Spanish Depredations upon the British Subjects", and was perceived as an insult to the honour of the nation and a clear casus belli.

The War Capture of Porto Bello Main article: Battle of Porto Bello Following the testimony of Jenkins, and petitions from other West India merchants, the opposition in Parliament voted on 28 March 1738 to send "an Address" to the King, asking his Majesty to seek redress from Spain. More than one year later, all diplomatic means having been exhausted, on 10 July 1739 King George II authorized the Admiralty Board to seek maritime reprisals against Spain. On 20 July, Vice Admiral Edward Vernon and a squadron of warships departed England bound for the West Indies to attack Spanish ships and "possessions". The actual declaration of war against Spain was not proclaimed until Saturday 23 October 1739 (Old Style). One of the first actions was the British capture, on 22 November 1739, of Porto Bello, a silver-exporting town on the coast of Panama in an attempt to damage Spain's finances and weaken its naval capabilities. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice Admiral Edward Vernon who captured it within twenty-four hours.

The British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having destroyed its fortifications, port and warehouses. The battle led the Spanish to change their trading practices. Rather than trading at centralised ports with a few large treasure fleets, they began using a larger number of smaller convoys trading at a wide variety of ports. They also began to travel around Cape Horn to trade on the west coast.[citation needed] Porto Bello's economy was severely damaged, and did not recover until the building of the Panama Canal more than a century later. In Britain the victory was greeted with much celebration, and in 1740, at a dinner in honour of Vernon in London, the song "Rule Britannia" was performed in public for the first time. Portobello Road in London is named after this victory and more medals were awarded than for any other event in the eighteenth century. The conquest of a port in Spain's American empire was widely considered a foregone conclusion by many Patriot Whigs and opposition Tories who pressed a reluctant Walpole to launch larger naval expeditions to the Gulf of Mexico.

Anson expedition Further information: George Anson's voyage around the world The success of the Porto Bello operation led the British in September 1740 to send a squadron under Commodore George Anson to attack Spain's possessions in the Pacific. Before they even reached the Pacific a large amount of the expedition had died from disease, and they were in no shape to launch any sort of attack.[16] Anson reassembled his force in the Juan Fernández Islands, allowing them to recuperate before he moved up the Chilean coast, raiding the small town of Paita. However he reached Acapulco too late to intercept the yearly Manila galleon, which had been one of the principal objectives of the expedition. He retreated across the Pacific, running into a storm which forced him to dock for repairs in Canton. After this he made a final attempt to intercept the Manila galleon the following year. This he did on 20 June 1743 off Cape Espiritu Santo capturing more than a million gold coins. Anson then sailed home, eventually arriving back in London more than three and a half years after he had set out, having circumnavigated the globe in the process.

Less than a tenth of the force had survived the expedition, but Anson's achievements helped establish his name and wealth in Britain, leading to his later appointment as First Lord of the Admiralty. Florida Main article: Siege of St. Augustine In 1740 the inhabitants of Georgia launched an overland attack on St. Augustine in Florida, supported by a British naval blockade, but were repelled. The British forces led by James Oglethorpe, the Governor of Georgia, besieged St. Augustine for over a month before retreating, abandoning their artillery in the process. The failure of the Royal Navy blockade to prevent supplies reaching the settlement was a crucial factor in the collapse of the siege. Oglethorpe then began preparing Georgia for an anticipated Spanish assault. French neutrality When war had broken out in 1739 it was expected in both Britain and Spain that France would join the war on the Spanish side. This played a large role in the tactical calculations of the British. If the Spanish and French were to operate together they would have a superiority of ninety ships of the line.

In 1740 there was an invasion scare when it was believed that a French fleet at Brest and a Spanish fleet at Ferrol were about to combine and launch an invasion attempt on Britain itself. Although this proved not to be the case, the British kept the large bulk of their naval and land forces in southern England to act as a deterrent. Many in the British government were afraid to launch a major offensive against the Spanish, for fear that a large British victory would draw France into the war in order to protect the balance of power. Battle of Cartagena Main article: Battle of Cartagena de Indias The largest action of the war was a major amphibious attack launched by the British under Admiral Edward Vernon in March, 1741 against Cartagena de Indias, one of Spain's principal gold-trading ports in their colony of New Granada (today Colombia). Vernon's expedition was hampered by inefficient organisation, his rivalry with the commander of his land forces, and the logistical problems of mounting and maintaining a major trans-Atlantic expedition. The strong fortifications in Cartagena and the able strategy of Spanish Commander Blas de Lezo were decisive in repelling the attack, with heavy losses on the British side.

In addition to the unfamiliar tropical climate, Vernon's men succumbed in large numbers to virulent tropical disease, primarily yellow fever. News of the defeat at Cartagena was a significant factor in the downfall of the British Prime Minister Robert Walpole. Walpole's anti-war views were considered by the Opposition to have contributed to his poor prosecution of the war effort. The new government under Lord Wilmington wanted to shift the focus of Britain's war effort away from the Americas and into Mediterranean. Spanish policy, dictated by Elisabeth of Parma, also moved towards recovering lost Spanish possessions in Italy from the Austrians. In 1742 a large British fleet under Nicholas Haddock was sent to try and intercept a Spanish army being transported from Barcelona to Italy, which he failed to do. Raids against Cuba and Venezuela Several other British attacks took place in the Caribbean with little consequence on the geopolitical situation in the Atlantic. The weakened British forces under Vernon launched an attack against Cuba, landing in Guantánamo Bay with a plan to march the forty five miles to Santiago de Cuba and capture the city. Vernon again clashed with the army commander, and the expedition withdrew when faced with heavier Spanish opposition than expected.

Vernon and his fleet remained in the Caribbean until October 1742, before heading back to Britain. The following year a smaller force led by Charles Knowles made raids upon the Venezuelan coast, attacking La Guaira in February 1743 and Puerto Cabello in April, though neither operation was particularly successful. Invasion of Georgia Main article: Invasion of Georgia (1742) In 1742 the Spanish launched an attempt to seize the British colony of Georgia. Two thousand troops under the command of Manuel de Montiano landed on St Simons Island. General Oglethorpe rallied the local forces and defeated the Spanish regulars at Bloody Marsh and Gully Hole Creek, forcing them to withdraw. Border clashes between Florida and Georgia continued for the next few years, but there were no further offensive operations on the American mainland by either nation. Merger with wider war By mid-1742 the War of the Austrian Succession had broken out in Europe. Principally fought by Prussia and Austria over possession of Silesia, the war soon engulfed most of the major powers of Europe, who joined two competing alliances.

The scale of this new war dwarfed any of the fighting in the Americas, and had drawn the main attention of Britain and Spain to operations on the European continent. The return of Vernon's fleet in 1742 marked the end of major offensive operations in the War of Jenkins' Ear. This was confirmed by the entry of France into the war in 1744. France placed their emphasis on the war in Europe, and planned an ambitious invasion of Britain. While it ultimately failed, it further persuaded the British policy makers of the dangers of sending significant forces to the Americas which might be needed at home. Although an expedition to seize the strategic French settlement of Louisbourg was launched by New Englanders in 1745, no further attacks were attempted on Spanish possessions. Privateering The war involved privateering by both sides. Anson captured a valuable Manila galleon but this was more than offset by the Spanish privateering attacks on the British transatlantic triangular trade route. They seized hundreds of British ships, operating with virtual impunity in the West Indies; they were also active in European waters. The Spanish convoys proved almost unstoppable and so, during the Austrian phase of the war, the British attacked poorly protected French merchantmen instead.

Lisbon Negotiations From August 1746 negotiations were commenced in the neutral city of Lisbon to try to arrange a peace settlement. The death of Philip V of Spain had brought his son Ferdinand VI to the throne, and he was more willing to be concillitary over the issues of trade. However, because of their commitments to their Austrian allies, the British were unable to agree to Spanish demands for territory in Italy and talks broke down. Aftermath The eventual diplomatic resolution formed part of the wider settlement of the War of the Austrian Succession by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The issue of the asiento was not mentioned in the treaty, and it had lessened in importance to both nations. The issue was finally settled by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid in which Britain agreed to renounce its claim to the asiento in exchange for a payment of £100,000 and allowed British trade with Spanish America under favourable conditions. Relations between Britain and Spain dramatically improved during subsequent years thanks to a concerted effort by the Duke of Newcastle to cultivate Spain as an ally, and a wish by the Spanish government not to be seen as a puppet of France.

A succession of Anglophile ministers were appointed in Spain including José de Carvajal and Ricardo Wall – all of whom were on good terms with the British Ambassador Benjamin Keene in an effort to avoid a repeat of the War of Jenkins' Ear. One of the results of this was the Spanish decision to remain neutral during the early part of the Seven Years' War. The War of Jenkins' Ear is commemorated annually on the last Saturday in May at Wormsloe Plantation in Savannah, Georgia. Add profiles to this project Add collaborators to this project Add Profiles BBC - History : British History Timeline 1718 British convicts start being transported to penal colonies overseas In 1718, the Transportation Act introduced penal transportation. People convicted of capital crimes had their sentences 'commuted' to 14 years or life in the Americas. Convicts found guilty of non-capital crimes received seven-year sentences. Between 1718 and 1776, over 50,000 convicts were transported to Virginia and Maryland in the modern United States. The American Revolution made further transportation impossible.

October - November 1720 'South Sea Bubble' bursts and triggers a financial panic The South Sea Company was a financial and trading organisation mainly dealing with Spanish America. It received trading rights to the South Seas in return for financing the British government's debt. Shares were issued and unrealistic expectations cultivated. A monopoly of the slave trade was envisaged. When it was discovered that the directors of the profitless company had sold out, it sparked a massive panic and a major financial crash occurred in the City of London. Huge fortunes were lost. April 1721 Sir Robert Walpole becomes the first prime minister In April 1721, Sir Robert Walpole became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, in the wake of the South Sea Bubble financial crash of 1720. He confirmed the Whig party's allegiance to the Hanoverian monarchy. He never held the actual title of 'prime minister', but was given the powers that came to be associated with the office. George I also gave him 10 Downing Street, still the official residence of the prime minister.

1723 Poaching becomes a capital offence Poaching disturbances in Windsor Forest and Park led to clashes between 'blacks' (gangs of bandits and poachers who blackened their faces) hoping to maintain common rights and wardens and gamekeepers. The government issued the Black Act to handle the situation. This made various poaching misdemeanours into capital crimes. 11 January 1727 George I dies and is succeeded by the second Hanoverian king, George II The threat of a Jacobite rebellion (aimed at re-establishing the Stuart dynasty) continued into George II's reign. It continued to be a source of alarm until its final defeat at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. As the country prospered, the king's early unpopularity - partially caused by his preference for Hanover over England - changed into a general respect. March - April 1733 Excise crisis shakes Sir Robert Walpole's administration In 1733, British prime minister Robert Walpole tried to shift the burden of taxation on imports away from collection at customs.

He devised an 'excise' scheme - a system of bonded warehouses for tobacco, wine and brandy, where imported goods could be lodged until the proper duty, or tax, had been paid. The project was abandoned after widespread political opposition. 1739 Methodist preachers begin their mission to the poor John Wesley, George Whitefield and other early adherents to Wesleyan views began preaching in fields. Their aim was to spread the gospels and save souls. They attracted large audiences and many converts to evangelical Christianity. Called 'Methodists' for their focus of rules, this marked the beginning of their mission to the poor. 19 October 1739 Britain declares war on Spain and the 'War of Jenkins's Ear' begins Britain declared war on Spain after repeated depredations on British ships by Spanish 'guarda costas'. This was mainly a colonial war in Caribbean waters. It was named after a Captain Robert Jenkins, whose ear had been severed by the Spanish. The War of Jenkins's Ear lasted until 1748, but from 1742 effectively merged into the larger War of the Austrian Succession, which took place from October 1740 until October 1748.

1740 - 1744 George Anson sails around the world Between 1740 and 1744 the British naval commander George Anson sailed around the world in HMS 'Centurion'. Anson returned to England with nearly £500,000 of Spanish treasure. His account of the voyage became a bestseller. 11 February 1742 Sir Robert Walpole resigns as prime minister At the 1741 general election, Sir Robert Walpole's majority in the House of Commons numbered fewer than 20 seats. When parliament reassembled in December 1741, he suffered defeats in seven divisions. On 11 February 1742, Walpole resigned as first lord of the treasury after 21 years in power. Although he had effectively been prime minister, that was never his title. He died in 1745. 13 April 1742 Handel's 'Messiah' gets its first performance, in Dublin George Frideric Handel was one of the foremost baroque composers.

Born in Germany, he lived most of his adult life in England and received a number of royal commissions, including 'Water Music' and 'Music for the Royal Fireworks'. 27 June 1743 George II becomes the last British monarch to lead his army into battle The Battle of Dettingen, at which the British allies defeated the French, was just one engagement in the War of the Austrian Succession. The war began in 1740, when Prussia invaded the Austrian region of Silesia, but its underlying causes were rival claims for the hereditary lands of the Austrian monarchy, the Habsburgs. Prussia allied with France against Austria, Britain and the Netherlands. The war ended in 1748 with all seized lands returned, except Silesia, which Austria ceded to Prussia. 23 July 1745 'Bonnie Prince Charlie' lands in Scotland to claim the British throne Charles Edward Stuart, or 'Bonnie Prince Charlie', was the grandson of the deposed James II. He landed at Eriskay, Scotland, and quickly gathered an army, who proclaimed him 'Charles III'.

On 21 September, he defeated the government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans. He then marched south 16 April 1746 Jacobites are defeated at Culloden, the last battle on British soil Culloden, the last battle fought on British soil, marked the defeat of the Jacobite revolt of 1745-1746, also known as the '45 Rebellion. Led by 'Bonnie Prince Charlie' - Charles Edward Stuart, the grandson of the deposed king James II - the Jacobites were fighting to restore the exiled Stuarts to the throne. They reached as far south as Derby before being chased back to Scotland, where they were routed by an army under William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and second son of George II. 1747 Liverpool overtakes Bristol as Britain's busiest slave trading port In the mid-18th century, Liverpool slave ships made around 49 voyages a year against Bristol's average of 20. Bristol had itself overtaken London as the main slave trading port in 1737.

Slave ship owners and the owners of Caribbean plantations, most of whom lived in Britain, became very wealthy and influential in government and society. 1750 Scottish landlords start evicting tenants in the Highland Clearances From the 1750s, landlords in the Scottish Highlands began to forcibly remove tenants from their land, usually to replace them with more profitable sheep farming. The clearances resulted in whole Highland communities leaving Scotland and emigrating, most of them to North America. Many others moved to growing urban industrial centres such as Glasgow. This was part of a broader process of agricultural change in Britain, but in the Highlands it was marked by particular abruptness and brutality. May 1756 Seven Years' War between Britain and France begins The war between Britain and France that began in May 1756 is arguably the first global war in modern history. Britain and her allies fought France in America, India and Europe. France forged alliances with Austria and Russia against Prussia. In 1762, Spain entered the war on the side of France. Britain emerged from the war victorious in 1763, and under the Treaty of Paris acquired Quebec, Florida, Minorca, large parts of India and the West Indies.

23 June 1757 Indian province of Bengal passes into British control after the Battle of Plassey The Battle of Plassey took place between Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent ruler of Bengal, and the forces of the British East India Company led by Colonel Robert Clive. The defeat of Daulah, who was backed by the French, led to the entire province of Bengal passing into Company control. This victory, and the enormous wealth of Bengal, are often seen as important factors in establishing eventual British control over all of India. April 1760 Tacky leads a slave rebellion in Jamaica Tacky's Revolt was the largest of many slave uprisings in the British West Indies in the 18th century, caused by the dreadful conditions enslaved people had to endure on the sugar plantations. Hundreds of slaves attacked plantations, killing about 60 whites and setting crops and sugar works alight. Tacky was captured and beheaded, and 400 other rebels died or were executed, but skirmishes continued for many months. 25 October 1760 George III succeeds his grandfather George II George III was the first of the Hanoverian kings to be born and brought up in Britain.

He was nicknamed 'Farmer George' because of his passion for agriculture. During his reign, Britain lost its American colonies but emerged as a leading European power. From 1788, George suffered recurrent mental illness and in 1811 his son was appointed regent. April 1763 Radical journalist John Wilkes is arrested for criticising the king John Wilkes, a member of parliament and journalist, was charged with seditious libel for criticism of George III his paper 'The North Briton'. He was released and for the next 15 years campaigned for parliamentary reform. He was frequently in trouble with the authorities, and was expelled from the Commons a number of times, only to be re-elected. After his arrest in 1768, seven were killed in the 'Massacre of St George's Fields' when a crowd demanding his release was fired on by troops. March 1765 Riots erupt in American colonies after parliament levies 'stamp' taxes In 1765, British Prime Minister George Grenville's administration passed the Stamp Act to raise extra taxes from the North American colonists.

The money was intended to pay for the colonists' own military defence against possible future French incursions. Stamp duties were levied on newspapers and legal documents. Six of the 13 American colonies petitioned against the act and riots broke out. The Stamp Act was repealed in March 1766. June 1767 American colonists are taxed on imports In 1767, Charles Townshend, the chancellor of the exchequer, drew up legislation to raise taxes from North American colonists on selected imports, including glass, paint, lead and tea. As with the repealed Stamp Act of 1765, the intention was to make colonists contribute towards their own defence against French incursions. Colonial protests led to the Revenue Act being repealed in 1770, except for the duty on imported tea. 1768 - 1771 Captain James Cook leads his first expedition to the Pacific In 1768, James Cook led an expedition on HMS 'Endeavour' to observe the astrological phenomenon of the transit of Venus from Tahiti. The voyage continued into the South Pacific Ocean, where Cook circumnavigated New Zealand and charted the east coast of Australia.

His team of botanists and scientists brought back to England many important specimens and much scientific information. Cook made two further Pacific voyages. He was killed on the second of these in 1779 by warriors in Hawaii. January 1770 Lord North becomes prime minister Frederick, Lord North (an honorary title), became prime minister at the end of a decade that had seen six administrations come and go. George III hoped that his friend North could provide political stability. Lord North remained prime minister until 1782. 1771 'Factory Age' begins with the opening of Britain's first cotton mill The weaving of cotton cloth had become a major industry by the 1760s, with most of the labour being done by people in their homes. In 1771, inventor Richard Arkwright opened the first cotton mill at Cromford, Derbyshire. The spinning of yarn was carried out by his own patented machine, known as a water frame. This was a significant step towards the automation of labour-intensive industries and heralded the beginning of the 'Factory Age' in Britain.

22 June 1772 Slavery is effectively outlawed in England When the enslaved James Somerset escaped from his owner in London, he was captured and forced on to a ship bound for Jamaica. With the help of abolitionist Granville Sharpe, Somerset's case was taken to court and Lord William Mansfield, the lord chief justice, ruled that Somerset should be freed. This was widely, and mistakenly, believed to mean that slavery was outlawed in England. Slave owners continued to capture their runaway slaves and take them back to the Caribbean, but the case marked a milestone in the struggle to abolish slavery. 16 December 1773 'Boston Tea Party' heightens tensions in North American colonies In 1770, taxes on imports to the American Colonies had been repealed on all goods except tea. In 1773, colonists disguised as Native Americans dumped chests of tea from East India Company vessels into Boston harbour in protest against this remaining levy. Political tensions between the American colonists and the British government escalated as a result. 1774 Methodist John Wesley publishes 'Thoughts Upon Slavery' John Wesley, founder of the Methodist church, was a lifelong opponent of slavery.

In 1774 he published a pamphlet entitled 'Thoughts Upon Slavery', which examined how Africans were captured and transported, and proposed legal and moral arguments against slavery and the slave trade. In 1788, at considerable personal risk, he preached a sermon against slavery in Bristol, one of the leading slave trading ports. Nonconformists, particularly Quakers, were very active in the abolition movement, and included other well known individuals such as Joseph Priestley and Josiah Wedgwood. 18 April 1775 American War of Independence begins On 18 April 1775, a skirmish between British redcoats and the local militia at Lexington, Massachusetts, led to the fighting that began the American War of Independence. No one knows which side fired the first 'shot heard around the world'. About 15 months after the outbreak of war, colonial leader Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence, which argued that the goals of the United States of America were 'life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness'. In September 1783, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war.

1779 Penitentiary Act authorises state prisons An investigation into the state of English and Welsh prisons in the mid-1770s by penal reformer John Howard revealed the dreadful conditions, inadequate diet and corrupt administration of many jails. The Penitentiary Act was introduced with the intention of remedying the situation. This was the first British law to authorise state prisons. 2 - 11 June 1780 'Gordon Riots' break out in protest against the Catholic Relief Act In 1778, parliament passed the Catholic Relief Act, which removed many of the traditional restrictions on Catholics in Britain. George Gordon, leader of the Protestant Association, was leading a huge crowd to parliament with a petition calling for repeal of the act when anti-Catholic violence erupted. The ensuing orgy of property destruction and disorder lasted a week. Hundreds died in fighting between protestors and troops. These were amongst the worst riots in English history. 19 October 1781 Americans defeat the British army at Yorktown, Virginia British forces were besieged on the Yorktown peninsula, Virginia, by the American continental army in the west and the French fleet closing on Chesapeake Bay.

Left in a hopeless situation, General Charles Cornwallis surrendered to American general George Washington, effectively ending the American War of Independence. The victory demonstrated beyond doubt that Britain could not hope to win a war so far from its own shores. The British government was forced into negotiations to end the conflict. 29 November 1781 133 Africans are thrown overboard the slave ship 'Zong' During a voyage from Africa to Jamaica, the captain of the slave ship 'Zong' ordered 133 slaves to be thrown overboard alive. The ship's owners then filed a fraudulent insurance claim for the value of the dead slaves. In March 1783 the case was heard in London as an insurance dispute rather than a murder trial. The case was widely publicised by outraged abolitionists, particularly Olaudah Equiano and Granville Sharp, and helped to attract new supporters to the abolition cause. 1783 Britain begins to evacuate loyalists from American colonies When it became evident that the American colonists were winning their war of independence, those who had fought for the British faced an uncertain future. These included former slaves who had fought on the understanding that they would gain their freedom at the end of the conflict.

Around 75,000 loyalists decided to leave, most of them going to the British North American colonies in what is now Canada, others to the West Indies and some to Britain. In 1792, more than 1,100 freed slaves and their families who had gone to Nova Scotia left Canada to settle in Sierra Leone, West Africa. December 1783 William Pitt the Younger becomes prime minister After three brief ministries had failed, the William Pitt the Younger became Britain's prime minister at the age of 23. (His father, William Pitt the Elder had held the office twice, in the 1750-1760s). His critics said that the nation had been 'entrusted to a schoolboy's care'. He successfully curbed the national debt, fought revolutionary France, restructured the government of India and passed the Act of Union with Ireland in 1801. Exhausted and in poor health, he died in 1806.

13 May 1787 First fleet of convicts sails to Australia Since 1718, Britain had transported convicts to its North American colonies, until this was ended by the American War of Independence. On 13 May 1787, penal transportation resumed with a fleet of convict ships setting out from Portsmouth for Botany Bay. This marked the beginning of transportation to Australia. Between 1787 and 1868, when transportation was abolished, over 150,000 felons were exiled to New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. 22 May 1787 Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade is formed The committee was formed by 12 men, the majority of them Quakers. The two non-Quakers, Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson, devoted their lives to the cause of abolishing slavery. These men provided MP William Wilberforce with material to assist his parliamentary efforts to abolish the slave trade. They wrote books and pamphlets and produced prints and posters to publicise the cause.

Clarkson travelled tirelessly through England, organising local abolition committees, rallies and petitions and collecting information on slavery from sailors and others who had been involved in the slave trade. 1788 Under pressure from abolitionists, parliament investigates the slave trade Pressure from abolitionists and detailed information gathered on the transatlantic slave trade resulted in the first parliamentary investigation of the trade. Abolitionist Thomas Clarkson led the fact-finding mission, while member of parliament William Wilberforce became the parliamentary spokesman. There was mass public support for the abolition of the slave trade - in 1788 alone, 103 pro-abolition petitions were sent to Parliament, signed by between 60,000 and 100,000 people. 1 January 1788 First edition of 'The Times' of London is published Originally founded in 1785 as the 'Daily Universal Register', the publication was re-named 'The Times' three years later. It is Britain's oldest surviving newspaper with continuous daily publication, and for much of its history has been regarded as the newspaper of record.

Newspapers have been published in Britain since the early 16th century, but it was not until the early 18th century that regular daily newspapers were produced. November 1788 - February 1789 George III's illness sparks a regency crisis George III probably suffered from porphyria, a rare hereditary disease marked by severe attacks of pain and mental instability. For four months in 1788-1789 he was incapacitated by his illness, raising the possibility a 'regent' having to rule on his behalf. This regency crisis was averted by the George's sudden recovery. 29 April 1789 Former slave Olaudah Equiano publishes his autobiography Olaudah Equiano was a former slave who settled in London and became closely involved in the abolition movement. His autobiography 'The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano' is one of the earliest known examples of a published work by a black writer. The public was fascinated by the story of a slave who converted to Christianity, learned to read and write and, by trading on the side, earned enough money to buy his freedom. The book became a bestseller.

14 July 1789 French Revolution begins with the storming of the Bastille The storming of the Bastille prison in Paris is generally held to mark the beginning of the French Revolution. This was a world-shattering event, in which the French monarchy was overthrown, the king, Louis XVI, executed and a republic established. It stimulated political debate in Britain between British Jacobins (pro-revolutionaries, named after the Jacobin Club in Paris), some of whom were republicans, and loyalists, who stressed the virtues of the existing British constitution. 19 April 1791 Parliament rejects William Wilberforce's bill to abolish the slave trade MP William Wilberforce introduced a bill to abolish the slave trade in May 1789. The bill was stalled and eventually consideration of the question was moved to a select committee. A general election again delayed progress and when the bill eventually came to a vote, it was passed by the Commons but defeated by the Lords. Between 1792 and 1806 a number of further unsuccessful attempts were made to enact parliamentary legislation which would either control or abolish the slave trade.

1792 - 1794 Radical artisans form the London Corresponding Society The spirit of 'liberty, equality and fraternity' that stemmed from the French Revolution of 1789 had inspired the establishment of radical societies in Britain. In January 1792, the 'London Corresponding Society', the most prominent of these organisations, was formed under the leadership of Thomas Hardy, a Scottish shoemaker. The LCS debated the need for parliamentary reform. It advocated universal male suffrage, a secret ballot and annual parliaments. The government banned the LCS in 1794. 7 March 1792 Sierra Leone is established under British rule as a home for former slaves A British settlement had been established in the area of West Africa now known as Sierra Leone in 1787, but the community was almost entirely wiped out due to failed crops and disease. In 1792 a group of 1,100 people left Nova Scotia to establish a community of free black people in Sierra Leone. Many of these settlers were black men and women who had fought for the British in the American War of Independence.

1 February 1793 Britain goes to war with France The French had been at war in Europe since 1792, but it was not until the execution of Louis XVI, king of France, that Britain joined the anti-French coalition. In 1805, Britain attained complete mastery of the seas at the Battle of Trafalgar, but by 1807 Napoleon Bonaparte, the emperor of France, was master of continental Europe. War continued until the final defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. 1793 British troops attempt to suppress Toussaint L'Ouverture's rebellion in Haiti St Domingue had the largest slave population and was the wealthiest colony in the Caribbean. When a slave rebellion broke out, panic spread among slave owners all over the region. British troops were ordered to invade St Domingue, but disease and Toussaint L'Ouverture's irregular army forced them to withdraw. In 1802 Napoleon sent a French army to crush the rebellion. Toussaint was captured and imprisoned in France, where he died, but his army triumphed and on 1 January 1804 declared the Republic of Haiti.

April - June 1797 Naval mutinies occur at Spithead and the Nore Two mutinies broke out in the Royal Navy after clashes between seamen and officers over pay and conditions. There were fears in that such disturbances might be the trigger for a French-style revolution. The Spithead mutiny (near Portsmouth) ended in a royal pardon for the crew. At the Nore (on the Thames Estuary), the mutiny was starved out and one of the ringleaders, Richard Parker, was hanged. Mutinies occurred in several European navies in the 1790s. 26 May 1798 Society of United Irishmen rebel against British rule in Ireland In 1798, Wolfe Tone, a Protestant lawyer, led the Society of United Irishmen in a rebellion against British rule in Ireland. The SUI recruited supporters among Catholics and Presbyterians, but was beset by internal divisions. After failing to secure French assistance, the rebellion was ruthlessly crushed by British forces. It effectively ended with the capture of Tone in October of the same year. He was sentenced to hang, but took his own life first.

1799 - 1800 Trade unions are outlawed William Pitt the Younger's government passed two acts making it illegal for working men to form combinations in which their political rights were discussed. They were among several repressive measures designed to stifle any catalysts for a French-style revolution in Britain. The Combination Acts were repealed in 1824 and 1825. 1 January 1801 Act of Union creates the United Kingdom Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) and Ireland were formally joined under the Act of Union to create the United Kingdom in 1801. The Irish parliament in Dublin was dissolved. Despite the Union, Catholics were still unable to vote at general elections or to hold parliamentary and most public offices. 10 March 1801 Britain holds its first census The census was introduced to help the government understand the demographic layout of the country and better utilise the population in times of war. A census of England and Wales, and a separate one of Scotland, has been taken ever since on a ten-yearly basis, with the exception of 1941. In the 1801 census, information was collected on a parish basis and there were no details on individual households.

It was not until the 1841 census that more detailed information was requested. 18 July 1801 - 9 June 1803 Matthew Flinders circumnavigates Australia English naval captain Matthew Flinders carried out the first known circumnavigation of Australia in HMS 'Investigator'. He accurately charted many parts of the Australian coast that had not been surveyed by Captain James Cook on his voyages between 1768 and 1779. 21 October 1805 Royal Navy defeats a French and Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar In 1805, the combined fleets of France and Spain faced the Royal Navy in the last great battle of the age of sail, at Cape Trafalgar off the coast of Spain. British naval hero Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson led the daring British attack in HMS 'Victory', but was killed at the height of the battle. It seems likely that the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, had already abandoned his plans for the invasion of England, but the victory nonetheless handed Britain complete control of the seas.

25 March 1807 Britain abolishes the slave trade In 1806, parliament passed an act to abolish the supply of slaves on British ships to foreign and conquered colonies. This was followed up by the total abolition of the British slave trade in 1807. It ended more than 200 years of slave trading. The Abolition of Slavery Act, passed in 1833, freed all slaves in the British empire and provided for compensation for their owners. 1808 British West Africa Squadron is formed to suppress slave trading The British West Africa Squadron was established by the Royal Navy to suppress illegal slave trading along the West African coast after the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. By 1865, nearly 150,000 people had been freed by the Squadron's anti-slavery operations. The Squadron continued its work until the early 20th century.

1811 - 1812 Luddite protesters attack industrial machinery in protest against unemployment During two years of high unemployment, textile workers known as Luddites (named after their mythical leader 'Ned Ludd') sabotaged machinery in the woollen, cotton and hosiery industries in Nottinghamshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire. The government infiltrated the protesters with spies and sent 12,000 troops to Yorkshire in 1812 to stop further industrial violence. 1812 - 1818 Hampden clubs are formed to advocate parliamentary reform The Hampden clubs were the first major societies devoted to parliamentary reform following the demise of the London Corresponding Society in 1794. (The LCS had advocated universal male suffrage, a secret ballot and annual parliaments.) The clubs were named after John Hampden, a parliamentary opponent of Charles I. They were banned in 1818. March 1815 Corn Laws are introduced to protect British agriculture The Tory government of Robert Banks Jenkinson, Lord Liverpool, introduced the Corn Laws in a bid to protect British agriculture. Corn prices had halved following the end of the Napoleonic wars, creating a panic among farmers.

The laws imposed heavy tariffs on imports of foreign grain. They were repealed in 1846. 18 June 1815 Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, defeats Napoleon at Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo was a decisive victory for Britain and its allies in the Napoleonic wars. The British general who masterminded the victory, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, had once been dismissed by Napoleon Bonaparte as a 'sepoy general' (a derisive reference to his service in India). Napoleon was forced to abdicate as emperor of France a few days later. He was sent into exile on the small Atlantic island of St Helena, where he died. 10 March 1817 Working class 'Blanketeers' mount a march to London Working class men devoted to parliamentary reform began a march from Manchester to London to publicise their case to the government. They were nicknamed 'Blanketeers' after the blankets they carried. The marchers were dispersed by troops before they reached Stockport.

16 August 1819 Eleven die at the Peterloo massacre in Manchester A huge crowd of people gathered at St Peter's Fields, Manchester, to hear radical orators speak on the subject of parliamentary reform and high food prices. The local yeomanry were ordered to arrest the speakers, but panicked and charged the crowd. Eleven people died and hundreds were injured. The massacre became known as 'Peterloo' - an ironic inversion of the British military triumph at Waterloo. 29 January 1820 George III dies and is succeeded by George IV George III, the longest-serving Hanoverian monarch, died after occupying the throne for 60 years. His eldest son, who had served as prince regent from 1811 to 1820 when his father was declared insane, became George IV. The new king became deeply unpopular for his extravagant lifestyle and scandalous private life, but he was an enthusiastic supporter of the arts and his residences, particularly Carlton House and Brighton Pavilion, set new standards of taste. 27 September 1825 World's first steam locomotive passenger service begins The first public steam railway ran between the north eastern towns of Stockton and Darlington.

This ushered in the 'Railway Age', with the building of an extensive railway network in Britain providing a fast and economical means of transport and communication. 13 April 1829 Parliament grants Catholic emancipation In 1828, parliament had repealed the Test and Corporation Acts which had banned Catholics from holding government and public offices or from attending universities. The Catholic Relief Act of 1829 went further, granting full emancipation to British and Irish Catholics. This measure split the Tory party into different factions. The prime minister, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, steered the bill through its final stages and secured the assent of George IV. June 1829 Robert Peel sets up the Metropolitan Police The Metropolitan Police Act was the brainchild of Home Secretary Robert Peel. It established the first paid, uniformed constabulary for the metropolis, excluding the City of London. Before the police there existed an informal system of watchmen, magistrates, volunteer constables and 'thief takers'. Initially unpopular, the police proved a success and by the late 1830s police forces were being set up in many large British cities.

26 June 1830 George IV dies and is succeeded by his brother William IV During his youth, William had served in the Royal Navy and his bluff, unassuming manner - he was nicknamed 'the sailor king' - was in marked contrast to the extravagant, decadent lifestyle of his brother George IV. His reign was dominated by the 'Reform Crisis' - political wrangling over reform to parliamentary representation, including issues like extending the franchise (those allowed to vote) and redrawing electoral boundaries. William's personal involvement in the crisis damaged his standing. October 1831 Riots break out over the parliamentary Reform Bill The Whig Party, elected to power in 1830, introduced a major bill for parliamentary reform. Bristol, Nottingham, Derby and several smaller towns witnessed violent riots after the Reform Bill was rejected by the House of Lords. Nottingham Castle was attacked and the Council House in Bristol was burnt down. December 1831 Samuel Sharpe leads a massive slave revolt in Jamaica More than 20,000 slaves seized control of a wide swathe of Jamaican territory. It took a month for the British troops on the island to subdue the rebels. Sam Sharpe was executed.

The British public's interest in slavery had declined after the slave trade was abolished in 1807, but Sam Sharpe's rebellion helped to bring it to the forefront again. A campaign for the abolition of slavery began to gain momentum in Britain. 4 June 1832 Great Reform Act changes parliamentary representation The third version of the Reform Bill finally received assent from the House of Lords and William IV. Tory peers only backed the bill after William IV said he would create 50 new Whig lords - thereby giving the Whigs a majority from which to vote the issue through. The Great Reform Act made important changes to parliamentary constituencies and extended the franchise (those allowed to vote), but did not introduce parliamentary democracy or a secret ballot. 1833 Factory Act restricts work hours for women and children The Tory peer and reformer Anthony Ashley Cooper promoted the bill, which restricted the hours of work by women and children in textile mills. Under the terms of the act, mill owners were required to show that children up to age 13 received two hours of schooling, six days per week.

31 July 1833 Parliament passes a bill to abolish slavery in the British empire After years of intense anti-slavery lobbying and pro-abolition public meetings around the country (including an abolitionist march on 10 Downing Street) parliament finally voted to end slavery throughout the British empire. Slaves would initially become 'apprentices' for a six-year term, starting in 1834. This was later shortened to four years. MP William Wilberforce, who had represented the abolitionists in the House of Commons, died just days before just before the emancipation measure became law. 1834 New Poor Law reforms Britain's social security system In 1832, a Royal Commission into the Poor Law recommended changes to the system of parish poor relief. Many of its recommendations were incorporated into the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. This statute maintained outdoor relief (relief given outside a workhouse), but led to more central control of the system.

March 1834 'Tolpuddle Martyrs' are sentenced to transportation for trade union activities Six farm labourers from the Dorset village of Tolpuddle set up a 'friendly society' to campaign for better pay and working conditions. They were put on trial and sent to penal colonies in Australia, but were granted pardons in 1836 following a public outcry. The so-called 'Tolpuddle Martyrs' are credited with helping to launch the trade union movement. 1835 Municipal Corporations Bill creates town councils This legislation gave 178 boroughs the right to have their own town council. All ratepayers were thereafter entitled to vote in borough council elections. The new councils gradually took control of local services such as education, housing and street lighting.

Question: The War of Jenkins' Ear occurred during the reign of which English King?
Answer: GEORGE THE SECOND