parkinson'sdisease - swapnamukherjee273 swapnamukherjee273 By Brenda Williams Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder that affects the central nervous system and impairs the motor skills, speech, and other functions of the patient. It is classified in a group of disorders called movement disorders. Parkinson's disease is formed by an insufficient amount of dopamine in the body. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease are a high level of cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems. Parkinson's disease can be both chronic and progressive. The disease is named after physician James Parkinson, an Englishman, who wrote an essay on the disease called "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy" in 1817. Other symptoms of Parkinson's disease are tremors, rigidity (which is stiffness), an absence of movement, and the failure of reflexes. Some motor symptoms are shuffling instead of walking normal, turning the entire body at once instead of only the head, a bent over posture and muscle contractions. Patients suffering from Parkinson's disease can have a slow reaction time, can have trouble with impulse control, development of dementia, short term memory loss and speech problems.

Patients might also suffer from insomnia, impaired vision, dizziness, loss of smell, urinary incontinence and pain in their muscles, joints and tendons. Causes of Parkinson's disease can be genetic, as a result of head trauma, drug-induced, and certain toxins too. Other times there are no known causes of Parkinson's disease in patients. As of 2008 there is no cure for Parkinson's disease but there are surgeries and medications that can provide relief from the pain and suffering associated with the disease. One form of treatment is surgery and deep brain stimulation. Deep brain stimulation involved a tool called a brain pacemaker that is placed into the brain. This brain pacemaker sends electrical impulses to specific areas of the brain which provides therapeutic relief to pain for Parkinson's patients. This treatment for Parkinson's disease was approved for use nationwide by the Food and Drug Administration in 2002. It was approved for use with tremors in 1997. Parkinson's disease is not considered a fatal disease but can lead to death further down the road. Obviously, as with any disease, Parkinson's disease lowers the life expectancy of its patients.

In latter stages of the disease, Parkinson's may cause choking, pneumonia, and even falls, all of which can cause death. Many of the cases of Parkinson's disease can take up to 20 years to progress. There are some cases though where the stages of the disease progress rather quickly and there is no way to determine who slow or fast the disease will progress. With the appropriate treatment, patients with Parkinson' disease can live comfortable, productive lives for many years following their diagnosis. There have been thousands of cases of Parkinson' disease diagnosed over the years but there have been some notable cases as well. They include actor Michael J. Fox, Pope John Paul II, artist Salvador Dali, former United States Attorney General Janet Reno and evangelist Billy Graham. Parkinson's disease is an incurable but treatable disease once diagnosed and patients of Parkinson's can be relieved of some of their pain through the treatments available today. By Juliet Cohen Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system. Parkinson's disease occurs when nerve cells, or neurons, in an area of the brain known as the substantia nigra die or become impaired. Normally, these neurons produce an important brain chemical known as dopamine.

At least 500,000 people in the United States currently have PD. Parkinson's disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders. Parkinson's disease is progressive, meaning the signs and symptoms become worse over time. But although Parkinson's disease may eventually be disabling, the disease often progresses gradually. Parkinson disease affects movement (motor symptoms). Typical other symptoms include disorders of mood, behavior, thinking, and sensation (non-motor symptoms). Individual patients' symptoms may be quite dissimilar and progression of the disease is also distinctly individual. Parkinson's usually begins around age 60. It is more common in men than in women. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease often start on one side of the body first and then affect both sides. There are many secondary symptoms associated with Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's disease patients may notice that they are weaker or more tired. Symptoms include disorders of mood, behavior, thinking, and sensation. Poor balance is due to the impairment or loss of the reflexes that adjust posture in order to maintain balance. Falls are common in people with Parkinson's. Shaking (muscle tremor).

This is one of the first symptoms in three-quarters of people, and affects most people with Parkinson's disease. Bradykinesia is the phenomenon of a person experiencing slow movements. In addition to slow movements, a person with bradykinesia will probably also have incomplete movement, difficulty initiating movements and sudden stopping of ongoing movement. The progressive loss of voluntary and involuntary muscle control produces a number of secondary symptoms associated with Parkinson's. Postural instability, or impaired balance and coordination, causes patients to develop a forward or backward lean and to fall easily. Parkinson's disease requires broad-based management including patient and family education, support group services, general wellness maintenance, exercise, and nutrition. Medications can help manage problems with walking, movement and tremor by increasing the brain's supply of dopamine. Amantadine may also be added to carbidopa-levodopa therapy for people in the latter stages of Parkinson's disease. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors drugs prolong the effect of carbidopa-levodopa therapy by blocking an enzyme that breaks down dopamine. Tolcapone (Tasmar) is a potent COMT inhibitor that easily crosses the blood-brain barrier.

A medicine called levodopa is often given to people who have Parkinson's disease. Called "L-dopa," this medicine increases the amount of dopamine in the body and has been shown to improve a person's ability to walk and move around. Thalamotomy involves the destruction of small amounts of tissue in the thalamus — a major brain center for relaying messages and transmitting sensations. Parkinson's Disease for Treatment Tips 1. Carbidopa and benserazide are dopa decarboxylase inhibitors. 2. Tolcapone inhibits the COMT enzyme, thereby prolonging the effects of L-dopa, and so has been used to complement L-dopa. 3. Selegiline and rasagiline reduce the symptoms by inhibiting monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B). 4. An antiviral drug, amantadine, can help reduce symptoms of PD and levodopa-induced dyskinesia. 5. COMT (catechol O-methyl transferase) inhibitors are a new class of drugs that stop the breakdown of dopamine. 6. Other therapies that are important for managing and coping with Parkinson's disease include physiotherapy, speech therapy, and occupational therapy. 7.

Amantadine acts like a dopamine replacement drug but works on different sites in the brain Budget Stairlifts Budget Stairlifts Click here for a hassle free quote! What Is Parkinson's Disease? Named after Dr James Parkinson, who wrote "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy" in 1817, Parkinson's is a degenerative disease of the central nervous system that currently has no cure. It usually affects people over fifty, with its incidence in the population increasing with age. It famously struck the three-time heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali in his late 30's and the actor Michael J. Fox even earlier than that. James Parkinson - Geologist, Scientist, Neurologist, Activist, Doctor - Biography.com James Parkinson English born, English bred, forgotten by the English and the world, James Parkinson identified the "shaking palsy" as a disease of the central nervous system. IN THESE GROUPS Famous People Who Died in 1824 Synopsis Though best known for the nervous disorder that bears his name, James Parkinson was a man of many interests. Medicine, social reform and geology also occupied his attention, and he wrote numerous publications in each of these areas.

Parkinson's work on shaking palsy was notable, but as the author his name fell into obscurity until 40 years later, when his name was attached to the disease. Early Life and Training in Medicine James Parkinson was born in London on April 11, 1755, to John and Mary Parkinson. One of three children, James was influenced early on to pursue a career in medicine. His father was the local surgeon and apothecary, and James' early education included Latin, Greek, natural philosophy and shorthand—all subjects considered essential to a doctor's basic training. Few details are known of his medical training, but historians have found clues in Parkinson's writings. He studied at the London Hospital Medical College in 1776 and received his diploma from the Royal College of Surgeons. It is believed Parkinson was also influenced by John Hunter, a researcher with interests in biology, pathology and medical science. Parkinson makes mention in his notes of Hunter's descriptions of tremor and paralysis. In 1781, Parkinson married Mary Dale. The couple would eventually have six children. After serving as an apprentice in his father's practice, Parkinson took over after his father died in 1794.

Over the next decade, in addition to his medical work, Parkinson would broaden his interests into chemistry, geology, politics and paleontology. Social Reformer Parkinson was an aggressive social reformer and an outspoken critic of British Prime Minister William Pitt. He published numerous pamphlets under his own name and the pseudonym "Old Hubert," pushing for direct citizen representation in the House of Commons and universal suffrage. He was a member of several secret political societies, and his association with one, the London Corresponding Society for Reform of Parliamentary Representation, resulted in his being called before Pitt's Privy Council. In 1794, members of the society were charged with plotting to murder King George III with a poison-laced dart shot from a popgun. All charges were eventually dismissed. Publications Between 1799 and 1807, Parkinson published numerous brief medical articles for the professional audience, including a 1795 treatise on gout noting that daily doses of soda provided great relief from the pain and swelling. In 1812, he wrote a report on how a perforated appendix could lead to peritonitis and death.

Undoubtedly, Parkinson's best known and most important work was "Essay on the Shaking Palsy," published in 1817. Describing what would later become known as Parkinson's disease, he observed symptoms of prolonged trembling in different parts of the body, most notably the hands and arms. Others had written previously on the subject of shaking palsy, including the ancient Greek physician Galen, but Parkinson's descriptions were so comprehensive that he influenced other pathologists to study shaking palsy. Four decades later, French physician Jean-Martin Charcot attached Parkinson's name to the syndrome. Geological Studies A Renaissance man in the age of Enlightenment, Parkinson's interests gradually turned from medicine to geology. This avocation allowed him to make short trips with friends and family to collect and observe fossils of plants and animals. Fifty years before Charles Darwin, Parkinson engaged in the debate over science and religion's explanation of creation. Though he acknowledged that creation of life had taken a long time, he believed it had proceeded along in an orderly fashion guided by the hand of God. To reconcile the concept of geological time with theology, he adopted the notion that each day of creation represented a long period of time.

Parkinson died on December 21, 1824, at age 69, after a severe stroke. Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us ! Citation Information Parkinson's Disease Parkinson's Disease By Brenda Williams | Submitted On August 25, 2008 Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder that affects the central nervous system and impairs the motor skills, speech, and other functions of the patient. It is classified in a group of disorders called movement disorders. Parkinson's disease is formed by an insufficient amount of dopamine in the body. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease are a high level of cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems. Parkinson's disease can be both chronic and progressive. The disease is named after physician James Parkinson, an Englishman, who wrote an essay on the disease called "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy" in 1817. Other symptoms of Parkinson's disease are tremors, rigidity (which is stiffness), an absence of movement, and the failure of reflexes.

Some motor symptoms are shuffling instead of walking normal, turning the entire body at once instead of only the head, a bent over posture and muscle contractions. Patients suffering from Parkinson's disease can have a slow reaction time, can have trouble with impulse control, development of dementia, short term memory loss and speech problems. Patients might also suffer from insomnia, impaired vision, dizziness, loss of smell, urinary incontinence and pain in their muscles, joints and tendons. Causes of Parkinson's disease can be genetic, as a result of head trauma, drug-induced, and certain toxins too. Other times there are no known causes of Parkinson's disease in patients. As of 2008 there is no cure for Parkinson's disease but there are surgeries and medications that can provide relief from the pain and suffering associated with the disease. One form of treatment is surgery and deep brain stimulation. Deep brain stimulation involved a tool called a brain pacemaker that is placed into the brain. This brain pacemaker sends electrical impulses to specific areas of the brain which provides therapeutic relief to pain for Parkinson's patients. This treatment for Parkinson's disease was approved for use nationwide by the Food and Drug Administration in 2002.

It was approved for use with tremors in 1997. Parkinson's disease is not considered a fatal disease but can lead to death further down the road. Obviously, as with any disease, Parkinson's disease lowers the life expectancy of its patients. In latter stages of the disease, Parkinson's may cause choking, pneumonia, and even falls, all of which can cause death. Many of the cases of Parkinson's disease can take up to 20 years to progress. There are some cases though where the stages of the disease progress rather quickly and there is no way to determine who slow or fast the disease will progress. With the appropriate treatment, patients with Parkinson' disease can live comfortable, productive lives for many years following their diagnosis. There have been thousands of cases of Parkinson' disease diagnosed over the years but there have been some notable cases as well. They include actor Michael J. Fox, Pope John Paul II, artist Salvador Dali, former United States Attorney General Janet Reno and evangelist Billy Graham. Parkinson's disease is an incurable but treatable disease once diagnosed and patients of Parkinson's can be relieved of some of their pain through the treatments available today.

10 Things You Should Know About Parkinson’s Disease | Juan Osorio | My Family Plate 10 Things You Should Know About Parkinson’s Disease By My Family Plate at May 23, 2011 | 2:26 pm | Print 10 Things You Should Know About Parkinson’s Disease by Juan Osorio Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a disease of the basal ganglia characterized by slowness in the initiation and execution of movement, increase muscle tone, tremor at rest, and impaired postural reflexes. It is named after James Parkinson, who, in 1817, wrote a classic essay on “shaking palsy” a disease whose cause is still unknown. 1. There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease. 2. The diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease increases with age, with the peak onset in the 70s and is more common in men by a ratio of 3:2 3. Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease do not occur until 80% of neurons in the substantia nigra are lost. The substantia nigra is located in the midbrain and controls voluntary movement, produces dopamine, and regulates moods.

The dopamine cells begin to die therefore messages from the brain to the body are decreased and leave the person unable to control movements normally. 4. The classic manifestations of Parkinson’s disease often include tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia which are often called the triad. A. Tremor, often the first sign may be minimal initially therefore the patient is the only one who notices it. The tremor can affect handwriting and is described as “pill rolling” because the thumb and forefinger appear to move in a rotary fashion as if rolling a pill. B. Rigidity, the second sign, is the increased resistance to passive motion when the limbs are moved through their range of motion. The rigidity is caused by sustained muscle contraction and elicits a complaint of muscle soreness; feeling tired and achy; pain in the head, upper body, spine, or legs. C. Bradykinesia, the final sign of the triad is particularly evident in the loss of automatic movements. They include blinking of the eyelids, swinging of the arms while walking, swallowing of saliva, self expression with facial and hand movements, and minor movement of postural adjustment. 5.

Genetic factors associated with Parkinson’s disease include 13 genes; environmental factors include exposures to chemicals such as carbon monoxide and manganese; and the use of illicit drugs such as amphetamine and methamphetamine can also cause Parkinson’s disease. 6. Exercise can limit decreased mobility, such as muscle atrophy, contractures, and constipation. The American Parkinson Disease Association publishes booklets and videotapes that provide helpful exercises. A physical therapist or occupational therapist may be consulted to design a personal exercise program for the patient. Exercise will not halt the progress but will enhance the patient’s functional ability. 7. Diet is a major importance to patients with Parkinson’s disease because malnutrition and constipation can be serious consequences of inadequate nutrition. Patients should eat foods that are easily chewed and swallowed and should allow themselves ample time for eating to avoid frustration and encourage independence. Patients are advised to limit their protein intake if they are on levodopa. 8. Parkinson’s can be treated with drug therapy that aims at correcting an imbalance of neurotransmitters within the central nervous system. Each patient must be evaluated to determine which medication is best for them.

Some drug classes include; Dopamine Agonists, Anticholinergics, MAO-B inhibitors and Carbidopa/Levodopa. Levodopa is the most effective and is being used in 70 to 80 percent of all Parkinson’s patients. 9. Parkinson’s disease can be treated surgically through deep brain stimulation (DBS). This involves placing an electrode in the thalamus, globus pallidus, or subthalamic nucleus and connecting it to a generator placed in the upper chest. The device delivers a specific current to the brain to improve motor function. This procedure is reversible if needed. 10. Parkinson’s disease interesting opinions: Adolf Hitler is said to have had the disease, people who smoke and drink are less likely to develop the disease, and Japan is the only country in the world that has more women than men with Parkinson’s disease. References PDF founder William Black. Parkinson’s Disease Foundation American Parkinson Disease Association 135 Parkinson Avenue Staten Island, NY 10305-1425 Medical Surgical Nursing 7th Edition Vol.

2 pages 1549-1553 Sharon Lewis, RN, PhD, FAAN Margaret Heitkemper, RN, PhD, FAAN Shannon Dirksen, RN, PhD Patricia O’Brien, APRN-BC, MA, MSN Lind Bucher, RN, DNSc Written by Juan Osorio, anatomy and physiology student. Treatment for neurodegenerative diseases Treatment for neurodegenerative diseases Last Edited: 23rd March, 2015 This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. Neurodegenerative disease is a condition characterized by the loss of neurons and glial cells within the spinal cord and the brain, and accumulation of intracellular fibrillary inclusions. These specialized neuronal and glial cells have maintained numerous functions in different physiological activities ranging from movement through to memory. If disruptions occurred within the cells of the nervous system, it will not regenerate successfully, leading to irreversible changes and characteristic neurological disorder. Numerous diseases are distinguished as neurodegenerative diseases; examples include Alzheimer's disease (AD), Amytotrophic lateral scelerosis, Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD).

Stem cells are characterized by the ability to renew themselves through mitotic division and differentiating into a diverse range of specialized cell types. Stem cells was first discovered by a Russian scientist in the early 20th century but was introduced into medical research in the 1960s by two Canadian scientists named Ernest A. McCulloch and James E.Till, who demonstrated the presence of self-renewing cells in mouse bone marrow. In recent years, many neurons and glia cells have been generated successfully from stem cells in a culture. Further researches have undertaken to prevent the death of neurons and the glial cells as well as the formation of these cells (Lindvall, 2006). There are two types of stem: embryonic stem (ES) cells and adult stem cells, derived from either embryonic development stages or mature humans, respectively. Embryonic stem (ES) cells are derived from the inner mass of blastocyst, an early-stage embryo. They are pluripotent stem cells which mean that they are able to differentiate into various cells types. It is the pluripotency that distinguishes the ES cells from the adult stem cells.

The ES cells have the ability to regenerate to all cell types in the body unlike the adult stem cell, which provide a limited number of cell types. This shows that the ES cells provide better advantage for research and regenerative medicine because of their potential of self renewal and plasticity. Adult stem cells are also known as somatic cells that multiply by cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damage tissues. In many researches, scientists find a great deal of interest using adult stem cells as they have the ability to divide or self-renew continuously and generate all the cell types of the organs from which they originated. Previous experiment indicated that adult stem cells have the potential to regenerate an entire organ from a few cells (Laurance, 2008). One previous experiment has been conducted in 2008, where a human trachea that has been grown from adult stem cells taken from the bone marrow from the patient was transplanted and was successful. (Laurance, 2008) Adult stem cells have been used for many years to successfully treat leukemia and related bone and bone cancer. Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the potential to dramatically change the treatment of human disease, specifically by replacing irreversibly disrupted cells.

Stem cell treatment and technology are of eminent interest in research studies to treat diseases and there are high hopes for the implication of stem cells in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease have used adult and ES cell treatment. In recent years, there has been a strong interest in using adult stem cells to treat neurodegenerative diseases. But, there have been many debates whether ES cells provide better treatment than adult stem cells. Studies of stem cells had a scientific breakthrough researchers successfully isolated a single cell from a ‘teratocarcinoma', a form of cancer, that was able to replicated and grow in cell culture as a stem cell. The high success rate for using stem cell research in therapy is due to extensive plasticity and self renewal properties the stem cells obtained. The main discussion is whether embryonic or adult stem cells provided better treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited, autosomal disease which is a fatal and incurable neurodegenerative disease. This particular characteristic is by excessive and spontaneous movements, this can be characterized by chorea and progressive dementia. (Lindvall, 2006).

This disease is caused by a genetic mutation known as a trinucleotide repeat that increase the number of repeats in a particular gene called HTT gene. The HTT gene is located within a short arm of the chromosome 4. (Walker, 2007) This alteration leads to a number of repeats creating a chain of glutamine called polyglutamine tract or polyQ tract, consequently leading to the destruction of Acetylcholine (ACh)-secreting and ?-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)-secreting neurons in the basal ganglia (also called the striatum)and cerebral cortex of the brain. The neurological disruption cause symptoms of dementia or restriction of movements to progressively appear as the basal nuclei and frontal lobes slowly degenerate. (Watanabe) There is no cure for HD, but there are many treatments to reduce the severity of chorea, using exercise and cognitive therapy to reduce the symptoms. Such as tetrabenzaine, this was developed to reduce the severity of symptoms. There are many possible treatments that are currently being investigated, as scientists show greater interest in this particular neurological disease; specifically due to the fact that there is no cure.

One research study focused on the use of embryonic stem (ES) cells. Using a fetal human brain tissue may provide a useful approach to reduce neuronal damage in the brain and recent data indicated there have been improvements in motor and cognition after fetal cell transplantation. (Kim, 2009) Using neural tissues, which compromise both neurons and glial cells, offer a new way to provide radical treatments of HD disease. Adult stem cells were taken into consideration to provide treatment for this disease. An experiment was conducted using a cell from the subventricular zone (SVZ) taken from an adult rat brain and grown. The tissue was then transplanted into a rat model that had HD symptoms and this method was proven to be a success. (Vazey, 2006) Parkinson's disease (PD) was named after the English apothecary James Parkinson, who wrote a detailed description of the disease in “An essay on shaking palsy” (1817). This disorder is caused by a gradual loss of nigrostriatal dopamine-containing neurons or the degeneration of non-dopaminegic neurons.

(Dunnett, 1997) The result is gradual, generalized increase in muscle tone and the appearance of symptoms characterized by PD. People who suffer from PD have difficulty starting voluntary movements because the muscle groups do not relax. There are current for PD sufferers. One of the treatments is taking L-dopa as oral medication and another treatment is deep-brain stimulation in the subthalamic nucleus. These treatments may have few improvements of symptoms but are associated with various side effects and do not stop the disease from progressing. (Lindvall, 2006) Scientists are interested in using stem cell therapies because it is clinically competitive. This new therapy must have long lasting results and improvement to the current treatments. There are currently clinical trials using ES cells to treat PD. By transplanting low doses of undifferentiated mouse ES cells into the rat striatum resulted in a production of ES cells to differentiated into a fetal dopamine (DA) neurons which gradually restored and sustained DA-mediated neurons. (Bjorklund) There have been several clinical studies using adult stem cells to treat PD.

Studies shows that by using neural stem cells (NSCs), taken from an adult rat model and have the potential to generate neurons including dopaminergic neurons and have been transplanted back to the individual. This indicated that NSCs is autologous can be an ideal way treat PD. (Arrias-Carrion, 2009). Looking at clinical studies and trials used on rat or mice models we can see the potential use of using embryonic and adult stem cells. Following many researches, one treatment for HD is to use NSCs which could replace neurons that have been lost. Instead of using ES cells, adult stem cells have similar fundamental principles to treat neurodegenerative diseases. An experiment conducted indicated that the time the cells were grafted, majority of the cells were immature but expressed the neural progenitor marker. But, after transplanting the cells it has differentiated in vitro and transformed to neurons indicating the graft has indeed survived. Hence, these NSCs have the ability to reduce other experiments, the best treatment is to reduce any impairments and increase functions in the animal model with HD symptoms (Dunnett).

There may be some evidence to show that adult stem cells can develop into neurons or glial cells but these observations are rare and reports are limited on models. (Toda, 2002) By following intensive studies, the best treatment is to use ES cell therapy for HD sufferers. The transplantations of the fetal human brain tissue are a very useful strategy to reduce the neuronal damage within a HD sufferer. In recent studies, documentation has been provided to show there have been improvements in the motor and cognitive performance in HD patients after the fetal cell transplantation. (Boucherie, 2008) The idea was to use stem cells to restore or preserve the brain function by replacing or protecting the striatal neurons and the results was successful. Thus, these methods are possible to provide treatment for individual who suffer from neurodegenerative diseases In recent studies, scientist has shown that NSCs in the brain have the ability to treat PD. This shows that neural stem cells or progenitor (NSCs) can preserves enough germinal character to maintain neurogenesis. (Arrias-Carion, 2002) and can develop into neural or glial. Even to date, there has been only one autologous human NSCs transplanted taken place.

(Qu, 2009) By adopting this practice we can see that this clinical treatment established, provide a successful approach in a true autologous transplantation for PD sufferers; which help to understand the differential efficiencies of different stem cells to treat PD. There is another clinical trial, the first to use cell transplantation in PD using adrenal autografts. This is a complex procedure where one adrenal medulla of the PD sufferer is removed for dissection of particular cells and then transplanted back into the brain, but more research is needed. The best stem cell treatment for PD is ES cells rather than adult stem cells. The application to use adult stem cell transplantation in the central nervous system (CNS) has been limited with patients with PD. The transplantation of human fetal dopaminergic neurons has produced long-lasting improvements within a majority of PD sufferers. These cells with properties of dopaminergic neurons have been generated in vitro from ES cells taken from the fetal brain or bone marrow. (Arrias- Carrion) This shows that ES cells are efficient and evidence provided, shows it is an effective treatment.

Stem cell research is beneficial for regenerative medicine and to improve long-term treatment as current therapies or drugs are short-term treatments and cause side effects when treating a neurodegenerative disease. By definition, stem cells have the ability to self renew continuously and be able to differentiate into various cell types. This is one of the main reasons why scientists are interested in this field and to find the potential treatment or cure for neurodegenerative disease. One of the break-through is to apply stem cells to cure leukemia and other related bone or blood cancer by using bone marrow transplant. This is a huge success in medical history to abolish diseases and cancer. The idea of replacing loss of or regenerating neurons and glial cells, provide a long successful treatment. However, more potential researches needed to be carried out on adult stem cells as there are not enough studies to show their true potential. This idea is an exciting new possibility but there are many controversies over the use of ES cells on why embryonic or fetal resources should be used to generate stem cells if stem cells could be taken from an adult tissue. (KIM, 2007) Many individuals argued that using stem cells is immoral and unnatural and there have been several debated on the ethical implications of using ES cells.

The uses of adult stem cells do not require destroying an embryo or generate. This can be argued that embryonic or fetal stem cells are more diverse in differentiating into various cell types. As well as providing a better, renewable and sufficient number of cell resources in cell-based therapy for individuals who suffer from neurodegenerative disorder. (Copray, 2003) The ethical issues behind using ES cells always limit the widespread application and resources in using human clinical trials. The ultimate goal is to use stem cell research to human trial. Since, this is limited; there have been alternative methods to provide new treatments for other cell therapeutic application (Boucherie,2008) such as xenografts. A xenograft is either a transplantation of a cells, tissue or organs from one species to another. An example is from pigs to humans. Another alternative methods to provide new treatments are stem cells and other genetically manipulated or immortalized cell using animal models differ from human models and that the level of techniques may differ and the difficultly in knowing if it is successful in humans.(Boucheries, 2008). The next step is to use human models and no longer use animal models. However, this is a slow and steady process.

Another issue is providing a long term treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. There are still many obstacles for patients to adapt, such as the uncertainty of different stem cells will be the ideal source and if stem cell transplantation can increase the chance of recovery to the full potential. (Kim, 2002) Another interest to use adult and ES cells is previous experiments and research shows that overall stem cells maintain fundamental properties and plasticity to adapt to any environment given. This is a wide prospect to enhance technology and to improve medicine. (Dunnett, 2006) The discovery of stem cells has challenged many scientists to become interested in neurodegenerative disease. Studies shows that embryonic stem cells provide better, long-lasting treatment for neurodegenerative diseases than adult stem cells because it is more versatile and the ability to renew and still remains one of the most effective source for clinical transplantation at this field. References Lindvall,O., Kokaia,Z. (2006) Stem cells for the treatment of neurological disorders. 44. p1094-1096. Nature “Claudia Castillo: The pioneer's story”. The independent (United Kingdom). 19-11-2008.

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Question: Which disease of the central nervous system is named after the Englishman who wrote "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy" in 1817?
Answer: Parkinson's Disease