La Gioconda: mystery, regret and controversy behind the painting | Italy La Gioconda: mystery, regret and controversy behind the painting Submitted by annadefilippo on Tue, 12/22/2015 - 12:04 La Gioconda: mystery, regret and controversy behind the painting One of the greatest paintings of Italian art is certainly La Gioconda, Leonardo da Vinci's masterpiece. The painting, better known abroad as "Monna Lisa" ("Monna" is the abbreviation for Madonna and corresponds to the current term "woman") is kept in the museum of the Louvre in Paris. This 77 x 53 cm painting is unsigned, but it is sure the work was painted by the Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci in 1500. However, the artist never considered the work completed and he never gave it to his commissioner. This has often raised questions which, together with many others, haven't found any answer, yet. La Gioconda Many years have passed since its creation, but the secrets surrounding La Gioconda are far from being revealed: mystery dominates all that relates to this amazing work of art.

Mistery created by the penetrating, yet ambiguous gaze of Monna Lisa herself, the identity of whom we do not know. La Gioconda is a typical Renaissance painting characterized by harmony of colors and nuances. The portrait divides the canvas into two main sectors: one where the protagonist predominates the scene, and the second where we can see a landscape with rocks, streets, rivers and vegetation, considered an imaginative place. The painting and its elements have been given several different interpretations. The identity of the subject remains still uncertain, but its image well known: an enigmatic woman, smiling. According to research conducted by Florentine scholars, La Gioconda really existed in the past and she corresponds to Lisa Gherardini, the second wife of the Florentine silk trader Francesco Del Giocondo. The Del Giocondos knew Leonardo's family: it was the artist's father, it seems, who put them in touch with one another. Other women have been linked to the identity of the painting and it has also been hypothesized she may have been pregnant due to the way she rested her hands on her belly. Another interesting position on the matter, often considered hazardous, is the theory according to which the subject of the painting is Leonardo himself.

This thesis was elaborated not only for the similarity between the painting and Leonardo's face, but also because the reason Leonardo never returned the painting to its commissioner has never been clarified. The attachment of Leonardo to the painting is still unexplained, but that's the same for the identity of the person portrayed, which may remain a mystery. La Gioconda, in spite of its popularity, is fundamentally a work of mystery: the smile, the eyes, the subject, all contributed to create an aura of mystery and enigma around it. The eyes and the smile of La Gioconda have been considered the key to reveal its secrets by many. Proof of it is the number of studies carried out on their analysis in the hope to solve, once and for all, the mystery of the Monna Lisa. Painting Called the “Mona Lisa” of Ancient Egypt is Likely Fake - History in the Headlines Painting Called the “Mona Lisa” of Ancient Egypt is Likely Fake April 2, 2015 By Sarah Pruitt A section of the "Meidum Geese" wall painting.

Share this: Painting Called the “Mona Lisa” of Ancient Egypt is Likely Fake Author Painting Called the “Mona Lisa” of Ancient Egypt is Likely Fake URL Google The story of the painting known as the “Meidum Geese” dates to 1871, when a man named Luigi Vassalli supposedly discovered it in a tomb near the Meidum Pyramid, built by the pharaoh Snefru around 4,500 years ago. Some scholars have compared the painting to Leonardo DaVinci’s masterpiece “La Giaconda” (better known as “Mona Lisa”) for its beauty and level of detail. But an Italian researcher is now questioning the authenticity of “Meidum Geese,” claiming it is most likely a 19th-century fake that may have been painted on top of another, older work. Italian Egyptologist and museum curator Luigi Vassalli claimed to have discovered the “Meidum Geese” in a tomb belonging to Nefermaat, son of the 4th-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Snefru, who ruled Egypt from 2610-2590 B.C.

More specifically, he claimed to have found it in a chamber dedicated to Nefermaat’s wife, Atet (or Itet). Painted on plaster, “Meidum Geese” depicts three pairs of geese—six in total—with three turned to the left and three turned to the right; it has been celebrated for its symmetry, high quality and level of detail. Some scholars have even gone so far as to call it the ancient equivalent of Leonardo DaVinci’s Renaissance masterpiece, “Mona Lisa”. Now Francesco Tiradritti, a professor at the Kore University of Enna who serves as director of the Italian archaeological mission to Egypt, has dropped a bombshell: He believes “Meidum Geese” was most likely painted not during the 4th dynasty of ancient Egypt, but in the 19th century—probably by Vassalli himself.

Tiradritti spent months studying the painting—both in person and through high-resolution photographs—and says he has finally concluded “there are few doubts on the falsification of the ‘Meidum Geese.’” In a summary of his finds sent to LiveScience ahead of their publication in the specialty art journals Giornale dell’Arte (in Italian) and The Art Newspaper (in English), Tiradritti wrote that doubting the painting’s authenticity was “a mentally painful process.” First off, he points to the fact that two of the geese depicted in the painting—the bean goose (Anser fabalis) and the red-breasted geese (Branta ruficolis)—breed in tundra-like climates, and would not have been likely to have flown as far south as Egypt. That in itself was not enough to prove the painting’s inauthenticity, Tiradritti concedes, but it raised a red flag. Once Tiradritti looked closer, he began seeing problems everywhere.

Some of the colors in the painting (including beige) are completely missing from the work of other ancient Egyptian artists, while the shades of such common hues as red and orange aren’t at all comparable with those used in other paintings found in Atet’s chapel. The painting’s famous symmetry also posed another problem: Ancient Egyptian artists tended to paint different features (such as people or animals) in the same work in different sizes, in order to emphasize their relative importance. On the other hand, the careful symmetry of “Meidum Geese,” Tiradritti claims, is commonly found among more modern works of art. Tiradritti examined the cracks in the plaster of the painting as well, and found that they “are not compatible with the supposed ripping of the painting from the wall.” Finally, he saw hints that “Meidum Geese” was painted over another work, including spots where the original cream background shows through the blue-gray background of the later work. Now, Tiradritti suggests, a more thorough, but still non-invasive scan of the painting should be conducted in order to determine what lies beneath.

According to him, the most likely culprit of the forgery was definitely Vassalli, who worked as a curator at a Cairo museum but was an accomplished painter himself, having studied in Milan. Vassalli liked to write about his other discoveries in Egypt, but he made no mention of the “Meidum Geese” in his papers, Tiradritti points out, which according to him “can be taken as a proof ‘ab silentio,’ given the fact that he used to mention his exploits even years after he made them.” Tiradritti hopes his findings, already causing an uproar among Eyptologists and art historians alike, will inspire other scholars to take a closer look at ancient art, especially those being sold in today’s market, and not accept such works at face value. As a parting shot, he points out another potential clue of Vassalli’s forgery, which he noticed while examining the fragment of another painting the Egyptologist supposedly recovered from the Atet chapel. The fragment depicts a vulture and a basket, signs that in Egypt’s hieroglyphic language represent the letters “A” and “G” respectively—possibly the monogram of Vassalli’s second wife, Gigliati Angiola.

Tags La Gioconda | Academic | Teen Ink La Gioconda More by this author Image Credit: Lindsay S., Billings, MT In 1503, the great artist sat before a blank canvas, unaware that the thing he was about to create would be the most famous painting in history. He began to sketch the maiden sitting in front of him. He himself didn’t know why he chose her, when there were kings and queens asking him for portraits. This girl was a scullery maid compared to them. But there was something about her. Was it the friendliness of her face? Or the way she held herself, so regally. These are all questions that the greatest of art historians find themselves asking about the work of art that is La Giaconda, better known as the Mona Lisa. Painted in 1503 by Leonardo da Vinci, it is the most famous illustration in the world. Ask anyone, and they will know of her and the world famous smile, and the eyes that always seem to be watching you. Da Vinci uses a number of techniques to draw your eyes to these stunning features. He used a pyramid design to pull your eyes upward to the point of the pyramid- her face.

He also utilizes this geometric shape in the folding of her hands. There are other shapes all over in the background of this piece, in the landscape, he makes using lighting. He illuminates certain parts of the buildings in the background to create these figures. The scenery behind her is dark, to make her face seem full of light. The setting’s rolling curves are totally in tune with the curves of her body, giving a sense of natural order, making some ask if he was really painting a person or just an ideal. When you punctuate the curves with the stunning details of her eyes and mouth, you get an almost perfect contrast. In order to make La Gioconda seem more regal, he utilizes the chair she is sitting in, making her seem elegant and proper. However her smile is friendly, and her eyes seem to always to be on you, giving the sense that she is laughing at you. There are so many mixed emotions in this piece, it makes her seem bipolar, and that is actually a theory supported by art historians. The form of the painting is actually an extremely common form in the 15th and 16th centuries.

It is a modified version of the seated Madonna, although the other paintings have the subjects as a serious face, rather than the smile that Mona brings to the table. Many people are so intrigued by this piece because of the smile. When Leonardo painted the piece, could he sense that it was so far out it would bring such a huge sense of mystery? Or was it just because he wanted to be different? Some say it was because he had a string of the Oedipus complex, meaning that he was in love with his mother, so he translated that love to this painting. This was, after all, one of his mother’s friends. Did he want to impress his mother? Some people think that this body feature gives her a sense of familiarity and friendliness. Maybe da Vinci wanted her to seem more accessible. Or he wanted all artwork to be more positive in general, so he made a piece with someone smiling. Possibly he had no idea what it would happen, he just wanted to be different. A computer program was made in 2005 to analyze how happy people are in photos or paintings. The test came out to say that the Mona Lisa was 83% happy. Did Leonardo purposely paint her this happy?

Another time that technology was involved in this great mystery was when they investigated the Mona Lisa once again, this time by applying X-ray techniques to understand the shadowing in her face. The painting was one of seven Leonardo Da Vinci masterpieces investigated by Philippe Walter and colleagues. Their investigation describes the super-thin layers of glaze and pigment used to achieve seamless transitions from light to dark. They learned that he used sfumato, a technique used by many renaissance painters to create shadow and contrast. We are still chipping away at this great mystery. We’ll continue to try to find out the true motives, behind the great artist, when he sat at that blank canvas, 500 years ago. articles.com Facial Beauty Secrets - The Golden Ratio | Facechange Patient Reviews Secrets of Facial Beauty Mathematics is objective: two plus two equals four, regardless of your gender, race, orientation or aesthetic tastes. Beauty is subjective: something (or someone) that may appear beautiful to one viewer may be considered a monstrosity by another. So how can these two seemingly unrelated concepts tie together? Can we actually determine what a “beautiful” face should look like through mathematics versus subjectivity?

The Golden Ratio Some experts believe that innate conceptions of beauty relate to what is known as the “Golden Ratio”. The Golden Ratio (also called the “Divine Proportion”) symbolizes what occurs when the ratio of the longer side of a rectangle (L) to its smaller side (S) equals the ratio between the sum of both sides (L+S) and the larger side (L). In mathematical terms, the Golden Ratio occurs when L/S = (L+S)/L. In nearly every instance, this ratio equals approximately 1.618. Ideas of Beauty: in Ancient Times One of the more remarkable aspects of art from ancient cultures is that much of it reflects ideas of beauty from those times that still carry over today. Although ideas of what constituted “beauty” in those times are much different from today, the proportions of the eyes, nose, lips and chin found in Greek and Roman statues are still considered beautiful thousands of years later. Examples such as the Venus de Milo and of Athena at the Parthenon show how the Golden Ratio have affected ideas of beauty, even before the number had such a name. Ideas of Beauty: Renaissance The presence of the Golden Ratio in art became much more evident during the Renaissance.

Works such as Leonardo da Vinci’s “La Giaconda” (better known as “the Mona Lisa”) show how the Golden Ratio was used to determine where to place the facial features and how to capture the viewer’s eye. More than five hundred years after its creation, the picture of the unknown woman still draws thousands of visitors from around the world and the appreciation of millions in prints, replicas and parodies. Ideas of Beauty: Modern Times Today, our ideas of beauty come not from statues or paintings, but from movie and TV screens. Researchers have applied the Golden Ratio to measure the facial contours of many of Hollywood’s most beautiful women, including Angelina Jolie, Jessica Alba and Halle Berry. In 2003, model Saira Mohan was featured in a Newsweek cover article titled, “The Perfect Face”. Her mixture of Irish, French and Indian ancestries has blended her facial features to such an extent that she retains the best proportions of all those ethnicities. Golden Ratio in Human Anatomy: Arms and Hands In his famous drawing, Vitruvian Man, da Vinci showed that the ratio between a man’s height and the distance from his shoulder to the opposite middle fingertip is close to the Golden Ratio.

Also, the typical distance from the elbow to the wrist is approximately 1.6 times that of the distance from the wrist to the middle fingertip. The Golden Ratio can also represent the ratio of the distances between the successive joints of each finger. Golden Ratio in Human Anatomy: Torso, Chest and Waist For many decades, both sexes have been taught that the perfect “hourglass” female figure had measurements of “36-24-36”. These proportions represented the ideal of a large bust and wide hips with a small waist. In order to apply the Golden Ratio to these “figures”, a woman with a 36-inch bust and hips would need a waist of only 22.25 inches (36/1.618). A woman with a 24-inch waist would need bust and hip measurements of nearly 39 inches (24 x 1.618). Golden Ratio in Human Anatomy: Facial Structure Beauty analysts and Cosmetic Surgeons have also developed a number of measurements that can, when compared to the Golden Ratio, determine the inherent attractiveness of the human face. In a conventionally attractive face, the ratios of specific facial measurements will be close to the Golden Ratio of 1.618.

The further the ratios of facial measurements are from the Golden Ratio, the less perceived attractiveness of the face. For instance, if the distance between the outside corners of the eyes is more than 1.6 times that of the distance from the hairline to the pupil, the eyes are too far apart and out of proportion to the rest of the face.

How to Measure: By Hand For those interested in taking the key measurements by hand, use a tape measure to record the following distances: From the top of the head to the chin From the top of the head to the pupil From the pupil to the nasal tip From the pupil to the lip line From the hairline to the pupil From the nasal tip to the chin From the nasal tip to the lip line From the lip line to the chin Between the outside corners of the eyes Width of the head Length of the lip line In an attractive face, the following ratios will be at or near 1.618: (From the top of the head to the chin)/(Width of the head) (From the top of the head to the pupil)/(From the pupil to the lip line) (From the nasal tip to the chin)/(From the lip line to the chin) (From the nasal tip to the chin)/(From the pupil to the nasal tip) (Width of the nose)/(From the nasal tip to the lip line) (Between the outside corners of the eyes)/(From the hairline to the pupil) (Length of the lip line)/(Width of the nose) How to Measure: By Photo For those who do not have a convenient tape measure, or for

 those who want to save time and labor on measurements by hand, a reliable photo editing software package can be used to measure each element in pixels, rather than inches or centimeters.

The computer’s measurements are often much more accurate than those compiled by hand. Users also place a proportional Golden Ratio rectangle over the features to be measure and determine who close each set of measurements come closest to the Divine Proportion. How to Measure: The Marquardt Mask Dr. Stephen Marquardt developed a “mask” that assembles many of the previously mentioned ratios, plus a few more, into an outline of the “ideal” human face. The lines in the mask can be adjusted for sex, age, and ethnic background. The principle behind the mask is that the ratios it represents can quantify the facial structure that everyone, regardless of age, race or gender, can find appealing. Ethnic Features: African-American Each ethnic group typically exhibits some variation from the “perfect” lines found in the Marquardt Mask. The most noticeable variations in African-Americans features from the mask’s frontal outline are the fuller lips and wider nostrils. Also, the brow lines are higher and the face is narrower in an attractive African American than they are on the lines featured on the mask. In the profile views, the nasal bridge and tip are slightly receded from the mask’s lines.

Ethnic Features: Asian The facial features of those patients with East Asian ancestry also show some significant deviations from the Marquardt Mask. The most noticeable of these differences are the medial and lateral epicanthic folds around the eyes. As with the African-American features, Asian features show wider nostrils and slightly higher brow lines. Where the African-American features display a slightly narrower face, the East Asian features have a noticeably wider face. Ethnic Features: Caucasian Although the mask most closely resembles the features found in attractive Caucasians, some slight differences are still apparent. The most noticeable differences are the wider and longer nose found in many European ethnicities. Many Caucasian features are also much more flat and narrow than those found on the mask, including flat eyebrows, narrow eyes and thin lips. The typical Caucasian face also exhibits a longer, less protrusive chin than displayed on the mask. Research and Technology: Golden Ratio Study A study at the University of Toronto used color photos of women’s faces and altered the proportions of the features, but not the features themselves, with photo editing software.

In most instances, the researchers altered the photos so that the distance between the woman’s eye line and her mouth was 36 to 40 percent of the distance from the hairline to the chin. These numbers are related to the Golden Ratio of 1.618 by this equation: [1 – (1.618 – 1)] = [1 – 0.618] = 0.382 The researchers then asked volunteers to judge between the altered and unaltered photos as to which one was more attractive. Most of the respondents found that the altered photos were more attractive. Research and Technology: Phi Matrix A photo analysis software can determine how well a user’s features fit within the Golden Ratio. The software, known as Phi Matrix, measures the proportions of the eyes, nose, lips, chin, and other facial features to determine how closely they fit within the Golden Ratio proportions. With a few clicks of the mouse, the software forms a grid around the major facial features, measures the distances between those features and calculates the ratios. What does math have to do with beauty? Based on extensive research, Dr. Slupchynskyj believes the two have more in common than previously thought.

Although the saying “beauty doth lie in the eye of the beholder” still holds true, the eye also appreciates symmetry, proportion and structure in every aspect of life, including the human face. 13. Renaissance and Reformation - Hanson History Hanson History History 111 David C. Hanson, Virginia Western Com. College Europe underwent a remarkable flowering of culture in the 15th century, known as the Renaissance, followed by profound theological, political and economic changes in the 16th century. The Protestant Reformation split Christianity, centralizing monarchies ruled autonomous and competitive nation-states, and enterprising merchants expanded their power. Recovery in France and Spain________________ Le Victorieux During the later middle ages, Europe was weakened by internal political and social problems as well as the bubonic plague epidemic; but by the fifteenth century regional states such as England, France, Germany and Italy grew stronger. The Holy Roman Empire survived in name only as effective authority lay with powerful kings. The state-building process began in Italy, where profitable trade and tax revenue enriched the major cities of Milan, Venice and Florence, the papal state in Rome, and the kingdom of Naples.

The year 1453 marked the end of the Hundred Years War, a struggle for the French throne fought between the English House of Valois and the French House of Anjou. A notable figure in this war was Joan of Arc, an inspired peasant later called the Maid of Orléans and canonized as a saint, who led the French army in a campaign to drive out the English in 1429. Joan was captured and burned at the stake in 1431. After the French victory in the Battle of Patay, the English were forced to withdraw and Charles VII was crowned King of France. His legacy was overshadowed by the achievements and martyrdom of Saint Joan, but Charles the Victorious brought independence, unity, and economic prosperity to France. Charles VII was succeeded by his heir Louis XI, called Louis the Prudent, or the Spider King (l'universelle araignée) because his 22-year reign was marked by a spider's web of political and diplomatic plots worthy of a Roman emperor. Louis XI established a central governing authority with a standing army of 15,000 well-armed troops.

He cultivated the support of the upper bourgeois aristocracy, who served as his political allies against the classes of landed nobility and artisans. By undercutting France's feudal lords, he united France and established the foundation of a strong monarchy. The Reconquista In Spain, the marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile united the wealthiest Iberian realms, financing a war for "reconquista" (vanquishing the Muslims) and absorbing the kingdom of Granada into Spain. The conquest of Granada allowed the Spanish monarchy to divert attention to foreign exploration, beginning with the voyages of Christopher Columbus. In the exploration and conquest of the New World, Spain found an outlet for the crusading energies that the war against the Muslims had stimulated. In 1493 Pope Alexander VI formally approved the division of the New World between Spain and Portugal. Competition between European states intensified as they tightened their authority and expanded their territory. Frequent small-scale wars stimulated the development of military and naval technology. Rebirth in Italy___________________________ Classical Art Population growth and state-building efforts coincided with a rebirth of artistic and intellectual creativity--known as the Renaissance--that lasted into the sixteenth century.

Painters, sculptors and architects of the Renaissance era, such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarotti, drew much of their inspiration from Greek and Roman concepts in an effort to revive classical aesthetic standards. The center of the Italian Renaissance was Florence, ruled by the powerful Medici family who were patrons to Michelangelo. The statue of David, completed by Michelangelo in 1504, is one of the most famous works of the Renaissance. He also created the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling and "The Last Judgment" in the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Other notable examples besides Michelangelo are Raphael and Donatello. Humanist Literature Meanwhile, Renaissance scholars, known as humanists, worked on translations of the New Testament and engaging works of philosophy. Although often exhibiting Christian themes, their literary work represented a break from the medieval church and focused on secular work. They studied ancient non-Christian models for geography, poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, medicine, and natural history.

The humanists scorned the dense and convoluted writing style of medieval theologians, preferring a more elegant and engaging language of classical Greek and Roman authors such as Cicero. Scholars like Francesco Petrarch of Florence traveled throughout Europe searching through monastery libraries, discovering hundreds of Latin writings that medieval scholars had overlooked. The work of Dante Alighieri, especially The Divine Comedy--a long poem about the journey of the soul through Hell, Purgatory and Heaven which he wrote while living in exile from Florence--attacked the pope and promoted vernacular language rather than Latin. (This later became a theme of Martin Luther, considered the father of the Protestant Reformation.) In the first chapter of The Divine Comedy, titled The Inferno, Dante writes of the Gate of Hell: "Through me you go to the grief wracked city; Through me you go to everlasting pain; Through me you go a pass among lost souls. Justice inspired my exalted Creator: I am a creature of the Holiest Power, of Wisdom in the Highest and of Primal Love. Nothing till I was made was made, only eternal beings. And I endure eternally.

Abandon all hope-- Ye Who Enter Here." The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440 meant that Renaissance literature was widely circulated at the time and preserved for future generations. Humanist philosophy provided an intellectual bridge from ancient Greece to the Age of Enlightenment, a period of great scientific and political discovery. Though historically powerful, as a cultural movement the Italian Renaissance affected only a small portion of the population at the time. Its was largely confined to elites and the wealthy merchant class in urban centers, while most of the population of Europe consisted of rural peasants whose lives were not effected. The Renaissance Man Perhaps the most celebrated Renaissance man was Leonardo da Vinci. Born in Florence in 1452, he worked as an artist, engineer and designer. His interest in science extended to anatomy, and in 1490 he produced his famous drawing of Vitruvian man, outlining the mathematical proportions and symmetry of the human body. He is also remembered for his paintings of The Last Supper and La Giaconda (better known as the Mona Lisa). Leonardo's artistic innovations and scientific theories were based on careful observation and documentation. Most of his work was not widely understood and disseminated in his lifetime.

Modern scientists are amazed at his discoveries. For example, in anatomy he studied the circulation of the blood and the action of the eye; in earth science he noted the effect of the moon on the tides and discovered modern conceptions of continent formation (plate tectonics); and he was a pioneer in the science of hydraulics. He designed many inventions (on paper) including an underwater diving suit and a flying machine (see Research exhibit 4.2). He died in 1519 at age sixty-seven. Martin Luther In 1517 a monk and professor at the University of Wittenberg in German had an epiphany. His name was Martin Luther (1483-1546), and he had grown distressed by a central tenet of Catholic doctrine: that faith and good works were necessary for salvation. The source of Luther's discontent was the sale of indulgences by the Roman Catholic church. An indulgence was a spiritual pardon by clergy that excused individuals from doing penance for their sins. Since the eleventh century, church authorities had been aggressively promoting indulgences to raise funds. To Luther, the sale of indulgences was an indication of greed, hypocrisy, and immorality.

He insisted that no person, regardless of church status, had the power to absolve individuals of their sins and thereby grant them admission to heaven. Luther denounced the "corrupt" practice of selling indulgences in a document called the Ninety-five Theses. (Contrary to popular legend he did not nail his indictment on the church door in Wittenberg.) Printed copies were quickly distributed throughout Germany and eventually all across Europe (see Research Document 4.3). Religious and political leaders rejected Luther's challenge to the church, and in 1520 he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X. The following year, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V summoned Luther and demanded that he recant. Luther's response was defiant: "I cannot and will not recant anything, for it is neither safe nor right to act against one's conscience." Though expelled from the church, Luther continued to hold religious services for a growing community of devoted followers. He attacked the Roman Catholic church for a wide range of abuses and called for comprehensive reform. He advocated closure of monasteries, translation of the Bible from Latin into vernacular languages, and an end to the power of priests.

In short, Luther proclaimed that the Bible was the sole source of Christian theology and authority and that faith alone was the path to salvation. Dissidents supporting Luther's views became known as Protestants because of their protest against established church doctrine. People flocked to hear Luther preach in Wittenberg. Protestants organized reform movements throughout Germany, Switzerland, France, England, the Low Countries, Italy, and Spain. Luther's growing popularity led several princes of the Holy Roman Empire to endorse his views for both spiritual and political reasons. Gradually laws requiring Protestant doctrine appeared. In 1524 a peasant revolt against lords and church leaders split the reform movement. Luther tried in vain to mediate the conflict and then sided with the nobles. The uprising was crushed, causing over 100,000 deaths, linking the Lutheran Church to German princes.

Like many other Protestant and Catholic leaders, Luther had no tolerance for Jews, who he described as "enemies of Christ." He advocated burning synagogues, arresting rabbis, and confiscating Jewish property: Therefore be on your guard against the Jews, knowing that wherever they have their synagogues, nothing is found but a den of devils in which sheer self-glory, conceit, lies, blasphemy, and defaming of God and men are practiced most maliciously and veheming his eyes on them.... Burn down their synagogues, forbid all that I enumerated earlier, force them to work, and deal harshly with them, as Moses did... If this does not help we must drive them out like mad dogs. John Calvin At the same time, a contemporary of Martin Luther named John Calvin (1509-1564) initiated an even more influential reformation of church doctrine. A French lawyer and theologian, Calvin converted to Protestant Christianity in 1530 and moved to Switzerland to escape religious persecution by the French monarchy. In 1536 Calvin composed an influential treatise, "Institutes of the Christian Religion," that refined Lutheran doctrine.

Calvin dismissed free will and proclaimed that God predetermined which individuals would be saved from damnation before they were even born. "The elect" were predestined to salvation regardless of their good deeds on earth. Nonetheless, Calvinism stressed a strict code of morality and discipline. Calvinists were expected to dress plainly, to study the Bible regularly, and to refrain from "immoral" activities such as playing cards and dancing. Since faith and good behavior could not guarantee salvation, Calvin demanded that government must proscribe and punish immoral behavior. Under Calvinism, Geneva became a theocratic society ruled by intolerant church leaders. Some dissenters were burned at the stake while others were imprisoned and tortured or banished. Calvinism spread through Switzerland and Holland to England. In 1561 Calvinist John Knox founded the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, where it became the dominant church. Counter-Reformation The Protestant Reformation did not go unchallenged by the Catholic Church. The Holy Inquisition, the church court formed in medieval times to combat heresy, was revived, along with the Index, an order from the pope to censor and ban books. Several thousand dissidents were burned at the stake in Spain for heresy.

A nonviolent defense against the spread of Protestant reform was led by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight. In 1534 he founded a disciplined missionary order, the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). Father Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General of his religious order. He sent his companions as missionaries around Europe to create Catholic schools. Eventually Jesuit priests established missions and schools throughout the world. Today, in the United States alone there are 28 Jesuit colleges and universities (e.g., Boston College, Georgetown, Gonzaga, Loyola, Marquette, and Xavier.) Ignatius died of malaria in 1556. Revolution in England_____________________ Henry the VIII In many places where Protestants tried to build a following they ran into strong opposition from political authorities. In England a major turning point occurred during the reign of King Henry VIII. Henry sought a divorce because his wife Catherine of Aragon failed to bear a living male heir, but the pope refused. Henry's response was to sever relations with the Roman Catholic church in 1533 and to establish the independent Church of England, later known as the Anglican church, with himself as the head.

Henry then married his mistress, Anne Boleyn, his second of six wives. (Anne failed to bear him a son and she was beheaded for treason in 1536.) King Henry quickly moved to suppress both Catholicism and Calvinism. He closed the English monasteries and distributed church lands to his political and business allies. The dogma and rituals of the Church of England during the reign of Henry did not differ much from traditional Catholicism, but his daughter Mary briefly restored Catholicism. Later successors replaced Catholicism with Protestant doctrine and rituals. Bloody Mary One notable exception was Henry's daughter Mary, who succeeded Henry's son Edward VI in 1553. Edward feared that Mary would restore Catholicism and undo his reforms, so he arranged for her sixteen-year-old cousin Lady Jane Grey to have the throne. Mary had the support of the people, she deposed Lady Jane, had her young cousin imprisoned in the Tower of London. Mary was crowned queen, and Lady Jane was executed. Known as "Bloody Mary," she tried to restore Catholicism in England and had over 300 Protestants burned at the stake for heresy. Mary I became Queen of England, Naples and Jerusalem.

In 1554 she married King Philip II of Spain, triggering insurrections across England. Childless and suffering from ill health, she died at age 42 in 1558. Mary was succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, a staunch Protestant. Philip became Queen Elizabeth's nemesis when he vowed to liberate England from the scourge of Protestantism. The Virgin Queen Elizabeth was crowned Queen of England and Ireland at age 25 in November 1558. Few women have enjoyed the power and respect of England's Renaissance Queen. Her 45-year reign marked a brilliant period for English literature and theater. The best example of the spirit of the English Renaissance can be found in the person of William Shakespeare. A prolific playwright, he produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613, including Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth. In addition to Shakespeare, playwright Christopher Marlowe and poets such as Edmund Spenser and John Milton produced important literary works.

Milton's "Paradise Lost" is a poem about the Christian story of the fall of man following the temptation of Adam and Eve by Satan and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Philosophers Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon published influential works about humanity and natural science. Philip the Prudent Elizabeth's greatest challenge occurred in 1588 when King Philip II, known as Philip the Prudent, sent the powerful Spanish Armada to the English coast. At this time the Habsburgs ruled not only Spain but also Portugal, the Low Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg), and a vast empire in America and Southeast Asia. Philip's suppression of Calvinists in the Low Countries sparked a revolt in 1566 that lasted for over ten years. English support for the Low Country rebellion, along with attacks by Sir Francis Drake and English privateers on Spanish ships in the Atlantic, led to the attempted invasion and conquest of England by the armada. Elizabeth rallied her people (below); English ships outmaneuvered the larger Spanish vessels and then triumphed when a fierce storm in the English Channel devastated Philip's fleet.

"I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king of England; and I think foul scorn that Philip of Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm.... I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field." The northern provinces of the Low Countries broke away from Spain that same year, forming the Netherlands, better known as Holland, in 1609. Meanwhile, religious conflicts rages across France, where French Calvinists, called Huguenots, sparked riots in Paris. Catholic forces slaughtered 30,000 Huguenots in 1572. Henry of Bourbon embraced Catholicism and became King Henry IV of France in 1593. The Thirty Years War By 1560 England had permanently abandoned the Roman Catholic church; and by 1600 there were strong communities of Lutherans, Calvinists and Anglicans. Religious conflict led to outright civil war between Protestant and Roman Catholic communities in France, Spain, and England.

The culmination was a great continental conflict known as the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). It erupted when the Holy Roman emperor attempted to force Bohemian Protestants back into the Roman Catholic church. The conflict spread from Bohemia to Germany, France, Spain, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, and Russia. The destruction and economic costs of the Thirty Years' War led to the deaths of a fourth of the German population. Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenary soldiers, many of whom were rich commanders and poor soldiers. Villages were especially easy prey to the marauding armies. Those that survived would take almost a hundred years to recover. Much of the power of the Holy Roman Empire was dissipated, and the most powerful European states were the kingdoms of England, France, and Spain. The new monarchs raised funds by taxing property and commerce, enabling them to enlarge their administrative bureaucracies, raise powerful armies, and strengthen control over the nobility and clergy.

War of Spanish Succession The culmination of this conflict was the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714), which brought together England, Holland, Austria, Denmark, Portugal, and some German states to battle France and Spain over who would inherit the Spanish throne from the last Habsburg king and the Spanish empire. France and Spain were forced to give up significant territory in the Treaty of Utrecht. England was the biggest winner, acquiring the Gibraltar peninsula, which commanded the western entrance to the Mediterranean Sea, as well as some French territory in eastern Canada. This marked the beginning of the decline of the Spanish empire and the rise of England as the dominant world power for the next two centuries. Constitutional Monarchy Political and religious tensions led to conflict from which constitutional monarchies emerged in England and the Netherlands. The monarchy shared political power with a representative assembly (parliament). At the same time, absolute monarchies emerged in France, Spain, Austria, Germany, and Russia. In either case it was understood that hereditary rulers derived their authority from God. Constitutional states in seventeenth century Europe did not accept the principle of popular sovereignty or the practice of democratic government.

Aristocratic nobles and wealthy merchants allied with monarchs to ensure political stability, national security, and protection of property rights. In England, the Magna Carta ("Great Paper") issued back in 1215 required King John to accept constitutional law and common law as well as certain rights and privileges, limiting the ruling authority of the monarchy (see Research Doc. 4.1). It was not until the English Civil War (1642-51), however, that the precedent was established that the English monarch could not govern without the consent of parliament. The tide of the Civil War ebbed and flowed for the several years, culminating in the defeat of Charles' army at the Battle of Preston in August 1648 by Parliamentary forces under the command of Oliver Cromwell. The King was charged with high treason against the realm of England. At his trial, Charles I refuted the legitimacy of the court and refused to enter a plea. Not withstanding the absence of a plea, the court rendered a verdict of guilty and a sentence of death. The king was beheaded on January 30, 1649.

The war resumed under Charles II and Cromwell was victorious at the Battle of Worcester in September 1651. Charles II escaped to France and spent the next nine years in exile. Cromwell ruled as 1st Lord Protector of the British Commonwealth. He is considered a champion of liberty by some people and a genocidal dictator by others, the latter because of his brutal repression of Catholics in Ireland and Scotland. Following Cromwell's death in 1658, Charles was welcomed back to England for restoration of the monarchy in 1660. Finally, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 resulted in the overthrow of King James II by armed forces backed by Parliament and led by William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). James' Catholicism and close ties with France had stirred up strong opposition among England's Protestant population. The successful invasion of England by William's Dutch fleet and army led to his ascension to the English throne as William III of England, a joint monarchy shared with his wife Mary, James's daughter. The Glorious Revolution concluded with the signing of the English Bill of Rights by William and Mary in December 1689 (Research doc. 4.4). Conclusion Catholic v.

Protestant wars redrew much of the world map as geopolitical and economic power shifted. While the Protestant Reformation and the emergence of sovereign states brought religious and political reforms, a rapidly expanding population and economy encouraged the development of capitalism throughout western Europe. New methods of finance, communication and transportation enabled businesses to profit from distant markets. Combined with scientific discoveries and Enlightenment philosophy, leading Europeans began to look toward internal restructuring and overseas expansion.

Question: La Giaconda is better known as what?
Answer: Mona Lisa