Democratic Republic of the Congo — United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Learn more The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)—known as Zaire until 1997—has suffered two wars since 1996. The first war in 1996 began as a direct result of the 1994 Rwandan genocide. The second began in 1998 and involved the armed forces of at least seven countries and multiple militias. According to the International Rescue Committee, since 1998, an estimated 5.4 million people have died, most from preventable diseases as a result of the collapse of infrastructure, lack of food security, displacement, and destroyed health-care systems. In 2006, DRC held its first multi-party elections in over 40 years, and over 25 million citizens participated. The elections signified the end of a three-year transition period during which time the country moved from intense war to a system of power sharing between the former government, former armed forces, opposition parties, and civil society. Elections were held again in 2011.

However, national and provincial structures remain incapable of ensuring basic security for communities, providing transparent management of resources and wealth, and addressing entrenched problems of corruption, poverty, lack of development and heightened ethnic and regional tensions. In the eastern part of the country, the war never conclusively ended. A range of armed forces, including the Congolese military, the FARDC, continue to perpetrate violence against the civilian population, including forced displacement, abductions, looting, forceful recruitment and use of child soldiers, and massive sexual violence. Ostensibly tasked with safeguarding the Congolese people, the FARDC has been accused of committing widespread atrocities and establishing criminal networks in eastern Congo. According to the United Nations, 27,000 sexual assaults were reported in 2006 in South Kivu Province alone, a figure that represents only those assaults that were officially reported. Ethnic hostility, much of it echoes from the Rwandan genocide, and fed by inter-group violence, has produced an environment where groups fear their entire existence is under threat and engage in pre-emptive attacks against each other.

In this complex situation, multiple armed forces, including the national armed forces and various militias engage in armed conflict and prey on the civilian population. Among the most brutal of the armed forces are the FDLR, a group whose leadership is associated with the perpetrators of the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Kinshasa | national capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo | Britannica.com national capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo Written By: Madilu System Kinshasa, formerly (until 1966) Léopoldville, largest city and capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It lies about 320 miles (515 km) from the Atlantic Ocean on the south bank of the Congo River . One of the largest cities of sub-Saharan Africa, it is a special political unit equivalent to a Congolese region, with its own governor. The city’s inhabitants are popularly known as Kinois. Kinshasa is not only the capital but also the centre of the dynamic and contradictory influences that have shaped the country’s character in modern Africa.

The only city not clearly identified with any particular region of the country, it was until 1997 the seat of a long-lasting Zairean military government based, on the one hand, on the strength of the armed forces and, on the other, on a technique of political and social compromise that until its later years gained the rather grudging collaboration of most of the citizens. Caught between spectacular wealth and massive poverty, most Kinois must spend a considerable amount of their time scrambling for necessities that are in erratic supply. Nevertheless, they have found the means to make Kinshasa a source of distinctive influence in intellectual and popular culture felt throughout Africa. The most heavily inhabited area of Kinshasa covers 58 square miles (about 150 square km). The total area subject to city government, much of it sparsely populated, is 3,848 square miles (9,965 square km). Pop. (2005 est.) 5,717,000. Landscape City site and climate Kinshasa spreads out southward from the shoreline of the Congo River at Malebo Pool , a widening of the river.

The plain on which the city lies varies mostly between 918 and 1,148 feet (280 and 350 metres) above sea level and is partly encircled by higher ground. The surrounding countryside is heavily farmed savanna and gallery forest; the chief crops are cassava, sugarcane, oil palms, plantains, corn (maize), peanuts (groundnuts), and beans. Similar Topics Capitals & Cities: Fact or Fiction? There are a variety of architectural styles in Kinshasa. High-rise apartment blocks, luxuriously appointed banks, stores, and the offices of large corporations and government agencies characterize the centre of town. Some date from shortly after World War II , but the most prominent were constructed during the economic boom of the early 1970s. They include the Parliament, the president’s palace (built by the Chinese), the headquarters of the national broadcasting corporation (Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise), the International Trade Center, the headquarters of the mineral marketing agency, and an unfinished tower dedicated to nationalist leader Patrice Lumumba .

Spacious villas surrounded by ornamental shrubs and flower gardens, and often also by high walls and iron bars, stand on tree-lined, paved boulevards that mark the elite residential districts. Dwellings in the less affluent communities often consist of tin-roofed concrete-block houses and multiunit dwellings on unpaved streets, often inaccessible to vehicles. These in turn give way to hastily assembled shelters and rough pathways in the extensive squatting zones of the city, where many of the most recent immigrants reside. People Cheetahs Face Extinction Risk The population of Kinshasa grew slowly at first (from 5,000 people in 1889 to 23,000 in 1923) but increased rapidly after 1940; after 1950 it doubled about every five years and by the beginning of the 21st century was approaching 5,000,000, a great many of whom lived in the squatting zones. Much of the population growth has been the result of Congolese migration and government expansion, but widening of the city’s boundaries has caused some of the increase. Kinshasa has a young population.

More than half the people are under 22 years of age, and only a tiny proportion of the population is over 50. Migration of peoples from the rural areas intensified greatly after independence as colonial restrictions were relaxed. Political troubles and the economic decline of rural areas and their lack of amenities and opportunities, as well as the attractions of the city, have contributed to this rural exodus. In its early years the city received immigrants from western Africa and the various neighbouring countries of Central Africa; since independence, however, most new inhabitants have come from within Congo, especially the nearby regions of Bandundu to the west and Bas-Congo (Lower Congo) to the south and east. A tailor in his shop in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Per-Anders Pettersson/Getty Images Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Industry and commerce Kinshasa is the most important consumer centre of the republic and the core of its industrial and commercial activity. The city serves as the headquarters of major public corporations and of privately owned industrial and commercial companies. It dominates the financial and commercial life of the republic and houses the head offices of the principal banks.

Among Kinshasa’s main industries are food processing and those producing consumer goods (e.g., beer, textiles, and footwear), generally for domestic markets. Construction and various service industries also contribute to the city’s economy. However, the political turmoil that has gripped the country since the downfall of the Zairean regime in 1997 has been debilitating for the city’s economic activities. The rapid expansion of Kinshasa’s population has created serious problems in supplying the city with food; there is a constant threat of shortages, posing an implicit political problem as well. The situation has been exacerbated by the country’s economic woes since the late 1990s. In normal times the busy central market is complemented by suburban markets lined with wooden stalls and by hawkers and street vendors selling in minute quantities to passersby. The region of Bas-Congo supplies at least half of the food consumed in the capital. Other foodstuffs come from more distant regions of Congo or are imported. For those who can afford it, South Africa has been an important source of meat and fruits and vegetables, which are flown in.

For the poor, however, Kinshasa is in some ways like an overgrown village, whose people forage at a considerable distance for firewood and keep gardens where they can find good soil. The demands of this vast urban population have caused extensive erosion in the surrounding countryside, as the soil is exhausted from overcultivation and trees cut for charcoal have not been replanted. Transportation Kinshasa’s transportation system is inadequate in many respects. Economic problems and a shortage of foreign exchange have caused severe deterioration, and there has been a continual need for spare parts and replacement vehicles. Kinshasa is well served by roads, but its dense and rapidly increasing population causes much congestion. The city is connected by a paved road to Matadi , Congo’s principal port, at the head of navigation on the Congo estuary , and by another to Kikwit , to the east. The railway line from Matadi, bypassing the rapids on the river below Kinshasa, brings in most of the country’s imports, some of which are then conveyed upriver.

The Congo is navigable to Kisangani , some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) upstream, and a vast network of navigable stretches on its tributaries, connected by railways, brings almost all inland traffic carrying exports destined for Matadi down the Congo and through the port of Kinshasa. Ndjili International Airport, to the southeast, is one of Africa’s largest airports. A busy ferry connects Kinshasa to Brazzaville , the capital of the Republic of the Congo , across Malebo Pool. Within Kinshasa, public transportation consists of grossly overcrowded buses, minibuses, taxis, and fula-fula (trucks adapted to carry passengers). Administration and society Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010 The primary and secondary education system is similarly overextended, lacking sufficient facilities and teachers to cope with population growth. Institutions of higher education include the University of Kinshasa (formerly Lovanium University), the largest of the country’s three universities; a teacher-training college; a national school of administration and law; a school of telecommunications; and an academy of fine arts. There are also institutes of social research, political party indoctrination, medical training, and commerce.

Kinshasa’s School of Catholic Theology is internationally distinguished. Cultural life Kinshasa is the dynamic centre of the nation’s popular culture, the language of which is Lingala, the urban lingua franca . Congo’s popular music is renowned throughout Africa; well-established bands from the country tour abroad to Europe and the Americas as well. Popular music celebrities receive wide attention, and it is not unusual for their latest hit songs to be used to name fashions in women’s dress materials, a medium of intense social competition. Like the popular songs, paintings sold on sidewalks express the social themes of the day. Daily papers and several periodicals are available to the populace. Television is an important medium of official communication, broadcasting news, speeches, a form of propaganda entertainment called “animation,” popular bands, and occasional old European films. Radio and television broadcasting is in French—the official language—and local languages. The city is known for some excellent restaurants and is the site of numerous nightclubs and motion-picture theatres. Modern Kinshasa has produced a considerable flowering of literature in novels, plays, and poetry by local writers. Painting and sculpture produced by artists of the Académie des Beaux-Arts are exhibited and sold at the academy.

The collection of the Institut des Musées Nationaux is of great archaeological, ethnographic, and musicological as well as aesthetic interest, and it is of immense importance for scholars of traditional African art. Although traditional art of value may no longer be available in the city, workshops in the suburbs turn out imitations of masks and sculptures that represent all parts of Africa, as well as carved work in ivory and malachite. History The land on which Kinshasa grew was inhabited in ancient times, as were all the shores of Malebo Pool. The present city evolved from two villages, Nshasa and Ntamo (later known as Kintamo), dominated by the Bahumbu and frequented by Bateke fishermen and traders. Sir Henry Morton Stanley , on his visit in 1877, formed an alliance with the ruler of Kintamo, a wealthy ivory trader, and, despite French efforts to forestall him, was able to acquire a trading post site on his return in 1881. He named this post Léopoldville, for his patron, Léopold II , king of the Belgians.

Although Stanley succeeded in opening river traffic as far north as Stanleyville (Kisangani since 1966) by portaging prefabricated steamers around the cataracts of the lower river, Léopoldville remained unimportant until the completion of the railway line from downstream Matadi in 1898. A pipeline from Matadi to carry crude oil to the upriver steamers at Léopoldville was completed in 1914, and air service was inaugurated between Léopoldville and Stanleyville in 1920. As a result, the administrative headquarters of the then Belgian Congo was transferred there from Boma in 1923. As industries were established, residential zones grew up around them. In the 1930s the zones of Kinshasa, Barumbu, and Lingwala grew up near the port.

After 1950 Lemba, Matete, and parts of Ndjili, to the southeast, were built to house the workers of the new industrial district of Limete, but the more centrally located communes (now zones) of Dendale (now Kasa-Vubu), Bandalungwa, and Ngiri-Ngiri became the social and political heart of the city. Shipping crates being unloaded, Kinshasa, Zaire [now Democratic Republic of the Congo], 1959. Paul Almasy/Corbis In 1960 Léopoldville became the capital of the new republic. Its name was changed to Kinshasa in 1966. The city prospered in the independence period, its population growing rapidly. In the mid-1990s Kinshasa became the focus of the rebel uprising against the Zairean regime of Mobutu Sese Seko , who was forced out of power in 1997. The successor regime, however, was also besieged by insurgents, and the city—overburdened with newcomers—entered a period of severe economic hardship that persisted into the 21st century.

In 2006 the country promulgated a new constitution and held presidential and parliamentary elections—the country’s first free elections in more than four decades—bringing hope of a brighter future to the Kinois. A billboard celebrating Congolese Pres. Laurent Kabila, Kinshasa, Dem. Rep. of the Congo, 1998. David Guttenfelder/AP Congolese voters at a polling station in Kinshasa looking at lists of candidates for parliamentary … Finbarr O` Reilly—Reuters/Landov Spectators sitting atop a billboard proclaiming the 50th anniversary of the Democratic Republic of … Dai Kurokawa—EPA/Landov Prayercast | DR Congo DR Congo • Pray for a stable national government rooted in righteousness. • Pray for followers of Jesus to be ambassadors of spiritual and national reconciliation . • Pray for the Prince of Peace to heal those traumatized by widespread violence. SUMMARY The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo), known until 1997 as Zaire, is roughly one-quarter the size of the United States and home to over 68 million people. Its lush jungles and mountainous landscapes are extremely rich in natural resources.

Yet against this backdrop, the DR Congo has experienced the world's deadliest conflict since World War II, with violence and unrest beginning in 1996 and continuing, in varying degrees, to the present day. Rebel groups attacking villages and carrying off civilians, widespread rape, and unspeakable torture are among the horrors that have been and still are being experienced as of 2010. Thousands also continue to die each month from starvation and sickness. In all, it is estimated that up to 5.4 million people have lost their lives to war, famine, and disease over the past 14 years, and the nation's economy has been left in shambles. The church is the one institution that has survived as a source of stability and hope amidst the devastations and is vital in the rebuilding of a nation scarred by emotional and physical wounds. Amidst widespread nominalism and moral compromise, there is also a great need for spiritual leaders who will call people to true discipleship in Christ. Praise God that He is building His church in the DR Congo and that the gates of Hell will not prevail against it. If you ask me anything in my name, I will do it.

- John 14:14 Democratic Republic of the Congo South America Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) was formerly known as Zaire, until 1997 when it officially changed its name. In terms of land area, the country is the third largest in the whole of Africa. It is bound by the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Angola, and The Republic of the Congo. This country is bursting at the seams with natural geographic formations, from vast wilderness to virgin rainforests, form wild rivers to active volcanoes. In terms of political stability and civil safety, this country leaves much to be desired. The government is not as apparent as you would want them to be. As such, the tourism industry has never been mainstream, but reserved only to those who have the heart to brave DRC’s jungles. Underneath the bureaucracy, however, is a tourist haven waiting to happen. The first step to becoming a mature political body happened in July 2006, when DRC held its first national elections, heavily guarded by UN peacekeeping forces.

In the future, with a stable government in place, we can expect DRC to cash in on its UNESCO biospheres and unique ecosystems. If you are planning to travel to DRC, it is recommended that you consult updated travel bulletins first before booking your flight. At present, existing travel bulletins warn against extreme risks to tourists, especially those who are traveling to DRC’s eastern and northeastern regions. The rest of DRC, on the other hand, pose high security risks, owing to the ensuing political instability and street crimes. Democratic Republic of Congo profile - Timeline - BBC News Democratic Republic of Congo profile - Timeline 15 November 2016 Close share panel A chronology of key events: 1200s - Rise of Kongo empire, centred in modern northern Angola and including extreme western Congo and territories round lakes Kisale and Upemba in central Katanga (now Shaba).

Timeline - the short version 1870s - Belgian King Leopold II sets about colonizing the area as his private holding 1908 - Congo Free State placed under Belgian rule following outrage over treatment of Congolese 1960 - Independence, followed by civil war and temporary fragmentation of country 1965 - Mobutu Sese Seko seizes power 1997 - Rebels oust Mobutu. Laurent Kabila becomes president 1997-2003 - Civil war, drawing in several neighbouring countries (Africa's first world war) 2003 - 2012 - Conflict persists in the east 2006 - Presidential elections 1482 - Portuguese navigator Diogo Cao becomes the first European to visit the Congo; Portuguese set up ties with the king of Kongo. 16th-17th centuries - British, Dutch, Portuguese and French merchants engage in slave trade through Kongo intermediaries. 1870s - Belgian King Leopold II sets up a private venture to colonise Kongo. 1874-77 - British explorer Henry Stanley navigates Congo river to the Atlantic Ocean.

Belgian colonisation 1879-87 - Leopold commissions Stanley to establish the king's authority in the Congo basin. 1884-85 - European powers at the Conference of Berlin recognise Leopold's claim to the Congo basin. 1885 - Leopold announces the establishment of the Congo Free State, headed by himself. 1891-92 - Belgians conquer Katanga. 1892-94 - Eastern Congo wrested from the control of East African Arab and Swahili-speaking traders. 1908 - Belgian state annexes Congo amid protests over killings and atrocities carried out on a mass scale by Leopold's agents. Millions of Congolese are said to have been killed or worked to death during Leopold's control of the territory. 1955 - Belgian Professor Antoin van Bilsen publishes a "30-Year Plan" for granting the Congo increased self-government. 1959 - Belgium begins to lose control over events in the Congo following serious nationalist riots in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa).

Post-independence turmoil 1960 June - Congo becomes independent with Patrice Lumumba as prime minister and Joseph Kasavubu as president. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Patrice Lumumba was independent Congo's first prime minister. He was murdered, allegedly with US and Belgian help 1960 July - Congolese army mutinies; Moise Tshombe declares Katanga independent; Belgian troops sent in ostensibly to protect Belgian citizens and mining interests; UN Security Council votes to send in troops to help establish order, but the troops are not allowed to intervene in internal affairs. 1960 September - Kasavubu dismisses Lumumba as prime minister. 1960 December - Lumumba arrested. 1961 February - Lumumba murdered, reportedly with US and Belgian complicity. 1961 August - UN troops begin disarming Katangese soldiers. 1963 - Tshombe agrees to end Katanga's secession. 1964 - President Kasavubu appoints Tshombe prime minister. Mobutu years 1965 - Kasavubu and Tshombe ousted in a coup led by Joseph Mobutu.

1971 - Joseph Mobutu renames the country Zaire and himself Mobutu Sese Seko; also Katanga becomes Shaba and the river Congo becomes the river Zaire. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Mobutu Sese Seko renamed Congo as Zaire and looted the country during his three decades in power Mobutu Sese Seko Notorius dictator 1973-74 - Mobutu nationalises many foreign-owned firms and forces European investors out of the country. 1977 - Mobutu invites foreign investors back, without much success; French, Belgian and Moroccan troops help repulse attack on Katanga by Angolan-based rebels. 1989 - Zaire defaults on loans from Belgium, resulting in a cancellation of development programmes and increased deterioration of the economy. 1990 - Mobutu agrees to end the ban on multiparty politics and appoints a transitional government, but retains substantial powers. 1991 - Following riots in Kinshasa by unpaid soldiers, Mobutu agrees to a coalition government with opposition leaders, but retains control of the security apparatus and important ministries. 1993 - Rival pro- and anti-Mobutu governments created.

1994 - Mobutu agrees to the appointment of Kengo Wa Dondo, an advocate of austerity and free-market reforms, as prime minister. 1996-97 - Tutsi rebels capture much of eastern Zaire while Mobutu is abroad for medical treatment. Aftermath of Mobutu 1997 May - Tutsi and other anti-Mobutu rebels, aided principally by Rwanda, capture the capital, Kinshasa; Zaire is renamed the Democratic Republic of Congo; Laurent-Desire Kabila installed as president. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Laurent-Desire Kabila was seen as a saviour but after a few months of peace a new war began New hope after Mobutu Profile: Laurent Kabila 1998 August - Rebels backed by Rwanda and Uganda rise up against Kabila and advance on Kinshasa. Zimbabwe, Namibia send troops to repel them. Angolan troops also side with Kabila. The rebels take control of much of the east of DR Congo. 1999 - Rifts emerge between Congolese Liberation Movement (MLC) rebels supported by Uganda and Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) rebels backed by Rwanda.

Lusaka peace accord signed 1999 July - The six African countries involved in the war sign a ceasefire accord in Lusaka. The following month the MLC and RCD rebel groups sign the accord. 2000 - UN Security Council authorises a 5,500-strong UN force to monitor the ceasefire but fighting continues between rebels and government forces, and between Rwandan and Ugandan forces. 2001 January - President Laurent Kabila is shot dead by a bodyguard. Joseph Kabila succeeds his father. 2001 February - Kabila meets Rwandan President Paul Kagame in Washington. Rwanda, Uganda and the rebels agree to a UN pull-out plan. Uganda, Rwanda begin pulling troops back from the frontline. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Mount Nyiragongo has erupted numerous times in living memory, and in 2002 lava from the volcano destroyed part of the nearby city of Goma 2001 May - US refugee agency says the war has killed 2.5 million people, directly or indirectly, since August 1998.

Later, a UN panel says the warring parties are deliberately prolonging the conflict to plunder gold, diamonds, timber and coltan, used in the making of mobile phones. 2002 January - Eruption of Mount Nyiragongo devastates much of the city of Goma. Search for peace 2002 April - Peace talks in South Africa: Kinshasa signs a power-sharing deal with Ugandan-backed rebels, under which the MLC leader would be premier. Rwandan-backed RCD rebels reject the deal. 2002 July - Presidents of DR Congo and Rwanda sign a peace deal under which Rwanda will withdraw troops from the east and DR Congo will disarm and arrest Rwandan Hutu gunmen blamed for the killing of the Tutsi minority in Rwanda's 1994 genocide. 2002 September - Presidents of DR Congo and Uganda sign peace accord under which Ugandan troops will leave DR Congo. 2002 September/October - Uganda, Rwanda say they have withdrawn most of their forces from the east. UN-sponsored power-sharing talks begin in South Africa. 2002 December - Peace deal signed in South Africa between Kinshasa government and main rebel groups.

Under the deal rebels and opposition members are to be given portfolios in an interim government. Interim government 2003 April - President Kabila signs a transitional constitution, under which an interim government will rule pending elections. 2003 May - Last Ugandan troops leave eastern DR Congo. 2003 June - French soldiers arrive in Bunia, spearheading a UN-mandated rapid-reaction force. President Kabila names a transitional government to lead until elections in two years time. Leaders of main former rebel groups are sworn in as vice-presidents in July. 2003 August - Interim parliament inaugurated. 2004 March - Gunmen attack military bases in Kinshasa in an apparent coup attempt. 2004 June - Reported coup attempt by rebel guards is said to have been neutralised. 2004 December - Fighting in the east between the Congolese army and renegade soldiers from a former pro-Rwanda rebel group. Rwanda denies being behind the mutiny. 2005 March - UN peacekeepers say they have killed more then 50 militia members in an offensive, days after nine Bangladeshi soldiers serving with the UN are killed in the north-east.

New constitution 2005 May - New constitution, with text agreed by former warring factions, is adopted by parliament. 2005 September - Uganda warns that its troops may re-enter DR Congo after a group of Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army rebels enter via Sudan. 2005 November - A first wave of soldiers from the former Zairean army returns after almost eight years of exile in the neighbouring Republic of Congo. 2005 December - Voters back a new constitution, already approved by parliament, paving the way for elections in 2006. International Court of Justice rules that Uganda must compensate DR Congo for rights abuses and the plundering of resources in the five years up to 2003. 2006 February - New constitution comes into force; new national flag is adopted. 2006 March - Warlord Thomas Lubanga becomes first war crimes suspect to face charges at the International Criminal Court in The Hague. He is accused of forcing children into active combat. 2006 May - Thousands are displaced in the north-east as the army and UN peacekeepers step up their drive to disarm irregular forces ahead of the elections.

Free elections 2006 July - Presidential and parliamentary polls are held - the first free elections in four decades. With no clear winner in the presidential vote, incumbent leader Joseph Kabila and opposition candidate Jean-Pierre Bemba prepare to contest a run-off poll on 29 October. Forces loyal to the two candidates clash in the capital. 2006 November - Joseph Kabila is declared winner of October's run-off presidential election. The poll has the general approval of international monitors. 2006 December - Forces of renegade General Laurent Nkunda and the UN-backed army clash in North Kivu province, prompting some 50,000 people to flee. The UN Security Council expresses concern about the fighting. 2007 March - Government troops and forces loyal to opposition leader Jean-Pierre Bemba clash in Kinshasa. 2007 April - DRCongo, Rwanda and Burundi relaunch the regional economic bloc Great lakes Countries Economic Community, known under its French acronym CEPGL. 2007 April - Jean-Pierre Bemba leaves for Portugal, ending a three-week political stalemate in Kinshasa, during which he sheltered in the South African embassy.

2007 May - The UN investigates allegations of gold and arms trafficking by UN peacekeepers in Ituri region. 2007 June - War could break out again in the east, warns the Archbishop of Bukavu, Monsignor Francois-Xavier Maroy. 2007 June - Radio Okapi broadcaster Serge Maheshe is shot dead in Bukavu, the third journalist killed in the country since 2005. 2007 August - Uganda and DRCongo agree to try defuse a border dispute. Aid agencies report a big increase in refugees fleeing instability in North Kivu which is blamed on dissident general Nkunda. 2007 September - Major outbreak of the deadly Ebola virus. 2008 January - The government and rebel militia, including renegade Gen Nkunda, sign a peace pact aimed at ending years of conflict in the east. Renewed clashes 2008 April - Army troops clash with Rwandan Hutu militias with whom they were formerly allied in eastern Congo, leaving thousands of people displaced.

Image copyright Getty Images Image caption There has been ongoing conflict in DRCongo for decades 2008 August - Heavy clashes erupt in the east of the country between army troops and fighters loyal to rebel leader Laurent Nkunda. 2008 October - Rebel forces capture major army base of Rumangabo; the Congolese government accuses Rwanda of backing General Nkunda, a claim Rwanda denies. Thousands of people, including Congolese troops, flee as clashes in eastern DR Congo intensify. Chaos grips the provincial capital Goma as rebel forces advance. UN peacekeepers engage the rebels in an attempt to support Congolese troops. 2008 November - Campaign by Tutsi rebel leader Laurent Nkunda to consolidate control over east prompts new wave of refugees. UN Security Council approves temporary increase of troops to bolster the strained UN peacekeeping effort. 2008 December - Uganda, South Sudan and DRCongo launch joint assault on Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army bases in north-east DRCongo. Hundreds of civilians are killed in backlash attacks. 2009 January - Launch of joint DRCongo-Rwandan military operation against Tutsi rebels led by Laurent Nkunda. Campaign lasts five weeks.

Nkunda is displaced by Bosco Ntaganda and arrested in Rwanda. 2009 February - Medecins San Frontiers accuses UN peacekeepers of failing to protect civilians from LRA rebels. 2009 April - Hutu militia re-emerge after end of joint DRCongo-Rwanda campaign in east, prompting thousands to flee. 2009 May - Kabila approves law giving amnesty to armed groups as part of deal meant to end fighting in east. 2009 June - International Criminal Court orders ex-vice president Jean-Pierre Bemba to stand trial on charges of war crimes for his troops' actions in Central African Republic between 2002 and 2003. Series of mutinies by soldiers in the east complaining they haven't been paid. 2009 July - Swiss court rules that frozen assets of ex-president Mobutu Sese Seko be returned to his family. 2009 August - US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visits Goma, promises $17 million aid for victims of sexual violence.

Head of MONUC Alan Doss declares five months of joint army-UN operations against Rwandan rebels - "Kimia 2" - to have been "largely positive". 2009 September - UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay suspects October-November 2008 violence in North Kivu may amount to war crimes committed by both the army and CNDP militia. 2009 November - Germany arrests two alleged FDLR leaders on suspicion of war crimes in eastern DR Congo. 2009 December - UN extends mandate of MONUC for shortened five months, as a step to full withdrawal by mid-2010. 2010 May - Government steps up pressure for UN peacekeepers to quit before elections in 2011. UN's top humanitarian official John Holmes warns against premature departure. 2010 June - Prominent human rights advocate Floribert Chebeya found dead a day after being summoned to meet the chief of police. Celebrations mark 50 years of independence. 2010 July - $8 billion debt relief deal approved by World Bank and IMF. New electoral commission launched to prepare for 2011 elections.

2010 July-August - Mass rapes reported in North Kivu province. UN envoy Margot Wallstrom blames both rebels and army. 2010 June-August - Operation Rwenzori against Ugandan ADF-NALU rebels prompts 90,000 to flee in North Kivu province. 2010 October - UN report into killing of Hutus in DR Congo between 1993 and 2003 says they may constitute "crimes of genocide". It implicates Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Zimbabwe and Angola. 2010 November - UN agencies report widespread rapes during mass expulsion of illigal migrants from Angola to DRCongo. UN report accuses networks within army of promoting violence in east to profit from mining, smuggling and poaching. Ex-DRCongo vice-president Jean-Pierre Bemba goes on trial at International Criminal Court accused of letting his troops rape and kill in Central African Republic between 2002 and 2003. Paris Club of creditor countries scrap half of DRCongo's debt. 2011 January - Constitution changed, which some say boost President Kabila's election chances.

2011 February - Court sentences Lt-Col Kibibi Mutware to 20 years in jail in a mass rape case in eastern Congo. This is the first conviction of a commanding officer for rape in eastern DR Congo. 19 killed in coup bid against president, police say. 2011May - Rwandan Hutu rebel Ignace Murwanashyaka goes on trial in Germany for alleged crimes against humanity in DR Congo. 2011 July - Col Nyiragire Kulimushi, who is accused of ordering the mass rape of women in eastern DR Congo, surrenders to authorities. 2011 September - Mai Mai militia leader Gideon Kyungu Mutanga escapes during a mass prison break-out by almost 1,000 inmates. 2011 November - Presidential and parliamentary elections. Mr Kabila gains another term. The vote is criticised abroad and the opposition disputes the result. 2012 July - Warlord Thomas Lubanga becomes first person convicted by the International Criminal Court since it was set up 10 years ago. He is sentenced to 14 years in jail for using child soldiers in his rebel army in 2002 and 2003.

2012 October - The UN Security Council announces its intention to impose sanctions against leaders of the M23 rebel movement and violators of the DRC arms embargo. A UN panel says Rwanda and Uganda are supplying M23 with weapons and support, which both countries deny. 2012 November - M23 troops briefly enter Goma, the main city in the resources-rich east, then withdraw on promise government will release some of their supporters. 2013 February - Representatives of 11 African countries sign an accord in Ethiopia pledging to help end the conflict in DR Congo. The M23 rebel group declared a ceasefire ahead of the talks. 2013 March - Warlord and alleged M23 founder Bosco Ntaganda surrenders to US embassy in Rwanda and is transferred to the International Criminal Court in The Hague to face war-crimes charges. 2013 July - 3,000-member UN Intervention Brigade deployed to fight and disarm rebels in the east. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption M23 rebels have been a major fighting force in easter DRCongo 2013 December - M23 rebel group signs peace deal with government after army captures last of strongholds in east.

Army repulses attacks on state TV, international airport and a military base in Kinshasa by supporters of self-proclaimed prophet Paul Joseph Mukungubila. 2014 February - UN accuses rival Mai Mai militias of killing more than 70 civilians in Masisi area of North Kivu, in east of country. 2014 March - International Criminal Court finds FRPI militia leader Germain Katanga guilty of war crimes over 2003 massacre of villagers in Ituri province. 2014 June - Congolese and Rwandan troops clash on the border of their two countries. London-based oil company SOCO International announces the suspension of exploratory drilling in Virunga National Park, home to 200 endangered mountain gorillas. 2014 May - Two soldiers are convicted of rape in the trial of 39 members of the military accused of war crimes in the east. They were accused of going on the rampage while retreating after losing the city of Goma to rebels in 2012. DR Congo says almost 60,000 of its citizens have been deported by Congo-Brazzaville in the past month in what is seen as an operation to evict illegal immigrants.

2015 January - Dozens killed in protests against proposed electoral law changes which the opposition said were designed to allow President Kabila to remain in power. 2016 May - Ex-Katanga Governor Moïse Katumbi declares intention to run for president. He subsequently faces arrest, but leaves the country for medical treatment. 2016 November - A political deal signed between President Kabila's ruling coalition and the opposition to delay the presidential election until 2018 sees Prime Minister Augustin Matata Ponyo and his cabinet resign, paving the the way for a new cabinet to include opposition figures. I. CASE BACKGROUND 1. Abstract The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC), formerly the Belgian Congo and then Zaire, is the largest country in the African continent. It is endowed with abundant valuable natural resources, including in addition to diamonds, cobalt, copper and petroleum. The DROC was a colony of Belgium from 1884 until 1960, when it was granted independence. Since that time, the DROC has not known true democracy, as it has been fueled with ethnic and civil strife, leading to political and economic instability.

As a result of colonialism, at the time of independence the DROC was in a state of extreme underdevelopment, and aggravated by the continuing armed conflict taking place within and outside of its borders, these conditions exist today. 2. Description The focus of this case study is diamonds and how their mining and export contribute to the internal conflict in the DROC. It must be mentioned that because the DROC does not have the capability of cutting and finishing the rough diamonds that are extracted from its territory, most exporting activities are handled by third parties, usually diamond exporting firms from Western countries. In addition, it can be argued that because of historical colonialism experienced by the DROC, as with most of Africa, this economic arrangement is an expression, if not an extension of this historical misfortune. Most calls for legislative controls on the diamond trade have come from non-governmental organizations throughout the world, and especially those working to build peace in Africa. Although a legitimate diamond industry exists, increasingly attention is being paid to illicit trade and even, legal trade for illegal benefits. This is where the �conflict diamond� debate emerged. Conflict diamonds are products whose trading financial benefits are immorally used to fuel the civil wars taking place in many countries in Africa.

The DROC is no exception. Rebel forces control some of the areas where diamonds are extracted and consequently, have become players in the mining game, extracting the diamonds, selling them illegally, and using the money to fund their insurgent activities. As a result of the pressure, some controls have been attempted, among them, the United Nations Security Council�s rulings on �blood diamonds�, which imposed sanctions against UNITA, a rebel group in Angola accused of using diamond revenues to fund the civil war. Although it only addresses the problem in Angola, organizations campaigning to stop the trade of conflict diamonds are pressuring for the stipulations to be applied to the DROC. For more information on the Angola conflict and the diamond trade, see Angola Civil War and Diamonds . DRC exports in 1996 totaled US$ 1,490.3 million, including the country�s main export product, cobalt, as well as copper, coffee, crude oil, gold, agricultural products, in addition to diamonds. The DRC, according to some sources, is the world�s fourth largest diamond producer, others place it as second in the world.

Again, the lack of international rules on declaring the origin of diamonds makes it difficult to assess exactly where the DRC stands on its diamond exporting activities, in comparison to other countries. DRC imports in 1996 totaled US$ 1,328.6 million and include chemicals, manufactured goods, mineral oils, raw materials, machinery and transport equipment, textiles and clothing and consumer goods, such as food, drink and tobacco. In 1997, exports in diamonds totaled US$ 715 million. As relates to cut and polished diamonds, the United States is the number one retailer in the world, followed by Asia-Pacific. However, import of the product is transacted through countries where the rough diamonds are re-routed, such as Belgium and England, and sent for finishing in countries like India and Thailand, the world�s largest diamond cutting and polishing centers. The World�s Top Diamond Importing Countries Importer Country: Democratic Republic of Congo 5. Actors The Democratic Republic of the Congo's civil war has drawn in military forces from neighboring states. The main warring factions are the government and the rebel forces, with Uganda and Rwanda supporting the rebel movement which occupies much of the eastern portion of the state.

These countries have their own interest in sharing the wealth that can be reaped from diamond mining in those areas. There are also ethnic ties among the groups in these countries, as Hutus and Tutsis, historical rivals, live in all three of these countries. Fourteen months after Kabila overthrew President Mobutu, a coalition of groups formed the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) and rebelled against him. The new movement included some former supporters of Kabila, particularly Congolese members of the Tutsi ethnic group, former political and military supporters of Mobutu. The RCD received support from the governments of Rwanda and Uganda as it moved westward, attempting to replicate the rapid success of the forces that had installed Kabila in power. But the governments of Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Chad came to Kabila's aid and slowed their advance. The Kabila government, the rebel groups, and the foreign governments involved signed a peace accord in 1999, however, the fighting continued. They signed a new cease-fire in April 2000, whose compliance still remains to be seen. II. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS 6.

Type of Environmental Problem In the mid 1990s, provoked by the severity of the conflicts taking place in neighboring Rwanda and Burundi, the DROC was affected greatly by massive influxes of refugees escaping from these countries. This, and other factors that will be examined below, have had calamitous consequences on the Congolese environment. The Central Intelligence Agency�s 2000 World Factbook confirms that "refugees who arrived in mid-1994 were responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching in the eastern part of the country". Although the majority of these refugees were repatriated in 1996, the effects of the damage is still an issue for the DROC today. In addition, widespread fighting between the DROC rebel forces and the government continue to cause migration and internal displacement of the Congolese people. However, an even greater problem is the diamond mining industry and its illegal activities to finance the war. Most of the diamond mining in the DROC takes place in the eastern part of the country, which at the present time is controlled by the rebel factions, who enjoy support from Uganda and Rwanda.

The horrifying effects of this situation are the forced displacement of the Congolese people living in the mining areas, as well as the myriad of human rights abuses being committed. The UNHCHR Human Rights Field Operation in the DROC, which began in 1996, was forced to evacuate in 1998 due to a dangerous outbreak of the conflict. Their activities resumed later that same year, however the volatile situation continues. The Human Rights Record The State Department�s 1999 Country Report on Human Rights Practices in the DROC shows that government revenues from diamond exports have declined, which has led in part to the government�s inability to provide even the most basic public services to its population. This decline is partly due to the limited access to the areas where the diamonds are mined. However, other factors could be attributed, such as armed attacks which endanger individuals present, blocking of transport routes, a common tactic of rebel groups to disturb economic progress, and possibly even a result of sharing the industry with those who are carrying out illegal activities. Human rights records in the DROC are unacceptable, and the perpetrators are not only the rebel groups, but also the government forces.

Among the most atrocious are killings of innocent civilians, ill-treatment of detained persons, extrajudicial executions of prisoners, and recruitment of children as combatants. In addition, not only has the government been unable to provide the security of its citizens, it has also severely limited their civil and political rights. Diamonds and the Arms Trade According to the U.S. Department of State's Fact Sheet released by the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, �monitoring arms sales (other than state to state) in the Central Africa/Great Lakes region is extremely difficult because most transactions involve numerous players, including government agencies operating with or without state approval, front companies, African expatriate communities, private security firms, individual arms dealers or brokers, various public and private transportation companies, business people, and companies and countries selling or providing false end-user certificates� (US State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research). Complicating monitoring efforts further is the fact that poor governments and rebel groups frequently use mineral and non-mineral commodities to purchase military equipment, including diamonds or income from their sale.

This phenomenon, known as �parallel financing� is currently being addressed by international organizations, however it is unlikely to succeed due to the fact that normally these transactions are legal and are not monitored by any public or private agency. The U.S. Department of State's Fact Sheet released by the Bureau of Intelligence and Research claims that: Small arms, ammunition, and other military supplies made within the continent also have played a significant role in these troubled areas. The government-owned Zimbabwe Defense Industries (ZDI) has profited considerably from the DROC conflict. ZDI provided about $250 million worth of arms to the ADFL (the Kabila-led armed force) during its 1996-97 campaign against Mobutu. Within the first few months of the current round of fighting, which began in August 1998, ZDI supplied Kabila with more than $90 million in arms. The DROC reportedly will repay ZDI with revenues from future mineral production. 7. Type of Habitat 8. Act and Harm Sites Act site: The Democratic Republic of Congo Harm Sites: The Democratic Republic of Congo and its immediate neighbors. Low/High 11.

Fatality Level of Dispute Officials of the International Rescue Committee estimate that 1.7 million people have died as a result of fighting in the area. According to Human Rights Watch, repeated attacks on the civilian population of eastern Congo have caused over a million persons to flee their homes and created a growing humanitarian crisis in the region. 12. Environment-Conflict Link and Dynamics Causal Diagram 13. Level of Strategic Interest Regional 14. Outcome of Dispute Although the internal conflict is still on-going, certain positive steps have been taken to reduce the likelihood of contributing to it by trading in conflict diamonds. The increased activities by international human rights organizations have brought about a heightened awareness of the problem. This in turn, has prompted some actions from governments and the diamond trading industry to substantially minimize the possibility of diamonds coming from conflict areas. In July 2000, the International Diamond Manufacturers Association (IDMA) and the World Federation of Diamond Bourses convened at the World Diamond Congress in Antwerp, Belgium. They drafted and agreed on a joint resolution meant to address the problem of conflict diamond trading. The resolution calls for an international system of certification for legal rough diamonds bound for export and an international electronic registry to monitor the export and import of diamonds.

The resolution also calls for national legislation by all countries importing rough diamonds that would accept only diamond parcels officially sealed and registered in the exporting country. Diamond-exporting countries and countries buying finished diamonds would also need to pass legislation to enforce penalties against any party knowingly involved in conflict diamond trading. A significant recent development for the diamond industry occurred in 1999, when United States Congressman Tony Hall (D-Ohio) introduced the Consumer Access to a Responsible Accounting of Trade Act or CARAT. He has since been joined by Republican Frank Woolf, who now a co-sponsor of the bill. The proposed bill intends to introduce legislation that will require that the rough source of all gem quality polished diamonds and gem diamond products sold in the United States should be certified with a label indicating their country of origin (extraction). Non-compliance will be met with strict penalties (fines of up to US$250,000 or one year in prison). CARAT will attempt to provide American consumers with information about diamonds like they can access for other products they buy. Although the legislation would not prohibit diamond importing from conflict zones, it is meant to make consumers aware of the possibility of indirectly assisting a bloody conflict by purchasing a diamond from these areas.

The main purpose is to exert pressure on the diamond industry to modify its practices, and to be more socially responsible. Some of the advances in this area include: National governments. Some governments (see US action above) are in the process of enacting policies and legislation designed to stop the flow of conflict diamonds and to criminalize the act of trading in these gems. World Diamond Council. An oversight body has been established to coordinate the efforts to stop the flow of conflict diamonds. The Council is made up of diamond producers, manufacturers, traders, governments, international organizations, and trade associations. International Human Rights Organizations. Organizations such as World Vision, Amnesty International, Global Witness, and Physicians for Human Rights are working diligently to increase awareness of the conflict diamond issue. It is widely agreed that solving the conflict diamond problem is a moral obligation. By making a real commitment and joining forces, there will be a way to protect the human rights of Africans, assist in improving the economies of diamond exporting countries in Africa, contribute to bringing peace to the region, while protecting the legitimate world diamond trade.

Question: As what, was the Democratic Republic of Congo known until July 1997?
Answer: Republic of ZAIRE