First World War.com - Primary Documents - John Pershing on Foch's Appointment as Allied Supreme Commander, 1 September 1919 What's New Primary Documents - John Pershing on Foch's Appointment as Allied Supreme Commander, 1 September 1919 Reproduced below is the official reaction - from his despatch of September 1919 - of U.S. Commander-in-Chief General John Pershing , to news of the decision to transfer supreme military command of Allied forces on the Western Front to Ferdinand Foch . Sponsored Links The decision to transfer overall command to Foch was taken by Allied government representatives at Doullens on 26 March in the wake of the onset of the powerful German Spring Offensive which was launched five days earlier and which inflicted serious reverses upon the British Army. It was thus in a period of crisis that Foch was handed his (ultimately highly successful) leading role. Pershing's reaction to the news was, in spite of the potential for subsequent disagreements (which actually transpired), positive. He recognised the need for a unified Allied strategy in the face of the current concerted German offensive.

Click here to read the text of his address to Foch on the matter on 28 March. Click here to read British Prime Minister David Lloyd George's official statement on the subject. Click here to read a follow-up statement by Lloyd George on the same subject dated 9 April 1918. John Pershing on Foch's Appointment as Allied Supreme Commander In the latter part of January, 1918, joint note No. 12, presented by the military representatives with the supreme war council, was approved by the council. This note concluded that France would be safe during 1918 only under certain conditions, namely: (a) That the strength of the British and French troops in France are continuously kept up to their present total strength and that they receive the expected reinforcements of not less than two American divisions per month. The first German offensive of 1918, beginning March 21st, overran all resistance during the initial period of the attack. Within eight days the enemy had completely crossed the old Somme battlefield and had swept everything before him to a depth of some fifty-six kilometres. For a few days the loss of the railroad centre of Amiens appeared imminent.

The offensive made such inroads upon French and British reserves that defeat stared them in the face unless the new American troops should prove more immediately available than even the most optimistic had dared to hope. On March 27th the military representatives with the supreme war council prepared their joint note No. 18. This note repeated the previously quoted statement from joint note No. 12, and continued: The battle which is developing at the present moment in France, and which can extend to the other theatres of operations, may very quickly place the Allied armies in a serious situation from the point of view of effectives, and the military representatives are from this moment of opinion that the above-detailed condition can no longer be maintained, and they consider as a general proposition that the new situation requires new decisions. The military representatives are of opinion that it is highly desirable that the American Government should assist the allied armies as soon as possible by permitting in principle the temporary service of American units in allied army corps and divisions. Such reinforcements must, however, be obtained from other units than those American divisions which are now operating with the French, and the units so temporarily employed must eventually be returned to the American army.

The military representatives are of the opinion that from the present time, in execution of the foregoing, and until otherwise directed by the supreme war council, only American infantry and machine-gun units, organized as that government may decide, be brought to France, and that all agreements or conventions hitherto made in conflict with this decision be modified accordingly. The Secretary of War, who was in France at this time, General Bliss, the American military representative with the supreme war council, and I at once conferred on the terms of this note, with the result that the secretary recommended to the President that joint note No. 18 be approved in the following sense: The purpose of the American Government is to render the fullest cooperation and aid, and therefore the recommendation of the military representatives with regard to the preferential transportation of American infantry and machine-gun units in the present emergency is approved. Such units, when transported, will be under the direction of the commander-in-chief of the American Expeditionary Forces, and will be assigned for training and use by him in his discretion.

He will use these and all other military forces of the United States under his command in such manner as to render the greatest military assistance, keeping in mind always the determination of this government to have its various military forces collected, as speedily as their training and the military situation permit, into an independent American army, acting in concert with the armies of Great Britain and France, and all arrangements made by him for their temporary training and service will be made with that end in view. When, on March 21, 1918, the German army on the western front began its series of offensives, it was by far the most formidable force the world had ever seen. In fighting men and guns it had a great superiority, but this was of less importance than the advantage in morale, in experience, in training for mobile warfare, and in unity of command. Ever since the collapse of the Russian armies and the crisis on the Italian front in the fall of 1917, German armies were being assembled and trained for the great campaign which was to end the war before America's effort could be brought to bear. Germany's best troops, her most successful generals, and all the experience gained in three years of war were mobilized for the supreme effort.

The first blow fell on the right of the British armies, including the junction of the British and French forces. Only the prompt cooperation of the French and British general headquarters stemmed the tide. The reason for this objective was obvious and strikingly illustrated the necessity for having someone with sufficient authority over all the Allied armies to meet such an emergency. The lack of complete cooperation among the Allies on the western front had been appreciated and the question of preparation to meet a crisis had already received attention by the supreme war council. A plan had been adopted by which each of the Allies would furnish a certain number of divisions for a general reserve to be under the direction of the military representatives of the supreme war council of which General Foch was then the senior member. But when the time came to meet the German offensive in March these reserves were not found available and the plan failed. This situation resulted in a conference for the immediate consideration of the question of having an Allied commander-in-chief. After much discussion during which my view favouring such action was clearly stated, an agreement was reached and General Foch was selected. His appointment as such was made April 3rd and was approved for the United States by the President on April 16th.

The terms of the agreement under which General Foch exercised his authority were as follows: Beauvais, April 3, 1918 General Foch is charged by the British, French, and American Governments with the coordination of the action of the allied armies on the western front; to this end there is conferred on him all the powers necessary for its effective realization. To the same end, the British, French, and American Governments confide in General Foch the strategic direction of military operations. The commander-in-chief of the British, French, and American armies will exercise to the fullest extent the tactical direction of their armies. Each commander-in-chief will have the right to appeal to his government, if in his opinion his army is placed in danger by the instructions received from General Foch. The grave crisis precipitated by the first German offensive caused me to make a hurried visit to General Foch's head-quarters at Bombon, during which all our combatant forces were placed at his disposal. The acceptance of this offer meant the dispersion of our troops along the Allied front and a consequent delay in building up a distinctive American force in Lorraine, but the serious situation of the Allies demanded this divergence from our plans.

Source: Source Records of the Great War, Vol. VI, ed. Charles F. Horne, National Alumni 1923 Sponsored Links Saturday, 22 August, 2009 Michael Duffy A Runner was a soldier who carried messages by hand. - Did you know? World War One - End of the War | HistoryOnTheNet World War One World War One - End of the War Last Updated: 08/05/2014 - 09:09 Although America did not declare war on Germany until 1917, she had been involved in the war from the beginning supplying the allies with weapons and supplies. On May 2nd 1915 the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk by a torpedo from a German submarine . 1195 passengers, including 128 Americans, lost their lives. Americans were outraged and put pressure on the government to enter the war. Woodrow Wilson (left) campaigned for a peaceful end to the war. He appealed to both sides to try to settle the war by diplomatic means but was unsuccessful. In February 1917, the Germans announced an unrestricted submarine warfare campaign.

They planned to sink any ship that approached Britain whether it was a military ship, supply ship or passenger ship. On April 3rd 1917, Wilson made a speech declaring that America would enter the war and restore peace to Europe. The United States declared war on Germany on April 6th 1917. American troops joined the French and British in the summer of 1918. They were fresh and not war-weary and were invaluable in defeating the Germans. The allied victory in November 1918 was not solely due to American involvement. Rapid advancements in weapon technology meant that by 1918 tanks and planes were common place. The German commander Erich Ludendorff (right) was a brilliant military commander and had won decisive victories over Russia in 1917 that led to the Russian withdrawal from the war. In 1918 he announced that if Germany was to win the war then the allies had to be defeated on the Western Front before the arrival of American troops. Although his offensive was initially successful the allies held ground and eventually pushed the Germans back.

By 1918 there were strikes and demonstrations in Berlin and other cities protesting about the effects of the war on the population. The British naval blockade of German ports meant that thousands of people were starving. Socialists were waiting for the chance to seize Germany as they had in Russia. In October 1918 Ludendorff resigned and the German navy mutinied. The end was near. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9th 1918. On 11th November the leaders of both sides held a meeting in Ferdinand Foch's railway carriage headquarters at Compiegne. The Armistice was signed at 6am and came into force five hours later Ferdinand Foch - World War I - French Army By Kennedy Hickman Ferdinand Foch - Early Life & Career: Born October 2, 1851, at Tarbez, France, Ferdinand Foch was the son of a civil servant. After attending school locally, he entered the Jesuit College at St. Etienne.

Resolving to seek a military career at an early age after being enthralled by stories of the Napoleonic Wars by his elder relatives, Foch enlisted in the French Army in 1870 during Franco-Prussian War. Following the French defeat the follwoing year, he elected to remain in the service and began attending the Ècole Polytechnique. Completing his education three years later, he received a commission as a lieutenant in the 24th Artillery. Promoted to captain in 1885, Foch began taking classes at the Ècole Supérieure de Guerre (War College). Graduating two years later, he proved to be one of the best military minds in his class. Ferdinand Foch - Military Theorist: After moving through various postings over the next decade, Foch was invited to return to the Ècole Supérieure de Guerre as an instructor. In his lectures, he became one of the first to thoroughly analyze operations during the Napoleonic and Franco-Prussian Wars. Recognized as France's "most original military thinker of his generation," Foch was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1898.

His lectures were later published as On the Principles of War (1903) and On the Conduct of War (1904). Though his teachings advocated for well-developed offensives and attacks, they were later misinterpreted and used to support those who believed in the cult of the offensive during the early days of World War I . Foch remained at the college until 1900 when political machinations saw him forced to return to a line regiment. Promoted to colonel in 1903, Foch became chief of staff for V Corps two years later. In 1907, Foch was elevated to brigadier general and after brief service with the General Staff of the War Ministry returned to the Ècole Supérieure de Guerre as commandant. Remaining at the school for four years, he received a promotion to major general in 1911 and lieutenant general two years later. This last promotion brought him command of XX Corps which was stationed at Nancy. Foch was in this post when World War I began in August 1914. Part of General Vicomte de Curières de Castelnau's Second Army, XX Corps took part in the Battle of the Frontiers .

Performing well despite the French defeat, Foch was selected by the French Commander-in-Chief, General Joseph Joffre , to lead the newly-formed Ninth Army. Ferdinand Foch - The Marne & Race to the Sea: Assuming command, Foch moved his men into a gap between the Fourth and Fifth Armies. Taking part in the First Battle of the Marne , Foch's troops halted several German attacks. During the fighting, he famously reported, "Hard pressed on my right. My center is yielding. Impossible to maneuver. Situation excellent. I attack." Counterattacking, Foch pushed the Germans back across the Marne and liberated Châlons on September 12. With the Germans establishing a new position behind the Aisne River, both sides began the Race to the Sea with the hope of turning the other's flank. To aid in coordinating French actions during this phase of the war, Joffre named Foch Assistant Commander-in-Chief on October 4 with responsibility for overseeing the northern French armies and working with the British. Ferdinand Foch - Northern Army Group: In this role, Foch directed French forces during the First Battle of Ypres later that month.

For his efforts, he received an honorary knighthood from King George V. As fighting continued into 1915, he oversaw French efforts during the Artois Offensive that fall. A failure, it gained little ground in exchange for a large number of casualties. In July 1916, Foch commanded French troops during the Battle of the Somme . Severely criticized for the severe losses sustained by French forces during the course of the battle, Foch was removed from command in December. Sent to Senlis, he was charged with leading a planning group. With the ascent of General Philippe Pétain to Commander-in-Chief in May 1917, Foch was recalled and made Chief of the General Staff. Ferdinand Foch - Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies: In the fall of 1917, Foch received orders for Italy to aid in re-establishing their lines in the wake of the Battle of Caporetto . The following March, the Germans unleashed the first of their Spring Offensives . With their forces being driven back, Allied leaders met at Doullens on March 26, 1918, and appointed Foch to coordinate the Allied defense.

A subsequent meeting at Beauvais in early April saw Foch receive the power to oversee the strategic direction of the war effort. Finally on April 14, he was named Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies. Halting the Spring Offensives in bitter fighting, Foch was able to defeat the German's last thrust at the Second Battle of the Marne that summer. For his efforts, he was made a Marshal of France on August 6. With the Germans checked, Foch began planning for a series offensives against the spent enemy. Coordinating with Allied commanders such as Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig and General John J. Pershing , he ordered as series of attacks which saw the Allies win clear victories at Amiens and St. Mihiel. In late September, Foch began operations against the Hindenburg Line as offensives began in Meuse-Argonne , Flanders, and Cambrai-St. Quentin. Forcing the Germans to retreat, these assaults ultimately shattered their resistance and led to Germany seeking an armistice. This was granted and the document was signed on Foch's train car in the Forest of Compiègne on November 11.

Ferdinand Foch - Postwar: As peace negotiations moved forward at Versailles in early 1919, Foch argued extensively for the demilitarization and separation of the Rhineland from Germany as he felt it offered an ideal springboard for future German attacks to the west. Angered by the final peace treaty, which he felt was a capitulation, he stated with great foresight that "This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years." In the years immediately after the war, he offered assistance to the Poles during Great Poland Uprising and the 1920 Polish-Bolshevik War. In recognition, Foch was made a Marshal of Poland in 1923. As he had been made an honorary British Field Marshal in 1919, this distinction gave him the rank in three different countries. Fading in influence as the 1920s passed, Foch died on March 20, 1929 and was buried at Les Invalides in Paris. Selected Services World War I military leaders Search for: World War I military leaders This page contains brief biographical summaries of some significant World War I military leaders.

Click or tap a link to open or close profiles. These profiles have been written by Alpha History authors. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (Ottoman Empire) Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938) was a prominent Ottoman military commander of World War I. Born in Salonica, Mustafa Kemal was the son of a civil servant, who encouraged him to enter one of the empire’s military academies. He graduated in 1905, received an officer’s commission and was given his first posting. In 1908 Kemal participated in the ‘Young Turk’ revolution, which replaced the Ottoman sultanate with a constitutional ruler. He later served in the empire’s unsuccessful wars against Italy (1911-12) and the Balkan League (1912-1913). When the Ottomans entered World War I in late 1914, Kemal, by now a colonel, was tasked with defending the Dardanelles from a probable Allied landing. Though short of men and equipment, Kemal’s astute analysis of both the terrain and Allied military objectives allowed him to organise a robust yet well planned defence of the peninsula.

The victory at Gallipoli revived Ottoman hopes of keeping the empire together, while Kemal was promoted and given more significant command postings. Between 1916 and 1918 he served against the Russians in the Caucasus, against British imperial forces in Palestine and as an envoy to Germany. By 1918 Kemal was convinced that the Allies would win the war, so his interests turned towards securing the future of his homeland. Kemal is best known for his leadership of the Turkish War of Independence (1919-22) and his long tenure as Turkey’s first republican president. The surname Ataturk, meaning ‘father of the Turks’, was bestowed on him in 1934. General Erich von Falkenhayn (Germany) General Erich von Falkenhayn (1861-1922) was Germany’s Chief of General Staff (commander in chief of the military) for the first half of World War I. A lifelong soldier, the Prussian-born Falkenhayn served in colonial China during the Boxer Rebellion; after this he returned to Germany and worked as a staff officer, involved in military planning and logistics.

Like others of his generation, Falkenhayn was a militarist who believed that a great European war was inevitable and that Germany should prepare accordingly. This attitude earned him the favouritism of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was behind Falkenhayn’s surprise 1912 promotion to major-general and Prussian minister of war. In September 1914 Falkenhayn replaced von Moltke as the Chief of General Staff, after the failure of the Schlieffen offensive. Recognising the great difficulties along the Western Front, Falkenhayn instead focused in the east, where he hoped to force Russia to sign a separate armistice. He also initiated the assault against French positions at Verdun, the failure of this campaign leading to his replacement in August 1916. Falkenhayn remained in the war, serving as a commander in eastern Europe and the Middle East. Historians consider Falkenhayn to be a true figure of the old regime: conservative, authoritarian and militaristic – but nevertheless a skilled general, more competent and innovative than many of his contemporaries.

Marshal Ferdinand Foch (France) Marshal Ferdinand Foch (1851-1929) was an important French general, perhaps best known for repelling German advances in both 1914 and 1918. Born in southern France near the Spanish border, Foch served in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) and remained in the army after the French defeat. He completed further studies, obtained a lieutenant’s commission and began to make a name for himself as a military strategist. Foch’s writings on strategy drew heavily on Prussian ideas and contributed to a transformation of French military thinking in the first years of the 1900s. Shortly after the outbreak of the war, Foch was given command of the Ninth Army which halted the German Schlieffen advance at the first Battle of the Marne. For much of the war Foch worked closely with British commanders, who mostly held him in high regard; their most notable collaboration was at the Battle of the Somme in 1916, however the heavy casualties there resulted in Foch’s deployment away from the Western Front.

He returned to active service in France in 1918, when he coordinated a successful response to the German Spring Offensive. In mid-1918 Foch was given the titles ‘Supreme Commander of Allied Forces’ and ‘Marshal of France’; in November he oversaw armistice negotiations with the Germans. During the Paris peace conferences Foch urged a full Allied occupation of the German Rhineland; when this was denied he condemned the Versailles treaty as a failure, considering it an “armistice for 20 years”. Foch was later hailed as a war hero and showered with honours and titles, however historians have been more sanguine about both his strategic approach and his effectiveness. Field Marshal Sir John French (Britain) Field Marshal Sir John French (1852-1925) was the commander-in-chief of British forces in continental Europe for the first half of World War I. Born into a military family, French enlisted in the Royal Navy but an abject fear of heights forced his transfer into the army. He received an officer’s commission in the Irish Hussars and participated in colonial campaigns in Africa.

French also served as a major-general in the Second Boer War in South Africa, where he was commended for his decisive but calm leadership. He was later promoted to full general, then to field marshal, and contributed to British military reforms and organisation prior to the outbreak of World War I. In 1914 he was appointed commander of the British Expeditionary Force in northern France. French proved unsuited to this mission. At first thinking the war would be over within months, on arriving in Europe he became despondent and pessimistic about the chances of victory. Sir John had little confidence in either French generals or their men and was reluctant to commit British forces to French-planned operations. His inability to work with French commanders led to criticisms at home and Sir John’s resignation and replacement with Haig in December 1915. Recalled to England, French was given the less important task of organising home defence. Apart from providing occasional advice to the government, he played no further part in the war on the Western Front. His tarnished reputation was only recovered by the higher losses suffered by Haig and other generals, after French’s removal.

General Sir Douglas Haig (Britain) “Sadly, many commanders were not aware of the true conditions at the front… Senior commanders such as Haig were located in chateaus well behind the lines, because in modern war that was the only place to exert control… There is no doubt that some of the British generals were not up to the task of command; studied in isolation, catastrophes such as the Somme and Passchendaele are stark evidence of the generals’ inability to grasp modern command and control problems. [But] as the British generals encountered the stiff learning curve of war, they, unlike the donkeys they are often accused of being, embraced evolving technology and new weapons systems.” Tim Cook, historian General Sir Douglas Haig. Ridiculed and parodied in film and television, Haig is often portrayed as elitist and incompetent, though neither was true. Born into an affluent family, Haig had from a young age set his sights on a military career. He saw service in the Sudan, the Boer War and a colonial regiment in India, before returning to England in 1911.

He was viewed as a specialist in military training, discipline and battlefield strategies; he also served briefly as aide-de-camp to King George V. By the outbreak of the war Haig was a lieutenant-general; he was given command of forces at Mons and Ypres, where he acquitted himself well. By the end of 1915 Haig was given command of the entire British Expeditionary Force, and ordered to begin planning a major offensive at the Somme River for the summer of 1916. It is the Battle of the Somme for which Haig is best known, particularly its disastrous opening day. Despite meticulous planning and preparation, and one of the longest and most ferocious artillery barrages of the war, almost 20,000 British soldiers were killed, making it the worst single day in British military history. Haig’s tactics at the Somme, Passchendaele and Amiens were ultimately successful, though they came at enormous human cost. Some, including prime minister David Lloyd George, condemned Haig for persisting with infantry advances on strongly held German positions – a criticism echoed by many historians.

Others more sympathetic to Haig suggest that he was placed under extreme pressure by French losses at Verdun, which denied him any effective French support in 1916. Whatever the reality, Haig was feted by the British government after the war: he was given a 100,000 pound pension and elevated to the peerage. Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg (Germany) Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg. Hindenburg was born into one of Prussia’s most distinguished families in 1847. Like many scions of the 19th century Prussian elite, he began military training at a young age and received a commission in time to serve in the Austro-Prussian War (1866). The young Hindenburg was also present at Versailles for the formal unification of the German Empire, a moment he later called one of the proudest in his life. He served in the military for 45 years, rising to the rank of general before retiring to his sizeable estate in 1911.

But the 66-year-old Hindenburg was recalled in 1914, given command of the Eighth Army and tasked with defending East Prussia from a Russian offensive. His leadership on the Eastern Front produced great victories between 1914 and 1916, though Hindenburg’s talented subordinates and the incompetent bungling of Russian commanders also contributed to these. In mid-1916 Hindenburg was appointed as Chief of the German General Staff, replacing Erich von Falkenhayn, who had been discredited by his lack of progress at Verdun. Hindenburg became Germany’s military commander, though many important command decisions were in fact made by his deputy Erich von Ludendorff. From late 1916 both men exerted considerable influence over the government; Germany became a de facto military dictatorship. Two of Hindenburg’s decisions contributed to Germany’s capitulation in 1918. He was largely responsible for the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, imposed over the objections of civilian politicians; this antagonised the Americans and contributed to their entry to the war in 1917.

Hindenburg also ordered the redeployment of German agricultural workers to the industrial sector, a move which increased military production significantly but worsened Germany’s food shortages. Despite these blunders Hindenburg remained as chief of staff until early 1919 and enjoyed considerable popularity among the German people. He was elected president of the German republic in 1925, by a people nostalgic for nationalism, strong leadership and military strength. It was as president that Hindenburg committed his greatest folly: appointing Adolf Hitler as chancellor of the republic in January 1933. General Joseph Joffre (France) General Joseph Joffre. The French commander-in-chief for the first half of the war, Joffre was the son of a wine-growing family who left the vineyards to become a career military officer. He served in the Franco-Prussian War in the early 1870s then spent many years in colonial postings. In 1911 he was given command of the French army, despite having a background in engineering. Joffre initiated a review of French military strategy and introduced Plan XVII (1913), which was largely concerned with the recapture of Alsace and Lorraine.

It also placed a low priority on defending the French-Belgian border, since Joffre and his fellow commanders believed – wrongly as it turned out – that the Germans would not risk bringing the British into any war by invading Belgium. But while Plan XVII was quickly shown to be flawed, Joffre’s leadership was enhanced by his response to the Schlieffen Plan; it was largely because of Joffre that French forces were able to halt the German advance at the Battle of the Marne in September 1914. Joffre’s reputation took a battering in 1915-16, however, after a series of costly and unsuccessful offensives against German-held lines. In early 1916, as Joffre and Sir Douglas Haig began planning a joint Anglo-French offensive, the Germans attacked French positions at Verdun. French generals were unable to formulate an effective response to the German assault at Verdun, and with the French army at risk of annihilation, Joffre began to show signs of strain. In December 1916 he was replaced as commander-in-chief by Robert Nivelle, who spoke fluent English and was therefore better equipped to work alongside the British.

Joffre was given several advisory or diplomatic roles well away from the Western Front. Despite his failures as a military commander, in his retirement Joffre was given several ceremonial roles and a succession of honours. General Erich Ludendorff (Germany) General Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937) was a German officer, famous for his staunch militarism and his service as Paul von Hindenburg’s second in command. Ludendorff was born in Prussia, the son of a local landowner. His excellence as a student earned Ludendorff a scholarship to a local military academy, after which he received a lieutenant’s commission. He proved an exceptional young officer, receiving numerous commendations, rising through the ranks and being seconded to the General Staff. Ludendorff as an exceptional organiser, known in particular for his ability to plan large operations; from 1911 one of his roles was to assist with the logistics and preparations for the Schlieffen Plan. In 1914 Ludendorff was sent to assist Hindenburg with defending East Prussia from the Russians.

This marked the beginning of a long partnership, during which time Ludendorff served as Hindenburg’s chief of staff, then quartermaster-general of the Germany army. Many historians consider Ludendorff to have been the main source of strategic and logistical ideas in this partnership, with Hindenburg the popular figurehead. Among the wartime policies shaped by Ludendorff were the introduction of military control over the German economy, Germany’s move towards unrestricted submarine warfare and the development of the 1918 Spring Offensive. After the failure of this offensive Ludendorff became depressed and resigned to the inevitability of surrender – however after the war he became a leading proponent of the Dolchstosslegende, or ‘stab in the back theory’, which argued that the German military had been betrayed rather than defeated. For a time in the early 1920s Ludendorff was a fervent supporter of Adolf Hitler and the fledgling Nazi movement. General Helmuth von Moltke (Germany) Helmuth von Moltke (1848-1916) was head of the German military between 1906 and 1914, so was largely responsible for Germany’s war preparations.

Born into a privileged family, von Moltke was named after his prominent uncle, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, who had served for three decades as Chief of General Staff in the newly unified Germany. The younger von Moltke enlisted in the Prussian army as a teenager and fought in the 1870-71 war with France. He later served on the staff of his famous uncle, then as an aide to Kaiser Wilhelm II. In 1906 von Moltke was selected to replace von Schlieffen as Chief of General Staff, probably at the kaiser’s insistence; his appointment surprised some, as von Moltke had leapfrogged several better equipped candidates. His tenure as Chief of General Staff was no less controversial. Some historians assert that von Moltke condemned the Schlieffen Plan to failure by downsizing it and depriving it of men and equipment; others suggest it failed because of unforeseen operational and communications difficulties once the attack had commenced. Discredited and in poor health, von Moltke was replaced as Chief of General Staff by Falkenhayn in October 1914. He played no significant part in the war thereafter and died in late 1916.

General John Monash (Australia) General Sir John Monash (1865-1931) was an Australian general who proved to be one of the most innovative military commanders of the war. Ironically, Monash was more German than British: he was born in Melbourne but both his parents were German immigrants who had Anglicised their name from ‘Monasch’ and who still spoke German in the family home. Unlike most other high-ranking officers Monash did not graduate from a military academy; he instead completed a university degree in civil engineering while undertaking part-time military service. Monash joined the army full-time with the outbreak of war and commanded a unit in Gallipoli, where he demonstrated initiative and adaptability. Unlike some other generals Monash held the men under his command in high regard: he was an effective communicator and motivator, as well as a supreme organiser. The successful withdrawal from Gallipoli, which was achieved in near-secrecy and with minimal loss of life, was largely the product of Monash’s leadership. In mid-1917 Monash arrived on the Western Front. He served for a year as a divisional commander, leading a series of successful, if costly campaigns.

In May 1918 he was promoted and given command of all five Australian divisions on the Western Front. Monash’s calm demeanour and attention to detail earned him the confidence of his fellow officers and the men in his command; an attempt to confect his dismissal by war correspondent Charles Bean and newspaper proprietor Keith Murdoch failed largely because of his popularity. Monash believed in coordinating all available forces – infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft – to increase the likelihood of victory. He employed these tactics in several battles in mid-1918, most notably the successful Battle of Amiens in August, which turned the tide of the war in Europe. Monash was hailed by many as the greatest general of any army on the Western Front, and he was knighted by King George V just days after the victory at Amiens. Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich (Russia) Nicholas Nikolaevich (1856-1929) was a Russian royal and the country’s military commander-in-chief for the first 12 months of the war. A grand duke of the Romanov family, Nikolaevich was a grandson of Tsar Alexander I and the son of a prominent military commander.

Like many other young royals, the teenage Nikolaevich was given training as a cavalry officer and encouraged to become a career military officer. Commissioned in 1872, Nikolaevich participated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) where he served with distinction. His military service thereafter was as a St Petersburg staff officer, concerned with training, logistics and planning. During the 1905 Russian Revolution Nikolaevich was called upon by his cousin, Tsar Nicholas II, to restore order through martial law; he defiantly refused. In 1914 the tsar appointed Nikolaevich commander of all Russian armies in Europe. Nikolaevich was liked and respected, both by his generals and the enlisted ranks, but he was unprepared for the enormity of this task. He had not seen combat for more than 30 years and had no experience of commanding an army in the field. With no clear strategic plan of his own, Nikolaevich simply refereed debates between his generals, while serving as a figurehead. In August 1915 the tsar sacked Nikolaevich and assumed command of the armies himself, a move that would have its own disastrous consequences.

He later led a Russian army in the Caucasus, with some success, before fleeing Russia after the revolution of 1919. General John J. Pershing (USA) General John J. Pershing (1860-1948) was probably the best known American general of World War I. Born to a farming family in Missouri, Pershing worked as a teacher before accepting a position at the prestigious West Point military academy. His superiors there were impressed with Pershing’s leadership skills, particularly his decisiveness and firmness with other cadets. After graduating from West Point, Pershing received a lieutenant’s commission and saw combat in several campaigns against Native Americans, in the Spanish-American War (1898) and in the Philippines. He also rose through the ranks, becoming a brigadier general in 1905. In early 1917 US president Woodrow Wilson appointed Pershing as commander of the American Expeditionary Force to Europe, promoting him to full general. Pershing arrived on the Western Front in mid-1917 and began planning the deployment of American forces.

Their first significant use was at the Battle of Hamel, where Americans served under British and Australian officers, the first time US troops had been given to foreign command. By the spring of 1918 Pershing, who now had several US divisions at his disposal, reclaimed command of all American troops in Europe. He led several American divisions at the second Battle of the Marne (July-August 1918) and also at Meuse-Argonne (September 1918). The Marne produced an Allied victory, however the Argonne offensive was disastrous for Pershing, who repeated many of the same mistakes made by Allied generals in 1915 and 1916. Pershing also insisted that American soldiers continue fighting after the signing of the November 11th armistice, an order that resulted in more than 200 deaths and 3,000 serious injuries. Back in America, Pershing was hailed as a war hero and promoted to General of the Armies, a de facto six-star generalship. Historians, however, have been more divided over Pershing’s role, both as a military leader and his contribution to the outcomes of World War I.

Marshal Philippe Petain (France) Marshal Philippe Petain (1856-1951) was one of France’s most important military commanders of World War I. The son of a farmer, the teenaged Petain opted for a military career, joining the French army as an officer cadet. His early service was unremarkable; it took him almost 15 years to reach the rank of captain. By the outbreak of war in 1914, Petain was already nearing his 60s and was considering retirement, however he was made a general and given important command positions on the Western Front. Petain was more cautious and defensive than some other Allied commanders. He did not believe that heavy artillery and machine-guns could be overcome by massed infantry charges; artillery, he argued, could only be countered with artillery. In 1916 Petain was given command of French forces at Verdun; for a year his men held off the German offensive, though both sides suffered enormous casualties. The following year Petain was appointed commander-in-chief of the entire French army, though by 1918 he was technically outranked by Foch, who exercised command of all Allied armies.

Petain emerged from the war with an enhanced reputation: he was one of the few Allied generals who had achieved more successes than failures, but without the record of needless slaughter so common on the Western Front. Petain was later discredited by his four-year presidency of the Nazi-aligned Vichy French republic, for which he spent the last years of his life in prison. General Sir Henry Wilson General Sir Henry Wilson (1864-1922) was a senior British military commander and government advisor. Wilson was of Irish birth but was a loyal Briton, refusing to support Irish independence or republicanism. Like many British officers, Wilson had risen through the ranks during service in the colonies. He saw combat as a major during the second Boer War, before returning to England and working in both officer training and military operations. By the outbreak of World War I, Wilson had reached the rank of major-general. In 1914 he was deployed to the continent as a liaison with the French, a role Wilson performed well, in part because of his ability to speak their language. He also held corps command positions along the Western Front, though not at any major battles.

Wilson was later appointed Chief of the Imperial General Staff, a position he held until 1922. He was assassinated by Irish republican terrorists later that same year. © Alpha History 2014. Content on this page may not be republished or distributed without permission. For more information please refer to our Terms of Use . This page was written by Jennifer Llewellyn, Jim Southey and Steve Thompson. To reference this page, use the following citation: J. Llewellyn et al, “World War I military leaders” at Alpha History, 2014, accessed [date of last access]. Search this site Translate World War I live To mark the centenary of World War I, Alpha History authors live-tweet press reports on the war - as they appeared 100 years ago.

Question: Who was the Supreme Commander of the Allies at the end of World War One?
Answer: Marshal Ferdinand Foch