Julius Caesar - Wikiquote Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (Classical Latin: G AIVS C ÆSAR ) ( 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC ) was a Roman religious , military, and political leader. He played an important part in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, with the first Roman invasion of Britainia in 55 BC. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest military geniuses of all time, as well as a brilliant politician and one of the ancient world's strongest leaders. For the famous play by William Shakespeare , see Julius Caesar (play) . Contents Men willingly believe what they wish. The die is cast. Fortune, which has a great deal of power in other matters but especially in war, can bring about great changes in a situation through very slight forces. Veni, vidi, vici. I came, I saw, I conquered.

Written in a report to Rome 47 B.C., after conquering Pharnaces at Zela in Asia Minor in just five days; as quoted in Life of Caesar by Plutarch ; reported to have been inscribed on one of the decorated wagons in the Pontic triumph, in Lives of the Twelve Caesars , Julius , by Suetonius Variant translation: Came, Saw, Conquered Inscription on the triumphal wagon reported in The Twelve Caesars by Suetonius , as translated by Robert Graves (1957) Alea iacta est . The die is cast. As quoted in Vita Divi Iuli [The Life of the deified Julius] (121 CE) by Suetonius , paragraph 33 (Caesar: … "Iacta alea est", inquit. – Caesar said … "the die is cast".) Said when crossing the river Rubicon with his legions on 10 January, 49 BC, thus beginning the civil war with the forces of Pompey . The Rubicon river was the boundary of Gaul, the province Caesar had the authority to keep his army in.

By crossing the river, he had committed an invasion of Italy. The Latin is a translation; Caesar actually spoke this in Greek, as reported by Plutarch , Plutarch , Life of Pompey, 60.2.9: Ἑλληνιστὶ πρὸς τοὺς παρόντας ἐκβοήσας, «Ἀνερρίφθω κύβος», [anerriphtho kybos] διεβίβαζε τὸν στρατόν. He [Caesar] declared in Greek with loud voice to those who were present ‘Let the die be cast’ and led the army across. He was reportedly quoting the playwright Menander , specifically “Ἀρρηφόρῳ” (Arrephoria, or “The Flute-Girl”), according to Deipnosophistae , Book 13 , paragraph 8, saying «Ἀνερρίφθω κύβος» (anerriphtho kybos).

The Greek translates rather as “let the die be cast!”, or “Let the game be ventured!”, which would instead translate in Latin as Jacta Alea Est. According to Lewis and Short ( Online Dictionary: alea , Lewis and Short at the Perseus Project. See bottom of section I.), the phrase used was a future active imperative , “let the die be cast!”, or “Let the game be ventured!”, which would instead translate in Latin as iacta alea est. Gallia est pacata. Gaul is subdued. Written in a letter with which Caesar informed the Roman Senate of his victory over Vercingetorix in 52 BC Sed fortuna, quae plurimum potest cum in reliquis rebus tum praecipue in bello, parvis momentis magnas rerum commutationes efficit; ut tum accidit. Fortune, which has a great deal of power in other matters but especially in war, can bring about great changes in a situation through very slight forces.

The Civil War, Book III, 68; variant translation: "In war, events of importance are the result of trivial causes." I assure you I had rather be the first man here than the second man in Rome. On passing through a village in the Alps, as attributed in Parallel Lives , by Plutarch , as translated by John Langhorne and William Langhorne (1836), p. 499 Variant: First in a village rather than second in Rome. I will not … that my wife be so much as suspected. His declaration as to why he had divorced his wife Pompeia , when questioned in the trial against Publius Clodius Pulcher for sacrilege against Bona Dea festivities (from which men were excluded), in entering Caesar's home disguised as a lute-girl apparently with intentions of a seducing Caesar's wife; as reported in Plutarch's Lives of Coriolanus, Caesar, Brutus, and Antonius by Plutarch , as translated by Thomas North, p. 53 Variant translations: Caesar's wife must be above suspicion. It is not the well-fed long-haired man I fear, but the pale and the hungry looking.

As reported in Plutarch 's Anthony'; William Shakespeare adapted this in having Caesar declare Cassius as having "a lean and hungry look." Καὶ σύ, τέκνον; And you, son? Reported as Caesar's last words, spoken to Marcus Junius Brutus , as recorded in Divus Iulius by Suetonius , paragraph 82; this gave rise to William Shakespeare 's famous adaptation in Julius Caesar : "Et tu, Brute? — Then fall, Caesar!" He seated himself at the head of the lines in front of the camp, the Gallic chieftains are brought before him. They surrender Vercingetorix , and lay down their arms. Commentarii de Bello Gallico [Commentaries on the Gallic War] Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres. All Gaul is divided into three parts Book I, Ch.

1 ]; these are the first words of De Bello Gallico, the whole sentence is "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third." [1] Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae. Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest/strongest . Book I, Ch. 1 Consuesse enim deos immortales, quo gravius homines ex commutatione rerum doleant, quos pro scelere eorum ulcisci velint, his secundiores interdum res et diuturniorem impunitatem concedere. The immortal gods are wont to allow those persons whom they wish to punish for their guilt sometimes a greater prosperity and longer impunity, in order that they may suffer the more severely from a reverse of circumstances. Book I, Ch. 14, translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn Fere libenter homines id quod volunt credunt. In most cases men willingly believe what they wish.

Book III, Chapter 18 Variant translation: Men willingly believe what they wish to be true. As quoted in The Adventurer No. 69 (3 July 1753) in The Works of Samuel Johnson (1837) edited by Arthur Murphy, p. 32 Compare: "What each man wishes, that he also believes to be true" Demosthenes , Olynthiac 3.19 Sunt item, quae appellantur alces. Harum est consimilis capris figura et varietas pellium, sed magnitudine paulo antecedunt mutilaeque sunt cornibus et crura sine nodis articulisque habent neque quietis causa procumbunt neque, si quo adflictae casu conciderunt, erigere sese aut sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus: ad eas se applicant atque ita paulum modo reclinatae quietem capiunt.

Quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatoribus, quo se recipere consuerint, omnes eo loco aut ab radicibus subruunt aut accidunt arbores, tantum ut summa species earum stantium relinquatur. Huc cum se consuetudine reclinaverunt, infirmas arbores pondere adfligunt atque una ipsae concidunt. There are also animals which are called elks [alces "moose" in Am. Engl.; elk "wapiti"]. The shape of these, and the varied colour of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up.

Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them. Book VI Vercingetorix , having convened a council the following day, declares, "That he had undertaken that war, not on account of his own exigencies, but on account of the general freedom; and since he must yield to fortune, he offered himself to them for either purpose, whether they should wish to atone to the Romans by his death, or surrender him alive." Ambassadors are sent to Caesar on this subject. He orders their arms to be surrendered, and their chieftains delivered up. He seated himself at the head of the lines in front of the camp, the Gallic chieftains are brought before him.

They surrender Vercingetorix, and lay down their arms. Book VII Misattributed[ edit ] Beware the leader who bangs the drums of war in order to whip the citizenry into a patriotic fervor, for patriotism is indeed a double-edged sword. It both emboldens the blood, just as it narrows the mind. And when the drums of war have reached a fever pitch and the blood boils with hate and the mind has closed, the leader will have no need in seizing the rights of the citizenry. Rather, the citizenry, infused with fear and blinded by patriotism, will offer up all of their rights unto the leader and gladly so. How do I know? For this is what I have done. And I am Caesar. This statement by an unknown author has also been wrongly attributed to William Shakespeare , but there are no records of it prior to late 2001. It has been debunked at Snopes.com Quotes about Caesar[ edit ] Caesar overtook his advanced guard at the river Rubicon, which formed the frontier between Gaul and Italy.

Well aware how critical a decision confronted him, he turned to his staff, remarking: "We may still draw back but, once across that little bridge, we shall have to fight it out" As he stood, in two minds, an apparition of superhuman size and beauty was seen sitting on the river bank playing a reed pipe. A party of shepherds gathered around to listen and, when some of Caesar's men broke ranks to do the same, the apparition snatched a trumpet from one of them, ran down to the river, blew a thunderous blast, and crossed over. Caesar exclaimed: "Let us accept this as a sign from the Gods , and follow where they beckon, in vengeance on our double-dealing enemies. The die is cast." He led his army to the farther bank, where he welcomed the tribunes of the people who had fled to him from Rome. Then he tearfully addressed the troops and, ripping open his tunic to expose his breast, begged them to stand faithfully by him.

Suetonius , in The Twelve Caesars, as translated by Robert Graves (1957), ¶ 31-33 Variant translations: He caught up with his cohorts at the River Rubicon, which was the boundary of his province, where he paused for a while, thinking over the magnitude of what he was planning, then, turning to his closest companions, he said: "Even now we can still turn back. But once we have crossed that little bridge, everything must be decided by arms." As he paused, the following portent occurred. A being of splendid size and beauty suddenly appeared, sitting close by, and playing music on a reed. A large number of shepherds hurried to listen to him and even some of the soldiers left their posts to come, trumpeters among them. From one of these, the apparition seized a trumpet, leapt down to the river, and with a huge blast sounded the call to arms and crossed over to the other bank. Then said Caesar: "Let us go where the gods have shown us the way and the injustice of our enemies calls us.

The die is cast." And so the army crossed over and welcomed the tribunes of the plebs who had come over to them, having been expelled from Rome. Caesar addressed the sol- diers, appealing to their loyalty, with tears, and ripping the garments from his breast. As translated by Catherine Edwards (2000) Brutus, quia reges eiecit, consul primus factus est; Hic, quia consules eiecit, rex postremo factus est. Brutus was elected consul, when he sent the kings away; Caesar sent the consuls packing, Caesar is our king today. Note left on a statue of Caesar in Rome, prior to the Ides of March, as reported in Suetonius , in The Twelve Caesars, as translated by Robert Graves (1957), Divus Iulius ¶ 80 In that man were combined genius , method, memory, literature, prudence, deliberation, and industry. He had performed exploits in war which, though calamitous for the republic, were nevertheless mighty deeds. Having for many years aimed at being a king, he had with great labor, and much personal danger, accomplished what he intended.

He had conciliated the ignorant multitude by presents, by monuments, by largesses of food, and by banquets; he had bound his own party to him by rewards, his adversaries by the appearances of clemency. Why need I say much on such a subject? He had already brought a free city, partly by fear, partly by patience, into a habit of slavery. With him I can, indeed, compare you [Mark Antony] as to your desire to reign; but in all other respects you are in no degree to be compared to him. the die is cast - Wiktionary the die is cast Etymology[ edit ] From games of chance in which the outcome is determined by the throwing of dice or a single die . Popularized by its use by Suetonius when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon to begin a civil war in the Roman Republic , indicating the commission of an irreversible act, whence also cross the Rubicon .

The form “the die is cast” is from the Latin iacta ālea est , a grammatically incorrect translation by Suetonius , 121 , [1] of the Ancient Greek phrase of Menander ἀνερρίφθω κύβος ‎(anerrhíphthō kúbos), which Caesar quoted in Greek (not Latin). The Greek translates rather as “let the die be cast!”, or “let the game be ventured!”. Historical details “The die is cast” is a literal translation of Latin iacta ālea est , as quoted in Suetonius , Vīta Dīvī Iūlī (The Life of the deified Julius), 121 Julius Caesar Crosses the Rubicon, 49 BC The crossing of a small stream in northern Italy became one of ancient history's most pivotal events. From it sprang the Roman Empire and the genesis of modern European culture. Born with unbridled political ambition and unsurpassed oratory skills, Julius Caesar manipulated his way to the Roman Legionary position of consul of Rome in 59 BC.

After his year of service he was named governor of Gaul where he amassed a personal fortune and exhibited his outstanding military skill in subduing the native Celtic and Germanic tribes. Caesar's popularity with the people soared, presenting a threat to the power of the Senate and to Pompey, who held power in Rome. Accordingly, the Senate called upon Caesar to resign his command and disband his army or risk being declared an "Enemy of the State". Pompey was entrusted with enforcing this edict - the foundation for civil war was laid. It was January 49 BC, Caesar was staying in the northern Italian city of Ravenna and he had a decision to make. Either he acquiesced to the Senate's command or he moved southward to confront Pompey and plunge the Roman Republic into a bloody civil war. An ancient Roman law forbade any general from crossing the Rubicon River and entering Italy proper with a standing army. To do so was treason. This tiny stream would reveal Caesar's intentions and mark the point of no return. The Die is Cast Suetonius was a Roman historian and biographer.

He served briefly as secretary to Emperor Hadrian (some say he lost his position because he became too close to the emperor's wife.) His position gave him access to privileged imperial documents, correspondence and diaries upon which he based his accounts. For this reason, his descriptions are considered credible. We join Suetonius's narrative as Caesar receives the news that his allies in the Senate have been forced to leave Rome: "When the news came [to Ravenna, where Caesar was staying] that the interposition of the tribunes in his favor had been utterly rejected, and that they themselves had fled Rome, he immediately sent forward some cohorts, yet secretly, to prevent any suspicion of his plan; and to keep up appearances, he attended the public games and examined the model of a fencing school which he proposed building, then - as usual - sat down to table with a large company of friends. However, after sunset some mules from a near-by mill were put in his carriage, and he set forward on his journey as privately as Julius Caesar possible, and with an exceedingly scanty retinue. The lights went out.

He lost his way and wandered about a long time - till at last, by help of a guide, whom he discovered towards daybreak, he proceeded on foot through some narrow paths, and again reached the road. Coming up with his troops on the banks of the Rubicon, which was the frontier of his province, he halted for a while, and revolving in his mind the importance of the step he meditated, he turned to those about him, saying: 'Still we can retreat! But once let us pass this little bridge, - and nothing is left but to fight it out with arms!' Even as he hesitated this incident occurred. A man of strikingly noble mien and graceful aspect appeared close at hand, and played upon a pipe. To hear him not merely some shepherds, but soldiers too came flocking from their posts, and amongst them some trumpeters. He snatched a trumpet from one of them and ran to the river with it; then sounding the "Advance!" with a piercing blast he crossed to the other side. At this Caesar cried out, 'Let us go where the omens of the Gods and the crimes of our enemies summon us!

THE DIE IS NOW CAST!' Accordingly he marched his army over the river; [then] he showed them the tribunes of the Plebs, who on being driven from Rome had come to meet him, and in the presence of that assembly, called on the troops to pledge him their fidelity; tears springing to his eyes [as he spoke] and his garments rent from his bosom." References: Duruy, Victor, History of Rome vol. V (1883); Suetonius "Life of Julius Caesar" in Davis, William Stearns, Readings in Ancient History (1912). How To Cite This Article: "Julius Caesar Crosses the Rubicon, 49 BC," EyeWitness to History, (2002). Caesar defeated Pompey's forces and installed himself as dictator of Rome. On March 15, 44 BC (the Ides of March) he was assassinated on the floor of the Senate. Rubicon | Define Rubicon at Dictionary.com Rubicon noun 1. a river in N Italy flowing E into the Adriatic.

15 miles (24 km) long: in crossing this ancient boundary between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy, to march against Pompey in 49 b.c., Julius Caesar made a major military commitment. Idioms cross / pass the Rubicon, to take a decisive, irrevocable step: Our entry into the war made us cross the Rubicon and abandon isolationism forever. Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for Rubicon Expand British Dictionary definitions for Rubicon Expand noun 1. a stream in N Italy: in ancient times the boundary between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. By leading his army across it and marching on Rome in 49 bc, Julius Caesar broke the law that a general might not lead an army out of the province to which he was posted and so committed himself to civil war with the senatorial party 2. (sometimes not capital) a point of no return 3. a penalty in piquet by which the score of a player who fails to reach 100 points in six hands is added to his opponent's 4.

cross the Rubicon, pass the Rubicon, to commit oneself irrevocably to some course of action Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for Rubicon Expand n. in phrase to cross (or pass) the Rubicon "take a decisive step," 1620s, a reference to a small stream to the Adriatic on the coast of northern Italy which in ancient times formed part of the southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul; crossed by Caesar Jan. 10, 49 B.C.E., when he left his province to attack Pompey. The name is from Latin rubicundus "ruddy," in reference to the color of the soil on its banks.

Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Expand Rubicon [(rooh-bi-kon)] A river in northern Italy that Julius Caesar crossed with his army, in violation of the orders of the leaders in Rome , who feared his power. A civil war followed, in which Caesar emerged as ruler of Rome. Caesar is supposed to have said, “The die is cast” (referring to a roll of dice), as he crossed the river. Note: “Crossing the Rubicon” is a general expression for taking a dangerous, decisive, and irreversible step. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Idioms and Phrases with Rubicon Expand What the Expression "Crossing the Rubicon" Means Updated March 30, 2016. Definition: To cross the Rubicon means to take an irrevocable step that commits one to a specific course.

When Caesar was about to cross, he quoted from a play by Menander to say "let the die be cast." But what kind of die was Caesar casting and what decision was he making? When Julius Caesar led his troops from Gaul in January of 49 B.C., he paused on the northern end of a bridge, debating whether to cross or not the Rubicon, a river separating Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. When he was making this decision, Caesar was contemplating committing a heinous crime. If he brought his troops into Italy , he'd be violating his role as a provincial authority and would essentially be declaring himself an enemy of the state and the Senate, fomenting civil war. But if he didn't bring his troops into Italy, Caesar - already dubbed an outlaw - would be forced to relinquish his command and probably go into exile, giving up the military glory and the political future over which he'd massacred the Gauls. continue reading below our video What are the Seven Wonders of the World Caesar definitely debated for a while about what to do. He realized how important his decision was, especially since Rome had already undergone tons of civil dispute a few decades earlier.

According to Suetonius, Caesar quipped, "Even yet we may draw back; but once cross yon little bridge, and the whole issue is with the sword." Plutarch reports that he spent time with his friends "estimating the great evils for all mankind which would follow their passage of the river, and the wide fame of it which they would leave to posterity." But when Caesar saw an apparition of a beautiful being striding across the river and blowing a trumpet, he knew what to do, or so Suetonius claimed. For more information, check out: Rawson, Elizabeth. "Caesar: civil war and dictatorship." The Last Age of the Roman Republic , 146–43 b.c.; Eds. J. A. Crook, Andrew Lintott and Elizabeth Rawson. Cambridge University Press, 1992. -Edited by Carly Silver Rubicon | Definition of Rubicon by Merriam-Webster Why Did the "Riot Act" First Get Read? Did You Know? In 49 B.C., Julius Caesar led his army to the banks of the Rubicon, a small river that marked the boundary between Italy and Gaul.

Caesar knew Roman law forbade a general from leading his army out of the province to which he was assigned. By crossing the Rubicon, he would violate that law. "The die is cast," he said, wading in. That act of defiance sparked a three-year civil war that ultimately left Julius Caesar the undisputed ruler of the Roman world. It also inspired English speakers to adopt two popular sayings -crossing the Rubicon and the die is cast-centuries later. Rubicon has been used in English as the name of a significant figurative boundary since at least the early 1600s. Origin and Etymology of rubicon Latin Rubicon-, Rubico, river of northern Italy forming part of the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy whose crossing by Julius Caesar in 49 b.c. was regarded by the Senate as an act of war First Known Use: 1626 Where Did the Expression “The Die is Cast” Come From and What Does the Quote Mean? @ Super Beefy | Filed Under: Language Leave a Comment When you say, “The die is cast,” you are quoting Julius Caesar.

In 49 BC, the Roman general stood and thought long before crossing the Rubicon River into Italy with his army, a move that would break Roman law and start a civil war. When he made his decision and moved forward, he said, “Alea jacta est” (the die is cast), meaning, as when throwing dice, that the outcome is in the hands of fate, and there is no turning back from the consequences. Another phrase with a similar meaning came out of this same event: Crossing the Rubicon means taking a step or action that sets you on an irrevocable path. Read More Also, any literature on baseball written in the 1800's does not credit Abner Doubleday with the invention either. But if my... 2016-12-28T23:28:08+00:00 I'm not saying that whoever wrote this did not research this at all but I am saying this explanation of the origins of baseball...

2016-12-28T23:19:30+00:00 IT TOOK ME OVER WINTER BREAK 12 DAYS 3 HOURS 5 MINUTES AND 36 SECONDS. 2016-12-28T02:49:36+00:00 The math here is false. The fundation of how this was worked out is how long it takes to count to 100 in seconds; which is fine... 2016-11-08T22:41:08+00:00 I've always wanted to know where that word got its etymology from and what the word truly meant. My parents and grandparents... 2016-10-27T04:26:31+00:00 Cross the rubicon | Define Cross the rubicon at Dictionary.com cross the Rubicon, pass the Rubicon, to commit oneself irrevocably to some course of action Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.

1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for cross the rubicon Expand Rubicon n. in phrase to cross (or pass) the Rubicon "take a decisive step," 1620s, a reference to a small stream to the Adriatic on the coast of northern Italy which in ancient times formed part of the southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul; crossed by Caesar Jan. 10, 49 B.C.E., when he left his province to attack Pompey. The name is from Latin rubicundus "ruddy," in reference to the color of the soil on its banks. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper cross the rubicon in Culture Expand cross the Rubicon [(rooh-bi-kon)] To make an irrevocable decision; it comes from the name of the river Julius Caesar crossed with his army, thereby starting a civil war in Rome .

(See Rubicon .) Rubicon [(rooh-bi-kon)] A river in northern Italy that Julius Caesar crossed with his army, in violation of the orders of the leaders in Rome , who feared his power. A civil war followed, in which Caesar emerged as ruler of Rome. Caesar is supposed to have said, “The die is cast” (referring to a roll of dice), as he crossed the river. Note: “Crossing the Rubicon” is a general expression for taking a dangerous, decisive, and irreversible step. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Idioms and Phrases with cross the rubicon Expand cross the Rubicon Irrevocably commit to a course of action, make a fateful and final decision. For example, Once he submitted his resignation, he had crossed the Rubicon. This phrase alludes to Julius Caesar's crossing the Rubicon River (between Italy and Gaul) in 49 b.c., thereby starting a war against Pompey and the Roman Senate.

Recounted in Plutarch's Lives: Julius Caesar (c. a.d. 110), the crossing gave rise to the figurative English usage by the early 1600s. Rubicon The American Heritage® Idioms Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. » J. Reuben Clark III Lecture: Did Caesar Cross the Rubicon? J. Reuben Clark III Lecture: Did Caesar Cross the Rubicon? J. Reuben Clark III Lecture: Did Caesar Cross the Rubicon? At the annual J. Reuben Clark III Lecture in Classics and the Classical Tradition, classics professor Robert Morstein-Marx of UC Santa Barbara discussed Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon and examined why the representation of this significant moment in history is more myth than historical fact. PROVO, Utah (Apr. 2, 2015)—Are ancient writers of history guilty of embellishment? At this year’s J.

Reuben Clark III Lecture, UC Santa Barbara classics professor Robert Morstein-Marx examined what he calls the Rubicon myth, suggesting that Caesar’s famous crossing of the Rubicon was falsely represented by early historians. In the traditional story, Caesar is believed to have forded across the Rubicon and onward to Rome in a blatant act of disobedience to the commands of Pompey, the leader of the Roman senate. As far as the myth goes, Caesar takes a moment and pauses at the edge of the riverbank to contemplate the implications his crossing will have for the future of Rome. Caesar decides to cross, and it is here where Caesar is reported to have coined the popular phrase “the die is cast.” Caesar and his men forged onward, thus marking the point of no return for not only Caesar but for the Roman Republic as well. It is believed that this act alone ushered in the onslaught of civil war that ensued for the next 20 years. However, Morstein-Marx said that this traditional history is far from the truth. He explained that one reason for this comes from the late recording of the event; contemporary accounts of Caesar’s Civil War do not mention the crossing.

Significant histories of the event were not written until nearly two centuries after the event. “An interesting feature of all the three quite late historical accounts is that they are so similar in the key elements of the scene, even in the language itself,” Morstein-Marx explained. “It’s clear that they all depend on a common, earlier source.” That common source, Morstein-Marx said, is the eyewitness account of Gaius Asinius Pollio, who was a participant on the Caesarian side of the civil war. Pollio’s account was written 20 years after the event, when many of the witnesses and participants of the event were still alive. “If we read the story with some care, we discover that it devastatingly undercuts various elements of the picture we’ve all started with in our minds of Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon,” said Morstein-Marx. Myth #1: Caesar Forded the River One example Morstein-Marx pointed to was the common idea that the Rubicon was a ford that Caesar crossed through on horseback in the daytime. “If we pay close attention to the story, there’s nothing about splashing across a ford,” said Morstein-Marx.

“Caesar rode on that long journey from Ravenna to Rimini of over 30 miles not riding a white horse but in a carriage, indeed, by night.” Morstein-Marx said that the idea of Caesar crossing a ford came from the epic poem of Lucan, which provided Morstein-Marx’s first example of literary revisionism of the Rubicon story. “The suspicion is strong that Lucan himself must be responsible for introducing this element that would turn out to be central to our reimagining,” said Morstein-Marx. He added, “Lucan needs a ford because his whole account is shaped to represent Caesar as a transgressor of both law and nature. An effortlessly traversed bridge had to go. Caesar must be made to violate forcibly a natural and civic boundary.” Myth #2: Caesar Crossed Illegally Morstein-Marx said that Lucan’s description of fording the river served as metaphor. The transgression of nature—the fording—represented legal and political transgression. He said that this gave rise to the idea that Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon was illegal, when in reality contemporary letters about the Caesarian civil war never indicated that there was anything unlawful about Caesar’s crossing.

“If the crossing of the Rubicon then had no specific legal significance, we begin to wonder why even in the Pollio version there is such emphasis on the moment of crossing itself,” Morstein-Marx said. Myth #3: Caesar Cast the Die He explained that in the version written by Pollio, Caesar is said to have paused at the far bank to ponder the metaphorical step he was about to take, that is to say to cross the point of no return and cast the die. But the die had already been cast, Morstein-Marx argued. “Before Caesar had even set out on his night’s carriage ride, he had already sent across the river a small body of men bearing arms under civilian dress whose mission was to enter the city at night and ensure it did not close its gates to their commander when he arrived.” Morstein-Marx said that the scene is therefore suspect, regardless of the fact that it came from the eyewitness account of Pollio. As such, he added that the scene should not be used to understand Caesar’s true character.

Truth #1: Ancient Historians Aren’t Always Trustworthy “If you’re not a classicist or ancient historian, you may well be scandalized that one of Rome’s greatest so-called historians [Pollio] could possibly be accused of making something up for literary purposes,” Morstein-Marx said. He continued, “Well, there is no way to sugar coat the pill for you. That’s what ancient writers of history frequently did.” He added that writers of history in antiquity were literary artists, which is the most reasonable explanation for why many historical accounts from antiquity are more or less embellished. “Although they understood it was a cardinal rule to report the truth and avoid untruth, they tended not to define the truth in the punctilious, killjoy way modern historians tend to do,” Morstein-Marx joked. He continued that though this would not come as a shock to classicists and ancient historians, it is nevertheless valuable to try to understand why Pollio would have fabricated Caesar’s moment of contemplation on the bank of the river.

“By these means, Pollio expressed the idea that this was a moment of human decision-making, fallible decision-making, with literally unimaginable consequences for the future, embraced unflinchingly by the key agent,” Morstein-Marx argued. Truth #2: Pompey “Crossed the Rubicon” After he crossed the Rubicon, Caesar surprisingly did not march on the capital, Morstein-Marx said. Rather, he only sent some of his men to control the roads around the city and adopted the idea of a settling with the republic to avoid armed conflict. Morstein-Marx explained that Caesar even yielded to the basis of his dispute with Pompey, the Roman leader at the time of Caesar’s invasion. “The fact that the civil war came so close to a settlement weeks after the Rubicon had been crossed and before any significant shedding of blood raises a question of counterfactual history,” said Morstein-Marx. “When is it historically respectable for a scholar to say that things might well have been different?” In this light, Morstein-Marx argued that the Caesarian civil war could have been avoided altogether.

As a result, he said there would have been no Ides of March—the date of Caesar’s murder, which ended Caesar’s civil war—and no devastating cycle of civil wars that then followed suit. In the end, however, Caesar’s proposal to Pompey came to nothing, Morstein-Marx said. Rather, he said that the Pompeians added on preconditions that Caesar would not accept, and thus Caesar resumed his march down the Adriatic back of the Italian peninsula. “The Roman world was now almost irrevocably committed to a savage war against itself,” said Morstein-Marx. “And yet now it looks as if it was Pompey, not Caesar, who crossed the Rubicon in the metaphorical sense, pushing past the point of no return and taking a decision that left virtually no out but war.” Myth-Truth #1: Caesar Did “Cross the Rubicon” Returning to the embellished passage written by Pollio, Morstein-Marx said that when he wrote about Caesar crossing the Rubicon 20 years after the fact, the event had taken on greater significance from years of devastating civil war.

“By having Caesar announce that he’s fully and counterfactually aware of the terrible consequences that will follow from his action, Pollio gives this moment truly tragic poignancy,” Morstein-Marx said. He concluded, “Though Pollio’s literary and tragic version is dubious history, it may actually speak to us even more profoundly than a more historically correct version, since we too have observed in our own lifetime catastrophes of human judgment whose possible consequences we might have pause to think over a little bit longer.” —Sylvia Cutler (B.A. English/French ’17) The J. Reuben Clark III Lecture in Classics and the Classical Tradition was established in honor of J. Reuben Clark III, a professor of classical languages and French and the founder of classics as a formal field of study at BYU. Clark passed away in 1992.

Question: Who said "the die is cast" as he crossed the Rubicon?
Answer: Julius Caesar