Libya’s IS expansion puts Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria under threat Libya’s IS expansion puts Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria under threat Author: Al-Hayat (Pan Arab) Posted March 15, 2015 A political solution in Libya does seem far-fetched. Each time that the parties sit at the dialogue table in Morocco or Algeria — or in Geneva before that — military confrontation is ablaze between the Libya Dawn forces and the Dignity movement. In the meantime, the returnees from Syria fled to Libyan cities, especially Derna and Sirte, on the way to carry out attacks in Tunisia, Algeria and other western and southern neighboring countries. Summary ⎙ Print Already weakened by years of instability and collapse of their economic resources, Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria are the neighboring countries most affected by the Islamic State’s control over Libyan cities. Author Rachid Khachaneh Posted March 15, 2015 TranslatorJoelle El-Khoury Original Article اقرا المقال الأصلي باللغة العربية The lack of state control is burdening the neighboring countries at the social, political and military levels.

These countries will have their share of internal destabilization, if the organization [Islamic State] was able to disseminate its dormant and active cells in Libya’s neighboring countries. Months ago, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi had sent his prison mate Abu Nabil Anbari (whose real name is Wissam Abd al-Zubaidi) to contribute to the establishment of an IS branch in Libya and North Africa, in addition to Al-Yamani Shanqeeti, who has already been appointed IS governor of Derna. Anbari is a fierce fighter. After the fall of Mosul, he was the one who led the bloody attack on the cities of Tikrit and Beiji, which he forced the Iraqi forces out of, before he was appointed wali (governor) of Salahuddin province. Egypt can be considered as the neighboring country that is affected the most by IS control over Libyan cities. In addition to the hotbeds, armament and recruitment activities that have come close to Egypt's western border, 21 of its citizens were beheaded. This is not to mention the strident popular reactions and government pressure to respond militarily to this crime.

However, what prompted Cairo to refrain from proceeding with the airstrikes is the international reservations about the participation in a broad coalition to strike armed militias in Libya. These reservations were made clearer in Algeria’s rejection of meeting Egypt's call for the military option. They were also seen in the shift in stances in Rome and Paris. Italy and France were the most enthusiastic about engaging in the international coalition to launch raids on IS positions in Libya before they shifted to calling for a political solution. This general position with reservations is in line with the US position, which was expressed by US ambassador to Libya, Deborah Jones. She wrote in a Libya Herald article on the fourth anniversary of Libya’s revolution against Moammar Gadhafi’s regime that “only Libyans can save Libya.” At the social level, the massive return of Egyptian workers to their country will place heavy burdens on the country, in light of the authorities’ inability to provide all or even some of the returnees with employment opportunities. This means that Egypt — which is also busy with its war on armed groups inside the country — is harmed the most by the consequences of Libya becoming a failed state. Tunisia, infiltrated? Tunisia is the second-most affected country by the new crisis in Libya.

This is because IS control of the cities and regions in neighboring Libya will destabilize Tunisia , and make it vulnerable to a danger that the country is not yet prepared to counter at all levels. Tunisians are very careful in dealing with the Libyan crisis, in order to keep equal distance from both parties, out of fear that Tunisians working in Libya are kidnapped or killed. The Libyan crisis has left its military, economic and social repercussions on Tunisia. IS expansion into Libya has made the risk of infiltrating into the Tunisian border only a matter of time. This is particularly true since there are local armed groups supporting al-Qaeda, such as Ansar al-Sharia and Uqba ibn Nafi. The proof lies in the rise in the number of Tunisians fighters in Syria and Iraq to 3,800 members, according to Tunisian Interior Ministry estimates. It is not unlikely that many of them will return to their country. In Libya, there are currently at least 1,500 Tunisian fighters, trained and armed, and they undoubtedly would like to return to their country.

It seems difficult for the Tunisian army, which has limited armament, to impose strict air and ground control on the common border, stretching over 500 kilometers (about 310 miles). In the same vein, Tunisia will find itself facing security challenges beyond its control, which will make the government unable to combine developmental and defensive missions. It is noteworthy that the Tunisian Interior Ministry recently confirmed that hundreds of Tunisians fighters in IS’ ranks have recently returned to their country, and they are active as sleeper cells, while some of them joined the ranks of Ansar al-Sharia. It could be argued that the worst-case scenario for the Tunisians is the escalation of the violent conflict in Libya between IS, on the one hand, and Karama Brigade and the Dawn of Libya, on the other, which would push hundreds of thousands of civilians to migrate toward Tunisia, in a replay of the 2011 scenario during the NATO’s military campaign against Gadhafi. The Tunisian state has no power today, as it has been weakened by four years of instability and the collapse of its economic resources.

It is unable to bear the burdens of receiving a million refugees, in addition to tens of thousands of foreigners already living in Libya, such as what happened four years ago. Tunisia currently accommodates nearly 2 million Libyans and suffers the economic and social security burdens this results in. Algeria: Fragile borders Algeria is considered one of the high-risk countries due to IS expansion in western Libya. The Algerians are more rigorous in their opposition of any military intervention in Libya, whether it was at the international or the Arab level. Algeria has an experienced and resourceful army with sophisticated military equipment, unavailable to its neighbors. This is what makes Algeria more resilient when it comes to IS-affiliated members infiltrating its territories. Yet, there is no guarantee that Algeria would remain safe in the face of IS expansion and infiltration into its territories, as it is not possible to monitor the long border it shares with Libya. The joint military command — which was set up by Niger, Mauritania, Mali and Algeria — has proved its inefficiency, especially following the kidnapping of hostages in Tiguentourine gas field in the desert triangle between Algeria, Tunisia and Libya .

Sahel-Saharan States Security is lax in the Sahel and desert on the southern border of Libya, where the state is completely absent and tribes are unable to control the security situation. Tribes could be working directly or indirectly with the armed groups, or taking part in drug smuggling and trafficking. Given the weak armed forces in these countries — stretching from Mauritania southern border all the way to the Niger and Nigeria in the south — France has backed up the armies there, providing them with weapons and military equipment. The Sahel and Sahara region remain uncontrollable on the border areas, especially when two of Al-Qaeda’s most dangerous brigades (Yusuf ibn Tashfin and Trek Bin Ziyad) arrived to the Adrar des Ifoghas in northern Mali. Chadian President Idriss Deby warned in a previous interview with Le Figaro that the armed groups “who had no land have found themselves today a foothold in southern Libya and northern Mali. They set up training camps back when they did not even possess any weapons. Today, they can easily acquire them, in any type or size. Before, they used to operate underground.

Today, they publicly flex their muscles and set out to apply Sharia law.” Read More: Published London, Pan Arab Established 1946 Language Arabic Frequency daily Libya: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities National Holiday: Revolution Day, September 1 Literacy rate: 89.5% (2010 est.) Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2013 est.): $73.6 billion; per capita $11,300. Real growth rate: -5.1%. Inflation: 3.2%. Unemployment: 30% (2004 est.). Arable land: .99%. Agriculture: wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans; cattle. Labor force: 1.644 million; agriculture 17%, industry 23%, services 59% (2013 est.). Industries: petroleum, iron and steel, food processing, textiles, handicrafts, cement. Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, gypsum.

Exports: $38.45 billion (2013 est.): crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas. Imports: $27.13 billion (2013 est.): machinery, transport equipment, semi-finished goods, food, consumer products. Major trading partners: China, Italy, Germany, Spain, Turkey, France, China, Tunisia, Egypt, Syria, South Korea (2012). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 814,000 million (2012); mobile cellular: 9.59 million (2012). Broadcast media: state-funded and private TV stations; some provinces operate local TV stations; pan-Arab satellite TV stations are available; state-funded radio (2012) . Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 17,926 (2012). Internet users: 353,900 (2009). Transportation: Railways: 0 km.

Roadways: total: 100,024 km; paved :57,521490 km; unpaved: 42,810 km (1999 est.). Waterways: none. Ports and terminals: Marsa al Burayqah (Marsa el Brega), Tripoli. Airports: 146 (2013) International disputes: dormant disputes include Libyan claims of about 32,000 sq km still reflected on its maps of southeastern Algeria and the FLN's assertions of a claim to Chirac Pastures in southeastern Morocco; various Chadian rebels from the Aozou region reside in southern Libya. Hundreds Die During the 2015 Migrant Crisis; Qaddafi's Son Sentenced to Death Geography Libya stretches along the northeast coast of Africa between Tunisia and Algeria on the west and Egypt on the east; to the south are the Sudan, Chad, and Niger. It is one-sixth larger than Alaska. Much of the country lies within the Sahara. Along the Mediterranean coast and farther inland is arable plateau land. Government Military dictatorship. History The first inhabitants of Libya were Berber tribes.

In the 7th century B.C. , Phoenicians colonized the eastern section of Libya, called Cyrenaica, and Greeks colonized the western portion, called Tripolitania. Tripolitania was for a time under Carthaginian control. It became part of the Roman Empire from 46 B.C. to A.D. 436, after which it was sacked by the Vandals. Cyrenaica belonged to the Roman Empire from the 1st century B.C. until its decline, after which it was invaded by Arab forces in 642. Beginning in the 16th century, both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica nominally became part of the Ottoman Empire. Tripolitania was one of the outposts for the Barbary pirates who raided Mediterranean merchant ships or required them to pay tribute. In 1801, the pasha of Tripoli raised the price of tribute, which led to the Tripolitan war with the United States. When the peace treaty was signed on June 4, 1805, U.S. ships no longer had to pay tribute to Tripoli.

Following the outbreak of hostilities between Italy and Turkey in 1911, Italian troops occupied Tripoli. Libyans continued to fight the Italians until 1914, by which time Italy controlled most of the land. Italy formally united Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1934 as the colony of Libya. Libya was the scene of much desert fighting during World War II. After the fall of Tripoli on Jan. 23, 1943, it came under Allied administration. In 1949, the UN voted that Libya should become independent, and in 1951 it became the United Kingdom of Libya. Oil was discovered in the impoverished country in 1958 and eventually transformed its economy. Africa Africa Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is a landlocked West African state. With a total border length of 3,192 kilometers (1,984 miles), Burkina Faso is bordered by Mali to the north and west; Niger to the east; and Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Cote d'Ivoire to the south.

Cameroon Located on the west coast of Central Africa, Cameroon covers an area of 475,400 square kilometers (183,695 square miles), slightly more than California. Land boundaries extend for a total of 4,591 kilometers (2,853 miles) between Nigeria to the northwest, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic (C.A.R.) to the east, and the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea to the south. Cape Verde Cape Verde is an archipelago of 10 islands and 5 islets situated 483 kilometers (300 miles) due west of Dakar, Senegal, in the North Atlantic Ocean. Cape Verde's total land area is 4,033 square kilometers (1,557 square miles), which makes it slightly larger than the U.S. Central African Republic The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari, now the Central African Republic (CAR), is well named; it is a landlocked country in the center of the African continent.

Land boundaries extend for 5,203 kilometers (3,233 miles) connecting Cameroon to the west, Chad and Sudan to the north, and the Republic of Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo to the south. Chad The former French colony of Chad, a landlocked country located in northern Central Africa, is more than 3 times the size of California. The country has an area of 1,284,000 square kilometers (495,755 square miles), with a land boundary length of 5,968 kilometers (3,708 miles). Congo, Republic of The; The Republic of the Congo (ROC) is located in Western Africa and has an area of 342,000 square kilometers (132,000 square miles). It has a modest coastline of 169 kilometers (105 miles) along the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest and shares land borders with Gabon, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic on the west and north. Côte D'ivoire Côte d'Ivoire (which means "Ivory Coast") is a West African country bordering the North Atlantic Ocean between Ghana and Liberia.

It has an area of 322,460 square kilometers (124,502 square miles) of which 318,000 square kilometers (122,780 square miles) are occupied by land while water occupies the remaining 4,460 square kilometers (1,722 square miles). Djibouti Djibouti is situated in the Horn of Africa, at the southern entrance to the Red Sea, bordering the Gulf of Aden. To the north lies Eritrea with a shared border of 113 kilometers (70 miles); to the north, west, and southwest lies Ethiopia, with a border length of 337 kilometers (209 miles); and to the southeast lies Somalia, with a border length of 58 kilometers (36 miles). Egypt The Arab Republic of Egypt is located in North Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya to the west, the Gaza Strip to the east, and Sudan to the south.

With an area of 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,659 square miles) and a coastline of 2,450 kilometers (1,522 miles), Egypt is slightly more than 3 times the size of New Mexico. Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea is a small West African nation of 28,051 square kilometers (10,830 square miles), roughly the same size as Maryland. It consists of a mainland enclave called Río Muni, on the west coast of Africa bordering Cameroon and Gabon, and 5 small islands off the coast of Cameroon in the Bight of Biafra: Bioko, Annobón, Corisco, and the 2 small islands known together as Islas Elobey. Eritrea Eritrea is an eastern African country occupying an area of 121,320 square kilometers (46,841 square miles), which makes it slightly larger than the state of Pennsylvania. It borders Sudan to the north and west, Ethiopia and Djibouti to the south, and the Red Sea to the east.

Ethiopia Located in the Horn of Africa— the pointy peninsula-like landmass that emanates out of the eastern part of the continent—Ethiopia has a total area of 1,127,127 square kilometers (935,183 square miles), rendering it slightly less than twice the size of Texas. A landlocked country completely surrounded by other states, Ethiopia has a total border length of 5,311 kilometers (3,300 miles). Gabon The Gabonese Republic lies along the equator on the west coast of Africa with a border length of 2,551 kilometers (1,585 miles) and a coastline of 885 kilometers (550 miles). Gabon is bounded to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the north by Equatorial Guinea (350 kilometers/218 miles) and Cameroon (298 kilometers/185 miles), and to the east and south by the Republic of the Congo (1,903 kilometers/1,183 miles).

The Gambia The Republic of The Gambia measures 11,295 square kilometers (4,361 square miles) and consists of a long narrow ribbon of land sitting astride the river Gambia, one of the major waterways in West Africa. Apart from the 50-kilometer (31-mile) stretch of coastline on the Atlantic ocean, it is entirely surrounded by Senegal. Ghana The Republic of Ghana, formerly the Gold Coast, is a West African country lying on the Gulf of Guinea. It has a total border of 2,093 kilometers (1,300 miles), including 548 kilometers (341 miles) with Burkina Faso to the north, 688 kilometers (428 miles) with Côte d'Ivoire to the west, and 877 kilometers (545 miles) with Togo to the east. Guinea Guinea lies on the West African coast, bordered by Sierra Leone and Liberia to the south, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal to the north, and Mali and Côte d'Ivoire inland to the east.

It has 320 kilometers (199 miles) of coastline, and a land area of 245,857 square kilometers (94,925 miles). Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissau lies on the west coast of Africa, with Senegal to the north and Guinea to the east and south. With a total area of 36,120 square kilometers (13,946 square miles), the country is a bit less than 3 times the size of the U.S. Kenya Located in east Africa, Kenya has a total area of 582,650 square kilometers (224,962 square miles), rendering it slightly larger than twice the size of Nevada. With a coastline of 536 kilometers (333 miles), Kenya borders the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia to the northeast, Ethiopia to the north, Sudan to the northwest, Uganda to the west, and Tanzania to the south. Malawi Malawi is located in southeast Africa, landlocked between Mozambique to the east and south, Zambia to the west, and Tanzania to the north.

Malawi is separated from Mozambique and Tanzania to a large extent by Lake Malawi, which lies on the country's eastern edge. Mali Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa covering an area of 1.24 million square kilometers (478,764 square miles), of which 1.22 million square kilometers (471,042 square miles) is occupied by land and 20,000 square kilometers (7,722 square miles) is occupied by water. Its border is 7,243 kilometers (4,500 miles) long. Mauritania Located in northwestern Africa, bordered by Western Sahara (occupied by Morocco) and Algeria on the north, by Mali on the east and south, by Senegal on the southwest, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the country has an area of 1,030,700 square kilometers (398,000 square miles), making it slightly larger than 3 times the size of New Mexico.

Its total estimated boundary length is 5,828 kilometers (3,622 miles), including 754 kilometers (469 miles) of coast on the Atlantic Ocean. Mozambique Located in southeast Africa, Mozambique has a total area of 801,590 square kilometers (309,493 square miles)—an expanse which is slightly less than twice the size of the state of California. The coastline of the country, which spans 2,470 kilometers (1,535 miles) along the entire eastern frontier, borders the Mozambique Channel and the Indian Ocean. Namibia The Republic of Namibia lies across the Tropic of Capricorn in the south of Africa and covers an area of 824,292 square kilometers (318,259 square miles), making it slightly more than half the size of Alaska. It is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Botswana and Zimbabwe on the east, Angola on the north, and the South Atlantic Ocean on the west. Rwanda The Republic of Rwanda is a land-locked country located in central Africa.

It is bordered on the east by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with which it shares the shores of Lake Kivu; on the north by Uganda; on the west by Tanzania; and on the south by Burundi. São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé and Príncipe is located in the Gulf of Guinea 290 kilometers (180 miles) west of Gabon, which is located on the western edge of Africa. The 2 mountainous main islands of the republic are São Tomé and Príncipe; other rocky islets include Caroco, Pedras, and Tinhosas off Príncipe Island, and Rolas off São Tomé Island. Senegal A relatively small country located in West Africa, Senegal has a total area of 196,190 square kilometers (75,748 square miles), making it slightly smaller than the state of South Dakota. Water composes 4,190 square kilometers (1,618 square miles) of this area, while the coastline, which borders the North Atlantic Ocean, stretches for 531 kilometers (330 miles).

Seychelles The Seychelles are a group of islands in the Indian Ocean about 925 kilometers (575 miles) northeast of Madagascar. The country consists of 115 small islands with a total land area of 455 square kilometers (176 square miles) and a total coastline of 491 kilometers (305 miles). Sierra Leone Sierra Leone is located in West Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, with an area of 71,740 square kilometers (27,925 square miles) and a total coastline of 402 kilometers (250 miles). The country shares a border with Guinea in the north and east and with Liberia in the southeast. Somalia Somalia, formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic, is a coastal country covering a land area of 637,657 square kilometers (246,199 square miles) and a water area of 10,320 square kilometers (3,985 square miles), with a land-bordered circumference of 2,366 kilometers (1,470 miles).

It has a coastline of 3,025 kilometers (1,880 miles) stretching along the Indian Ocean to the southeast and along the Gulf of Aden in the southern mouth of the Red Sea to the north. South Africa South Africa is situated at the southern tip of the continent of Africa. Ranging from west to east across its northern border are the neighboring countries of Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe; Mozambique lies to the east, as does the small nation of Swaziland, which is nearly encircled by South Africa. Sudan Sudan is located in North Africa.

Sudan borders the following countries: Central African Republic (1,165 kilometers, 724 miles), Chad (1,360 kilometers, 845 miles), Democratic Republic of the Congo (628 kilometers, 390 miles), Egypt (1,273 kilometers, 791 miles), Eritrea (650 kilometers, 404 miles), Ethiopia (1,606 kilometers, 998 miles), Kenya (232 kilometers, 144 miles), Libya (383 kilometers, 238 miles), and Uganda (435 kilometers, 270 miles). Swaziland Swaziland is a small landlocked country in southern Africa, with an area of 17,363 square kilometers (6,704 miles), extending 176 kilometers (109 miles) north to south and 135 kilometers (84 miles) east to west. By comparison, it is slightly smaller than the state of New Jersey.

Tanzania A relatively large country located in East Africa, Tanzania has a total area of 945,087 square kilometers (364,900 square miles), rendering it slightly larger than twice the size of California. The area of Tanzania includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba, and Unguja; the latter 2 form a semi-autonomous region called Zanzibar that is part of an official union with the republic of Tanzania. Tunisia Situated in northern Africa, Tunisia is bordered by Algeria on the west and Libya on the southeast and by the Mediterranean Sea on the north, where it has a coastline of 1,148 kilometers (713 miles). Tunisia has an area of 163,610 square kilometers (63,169 square miles), making it slightly larger than the state of Georgia.

Uganda A landlocked state in Eastern Africa, west of Kenya and east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (former Zaire), Uganda has an area of 236,040 square kilometers (146,675 square miles) and a total land boundary of 2,698 kilometers (1,676 miles). Comparatively, the area occupied by Uganda is slightly smaller than the size of Oregon. Libya Libya Join the UNFORKIDS.COM Libya Libya (Arabic: Libiya; Libyan vernacular: Libya), officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (Al-Jamahiriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Libiyyah as-Sa`biyyah al-Istirakiyyah al-`Udhma), is a country in North Africa. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya lies between Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west.

With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres (700,000 sq mi), 90% of which is desert, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world. The capital, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 5.7 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, the Fezzan and Cyrenaica. The name "Libya" is an indigenous (i.e. Berber) one, which is already attested in Egyptian texts as , R'bw (= Libu), which refers to one of the tribes of Berber peoples living west of the Nile. In Greek the tribesmen were called Libyes and their country became "Libya", although in ancient Greece the term had a broader meaning, encompassing all of North Africa west of Egypt, and sometimes referring to the entire continent of Africa. Later on, at the time of Ibn Khaldun, the same, big tribe was known as Lawata[citation needed]. Libya has one of the highest Gross Domestic Products per person in Africa, largely because of its large petroleum reserves.

The country is led by Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi, whose foreign policy has often brought him into conflict with the West and governments of other African countries. However, Libya publicly gave up any nuclear aspirations in the 2000s, and Libya's foreign relations today are less contentious. Country: Algeria at a Crossroads: Borders and Security in North Africa Map of Algeria's border (Source: Wikipedia Commons) Algeria at a Crossroads: Borders and Security in North Africa George Bajalia September 24th, 2014 The militarization of border crossings throughout North Africa and the Sahel has intensified recently, as a result of security concerns over weapons smuggling, terrorist networks, and armed violence in Libya. Algeria’s border lies at the center of many of these developments. As of May 2014, Algeria has closed 6,385 km (3,967 miles) of its borders with Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Libya, and placed its border crossings under military control. Algeria’s southern border with the Sahara is also incredibly vast and difficult to monitor.

It has long been a major crossing for thousands of migrants from sub-Saharan Africa traveling through Agadez, Niger to the southern Algerian city of Tamanrasset. It is in response to the decades of illegal smuggling and international calls to eliminate terrorist networks operating out of this relatively ungoverned “no-man’s land” that the Algerian government has now increased patrols and militarization of this border region. According to sources cited by Al-Monitor, “the army banned access to the desert corridors in the southeastern border region without a prior security permit. These measures will further tighten the noose around the neck of terrorist groups in desert pathways….these strict instructions will eliminate terrorism in the Algerian Sahara.” To the east, Algeria must manage a vast border with Libya, which has been nearly overtaken by armed militias that threaten to spill over into Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt. In light of these various threats to regional security, it is tempting to view the Algerian government’s actions as a direct consequence of militant activity. But, Algeria’s recent border closures represent more of a continuation, rather than a rupture, in its regional policies.

Algeria’s total closure of nearly all its borders (only the Tunisian frontier remains open) is a concerted effort to maintain and secure its economic and political relations with EU and NAFTA countries, at the expense of potential trade and, perhaps, long-term partnerships, with neighboring states. From the perspective of the Algerian government, this isolationist stance functions as a potential buffer against the uncertainty surrounding it. It also parallels Algeria’s continuing border closure with its neighbor to the west, Morocco. Since 1994, Algeria’s border with Morocco has been officially closed. The Algerian government has historically had frosty relations with Morocco over issues ranging from drug smuggling to territorial conflict over the Western Sahara. The question of borders and territory represents a key area of contestation between Morocco and Algeria. An inability to cooperate on political matters not only plagues the two countries, but also rules out any hope for bilateral or regional economic integration through the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), a regional institution founded by the leaders of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania in 1989, which sought to coordinate economic, political, and security issues through greater coordination between the five states of the greater Maghreb.

Monitoring the 1,559 km (969 miles)—or 1,601 km including the Western Sahara—borderline between the two countries has been difficult for the two regional rivals . The recent border closures, and their intended consequences, are not isolated events. Rather, they are reflective of the Algerian government’s standing policies on dealing with the preexisting networks of trade, formal and informal, and trafficking that run through the country. These three particular nodes of pressure give important context to Algeria’s recent border closures, and reveal the disconnect between the regime’s historical aims and the day-to-day circumstances of the Algerian people. Point of Pressure 1: the Moroccan-Algerian Rivalry and the Western Sahara The source of Moroccan-Algerian tension is often attributed to the Western Sahara conflict. After Spain left the territory in 1975, a dispute arose between two groups in the area. An indigenous movement known as the Polisario Front—which is fighting for independence and a referendum for self-determination—and the Moroccan government—which claims to have historical ties with the land—have clashed over the territory.

The Moroccan government has proposed a regional autonomy plan for the Western Sahara, while Algeria has consistently backed the Polisario and supported a referendum for self-determination in the region. But disputes between Algeria and Morocco pre-date the Western Sahara question, which became a regional preoccupation only in the 1970’s. While this conflict is an important obstacle to improving relations between the two countries and increasing the likelihood of regional economic integration—currently next to nonexistent—Yahia H. Zoubir, Professor of International Relations and Director of Research in Geopolitics at Euromed Management, argues that: “Algerian-Moroccan relations have always been at odds, the existence since 1989 of the Arab Maghrib Union (UMA) notwithstanding. In fact, the UMA has not been operational due precisely to tensions between the two countries. Strained relations derive from a historical and post-colonial evolution – dominated by power politics – of which Western Sahara is only one, albeit major, aspect.

Thus, a definitive resolution of the Western Sahara conflict will not necessarily mean a definitive ending of the distrust that exists between the two neighbours.”[1] Following independence, Morocco and Algeria went to war over a border dispute that was left unresolved by France. The border war of 1963 was bloody and ended with a cease-fire in 1964 brokered by the Organization of African Unity (OAU). It was not until 1972, however, that the Moroccan-Algerian border was officially demarcated by a bilateral treaty . Algeria immediately signed the convention, which dealt with both border and economic cooperation, but Morocco did not officially recognize the agreement until 1989. In 1988, diplomatic relations between the two countries were reestablished. 1989 marked the founding of the UMA. A UN brokered cease-fire in the Western Sahara finally took hold in 1991. Against this backdrop, the beginning of the 1990s was a hopeful time for regional relations and potential economic integration in the Maghreb.

Then, in August 1994, the Moroccan-Algerian border was officially closed, as a result of a “guerrilla attack” at the Atlas Asni Hotel in Marrakech, which Moroccan authorities believed Algeria had supported. After the incident, the Moroccan government deported thousands of Algerian tourists and official residents and applied new visa regulations to Algerians traveling to the country. In response, Algeria closed the border. Despite periods of warming relations between the two countries, the border has remained shut ever since. The border closure implicates many issues, including the management of migration flows to Europe from sub-Saharan and North Africa, the existence of vast illegal drug smuggling as a result of Morocco’s approximately 57,000 hectares of cannabis production , and the increasing rise of armed terrorist groups, including Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb (AQIM). There are also concerns that, if the border was re-opened, Morocco would use it to pressure Algeria into withdrawing its support for the Polisario Movement. While both countries have officially stated their desire to open borders and increase regional integration, the larger impact of such a move remains unclear, since the Arab Maghreb Union has not officially convened since 1994 .

Morocco and Algeria’s formal trade continues to be with EU countries, and “Trade within the AMU (UMA) quintet accounts for a paltry 2% of what the region conducts with the whole of the rest of the world.” Point of Pressure 2: Formal and Informal Trade Algeria’s formal trade networks virtually ignore its North African neighbors. According to data compiled by the MIT Observatory of Economic Complexity , Algerian exports of crude petroleum and petroleum gas make up 82% of its net exports. Refined petroleum (14%), and coal tar oil (1.2%) increase Algeria’s total mined exports to 97.2%, with the remainder of exports split among chemical exports and agricultural products. Most of these exports go to Italy (15%), the United States (15%), Spain (12%), France (7.5%), and Canada (7.4%). Algeria’s imports come from many of these same countries, in addition to China and Germany. Like Algeria, Morocco’s import and export patterns also do not include its fellow North African countries. Only 1.3% of Morocco’s exports go to Algeria and 1.5% of Algeria’s exports go to Morocco.

But forgoing regional trade relations comes with high opportunity costs. Over three billion dollars in Moroccan imports (8.45%) consist of crude petroleum, which comes primarily from Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Russia. With further instability in Iraq and potential economic sanctions on Russia, Algeria’s crude petroleum exports could find a home in its old rival. Informally, smugglers on both sides of the Moroccan-Algerian border have a much friendlier relationship. There are no official statistics on how much hashish is exported by Moroccan traders via Algeria, nor how much medication and gasoline enter Morocco from Algeria. In 2013, however, The Guardian claimed the illicit gasoline trade generated income for 3,000 to 5,000 families in Morocco’s eastern province. Algeria’s border crackdowns will surely have an impact on these long-standing informal trade relations. Measures taken by Morocco along the border will also have a negative effect on these networks. All in all, it is hard to tell which will have greater ramifications for these economic forces, Morocco’s proposed 450km long wall along the border or Algeria’s envisioned 700km long trench.

Point of Pressure 3: Migration One of the primary routes into Europe from North Africa begins in the Nigerien city of Agadez, continues through southern Algeria, and goes up toward the coast. From there, many migrants follow the road west toward Maghnia, Algeria, and cross from Maghnia directly into Morocco, near the city of Oujda. EU pressure to stop the flow of migrants from North Africa into Europe, combined with a seeming lack of cooperation between Algeria and Morocco, have resulted in more and more migrants being shuffled back and forth between the two countries with an alarming disregard for human rights. On its eastern border, Algeria is dealing with a stream of migrants and refugees from Syria, Libya, Egypt, and Eastern Africa. As a result of these increased pressures, the Algerian government has pursued what appear to be contradictory policies. In mid-August, Algeria announced it would open portions of the border with Libya to facilitate the return of refugees from Egypt. Just a few days later, the government arrested 300 Syrians heading for the same Libyan border. It remains to be seen how these policies will play out.

Public Response While Algeria’s borders continue to be the subject of domestic political debate, it is important not to conflate this conversation with popular consensus on the issue. Despite the closed borders, Algerians are able to travel to neighboring countries via air or by entering through another country. In August, the Algerian paper L’Expression reported that the top four tourism destinations for Algerians were Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, and Spain. Both Royal Air Maroc and Air Algiers offer regular flights between Algiers and Casablanca, though the cost is often prohibitive for residents looking to see family just across the border. The price of air travel, coupled with the time the journey requires, drives many families to make other arrangements. One group of Algerian and Moroccan youth is following the example of residents of Naco, Mexico and Naco, United States, and arranging a cross-border volley ball match in October. Their aim is to draw attention to the individuals and families impacted by two decades of closed borders, and inspire dialogue focused on these affected people, instead of government political posturing. Colonialisms’ Continuing Legacy Ultimately, it is impossible to separate North Africa’s current borders from the recent history of European colonialism.

While lines drawn on a map by colonial cartographers mean very little to the region’s social fabric or the lives of residents on either side of these borders, they have a strong impact on both. In the period following independence, Algeria and Morocco embarked upon parallel, but ultimately divergent, paths toward post-independence reformation. Morocco embraced its favored status with NATO and its member countries as a “model” for slow-paced reform after King Mohammed VI’s much lauded constitutional reforms in 2011. Although many have criticized these reforms as strictly cosmetic , others have declared the measures as appropriate and reflective of Morocco’s history as a kingdom invested in tolerance and civil society. At least rhetorically, Algeria has been a bastion of support for resistance and anti-imperialist movements. In contrast to its neighbor, Algeria pursued a largely socialist system until economic problems and political pressure caused it to accept IMF loans and economic restructuring in 1989. The country’s traumatic experience during the Black Decade of the 1990s, a period of great bloodshed fueled by armed conflict between government forces and militant Islamist groups, has remained in the backdrop, as the government watches instability in neighboring Libya and Mali unfold.

All in all, Algeria’s border closures are a function of its isolationist stance vis-à-vis regional neighbors, as well as the government’s efforts to keep out any potentially destabilizing external forces. This issue is not just about regional and domestic security for Algerian authorities, but also inherently connected to regime survival. [1]Yahia H.

Zoubir (2000) Algerian‐Moroccan relations and their impact on Maghribi integration, The Journal of North African Studies, 5:3, 43-74, DOI: 10.1080/13629380008718403 {"data":[{"ID":46431,"post_author":"1","post_date":"2016-11-30 00:05:14","post_date_gmt":"2016-11-30 05:05:14","post_content":"","post_title":"ANERA Nov 30, 2016 onwards","post_excerpt":"","post_status":"publish","comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","post_password":"","post_name":"anera-nov-30-2016-onwards","to_ping":"","pinged":"","post_modified":"2016-11-25 21:02:01","post_modified_gmt":"2016-11-26 02:02:01","post_content_filtered":"","post_parent":

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Advertise on Muftah. Advertisement Algeria: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities Dozens of People Killed in Hostage Crisis Geography Nearly four times the size of Texas and the largest country on the continent, Algeria is bordered on the west by Morocco and Western Sahara and on the east by Tunisia and Libya. The Mediterranean Sea is to the north, and to the south are Mauritania, Mali, and Niger. The Saharan region, which is 85% of the country, is almost completely uninhabited. The highest point is Mount Tahat in the Sahara, which rises 9,850 ft (3,000 m). Government Parliamentary republic. History Excavations in Algeria have indicated that Homo erectus resided there between 500,000 and 700,000 years ago. Phoenician traders settled on the Mediterranean coast in the 1st millennium B.C. As ancient Numidia, Algeria became a Roman colony, part of what was called Mauretania Caesariensis, at the close of the Punic Wars (145 B.C. ). Conquered by the Vandals about A.D.

440, it fell from a high state of civilization to virtual barbarism, from which it partly recovered after an invasion by Arabs about 650. Christian during its Roman period, the indigenous Berbers were then converted to Islam. Falling under the control of the Ottoman Empire by 1536, Algiers served for three centuries as the headquarters of the Barbary pirates. Ostensibly to rid the region of the pirates, the French occupied Algeria in 1830 and made it a part of France in 1848. Algerian independence movements led to the uprisings of 1954–1955, which developed into full-scale war. In 1962, French president Charles de Gaulle began the peace negotiations, and on July 5, 1962, Algeria was proclaimed independent. In Oct. 1963, Ahmed Ben Bella was elected president, and the country became Socialist. He began to nationalize foreign holdings and aroused opposition. He was overthrown in a military coup on June 19, 1965, by Col. Houari Boumédienne, who suspended the constitution and sought to restore economic stability.

After his death, Boumédienne was succeeded by Col. Chadli Bendjedid in 1978. Berbers rioted in 1980 when Arabic was made the country's only official language. Algeria entered a major recession after world oil prices plummeted in the 1980s. Algeria closes most of its land borders Algeria closes most of its land borders Author: El-Khabar (Algeria) Posted May 22, 2014 Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika transferred the file of Algeria’s land border with six neighboring countries from the Ministry of Interior to the Ministry of National Defense, after the closure of border crossings with Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Libya and Algeria. As per the new [presidential] decisions, Algeria is heading toward militarizing all its land borders stretching over 6,385 kilometers (3,967 miles), except for the border with Tunisia. Algeria’s land border is now under the custody of military men after having been under the control of civilians. Summary ⎙ Print In a move to address growing terrorist threats, Algeria has militarized border regions and closed many border crossings.

Author Mohammad Ben Ahmad Posted May 22, 2014 TranslatorSahar Ghoussoub Original Article اقرا المقال الأصلي باللغة العربية The border shared between Algeria and six neighboring countries — including Morocco, the Sahrawi Republic, Mauritania , Mali, Niger and Libya — has been turned into military zones that cannot be accessed without permission from military authorities. According to the recent presidential decision, border crossings between Algeria and Libya will be closed and affairs of the border will become a military security matter. Thus, the only open border for Algerians is with Tunisia. According to an Algerian security source, security is the state’s top priority, therefore it decided to close borders with neighboring countries. Consequently, the border with Libya was closed at the three land crossings. Algerian families in Libya were warned to leave the country, while Libyan families in Algeria were also warned that they should leave Algeria. Within the context of the president’s decision to close border crossings, the border regions between Algeria, Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Libya have turned into military zones, where access is denied without a security permit from the Ministry of Defense.

According to an informed source, the army leadership has spread military units in the regions near the border crossings to prevent infiltration, especially from Libya. The army has set up 20 monitoring sites and tightened control on the southern border. The new control points, according to a senior security source, will prevent any infiltration across desert pathways used by smugglers. They also allow a good view of the desert thanks to their high positioning. Moreover, the army units working in the far south have informed Bedouins in the area that any movement requires security clearance from the local commander of the army, the border guards or police, and that those who violate these instructions will be held accountable. According to a reporter within the national gendarmerie, unauthorized infiltrators will first be warned. Should they not respond to the warning they will be fired upon. The general staff and the leadership of the border guards set up a new security plan. Cars and people are only allowed to pass through eight border ports that link Algeria with Mali, Mauritania and Niger. The army leadership will also fire upon vehicles moving within unauthorized sites during the night. According to an informed source, the army banned access to the desert corridors in the southeastern border region without a prior security permit.

These measures will further tighten the noose around the neck of terrorist groups in desert pathways. According to our source, these strict instructions will eliminate terrorism in the Algerian Sahara . Ground and air forces are scheduled to go on permanent patrols to monitor the most important ports and routes as part of the latest decisions. The ground forces and the gendarmerie units in the south are using modern, recently acquired equipment, which will allow for good vision at night and detect camouflage vehicles and people hiding in the desert. Read More: Published Algiers, Algeria Established 1990 Language Arabic Frequency daily

Question: Which country lies between Libya and Algeria?
Answer: Tunisia