Mongolia - Climate Climate Mongolia Table of Contents Mongolia is high, cold, and dry. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north, which averages 20 to 35 centimeters per year, and lowest in the south, which receives 10 to 20 centimeters. The extreme south is the Gobi, some regions of which receive no precipitation at all in most years. The name Gobi is a Mongol meaning desert, depression, salt marsh, or steppe, but which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive.

Average temperatures over most of the country are below freezing from November through March and are about freezing in April and October. January and February averages of -20� C are common, with winter nights of -40� C occurring most years. Summer extremes reach as high as 38� C in the southern Gobi region and 33� C in Ulaanbaatar. More than half the country is covered by permafrost, which makes construction, road building, and mining difficult. All rivers and freshwater lakes freeze over in the winter, and smaller streams commonly freeze to the bottom. Ulaanbaatar lies at 1,351 meters above sea level in the valley of the Tuul Gol, a river. Located in the relatively well-watered north, it receives an annual average of 31 centimeters of precipitation, almost all of which falls in July and in August. Ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of -2.9�C and a frost-free period extending on the average from mid-June to late August.

Mongolia's weather is characterized by extreme variability and short-term unpredictability in the summer, and the multiyear averages conceal wide variations in precipitation, dates of frosts, and occurrences of blizzards and spring dust storms. Such weather poses severe challenges to human and livestock survival. Official statistics list less than 1 percent of the country as arable, 8 to 10 percent as forest, and the rest as pasture or desert. Grain, mostly wheat, is grown in the valleys of the Selenge river system in the north, but yields fluctuate widely and unpredictably as a result of the amount and the timing of rain and the dates of killing frosts. Although winters are generally cold and clear, there are occasional blizzards that do not deposit much snow but cover the grasses with enough snow and ice to make grazing impossible, killing off tens of thousands of sheep or cattle. Such losses of livestock, which are an inevitable and, in a sense, normal consequence of the climate, have made it difficult for planned increases in livestock numbers to be achieved.

Custom Search Geography and climate Geography and climate 4/'99 Summary Fair success may be achieved in deducing the location of a place from a given small set of climatic data, using crude empirical relationships between climate and geographic averages. Conversely, monthly mean temperatures can be inferred approximately from geographic information. The extent to which these normative estimates differ from actuality offers clues on the effects on climate of regional features of topography and ocean circulation, as well as on microclimatic effects. 1. Geography and climate It has long been assumed that climate is largely controlled by location or geography. In the sixth century BC, the Greek philosopher Pythagoras recognised the sphericity of the Earth and the dominance of latitude in explaining climate variation (Sanderson 1999). Two centuries later Aristotle expanded on Pythagoras's foundation and introduced five climate zones, ranging from tropical to northern frigid. It is not coincidental that in the early 20th century German scientist Koeppen also used 5 climate zones in his classification, identified with the letters A-E.

Koeppen's classification was developed at a time when it was widely believed, especially in the German scientific arena, that climate, and therefore geography determined flora and fauna, even the physical and behavioural traits of human societies. Obviously such determinism has its limitations, but it highlights the widespread and longstanding belief that location determines climate. More recent work by Geiger (1960) indicates that even the microclimate is largely controlled by the local 'geographical' conditions, such as orography and coastlines. Given this control one could hypothesise that one can infer the place where given climatic data were obtained. In other words, can we work out the one or more locations where a station may be, even approximately, if we are given its climatic record? This is the key question addressed herein. The basic information is outlined elsewhere (1).

In brief, the main governing factors can be summarised as these - hemisphere - which leads to warmer conditions, or, in the Tropics (23.5ï¿½ S-23.5ï¿½ N), to wetter conditions, in either January (south) or July (north); latitude - which affects a) the annual mean temperature, b) the annual range, c) the annual total rainfall (which is least around the Tropics and near the poles), d) the prevailing wind direction and strength; elevation - which affects a) the annual mean temperature, b) precipitation, and c) the daily range of temperature; distance inland - the annual temperature range increases with the distance downwind of the coast, and at all latitudes but the equatorial belt (5ï¿½ S-5ï¿½ N) the climate is drier and more rain falls in summer; sea surface temperature upwind - anomalously high SSTs (for a given latitude) means warmth and rain onshore - conversely, upwelling or cold water advection stabilises the atmosphere and inhibits rainfall; upwind topography - an upwind mountain chain implies drier conditions, but also colder winters, because of easy advection of

 polar airmasses along the mountain chain; local topography - e.g.

low daily minima in broad valleys, but higher ones in urban canyons; or reduced daily maxima near large bodies of water on account of a lake breeze. These factors suggest that the following information should be sufficient (2): Annual mean temperature Monthly mean temperatures (possibly reduced to annual temperature range) Monthly-mean daily temperature range (or merely its annual mean) Monthly mean precipitation Distance inland, relative to the prevailing surface wind direction Local topographic information Let us now consider possible guidelines about climate as a function of geography. Annual mean temperature The annual mean temperature is given approximately by the average temperature of the maxima and minima for the warmest and coldest months, i.e. an average of four numbers. This temperature varies primarily with latitude (Fig 1), although warm and cold ocean currents can be identified in Fig 1. The western ocean margins (near the east coast of a continent) are warmer around 20-30° N or S, but they are colder around 40-50° N, when compared to the eastern margins (west coasts). Also, subtropical deserts are distinctly hot, on average. Fig 1 .

Global distribution of annual mean temperature near sea level (click on image for more detail)(Source: NOAA-CIRES Climate Diagnostics Center , Boulder, Colorado). Data from a large number of stations suggest that the annual mean temperature is around 27ï¿½ C within 20ï¿½ S - 16ï¿½ N degrees and then falls by about 0.85 K/degree latitude in the northern hemisphere and 0.63 K/ï¿½ lat in the south (Fig 2). This implies that on average the southern hemisphere is warmer than the northern hemisphere (17ï¿½C vs 11ï¿½C, respectively), which is true, if the Antarctic plateau stations are excluded, as in Fig 2. These stations are 30-40K colder than the curve in Fig 2 suggests, on account of their altitude and their isolation within the circumpolar vortex (3). Thus a mean temperature of 19ï¿½C in the northern hemisphere is likely to be found at sea level at about 25ï¿½ N (i.e. 16 + [27 - 19]/0.85).

However, a lower latitude is possible if the place is elevated or near a cold ocean current; a place 1,000 metres high may be 4 K cooler on average than another at sea level and the same latitude (4). So a temperature of 19ï¿½ C may be found below 16ï¿½ N at 2,000 m elevation (i.e. 27 - 2,000[4/1,000]). Choosing between these alternatives is facilitated by considering the ï¿½annual rangeï¿½ and monthly rainfalls. . Mean temperatures at various latitudes (5). The straight lines have been superimposed. Annual temperature range The ï¿½annual rangeï¿½ is defined as the difference between the hottest and coldest months, taking monthly mean temperatures in each case. It is given approximately by the difference between the average of the January maximum and minimum temperatures, and the corresponding average for July (6). We will call the January/July difference the ï¿½apparent annual rangeï¿½.

The error in assuming that the January and July temperatures are the hottest and coldest (or vice versa) is small at latitudes above about 40 degrees, but data from Africa, South America and Europe show that the true range exceeds the apparent range on average by about 1 K at latitudes 0 - 10, 1.5 K over 11 - 20 and 0.5 K over 21- 40 degrees. The 11-20 degree belt generally experiences a wet season in the summer, so cloudiness and rain reduce the maximum temperature. The hottest month there usually falls 1-2 months before the summer solstice (i.e. April or May in the northern hemisphere), when the noon sun is near the zenith and the skies are often clear. Many places near a west coast in the 21- 40 degree belt are affected by low sea surface temperatures due to upwelling of deep-ocean water (7), and this upwelling is often most intense in summer, because the high pressure cell over the adjacent subtropical ocean is stronger. Therefore the warmest month here may be a few months after the summer solstice, e.g.

September in the northern hemisphere. A small annual range indicates either a low latitude and/or proximity to the sea (8, 9), especially on the coast facing the prevailing wind. Fig 3 shows this in South America, for example. Fig 3 . Variation of the annual range of temperature over South America. The annual range is of the order of 0.4 times the latitude, e.g. about 16 K at 40 degrees latitude (see Fig 4). However, the scatter of crosses in Fig 4 indicates that this is a first-order estimate only. Most importantly, it ignores the effect of the distance from the sea. Fig 4 . The variation of the annual range of temperature with latitude, using data from 142 places in Africa, South America and Europe (10). As regards the effect of distance from the sea, consider, for example, places in Queensland at 27ï¿½S, at which latitude the wind is from the east. There we find an increase of annual range westwards. The range increases from 8 K by the ocean, to 12 K at 100 km inland, and 17 K beyond 400 km (11).

On the other hand, the wind is mostly westerly at 42ï¿½N, so that Chicago lies about 3,000 km from the ocean (i.e. the Pacific) and therefore has a range of 28 K (6). Overall, the apparent range Tr is given by this - Tr = 0.13 A d0.2 K where A is the latitude (degrees) and d is the distance downwind of the ocean (km). The equation is based on Fig 5, which shows a much better fit. Fig 5 . Relationship between the January/July temperature difference, the latitude A degrees and the distance downwind of the ocean d km (12).

The equation above means that the distance d can be estimated as follows d = [Tr / 0.13 A]5 km Precipitation Most rain on earth is triggered by any of three uplift mechanisms, or a combination of them: orographic: forced ascent of the low-level flow over mountains; convective: spontaneous ascent due to local static instability (This is due to surface heating and moisture convergence, and is found mainly at latitudes of 30 degrees latitude or less, but occurs up to 60 degrees in summer over the continents.); frontal: uplift over frontal surfaces and in lows is due to baroclinic instability, i.e. to the interplay of warm and cold airmasses. A wet summer and dry winter suggests a low-latitude zenithal-rain or monsoonal climate. The former, zenithal rain, is due to latitudinal shifts of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (13). The 'monsoonal' regime differs only from the more general zenithal-rain climate by the requirement that the surface winds change direction at least 120° between seasons (14).

Monsoons generally occur between 10-30 degrees of the equator, but over a few degrees further north in late summer over India, and, especially, southern China. Frontal precipitation falls at latitudes between about 35-70 degrees, but lower in winter. Between 30-40 degrees, mainly at west coasts, the rainfall in winter is much greater than in summer. This is because fronts stay poleward in summer. The rainfall is more uniformly distributed along east coasts and in the interior in this latitude belt, not because fronts do penetrate into these regions in summer, but because of convective rainfall. The global average rainfall is 860 mm/a (15), i.e. about 70 mm/month, over oceans and land together. Precipitation is heaviest near the ITCZ and in areas where monsoon winds come from over a warm ocean. Arid conditions are generally found in the subtropics (mainly between 18-33° ) (except where the Trade winds blow onshore or where the monsoon penetrates further poleward) and near the poles (16).

Precipitation increases with elevation on the windward side of mountains up to about 2,000 metres, very approximately, and then decreases with height because of the cold air there, which cannot ï¿½holdï¿½ much moisture (17). Rainfall is less on the lee side of a mountain, as in the case of the Patagonian desert in Argentina, to the east of the southern Andes, where the wind is from the west. It is also less in the Gobi desert in Mongolia, not only because monsoonal moisture is trapped by the Tibetan plateau, but also because frontal systems have lost most of their moisture on their long travel from the Atlantic. Thus, dry conditions imply either a subtropical or polar latitude, an extreme elevation, a rain shadow, situation near an anomalously-cold ocean (e.g. the Atacama desert in northern Chile) and/or great distance downwind of the ocean. Such conditions are indicated by low rainfall figures and a large daily range of temperatures (18). d) Daily temperature range The daily range of temperature is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures in 24 hours.

It has no meaning at latitudes above 66.5 degrees, where the Sun does not appear for 24 hours during the winter solstice. If the daily range is large, the atmosphere is dry (18) and there is little cloud, probably indicated by low rainfall figures. Thus a large range may indicate a position well inland, considerable elevation above cloud level, and/or a latitude near the Tropics, where anticyclones are common. Within anticyclones the air is dry and the sky often cloud-free; also, there is little wind, allowing the build-up of a strong nocturnal radiation inversion. Near the ITCZ and in areas frequented by frontal systems, not only does cloudiness limit daytime heating and nighttime cooling, but also, the air is too humid to cool much at night (near the ITCZ) or too windy (at mid-latitudes). There appears to be no systematic variation of the annual mean daily range with latitude (e.g. reference 19), because of the annual movement of the ITCZ, and the key dependence of a station's location on a continent.

The effect of the station elevation (h, in km) can be isolated: there is a slight tendency for the daily range to be given by this (Fig 6)- Rd = 8 + 2 h K This equation means that a range of 12 K, say, suggests (very tentatively) an elevation of 2 km, i.e. [12 - 8] / 2 . However, it would be better to use Fig 6 directly, as a guide to Rd; in that case, the deduced elevation for a daily range of 12 K would be about 1 km. The broad scatter in Fig 6 is not surprising: a place on the windward side of mountains has a much smaller daily range than a place at the same elevation on the lee side. Fig 6 . Daily ranges at various elevations (20). The horizontal lines show the median values for each band of elevations. A rough connection between rainfall P (mm/month) and daily range is shown in Fig 7, yielding the very approximate equation - Rd = 13.5 - 2 log P K Estimates of Rd from this may be compared with that from the relationship with elevation.

Unfortunately, this formula is of little use for estimating P, for instance, not only because of the great scatter seen in Fig 7, but also because of the formulaï¿½s nature; a small error in Rd leads to a huge difference to the value of P. Fig 7 . Connection between the monthly mean daily range of temperatures Rd (K) and the monthly rainfall P (mm), using 114 values from the USA, India and China (10). The horizontal lines show the median value for each band of rainfalls. e) Surface wind The prevailing wind direction has been mentioned several times as indirectly important in determining the climate. It affects whether the incoming wind is cooled by an west-coast ocean current, it governs whether or not a place is dry because it is far from the upwind ocean (as in the Gobi desert, for instance), it determines whether a place is dry because it lies in the lee of a high mountain range or wet because the wind has lately come from a warm ocean. The direction of the wind depends primarily on the latitude, which is assumed already assessed, at least provisionally, from consideration of the annual temperature mean and range, and precipitation.

Winds tend to be light and variable from the equator to about 10 degrees latitude, generally easterly and steady over 10 - 25 degrees, variable between 25 - 35 degrees, mainly westerly but variable over 35 - 60 degrees, variable between 60 and 70 degrees, and easterly nearer the pole (21, 22). Also note what has been said about monsoonal climates. 2. Procedure In view of all this, one proceeds to estimate the location of the place with a given climate by calculating the annual mean temperature, the annual range and daily range, and by examining the rainfall figures. Then write down the respective implications of each of these figures, in the light of the considerations above. First try to assess the possible latitude, then the possible elevation, then the distance inland. Finally, from the assessed figure for the latitude, deduce the implied wind direction and check that this is consistent with the temperatures and rainfall at the place provisionally selected. But bear in mind that local topography may confuse the issue, so that no estimate can be more than indicative.

Example 1 Let us take the case of a place with an annual average temperature T of 12° C, a January/July difference of 3.5 K and rainfall of 163 mm in January and 5 mm in July. The daily range is 13 K in January and 22 K in July, i.e. around 17 K. The higher temperatures in January show that the place is in the southern hemisphere. The value of T implies a sea-level place at 36 degrees latitude, very approximately [i.e. (27-17)/0.63 + 20]. Or it might be at a lower latitude and either greater elevation or located near a west coast. Of these options, a coastal location seems unlikely because the daily ranges are high, i.e. the air is dry, especially in winter. So the place may be elevated, at a latitude less than 36 degrees. A lower latitude is also indicated by the difference between the wet summer and dry winter, which suggest zenithal rain, and a location between about 8-16° S.

In addition, the apparent annual range of about 3.5 K yields a rough estimate of about 9° S, i.e. 2.5 x 3.5. There the true annual range is roughly one degree more than the apparent range, i.e. 4.5 K in the present case, and so the estimate of latitude becomes 11 degrees, i.e. 2.5 x 4.5. The sea-level temperature at that latitude would be about 27° C. Consequently, a mean temperature of 12° C would be found at 3.7 km, i.e. (27 - 12)/4 . Such an elevation accords with Fig 6, which suggests above 3 km for a daily range of 17 K. The formula for the distance inland (based on the apparent range) yields a figure of about 100 km if the latitude is 11 degrees, i.e. [3.5/{0.13 x 11}]5 . Thus we estimate a place around 11° S, 3.7 km high and roughly 100 km from the coast.

It is actually Cuzco in Peru, at 13° S, 3.2 km high, and about 350 km inland. Example 2 The opposite kind of estimate is also possible, the determination of approximate temperatures for a given locale. For instance, take Chicago, which is at 42° N, 250 m elevation and about 3000 km downwind of the Pacific ocean (but only 1400 km from the Gulf of Mexico). The sea-level temperature is estimated to be 5° C, i.e. (27 - 0.85 x [42 - 16]) . However, the height means that the value has to be reduced to 4° C, i.e. 8 - 250 x 4/1000. The formula for the annual range shows it to be 23-27 K, i.e. 0.13 x 42 x d0.2, where d is either 1400 (less common) or 3000 km (more common).

Thus the January and July monthly mean temperatures would be about (4 - 26/2) and (4 + 26/2), respectively, i.e. -9° C and 17° C. The observed figures are -4° C and 23° C, both about 5 K higher than the estimates. This is warmer than expected, mainly because of the moderating influence of Lake Michigan (in winter) and warm advection from the Gulf of Mexico (in summer). It is harder to derive the daily range because of the large scatter in Fig 6. For what it is worth, the estimate from Fig 6 is 13 K, which is more than the observed values of 8 K in both January and July. We hypothesise that the daily ranges are reduced by strong winds in winter and the high humidity in summer. 3. Conclusions These examples illustrate how far empirical relationships between elements of climate and geography can be used to estimate either location or climate from the other. It is interesting to see how much can be deduced, even when ignoring local circumstances. Their importance can be assessed by comparing the normative estimates against actual observations.

Ideally, the procedures for estimating either geography or climate norms from the other would be simplified into the format of a decision tree, ready for the development of a computer program - or even a board game? Acknowledgements : Fig 3 was provided by Dr Peter Jones of Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia. Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997. Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Section 16.1, p 348. ibid, Table F.16.1a on the associated CD-ROM. ibid, Fig 16.6. ibid, Fig 4.5. Gates, W.L. and 15 other authors 1999. An overview of the results of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP 1) Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 36, after Fiorino 1997. Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997.

Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Note 3.G on the asssociated CD-ROM ibid, Fig 11.14. Linacre, E.T. and J. Hobbs 1977. Australian Climatic Environment (Jacaranda-Wiley), p27 and p 31. Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997. Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Table 3.1 Pearce, E.A. and C.G. Smith 1990. The World Weather Guide (Hutchinson) 480pp. Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997. Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Fig 4.10 Linacre, E.T. 1993. Data-sparse estimation of lake evaporation. Agric. Forest Meteor., 64, 237-56. Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997.

Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Fig 12.1 ibid Fig 12.6 Linacre, E.T. and J. Hobbs 1977. Australian Climatic Environment (Jacaranda-Wiley), p97 Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997. Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Fig 10.6 ibid, Section 10.3 ibid, Table 6.1 ibid, Fig 16.7 Linacre, E.T. 1982. Effect of altitude on the daily range of temperature. J. Climatol., 2, 375-82. Linacre, E.T. and J. Hobbs 1977. Australian Climatic Environment (Jacaranda-Wiley), p114. Linacre, E.T. and B. Geerts 1997. Climates and Weather Explained (Routledge), Figs 12.1, 12.4 and 12.5. Sanderson, M., 1999.

The classification of climates from Pythagoras to Koeppen. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 669-673. Geiger 1960. The climate near the ground. Climates | Desert | Temperate | Tropical | Martime | Continental Patterns of Climate Desert climates Deserts are areas where the rainfall is too low to sustain any vegetation at all, or only very scanty scrub. The rainfall in desert areas is less than 25 mm or 10 inches per year, and some years may experience no rainfall at all. The hot deserts are situated in the subtropical high pressure belts where there is unbroken sunshine for the whole year. Such areas include the Sahara, Saudi Arabia, large parts of Iran and Iraq, northwest India, California, South Africa and much of Australia. Here, maximum temperatures of 40 to 45�C are common, although during colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the exceptional radiation loss under the skies. Desert climate The Gobi desert in Mongolia is an example of a cool desert. Though hot in summer, it shares the very cold winters of central Asia.

The Arctic and Antarctic regions, too, receive very little precipitation during the year, owing to the exceptionally cold air, but are more usually classified as types of polar climate. Semi-desert areas include the Steppes of southern Russia and central Asia, and the Parries of Canada. Tropical climates Much of the equatorial belt experiences hot and humid weather. There is abundant rainfall due to the active convection of air that takes place there, and during certain periods, thunderstorms can occur every day. Nevertheless, this belt still receives considerable sunshine, and with the excessive precipitation, provides ideal growing conditions for luxuriant vegetation. The principal regions with an equatorial climate are the Amazon Basin in Brazil, the Congo Basin in West Africa and Indonesia. Tropical climate Because a substantial part of the Sun's heat is used up in evaporation, temperatures in the tropics rarely exceed 35�C; a daytime maximum of 32�C is more common. At night the abundant cloud cover restricts radiation loss, and minimum temperatures fall no lower than about 22�C. This high level of temperature is maintained with little variation throughout the year.

The seasons, so far as they do exist, are distinguished not as warm and cold periods but by variation of rainfall and cloudiness. Greatest rainfall occurs when the Sun at midday is overhead. On the equator this occurs twice a year in March and September, and consequently there are two wet and two dry seasons. Further away from the equator, the two rainy seasons merge into one, and the climate becomes more monsoonal, with one wet season and one dry season. In the northern hemisphere, the wet season occurs from May to July, in the southern hemisphere from November to February. Savannah Between the wet equatorial belt and the subtropical desert regions are areas known as Savannahs. They have a single short rainy season when the Sun is nearly overhead, whilst the rest of the year is dry. Vegetation consists mostly of scrub and grassland, which blossoms during the rainy period, and dies off during the prolonged dry season. Such climates and their associated land types are common in the Sahel in Northern Africa (south of the Sahara), large parts of India and parts of northern Australia. Savannah 10.4. Temperate climates Temperate climates are those without extremes of temperature and precipitation.

The changes between summer and winter are invigorating without being frustratingly extreme. There are two types of temperate climate: maritime and continental. The maritime climate is strongly influenced by the oceans, which maintain fairly steady temperatures across the seasons. Since the prevailing winds are westerly in the temperate zones, the western edge of continents in these areas experience most commonly the maritime climate. Such regions include western Europe, in particular the UK, and western North America at latitudes between 40 and 60� north. Continentality increases inland, with warmer summers and colder winters as the effect of land on radiation receipt and loss increases. This is particularly true in North America, where the north-south aligned Rocky Mountains act as a climate barrier to the mild maritime air blowing from the west. Maritime climate, on the other hand, penetrates further into Europe where the major mountain range - the Alps - is orientated east-west. Temperate climate Polar climates The polar regions are perpetually covered by snow and ice throughout the year. In these high latitude parts of the world, the Sun is never high enough in the sky to cause appreciable melting and the temperature rarely rises above freezing.

During the long polar nights, which last six months at the poles, temperature can fall to extremely low values. The lowest ever temperature occurred in Antarctica, where a value of -88�C was recorded. Polar climate The north polar region includes the ice-covered Arctic ocean, the Greenland continent and much of northern Canada and northern Siberia. In the southern hemisphere, the vast mountainous continent of Antarctic is covered by snow and compacted ice several kilometres thick. Mediterranean climates The Mediterranean climate is a special type of climate that describes a regime of hot summer drought and mid winter rain in the mid latitudes, north of the subtropical highs. This climate occurs most noticeably in the regions around the Mediterranean, from where the climate gets its name, but also in coastal areas of California, South Africa and southern parts of Australia. In summer, the high pressure belts drift northwards in the northern hemisphere, southwards in the southern hemisphere, They are coincident with substantially higher temperatures and little rainfall. During the winter, the high pressure belts drift equatorward, and substantial rainfall occurs. Whist usually mild, such areas can experience cold snaps when exposed to the icy winds of the large continental interiors.

Climate of Zambia Climate T he general height of the land gives Zambia a more pleasant climate than that experienced in most tropical countries. There are three seasons – cool and dry from May to August, hot and dry from September to November, and warm and wet from December to April. Only in the Valleys of the Zambezi and Luangwa is there excessive heat, particularly in October and, in the wet season, a high humidity. In the warm wet season, frequent heavy showers and thunderstorms occur, followed by spells of bright sunshine. Plants grow profusely and rivers and streams fill up almost overnight. During the cool dry season, night frosts may occur in places sheltered from the wind. The countryside dries up gradually and grass fires, fanned by high winds are a feature of this time of the year. In depressions, frost can occur on cloudless nights. Temperatures rise high during the hot, dry season but new leaves appear on the trees before the start of the rains and new grass brightens the countryside. The main growing period of woody vegetation is between August and November. Rainfall While the rainfall pattern over the whole country is similar – between November and March, the amount of rain varies considerably.

The climate is affected most by the movement of the inter-tropical convergence zone, which is the meeting place of the sub-tropical high pressure areas of the northern and southern hemispheres. Over the sea, this zone approximates to the equator, and when the sun is overhead at the equator, heavy rains may fall in the equatorial regions of Africa. The zone moves southward with the apparent movement of the sun in the southern summer and brings rain to the greater part of Zambia. In the north of the country rainfall is 1250mm/ (50 inches) or more a year, decreasing southwards to Lusaka where it is about 750mm/ 30 inches annually. South of Lusaka rainfall is dictated more by the east and Southeast trade winds, which have lost much of their humidity by the time they have reached so far inland. Rainfall in this area is between 500 and 75omm / 20 and 30 inches. In exceptional years the influence of the inter tropical zone is felt much farther to the south, resulting in excessive rain in the Southern Province and partial drought in the north.

Except for very rare falls in August, rainfall is confined to the wet season, which sometimes starts as early as October and finishes as early as March. At the height of the wet season it rains on seven or eight days out of ten. Average temperatures are moderated by the height of the plateau. Maxima vary from 15oC to 27oC in the cool season with morning and evening temperatures as low as 6oC to 10oC and occasional frost on calm nights in valleys and hollows which are sheltered from the wind. In the cool season the prevailing wind, dry south easterlies come from the southern hemisphere belt of high pressure. Invasions of cold air from the south-east bring cloudy to overcast conditions. During the hot season maximum temperatures may range from 27oC to 35oC. The table below shows annual rainfall and representative maximum and minimum temperatures during the hottest and coldest months of the year respectively. It can be seen that annual temperature variation is greatest at Livingstone, the most southerly town, and the smallest at Mbala, the town nearest the equator.

Zambia’s vegetation is of the savanna type and over half the country is covered by trees, varying from the more open conditions in the drier south to tall dense woodlands in the north and north-west. These woodlands contain only hardwoods. The trees are bare for a brief period only and the spring leaves appear before the start of the rains. Grass fires spread rapidly in the dry season but new blades of grass soon push through the blackened earth. Zambia’s climate makes possible the cultivation of a wide range of crops; maize, tobacco, cotton, rice, wheat and groundnuts. All kinds of vegetables can be grown, together with citrus fruit, bananas, pineapples, mangoes, avocados and even grapes. Lichis are also a high potential export crop. Tea and coffee are also grown successfully in fact the coffee produced is of a very high quality. Sugar cane is grown both by villagers and commercially.

Rainfall table Climate of the World: Mongolia | weatheronline.co.uk Climate of the World Weather Facts | Wind of the World | Climate of the World | Weather Lore | Weather Brains | Philip Eden | Oil spill | Fukushima | Volcanic ash | Video Mongolia Mongolias climate can be described has highly continental dominied climate with warm summers and long, dry and very cold winters. Known as "the land of blue sky", Mongolia is a very sunny country and has usually about 250 sunny days a year. The country has the world's most typical continental climate with extreme diurnal and annual ranges of temperature . Average temperature in most of the country is below zero from November to March and close to it in April and October. Winter nights of -40°C are common most years (minimum recorded -55°C at lake Uvs). Summer extremes reach as high as +40°C in the Gobi Desert and +33°C in the capital Ulaanbaatar. Monthly temperature variations of +45°C and more are not uncommon in many regions of Mongolia. Required clothing: Lightweight clothes are advised for the summer months, Medium- to heavyweight is neccesary during the winter.

Be prepared for very low temperatures, -30°C and lower! Wherever you go, take a sweater for cool evenings, the difference between maxima and minima can vary greatly. Koeppen-Geiger classification: The climate of Mongolia can be classified as Dwc climate; a snow climate with dry winters, less than four months above 10°C and the coldest month lower than -3°C. The southern parts and the Gobi Desert have a BWk climate, a cold desert climate with an annual average temperature lower than 18°C. Advertisement Inner Mongolia travel guide - Wikitravel Time Zone UTC +8 Inner Mongolia (内蒙古, Nèi Měnggǔ or in Mongolian, Öbür mongɣul) is a Mongol Autonomous Region in northern China , whereas Outer Mongolia is a separate country to the north of China. The region covers most of the northern edge of China, curving in a banana shape. To the north is the Republic of Mongolia and the north east tip of Inner Mongolia borders with Russia .

The other borders of the region are with other Chinese provinces, going clock wise form the north east they are Heilongjiang , Jilin , Liaoning , Hebei , Shanxi , Shaanxi , Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and Gansu . Understand[ edit ] Inner Mongolia is a large region stretched across the northern edge of China. It has a relatively low population density the majority of which are Han Chinese. About 17% of the population is ethnic Mongolian. The region is officially an Autonomous Region for the Mongolian people within China. The east of Inner Mongolia consists of wide grass meadow lands, forests and mountains. The west of the region is made up of scorching hot dry deserts. Traditional Mongolian nomadic lifestyle can still be seen in the region and yurts (mongolian tents) are not an uncommon sight in the wide spaces between the cities. Despite the fact that ethnic Mongols form a minority in the region, the number of ethnic Mongols holding Chinese citizenship is almost twice the population of the independent country of Mongolia . The main religion in the area practiced by the Mongol minority is Lamaist Buddhism, similar to that found in Tibet and the Republic of Mongolia.

Lama temples are common throughout the region. Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC) (酒泉卫星发射中心) is in Inner Mongolia and is the site of most of China's rocket launches. It is in a remote area and not open to the public. (The city of Jiuquan lies over 100km away in the neighboring province of Gansu .) Some of the spellings and translations of names and things are inconsistent in Inner Mongolia when using the Roman script. This is perhaps due to place names for instances being translated directly from Mongolian and other ethnic languages, alternating with the use of pinyin Chinese - which doesn't quite capture the sounds of Mongolic languages. Talk[ edit ] Mongolian is co-official with Mandarin in the area. There are different dialects of both spoken throughout the region. The north east of the province speak with a Dongbei accent that is very similar to standard Mandarin Chinese. Central areas speak the Jin dialect of Chinese. The two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The official dialect of Mongolian is Chahar and is distinct from the dialect used in Outer Mongolia.

The Mongolian language and population is primarily located in the northern and border regions of the province with the neighboring Republic of Mongolia to the north. Nevertheless, most ethnic Mongols are bilingual in Mongolian and Mandarin, so unless you approach the elderly, Mandarin speakers should not have any problems communicating. Writing on signs, menus and other documents are usually bilingual in Mongolian and Chinese. The Mongolian script here follows the traditional style (vertical), in contrast with the Republic of Mongolia which adopted the Cyrillic script due to previous Russian/Soviet influences. Air[ edit ] There are nine public airports in Inner Mongolia. Most only receive domestic flights so requiring foreign visitors to transfer at one of the major cities of China before reaching Inner Mongolia. There are international flights from Hohhot to Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia run by MIAT Mongolian Airlines. Location Train[ edit ] Many cities of Inner Mongolia are connected to the Chinese rail network giving access to the region from neighbouring provinces. The Trans-Mongolian railway connects from Beijing via Datong in Shanxi province to the city of Jining in Inner Mongolia and north through Erenhot , in north central Inner Mongolia, to Ulaanbaatar in Outer Mongolia and onwards to Siberia in Russia .

The north eastern end of Inner Mongolia is traversed by rail routes connecting Russian Siberia to Harbin in Heilongjiang Province and through to the Russian Far East. Get around[ edit ] The central area of Inner mongolia is connected to a rail route that spans from Liaoning and Jilin provinces through Tongliao city in the east of Inner Mongolia, across the Trans-Mongolian railway at Jining (Inner Mongolia) , to Hohhot . The line then runs westward again until Wuhai city where the route exits Inner Mongolia, running just south of the border in the neighbouring provinces before turning north again and terminating in Ejin Qi in Western Inner Mongolia. Several branches run off of this to other cities. The north east of Inner Mongolia is not connected directly to the other cities of Inner Mongolia but is crossed by railways originating from Liaoning , Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. The international airport in Hohhot has connections to the other eight airports in Inner Mongolia. All Inner Mongolian airports also connect to Beijing. Thus it is possible to travel from one end of the region to the other by air. However, the frequency of flights to these small airports is low.

Do[ edit ][ add listing ] Scenic Grasslands - Definitely plan on visiting a scenic grassland near Hohhot, Baotou, Erenhot, Ulanhot or Hailar where visitors may go for the Mongolian Experience, such as horseback riding, attending folk singing and dancing, and tasting roast whole lamb. Nadam Festival - Wrestling, horse racing and archery are the three traditional sports for Nadam (meaning entertainment or frolicking), the foremost traditional festival for Mongol nomads taking place in July or August. Mongol Homestay - Try staying with a Mongol host family, experiencing the culture and doing horse back riding, visiting festivals etc. yurtstay.wordpress.com Eat[ edit ][ add listing ] Traditional Mongolian food is found throughout Inner Mongolia. This is typically high in dairy produce such as milk, yoghurt and cheese. The traditional Mongolian milk tea is exceptionally good. Meats, especially lamb, form most meals. The meat is usually roasted with a coating of spices to give a strong distinctive flavour. Similar with many areas of China, the Hotpot is a popular style of cooking. Mongolian hotpot usually has a well flavoured soup but without the hot spices of central China.

Question: Which is closest to the prevailing climate in Mongolia?
Answer: Dry