British Pubs Feature , Featured , Features The Skiving Scholar, the Drunken Duck and the Queen’s Head The local pub. Every British city, town and village has one, easily recognizable by their colorful signs and equally colorful names. My first pint, many years ago, was in the Black Bull. Now my regular haunt is the Walkley Cottage. When in York, I always seek out the Guy Fawkes Inn. In Nottingham, I head for The Bell. But where did this eclectic collection of names come from? It was in 1393, during the reign of King Richard II, that pubs were first ordered to hang a sign outside to make them easily visible. Given that the majority of the population could not read, an illustration was often used, and considering their primary trade, many opted for something to do with beer: hops, barley or barrel. And with it, the name of the pub was born. If you pass a pub called The Hop Pole, the Barley Mow or the Three Barrels, that is likely to be where the name originated. Some pub names, like this famous pub on Bodmin Moor, are less obvious. Think rum and smugglers.

Many other pubs adopted a white hart, the personal badge of Richard II, as their sign. It was a choice that lasted — the White Hart continues to be the fourth most common pub name in Britain. It made sense to indicate your loyalty to the reigning monarch or local lord by adopting their chosen symbol. An easy way to show your support for the king was to use a sign bearing a crown, and The Crown is still the second most common pub name—one which, conveniently, did not need to change with the occupant of the throne. Another popular name, the Rose and Crown, celebrates the end of the Wars of the Roses when Henry Tudor united the red rose of Lancaster with the white rose of York by marrying Elizabeth of York. Heraldic symbols often indicate some of the oldest pubs in the land; many have carried their names for centuries. The Red Lion certainly has heraldic origins. Some will tell you that it dates back to when James VI of Scotland became James I of England and insisted that public buildings display the red lion of Scotland, others will point to John of Gaunt’s badge as a more likely origin.

In truth, there are probably a number of derivations of the Red Lion, which might explain why it is the most common pub name, with nearly 600 examples dotted all around Britain. Though London’s Olde Cheshire Cheese is certainly more famous, visitors aand locals alike love this Free House in the Peak District village of Castleton. Names with a religious slant—Angel, Bell, Cross Keys or Lamb and Flag—indicate pubs that sit close to churches, or did at some point in their history. Thousands of students must have used the excuse that they were going to The Library, a common name in university districts. One Plymouth landlord was a little more insightful regarding student behavior, calling his place the Skiving Scholar. While the reference is to Elizabeth I, it’s likely this Sheffield pub is being called old, not the Queen. The Coach and Horses marks a place where passengers on a stagecoach received refreshments while horses were changed or given an overnight stop. Take a look at the map and chances are you’ll be close to an old turnpike road. When the steam locomotive was invented, a number of pubs called The Railway or The Station were opened.

No surprise what they are named after, although you will occasionally find one next to a disused line. Pub names offer a glimpse into the past, even when all other evidence has disappeared. The Dog and Bear might indicate where bear-baiting was once held, while The Strugglers might be close to the site of a hangman’s noose. Ironically, the famed 20th-century executioner Albert Pierrepoint was also the landlord of a pub called Help The Poor Struggler. MOST POPULAR NAMES Pub Names - W - Portsmouth Pubs Walkabout³ Guildhall Walk A modern name given to a chain of Australian theme pubs by owners Regent Inns. The term walkabout derives from the belief that Aboriginal Australians head off alone into the outback for a prolonged period as a rite of passage at the age of thirteen. The Warrior Arms¹ St John’s Road, St Mary’s Street and Cumberland Road Named in honour of the Royal Navy’s first iron-clad warship, HMS Warrior, built in Deptford in 1860 and now preserved at Portsmouth’s Historic Dockyard.

The Watchmakers Arms¹ Gunner Street A number of clock and watchmakers could be found in the Lake Road area of the city, close to where this pub once stood. The Waterloo Inn³ Commercial Road (later Guildhall Walk) Named in honour of those who fought under the Duke of Wellington at the decisive Battle of Waterloo of 1815. The Waterman’s Arms¹ The Hard Named after the many hundreds of men who once earned their living working on or with boats in Portsmouth Harbour. The Wave Maiden Osborne Road The wave maidens are the nine daughters of Ægir, a sea giant, god of the ocean and king of the sea creatures in Norse mythology. The Waverley Arms³ Located close to Waverley Road, named after the 1814 historical novel by Sir Walter Scott. The Wellington High Street, Hyde Park Road and Russell Street Named in honour of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769-1852), victor at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and twice Prime Minister of Britain. The pub’s sign pictures the Duke’s boot, hat and telescope.

The Welsh Harp¹ Railway View Often a name used to indicate to the public that the licensee has a connection to Wales. This may have been welcome to Welsh sailors based in Portsmouth. The Wheelbarrow³ Kent Road The name reputedly derives from a story relating to a former garrison commader of Southsea Castle, who was known to be a heavy drinker and would be transported home each night in a wheelbarrow. A wooden barrow once stood above the parapet at first floor level. The Wheelwrights Arms¹ Stamshaw Road The Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London, dating from 1670. Wheelwrights would have been numerous in Portsmouth and all parts of the country in bygone years, when horse-drawn travel was the norm. When Shall We Three Meet Again¹ Charles Street The opening line of William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, referring to the three witches in the play. The White Bear¹ Cottage View and Queen Street A probable reference to the White Bear, the galleon built in 1563 which formed part of the squadron of ships that attacked Cadiz in 1587, under the command of Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake.

The White Ensign¹ Queen Street The white ensign is the flag of the Royal Navy – flown on all vessels and at shore bases. It is also flown by the Royal Yacht Squadron and Trinity House ships when escorting the reigning monarch. The White Gate¹ Havant Street Located close to the Main Gate of the naval dockyard, with its distinctive white Portland stone pillars. The White Hart Kingston Cross³ and other locations¹ A vey common pub name – the heraldic symbol of King Richard II. The name has since become a generic term for a tavern and the familiar inn sign was a valuable indicator to the many illiterate folk of bygone years. The White Horse Southsea Terrace³ and other locations¹ The white horse features prominently in the arms of several guilds and was also adopted as a symbol by the Kings of Wessex. The White House Ernest Road³ and Eastney Road¹ Of uncertain origin. Possibly a reference to the White House, the official residence of the president of the United States of America.

The Eastney Road pub once displayed an inn sign with curious imagery, depicting a gent in distinctive, but unidentified attire, stood in front of a gated white building with the emblem of a red glove prominent on the façade (see Lost Pubs – W). The White Lion¹ Commercial Road Most likely named in honour of King Edward IV (1442-1483), who’s heraldic arms depict a white lion, as do that of the Earls of March and the Duke of Norfolk. The White Swan Guildhall Walk and numerous other locations¹ As with the Swan. These birds have appeared on many royal coats of arms over the centuries and are closely associated with royalty to this day. Who’d A Thought It¹ Surrey Street This name crops up in many places and traditionally refers to the unexpected granting of a liquor licence to the original landlord. In rural areas, it may also derive from the surprise of travellers happening upon an unexpected tavern. The Wig & Pen³ Landport Terrace Originally the Balmoral. This pub was renamed in recognition of the abundance of solicitors’ practices on nearby Hampshire Terrace and Landport Terrace.

The William the Conqueror¹ Silver Street William I, Duke of Normandy (c.1028-1087), best known as William the Conqueror (AKA William the Bastard), first Norman king of England. The Wiltshire Lamb² Hampshire Terrace The Wiltshire Horn is a breed of domestic sheep originally from Wiltshire and raised for meat. The Winchester Arms Winchester Road The pub and the street on which it stands take their name from Winchester College – the prestigious school located in the County Town of Hampshire – ancient capital of Wessex. The Windmill & Sawyer¹ Copenhagen Street Most likely a reference to a wind-driven sawmill (and it’s operative) used for the milling of timbers needed for the construction of shipping in the naval dockyard, located across the road from where the pub once stood. The Wingfield Arms¹ Church Street Named in honour of Edward Wingfield, 2nd Viscount Powerscourt (1729-1764), Irish politician and member of parliament for Whitchurch, Hampshire.

The Wolfe’s Head¹ Wolfes Court Named after Major General James Wolfe (1727-1759), British officer, known chiefly for his victory over the French at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, Canada in 1759. The Wycombe Arms¹ Funny Pub Names | A collection of good names for bars | Pictures of Funny Pub Signs Funny, Amusing, Hilarious and Strange Pub Names When younger, Will and Guy were regular pub goers, and the names of pubs were often a source of some amusement. While listening to the BBC news the other day we heard that the American Embassy in Baghdad had hired an Englishman to create and make a pub sign for the embassy bar. We think it is to be called "The Bolt Hole" an apt and amusing name. This led us to research "funny and amusing pub names" particularly in the UK and in Ireland. Originally, public house names reflected the history of the country or the area in which they were sited. Names from the past tended to be patriotic or royal. Common names in the UK include: The Crown - this is representative of the King or Queen.

The Red Lion - this pub name became popular when James I ordered red lions to be displayed outside all public places. Royal Oak - this only became popular after Charles II escaped during the English Civil War by hiding behind an Oak tree. Swan - a symbol used commonly in the coat of arms. All swans [the birds] are owned by the Queen and protected by law. White Hart - this was the heraldic symbol of King Richard II. Duke of Buckingham - named after the Duke who was murdered in Old Portsmouth in 1628. ¤ Let Us Preserve Old Pub Names Many of the old tavern names are in danger of disappearing as large conglomerations buy up pubs and change their names to "modern" equivalents. Throughout Britain "Harvester" pubs, "Slug and Lettuce" and "Beefeater" pubs can be found, owned by these big groups. Will and Guy bemoan the loss of the heritage connected with the old names. Many of these inns can still be found when travelling around Britain and Ireland. Will and Guy have started a collection of funny pub signs to bring a smile to your face. Here is a list of the best pub names that we have discovered.

The Idle Cook - Idle, Bradford, Yorkshire Bucket of Blood - Phillack, Cornwall *The Fawcett Inn - Portsmouth, Hampshire *The Ram Inn - Newark, Nottinghamshire Moderation Inn - Reading, Berkshire *The Pub with No Name - Priors Dean, Hampshire [known by locals as The White Horse Inn] The Vat and Fiddle - Nottingham The Happy Medium - Chichester, West Sussex The Hung Drawn And Quartered, London *Hole in the Wall - Southsea, Hampshire; *Caernarvon, north Wales; Little Wilbraham, Cambridgeshire; Waterloo, London; Lowside, Bowness Windermere, Cumbria [Hole Int Wall]; and several other venues.

Bank Tavern, Keswick, Cumbria The Bleeding Wolf, Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire Blooming Fuchsia, Ipswich, Suffolk The Cow and Snuffers, Llandaff, Cardiff, Wales Drunken Duck, Hawkshead, Cumbria The Quiet Woman - York [The sign being a woman carrying her own severed head] Nobody Inn - Doddiscombsleigh, Devon Pub signs in Britain By Ben Johnson | Comments Britain has a unique heritage in its inn signs: a record of its history and the people who made it. Inn signs depict everything, from battles to inventions, from sporting heroes to royalty. The origin of inn signs goes back to the Romans . The 'Tabernae' would hang vine leaves outside to show that they sold wine - in Britain, as vine leaves are rare (due to the climate!), small evergreen bushes were substituted. One of the first Roman tavern signs was the 'Bush'. Early pubs hung long poles or ale stakes, which might have been used to stir the ale, outside their doors. If both wine and ale were sold, then both bush and pole would be hung outside. The naming of inns and pubs became common by the 12th century.

With pub names came pub signs - as the majority of the population could not read or write. In 1393, King Richard II passed an Act making it compulsory for pubs and inns to have a sign (his own emblem the 'White Hart' in London) in order to identify them to the official Ale Taster. Ever since then, inn names and signs have reflected, and followed, British life at that time. Before King Henry VIII and the Reformation , many had a religious theme, for example 'The Crossed Keys' , the emblem of St. Peter. When Henry split with the Catholic church, names were changed from religious themes to 'The King's Head' or 'The Rose & Crown' etc. The 'Red Lion' is probably the most common name for a pub and originates from the time of James I and VI of Scotland who came to the throne in 1603. James ordered that the heraldic red lion of Scotland be displayed on all buildings of importance - including pubs ! Many signs have royal links: for instance, most 'White Lion' inns date from the time of Edward IV and the 'White Boar' was the emblem of Richard III.

Pubs are also named after famous people in history, for example, The Duke of Wellington and Shakespeare . More recently, social and industrial change has been reflected in pub names, for example 'The Railway' . Sport is well represented with names like 'The Cricketers'. Infamous goings-on are also remembered: for example, 'The Smugglers Haunt' and 'The Highwayman'! Project MUSE - Middle English Ferumbras Romances and the Reign of Richard II Middle English Ferumbras Romances and the Reign of Richard II Barbara Stevenson Abstract The Charlemagne romance Fierabras, which originated in twelfth-century France, was pervasive during the Middle Ages, in Britain as elsewhere, and although ostensibly Charlemagne romances would have been less popular in England than Arthurian ones, nonetheless the Fierabras was translated into English prior to well-known Arthurian narratives like the Lancelot-Grail cycle. Translations of Fierabras into Middle English began to appear in the late fourteenth century, with the Middle English Sir Ferumbras (Bodleian’s Ashmole MS 33) in particular speaking to interests of Ricardian England and its monarch.

This article examines the role and importance of Richard, Duke of Normandy in the English Fierabras texts and the character’s connections to King Richard II and his court. THE Charlemagne romance Fierabras, which originated in twelfth-century France, was so pervasive during the Middle Ages that André de Mandach has labeled it the “Cinderella” of ro mances. 1 Of the 130 manuscripts categorized by Mandach, three are Anglo-Norman and three are Middle English. References in such works as John Barbour’s The Bruce and the romance’s translation and printing by William Caxton attest to its prevalence in Britain. 2 Although ostensibly Charlemagne romances would have been less popular in England than Arthurian ones, nonetheless the Fierabras was translated into English [End Page 19] prior to well-known Arthurian narratives like the Lancelot-Grail cycle, and John Finlayson argues that a Middle English version of the romance was a source for the Alliterative Morte Arthure.

3 Translations of Fierabras into Middle English began to appear in the late fourteenth century, with the Middle English Sir Ferumbras (Bodleian’s Ashmole MS 33) in particular speaking to interests of Ricardian England and its monarch. Fierabras features the fictitious adventures of Charlemagne and his peers, who take action when Fierabras (called “Ferumbras” in Middle English) steals holy relics of the Passion from Rome on behalf of his father, the Sultan of Babylon. Charlemagne’s champion, Oliver, defeats Fierabras, who then converts to Christianity, while Floripas, the sister of Fierabras, falls in love with Guy of Burgundy and also converts. Their father, the Sultan of Babylon, refuses to convert, so he is killed, and the stolen relics are returned to Charlemagne. Even though the work glorifies Charlemagne and Frankish history along with the Abbey of St. Denis and its Passion relics, the romance proved popular outside of France because it captured the crusading fervor of the era and it entertained with escapist adventures.

While the majority of Fierabras scholarship has been devoted to tracing the relationship of the manuscripts to one another and the history of the romance’s transmission, a few scholars have studied textual variations as a function of cultural difference. For instance, K. V. Sinclair notes that, in contrast to continental texts, some versions of Fierabras of British origin tend to amplify the role of Richard, the Duke of Normandy. 4 The middle section of the romance highlights the exploits of Richard: separated from Charlemagne, the peers are held in captivity by the Saracens until Richard of Normandy escapes to alert Charlemagne. Richard’s advance is blocked, but after he prays, a white deer appears and magically guides him across the river Flagot to safety. After he warns Charlemagne, Richard leads the charge against the Saracens holding Mantrible Bridge, allowing Charlemagne’s forces to free the imprisoned peers and to defeat the Sultan of Babylon. As Duke of Normandy, Richard is the one character with a connection to England, so it is no surprise that his role at times is expanded upon in insular versions.

The character of the duke was modeled after [End Page 20] Richard I “the Fearless,” Duke of Normandy (circa 933–996). The historical Richard was fictionalized first in the Roland and other chansons de geste but emerged as a significant character in Fierabras. 5 Writing about Richard began in his own lifetime when he commissioned Dudo of Saint-Quentin to compose a chronicle glorifying his lineage. Dudo’s De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum formed the basis for chronicle continuations by William of Jumièges, Wace, and Benoît de Sainte-Maure, all featuring the most famous of the duke’s descendants, Edward the Confessor and William the Conqueror. 6 Edward was son to Emma, one of the duke’s daughters, while William was a great-grandson. Interest in the Anglo-Norman heritage of the kings of England persisted into the fifteenth century, with Thomas Walsingham updating the history into the reign of Henry V and presenting the work to the monarch in 1420.

7 The Anglo-Norman link through the character of Richard offers one explanation for the popularity of Fierabras in Britain. The Anglo-Norman Fierabras manuscripts date from the thirteenth through the early fourteenth centuries, while the Middle English versions first emerged in the late fourteenth century. One Middle English manuscript, the Fillingham Firumbras, British Library’s Additional MS 37492, is a fragment, which starts after the peers have been imprisoned by the sultan and contains additional lacunae. Mary Isabelle O’Sullivan notes that this text shows extensive use.

8 As for date, theoretically it could extend from after the creation of its French model around 1170 up to the Fillingham’s manuscript date of the latter half of the fifteenth century, but O’Sullivan contends, “A pre-Chaucerian date is suggested by the general resemblance in metre and spirit to the Tale of Gamelyn, and by the absence of Chaucerian influence either on verse or language.” 9 In contrast, Marianne Ailes and Phillipa Hardman argue that the redactor’s hesitancy to reference France as the heroes’ point of origin [End Page 21] and preference for general heroic terms like “knyȝtes” indicate a post-Hundred Years War date. 10 A more complete Middle English version, Sir Ferumbras (Bodleian’s Ashmole MS 33) is a holograph bound in parchment made of two Exeter diocese documents dated 1357 and 1377, with the cover containing a draft of a portion of the poem in the same hand as the enclosed manuscript itself. The poem is missing the opening, one middle, and the ending leaves.

Henry Sweet places the handwriting toward the end of the fourteenth century, and language suggests the Exeter area. 11 Even though the date is not exact, it is certain that the manuscript originated after 1377, the year of one document enclosing the manuscript. It is also the year of Richard II’s ascension to the throne, and features of the poem suggest it could be contemporaneous with Richard’s reign. The heroic Duke of Normandy in Sir Ferumbras and the English ruler shared more in common than the name “Richard.” Richard Plantagenet and Duke Richard were related through the two English kings, Edward the Confessor and William the Conqueror. Edward the Confessor was the patron saint of England during King Richard’s time, and the monarch revered him. The Confessor assumed an important role in Ricardian iconography: Richard II impaled the Confessor’s mythical arms upon his own; the Confessor and Richard are depicted together in the same panel of the Wilton Diptych; Richard rebuilt portions of Westminster, established by Edward; and Richard authorized the construction of thirteen statues representing English kings from Edward up to himself. 12 Moreover, the two Richards shared similar biographies.

Both were ten-year-old boys when they assumed their titles, and as young men both struggled to assert their independence from powerful noblemen who sought to control them. As detailed in Dudo’s chronicle, in 942 when his father died, Richard became Duke of Normandy, but Louis IV of France confined him and took control of Normandy. Richard escaped and in 947 was able to retake Normandy after aligning himself with Hugh, Count of Paris. 13 Similarly, in 1387 King Richard’s government [End Page 22] was overtaken by the Lords Appellant, who sentenced the king’s favorites to death during the Merciless Parliament of 1388. After turning twenty-one, Richard reclaimed his royal authority in 1389.

(Starting in 1397, Richard took vengeance against the Lords Appellant, an action that would set the stage for his deposition in 1399 and death in 1400 when one Lord Appellant, Henry Bolingbroke, rebelled and assumed the kingship as Henry IV.) 14 According to Sinclair, a distinct feature of some British manuscripts of the Charlemagne romance is the “reference to Richard’s foundation of the Holy Trinity Abbey at Fécamp.” 15 In Sir Ferumbras when Floripas shows the peers the golden idols, Oliver wishes that he owned all the gold. In contrast, Richard says he wants only one of the golden idols and pledges that were he to receive it, he would “in Rowan my Citee, / And make newe þe heȝe churche in worschip of þe trynitee” (83, lines 2551–52). The historical Richard rebuilt Fécamp Abbey—famous for its relic of the Precious Blood of Christ—after its destruction by Vikings, consecrating it in 990.

He and his son, Duke Richard II, made Fécamp their center of power with a ducal palace and their patronage of the abbey. 16 Fécamp Abbey acquired lands across the Channel on English soil. In 1016 when Cnut usurped the English throne from Aethelred, Aethelred’s son—the future Edward the Confessor—fled to Fécamp to stay with his uncle, Duke Richard II. After becoming king, Edward in 1047 gave St. Andrew’s Church in Steyning, Sussex, to Fécamp Abbey, in gratitude for the services rendered to him during his youth. After the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror confirmed Edward the Confessor’s gift of Steyning to Fécamp. 17 At the beginning of the fourteenth century, stained glass windows illustrating the life of Edward were installed in the abbey. 18 Just as King Richard II rebuilt portions of Westminster because [End Page 23] of its importance to his role model, Edward the Confessor, so, too, Fécamp Abbey recognized Edward as one of its own saints.

In Ferumbras Duke Richard’s reference to Fécamp Abbey might have reminded an English audience—perhaps including Richard Plantagenet—of their patron saint, Edward the Confessor, and of the Norman Conquest. Sir Ferumbras contains a dramatic shift in style just as Richard of Normandy proposes that he attempt to escape so that he can alert Charles of the assault the peers are enduring at the hands of the Saracen forces (108, line 3411). The poem abruptly jumps from a ballad form with lines ending in couplets to tail-rhyme. Marcus Konick concludes that the changes in the two sections stem from the first part being a translation from a French source while the remaining portion might possibly be from a lost English version. 19 Whatever the reason for the stylistic shift, it is at this point that Richard emerges as a central hero of the poem. The peers try to distract the Saracens while Richard flees. Once the Saracens realize that Richard is escaping, they pursue him over land and notify Agolafre, the Saracen giant who guards the bridge at Mantrible, to pull up the drawbridge so no one can pass.

With his advance over land and bridge blocked, Richard’s only alternative is to cross the river Flagot, which is deep and broad and where he is most likely to be drowned. Richard prays to the Lord that he be allowed to reach Charles safely to warn him to deliver his people from their foes (123–24, lines 3947–54). As soon as he finishes his prayer, a magical white hart appears to guide him across the river: “Er þat þar cam an hert forþ reke, / As wyt ase melkys fom” (124, lines 3955–56), and then “þe hert þat was so fair of siȝt Ouer þe Ryuer swam ful riȝt, / & Ry[chard] doþ afterdrawe” (124, lines 3965–66). The Saracens are afraid to swim like Richard and the white hart, so they race across the bridge. However, Richard reaches the other side, where the white hart disappears, and he succeeds in contacting Charlemagne.

Old French versions use “cerf” and/or “bisse” to describe the mysterious deer, which variously gets translated as a “hert” (“hart” for male deer) or “hende” (“hind” for female deer) in English versions. 20 The Sir Ferumbras author translated it as “hart,” the symbol associated with King Richard II. Indeed, the strongest parallel between the character of Duke Richard and King Richard is their connection to the white hart. [End Page 24] Perhaps no ruler has been more closely identified with an image than Richard II with the white hart, which appears in such artifacts as the Wilton Diptych and Westminster Abbey. Evidence suggests that Richard’s affiliation with the white hart started early in life: born in 1367 and crowned in 1377, the young king pawned three white hart brooches to the City of London in 1379. Although it is unknown how and why the white hart became Richard’s emblem, it is clear that as king he fully embraced it as his symbol. For instance, Richard introduced the white hart as a livery badge for his retainers at the Smithfield Tournament in 1390.

21 The French name “Richart” contains “hart” as a syllable, which may explain why both Richards were affiliated with the animal. 22 In addition, a miraculous white hart functioning as divine messenger was common in medieval folklore, legends, and literature. For example, according to legend, a white hart marked where Fécamp Abbey’s foundations should be constructed, 23 the same abbey later rebuilt by Duke Richard and so famously connected to him, as the allusion in Sir Ferumbras illustrates. The Fierabras/Ferumbras hart and Richard II’s hart were both white, the usual color assigned to the magical harts of medieval lore. This color is explained in the Queste del Saint Graal, a copy of which Richard II inherited, although it is unknown if he read it. 24 In the romance, the knights of the Grail quest—Galahad, Perceval, and Bors—along with the sister of Perceval see four lions with a white stag or hart.

(A hart is a stag that is at least six years of age and thus old enough to hunt, explains Edward of Langley, second Duke of York, who was King Richard’s favorite cousin and author of the hunting treatise, The Master of Game. 25 ) The group follows the beasts, which lead them into a hermitage, where the hart transforms into Jesus Christ and the four lions into the evangelists. A hermit explains the significance of this vision: “For just as the Hart rejuvenates itself by shedding part of its hide and coat, so did Our Lord return from death to life when He cast off his mortal hide, which was the human flesh He took in the Blessed Virgin’s womb. And because the Blessed Virgin was ever free from sin, her Son appeared in [End Page 25] the guise of a White Hart without spot.” 26 Thus, the color white signifies purity. Furthermore, the hart is often depicted in conjunction with water, so it is no surprise that Richard’s rescue by the white hart in the Charlemagne romance involves a miraculous crossing of a river.

Two pertinent illustrations adorn the Queen Mary Psalter (British Library’s Royal MS 2 B VII), a fourteenth-century text believed to have originally been owned by Richard II’s great-grandmother, Queen Isabella. 27 In the illuminated manuscript, F. 115v features a “Basdepage scene of four stags standing in water,” a pictorial depiction of Psalms 42:1—“As the hart panteth for water brooks, so panteth my soul for Thee, O God” (King James Version). 28 Next to it, F.

116r features a “Basdepage scene of a stag killing and eating a serpent.” 29 Edward in The Master of Game explains this common belief about the hart’s long life: “And many men say, but I make no affirmation upon that, when he [the hart] is right old he beateth a serpent with his foot till she be wrath, and then he eateth her and then goeth to drink, and then runneth hither and thither to the water till the venom be mingled together and make him cast all his evil humours that he had in his body, and maketh his flesh come all new.” 30 Although Edward did not write this treatise until after Richard’s deposition in 1399, the phrase “many men say” makes it clear that this is a widespread belief and no doubt one familiar to his close cousin Richard, who was deeply interested in the hart and who was an avid huntsman. 31 It is not surprising that the hart’s power of rejuvenation received a Christianized interpretation during the Middle Ages, since the serpent and its venom connote evil while the water signifies the cleansing of baptism.

The hart’s connection to baptismal waters and to Christian everlasting life offers another reason why the animal was adopted as the symbol of Richard II; he was born on January 6, the Epiphany and the traditional date given for the baptism of Jesus. Because Richard Plantagenet’s birth date coincided with the traditional [End Page 26] date of the baptism of Jesus, his patron saint was John the Baptist, the biblical hero responsible for Jesus’s baptism. In one panel of the Wilton Diptych, John the Baptist stands with the two patron saints of England, Edward the Confessor and Saint Edmund, while Richard—wearing his white hart badge—kneels. 32 John the Baptist offers another point of connection between Richard II and Sir Ferumbras. The last leaf of Sir Ferumbras is missing, but its French predecessors end with Charlemagne’s giving part of the recovered Passion relics, specifically thorns from the crown and one nail, to the Abbey of St. Denis and establishing the festival of Lendit. 33 Lendit is the historical celebration of St. Denis’s relics that ends on June 23, the eve of the Feast Day of John the Baptist.

The Sir Ferumbras manuscript is unique with its invocations of Saint John that frame the episode of the Battle of Mantrible, Duke Richard’s victory against the Saracens. After Richard reaches Charlemagne and tells of the dire situation facing the peers, Charlemagne makes a vow “to my lord seynt Ion” (131, line 4299) that he will rescue the peers and kill the Saracens. Richard concocts a plan that will allow the Franks to cross the bridge. He and others dress as merchants, they approach the bridge, and Agolafre says he must see their faces. Richard agrees, Agolafre allows them on the bridge, and when the Saracen giant realizes their true identity, he raises the drawbridge to trap them and to prevent more Franks from entering (140). During the ensuing fight, Richard lowers the drawbridge, allowing Charlemagne and his forces to gain entrance to fight the Saracens (142). One leaf describing the battle is missing at this point (148–150).

After the Franks kill Agolafre and defeat the Saracens, Charlemagne asks which of his men should be in charge of Mantrible. Richard swears that “be seynt Ion” (151, line 4879) it should be two of the men who accompanied him in the guise of merchants to gain access to the bridge—Raoul and Howel. With this oath, Sir Ferumbras links Duke Richard with John the Baptist, the patron saint of King Richard. Charlemagne’s forces won the battle, according to the Sir Ferumbras poet, on May 20, 980 (151, lines 4867–70). Sidney Herrtage claims this date is unique to the Ashmole manuscript and does not appear in French antecedents. 34 The date falls during the lifetime of Duke Richard I but well after the death of Charlemagne in 814; also, it accords [End Page 27] with Richard’s assertion that he would like to take home the pagan gold and build the Holy Trinity abbey at Fécamp, which was consecrated in 990.

Joseph Bédier notes that Richard of Normandy is an anachronistic presence in the Charlemagne chansons de geste. 35 However, the addition of the date of 980 in the Sir Ferumbras manuscript turns Charlemagne and his peers into the anachronisms, not Richard—an inversion of the usual setting. Bédier points to the anachronistic Richard in the chansons de geste as proof that the texts reflect the era in which they were written rather than being transcriptions of oral accounts dating from the works’ historical origins. 36 For Sir Ferumbras, embellishments—such as Richard’s being the only temporally correct personage—add an Anglicized dimension to a tale of French origin and heighten the significance of Richard’s character. The poet uses familiar tropes from the reverdie genre to introduce the date: “þys [the Battle of Mantrible] was don on þe moneþ of May, Wan þe foules syngeþ on þe spray” (151, line 4867).

Although poetic descriptions of the rejuvenation of nature in springtime are common in medieval literature, the exact language used here is echoed so closely in other Middle English heroic romances as to suggest an intertextual connection. For example, The Bruce contains the line, “This wes in the moneth of May, / Quhen byrdis syngis on the spray.” 37 Similarly, Otuel and Roland states, “In averel, the thyrdde day, / whenne foules synge on the spray.” 38 In each instance the descriptor serves as a transition into a new episode. Even more telling, each work has a connection to the Ferumbras story. Robert the Bruce reads the story of Ferumbras as his men row across Loch Lomond; the thirty-line synopsis includes references to Richard of Normandy, the river Flagot, and the Battle of Mantrible (3.47, lines 437–67). Otuel and Roland is part of the Fillingham manuscript, as is Firumbras. Perhaps Firumbras originally had such a transitional line, but the surviving fragment lacks it.

The exact nature of the intertextual relationship among these narratives cannot be determined since The Bruce and Otuel and Roland are fifteenth-century scribal products, and it is uncertain when the exact wording of these transitional lines was introduced. All these romances reference the Crusades, a practice common during [End Page 28] the Middle English period. Indeed, Rosalind Field observes that Anglo-Norman romances and their Middle English derivatives are marked by “interest in crusading, relics and a feeling for Christendom.” 39 Sir Ferumbras embodies these interests with its portrayal of Charlemagne’s victories over the Saracens, the recovery of the miraculous Passion relics, and the conversion of the Sultan’s children to Christianity. These interests are echoed in Philippe de Mézières’s Epître au Roi Richart or Letter to King Richard, written in 1395.

40 In his letter, Philippe, an advisor to Charles VI of France, proposes that Richard marry the French princess Isabella as a way to end the Hundred Years War; the letter also encourages Richard and Charles to initiate a new Crusade by forming a chivalric order, the Order of the Passion, that would fight the Sultan of Babylon to recapture the Holy Land and to retrieve holy relics. It is striking that the letter recommends a marriage to cement the relationship between the two warring nations of England and France, similar to the way Guy’s marriage to Floripas in Sir Ferumbras cements the relationship between enemy Christian and Islamic lands. A crusade to rescue relics, which is proposed by Philippe, forms the major plot of the romance. Scholars have speculated that the Wilton Diptych is, in part, a visual argument for Philippe’s proposals. In the painting, the halo of the baby Jesus depicts the Passion relics of the crown of thorns and nails of the Crucifix, which play a role in Philippe’s letter and the Ferumbras romance. Also, John the Baptist holds a lamb, which Phillipe advocates as the emblem to be placed on the banner of the order of the Passion.

Richard’s clothing in the painting is adorned with the broomcod, a symbol of France, thus acknowledging his association with France through his marriage to Princess Isabella. Richard hands to the Christ child and the Virgin Mary the banner of St. George, long associated with crusading and selected by his predecessor Edward III as the banner for the Order of the Garter. 41 Since Richard married Isabella in 1396, a year after Philippe’s letter, the English ruler may have heeded some of Philippe’s advice. Although Richard never supported the letter’s proposed crusade to the Holy Land—much less participate in one as did his famous ancestor Richard I—he saw the defense of Christianity as a key role [End Page 29] for himself as king. In his authorized epitaph, Richard claims to have overthrown non-believers: “Obruit hereticos.” 42 The Wilton Diptych, Philippe’s letter, and Middle English romances like Sir Ferumbras capture popular attitudes of the milieu about crusading and Christianity. Although it is tempting to see Middle English Ferumbras romances as commentaries upon King Richard’s reign, no manuscript contains an allusion or dedication to the king.

The Fillingham Firumbras is incomplete, as is the Ashmole Sir Ferumbras, which is missing the opening leaf, the concluding leaf, and a middle leaf describing a battle scene at Mantrible. Although lost manuscript pages are common, Sir Ferumbras was enclosed within a cover containing draft notes for the poem in the same hand as the romance itself, a cover that is still intact. Perhaps pages with references to Richard, such as an opening page with a dedication, were removed once the king became unpopular at the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Sowdone of Babylone, preserved in Princeton University’s Garrett MS 140, is the one Middle English Ferumbras romance definitely written after Richard’s deposition. The poem was written during the early fifteenth century as evidenced by its language and its echoes of Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.

43 Like Sir Ferumbras, The Sowdone of Babylone also references birds in the springtime, except in this case the lines are an imitation of Chaucer’s “General Prologue”: “Whan lovers slepen withe opyn yȝe, / As Nightyngalis on grene tre.” 44 This rendering of the tale abbreviates the sections involving Richard of Normandy. In contrast to Sir Ferumbras, Sowdone makes no allusion to Fécamp, replaces the white hart with a hind, and merely summarizes the episode at the river Flagot. Scholars attribute the contrasts between the Sowdone and other Middle English versions to the use of different sources. Konick argues that Sowdone derives from a Fierabras tradition that condenses the story, while the other two Middle English manuscripts stem from a different source. 45 Not only did the anonymous author translate and adapt a story that veers sharply away from comparisons with Richard II, but authorial insertions focus instead upon Chaucer, the one member of the Ricardian court still revered in the fifteenth century. [End Page 30] Selecting a hind instead of a hart is particularly telling.

Richard’s white hart had become an unpopular and controversial symbol as the alliterative poem Richard the Redeless makes clear. The poem lists specific complaints against the king, most notably the cruelty of Richard’s Chester guard, who wore the livery badge of the white hart. The poet complains that those who “had hertis on hie on her brestis, . . . bare adoun the pouere”; that is, those who wore harts high on their breasts bore down upon the poor. 46 Differing sources account for discrepancies among the Middle English versions, but the distinctions in Sowdone also reflect an era when the former king was unpopular. While variations appearing in other Middle English versions highlight Britain’s Anglo-Norman heritage, this rendition’s unique details emphasize Chaucer and the language of English as a medium of storytelling. Differences aside, the various Anglo-Norman and Middle English texts display a shared idealized fantasy about crusading, Christianity, romance, and the exotic Saracen Other. In particular, Sir Ferumbras contains alterations that can be read as an allusive tribute to Ricardian England and the Norman Conquest.

In contrast, The Sowdone of Babylon distances itself from the former king even as it honors Chaucer, the Ricardian court’s most famous personage. This popularity of Fierabras/ Ferumbras continued into the modern era. During the reign of Richard III, William Caxton printed a prose version in English, predating his publication of Malory. Similar to the situation with Sir Ferumbras, Caxton’s work is an English translation of a Charlemagne romance preceding Arthurian translations; furthermore, Caxton’s account dates to the reign of a King Richard. 47 Even today Fierabras lives on. According to Mandach, farmers in Puerto Rico sing about Fierabras, while in Mexico episodes from the story are reenacted. 48 Fierabras, originally an escapist fantasy about Charlemagne and Frankish glories, has proven to be a malleable narrative that can adapt to different cultures and eras. [End Page 31] Barbara Stevenson

Question: What common pub name comes from the symbol associated with king Richard II ?
Answer: THE WHITE HART