Search Detail Colombia and Venezuela Colombia Colombia is the fourth-largest country in South America and the twenty-sixth-largest country in the world. It has the third-largest population in Latin America, behind those of Brazil and Mexico. Before the advent of the Spanish, Colombia was not a defined country with set borders. However, after the Spanish arrived in 1499, they called the new land the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which comprised Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. When Colombia won its freedom from Spain in 1819, the country took the name Gran Colombia. Gran Colombia was much bigger than Colombia is today, because it included Panama, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Gran Colombia collapsed in 1830 after the secession of Venezuela and Ecuador and emerged as the Republic of New Granada, which still included Panama. In 1858, its name changed to the Granadine Confederation, and in 1863, it changed to the United States of Colombia. In 1886, it took its present name, the Republic of Colombia. Only in 1903 did Panama sever its ties to Colombia with the assistance and intervention of the United States.

Music of Colombia: Cumbia & Vallenato Colombia has also a rich musical culture. Cumbia is Colombia's national dance-music. Another very popular folk music in Colombia is vallenato. In 2006, cumbia and vallenato were added as categories in the Latin American Grammy Awards. Cumbia originated in the northern regions of Colombia, especially the Caribbean coast, and it blended Amerindian and African musical elements and dance with Spanish instruments and music. Along the Atlantic coastal region, cumbia, which was originally a courtship dance practiced by slaves, influenced and mixed with other local Colombian music styles such as bullerengue, champeta, mapale, porro, and puya. Contemporary cumbia is generally in 4/4. The European influence shows in the instruments that are used in the music: acoustic six-string guitars, bass guitar, accordion, and an array of percussion instruments, including modern deep-toned drums. Variations of cumbia have influenced folk music from Panama as well as the dance music of Argentina and Peru. Cumbia has become very popular throughout Latin America, and it is particularly well loved in Mexico.

Vallenato (meaning "born in the valley") developed in the city of Valledupa, in the northeastern part of Colombia's Caribbean region. Colombian farmers initiated this folk music form, which served as a way of disseminating news as well as a form of entertainment. They often accompanied their folk melodies with guitars and a wind instrument very similar to a flute, which they called a gaita (not to be confused with the Venezuelan folk music style of the same name). Another important instrument used in vallenato folk music is the caja (meaning "box" in Spanish), a membranophone drum. The caja developed from the African slaves' tambora drum. The traditional caja has a cowskin membrane that is tightened with ropes at the top of an elliptical cylinder made of wood approximately twelve inches in height. The drum is similar to a conga but shorter. The modern version of the caja does not include ropes to hold the membrane in place, but a metal frame that is bolted to the skin and wooden base. A popular instrument used in vallenato folk music during the mid-twentieth century was the guacharaca, an indefinitely pitched percussion instrument that served as the backbone of the music, providing a steady pulse.

The guacharaca consists of two pieces, a cane-like trunk and a tube part. The primary part is a trunk from a small palm tree about as thick as a broomstick and as long as a violin. Parts of its interior are hollowed out, and ridges are carved into the outer surface. The tube part is scraped at its surface with a scraper that looks like a large fork or hair brush and has approximately eight metal wire tongues protruding from its wide wooden handle. The guacharaca was originally used to imitate the sounds of singing birds by the Tairona people. The accordion is also used to accompany vallenato, if a farmer or folk musician can afford one. The accordion is especially popular in Colombia and Brazil, and it is used in other musical forms, such as cumbia music. Most likely, the accordion was introduced by the Spanish, but it may have been introduced by French immigrants from French Guiana, who were known for their accordion music. Venezuela Since the adoption of the new Constitution of 1999, Venezuela's official name has been the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, or in Spanish, Rep�blica Bolivariana de Venezuela.

Venezuela was renamed in honor of Sim�n Bol�var (1783-1830), who was known as The Liberator. He was a tremendously important leader who worked to free Venezuela and other Latin American countries from Spain. In addition to being the first president of Colombia (1819) and Bolivia (1825), and the sixth president of Peru (1824), Bol�var was also the second and third president of Venezuela (1813-1814). Venezuela lies on the northern coast of South America. Because it is situated just north of the equator, much of the country is in the tropics. Venezuela also possesses hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea. Partially to Venezuela's north, but mostly to its west, is Colombia. Venezuela also borders Guyana to the east and Brazil to the south. Venezuela's largest city and capital is Caracas, which is located on the northern coast. Most Venezuelans live in the northern cities, and Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America.

Because of its proximity to the equator, Venezuela is very tropical, with abundant diverse flora and wildlife; as a result, its government has chosen to protect various habitats. Venezuela is ranked among the seventeen most biodiverse countries in the world. The Orinoco River, 1,330 miles in length, is one of the longest waterways in South America. The river unites the central third of Venezuela with eastern Colombia. Despite a decline in river navigation in recent years, the Orinoco is still regarded as the most important river in Venezuela. The Orinoco River and its tributaries still serve as a major transportation system, particularly for the eastern and interior regions of the country. Venezuela's Lake Maracaibo, which lies in the state of Estado Zulia, is the largest and most brackish lake in South America. Its basin contains one of the largest oil and gas reserves in the western hemisphere. The earliest human inhabitants in the northwestern regions of Venezuela lived as long ago as 15,000 years, according to radiocarbon dating of hunting artifacts. During the Spanish colonization of Venezuela in the sixteenth century, the Spanish encountered many native tribes.

At the time, the most prominent indigenous people were the Mariches, descendants of the Carib civilization. Little is known today of this tribe, except for the great and celebrated chiefs named Tamanaco, who led the Mariche and Quiriquire people to revolt against the Spanish in central Venezuela during the 1560s and 1570s. Venezuela became the Spanish Empire's first permanent South American settlement in 1522. It became an independent republic in 1821. Folk Music of Venezuela: Gaita & Llanera The two best-known folk styles in Venezuela are gaita and llanera. The term gaita is used in many different contexts; for example, in Colombia it refers to a musical instrument similar to a flute, but in Venezuela, it is an important folk music genre. The upbeat, festive gaita style is popular in western Venezuela. The themes of a gaita song can vary from love to humor to protest. Its folk-like melodies are often accompanied by a cuatro, maracas, furros, and a tambora.

During the mid-1960s and 1970s, Venezuelan musicians began to combine gaita with other, more sensual popular music forms, such as salsa and merengue. There are many successful gaita musicians and groups. The most popular group is Maracaibo 15, founded by lead singer Betulio Medina in 1974. The name of the group is derived from the area where gaita first originated, while the number fifteen represents the original number of members in the ensemble. Maracaibo 15 has fused gaita not only with other Venezuelan folk styles, but also with Eastern and other international musical styles. Despite the popularity of gaita folk music in Venezuela, the most important folk music-dance form in Venezuela, and to a smaller extent in Colombia, is llanera. Llanera music originated in the llanos (plains) and grasslands that surround the vast basin of the Orinoco River in Venezuela and Colombia.

The music evolved from a distinct mixture of Spanish Jesuit and nomadic native Indian influences that began more than five hundred years ago and is still reflected in Llanero culture, the culture of the Venezuelan and Colombian cowboy, whose behavior and dress resemble those of the American cowboy. Because llanera music has been geographically and culturally somewhat isolated, its instrumental parts, particularly that of the harp, are often technically more difficult than is the case in folk music. Nonetheless, llanera music, which came to include the percussive and rhythmic influences as well as the dance moves of African slaves, continues to flourish. Llanera music is played to accompany the dance called joropo. This upbeat dance has become so popular throughout Venezuela and in parts of Colombia that it has become the national dance of Venezuela. There are three types of joropo dance-music. The three forms use distinctly different ensembles. The first group is the joropo llanero, or joropo, which features three instruments, a harp with nylon strings, maracas, and a small four-string guitar called a cuatro.

The second ensemble is called joropo central, which features a metal-stringed harp, maracas, a cuatro, and a vocalist. The last group, called joropo oriental, expands on the previous two instrumental groups by adding a Spanish guitar, mandolin, and/or accordion. In more modern versions of these ensembles, other string, wind, and percussion instruments, such as the flute, clarinet, and piano, are included. And, since the 1950s, the prolific Venezuelan composer, arranger, pianist, and orchestral conductor Aldemaro Romero (1928-2007) wrote fine orchestrations using a standard Western European symphony for many of his joropo dance-music arrangements. However, Romero's symphonic joropo arrangements always included a cuatro, in honor of the music's origins. Although Romero is also known for his use of other genuine native Venezuelan music styles, it is his timbral developments and contributions that have broadened the joropo style and enabled it to reach international audiences.

Often a traditional joropo llanera features a singer and a harp (or less often the bandola or mandolin) performing the primary melody in unison, while the cuatro and the maracas punctuate the harmonies with sharp rhythmic percussive effects. After the harpist establishes the basic rhythmic and melodic patterns with the singer, he plays more than simply the singer's primary melody. While the singer performs the primary melody, sometimes in a free declamatory style, the harpist improvises on the melody, altering its melodic contour, creating a type of Latin American heterophony . The harpist also adds syncopated rhythms to the melodic phrase, contributing musical interest while driving the rhythm. Joropo llanera is often rhythmically very energetic with a very fast tempo. Haunting melodies, distinctly characteristic syncopated rhythms, polyrhythmic patterns, and hemiola rhythms played in 3/4 meter or, in some pieces, alternating between 3/4 and 6/8 meters, are characteristic of this music-dance form. The difficulty of the music may explain why it is relatively little known outside Latin America.

The Music of Los Llaneros Llanero music is as popular in Venezuela as it is in Colombia, but it is relatively unknown elsewhere. The music has begun to spread relatively slowly throughout the world because of the energetic music group Los Llaneros, one of the few Latin American llanero groups to tour outside South America. A Colombian woman, Karin Stein, founded the group in 1978. She is the lead vocalist and plays cuatro, acoustic guitar, and tiple. The group also includes Colombia's foremost specialists in llanero music: Ren� Devia on harp, cuatro, guitar, and tiple; Ed East on an array of Latin percussion instruments, especially the capachos (Llanero maracas), as well as on acoustic bass and flute; and Pavelid Casta�eda on harp, accordion, and cuatro. All the members of Los Llaneros sing. The instrumental accompaniment, especially with the harp, cuatro, and percussion parts, demonstrates the musicians' virtuosity. Venezuela States Updates: James Nealis indicated a site where I was able to find 2011 census data.

Update 15 to the GEC, the successor to the FIPS standard, is dated 2014-03-31. It changes the status of Delta Amacuro from federal territory to state. Paraskevas Renesis informs me that Venezuela has created a new administrative unit called Francisco de Miranda. Its status is territorio insular (island territory), and it consists of three island groups of Dependencias Federales: the archipiï¿½lagos Los Roques, La Orchila, and Las Aves. This is not all of Dependencias Federales, but contains more than three quarters of their population. It's not clear how this territory fits into the administrative division hierarchy of Venezuela. For now, I will consider Dependencias Federales to remain as a primary and secondary subdivision, since the parts of it that are not included in Francisco de Miranda have no separate administration that I can find out. Update 1 to the U.S. standard "Geopolitical Entities and Codes" is dated 2010-08-20. It changes the name of Distrito Federal to Distrito Capital.

ISO 3166-2 Newsletter number II-1, dated 2010-02-03, changes the country name to Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. ISO 3166-2 Newsletter number I-4, dated 2002-12-10, shows the new state of Vargas. ISO 3166-2 Newsletter number I-5, dated 2003-09-05, changes the status of Amazonas and Delta Amacuro from territories to states, correcting an error that has persisted since the original draft standard of 1996. Change Notice 6 to FIPS PUB 10-4, published on 2001-01-28, also shows Vargas as a new state. FIPS PUB 10-4 is the U.S. Federal standard for administrative divisions of countries. Change 1 to FIPS PUB 10-4 is dated 1998-12-01. One of the changes is to the status of two divisions of Venezuela. Amazonas and Delta Amacuro have been changed from territorios (territories) to estados (states).

Country overview: FIPS: Codes from FIPS PUB 10-4. NUTE: Nomenclature of Statistical Territorial Units. First three digits indicate NUTE region (see table below). OCEI: Codes used by the Oficina Central de Estadï¿½stica e Informï¿½tica (OCEI) to identify states and territories. Within each state, OCEI numbers the municipalities from 1 to n, and so on. By concatenating the codes for state, municipality, parish, and populated place, you can get a unique code for each populated place in Venezuela. Population: 2011-09-01 census (source [13]). Capital: Formal name includes the part in parentheses. The first three digits of a state's NUTE code determine what NUTE region it lies in. However, the Venezuela NUTE code system has one exceptional case. The state of Apure is partly in two regions. Its municipio of Paez lies in region 506. These are the same as the nine administrative regions established by decree in 1980.

NUTE Regiï¿½n de Guayana Postal codes: Venezuela uses four-digit postal codes. Further subdivisions: See the Municipalities of Venezuela page. The states are divided into municipios (municipalities), or, in the case of territories/capital district, into departamentos (departments). The municipios are further subdivided into parroquias (parishes). Territorial extent: Delta Amacuro includes many islands in the deltas of the Orinoco, Amacuro, and other rivers. Dependencias Federales consists of the Caribbean islands, other than those belonging to Nueva Esparta, between 62ï¿½ and 68ï¿½ W. and south of 12ï¿½15' N., as well as Isla de las Aves, which is nearer to Guadeloupe. The largest of these islands are La Tortuga, La Blanquilla, and Los Roques. Nueva Esparta consists of Margarita, Cubagua, and Coche islands. Zulia is divided into three parts by Lake Maracaibo.

Traveling clockwise around the lake shore from its opening to the sea in the north, you pass through Zulia, Trujillo, Zulia, Mï¿½rida, and Zulia. The city of Caracas is divided roughly in half between Distrito Capital and Miranda. It is quite unusual for a city to lie in two different primary administrative divisions of a country. for Venezuela lists locations in the country, some of them with their latitudes and longitudes, some with their ISO 3166-2 codes for their subdivisions. This information can be put together to approximate the territorial extent of subdivisions.

Origins of names: Amazonas: for the Amazon River Anzoï¿½tegui: Basque for "place of the elder [tree]"; for General Josï¿½ Antonio Anzoï¿½tegui (1789-1819) Apure: for the Apure River Aragua: after the Aragua tribe, whose leader was Chief Maracay; or, Cumanagoto for the chaguaramo, a kind of palm tree Barinas: for the Barinas River Bolï¿½var: for Simï¿½n Bolï¿½var (1783-1830), independence fighter Carabobo: named for a village, from an ethnic name Caracas: from an ethnic name Cojedes: "nation of potters", from Carib coa: nation, heir: pottery Delta Amacuro: the Amacuro River is a short river within the Orinoco delta Falcï¿½n: for General Juan Crisï¿½stomo Falcï¿½n (1820-1870), president of Venezuela Guï¿½rico: for the Guï¿½rico River Lara: for General Jac

into Lara (1777-1859), independence fighter Mï¿½rida: after the capital city, which was in turn named after Mï¿½rida in Extremadura, Spain Miranda: for Francisco de Miranda (1750-1816), independence fighter Monagas: for Josï¿½ Tadeo Monagas (1784-1868) and Josï¿½ Gregorio Monagas (1795-1858), brothers and presidents of Venezuela Nueva Esparta: Spanish for "New Sparta", to commemorate the inhabitants' heroism in the war for independence Portuguesa: = Portuguese, for the Portuguesa River, supposedly so named because a Portuguese woman drowned in it during the conquista Sucre: for Antonio Josï¿½ de Sucre (1795-1830), South American independence fighter Tï¿½chira: for the Tï¿½chira River, which was named for tachure, a medicinal plant Trujillo: after the capital city, which was in turn named after Tungala, a former city in Cï¿½ceres, Spain Vargas: for

 Josï¿½ Marï¿½a Vargas (1786-1854), second president of Venezuela Yaracuy: named for a valorous native chief; the name means "to bring water from far away" Zulia: named for Zulia (1538-1561), a native princess who resisted the conquistadores Change history: 1777-09-08: The provinces of Cumanï¿½ (or Nueva Andalucï¿½a), Guayana, Maracaibo, Margarita, and Trinidad were detached from the virreinato (viceroyalty) and capitanï¿½a general (captaincy-general) of New Granada, and attached to the captaincy-general of Venezuela (or Caracas).

The same region had been made an intendencia in 1776. As a result, Venezuela was unified administratively, militarily, and judicially, with six provinces and Caracas as its capital (source [10]). 1797: Trinidad province (now part of Trinidad and Tobago) taken from Venezuela by the British. The Venzuelan flag of 1797 had four stars, representing four provinces; for that purpose, Margarita was deemed an island and not a province. 1810: Trujillo province split from Maracaibo. 1811-07-05: First Congress of Venezuela declared independence, with representatives of seven provinces present: Barcelona, Barinas, Caracas, Cumanï¿½, Margarita, Mï¿½rida, and Trujillo. The provinces of Coro (officially split from Caracas in 1818-07), Guayana, and Maracaibo did not participate. 1817: Guayana province was liberated and became part of Venezuela.

1819-08-15: A new constitution for Venezuela specified a division into the same ten provinces that had existed in 1811. 1819-12-17: Congress of Angostura (now known as Ciudad Bolï¿½var) established the Republic of Colombia (later called Gran Colombia). This entity was initially divided into three departamentos (departments): Cundinamarca (or Santafï¿½), Quito, and Venezuela. By 1821, they had been replaced by nine departments: Boyacï¿½, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Orinoco (or Orinoco y Maturï¿½n), Panama, Quito, Venezuela, and Zulia (or Maracaibo). In 1821 and 1822 the departments of Apure (split from Venezuela department), Azuay, and Guayaquil were added, and Panama was renamed Istmo. Of these departments, Apure, Orinoco, Venezuela, and Zulia fell mostly within present-day Venezuela.

As related to the pre-1819 divisions, Apure department corresponded roughly to Barinas province; Orinoco department to the provinces of Barcelona, Cumanï¿½, Guayana, and Margarita; Venezuela department to Caracas province, and Zulia department to the provinces of Coro, Maracaibo, Mï¿½rida, and Trujillo. 1824-06-24: Under Law of Territorial Political Division, Carabobo province split from Caracas. 1830: Repï¿½blica de Colombia split into three independent countries. Cundinamarca department became Colombia, Quito department became Ecuador, and Venezuela department became Repï¿½blica de Venezuela. Under the new constitution, the departments disappeared, and Venezuela had eleven provinces. 1831: Trujillo province split from Maracaibo. 1832-03-29: Barquisimeto province split from Carabobo. According to source [11], the populations and areas of the thirteen provinces were as follows. Province Population: estimates. Guayana includes 41,040 "independent Indians".

Area: Atlas gives areas in square leagues. Notes: Areas in km.ï¿½ were computed using one league (lg.) = three miles. Guayana area does not include Venezuela's claim to parts of British Guiana and Brazil, amounting to 6,000 lg.ï¿½. The atlas also lists population densities of the provinces. The density equals the population divided by the area, rounded down to the next lower tenth of a unit, except in two cases. The density given for Guayana is 2.2 (should be 2.8), and for Carabobo, 145.7 (should be 142.8). I have no explanation for these discrepancies. The atlas also shows the cantons constituting each province. Capitals of cantons have the same name as the cantons. 1848-02-11: Aragua province split from Caracas with La Victoria as its capital.

1856-04-28: Law of Territorial Division divided Venezuela into 21 provinces: Amazonas, Apure, Aragua, Barcelona, Barinas, Barquisimeto, Carabobo, Caracas, Cojedes, Coro, Cumanï¿½, Guï¿½rico, Guayana, Maracaibo, Margarita, Maturin, Mï¿½rida, Portuguesa, Tï¿½chira, Trujillo, and Yaracuy. ~1860: Amazonas province merged with Guayana. 1862: Apure and Barinas provinces merged to form Zamora (reversed in 1864). 1864-03-28: Constitution signed. Estados Unidos de Venezuela designated as the official name of the country. The twenty provinces became "sovereign states" (estados soberanos). ~1864-10: Name of Caracas state changed to Bolï¿½var. ~1864-11: Name of Maracaibo state changed to Zulia.

~1864: Name of Margarita state changed to Nueva Esparta. 1865-06-02: Capital of Bolï¿½var state moved from Petare to Caracas. 1866: Name of Barinas state changed to Zamora. 1871-08-22: Territorio Colï¿½n, equivalent to present Dependencias Federales, created by presidential decree, 1873: Name of Aragua state changed to Guzmï¿½n Blanco. 1874: Name of Coro state changed to Falcï¿½n. 1874: Name of Mï¿½rida state changed to Guzmï¿½n. 1881-04-27: New constitution changed all of the old states to secciones (sections), and created nine new states, whose composition was as shown in this table. State Now: present-day divisions occupying approximately the same territory Notes: (1) Longman lists Falcon and Zulia as a single entry. The atlases both spread the name "Falcon" across the territory of both states.

The Century Atlas index, on the other hand, says that Falcon and Zulia are both states, and gives a population for each one separately. (2) An alternate name for Ciudad Bolivar was Angostura, Spanish for "narrows". (3) Goajira represents Venezuela's claim to the Guajira Peninsula, now part of Colombia. (4) Graphically, the Century Atlas makes Armisticio, Caura, and Yuruari territories appear to be part of Bolivar state. (5) Longman's Gazetteer says that Yuruari territory was reincorporated with Bolivar state in 1891, but the Century Atlas still displays it and lists it in the index. (6) Population data are from the Century Atlas index. For Armisticio territory, the listing says the population is "included in new divisions"; for Caura territory, "included with the state of Bolivar". (7) When the sum of the individual division populations is compared to the population for Venezuela as a whole, there are 16,910 souls unaccounted for. (8) Most of the area data in the Columbian Atlas and Longman's Gazetteer match.

Where they differ, I tried to choose the more plausible figure. The total is much larger than Venezuela's present-day area, but this may be accounted for by border disputes. (9) Both the Columbian and Longman's lump the territories together into a single area figure, which I have arbitrarily listed under Amazonas territory. 1899-04-22: National Congress decreed a return to the twenty states of 1864. This change was embodied in the new constitution, which was adopted on 1901-04-13. The 1901 constitution defined the states to be the same as under the 1864 constitution, with the following names changed: Barinas to Zamora, Barquisimeto to Lara, Caracas to Miranda, Coro to Falcï¿½n, Cumanï¿½ to Sucre, Guayana to Bolï¿½var, Maracaibo to Zulia, and Margarita to Nueva Esparta. At the same time, Distrito Federal and the territories of Amazonas, Colï¿½n, Delta Amacuro, and Yuruary were created.

1904-04-27: New constitution adopted, dividing Venezuela into thirteen states (Aragua, Bermï¿½dez, Bolï¿½var, Carabobo, Falcï¿½n, Guï¿½rico, Lara, Mï¿½rida, Miranda, Tï¿½chira, Trujillo, Zamora, and Zulia), five territories (Amazonas, Colï¿½n, Cristï¿½bal Colï¿½n, Delta-Amacuro, and Yuruari), and Distrito Federal. The constitution defined each state, and the federal district, by enumerating the distritos that composed it. The federal district included Margarita. 1909-08-05: New constitution adopted. Under it, Venezuela was divided into twenty states, two territories, a federal district, and the federal dependencies.

The states were defined by reference to the twenty states under the constitution of 1864, with these changes: Independencia parish was transferred from Maracaibo state to Mï¿½rida state, while the remainder of Maracaibo state became Zulia state; Vargas district was transferred from Caracas state to the Distrito Federal, while the remainder of Caracas state became Miranda state; Amazonas and Delta Amacuro territories were split from Guayana state, while the remainder of Guayana state became Bolï¿½var state; and the names of Barcelona, Barinas, Barquisimeto, Coro, Cumanï¿½, Margarita, and Maturï¿½n states were changed to Anzoï¿½tegui, Zamora, Lara, Falcï¿½n, Sucre, Nueva Esparta, and Monagas, respectively. 1917: Border adjustment between Aragua and Carabobo states. 1917-03-12: Capital of Aragua moved from La Victoria to Maracay. These were the divisions at the time of the 1926 census.

State State: Amazonas and Delta Amacuro were territories; Distrito Federal was a federal district Population: 1926-01-31 census 1927-02-13: Capital of Miranda moved from Ocumare del Tuy to Los Teques. (Apparently took effect in 1928.) 1928-05-22: New constitution signed. Dependencias Federales created. 1933-12-13: Land around Turiamo transferred from Carabobo to Aragua; several municipios exchanged between Aragua and Guï¿½rico, amounting to a net gain of 1,414 sq. km. for Aragua. 1934: Capital of Guï¿½rico moved from Calabozo to San Juan de los Morros. 1937: Name of Zamora changed to Barinas. ~1947: Capital of Portuguesa moved from Acarigua to Guanare. 1948: Under the new constitution, Cubagua island transferred from Dependencias Federales to Nueva Esparta state.

1991-03-08: Status of Delta Amacuro changed from territory to state. 1992-07-23: Status of Amazonas changed from territory to state. 1998-04-22: Vargas territory split from Distrito Federal, consisting of Vargas municipality. The constitutionality of this action was contested; the Supreme Court affirmed it on 1998-05-28. 1998-12-31: Status of Vargas changed from territory to state. 1999-12-30: New Constitution took effect. Name of Distrito Federal changed to Distrito Capital. Other names of subdivisions: 1990 data adjusted to reflect the split of Vargas from Distrito Capital. Source [8] has data from earlier censuses. The data agree with the table above, except for 1926 (taken from source [2]), where there are some discrepancies. Sources: [1] Atlas del Estado Nueva Esparta. Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Renovables (MARNR), Porlamar, 1994.

[2] Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana. Espasa-Calpe, S.A., Madrid, 1958. [3] Chisholm, George G., ed., Longman's Gazetteer of the World. Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1920 (apparently not revised since the 1895 first edition). [4] Anuario Estadï¿½stico de Venezuela 1991. Oficina Central de Estadï¿½stica e Informï¿½tica, Caracas, 1992. [5] Venezuela: Divisiï¿½n Politico-Territorial 1978. Oficina Central de Estadï¿½stica e Informï¿½tica, Caracas, 1978. The Guyana/Venezuela Boundary | Peter Halder The Guyana/Venezuela Boundary The Guyana/Venezuela Boundary by Peter Halder In 1830 Venezuela became independent from Spain.

A year later, in 1831, Great Britain united the three colonies of Essequibo, Berbice and Demerara into a single colony – British Guiana. The Dutch founded the colonies of Essequibo and Berbice in the early 17th century and added Demerara later. The colonies changed hands among the Dutch, French and English during European wars. In 1814 they were ceded to Britain. The independence of Venezuela and the creation of British Guiana led to the need for both countries to define the border between them. Britain took the initiative to determine and define its western boundary with Venezuela. In 1840, Britain engaged the services of the famous international explorer Robert Schomburgk to traverse the entire county of Essequibo, beginning from the left bank of the Essequibo River, to determine where the boundary should be drawn. Schomburgk came up with a boundary line that excluded all traces of Spanish occupation, influence or culture. Guyanese who know Essequibo would recognize that the names of villages and areas are in the vast majority Dutch, some English and a few French, none Spanish. Essequibo is a Dutch name.

The Dutch settled Essequibo in 1615 and made it a colony. Its capital was Kyk-over-all where a Fort was built and still exists. The governance of Essequibo was through a Dutch Court of Policy, the remains of which still exist. Venezuela objected to the Schomburgk boundary and claimed the entire Essequibo and its eastern boundary as the left bank of the Essequibo River, some 53,000 square miles or more than half of Guyana. The different positions of the two led to an international boundary dispute. The large, rich and military powerful United States of America gave its full support to Venezuela and its claim out of concern for British colonization in its sphere of influence and saw the boundary as an act by European Britain to expand its presence in Latin America. The support also gave effect to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. US President James Monroe, in his 2 December 1823 address to Congress, articulated a new political order in the Americas and the role of Europe in the Western Hemisphere.

“The American continents are hereafter not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power.” Venezuela relied entirely on the United States to prosecute its claim to Essequibo and therefore a new boundary. The border dispute between the United States and Venezuela on the one side and Britain on the other raged for several decades. The US and Venezuela eventually demanded that Britain submit the dispute to international arbitration. Britain at first refused but conceded after President Grover Cleveland threatened war. Britain and Venezuela signed the Treaty of Washington under which the dispute would be submitted to international arbitration. Venezuela and the US and Britain agreed in the Treaty on a five member Arbitral Tribunal, comprising two members selected by Britain and two by Venezuela. The two members selected by Venezuela were of impeccable character and legal luminaries. They were the Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court and a another Supreme Court Justice. Venezuela’s distinguished and sizeable legal team was led by Benjamin Harrison, a former President (23rd) of the United States. and included Mr Severo Mallet-Prevost, a Junior Counsel. Britain’s two members were also men of legal distinction as was its legal team. The fifth and final member and President of the 5-member Tribunal was selected by the four.

He was a Russian Jurist of high distinction, Frederic de Martens. It is significant to point out that in the Treaty of Washington signed by Venezuela and Great Britain, both parties agreed to accept the Tribunal’s award as a ”… FULL, PERFECT AND FINAL SETTLEMENT…” of the border between the two countries. Venezuela was to later renege on its agreement. The Tribunal began its hearings in June of 1899 in Paris, France, and handed down its Award in October of 1899. The Award was unanimous…it received the imprimatur of all five members. Under the Award, some 5,000 square miles of the territory of the then British Guiana were awarded to Venezuela. It included the natural resource rich Orinoco Basin. It is apropos to mention that Venezuela’s size is 352,143 square miles as compared to Guyana’s mere 83,000 square miles. The Venezuelan and US Governments made statements immediately after accepting the Award. Venezuelan was exceedingly pleased with being awarded the Orinoco Basin.

The British Government despite the loss of territory and pursuant to its undertaking to accept the Award as full, perfect and final, accepted the Award. A Demarcating Team comprising representatives of Venezuela and Britain set about marking the boundary based on the Arbitral Award. The boundary was defined and a map by both sides prepared. The map defining its eastern boundary was accepted by Venezuela and by Britain and duly published and circulated. The same map is still the official map except that in recent times, right-wing groups in Venezuela have added Essequibo to it as a zone of reclamation. The death of Severo Mallet-Prevost, the previously mentioned Junior Counsel, resurrected the boundary question in the mid 1940s, some 45 years after the 1899 Award and when nearly all or all of the principals of the Tribunal had passed away. Surely the principle of limitation should apply. In the courts of all democratic countries, appeals are required to be filed in a timely manner. Mallet-Prevost had left a letter/memorandum, only to be opened until after his death, in which he rejected the Award. He had prior to his death received Venezuela’s highest National Honour.

His memorandum opened a Pandora’s Box and revived Venezuela’s claim to Essequibo. An eminent writer, Professor Clifton Childs, examined the claims of Mallet-Prevost and rebutted all with facts. Childs’ article was published in the 1950 American Journal of International Law. Venezuela raised the border matter at the United Nations in 1965 prior to Guyana becoming independent on 26 May 1966. The date was significant. At that time, there were growing fears in the United States, Britain and Venezuela about the foundation and growth of communism in British Guiana. The major Party, the PPP was a Marxist Party and its Leader was an avowed Marxist/Leninist. There was also concern over the relationship between the PPP and the USSR Communist Party. It was also a time when world power was bipolar… the US and the USSR were the two poles of power. The situation created a Cold War. Observers posited that Venezuela’s resurrection of its border with Guyana was a Sword of Damocles in case Guyana’s relations with the USSR threatened US and British interests in the region.

In order to permit accession to independence, Guyana signed a Geneva Agreement in February of 1966 under which Venezuela and Guyana would examine and discuss Venezuela’s claim that the 1899 Award was “null and void” because it was based on compromise and not international law and that the Tribunal acted ultra vires by making decisions on river navigation and Customs Duties, inter alia. Venezuela’s claims were a mirror of the Mallet-Prevost posthumous letter. During nearly twelve years of meetings of the Commission, Venezuela failed to offer or provide any evidence in support of its contention that the Arbitral Award was null and void. Instead, according to reports, it promoted the joint development of the Essequibo region. The ink had barely dried on the Agreement when the Venezuelan Military in October 1966, invaded Guyana’s eastern half of Ankoko Island in the Wenamu River, the boundary between the two countries, occupied it and continues to occupy it until today. It has also recently committed other acts of aggression. The Geneva Agreement was replaced by the Protocol of Port-of-Spain in 1980 but Venezuela unilaterally withdrew from the Protocol.

The Guyana/Venezuela border question then passed into the hands of the UN Secretary-General, via his Special Envoy/Good Officer, to seek a solution under Chapter Six of the UN Charter: Pacific Settlement of Disputes. Conclusion The Guyana/Venezuela boundary dispute was resolved by Treaty Law, to wit, International Arbitration in 1899 and the “full, perfect and final” Paris Award. The legal tenets of estoppel, res judicata and time limitation also apply. There therefore exists no border dispute per se, only Venezuela’s specious and spurious claim that the Arbitral Award is null and void. That assertion is a legal res and the UN Special Enjoy should therefore enjoin both parties, pursuant to the legal settlement mechanism in Chapter Six, Article 1, of the UN Charter, to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice for adjudication, in the same way that, as exists in and is the custom and practice of States, appeals against the decisions of a Court are submitted to a higher Court.

If Venezuela refuses, then Guyana should demand that the matter be submitted to the UN Security Council since a number of acts of aggression by the Venezuelan Military, including the seizure and continued occupation of Guyana’s eastern half of Ankoko Island, constitute threats to peace and security and particularly since the Venezuelan Military is sympathetic to and supportive of the Zone of Reclamation (Essequibo) Group. Venezuela also opposed Guyana’s application to expand its Continental Shelf. A bilateral Treaty/Agreement on Maritime Boundaries is necessary but Venezuela may be running true to form by using it as a Trojan Horse to re-invigorate its claim to Essequibo, a popular pastime there. Venezuela is aware that if indeed the Boundaries are defined and demarcated based on the current status quo of Guyana’s territory, and they are accepted by Treaty and practice, they will establish by Treaty law and Customary International Law that Essequibo is the sovereign territory of the Republic of Guyana. And it will have to return the eastern half of Ankoko Island in the Wenamu River (boundary) to Guyana. End

Question: Which Venezuelan river has the same name as a Womble?
Answer: Orinoco