Learn About the History of Polyester By Mary Bellis Updated August 13, 2016. Polyester is a synthetic fiber derived from coal, air, water and petroleum. Developed in a 20th-century laboratory, polyester fibers are formed from a chemical reaction between an acid and alcohol. In this reaction, two or more molecules combine to make a large molecule whose structure repeats throughout its length. Polyester fibers can form very iong molecules that are very stable and strong. Whinfield and Dickson British chemists John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson, employees of the Calico Printer's Association of Manchester, patented "polyethylene terephthalate" (also called PET or PETE) in 1941, after advancing the early research of Wallace Carothers . Whinfield and Dickson saw that Carothers's research had not investigated the polyester formed from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Polyethylene terephthalate is the basis of synthetic fibers such as polyester, dacron and terylene. Whinfield and Dickson along with inventors W.K. Birtwhistle and C.G.

Ritchiethey also created the first polyester fiber called Terylene in 1941 (first manufactured by Imperial Chemical Industries or ICI). The second polyester fiber was Dupont's Dacron. Dupont According to Dupont , "In the late 1920s, DuPont was in direct competition with Britain’s recently formed Imperial Chemical Industries. DuPont and ICI agreed in October 1929 to share information about patents and research developments. In 1952, the companies’ alliance was dissolved... The polymer that became polyester has roots in the 1929 writings of Wallace Carothers. However, DuPont chose to concentrate on the more promising nylon research. When DuPont resumed its polyester research, ICI had patented Terylene polyester, to which DuPont purchased the U.S. rights in 1945 for further development.

In 1950, a pilot plant at the Seaford, Delaware, facility produced Dacron [polyester] fiber with modified nylon technology." Dupont's polyester research lead to a whole range of trademarked products, one example is Mylar (1952), an extraordinarily strong polyester (PET) film that grew out of the development of Dacron in the early 1950s. Polyesters are made from chemical substances found mainly in petroluem and are manufactured in fibers, films, and plastics. DuPont Teijin Films According to Dupont Teijin Films, "Plain polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polyester is most commonly associated with a material from which cloth and high-performance clothing are produced (e.g., DuPont Dacron® polyester fiber). Increasingly over the last 10 years, PET has gained acceptance as a material of choice for beverage bottles... PETG, also known as glycolised polyester, is used in the production of cards. Polyester film (PETF) is a semi-crystalline film used in many applications such as videotape, high-quality packaging, professional photographic printing, X-ray film, floppy disks, etc.

" DuPont Teijin Films (founded January 1, 2000) is a leading supplier of PET and PEN polyester films whose brand names incude: Mylar ®, Melinex ®, and Teijin ® Tetoron ® PET polyester film, Teonex ® PEN polyester film, and Cronar ® polyester photographic base film. Naming an invention actually involves developing at least two names. One name is the generic name. The other name is the brand name or trademark. For example, Mylar ® and Teijin ® are brand names; polyester film or polyethylene terephthalate are the generic or product names. What happened to Dacron in 1954? | Reference.com What happened to Dacron in 1954? A: Quick Answer The use of Dacron as a fabric gained wide acceptance in 1954, after more than a decade of development. However, Dacron was used before 1954. Full Answer DuPont purchased the rights to Dr. Wallace Hume Carothers's organic chemical research in 1945 after he developed synthetic nylon from polyester.

Chemical engineers at DuPont dedicated an entire laboratory to perfect Dacron, which is known for its durability, resistance to degradation and high tensile strength. They patented the fabric in 1953. Suits made of the synthetic fabric began to debut in May of 1951, with items sold by Deering, Milliken & Co., and a $79.50 model from Hart, Schaffner & Marx. Adjusting for inflation, the suit would sell for more than $650 today. Dacron became commercially available for medical use in 1957. The synthetic fiber was used to graft arteries and veins during bypass surgery. Dacron was widely used in vascular surgery from the late 1950s through the 1970s. Dacron is a polymer obtained through chemical reactions between ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. The synthetic fabric is used in curtains, fire hoses, dresses, men's suits, sails, knitted wear, woven sportswear and many other applications.

The reason Dacron and 1954 gained notoriety in the 1990s was due to the lyrics of "We Didn't Start the Fire," a song by Billy Joel. How to Sailcloth 101: Out of Whole Cloth When upgrading your sail inventory, understanding the basics of sailcloth, laminates and construction keeps the wool from being pulled over your eyes By Joe Cooper posted Jul 17th, 2013 at 12:23pm Arcona Yachts Arcona 400 The Arcona 400 trucks to weather under state-of-the-art load-path sails from UK Sailmakers. The durable crosscut laminate sails use a scrim of Spectra fibers with carbon tapes and panels that are glued together. One of the largest expenditures a cruising sailor will ever face is upgrading the yacht’s power plant. Not the one under the companionway—the ones set off the mast. As a former sail consultant for Hood Sails, I know that when it comes to new sails, cost is a primary concern for many sailors. The cheapest sails, however, aren’t always the best value.

Sailmakers and sailcloth manufacturers understand the importance of knowing how the customer’s boat and sails will be used. In addition to price, other criteria sailors should consider are durability , over time or miles; ease of handling when flaking; in some instances, the sail’s weight (can the owner, if necessary, move it around on deck?); and, in the case of an overlapping headsail, its chafe resistance. And, of course, a new suit of sails should be able to withstand the occasional “Uh-oh” moment and have the ability to be regularly reefed and still retain proper shape, which is imperative. If you’re in the market for a new sail, you need to understand the various options available, both in sailcloth material and in sail design, so you can pose the right questions to your sailmaker and understand their recommendations before purchasing. Since the 1950s, the default material for cruising sails has been Dacron. But as boats got larger and more performance oriented—and their sails became highly loaded— sailmakers and cloth manufacturers developed and used fabrics that could better retain their shape.

Today, sailors have essentially two material options, Dacron or laminates, the latter of which are built using a variety of specialized fibers. In the United States and abroad, four major suppliers of sailcloth—Dimension Polyant, Bainbridge International, Challenge Sailcloth, and Contender Sailcloth—provide sailmakers with Dacron and laminate cloths and related materials to build strong, state-of-the-art headsails and mainsails. Reliable, Affordable Dacron Dacron sails are made from polyester fiber, which exhibits two primary sets of engineering properties: either high or low tenacity. The strengths of these fibers include their initial recovery from stretch; the break load for their size; resistance to chafe, exposure to ultraviolet light, and flex; reasonable cost; and minimal shrinkage when heated. High-tenacity fiber is superior for sails in every category, but it costs more, which is why there’s a wide discrepancy in price between low-tenacity Dacron and its high-quality counterpart. Obviously, high-tenacity Dacron makes better cruising sails.

The cost difference between a “value” cloth and a “premium” one, both from the same supplier, can be significant, close to 100 percent for some 8-ounce Dacron fabric that I’ve seen ($7 per yard versus nearly $15 per yard). Today, however, most sailcloth manufactured for the U.S. market is high-tenacity. Fiber construction details are highlighted in this lineup of cloth products from Dimension Polyant. Dacron that’s suitable for use in a crosscut sail is by far the most widely produced. Crosscut construction is easily the simplest way for a sailmaker to build any sail. It essentially involves stitching together horizontal panels of cloth that are stacked from the foot to the head. Cloth for this style of construction is commonly called fill-oriented. The “fill” is the fiber that runs across the roll of cloth and, in the case of crosscut sails, is the thicker and less crimped direction.

(Crimp refers to the S-curves caused by the weaving process.) When producing this cloth, the fill is pre-tensioned in the weaving process, and each strand of yarn is kept relatively short, since the width of a roll of cloth measures, at most, 6 feet. On the other hand, the warp—the thread that’s woven through the fill—might measure a couple of hundred feet in length. Crosscut construction wastes very little cloth and is the fastest way to fabricate a sail; the seams between panels also offer many opportunities to design shape in the sail. The vast majority of modern boats use Dacron sails. Recently, Challenge Sailcloth developed a Dacron product for use in radial-panel layout. North Sails also has its own version of Dacron, called Radian. In both materials, the warp, or long yarns, are or should be thicker than the fill. Radial polyester fabric provides sailmakers with the opportunity to design and build triradial sails in woven material. Why is this important? The simple answer is that Dacron is the most durable fabric in absolute terms and that the radial-construction option can accommodate the higher loads placed upon larger or more performance-oriented sails.

Sailmakers orient the sail’s panels to derive the shape of the sail and retain it over time. The radial corners are intended to minimize the so-called bias load—the 45-degree axis diagonally across the roll. The point to remember is that if you’re in the market for a sail, remember that the sailcloth in a triradial sail and the sailcloth in a crosscut sail are woven differently and aren’t interchangeable. Discuss the pros and cons of each with your sailmaker before placing an order. Understanding Laminates Laminated sails were first introduced in the early 1970s. The Australian 12-Meter Southern Cross tried using Kevlar fibers laminated to film and built as a crosscut sail before the 1974 America’s Cup. These early attempts at laminated sails proved to be unreliable—they were prone to break without notice—and were never used in competition. However, sailmakers realized the potential, and since then, building sails using several versions of laminated fabric has become the default fabrication method for racing and high-performance sails. The goal is a stretch-resistant, shape-holding, lighter sail that’s still affordable.

With laminate sails, there are many more components to the cloth, and sailmakers market their products under different names, which can be confusing. But reduced to the basics, the elements of laminated sailcloth are not unlike the components in the layup of a fiberglass boat; these include fibers, an adhesive, and a core. Different sailmaking styles and cloths are evident in this trio of racing and cruising boats under way. Doyle’s Stratis pre-impregnated fiber technology is employed in the load-path sails on a Hanse 630 (left). An Oyster 485 (middle) makes tracks upwind under sails from North Sails that are built with the company’s new Radian warp-oriented Dacron sailcloth. Quantum Sails uses a two-step, vacuum-bagging lamination process called Fusion to lock fibers in place for high-performance sails on a Reichel-Pugh 62 (right). Currently, there are eight different fibers used in sailmaking: carbon fiber, Spectra/Dyneema, Twaron, Technora, Kevlar, Vectran, polyester, and Pentax (which is basically “Dacron on steroids”).

Only three of these—Dacron, Vectran, and Spectra—can be readily woven into a viable sail fabric. The remaining fibers are incorporated into a fabric in two basic ways; more on this in a moment. Mylar film, the sheet form of polyester, is at the core of laminate sails. The film acts as a base to which everything else is glued to form the finished product. In addition, there is a specialized fabric called taffeta that’s used to provide chafe protection to the Mylar, as Mylar alone isn’t particularly durable and doesn’t respond well to chafe or sunlight. Taffeta, a woven polyester fabric consisting of small-diameter fibers, is glued onto the Mylar film—sometimes on one side, sometimes on both, depending on the sail’s intended use. Finally, there’s a layer called the scrim. This is a combination of fibers—made entirely of Spectra, a Spectra/carbon blend, or consisting of other materials—driven by the sail’s intended use. The fibers in a scrim are assembled in combinations of angles in relation to each other and with different degrees of separations between the fibers. The scrim is designed to support the various secondary loads at work on a sail.

Historically, laminated sails of any construction method were usually replaced when the fibers delaminated from the film or the film itself broke down. Better glues and application methods, and the introduction of taffeta, largely addressed these two problems. Today, it’s virtually unheard of for a sail to fail because the fiber collapsed. Two fundamental ways exist to make the laminate fabric. In one, the entire fabric is manufactured by a cloth company and arrives at the loft as a roll, known as roll goods. In building sails with roll goods, the laminated cloth is cut into panels that are then sewn together in one of three patterns: triradial, biradial, or crosscut. From the consumer’s perspective, panel configuration, for the most part, is a low priority, although there may be a small price difference among them. Your sailmaker can provide more information. Load-Path Sails Prior to the late 1980s and the introduction of North’s 3DL sails—so-called molded sails—sailmakers and cloth manufacturers were working on their own versions of what has become known as load-path or string sails, which is the other way of making a laminate fabric.

Essentially, continuous fibers are glued down on a Mylar film in computer-generated paths engineered to handle the loads placed on the sail. Load-path construction eliminates the break in the fibers present in a sail fabricated from roll goods, where at each seam the fibers terminate and start again in the next panel. CAD stands for computer-aided design, and CAM stands for computer-aided manufacturing; the shape of a load path sail is designed using the CAD elements of a CAD/CAM system. There are two stages to the sail-design process: aerodynamic shaping and engineering. After the sail is both designed and engineered, the basic sail skin, or Mylar, is crosscut; then each panel is glued to its mate using high-strength glue. With the film spread flat on a floor, the fibers are overlaid onto the Mylar sheet. Different sailmakers use proprietary techniques to unite the glue, the fiber, and the film as a working sail. The one exception to this flat-floor method is North’s 3DL product, in its various versions. At North, the Mylar film is still cut and glued together, but it’s then laid onto the mold, a huge articulating machine that’s programmed to assume the same shape as the finished sail.

The fibers and the rest of the components are laid onto the film on the mold using computer-controlled tooling. The whole sail is then pressurized and heated in much the same way as a hull or spar is produced in an autoclave. These load-path sails thus combine making the sail with making the fabric, as both occur at the same time. Once the complete skin or membrane is cooked, it’s removed from the mold, and then the rest of the sail’s components—batten pockets, luff tape, numbers and lettering, headboard, and so on—are incorporated into a finished product.

Placing an Order Sailmaker Resources • Doyle Sailmakers: (978)-740-5950, • Hood Sailmakers: (401) 849-9400, • Neil Pryde: (203) 375-2626, • North Sails: (203) 877-7621, • Quantum Sail-Design Group: (888) 773-4889, • UK Sailmakers: (718) 885-2028, • Ullman Sails International: (949) 645-3114, Sailors have many things to consider when contemplating the purchase of new sails, especially laminated ones, but there are a few things to remember. Generally speaking, in terms of durability, most sailmakers assume that three to five years is a reasonable life span for laminated sails, though many have clients who’ve gotten many more years of service. Incredibly, the threshold for many high-performance racing laminates is measured in hours. For the most part, load-path sails feel smoother.

In the assembly of the many panels of the sail made from roll goods—a practice in which the pieces are glued together by hand, which is an acquired, imperfect skill—the finished product can feel bumpy, and the seams often don’t lie flat when the sail is flying. These issues are minimized with load-path sails. Pricewise, load-path sails are generally more expensive but retain their original shape longer. Their performance is better right out of the bag. And load-path sails are considerably lighter than laminate sails built with other methods. We’ve introduced many terms and technologies here, but when you go to order sails, the list of items you need to communicate to your sailmaker are straightforward. Be clear about how you actually use your boat—how much, if ever, you race or head offshore; how often you sail in heavy weather; how long you intend on keeping the boat; the true-wind conditions of your most frequent cruising grounds. And of course, be crystal clear about your budget. Sailmakers are, at heart, sailors themselves, and they love shooting the breeze about boats and sailing. Find one you trust.

The ever-evolving technology in sailcloth and construction is fascinating, but at the end of the day, as with most transactions, buying sails is about forging relationships. Joe Cooper ( ) is a former sailmaker who’s sailed and raced boats ranging from dinghies to America’s Cup contenders. Currently a sailing coach and consultant, he lives in Middletown, Rhode Island. Tags: High-performance Materials Timeline - Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century High-performance Materials Timeline Over the millennia human beings have tinkered with substances to devise new and useful materials not ordinarily found in nature. But little prepared the world for the explosion in materials research that marked the 20th century. From automobiles to aircraft, sporting goods to skyscrapers, clothing (both everyday and super-protective) to computers and a host of electronic devices—all bear witness to the ingenuity of materials engineers. Bakelite created Leo Baekeland, a Belgian immigrant to the United States, creates Bakelite, the first thermosetting plastic. An electrical insulator that is resistant to heat, water, and solvents, Bakelite is clear but can be dyed and machined.

1909 Precipitation hardening discovered Alfred Wilm, then leading the Metallurgical Department at the German Center for Scientific Research near Berlin, discovers "precipitation hardening," a phenomenon that is the basis for the creation of strong, lightweight aluminum alloys essential to aeronautics and other technologies in need of such materials. Many other materials are also strengthened by precipitation hardening. 1913 Stainless steel is rediscovered Although created earlier in the century by a Frenchman and a German, stainless steel is rediscovered by Harry Brearley in Sheffield, England, and he is credited with popularizing it. Made of iron with about 13 percent chromium and a small portion of carbon, stainless steel does not rust. 1915 Pyrex Corning research physicist Jesse Littleton cuts the bottom from a glass battery jar produced by Corning, takes it home, and asks his wife to bake a cake in it. The glass withstands the heat during the baking process, leading to the development of borosilicate glasses for kitchenware and later to a wide range of glass products marketed as Pyrex.

1925 18/8 austenitic grade steel adopted by chemical industry A stainless steel containing 18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel, and 0.2 percent carbon comes into use. Known as 18/8 austenitic grade, it is adopted by the chemical industry starting in 1929. By the late 1930s the material’s usefulness at high temperatures is recognized and it is used in the production of jet engines during World War II. 1930 Synthetic rubber developed Wallace Carothers and a team at DuPont, building on work begun in Germany early in the century, make synthetic rubber. Called neoprene, the substance is more resistant than natural rubber to oil, gasoline, and ozone, and it becomes important as an adhesive and a sealant in industrial uses. 1930s Glass fibers become commercially viable Engineers at the Owens Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works develop several means to make glass fibers commercially viable. Composed of ingredients that constitute regular glass, the glass fibers produced in the 1930s are made into strands, twirled on a bobbin, and then spun into yarn.

Combined with plastics, the material is called fiberglass and is used in automobiles, boat bodies, and fishing rods, and is also made into material suitable for home insulation. 1933 Polyethylene discovered Polyethylene, a useful insulator, is discovered by accident by J. C. Swallow, M.W. Perrin, and Reginald Gibson in Britain. First used for coating telegraph cables, polyethylene is then developed into packaging and liners. Processes developed later render it into linear low-density polyethylene and low-density polyethylene. 1934 Nylon Experimenting over 4 years to craft an engineered substitute for silk, Wallace Carothers and his assistant Julian Hill at DuPont ultimately discover a successful process with polyamides. They also learn that their polymer increases in strength and silkiness as it is stretched, thus also discovering the benefits of cold drawing. The new material, called nylon, is put to use in fabrics, ropes, and sutures and eventually also in toothbrushes, sails, carpeting, and more. 1936 Clear, strong plastic The Rohm and Haas Company of Philadelphia presses polymethyl acrylate between two pieces of glass, thereby making a clear plastic sheet of the material.

It is the forerunner of what in the United States is called Plexiglass (polyvinyl methacrylate). Far tougher than glass, it is used as a substitute for glass in automobiles, airplanes, signs, and homes. 1938 DuPont discovers Teflon Annoyed one day that a tank presumably full of tetrafluoroethylene gas is empty, DuPont scientist Roy Plunkett investigates and discovers that the gas had polymerized on the sides of the tank vessel. Waxy and slippery, the coating is also highly resistant to acids, bases, heat, and solvents. At first Teflon is used only in the war effort, but it later becomes a key ingredient in the manufacture of cookware, rocket nose cones, heart pacemakers, space suits, and artificial limbs and joints. 1940s Nickel-based superalloys Metallurgists develop nickel-based superalloys that are extremely resistant to high temperatures, pressure, centrifugal force, fatigue, and oxidation. The class of nickel-based superalloys with chromium, titanium, and aluminum makes the jet engine possible, and is eventually used in spacecraft as well as in ground-based power generators.

1940s Ceramic magnets Scientists in the Netherlands develop ceramic magnets, known as ferrites, that are complex multiple oxides of iron, nickel, and other metals. Such magnets quickly become vital in all high-frequency communications, including the sound recording industry. Nickel-zinc-based ceramic magnets eventually become important as computer memory cores and in televisions and telecommunications equipment. 1945 Barium titanate developed Scientists in Ohio, Russia, and Japan all develop barium titanate, a ceramic that develops an electrical charge when mechanically stressed (and vice versa). Such ceramics advance the technologies of sound recordings, sonar, and ultrasonics. 1946 Tupperware As a chemist at DuPont in the 1930s, Earl Tupper develops a sturdy but pliable synthetic polymer he calls Poly T. By 1947 Tupper forms his own corporation and makes nesting Tupperware bowls along with companion airtight lids. Virtually breakproof, Tupperware begins replacing ceramics in kitchens nationwide.

1950s Silicones Silicones, a family of chemically related substances whose molecules are made up of silicon-oxygen cores with carbon groups attached, become important as waterproofing sealants, lubricants, and surgical implants. 1952 Glass into fine-grained ceramics Corning research chemist S. Donald Stookey discovers a heat treatment process for transforming glass objects into fine-grained ceramics. Further development of this new Pyroceram composition leads to the introduction of CorningWare in 1957. 1953 Dacron DuPont opens a U.S. manufacturing plant to produce Dacron, a synthetic material first developed in Britain in 1941 as polyethylene terephthalate. Because it has a higher melting temperature than other synthetic fibers, Dacron revolutionizes the textiles industry. 1953 High-density polyethylene Karl Zeigler develops a method for creating a high-density polyethylene molecule that can be manufactured at low temperatures and pressures but has a very high melting point. It is made into dishes, squeezable bottles, and soft plastic materials.

1954 Synthetic diamonds Working at General Electric’s research laboratories, scientists use a high-pressure vessel to synthesize diamonds, converting a mixture of graphite and metal powder to minuscule diamonds. The process requires a temperature of 4,800°F and a pressure of 1.5 million pounds per square inch, but the tiny diamonds are invaluable as abrasives and cutting points. 1954 Synthetic zeolites Following work done in the late 1940s by Robert Milton and Donald Breck of the Linde Division of Union Carbide Corporation, the company markets two new families of synthetic zeolites (from the Greek for "boiling stone," referring to the visible loss of water that occurs when zeolites are heated) as a new class of industrial materials for separation and purification of organic liquids and gases. As the key materials for "cracking"—that is, separating and reducing the large molecules in crude oil—they revolutionize the petroleum and petrochemical industries. Synthetic zeolites are also put to use in soil improvement, water purification, and radioactive waste treatment, and as a more environmentally friendly replacement in detergents for phosphates.

1955 High molecular weight polypropylene developed Building on the work of Karl Ziegler, Giullo Natta in Italy develops a high molecular weight polypropylene that has high tensile strength and is resistant to heat, ushering in an age of "designer" polymers. Polypropylene is put to use in films, automobile parts, carpeting, and medical tools. 1959 "Float" glass developed British glassmakers Pilkington Brothers announce a revolutionary new process of glass manufacturing developed by engineer Alastair Pilkington. Called "float" glass, it combines the distortion-free qualities of ground and polished plate glass with the less expensive production method of sheet glass. Tough and shatter-resistant, float glass is used in windows for shops and skyscrapers, windshields for automobiles and jet aircraft, submarine periscopes, and eyeglass lenses. 1960s Large single crystals of silicon grown Engineers begin to grow large single crystals of silicon with nearly perfect purity and perfection. The crystals are then sliced into thin wafers, etched, and doped to become semiconductors, the basis for the electronics industry. Borosilicate glass is developed for encapsulating radioactive waste.

Better but more expensive trapping materials are made from crystalline ceramic materials zirconolite and perovskite and from the most widespread material of all for containing radioactivity—carefully designed cements. 1962 Nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) alloy shape memory Researchers at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in White Oak, Maryland, discover that a nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) alloy has so-called shape memory properties, meaning that the metal can undergo deformation yet "remember" its original shape, often exerting considerable force in the process. Although the shape memory effect was first observed in other materials in the 1930s, research now begins in earnest into the metallurgy and practical uses of these materials. Today a number of products using Ni-Ti alloys are on the market, including eyeglass frames that can be bent without sustaining permanent damage, guide wires for steering catheters into blood vessels in the body, and arch wires for orthodontic correction. 1964 Acrylic paints Chemists develop acrylic paints, which dry more quickly than previous paints and drip and blister less. They are used for fabric finishes in industry and on automobiles.

1964 Carbon fiber developed British engineer Leslie Phillips makes carbon fiber by stretching synthetic fibers and then heating them to blackness. The result is fibers that are twice as strong as the same weight of steel. Carbon fibers find their way into bulletproof vests, high performance aircraft, automobile tires, and sports equipment. 1970s Amorphous metal alloys created Amorphous metal alloys are made by cooling molten metal alloys extremely rapidly (more than a million degrees a second), producing a glassy solid with distinctive magnetic and mechanical properties. Such alloys are put to use in signal and power transformers and as sensors. 1977 Electrically conducting organic polymers discovered Researchers Hideki Shirakawa, Alan MacDiarmid, and Alan Heeger announce the discovery of electrically conducting organic polymers. These are developed into light-emitting diodes (LEDs), solar cells, and displays on mobile telephones. The three are awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2000. 1980s Rare earth metals Materials engineers develop "rare earth metals" such as iron neodymium boride, which can be made into magnets of high quality and permanency for use in sensors, computer disk drives, and automobile electrical motors.

Other rare earth metals are used in color television phosphors, fluorescent bulbs, lasers, and magneto-optical storage systems with a capacity 15 times greater than that of conventional magnetic disks. 1986-1990s Synthetic skin Engineers develop "synthetic skin." One type seeds fibroblasts from human skin cells into a three-dimensional polymer structure, all of which is eventually absorbed into the body of the patient. Another type combines human lower skin tissue with a synthetic epidermal or upper layer. 1990s-present Nanotechnology Scientists investigate nanotechnology, the manipulation of matter on atomic and molecular scales. Electronic channels only a few atoms thick could lead to molecule-sized machines, extraordinarily sensitive sensors, and revolutionary manufacturing methods. Fishing Line History | eHow Fishing Line History Fishing on the seaside image by Elzbieta Sekowska from Fotolia.com Fishing line, along with nearly everything else, has changed as technology has advanced. Anglers used to make their own line, starting with pulling hair from a horse's tail. Today's angler can walk into any fishing, hardware or discount retailer and buy any kind of fishing line he wants.

The one thing that has remained constant as fishing line has changed is that every angler has his own preferences and convictions about what works best. Horsehair Anglers historically had to rely on the materials at hand to create fishing line. In early times, vines were the best material they could find for dangling bait in the water. As fishing became more refined, silk or braided or twisted horsehair became the preferred materials for fishing line. The first mention of braided horsehair fishing line is in a 15th-century manuscript called "Treatyse of Fysshynge with an Angle." Making fishing line of horsehair was time- and labor-intensive. It started with finding good-quality horsehair that didn't have weak spots. The hair was braided or twisted together using a special tool for the purpose. As the line was used individual strands would break, weakening the line and creating a line with numerous hairs sticking out to the sides. Silk Silk fishing line is first mentioned in literature around the fourth century B.C. Silk line was popular with salt- and freshwater fishermen until after World War II. Silk fishing line was much more delicate than today's synthetic lines and required much more care.

Silk line had to be rinsed and dried on open spools after every use and was susceptible to ultraviolet-light damage from the sun. Some fly fishermen today still use silk line. Linen Linen fishing line was popular with anglers until after World War II. It was the line of choice for big-game fish anglers because it was strong. The strength of linen fishing line depended on how many linen threads were braided together to form the line. All lines were made in multiples of three. At one time linen was available in up to 72 threads, which was considered too heavy for sport fishing. The International Game Fishing Association recognized linen line of up to 39 threads, which was 117-pound test. Like silk, linen also had to be specially cared for to prevent the breaking down of the natural fibers by bacteria, mold and ultraviolet light. Polyester During World War II many advances in technology were made, among them the invention of polyester. In the 1950s Du Pont used polyester fibers in a new material it trademarked as Dacron. Dacron was used in the first synthetic braided fishing line and is still known for its consistency and long life.

Nylon In 1954 Du Pont chemists again changed the world of fishing and beyond with the invention of nylon. Braided nylon line is more durable and stronger than silk or linen, but it stretches more, which isn't considered a good thing in fishing. Within a few years a nylon polymer was being extruded into a single, high-strength line called monofilament. Monofilament is probably the cheapest and most common fishing line in use today. Spectra In 1987, Dutch State Mines patented another innovative material that was made by gel-spinning ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene for multifibered threads. This material was marketed in the United States as Spectra and in Europe as Dyneema. The first lines made of this new material were marketed by SpiderWire, and that became a generic term used to refer to any fishing line made of Spectra. The lines made of this material have extremely high strengths and very small diameters with virtually no stretch. They are also resistant to abrasions, so repeated use doesn't wear on them and they are not easily damaged by ultraviolet light, as natural fibers are.

References Fabrics - The History of Fabrics and Different Fibers Fabrics - The History of Fabrics and Different Fibers Fabrics: Over the Years By Mary Bellis Updated August 12, 2016. Fabric creation began in ancient times when primitive peoples used flax fibers, separated into strands and woven into simple fabrics colored with dyes extracted from plants. Innovators developed synthetic fabrics to overcome some of the inherent limitations of natural fibers: cotton and linens wrinkle; silk requires delicate handling; and wool shrinks and can be irritating to the touch. Synthetics delivered greater comfort, soil release, broader aesthetic range, dyeing capabilities, abrasion resistance and colorfastness as well as lower costs. The man-made fibers, and a steadily growing palette of synthetic additives, made it possible to add flame-retardancy, wrinkle and stain resistance, antimicrobial properties and a host of other performance improvements. 1. Blue Jeans & Denim Fabric Levi Strauss invented the fabric called denim, and blue jeans. 2. FoxFibre ® Sally Fox re-invented the naturally colored cotton used in cotton fabrics. 3. GORE-TEX® GORE-TEX® is a registered trademark and the best-known product of W. L.

Gore & Associates , Inc. The trademarked product was introduced in 1989. The fabric, based on a Gore-held patent for a membrane technology, is specifically engineered to be a breathable water and wind-proof material. The phrase "Guaranteed to Keep you Dry®" is also a Gore-owned registered trademark, part of the GORE-TEX® warranty. Wilbert L. and Genevieve Gore founded the company on January 1, 1958, in Newark, Delaware. The Gores set out to explore opportunities for fluorocarbon polymers, especially polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The current CEO is their son Bob. Wilbert Gore was posthumously inducted into The Plastics Hall of Fame in 1990. 4. Kevlar Stephanie Louise Kwolek invented a material five times stronger than steel. 5. Waterproof Fabric - Mackintosh Raincoat Charles Macintosh was a Scottish chemist who invented (1823) a method for making waterproof garments. Macintosh discovered that coal-tar naphtha dissolved india rubber. He took wool cloth and painted one side with the dissolved rubber preparation and placed another layer of wool cloth on top.

The mackintosh raincoat created from the new fabric was named after Charles Macintosh. 6. Polyester Whinfield and Dickson along with inventors W.K. Birtwhistle and C.G. Ritchiethey also created the first polyester fiber called Terylene in 1941. 7. Rayon Rayon was the first manufactured fiber developed, it made from wood or cotton pulp and was first known as artificial silk. The Swiss chemist, Georges Audemars invented the first crude artificial silk around 1855, by dipping a needle into liquid mulberry bark pulp and gummy rubber to make threads. The method was too slow to be practical. In 1884, a French chemist, Hilaire de Charbonnet, Comte de Chardonnay, patented an artificial silk that was a cellulose-based fabric known as Chardonnay silk." Pretty but very flammable, it was removed from the market. In 1894, British inventors, Charles Cross, Edward Bevan, and Clayton Beadle, patented a safe a practical method of making artificial silk that came to be known as viscose rayon.

Avtex Fibers Incorporated first commercially produced artificial silk or rayon in 1910 in the United States. The term "rayon" was first used in 1924. 8. Nylon And Neoprene A brilliant and tragic mind, Carothers was the brains behind Dupont and the birth of synthetic fibers. 9. Spandex In 1942, William Hanford and Donald Holmes invented polyurethane together. Polyurethane is the basis of a novel type of elastomeric fiber known generically as spandex. It is a man-made fiber (segmented polyurethane) able to stretch at least 100% and snap back like natural rubber. It replaced the rubber used in women's underwear. Spandex was created in the late 1950s, developed by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc. The first commercial production of spandex fiber in the United States began in 1959. 10. VELCRO® Mother Nature could not have made a better fabric herself. 11. Vinyl Waldo L. Semon invented a way to make polyvinyl chloride (PVC) useful. He created vinyl. 12.

Ultrasuede In 1970, Toray Industries scientist Dr. Miyoshi Okamoto invented the world's first microfiber. A few months later, his colleague Dr. Toyohiko Hikota succeeded in developing a process that would transform these microfibers into an amazing new fabric - Ultrasuede. The History of Plastic | Plastics Make it Possible The History of Plastic Published on November 7, 2011 | Written By Professor Plastic Section It’s difficult to imagine modern life without plastics. Take a moment… Our cars (seat cushions, air bags, bumpers, dashboards…) Our fashion (nylon, spandex, polyester, faux fur…) Our homes (carpeting, foam insulation, vinyl siding, composite decking…) Our appliances (televisions, coffee makers, alarm clocks, electric toothbrushes…) Our sports (football pads, bicycle helmets, surfboards, skis…) Our health (preemie incubators, bandages, hygienic medical packaging, syringes…) Our food packaging (tamper resistant film, takeout boxes, milk jugs, leftover containers…) Shall I go on…? We haven’t always had these modern marvels of innovation. Plastics are a relatively new invention.

Here are my favorite highlights from the early history of plastic: Parkesine (1862) The first man-made plastic, called Parkesine after its inventor Alexander Parkes, is revealed at the Great International Exhibition in London. Created from part of the cell wall of plants (cellulose), Parkesine was transparent, moldable and retained its shape when cooled. The material was touted as able to do anything that natural rubber could—but less expensively. Celluloid (1865) American John Wesley Hyatt developed a way to make billiard balls from something other than ivory: cellulose nitrate. By the 1880s and 1890s companies made celluloid products such as bowls and combs that imitated ivory and tortoiseshell and other more expensive materials. Rayon (1891) A modified cellulose, rayon was first developed in Paris, France, by Louis Marie Hilaire Bernigaut, the Count of Chardonnet. He was searching for a way to produce a substitute for silk—he called his invention rayon since it was shiny and appeared to produce rays of light.

Bakelite (1907) A totally synthetic plastic, Bakelite retained its shape and form even under stress and heat. In the 1920s and 1930s Bakelite jewelry, clocks and telephones became popular as people embraced their “unearthly-looking” appearance that did not resemble natural materials. Cellophane (1912) Created by a Swiss chemist trying to develop a waterproof table cloth—and later used to wrap Whitman’s candies—cellophane really took off in food packaging when DuPont made it moisture-resistant in 1927. Vinyl (1920s) Polyvinyl chloride, called PVC or vinyl, was developed to replace natural rubber and quickly proved itself one of the most versatile plastics. Vinyl is commonly used for blood bags and IV tubing and in building and construction products including siding, piping, roofing, tubing, hoses, flooring and electrical cable insulation. “Plastic” (1930s) The word “plastic” becomes a part of consumers’ everyday language to describe a wide variety of these new materials—which continues today.

Polyethylene (1930s) Produced in fits and starts in the 1930s in the United Kingdom, polyethylene has become the most widely used plastic and is a mainstay of modern packaging: beverage bottles, milk jugs, bags, food storage containers and more. Polyvinylidene Chloride (1933) Discovered by accident by a Dow Chemical lab worker, polyvinylidene chloride (not to be confused with vinyl) was initially used to protect military equipment against saltwater. Since it clings to nearly anything and forms an oxygen barrier, it was introduced as a film for food packaging and became well-known as Saran Wrap. Nylon (1939) DuPont unveils stockings made from the new nylon at New York’s World Fair. Nylon rapidly replaced silk in clothing and military applications during World War II. Polyester (1950) Discovered in the 1940s, polyester became a big part of our culture when DuPont marketed a new fabric under the name “Dacron”—the first washable synthetic fabric.

Polypropylene (1950s) Despite legal wrangling over its true inventors, polypropylene rapidly becomes one of the most popular plastics. Due to its versatility, it is used in nearly all plastic applications. Polystyrene foam (1954) Dow Chemical introduces polystyrene insulation under the brand name “Styrofoam®.” Polystyrene foam went on to be used in lightweight protective packaging, buoys/docks, movie sets, takeout containers and more. Could anyone have foreseen how much these early innovative materials would transform our lives? And the innovations continue… Stay tuned for a more recent history of plastics. Do you have a question about plastic or the history of plastic? Submit your questions here ! Trending Articles History of Polyester | What is Polyester What is Polyester - History of Polyester S crunch it, pull it, wash it – without any wear and wrinkles. That’s what polyester became famous for. Polyester was the fabric of choice in a changing economy of speed, efficiency and convenience. If the food industry produced fries and coke, the textile industry supplemented it with Polyester – quick, cheap and easy.

Carothers’ Work It was W.H.Carothers who discovered that alcohols and carboxyl acids could be successfully mixed to create fibers. Carothers was working for duPont at the time and unfortunately when he discovered Nylon, polyester took a back seat. PET & Terylene Carother’s incomplete research had not advanced to investigating the polyester formed from mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. It was British scientists – Whinfield and Dickson who patented PET or PETE in 1941. Polyethylene terephthalate forms the basis for synthetic fibers like Dacron, Terylene and polyester. In 1950, the Dealware property of duPont manufactured another polyester fiber, which they named Dacron. Later that year, the first polyester fiber – Terylene – was created by Whinfield and Dickson along with Birtwhistle and Ritchiethey. Terylene was first manufactured by Imperial Chemical Industries or ICI. DuPont’s Role It was in 1946 that duPont bought all legal rights from ICI. In 1950, the Dealware property of duPont manufactured another polyester fiber, which they named Dacron.

Mylar was introduced in 1952. Polyester was first introduced to the American public in 1951 as the magical fabric that needed no ironing! PET and PEN are duPont trademarks that have turned the use and consumption of Polyester around. Polyester Becomes Popular Subsequent to the development of Terylene and Dacron, Kodel was developed by Eastman Chemical Products, Inc in 1958. The polyester market underwent rapid expansion and textile mills emerged everywhere. Many of the mills were located at small gas stations and produced cheap polyester apparel. The inexpensive and durable fiber became very popular and the industry expanded rapidly till the 1970s. Unfortunately, the infamous double-knit polyester image hit the industry and polyester soon came to be known as the uncomfortable fabric. The Phoenix Rises Today, polyester is largely regarded as a cheap fabric that is rather uncomfortable for sensitive human skin to wear. However, the emergence of luxury fibers like polyester microfiber and various polyester blends the industry is experiencing resurgence. The Tennessee Eastman Company and the Man-Made Fiber Producers’ Association’s (MMFPA) Polyester Fashion Council played a significant role in the revival of polyester.

The Tennessee Eastman Company started a YES campaign for polYESter and popularized it via radio and television. The idea was to focus on the wash and go properties of polyester rather than sell it as a cheap fabric. Hoechst Fibers Industries also played a part. They conducted various studies from 1981 to 1983 and found that 89% of people could not distinguish between polyester and other natural fibers like cotton, wool and silk. Also, it was found that people were more interested in the appearance of the apparel than the fabric it was made of. Today, the biggest contributor to the appeal of polyester is the discovery of microfibers. Microfibers give polyester the feel of silk and are rapidly becoming the choice of fabric. With an expensive tag to match, the cheap image of polyester seems to be on it’s way out. Here’s to heralding a new era in the history of polyester!

Question: Which man-made material was first marketed in the USA in the 1950s as Dacron?
Answer: Terylene