Hippolyte Mege-Mouries biography, list of Hippolyte Mege-Mouries inventions | edubilla.com About Inventor Hippolyte Mege-Mouries,who lived between (1817 - 1880) was a French chemist and the inventor of margarine. He was born as Hippolyte Mege, the son of a primary school teacher, but later added his mother's surname to his own. In 1838, Mege obtained a job in the central pharmacy of the Hotel-Dieu hospital in Paris and started to publish original contributions in applied chemistry. Mege focussed on fat processing in the 1860s, which culminated in 1869 in a patent for margarine. His invention involved mixing processed beef tallow with skimmed milk, and resulted in a cheap but qualitatively good substitute for butter 'for the working class and incidentally the Navy'. Mege received a prize from the French government, formally led by Emperor Louis Napoleon III. In 1871, Mege sold his invention to the Dutch firm Jurgens, one of the pillars of Unilever.

Justin Peters is a Slate correspondent and the author of The Idealist: Aaron Swartz and the Rise of Free Culture on the Internet . My recent post on cooking-oil theft in the United Kingdom got me thinking about other contraband oils, and the days when margarine was bootlegged like moonshine. Yes, I said margarine. Though you know and tolerate it today as a vaguely palatable substitute for delicious creamery butter, margarine used to be heavily regulated in the United States—in some states, it was even banned —and bootleggers actually went to jail for selling the stuff. As a 1925 paper from the Institute of Margarine Manufacturers put it, margarine “has been unjustly discriminated against by many legislative bodies. And it has been misrepresented by many selfish as well as by many misinformed persons.” Advertisement Margarine was invented in 1869 by a chemist named Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès , after the French government sponsored a contest to come up with an inexpensive butter substitute.

The idea, according to a 1925 paper in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, was to “furnish sailors and people of limited means with a cheap, wholesome fat of high dietetic value.” Though debatably wholesome, Mège-Mouries’s beef-fat-based spread was certainly cheap—and that became a problem. Soon, margarine came to America, where it was marketed as an inexpensive butter substitute, occasionally called “butterine.” Commercial dairies felt threatened by the prospect of people mistaking oleomargarine for butter or choosing it instead of butter. They had good reason to be scared: unscrupulous retailers often sold the stuff as butter. As an 1877 New York Times article reported: Christopher Strauss, grocer, of No. 16 Second-avenue, was arraigned before Justice Murray in the Fifty-seventh Street Police Court yesterday charged with selling oleomargarine, representing it to be pure butter. S.A. Churchill, a former manufacturer of the artificial article, and who is now employed as a detective by the Butter and Cheese Exchange, appeared as complainant. But the butter and cheese detectives could only do so much.

As Chris Burns puts it in “Bogus Butter,” his invaluable masters’ thesis about Gilded Age margarine legislation, by 1886, “estimates of ‘bogus butter’ on the market in the previous year were 60 million pounds, most of it fraudulently sold as butter.” The dairies feared the rise of a cheap, oily dystopia, and they decided to take action. Advertisement Big Butter lobbied legislatures to heavily regulate margarine—how it could look, where it could be sold—and, in 1886, Congress passed the Oleomargarine Act, which imposed special taxes on margarine and margarine dealers. Around the same time, the butter interests lobbied state legislatures to pass laws preventing margarine manufacturers from dyeing their product to resemble butter; instead, it had to be sold in its unappetizing natural color, white. In its 1894 decision on Plumley v. Massachusetts , the Supreme Court went so far as to rule that colored margarine could not be transported across state lines into a state with a colored-margarine ban.

Simultaneously, butter partisans spread rumors that oleomargarine was unfit for human consumption. According to Chris Burns, the congressional debate over the Oleomargarine Act was particularly fierce in this regard, with congressmen deriding margarine as unhealthful witchery and urging their colleagues to take action against “the application of chemical fluids and compounds in transforming a mass of loathsome and unwholesome ingredients into an article of food at a trifling cost.” As congressman Albert Burleson would later put it, “never in the history of the world has a food product been so persistently and outrageously misrepresented as oleomargarine.” The taxes and legislation had the desired effect: margarine production decreased, according to Burns. But, even after all this, people still wanted margarine, and in the best entrepreneurial tradition, bootleggers stepped in to meet the demand, producing a tax-free, pleasantly colored product for a grateful public. As Katherine Mangu-Ward reported in a 2011 Reason article , at least four men —Charles Wille, John L.

McMonigle, and brothers Joseph and Toney Wirth—served time in Leavenworth for margarine bootlegging; the persistent McMonigle served two separate stints, first in 1913 and then again in 1915. History books are sadly bereft of first-hand accounts of the black market margarine trade, but I like to imagine these bootleggers as plump, sweaty fellows who cramped up whenever they had to run from the law. Over time, margarine use became relatively normalized. “My own experience with this product is of the most satisfactory sort,” wrote Prof. W.O. Hedrick of the Michigan Agricultural College in 1925. “I have no doubt that there are many people for whom butter is inaccessible at all times, and I see no reason why they should not be allowed to use margarine.” In 1950, most of the restrictions on margarine were lifted when President Harry Truman signed the Margarine Act of 1950, repealing the 1886 legislation.

Today, faux butter can assume any color you’d like, and the margarine trade is a healthy and respectable business, with the United States’ top brand, I Can’t Believe It’s Not Butter!, selling more than $200 million worth of product in 2011 . But personally, I prefer to buy my margarine from a guy in the alley down the street, who hands it over in a brown paper bag as we both nod furtively. It’s the American way. M�ge-Mouries 1817-1880 M�ge was born on 24 october 1817 in Draguignan (old city in the south of France) where his father was teacher in primary school. In 1850 he added the name of his mother Mouri�s to that of his father. After studies in a local secondary school, he was a pharmacy assistant in Draguignan and later in Aix-en-Provence. In 1838 he got a position in the central pharmacy of the H�tel-Dieu hospital in Paris. Rapidly, M�ge did several practical researches in different fields of industrial chemistry.

After improving successfully a drug preparation, Copahine, used against syphilis, he obtained patents for effervescent tablets, paper paste (1845), sugar and leather fabrications (1848). In 1852, he was interested in research in animal and human feeding in promoting the use of calcium phosphate. This application was heavily supported by Chevreul at the Acad�mie des Sciences. From 1854 to 1860, M�ge worked on bread production. His new procedure was more complicated than the current one but it improved the yield of the final product by 14%. However, it seems that his procedure was practically adopted only by the French army. For this work, he received a gold medal and the L�gion d'honneur from Napol�on III on 23 february 1861. After having a son, Hippolyte Ren�, with Elisabeth Bance in 1855, he married this woman in 1861. She died in 1865 and was burried in the P�re Lachaise cimetery in Paris.

After 1862, M�ge worked exclusively on fat processing. We do not know the origin of this fertile orientation which ended with the famous patent concerning margarine accepted on 20 october 1869 in Paris (N� 86480): "Demande d'un brevet d'invention de quinze ans pour la production de certains corps gras d'origine animale" . M�ge won a prize for the discovery of a new fat product after the French government promised a reward to anyone who might discover a process for manufacturing a satisfactory substitute for butter. In the Imperial farm of the Faisanderie in Vincennes, he observed that fasting cows produced milk and, thus, deduced that butter fat should be first formed in animal tissues. From this erroneous hypothesis, he processed beef tallow until he obtained a liquid fat, oleo-margarine (from the name margaric acid given by Chevreul in 1813 to a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids) which after mixing with skimmed milk gave a solid product first named "beurre �conomique" and later "margarine Mouri�s" less expensive and more stable than butter.

In 1871, M�ge sold his invention to the Dutch firm Jurgens for 60,000 Francs. While his work on bread processing gave him a notoriety during his life, the invention of margarine will remain his most famous contribution for the future generations. M�ge obtained in 1875 a patent (N� 109792) for beef canning and lastly in 1880 a patent (N� 128721) for the use of sea water salt in human nutrition. M�ge died on 31 may 1880 from a liver disease and was burried in the P�re Lachaise cimetery. It is said that only a newspaper from his birthplace honoured his death. Margarine,Margarine inventors | edubilla.com : Everyday Life About Invention Margarine, food product made principally from one or more vegetable or animal fats or oils in which is dispersed an aqueous portion containing milk products, either solid or fluid, salt, and such other ingredients as flavouring agents, yellow food pigments, emulsifiers, preservatives, vitamins A and D, and butter.

It is used in cooking and as a spread. Nutritionally, margarine is primarily a source of calories. The French chemist H. Mege-Mouries developed margarine in the late 1860s and was given recognition in Europe and a patent in the United States in 1873. His manufacturing method was simplified in the United States into a process in which the melted fat blend was churned with milk and salt, chilled to solidify the mixture, kneaded to a plastic consistency, and packaged, all by means of the standard butter-working equipment of the time. The edible fats used have varied widely, the trend having been from the animal fats predominant in early use to the vegetable fats, principally cottonseed, soybean, coconut, peanut, and corn oils, and, more recently, palm oil. During the late 1950s an increased interest in the relation of polyunsaturated fats and oils to health hastened the shift to corn, safflower, and sunflower oils as the fat ingredients of margarine. Whale oil has been widely used in Europe but was never common in the United States.

Margarine was long subjected to severe restrictive legislation, particularly in the United States, because of the opposition of the dairy industry. But during the 1930s, margarine manufacturers learned to make margarine from domestic oils rather than the imported oils formerly used, thereby enlisting the support of U.S. cottonseed and soybean farmers. Repeal of federal and most state restrictions gradually followed, leading to the acceptance of margarine in the United States to an extent comparable with that in most European countries. The Surprisingly Interesting History of Margarine | Mental Floss The Surprisingly Interesting History of Margarine Corbis Like us on Facebook How well do you know your margarine history? Let’s take a look at the origins of the butter substitute, and the dairy lobby's attempts to defeat it. Where did the name “margarine” originate? In a chemist’s lab. French scientist Michel Eugene Chevreul discovered a new fatty acid in 1813 that he dubbed acide margarique.

Chevreul’s discovery contained lustrous, pearly deposits, so he named it after the Greek word margarites, for “pearly.” Did Chevreul take his margaric acid and head straight for the toaster? Not quite. If you enjoy margarine, tip your cap to Emperor Napoleon III. Napoleon III saw that both his poorer subjects and his navy would benefit from having easy access to a cheap butter substitute, so he offered a prize for anyone who could create an adequate replacement. Enter French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès. In 1869, Mège-Mouriès perfected and patented a process for churning beef tallow with milk to create an acceptable butter substitute, thereby winning the Emperor’s prize. So Mège-Mouriès became the first margarine tycoon? Far from it. Despite Napoleon III’s high hopes for Mège-Mouriès’ product, which the scientist had dubbed “oleomargarine,” the market didn’t really take off. In 1871, Mège-Mouriès showed his process to a Dutch company that improved on his methods and helped build an international market for margarine.

The Dutch entrepreneurs realized that if margarine were going to become a substitute for butter, it needed to look like butter, so they began dyeing margarine, which is naturally white, a buttery yellow. Mège-Mouriès didn’t get a princely sum for his invention; he actually died a pauper in 1880. The Dutch company that improved upon his recipe did pretty well for itself, though. The company, Jurgens, eventually became a world-renowned maker of margarines and soaps and later became a part of Unilever. How did the dairy world react to margarine’s sudden popularity? They were predictably more than a little irked. Butter was big business, and the notion that a cheaper substitute, even one made in part with milk, might storm the market terrified dairy farmers. They didn’t take the threat lying down, though, and convinced legislators to tax margarine at a rate of two cents per pound—no small sum in the late 19th century. Dairy farmers also successfully lobbied for restrictions that banned the use of yellow dyes to make margarine look more appetizing.

By 1900, artificially colored butter was contraband in 30 U.S. states. Several states took even more extreme measures to turn consumers away from margarine—they required the product to be dyed an unappealing pink color. Did other countries enact similar restrictions? If you think taxes and dyes are tough, then the Canadian government’s anti-margarine campaign seems downright draconian. From 1886 until 1948, Canadian law banned any and all margarine. The only exception to this rule came between 1917 and 1923, when World War I and its aftermath left butter in short supply and the government temporarily gave margarine the thumbs up. Margarine didn’t necessarily have an easier time after the ban was relaxed, either. Quebec’s strong dairy lobby ensured that rules against dyeing remained in place in the province until 2008. Was there any way around these color restrictions? Sure. It sounds almost laughable now, but if you wanted to eat margarine on your toast without having to stare at its natural white color, there was a solution.

As the coloring restrictions became widespread around the turn of the 20th century, margarine producers accepted that they couldn’t dye their wares yellow. There was no reason why they couldn’t simultaneously sell consumers margarine and yellow dye, though. When you bought a block or tube of margarine, you also got a packet of food coloring that could be kneaded into the margarine by hand. What helped margarine stay competitive with butter in the face of these restrictions? Corbis More restrictions, of course. Paradoxically, the pure foods movement of the 1920s helped undermine natural butter and elevate the status of margarine. In 1923 Congress passed a law that made it illegal to add any other ingredients to butter, even additives that would help make the butter more spreadable. As any toast aficionado knows, margarine is a heck of a lot easier to spread than butter. Suddenly, butter makers couldn’t tweak their products to make it easier to slather on breakfast, but margarine manufacturers could. Margarine’s popularity skyrocketed. Getty Images Margarine also got a bit bump from World War II.

When wartime butter scarcity forced consumers to switch to margarine, lots of margarine holdouts realized that the improved product wasn’t so bad after all. In 1950, the U.S. government repealed the heavy margarine tax, and the market continued to grow as individual states reversed their bans on colored margarine. The last state to repeal the ban on dyes? You guessed it: Wisconsin. America’s Dairyland didn’t allow dyed margarine until 1967. Biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries Although Weaver has played a number of critically acclaimed roles in movies like Gorillas in the Mist, The Ice Storm, Dave, and The Year of ... Biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries Birthdate: - , Nationality: Height: cm Famous biography website provide biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries including Hippolyte Mege Mouries birthdate, Hippolyte Mege Mouries birthplace, Hippolyte Mege Mouries birthname and Hippolyte Mege Mouries height. In this famous biography website, we have tried our best to list biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries and all information about this famous people for you.

Beside biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries, we also provide a lot of biographies of other famous people. We are very appreciated with any contribution to make a better and more exactly biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries by give us information about Hippolyte Mege Mouries such as Hippolyte Mege Mouries bio, Hippolyte Mege Mouries news, Hippolyte Mege Mouries photos, Hippolyte Mege Mouries pitures, Hippolyte Mege Mouries images, ... Biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries: French chemist and pharmacist invented margarine 1869. Thank you for visiting famous biography website, a leading website about biography of famous people. You can find not only biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries but also biography of almost famous people around the world. If you think we missed some information about Hippolyte Mege Mouries, please help us to complete this biography of Hippolyte Mege Mouries. Thank you for your contribution!

Enter above security code: The History of Margarine | Study.com The History of Margarine Watch short & fun videos Start Your Free Trial Today Instructor: Sharon Linde Add to Add to Add to Want to watch this again later? Log in or sign up to add this lesson to a Custom Course. Custom Courses are courses that you create from Study.com lessons. Use them just like other courses to track progress, access quizzes and exams, and share content. Teachers Organize and share selected lessons with your class. Make planning easier by creating your own custom course. Students Create a new course from any lesson page or your dashboard. From any lesson page: Click "Add to" located below the video player and follow the prompts to name your course and save your lesson. From your dashboard: Click on the "Custom Courses" tab, then click "Create course". Next, go to any lesson page and begin adding lessons. Edit your Custom Course directly from your dashboard. Personalize: Name your Custom Course and add an optional description or learning objective. Organize: Create chapters to group lesson within your course. Remove and reorder chapters and lessons at any time. Share your Custom Course or assign lessons and chapters.

Teacher Edition: Share or assign lessons and chapters by clicking the "Teacher" tab on the lesson or chapter page you want to assign. Students' quiz scores and video views will be trackable in your "Teacher" tab. Premium Edition: You can share your Custom Course by copying and pasting the course URL. Only Study.com members will be able to access the entire course. Like this lesson Share Think you know everything there is to know about margarine? Did you know the name comes from an acid it was mistakenly thought to contain? How many states have required any margarine for sale to be bright pink? What is the link to Napoleon? Some Interesting Facts About Margarine Travon is a law school student. In his search for some juicy information that he can use for an upcoming debate on food laws, he came across some information about the history of margarine. He found that the production, manufacturing and consumption of margarine hasn't been smooth. Many people were against it, and it was taxed very heavily until 1950 in the United States. More about this soon.

Canada also banned margarine until 1948 (except during butter shortages caused by World War I and II) and not lifting the ban on dying margarine yellow until 2008. Thinking this topic could be very useful for his debate, Travon dug deeper into the history and chemical nature of margarine. What is Margarine, and When Was it Invented? Travon found that margarine was invented in 1869 by the French chemist Hippolyte Mege-Mouries in response to a contest sponsored by Napoleon III. Butter did not keep so well and was expensive; Napoleon wanted to have a cheap butter substitute to feed his conquering troops. Mege-Mouries was able to mix rendered beef tallow and a small amount of water and milk to form his butter substitute. He called the mixture 'oleomargarine' because he thought it contained oleaic and margaric acids. It was later determined to have neither, but instead contained stearic and palmitic acids. However, the name 'oleomargarine' was already in place and was later shortened to just 'margarine'.

Manufacturing Changes for Margarine Mege-Mouries' original mixture was stable, much cheaper than butter, tasted nearly as good as butter and even had a pale yellow color. The chemist joined up with a Dutch company, who helped the manufacturing process and also made the product even cheaper by using fats derived from plant oils, especially olive oil. This new process resulted in a white product, so they added yellow dye to make it look more like butter and started creating a market for it. By the mid-1870s it was already being widely produced in the United States. Women show their thoughts on margarine production How do you think people who sold butter reacted to this news? Well, they didn't like it, and they eventually were able to get the Margarine Act of 1886 passed. This placed a heavy tax on margarine and required manufacturers to have a license and wholesalers and sellers to keep annual permits. Some states, like Maine, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Ohio, banned the sale of margarine altogether, claiming margarine production harmed dairy farmers and wasn't wholesome like butter. Selling or using margarine in some places even resulted in fines or serving prison time.

By 1902, 32 states required margarine to be colored differently than butter - dyed pink, red, brown or black - so as not to compete. These laws were eventually overturned by the Supreme Court. However, Wisconsin, a state with a big dairy industry, allowed this 'pink law' to continue until 1967. × October 24 - Today in Science History - Scientists born on October 24th, died, and events OCTOBER 24 – BIRTHS – Scientists born on October 24th Pierre-Gilles de Gennes Born 24 Oct 1932; died 18 May 2007 at age 74 . French physicist who was awarded the 1991 Nobel Prize for Physics for " discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers." He described mathematically how, for example, magnetic dipoles, long molecules or molecule chains can under certain conditions form ordered states, and what happens when they pass from an ordered to a disordered state.

Such changes of order occur when, for example, a heated magnet changes from a state in which all the small atomic magnets are lined up in parallel to a disordered state in which the magnets are randomly oriented. Recently, he has been concerned with the physical chemistry of adhesion. Nathaniel Wyeth . quotes Nathaniel Convers Wyeth was an American chemist and inventor who created the PET plastic beverage bottle. His patent was asssigned to Du Pont for the “Biaxially Oriented Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) Bottle” and described these bottles as “useful in bottling liquids under pressure such as ... carbonated beverages” which had “excellent strength properties, are impact resistant, and are capable of holding liquids under pressures as high as about 100 p.s.i.g.” (U.S. No. 3,733,309, issued 15 May 1973). It was the first plastic suitable to hold carbonated beverages that was safe enough to satisfy the food safety requirements. His other career contributions include development of polymer processing equipment, synthetic textile fibres, and other plastic products. Andrew Wyeth, distinguished American painter, was his brother. Tuzo Wilson .

quotes John Tuzo Wilson was a Canadian geologist and geophysicist who determined the underlying structure of faults, continents across the globe. From the early 1960s, Wilson revolutionized the emerging field of plate tectonics. He coined the word “plate” for the rigid subdivisions of the Earth's crust of both land and ocean beds. By 1963, he identified some of the earliest evidence supporting the sea-floor spreading hypothesis of Harry H. Hess . Wilson showed the relationship that islands were older for those further away from mid-ocean ridge. One of his important new ideas (1965) was for transform faults , where plate boundaries meet in a series of of offsets, and the plates slide alongside past each other without any creation or destruction of the crust. It is a conservative plate boundary beecause neither plate slides under the other.« Aleksandr Osipovich Gelfond Born 24 Oct 1906; died 7 Nov 1968 at age 62 . Russian mathematician who originated basic techniques in the study of transcendental numbers (numbers that cannot be expressed as the root or solution of an algebraic equation with rational coefficients).

He profoundly advanced transcendental-number theory, and the theory of interpolation and approximation of complex-variable functions. He established the transcendental character of any number of the form ab, where a is an algebraic number different from 0 or 1 and b is any irrational algebraic number, which is now known as Gelfond's theorem. This statement solved the seventh of 23 famous problems that had been posed by the German mathematician David Hilbert in 1900. Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker Born 24 Oct 1873; died 24 Mar 1956 at age 82 . English mathematician who made pioneering contributions to the area of the special functions, which is of particular interest in mathematical physics. Whittaker is best known work is in analysis, in particular numerical analysis, but he also worked on celestial mechanics and the history of applied mathematics and physics. He wrote papers on algebraic functions and automorphic functions. His results in partial differential equations (described as most sensational by Watson) included a general solution of the Laplace equation in three dimensions in a particular form and the solution of the wave equation.

On the applied side of mathematics he was interested in relativity theory and he also worked on electromagnetic theory. Hendrik Willem Bakhuis-Roozeboom Born 24 Oct 1854; died 8 Feb 1907 at age 52 . Dutch physical chemist who publicized Gibbs's phase rule throughout Europe. Having originally heard about it from Van der Waals, Bakhuis-Roozeboom converted Gibbs theory into practice. Whereas Gibbs had rarely experimented, Bakhuis-Roozeboom made all sorts of measurements that served to prove the validity of the phase rule, and in addition, worked out the details of its application to many individual cases. The modern chemistry of alloys benefits greatly from his amplification of the understanding of the phase rule * . In 1899, he and Albert Ladenburg demonstrated, independently of each other, when an inactive separable substance will be a racemic compound or mixture of the inactive compounds. [Image: a Roozeboom diagram] Hippolyte Mï¿½ge Mouriï¿½s Born 24 Oct 1817; died 31 May 1880 at age 62 .

French inventor of margerine who began his science career at age 16 as a chemist's assistant. By the 1840's he had improved the syphilis drug, Copahin. He recieved various patents, including tanning, effervescent tablets, paper paste and sugar extraction. By the 1850's he had turned to food research and developed a health chocolate with his calcium phosphate protein. He also developed a method that gained 14% more white bread from a given quantity of wheat, for which he was awarded two gold medals. After 1862, he concentrated his research on fats. His margerine process was based on the cold saponifiation of milk in fat emulsions (French patent No. 86489, 15 Jul 1869 ). Another patent he held was for canned meat (1875) * . Carl Bernhard von Cotta . quotes German physicist who investigated terrestrial magnetism. For six years, from 1831, Weber worked in close collaboration with Carl Gauss . Weber developed sensitive magnetometers, an electromagnetic telegraph (1833) and other magnetic instruments during this time.

His later work (1855) on the ratio between the electrodynamic and electrostatic units of charge proved extremely important and was crucial to James Clerk Maxwell in his electromagnetic theory of light. (Weber found the ratio was 3.1074 x 108 m/sec but failed to take any notice of the fact that this was close to the speed of light.) Weber's later years were devoted to work in electrodynamics and the electrical structure of matter. The magnetic unit, weber, is named after him. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (born 10 Dec 1932). (Robert Murray) Ross Taylor was a Scottish transplant surgeon who pioneered the technique of kidney transplantation in the U.K. and made more than 2,000 kidney transplants since 1967 when he was part of the team that completed the first kidney transplant to be undertaken in the north of England. Acknowledged worldwide as an expert in his field, he trained many of the leading practitioners. At the time of his death, five of the principal transplant centres in Britain were led by surgeons he had mentored.

Taylor was active not only in the ethical and moral aspects, but also in fundraising and developing support for transplant recipients. For 15 years he was chairman of the annual Transplant Games , 3-day sports competition for transplant recipients . Karl Bühler (born 27 May 1879). German psychiatrist and psychologist who was known chiefly for his studies of the thought process. While a professor at the University of Vienna (1922-38), his views were influenced by the thinking of Trubetzkoy and other members of the Prague School. His Sprachtheorie (1934) presented a sign theory with particular emphasis on the functions of language, and a distinction between two "fields" which form the context in which a sign is used. The "symbolic field" (Symbolfeld) is formed by the other signs that make up an utterance; the "deictic field" (Zeigfeld) is formed by the context in which it is uttered and is the origin of modern conceptions of deixis. Bühler emigrated to the USA in 1939, practising as a clinical psychologist from 1945.

Henry Nicholas Ridley (born 10 Dec 1855). English botanist who was largely responsible for establishing the rubber industry in the Malay Peninsula. At the turn of century (1888-1912), as the first Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens Ridley conducted experiments with Para rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) that convinced him of the enormous economic potential of rubber as a plantation crop. After developing a more efficient tapping method, he began a campaign to establish a rubber industry. Despite considerable initial opposition among planters, he persisted, and by 1896 Malaya's planters were convinced, and the first rubber estates were planted using his seeds. Ridley also carried out an extensive study of plants of the Malay Peninsula, especially monocotyledons. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (born 17 Jan 1881). quotes Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown was an English social anthropologist of the 20th century, who developed a systematic framework of concepts and generalizations relating to the social structures of relatively simple societies. Radcliffe-Brown did much of his early work among traditional people.

His first trip to Australia was in 1910; he joined Grant-Watson and D. Bates on an expedition to study Aboriginal tribes. He believed scientific methods should be applied to the study of a society and its common values, this is also known as “collective consciousness.” He also contributed to the study of kinship. (Kinship is a relationship between persons by blood or marriage.) His functional analysis advanced social anthropology as a science. Pierre Weiss (born 25 Mar 1865). French physicist who investigated magnetism and determined the Weiss magneton unit of magnetic moment. Weiss's chief work was on ferromagnetism . Hypothesizing a molecular magnetic field acting on individual atomic magnetic moments, he was able to construct mathematical descriptions of ferromagnetic behaviour, including an explanation of such magnetocaloric phenomena as the Curie point. His theory succeeded also in predicting a discontinuity in the specific heat of a ferromagnetic substance at the Curie point and suggested that spontaneous magnetization could occur in such materials; the latter phenomenon was later found to occur in very small regions known as Weiss domains. His major published work was Le magnetisme ( 1926).

Claude-Joseph-Dï¿½sirï¿½ Charnay (born 2 May 1828). quotes French explorer and archaeologist who pioneered the use of photography to document his expeditions, especially of Pre-Columbian sites in Mexico and Central America. Using the newly invented wet collodion process, he expertly produced many large plates, certainly a remarkable accomplishment in difficult field conditions. He thus created a photographic scientific record of various cultures around the world. With Le Plongeon, Charnay was among the first to publish photographs of Mesoamerican sites. He made early plaster molds of Maya sculptures. In Mexico , much of his work was concentrated in the archeological sites of Chichén-Itza, Uxmal, Palenque and Mitla. He also travelled as far as Australia, Oceania, and Madagascar.« [Image right: Madagascar Women, 1863, from wet collodion-on-glass] Charles Joseph Minard (born 27 Mar 1781). French civil engineer who made significant contributions to the graphical representations of data.

His best-known work, Carte figurative des pertes successives en hommes de l'Armee Français dans la campagne de Russe 1812-1813, dramatically displays the number of Napoleon's soldiers by the width of an ever-reducing band drawn across a map from France to Moscow. At its origin, a wide band shows 442,000 soldiers left France, narrowing across several hundred miles to 100,000 men reaching Moscow. With a parallel temperature graph displaying deadly frigid Russian winter temperatures along the way, the band shrinks during the retreat to a pathetic thin trickle of 10,000 survivors returning to their homeland.« Joseph Jackson Lister (born 11 Jan 1786). English optician, wine merchant and microscopist who, as an amateur, carried out research into the nature of red corpuscles in mammalian blood. In 1826, he designed possibly the most important optical microscope ever made. It used an achromatic objective lens corrected for chromatic and spherical aberrations , the resulting image was at the time the clearest produced by any microscope.

In 1834, for instance, he succeeded in seeing the true biconcave form of red blood corpuscles for the first time. He was a founder member of the Microscopical Society. In 1832, Lister became a fellow of the Royal Society. His son , Sir Joseph Lister (1827-1912) is remembered for pioneering the use of antiseptics, improving the survival rates from surgery. Godegroy Wendelin (born 6 Jun 1580). Flemish astronomer and clergyman who was known as the Ptolemy of his time. Despite going against the tenets of his Church, he was an audacious proponent of the Copernican theory that the planets orbit around the sun. He made more accurate measurements of the distance to the sun as previously made by Aristachus (2,000 years earlier) from the geometrical relationships at the exact time of a half-moon. His result was a third smaller than now accepted, but still indicated the order of magnitude. From his studies the motion of a pendulum, he observed that as amplitude is increased, there is some increase the period of the swings.

He noted a temperature effect on the period of a pendulum: more oscillations in winter than in summer. Wendelin is regarded as first to formulate a law for the variation of the obliquity of the ecliptic. Newton cited him in his Principia.« [Latinized name: Vendelinus. First name variations: Godefroid or Gottfried.] Pierre Gassendi (source) In 1939, nylon stockings went on sale in the U.S. for the first time to employees at DuPont's Wilmington, Delaware nylon factory. The modern materials revolution began in 1938 with DuPont's commercialization of their nylon product, which was the first man-made fibre to be made exclusively from mineral sources. The company specifically intended to compete with silk in the women's hosiery market. The fibre was strong, elastic, moth-proof and did not absorb moisture. Years of research led to enormous success. “Nylons,” as they were soon called, eventually replaced silk stockings. Covering only about two-thirds of a woman's leg, from the feet to mid-thigh, stockings were fastened with garters and a belt. Nationwide sales began on 15 May 1940.

Alarm clock (source) In 1876, a U.S. patent was issued for the metal case of a one-day back-winding alarm clock to the Seth E. Thomas of New York City, NY (No. 183,725 ), being the first American patent for an alarm clock of this familiar type. It was manufactured from that that year by the Seth Thomas Clock Company of Thomaston, Connecticut. Seth was born in 1816 and died in 1888 in Conneticut. His father Seth Thomas was also a clock maker in Plymouth Hollow, Connecticut, which was renamed Thomaston in his honor in about 1860. (The first alarm clock made in the U.S. appeared in Concord, NH, in 1787. That clock was made by Levi Hutchins with a pine case, 29-in high and 14-in wide, but the alarm was for a preset time that could not be altered.) Transcontinental telegraph (source) In 1861, the first transcontinental telegraph message was sent by Justice Stephen J. Field of California to President Abraham Lincoln, on the same day the first transcontinental telegraph system was completed.

The section, built during 1861 by the Western Union Telegraph Co. and its associates, connected St. Joseph, Missouri and Sacramento, California. The Civil War had made obtaining labor and supplies difficult. Nature's obstacles had included the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the Great Plains where timber for telephone poles was in short supply. Now it had become possible to transmit messages so rapidly from coast to coast, the Pony Express , previously the fastest communication between the East and the West, closed two days later. Uranus moons (source) In 1851, William Lassell discovered Ariel and Umbriel, satellites of Uranus. Like most of the other Uranian moons Ariel is named after a Shakespearean character (Ariel is the captive spirit in The Tempest, also featured in Alexander Pope's Rape of the Lock). Ariel has an approx. diameter of 1160-km, an orbital period of 2.52 days, and orbital radius of 191,240-km from Uranus. The name Umbriel comes from Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock.

Umbriel has a diameter of 1170-km, an orbital period of about 4 days and orbit radius of 266,000-km. Lassell, a British astronomer , had previously also discovered Neptune's largest satellite, Triton and (with William Cranch Bond ) and his son George Phillips Bond discovered Saturn's eighth moon Hyperion. Lassell was a successful brewer before turning to astronomy. [Image: The brightest object in this image is Uranus. The three star-like objects very near Uranus are three of its moons. From L to R, they are Titania, Umbriel and Ariel.] Friction match patent In 1836, Alonzo Dwight Phillips of Springfield, Massachusetts, received the first U.S. patent for the phosphorous friction safety match (No. 68). The first friction matches, using a mixture of chemicals for their heads, were made and sold in England in 1827. Phillips' match, which could be struck on any rough surface, was the first genuine friction match made in America.

Known as “loco focos,” and later as “lucifers,” these matches were made entirely by hand from a mixture of chalk, phosphorus, glue and brimstone (sulphur). The introduction of gas for lighting and cooking, and the spread of cigar smoking, made the lucifer almost a necessity. By the time of the Civil War, about a million matches a day were being manufactured. more

Question: What is the most notable invention of Hippolyte Mege-Mouries?
Answer: Margarine