Theology - definition of theology by The Free Dictionary Theology - definition of theology by The Free Dictionary (thē-ŏl′ə-jē) n. pl. the·ol·o·gies 1. The study of the nature of God and religious truth; rational inquiry into religious questions. 2. A system or school of opinions concerning God and religious questions: Protestant theology; Jewish theology. 3. A course of specialized religious study usually at a college or seminary. [Middle English theologie, from Old French, from Latin theologia, from Greek theologiā : theo-, theo- + -logiā, -logy.] theology (θɪˈɒlədʒɪ) n, pl -gies 1. (Theology) the systematic study of the existence and nature of the divine and its relationship to and influence upon other beings 2. (Theology) a specific branch of this study, undertaken from the perspective of a particular group: feminist theology. 3. (Theology) the systematic study of Christian revelation concerning God's nature and purpose, esp through the teaching of the Church 4.

(Theology) a specific system, form, or branch of this study, esp for those preparing for the ministry or priesthood [C14: from Late Latin theologia, from Latin; see theo-, -logy] theˈologist n (θiˈɒl ə dʒi) n., pl. -gies. 1. the field of study and analysis that treats of God and of God's attributes and relations to the universe; the study of divine things or religious truth; divinity. 2. a particular form, system, or branch of this study. [1325–75; Middle English theologie < Old French < Late Latin theologia < Greek theología. See theo -, -logy ] Theology 1. the doctrines and ideas of St. Augustine, 5th-century archbishop of Hippo, and the religious rule developed by him. 2. the support of his doctrines. 3. adherence to his religious rule. — Augustinian, n., adj. Hutchinsonianism 1.

the theories of John Hutchinson, an 18th-century Yorkshireman, who disputed Newton’s theory of gravitation and maintained that a system of natural science was to be found in the Old Testament. 2. the tenets of the followers of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, an antinomian who lived in the early days of the Massachusetts Colony. — Hutchinsonian, adj. 1. the unique nature of the Godhead and hence the Holy Trinity. 2. any of the three parts of the Holy Trinity. 3. the personality of Christ separate from his dual nature, human and divine. — hypostatic, hypostatical, adj. Jehovist 1. Obsolete, a person who believes that the vowel-marks on the word Jehovah in Hebrew represent the actual vowels of the word. 2. the name given to the author(s) of the parts of the Hexateuch in which the sacred name is written Jehovah, instead of Elohim. — Jehovistic, adj. 1. the introduction of new, especially rationalistic, views or doctrines in theology. 2. such a view or doctrine. Also neologism. See also language . — neologist, n. 1.

the precepts and ideas of William of Occam, 14th-century English Scholastic. 2. support of his precepts. — Occamist, Occamite, n. — Occamistic, adj. 1. the doctrines and precepts of Origen of Alexandria, 3rd-century Christian theologian and teacher. 2. adherence to his doctrines. — Origenist, n. — Origenian, Origenistic, adj. 1. Obsolete, all that is contained in theology. 2. a comprehensive, synthetic theology that covers all gods and religious systems. — pantheologist, n. — pantheologic, pantheological, adj. 1. Also patristics. the branch of theology that studies the teachings of the early church fathers. 2. a collection of the writings of the early church fathers. — patrologist, n. — patrologic, patrological, adj. 1. the action of God in foreordaining from eternity whatever comes to pass. 2. the doctrine that God chooses those who are to come to salvation.

the doctrine attributed to Calvin and other reformers that the bread and wine of the communion remain unchanged but are the vehicle through which the spiritual body and blood of Christ are received by the communicant. Cf. consubstantiation, receptionism, transabstantiation. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1.

theology - the rational and systematic study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truth redemption , salvation - (theology) the act of delivering from sin or saving from evil Creation - (theology) God's act of bringing the universe into existence theology - the learned profession acquired by specialized courses in religion (usually taught at a college or seminary); "he studied theology at Oxford" limbo - (theology) in Roman Catholicism, the place of unbaptized but innocent or righteous souls (such as infants and virtuous individuals) purgatory - (theology) in Roman Catholic theology the place where those who have died in a state of grace undergo limited torment to expiate their sins divine guidance , inspiration - (theology) a special influence of a divinity on the minds of human beings; "they believe that the books of Scripture were written under divine guidance" theanthropism - (theology) the doctrine that Jesus was a union of the human and the divine foreordination , predetermination , preordination , predestination - (theology) being determined in advance; especially the doctrine (usually associated with Calvin) that God has foreordained every event throughout eternity (including the final salvation of mankind) discipline , field of

 study , subject area , subject field , bailiwick , subject , field , study - a branch of knowledge; "in what discipline is his doctorate?"; "teachers should be well trained in their subject"; "anthropology is the study of human beings" angelology - the branch of theology that is concerned with angels apologetics - the branch of theology that is concerned with the defense of Christian doctrines ecclesiology - the branch of theology concerned with the nature and the constitution and the functions of a church eschatology - the branch of theology that is concerned with such final things as death and Last Judgment; Heaven and Hell; the ultimate destiny of humankind hermeneutics - the branch of theology that deals with principles of exegesis homiletics - the branch of theology that deals with sermons and homilies theological system system of rules , system - a complex of methods or rules governing behavior; "they have to operate under a system they oppose"; "that language has a complex system for indicating gender" theology , divinity - the rational and systematic study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truth Christian theology - the teachings of Christian churches liberation theology - a form of Christian theology (developed by South American Roman Catholics)

 that emphasizes social and political liberation as the anticipation of ultimate salvation natural theology - a theology that holds that knowledge of God can be acquired by human reason without the aid of divine revelation procession , emanation , rise - (theology) the origination of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost; "the emanation of the Holy Spirit"; "the rising of the Holy Ghost"; "the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son" Theology dictionary definition | theology defined Middle English theologie, from Old French, from Latin theologia, from Greek theologia : theo-, theo- + -logia, -logy.

theology See also bible ; buddhism ; catholicism ; christianity ; eastern orthodoxy ; faith ; god and gods ; hell ; heresy ; islam ; judaism ; protestantism ; religion . Albertist a student or supporter of the theological ideas of Albertus Magnus, 13th-century German Scholastic philosopher. annihilationism the theological doctrine that states that the wicked have no afterlife. —annihilationist, n. antilapsarianism the doctrine that denies the fall of man. —antilapsarian, n. antinomianism the belief that Christians are freed from the moral law by the virtue of God’s grace. —antinomian, n., adj. apologetics the study of the methods and content of defenses or proofs of Christianity. —apologetical, adj. Augustinianism 1. the doctrines and ideas of St. Augustine, 5th-century archbishop of Hippo, and the religious rule developed by him. 2. the support of his doctrines. 3. adherence to his religious rule. —Augustinian, n., adj.

chiliasm the belief that Christ will return to earth in visible form and establish a kingdom to last 1000 years, after which the world will come to an end. Also called millenarianism. —chiliast, n. —chiliastic, adj. confessionalism an advocacy of the maintenance of a confession of faith as a prerequisite to membership in a religious group. —confessionalian, n., adj. consubstantiation the doctrine that the substance of the body and blood of Christ coexist in and with the substance of the bread and wine of the Eucharist. Cf. receptionism, transubstantiation, virtualism. Erastianism the doctrine stating that in ecclesiastical affairs the state rules over the church. —Erastian, n., adj. eschatology any set of doctrines concerning final matters, as death, the judgment, afterlife, etc. —eschatological, adj. —eschatologist, n. Hutchinsonianism 1. the theories of John Hutchinson, an 18th-century Yorkshireman, who disputed Newton’s theory of gravitation and maintained that a system of natural science was to be found in the Old Testament. 2.

the tenets of the followers of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, an antinomian who lived in the early days of the Massachusetts Colony. —Hutchinsonian, adj. hypostasis 1. the unique nature of the Godhead and hence the Holy Trinity. 2. any of the three parts of the Holy Trinity. 3. the personality of Christ separate from his dual nature, human and divine. —hypostatic, hypostatical, adj. impanation the theological doctrine that the body and blood of Christ are present in the bread and wine after they are consecrated. Jehovist 1. Obsolete, a person who believes that the vowel-marks on the word Jehovah in Hebrew represent the actual vowels of the word. 2. the name given to the author(s) of the parts of the Hexateuch in which the sacred name is written Jehovah, instead of Elohim. —Jehovistic, adj. latria worship of the highest order that can be offered only to God. Majorism the doctrines of Georg Major, a German theologian who believed that good works, being a necessary product of Christian faith, are necessary for salvation. —Majorist, n., adj. millenarianism chiliasm.

neologism neology. neology 1. the introduction of new, especially rationalistic, views or doctrines in theology. 2. such a view or doctrine. Also neologism. See also language . —neologist, n. Neo-Scholasticism the 19th-century movement by Catholic scholars to reinstitute the doctrines of the Schoolmen in their teachings. —Neo-Scholastic, adj. Occamism 1. the precepts and ideas of William of Occam, 14th-century English Scholastic. 2. support of his precepts. —Occamist, Occamite, n. —Occamistic, adj. Origenism 1. the doctrines and precepts of Origen of Alexandria, 3rd-century Christian theologian and teacher. 2. adherence to his doctrines. —Origenist, n. —Origenian, Origenistic, adj. pantheology 1. Obsolete, all that is contained in theology. 2. a comprehensive, synthetic theology that covers all gods and religious systems. —pantheologist, n. —pantheologic, pantheological, adj. patrology 1. Also patristics.

the branch of theology that studies the teachings of the early church fathers. 2. a collection of the writings of the early church fathers. —patrologist, n. —patrologic, patrological, adj. ponerology a branch of theology that studies the doctrine of evil. See also evil . pre-Adamitism the belief that a race of men existed before Adam. —pre-Adamite, n. —pre-Adamitic, adj. predestinarianism a belief in predestination. —predestinarian, n., adj. predestination 1. the action of God in foreordaining from eternity whatever comes to pass. 2. the doctrine that God chooses those who are to come to salvation. premillennialism the belief that the second coming of Christ will usher in the millennium. —premillennialist, n. —premillennian, adj. receptionism the doctrine that in the communion service the body and blood of Christ are received but the bread and wine remain unchanged. Cf. consubstantiation, transubstantiation, virtualism. —receptionist, n.

scholasticism the doctrines of the schoolmen; the system of theological and philosophical instruction of the Middle Ages, based chiefly upon the authority of the church fathers and on Aristotle and his commentators. —Scholastic, n., adj. semi-Arianism the belief of a sect that arose in the 4th century that the substances of the Father and Son were similar but nonetheless different. —semi-Arian, n., adj. solifidianism the theological doctrine that faith insures salvation, irrespective of good works. —solifldian, n. soteriology , adj. stercoranism the belief that the bread and wine consecrated in the Eucharist are subject to natural processes, as decay. —stercorarian, stercoranist, adj. tartarology a doctrine concerning heil and punishment in the afterlife. theologaster Rare. a quack or spurious theologian; a charlatan of theology. theologism 1. any theological speculation. 2. the assumption that other disciplines, as philosophy or science, are inferior to theology.

transubstantiation the doctrine that the consecrated elements of the communion only appear as bread and wine, for they have been converted into the whole substance of the body and blood of Christ. Cf. consubstantiation, receptionism, virtualism. —transubstantiationalist, n. trichotomy division into three parts, especially the theological division of man’s nature into the body, the soul, and the spirit. —trichotomic, trichotomous. adj. virtualism the doctrine attributed to Calvin and other reformers that the bread and wine of the communion remain unchanged but are the vehicle through which the spiritual body and blood of Christ are received by the communicant. Cf. consubstantiation, receptionism, transabstantiation. theology Antique swear words | The Trek BBS Antique swear words Not open for further replies. Page 1 of 4 Capn Flukie Fleet Admiral Admiral Joined: When I was a kid I used to hear the adults around me call people they didn't like 'touch-holes' all the time, but since growing up (shut up you), I haven't heard it since. So, do you know of any other 'antique swear words'?

Ones that you've actually heard somewhere? What did Sam Hill ever do? Is sassafrass an antique swear? And why does succotash suffer? Huh... Hell's bells. My grandma was fond of that one. "Go to Peter" is the only one I can think of... Kegek Rear Admiral Rear Admiral Joined: Sasanach. It means bastard. It also means Dane. You son of a silly person, I unclog my nose in your direction, I wave my private parts at your aunties and I burst my pimples at you? come on, you saw it coming. J.T.B. Rear Admiral Premium Member Joined: Jun 14, 2005 My grandpa and other old-timers used to say "I'll be go to hell" instead of "I'll be damned." I try to use this one, myself, I don't want it to die out! --Justin Darnation Tarnation 'Tarnal' was also a curse back in the olden days, so it could have been a combination of the two factors. No clue about the other origins though.

"Wazzock" (as in idiot or fool) is a great swear word that you don't hear much any more. It's one of my favourites. "Oi! Put it DOWN, you great hairy wazzock!" etc. etc. Darnation Tarnation 'Tarnal' was also a curse back in the olden days, so it could have been a combination of the two factors. No clue about the other origins though. Click to expand... Well, Tartarology is the study of Hell, so I would assume "Tar" is a prefix meaning evil, devil, of Hell. tar·na·tion Listen to the pronunciation of tarnation Pronunciation: alteration of darnation, euphemism for damnation Date: 1790 : damnation —often used as an interjection or intensive —often used with in<tarnation strike me — James Joyce><where in tarnation you from? — Jessamyn West> Kegek Rear Admiral Rear Admiral Joined: Somewhere You're Not Tharpdevenport said: Well, Tartarology is the study of Hell, so I would assume "Tar" is a prefix meaning evil, devil, of Hell.

[/QUOTE] Tartarology comes from Tartarus, the Greek name for Hell. I do not know its relationship to Tarnation, but confusion of the name of a Turkish tribe - the Tatars - led to the Golden Horde of which they were members be called Tartars, consciously echoing this word. Philosophia Buddhica Philosophia Buddhica (a personal blog for philosophical reflection, speculation, and deliberation) Sunday, 18 December 2016 Innate Luminousism The expression “Innate Luminousism” is a neologism that I am coining here to express the Buddhist philosophical idea that the nature of mind is luminous. Readers who know this Buddhist concept well may, for the time being, withhold their enlightening lecture on the topic, because this is not my motive for addressing the issue here. My interest here is how precisely does Rong-zom-pa, an eleventh-century Tibetan scholar, understand this concept. Those readers who can provide insights on Rong-zom-pa’s understanding of the concept based on concrete, explicit, and unambiguous textual sources are, of course, welcome to comment. I shall propose my own understanding of how he understands the concept.

As far as I am concerned, the most fundamental understanding of the statement that the nature of mind is by nature luminous is that mind in its elemental state is untainted and ”untaintable,” unpolluted and ”unpollutable.” All stains, pollutions, or contaminations are thus adventitious and are foreign to the actual pure nature of the mind. It is because of this quality of the mind, that is, the natural purity of the mind and its quality of pollutability and purifiability, that purification and pollution are at all possible. This seems to be the very crux of Buddhist soteriological mechanism. The pure nature of mind at its elemental level or state may be compared to water in its molecular state and level (i.e. H20). The question is if mind can be reduced to non-mind, that is, to the extent that it loses the identity and quality of mind. I have a feeling that some Buddhist philosophers believed that it is possible. This would be like splitting hydrogen and oxygen present in H20, thereby losing the identity and quality of water. But what about Rong-zom-pa’s understanding of the statement that mind is by nature luminous?

If to carefully examine the way he explains the concept of rang bzhin gyis ’od gsal ba’i rnam par thar pa (obviously according to the special soteriology of what he calls “special Mahāyāna”), it seems to be clear that rang bzhin gyis ’od gsal ba’i rnam par thar pa is the realization that both pollutants and purifiers are not substantially existent. For him, therefore, mind and its pollutants and purifiers are not only like water, its pollutants and purifiers but more so like mirage-water and its pollutants and purifiers. Apparent mind may appear to polluted and purified, but like mirage-water, there has never been mind, nor its pollution, nor its purification, even when the apparent mind appears to be polluted or purified.

So it seems that for Rong-zom-pa, it is not so much because of the natural purity of the actual mind and its quality of pollutability and purifiability that one speaks of the luminosity of the mind, but rather that one speaks of the natural luminosity of the mind because of the innate non-substantiality of the apparent mind and its immaculate nature which is always and essentially devoid of pollutants and purifiers. Perhaps one might say that for Rong-zom-pa only that quality or reality that transcends the duality such as of pollution and purification, day and light, light and darkness, and so forth, can be called naturally luminous. My understanding might become a little more plausible if we consider the expression “the nature of space is luminous” that he, if I am not mistaken, also employs. That is, for him, we cannot say that the nature of space is luminous only when the sun shines or only when there is light. Luminosity in its ultimate sense should be, I think according to him, that quality or reality of the space that is inherently, intrinsically, and primordially pure (i.e. empty) of anything that does not belong to the quality of space.

For the time being, I cannot think of a better explanation of his understanding of innate luminosity. There are many shades and levels of understanding the concept of luminosity, but the two that I alluded here seem to be crucial or significant. Posted by Political Ostracism I always thought I am apolitical, which is, anyway, said to be one way of being political. But I think I have lost my political naivety, illusion, and innocence. More and more people in my today’s world seem to suffer political ostracism. They seem to have become politically homeless. They now seem to live in a political orphanage, because they can neither feel at home (or identify themselves) with the self-righteous, radical, militant, hypocritical, intolerant, and often anti-Semitic, left ideologists, nor can they feel at home (or identify themselves) with extreme, nationalistic, chauvinistic, xenophobic, and racist right ideologists. Politics and media seem to have been hijacked by these two types of ideologists, who seem to be too radical and extreme to leave room for reason, truth, justice, moderation, nuanced positions, wisdom, and compassion.

Politics and media tend to hide, twist, or deny truth and reality when they do not fit their ideologies and agendas. Worst of all, such political ideologies, particularly, the extreme leftist ideology seems to have infiltrated the world of academics. Some academics seem to have somehow got the idea that an academic is defined by the radicality of his or her radical leftist political ideology. A tragic irony is that even a hint of reasoned dissents would suffice to label a fellow academic as a Nazi, thereby seeking to ostracize and delegitimize an alternative viewpoint by throwing accusations ad hominem. Posted by Water Analogy Mind in its elemental form is said to be pristinely pure. Some might like to compare it to fully distilled water devoid of any adventitious malignant or benignant substances. Some would think it is pregnant with innate positive qualities, that is, comparable to pure water pregnant with rich precious minerals. But pure mind can become polluted. If the regnant pollutant is hatred, mind becomes indignant, oppugnant, and malignant. If the regnant pollutant is attachment, it becomes poignant. If the regnant pollutant is confusion or ignorance, mind becomes stagnant. A polluted mind become repugnant and malignant.

But we also find several methods of purification: disinfection, distillation, sedimentation, sterilization, and so on. One approach is particularly noteworthy. According to one, mind has never been mind. It is as though we have all the while taken (virtual) “mirage-water” to be (actual) water. Gaining direct meditative insight into this reality is said to liberate one once and for all. Posted by Buddhist Paradiseology or Buddhist Edenology This is just for pure fun. Every language, culture, or religion may have its own words and concept of paradise or heaven. Buddhism is no exception. In course of time, it has developed various notions of paradise or heaven. By the way, nivāṇa is not a paradise or heaven. There are, in general, concepts of “higher realms” and “lower realms,” “good or happy existences” and “bad or miserable existences,” “worldly spheres” and “Buddhaic spheres,” “pure realms” and “impure realms,” and so forth.

Impure realms are usually said to be karmically produced, whereas pure realms may be produced through the previous resolutions of certain Buddhas and which serve as kinds of temporary stations of relief that would enable one to pursue one’s onward journey towards becoming a buddha. Not all higher realms are heavenly realms. Human realm, for example, is a higher realm but not a heavenly or celestial realm. Not all lower realms are hellish realms (be they hyperthermic or hypothermic hells). Animalic realm is a lower realm but not a hellish realm. Paradisical realm of the Buddha Amitābha is called Sukhāvatī (“[Realm] Endowed with Bliss].” Based on East-Asian tradition and sources, it came to be known as the “Pure Land of Amitābha,” and the Buddhist tradition that is associated with it is known as “Pure-Land Buddhism,” although one is tempted to call it “Land-of-Bliss Buddhism” instead. In the Tibetan tradition, there is no such a thing “Sukhāvatī Buddhism” although followers of each school might believe that birth in the Sukhāvatī is a possible (albeit only temporary) option.

Paradisical realm of a Buddha is not limited to that of Buddha Amitābha alone. Akṣobhya and the like, too, have their own paradisical realms. Tārā, too, has her own paradisical realm. Padmasambhava’s paradisical realm is very popular among his followers. In the end, we also encounter the idea that heaven or hell is one’s own projection or construction, and thus one should rather aspire to cleans one’s own intellectual emotional defilements and other obscurations. Such a paradisical realm in Buddhism may be called a “Buddhist Elysian Field” or “Buddhist Elysium” or “Buddhist Edenic Abode.” The theory or study of paradise-like realms or spheres in Buddhism may be called “Buddhist Paradiseology” or “Buddhist Edenology.” Just a random thought! Posted by Buddhist Hodology My obsession with coining new (or borrowing old) words for expressing certain ideas in Buddhist philosophy and religion continues.

This time it is “Hodology.” It is supposed to mean “study of pathways.” The word is derived from the Greek hodos, meaning “path.” It is used in various contexts such as in neuroscience, psychology, philosophy, and geography. I wish to use this word in Buddhist philosophy and soteriology. Let us say “Buddhist hodology.” In the Buddhist context, it is supposed to include all reflections, explanations, descriptions, and systematization of topics all subsumed under what Tibetan Buddhist scholars would call “discourses of the spiritual stages and paths” (sa dang lam gyi rnam gzhag). This is an important topic. One could also call “Buddhist Mārgology.” Nowadays we use the expression “Meditation Theories” very vaguely to express the theories of bhūmis and mārgas. But the expression is perhaps too narrow. “Buddhist hodology” would include everything that is linked with Buddhist soteriology. It would deal with mundane (laukika) and supramundane (lokottara) paths, the correct and the wrong paths, the pitfalls and dangers on the way, regression and progression, signs, qualities, and achievements.

In order to have a historically (or diachronically) and doctrinally (or synchronically) representative picture of Buddhist hodology, one has to consider hodology from the perspective of various schools and systems of Buddhism. At any rate, I feel that the use of the use of the term “Buddhist hodology” is justifiable. Posted by Buddhist Lypeology or Buddhist Odyneology I would like to remind my readers (especially if they happen to be my students) that these blog writings of mine are not meant to be academic writings and thus they should not be treated as such, although I do welcome academics to read and comment on them. Now, I think it is high time that we coin a term such as “Buddhist lypeology” or “Buddhist odyneology.” I have borrowed Greek words lypē and odynē (having the meaning of “(primarily) physical or (secondarily) mental pain”). By “Buddhist lypeology/odyneology,” I wish to express the Buddhist theory or philosophy of pain, suffering, and discontentment (duḥkha: sdug bsngal).

Buddhist lypeology/odyneology can be considered an important aspect of Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist soteriology. I shall mention here only a few points that seem relevant for Buddhist lypeology/odyneology. What is duḥkha? What is the nature of duḥkha? What are the causes and conditions of duḥkha? What are the antidotes of duḥkha? Can one and how can one end duḥkha? What is the value (if there is one at all) of duḥkha? With regard to the nature of duḥkha, one can also consider the typology of duḥkha. One may consider two types of duḥkha: physical (or bodily) duḥkha and psychical (or mental) duḥkha. On may also consider three types of duḥkha. This is well known. The third of the three types of duḥkha is said to be typically Buddhist (LS). Then usually Buddhist sources speak of the eight kinds of duḥkha (already in canonical sources).

I just see that rDo-grub bsTan-pa’i-nyi-ma (gSung ’bum, vol. 7, p. 236) also speaks of two kinds of duḥkha, “gross duḥkha” (rags pa’i sdug bsngal) and “subtle duḥkha” (phra ba’i sdug bsngal) The first one is identified as duḥkha experienced by beings in lower destinies (durgati: ngan song) whereas the latter with saṃskāraduḥkhatā. Two Buddhist positions are noteworthy here. First we have the one position according to which there is no sukha at all in saṃsāra and that all feelings/sensations are duḥkha. The impression of sukha that we get is mistaken just like the feeling of ease that we get while shifting the load from one shoulder to another. Second, we do also have some strands that believed that we do have feeling of happiness and pleasure (although often dominated by the feeling of duḥkha).

The primary cause of duḥkha is according to one position tṛṣṇā and according to another avidyā (and we may find the two positions reconciled). It is assumed that pāpa causes duḥkha. What about the value of duḥkha? My impression is that in Buddhism, duḥkha in a measured degree can be beneficial for a person (and thus can have a positive instrumental value). Too much of duḥkha or sukha is, however, detrimental or impedimental for a person. In Buddhism, duḥkha is not owned by an owner. It takes place in any psycho-physical complex at any given point in time and place. In addition, it is assumed that duḥkha (e.g. toothache) is a reality that one has to face once it is present. If one does not want future duḥkha, just avoid its causes and conditions. Intellectual-psychological receptivity (kṣānti: bzod pa) is necessary to face one’s duḥkha. Usually one who is capable of equalizing sukha and duḥkha is considered wise.

Some Buddhist strands recommend one to view duḥkha not as a problem but as a solution. So it is said that one should see duḥkhasatya as nirodhasatya (i.e. saṃsāra and nirvāṇa. Posted by Buddhist Hellology (cf. Buddhist Tartarology) The term “hellology” can be found in the internet but does not seem to be attested in standard reference works. But never mind, I will use it here anyway in the sense of “the theory or study of hells.” Those of us new to Buddhism are often surprised/disappointed to know that Buddhism, too, has a concept of hell. Those of us who have been dealing with Buddhism for quite sometime either trivialize or banalize it away as a scare-mongering strategy or tactic of the Buddhists, or, rationalize it away somehow.

Whether or not we like the idea of hell in Buddhism but we do have the idea of hell in Buddhism and hence we have to have a kind of “Buddhist hellology.” To begin with, Buddhist hellology would be a part of Buddhist cosmology (in the narrower sense of the “study or theory of the (external) world”). According to Buddhist sources, there are five or six kinds of worldly destiny/destination (or forms of existence) that a sentient being would land up. These fall into two sections: higher sphere of existence and lower sphere of existence. Importantly, neither are all higher spheres heavens or celestial realms nor are all lowers realms hell realms. Human realm belongs to the higher sphere but is still a human (though not always a humane) realm and not a celestial realm. Animal realms and realms of hungry ghosts belong to lower spheres but are not hell realms. Hell realms are the lowest in the domain of worldly existence. But there is not just one kind and level of hells. There are eighteen hellish realms. It will be imprecise to call hells in the Buddhist context as “Inferno” or “the infernal regions” because not hells are hot burning hells. There are cold hells too.

Also the word “netherworld” would not suit our context because not all realms in the “netherworld” are hells. Importantly, there is neither the concept of “eternal damnation” nor of “eternal punishment.” No form of existence according to Buddhism is ever eternal (not even the deepest hell) and nobody can eternally punish anybody. But for pedagogical or didactic purpose, one might observe metaphors of punishment enacted during a theatrical performance. Pleasures or pains, which would be the consequences of one’s positive or negative attitudes and actions, are conceived of as being self-regulatory according to the karmic mechanism. Neutral attitude and actions, though possible, are karmically inconsequential. The depth of the hells and the intensity and duration of pain and suffering are obviously conceived of as being directly proportional to the gravity of the negativity of one’s karmic deed committed and accumulated. The most important cause for one’s birth in the hell realm is the deed committed and accumulated out of hatred, maliciousness, or malevolence.

No bodhisattva would like to teach a sentient how to be born (karmically) in the hell, but if one insists he might tell us that the surest way to guarantee a place in the hell is to commit as much hatred- and maliciousness-motivated deeds as possible! There is also an interesting idea in Tantric Buddhism that there are only two destinations for a Mantric practitioner (like a snake in bamboo tube): one either attains Vajradharahood or takes birth in the hell. This hell is often called *vajranāraka (rdo rje dmyal ba). Although the Sanskrit source is not known to me, the Tibetan word can be found in some works in the bKa’ ’gyur and bsTan ’gyur. It is also used, for example, by gNubs-chen in his verses of epilogue of his bSam ta mig sgron (p. 503). The analogy of a snake in a bamboo pipe, I remember, has been used by A-ro Ye-shes-’byung-gnas in his Theg chen rnal ’byor la ’jug pa (Katja Thiesen’s Magister Thesis).

It can also be found in what is known as the Jo bo’i gsung ’bum. See also the Bai ro’i rgyud ’bum (vol. 1, p. 288.5). The question is whether *vajranāraka is just another name for the lowest of the eighteen hells, or is it a separate hell, that is, one at the bottom of all hells. I think Tibetan scholars discuss this. What happens when our world dissolves? The hell habitats themselves will be dissolved but those hell inhabitants, who have not yet exhausted their karmic consequences, will be automatically be transferred to hells in other world systems. I thought Schmithausen has suggested, I do not remember where, that this problem of relocating hell inhabitants, who have not yet exhausted their karmic consequences, may have contributed to the development of Buddhist cosmology. Need to check! One last question: Do all Buddhist sources or systems really believe that such hells exist literally (and not just metaphorically)?

What Śāntideva says might appeal to some modern rationality-inclined individuals, namely, that the damsels in the hell realms, who lure one to suffering, are actually nothing but projections of one’s unwholesome mind. But then is it also not said that our human realm, too, is just a projection of our mind? PS. (a) Si-tu-paṇ-chen in his bKa’ ’gyur dkar chag (p. 27) alludes to rdo rje khab rtse’i dmyal ba (according to the Kālacakra tradition), being the eighth hell. (b) See also Wangchuk 2009 (i.e. “A Relativity Theory of the Purity and Validity of Perception in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism”), where I also point out that, somewhat like what we find in John Milton’s poem, according to some Buddhist sources, too, one can make a heaven out of hell and hell out of heaven. Posted by

Question: Tartarology is the study of what?
Answer: Hell