3 Forms of Buddhism 3 Forms of Buddhism Many forms of Buddhism are actually practiced around the world. Buddhists don’t all follow the same teachings and the same texts. The core principles stay the same but different important aspects are observed in each type. Each form is also subdivided into schools . Map Of Buddhism in the World Theravada Buddhism is also known as the doctrine of the elders, Southern Buddhism or Ancient Teaching. The main text used by this school is the Pali Canon. The main area of influence includes the following countries: Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar). They have about 100 million followers and are gaining ground in Singapore, Vietnam and the Western world. This form of Buddhism is characterized by its orthodoxy. They are considered to be the closest to the teaching of Buddha and the text they use- the Pali Canon- is the oldest surviving Buddhist text. Their beliefs are that each individual can attain enlightenment by himself and the best way to do this is by joining the monastic way of life as it allows for an ideal setting to dedicate one’s life to the Dharma.

Lay people have a role to play also and it is partly comprised of Merit Making actions including: offering food and other basic necessities to monks making donations to temples and monasteries burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha chanting verses from the Pali Canon act as trustees or custodians for their temples taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks Monks gain merit by practicing mindfulness, meditation, and chanting. In the Pali Sutra, the Buddha instructs the followers to follow concentration as it is a tool he used to attain nirvana. Thus, the Theravada Buddhist practice these form of meditation: Anapanasati (Green and white on the map) (Green and white on the map) Mahāyāna is also called the Great Vehicle, Bodhisattvayāna or the Bodhisattva Vehicle. It is the larger of the two major traditions of Buddhism existing today, the other being that of the Theravāda school. It is also the origin of the Vajrayana form. It is mostly popular in China, Japan , Korea, Vietnam, and Mongolia and spread very widely in the west.

Major traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism today include Zen (Chán), Pure Land, Tiantai,(Tendai in Japan) Nichiren , and Esoteric Buddhism (Shingon, Tibetan Buddhism (although we further separate them below)). The beliefs: Mahayana Buddhism prones liberation of suffering for all sentient beings. Where Theravada focuses on individual enlightenment, Mahayana preaches that Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are here to help us attain collective illumination. Thus they believe in supernatural bodhisattvas who devote themselves to the perfections, ultimate knowledge, and the liberation of all sentient beings. The Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all places, and the bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence. It is difficult to talk about an unified canon for the Mahayana tradition as it is often assimilated by local beliefs and traditions. In Japan, it has incorporated some local Shinto beliefs and some Shamanism.

Thus, when observed under this angle, it becomes incorrect to refer Buddhism as a non-religion in the Mahayana tradition because of the gods that were later added and all the powers attributed to the different Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Vajrayana is in fact part of the Mahayana school but because its emphasis on tantrism, it is often cited as a different school. It is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Lamaism, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle. It is mostly active in Tibet and Japan , and in China, to some extent. Vajrayana is a school of esoteric knowledge, secret rituals, mudras and mantras. It teaches that in order to access esoteric knowledge, the practitioner requires initiation from a skilled spiritual teacher or guru. Rituals are an important part of the Vajrayana Buddhism. They substitute meditation as they are focused and with purpose. Esoteric Buddhism is often associated with magic as many of their rituals entail working with the supernatural, manipulating the laws of nature with the help of the entities of the Buddhist pantheon .

In this form of Buddhism, like in Mahayana, the ultimate goal of the practitioner is to become a Buddha. Vajrayana teaches that the Vajrayana techniques provide an accelerated path to Buddhahood. But, Reginald Ray writes that “If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept “secret” outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the samaya , or “sacred bond”, that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings.” It is then difficult for westerners to study this path as it often entails speaking the language (ibetan and Japanese) and being accepted in a monastery by a master. In Japan, in particular, Koya-san accepts some foreigners but the path is difficult and they often suffer from some form of subtle racism as the Japanese people feel that Buddhism can only be understood by Japanese. Links Japanese Buddhism More... Buddhism Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century BC. It consists of the teachings of the Buddha, Gautama Siddhartha.

Of the main branches of Buddhism, it is the Mahayana or "Greater Vehicle" Buddhism which found its way to Japan. Buddhism was imported to Japan via China and Korea in the form of a present from the friendly Korean kingdom of Kudara (Paikche) in the 6th century . While Buddhism was welcomed by the ruling nobles as Japan's new state religion, it did not initially spread among the common people due to its complex theories. There were also a few initial conflicts with Shinto , Japan's native religion. The two religions were soon able to co-exist and even complement each other. During the Nara Period , the great Buddhist monasteries in the capital Nara , such as Todaiji , gained strong political influence and were one of the reasons for the government to move the capital to Nagaoka in 784 and then to Kyoto in 794. Nevertheless, the problem of politically ambitious and militant monasteries remained a main issue for the governments over many centuries of Japanese history .

Nara's Todaiji During the early Heian Period , two new Buddhist sects were introduced from China: the Tendai sect in 805 by Saicho and the Shingon sect in 806 by Kukai. More sects later branched off the Tendai sect. Among these, the most important ones are mentioned below: In 1175, the Jodo sect (Pure Land sect) was founded by Honen. It found followers among all different social classes since its theories were simple and based on the principle that everybody can achieve salvation by strongly believing in the Buddha Amida. In 1224, the Jodo-Shinshu (True Pure Land sect) was founded by Honen's successor Shinran. The Jodo sects continue to have millions of followers today. In 1191, the Zen sect was introduced from China. Its complicated theories were popular particularly among the members of the military class . According to Zen teachings, one can achieve self enlightenment through meditation and discipline. At present, Zen seems to enjoy a greater popularity overseas than within Japan. The Lotus Hokke or Nichiren sect, was founded by Nichiren in 1253.

The sect was exceptional due to its intolerant stance towards other Buddhist sects. Nichiren Buddhism still has many millions of followers today, and several "new religions" are based on Nichiren's teachings. Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi fought the militant Buddhist monasteries (especially the Jodo sects) at the end of the 16th century and practically extinguished Buddhist influence on the political sector. Buddhist institutions were attacked again in the early years of the Meiji Period , when the new Meiji government favored Shinto as the state religion and tried to separate and emancipate it from Buddhism. Nowadays about 90 million people consider themselves Buddhists in Japan. However, the religion does not directly affect the everyday life of the average Japanese very strongly. Funerals are usually carried out in a Buddhist way, and many households keep a small house altar in order to pay respect to their ancestors. Advertisement Buddhism ï¿½ Aharon Daniel Israel 1999-2000 I. Introduction Buddhism, a major world religion, founded in northeastern India and based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha, or Enlightened One. See Buddha .

Originating as a monastic movement within the dominant Brahman tradition of the day, Buddhism quickly developed in a distinctive direction. The Buddha not only rejected significant aspects of Hindu philosophy, but also challenged the authority of the priesthood, denied the validity of the Vedic scriptures, and rejected the sacrificial cult based on them. Moreover, he opened his movement to members of all castes, denying that a person's spiritual worth is a matter of birth. See Hinduism . Buddhism today is divided into two major branches known to their respective followers as Theravada , the Way of the Elders, and Mahayana , the Great Vehicle. Followers of Mahayana refer to Theravada using the derogatory term Hinayana, the Lesser Vehicle. Buddhism has been significant not only in India but also in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar (formerly known as Burma), and Laos, where Theravada has been dominant; Mahayana has had its greatest impact in China, Japan, Taiwan, Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as in India. The number of Buddhists worldwide has been estimated at between 150 and 300 million.

The reasons for such a range are twofold: Throughout much of Asia religious affiliation has tended to be nonexclusive; and it is especially difficult to estimate the continuing influence of Buddhism in Communist countries such as China. II. Origins As did most major faiths, Buddhism developed over many years. A. Buddha's Life No complete biography of the Buddha was compiled until centuries after his death; only fragmentary accounts of his life are found in the earliest sources. Western scholars, however, generally agree on 563 BC as the year of his birth. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in Lumbini near the present Indian-Nepal border, the son of the ruler of a petty kingdom. According to legend, at his birth sages recognized in him the marks of a great man with the potential to become either a sage or the ruler of an empire. The young prince was raised in sheltered luxury, until at the age of 29 he realized how empty his life to this point had been. Renouncing earthly attachments, he embarked on a quest for peace and enlightenment, seeking release from the cycle of rebirths. For the next few years he practiced Yoga and adopted a life of radical asceticism.

Eventually he gave up this approach as fruitless and instead adopted a middle path between the life of indulgence and that of self-denial. Sitting under a bo tree, he meditated, rising through a series of higher states of consciousness until he attained the enlightenment for which he had been searching. Once having known this ultimate religious truth, the Buddha underwent a period of intense inner struggle. He began to preach, wandering from place to place, gathering a body of disciples, and organizing them into a monastic community known as the sangha. In this way he spent the rest of his life. B. Buddha's Teachings The Buddha was an oral teacher; he left no written body of thought. His beliefs were codified by later followers. 1. The Four Noble Truths At the core of the Buddha's enlightenment was the realization of the Four Noble Truths: (1) Life is suffering. This is more than a mere recognition of the presence of suffering in existence. It is a statement that, in its very nature, human existence is essentially painful from the moment of birth to the moment of death. Even death brings no relief, for the Buddha accepted the Hindu idea of life as cyclical, with death leading to further rebirth.

(2) All suffering is caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the craving, attachment, and grasping that result from such ignorance. (3) Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance and attachment. (4) The path to the suppression of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right-mindedness, and right contemplation. These eight are usually divided into three categories that form the cornerstone of Buddhist faith: morality, wisdom, and samadhi, or concentration. 2. Anatman Buddhism analyzes human existence as made up of five aggregates or "bundles" (skandhas): the material body, feelings, perceptions, predispositions or karmic tendencies, and consciousness. A person is only a temporary combination of these aggregates, which are subject to continual change. No one remains the same for any two consecutive moments. Buddhists deny that the aggregates individually or in combination may be considered a permanent, independently existing self or soul ( atman ). Indeed, they regard it as a mistake to conceive of any lasting unity behind the elements that constitute an individual.

The Buddha held that belief in such a self results in egoism, craving, and hence in suffering. Thus he taught the doctrine of anatman, or the denial of a permanent soul. He felt that all existence is characterized by the three marks of anatman (no soul), anitya (impermanence), and dukkha (suffering). The doctrine of anatman made it necessary for the Buddha to reinterpret the Indian idea of repeated rebirth in the cycle of phenomenal existence known as samsara. To this end he taught the doctrine of pratityasamutpada, or dependent origination. This 12-linked chain of causation shows how ignorance in a previous life creates the tendency for a combination of aggregates to develop. These in turn cause the mind and senses to operate. Sensations result, which lead to craving and a clinging to existence. This condition triggers the process of becoming once again, producing a renewed cycle of birth, old age, and death. Through this causal chain a connection is made between one life and the next.

What is posited is a stream of renewed existences, rather than a permanent being that moves from life to lifeï¿½in effect a belief in rebirth without transmigration. 3. Karma Closely related to this belief is the doctrine of karma. Karma consists of a person's acts and their ethical consequences. Human actions lead to rebirth, wherein good deeds are inevitably rewarded and evil deeds punished. Thus, neither undeserved pleasure nor unwarranted suffering exists in the world, but rather a universal justice. The karmic process operates through a kind of natural moral law rather than through a system of divine judgment. One's karma determines such matters as one's species, beauty, intelligence, longevity, wealth, and social status. According to the Buddha, karma of varying types can lead to rebirth as a human, an animal, a hungry ghost, a denizen of hell, or even one of the Hindu gods. Although never actually denying the existence of the gods, Buddhism denies them any special role. Their lives in heaven are long and pleasurable, but they are in the same predicament as other creatures, being subject eventually to death and further rebirth in lower states of existence.

They are not creators of the universe or in control of human destiny, and Buddhism denies the value of prayer and sacrifice to them. Of the possible modes of rebirth, human existence is preferable, because the deities are so engrossed in their own pleasures that they lose sight of the need for salvation. Enlightenment is possible only for humans. 4. Nirvana The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is release from the round of phenomenal existence with its inherent suffering. To achieve this goal is to attain nirvana , an enlightened state in which the fires of greed, hatred, and ignorance have been quenched. Not to be confused with total annihilation, nirvana is a state of consciousness beyond definition. After attaining nirvana, the enlightened individual may continue to live, burning off any remaining karma until a state of final nirvana (parinirvana) is attained at the moment of death. In theory, the goal of nirvana is attainable by anyone, although it is a realistic goal only for members of the monastic community. In Theravada Buddhism an individual who has achieved enlightenment by following the Eightfold Path is known as an arhat, or worthy one, a type of solitary saint.

For those unable to pursue the ultimate goal, the proximate goal of better rebirth through improved karma is an option. This lesser goal is generally pursued by lay Buddhists in the hope that it will eventually lead to a life in which they are capable of pursuing final enlightenment as members of the sangha. The ethic that leads to nirvana is detached and inner-oriented. It involves cultivating four virtuous attitudes, known as the Palaces of Brahma: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. The ethic that leads to better rebirth, however, is centered on fulfilling one's duties to society. It involves acts of charity, especially support of the sangha, as well as observance of the five precepts that constitute the basic moral code of Buddhism. The precepts prohibit killing, stealing, harmful language, sexual misbehavior, and the use of intoxicants. By observing these precepts, the three roots of evilï¿½lust, hatred, and delusionï¿½may be overcome. III. Early Development Shortly before his death, the Buddha refused his disciples' request to appoint a successor, telling his followers to work out their own salvation with diligence.

At that time Buddhist teachings existed only in oral traditions, and it soon became apparent that a new basis for maintaining the community's unity and purity was needed. Thus, the monastic order met periodically to reach agreement on matters of doctrine and practice. Four such meetings have been focused on in the traditions as major councils. A. Major Councils The first council was held at Rajagrha (present-day Rajgir) immediately after the Buddha's death. Presided over by a monk named Mahakasyapa, its purpose was to recite and agree on the Buddha's actual teachings and on proper monastic discipline. About a century later, a second great council is said to have met at Vaishali. Its purpose was to deal with ten questionable monastic practicesï¿½the use of money, the drinking of palm wine, and other irregularitiesï¿½of monks from the Vajjian Confederacy; the council declared these practices unlawful. Some scholars trace the origins of the first major split in Buddhism to this event, holding that the accounts of the council refer to the schism between the Mahasanghikas, or Great Assembly, and the stricter Sthaviras, or Elders.

More likely, however, the split between these two groups became formalized at another meeting held some 37 years later as a result of the continued growth of tensions within the sangha over disciplinary issues, the role of the laity, and the nature of the arhat. In time, further subdivisions within these groups resulted in 18 schools that differed on philosophical matters, religious questions, and points of discipline. Of these 18 traditional sects, only Theravada survives. The third council at Pataliputra (present-day Patna) was called by King Ashoka in the 3rd century BC . Convened by the monk Moggaliputta Tissa, it was held in order to purify the sangha of the large number of false monks and heretics who had joined the order because of its royal patronage. This council refuted the offending viewpoints and expelled those who held them. In the process, the compilation of the Buddhist scriptures (Tipitaka) was supposedly completed, with the addition of a body of subtle philosophy (abhidharma) to the doctrine (dharma) and monastic discipline (vinaya) that had been recited at the first council.

Another result of the third council was the dispatch of missionaries to various countries. A fourth council, under the patronage of King Kanishka, was held about AD 100 at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. Both branches of Buddhism may have participated in this council, which aimed at creating peace among the various sects, but Theravada Buddhists refuse to recognize its authenticity. B. Formation of Buddhist Literature For several centuries after the death of the Buddha, the scriptural traditions recited at the councils were transmitted orally. These were finally committed to writing about the 1st century BC . Some early schools used Sanskrit for their scriptural language. Although individual texts are extant, no complete canon has survived in Sanskrit. In contrast, the full canon of the Theravadins survives in Pali, which was apparently a popular dialect derived from Sanskrit.

The Buddhist canon is known in Pali as the Tipitaka (Tripitaka in Sanskrit), meaning "Three Baskets," because it consists of three collections of writings: the Sutta Pitaka (Sutra Pitaka in Sanskrit), a collection of discourses; the Vinaya Pitaka, the code of monastic discipline; and the Abhidharma Pitaka, which contains philosophical, psychological, and doctrinal discussions and classifications. The Sutta Pitaka is primarily composed of dialogues between the Buddha and other people. It consists of five groups of texts: Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of Medium-Length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of Grouped Discourses), Anguttara Nikaya (Collection of Discourses on Numbered Topics), and Khuddaka Nikaya (Collection of Miscellaneous Texts). In the fifth group, the Jatakas, comprising stories of former lives of the Buddha, and the Dhammapada (Religious Sentences), a summary of the Buddha's teachings on mental discipline and morality, are especially popular. The Vinaya Pitaka consists of more than 225 rules governing the conduct of Buddhist monks and nuns.

Each is accompanied by a story explaining the original reason for the rule. The rules are arranged according to the seriousness of the offense resulting from their violation. The Abhidharma Pitaka consists of seven separate works. They include detailed classifications of psychological phenomena, metaphysical analysis, and a thesaurus of technical vocabulary. Although technically authoritative, the texts in this collection have little influence on the lay Buddhist. The complete canon, much expanded, also exists in Tibetan and Chinese versions. Two noncanonical texts that have great authority within Theravada Buddhism are the Milindapanha (Questions of King Milinda) and the Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification). The Milindapanha dates from about the 2nd century AD . It is in the form of a dialogue dealing with a series of fundamental problems in Buddhist thought. The Visuddhimagga is the masterpiece of the most famous of Buddhist commentators, Buddhaghosa (flourished early 5th century AD ). It is a large compendium summarizing Buddhist thought and meditative practice. Theravada Buddhists have traditionally considered the Tipitaka to be the remembered words of Siddhartha Gautama.

Mahayana Buddhists have not limited their scriptures to the teachings of this historical figure, however, nor has Mahayana ever bound itself to a closed canon of sacred writings. Various scriptures have thus been authoritative for different branches of Mahayana at various periods of history. Among the more important Mahayana scriptures are the following: the Saddharmapundarika Sutra (Lotus of the Good Law Sutra, popularly known as the Lotus Sutra), the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Avatamsaka Sutra (Garland Sutra), and the Lankavatara Sutra (The Buddha's Descent to Sri Lanka Sutra), as well as a group of writings known as the Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom). C. Conflict and New Groupings As Buddhism developed in its early years, conflicting interpretations of the master's teachings appeared, resulting in the traditional 18 schools of Buddhist thought. As a group, these schools eventually came to be considered too conservative and literal minded in their attachment to the master's message. Among them, Theravada was charged with being too individualistic and insufficiently concerned with the needs of the laity.

Such dissatisfaction led a liberal wing of the sangha to begin to break away from the rest of the monks at the second council in 383 BC . While the more conservative monks continued to honor the Buddha as a perfectly enlightened human teacher, the liberal Mahasanghikas developed a new concept. They considered the Buddha an eternal, omnipresent, transcendental being. They speculated that the human Buddha was but an apparition of the transcendental Buddha that was created for the benefit of humankind. In this understanding of the Buddha nature, Mahasanghika thought is something of a prototype of Mahayana. 1. Mahayana The origins of Mahayana are particularly obscure. Even the names of its founders are unknown, and scholars disagree about whether it originated in southern or in northwestern India. Its formative years were between the 2nd century BC AD . Speculation about the eternal Buddha continued well after the beginning of the Christian era and culminated in the Mahayana doctrine of his threefold nature, or triple "body" (trikaya). These aspects are the body of essence, the body of communal bliss, and the body of transformation. The body of essence represents the ultimate nature of the Buddha.

Beyond form, it is the unchanging absolute and is spoken of as consciousness or the void. This essential Buddha nature manifests itself, taking on heavenly form as the body of communal bliss. In this form the Buddha sits in godlike splendor, preaching in the heavens. Lastly, the Buddha nature appears on earth in human form to convert humankind. Such an appearance is known as a body of transformation. The Buddha has taken on such an appearance countless times. Mahayana considers the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, only one example of the body of transformation. The new Mahayana concept of the Buddha made possible concepts of divine grace and ongoing revelation that are lacking in Theravada. Belief in the Buddha's heavenly manifestations led to the development of a significant devotional strand in Mahayana. Some scholars have therefore described the early development of Mahayana in terms of the "Hinduization" of Buddhism. Another important new concept in Mahayana is that of the bodhisattva or enlightenment being, as the ideal toward which the good Buddhist should aspire. A bodhisattva is an individual who has attained perfect enlightenment but delays entry into final nirvana in order to make possible the salvation of all other sentient beings.

The bodhisattva transfers merit built up over many lifetimes to less fortunate creatures. The key attributes of this social saint are compassion and loving-kindness. For this reason Mahayana considers the bodhisattva superior to the arhats who represent the ideal of Theravada. Certain bodhisattvas, such as Maitreya, who represents the Buddha's loving-kindness, and Avalokitesvara or Guanyin, who represents his compassion, have become the focus of popular devotional worship in Mahayana. 2. Tantrism By the 7th century AD a new form of Buddhism known as Tantrism (see Tantra ) had developed through the blend of Mahayana with popular folk belief and magic in northern India. Similar to Hindu Tantrism, which arose about the same time, Buddhist Tantrism differs from Mahayana in its strong emphasis on sacramental action. Also known as Vajrayana, the Diamond Vehicle, Tantrism is an esoteric tradition. Its initiation ceremonies involve entry into a mandala, a mystic circle or symbolic map of the spiritual universe.

Also important in Tantrism is the use of mudras, or ritual gestures, and mantras, or sacred syllables, which are repeatedly chanted and used as a focus for meditation. Vajrayana became the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet and was also transmitted through China to Japan, where it continues to be practiced by the Shingon sect. IV. From India Outward Buddhism spread rapidly throughout the land of its birth. Missionaries dispatched by King Ashoka introduced the religion to southern India and to the northwest part of the subcontinent. According to inscriptions from the Ashokan period, missionaries were sent to countries along the Mediterranean, although without success. A. Asian Expansion King Ashoka's son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta are credited with the conversion of Sri Lanka. From the beginning of its history there, Theravada was the state religion of Sri Lanka. According to tradition, Theravada was carried to Myanmar from Sri Lanka during the reign of Ashoka, but no firm evidence of its presence there appears until the 5th century AD . From Myanmar, Theravada spread to the area of modern Thailand in the 6th century.

It was adopted by the Thai people when they finally entered the region from southwestern China between the 12th and 14th centuries. With the rise of the Thai Kingdom, it was adopted as the state religion. Theravada was adopted by the royal house in Laos during the 14th century. Both Mahayana and Hinduism had begun to influence Cambodia by the end of the 2nd century AD . After the 14th century, however, under Thai influence, Theravada gradually replaced the older establishment as the primary religion in Cambodia. About the beginning of the Christian era, Buddhism was carried to Central Asia. From there it entered China along the trade routes by the early 1st century AD . Although opposed by the Confucian orthodoxy and subject to periods of persecution in 446, 574-77, and 845, Buddhism was able to take root, influencing Chinese culture and, in turn, adapting itself to Chinese ways. The major influence of Chinese Buddhism ended with the great persecution of 845, although the meditative Zen, or Ch'an (from Sanskrit dhyana,"meditation"), sect and the devotional Pure Land sect continued to be important.

From China, Buddhism continued its spread. Confucian authorities discouraged its expansion into Vietnam, but Mahayana's influence there was beginning to be felt as early as AD Religious Practices of the Samurai | Asian Art Museum | Education Log in or sign up to save resources Print page Email link to page Religious Practices of the Samurai Painting of the Buddhist monk Daruma. By Hirafuku Hyakusui (1877–1933) with inscription by Nakamura Fusetsu (1866–1943). Seated Buddha Amitabha (Japanese: Amida). Japan. Heian period (794–1185). Lacquer and gold on wood. The Avery Brundage Collection, B60S10+. Resource Type: samurai , Buddhism Like most Japanese of their time, the samurai followed Buddhist religious teachings as well as the practices of Japan’s native belief system, Shinto . Buddhism originated in India, birthplace of the historical founder also known as the Buddha Shakyamuni.

The main tenets of Buddhism, expounded in the Four Noble Truths preached by the Buddha, teach the origins of human suffering in desire, and offer hope of escape from suffering and the endless cycle of rebirth through pursuit of the Noble Eightfold Path. The latter is a set of guidelines for living based on principles of ethical conduct, the cultivation of wisdom, and mental discipline. In some schools of Buddhism the Buddha Shakyamuni is thought of as one buddha among many, each inhabiting a different era or part of the universe. By the mid-sixth century, when it reached Japan, Buddhism had spread from India throughout China, Southeast Asia, and Korea. In 552, Buddhism was introduced to Japan by the ruler of a kingdom in southwest Korea. Under patronage from the Japanese emperor and nobility, hundreds of Buddhist temples were constructed in Japan throughout the Nara (645–794) and Heian (794–1185) periods.

Although devotional practices varied from sect to sect, devotees typically read and chanted sacred texts, and performed ceremonies and rituals dedicated to the Buddha and other deities, including a class of compassionate intercessors known as bodhisattvas, and other more fearsome or passionate gods like Achala (Japanese: Fudo). Pure Land Buddhism One Buddhist concept with special relevance for samurai life is that of impermanence. The opening passage of the great warrior epic The Tales of the Heike reflects this principle underlying the pathos of war: The sound of the Gion Shoja bells echoes the impermanence of all things; the color of the sala flowers reveals the truth that the prosperous must decline. The proud do not endure, they are like a dream on a spring night; the mighty fall at last, they are as dust before the wind. 1 When the battles recounted in the Heike took place (the late twelfth century), there was a new urgency to the quest for adequate responses to life’s fleeting nature. Common belief held that the world had entered a period known as the Latter Day of the Buddhist Law, an age when people would be incapable of achieving salvation through adherence to Buddhist doctrine alone.

In response to the anxieties of this age, a new Buddhist sect known as Pure Land rose to prominence. The term Pure Land refers to the western paradise of Amitabha, a powerful and compassionate Buddha to whom the sect was devoted. The attraction of Pure Land Buddhism lay in its reliance on a simple, expedient device for salvation: recitation of a short prayer, invoking the name of Amitabha. Pure Land monks taught that if devotees called upon Amitabha even once with a sincere heart, they would escape rebirth and instead be welcomed to his wondrous paradise after death. Throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, preachers traveled throughout Japan, attracting flocks of followers to Pure Land sects. The monks Honen and Ippen, two of the most prominent Pure Land leaders, were themselves of samurai descent, and many warriors were drawn to the faith along with converts from other walks of life. Evidence of samurai enthusiasm for the Pure Land sect comes from many sources, including a set of painted handscrolls dating to 1299.

In this work, one illustration shows Ippen at the house of a warrior where he has just delivered a sermon; another shows him leading a group dancing and chanting prayers outside a second warrior’s residence. Leading lives of great fragility, never knowing when death might strike, perhaps the warriors needed faith in Buddha Amitabha more than most. According to some accounts, Pure Land monks accompanied samurai into battle in order to guide them in recitation of the name of the Buddha Amitabha (a prayer known as the nembutsu) should they succumb to wounds, and to pray for their successful salvation in the event of death. In a later section of this essay, a passage from the twelfth century The Tales of the Heike describes a warrior’s final appeal to Amitabha moments before an opponent takes off his head. It appears that his fears are greatly eased by even this brief devotional act. 2 Zen Buddhism Another, quite different sect with many samurai adherents was Zen Buddhism. Introduced to Japan from China in the twelfth century, Zen is a form of Buddhism that stresses seated meditation and pondering of koan—paradoxical statements or questions—as practices leading to enlightenment.

Zen’s rapid acceptance in Japan was another response to the search for religious alternatives in the Latter Day of Buddhist Law. The military leadership, based in Kamakura, was particularly welcoming to Zen, supporting the activities of Chinese and Japanese monks and sponsoring the establishment of several major temples in the east during the thirteenth century. This patronage continued throughout the period of rule by the Ashikaga shoguns, accounting for the great concentration of Zen temples in Kyoto, where their capital was located. Describing the connection between Zen principles and samurai values, the historian Martin Collcutt writes: With its emphasis on discipline and self-reliant effort, Zen was temperamentally suited to warriors, who on the battlefield required skill and courage. The ultimate goal of Zen is, of course, spiritual awakening and the attainment of Buddhahood, but the concentration and equanimity fostered by the practice of meditation and the directness of mind and expression called for in koan encounters were of great practical use to even the most unenlightened samurai. 3 Many samurai practiced meditation, alone and under the tutelage of Zen monks, and the concentration required by this practice became a guiding principle for martial arts and military discipline.

But Zen was also important as a conduit for many cultural activities, including the “Way of Tea” and ink painting, that were later associated with warrior life. For example, the fourth Ashikaga shogun commissioned one of the most famous Zen paintings of his age, Catching a Catfish with a Gourd, to illustrate a famous koan. The shogun’s deep connection to the Zen community is further demonstrated by the fact that thirty eminent Zen monks wrote inscriptions above the painting to comment on its content. Other leading warriors collected Chinese ceramics and ink paintings, introduced to Japan through the Zen monasteries. 1 Helen Craig McCullough, trans., The Tale of the Heike (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1994), 23. 2 Dennis Hirota, trans. No Abode: The Record of Ippen (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1997), xlvi. 3 Martin Collcutt, “Zen Art in a Monastic Context: Zen and the Arts in Medieval Kenchoji,” in Awakenings.

Zen Figure Painting in Medieval Japan, ed.Yukio Lippit and Gregory Levine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 25. Buddhism Buddhism Origins Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who came to be called the Buddha or �enlightened one�. Gautama was born into a wealthy family near the border of modern India and Nepal in 563 BC. Confronted by the reality of ageing, sickness and death, he left his rich home at 29, and spent seven years travelling India as an ascetic. Substituting meditation for physical self-punishment, he was sitting under a fig-tree (boddhi tree) when he had his first three enlightened revelations. Gautama did not envisage himself as establishing a religion. Buddhists have no belief in higher deities, but propose a path towards freedom from suffering, or individual enlightenment, through deep reflection on the nature of existence. This focus on self-redemption makes it qualitatively quite different from other belief systems which base themselves around concepts of divine mercy or grace. History and Spread After enlightenment, Buddha taught for the next 45 years of his life.

His adherents taught more adherents. The Buddha�s teaching (dharma) is the cornerstone of Buddhism. Two hundred years after Gautama�s death (253 BCE) a thousand monks worked for nine months to classify and write down the traditions that had only existed orally. This work, called the Pali canon, is the foundational teaching text for the Theravadic Buddhists. Different Buddhist groups recognise other authoritative texts. Under pressure from Hindu growth, the Buddhist presence in India eventually began to decline from about the 7th Century CE. Buddhism flourished in many other parts of Asia, notably China and Japan. Today it is estimated that there about 200 million Buddhists living in countries outside of China; and including China, the total number of adherents could be as high as 600 million. In Australia Immigrants from China, Sri Lanka and Japan who arrived in Australia in the mid to late 1800s as gold miners, pearl divers and sugar cane plantation workers, brought with them a mixture of Buddhist and other Eastern religious traditions. A small but significant tradition of lay Buddhism among the Anglo-European community took root in the 1920s.

In 1952, the Buddhist Society of NSW was formed, and their Queensland and Victorian counterparts in 1953. These organisations sponsored and supported visits from Buddhist monks in Asia. The first Buddhist monastery was set up in 1971 in the Blue Mountains in NSW. The first new wave of immigrants arrived in 1975, from Vietnam and South-East Asia; in 1991, nearly one-third of Buddhists in Australia were born in Vietnam. From 1991-1996, the number of people identifying as Buddhist grew by 43 per cent, mainly through immigration. The 2001 Census recorded 358,000 people identifying Buddhism as their religion, but in Australia, as elsewhere in the West, many more people �dip into� Buddhism through books, meditation classes, and public lectures by visiting monks. Key Movements There are two main movements in Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism (Way of the Elders) and Mahayana Buddhism (Great Vehicle), as well as other streams. Theravada Buddhism (or Southern Buddhism) maintains the importance of the community of monks.

It emerged in first century BCE and uses the Pali canon as the authoritative Buddhist scripture. It places emphasis on the relentless effort that is required to gain enlightenment and the difficulty of that path. There are approximately 100 million Theravadic adherents, most living in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. Mahayana Buddhism (or Eastern Buddhism) is more liberal and open to a wider range of authoritative texts and ideas. Its scripture was recorded in Sanskrit in 3rd Century BCE and it usually develops in close relationship with the various indigenous religions it encounters, such as Confucianism in China and Shinto in Japan. It tends to be more accepting of popular piety and statues of the Buddha etc. are often used as objects of veneration. Other important streams of Buddhism include: Lamaism, the dominant Tibetan form of Buddhism. Its most important text is the Tibetan Book of the Dead. The annexation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China in 1956 and the escape of the 14th Dalai Lama into India 1959, radically changed the profile and practice of Lamaism which now claims to have 10 million adherents worldwide.

In practical terms, it places great emphasis on magical and sacramental rites. Zen, which originated in China, growing out of Mahayana Buddhism. It has had a major impact in Japan and places emphasis on meditation and the technique of koans. It holds enlightenment to be a spontaneous event, totally independent of concepts, rituals or techniques. Vajrayana, or �diamond vehicle�, which has mystical and magical elements and uses specific techniques such as the mantra (special saying) and mandala (meditation circle). Organisational Structure Rather than a hierarchically-ordered structure, Buddhism is practised through a wide range of temples and small groups. Practice may even take place in the home and involve no congregational meeting. Buddhist communities involve both lay and ordained members. Sangha, the community of monks, has great significance. The sangha promotes, through its own lifestyle, the conditions for reaching enlightenment. After first becoming a novice one is eventually consecrated as a monk or nun. In the Mahayana tradition there is a third level of bodhisattva ordination. Key Beliefs Trsna: The root of suffering is desire; our craving for and clinging to transient phenomena.

Nirvana: It is possible for suffering to cease and this state is called nirvana. The Noble Eightfold Path: the solution for ending suffering The Eightfold Path incorporates: Right knowledge: Understanding the Buddha�s view of life as set out in the Four Noble Truths Right attitude: Goodwill and peacefulness should take the place of desire and hateful thoughts Right speech: Communication should be wise, truthful, kind, helpful and harmonious Right action: Buddhists should live according to the Buddhist precepts, and take responsibility for the consequences for their actions Right livelihood: A Buddhist�s occupation must not harm others Right effort: Buddhists must make a consistent effort to overcome unhelpful motivations and cultivate wholesome ones Right mindfulness: Consider all things with care, and act, speak, and think with awareness, not desire. Right meditation: Intense concentration, following the path of Buddhist meditation Buddhists do not believe in a Creator God Buddhists view the world as samsara � a cycle of birth and death � involving a reconfiguration of energy. It differs from the Hindu sense of reincarnation in which the soul is transferred. Buddhists believe in karma, which means that actions have consequences.

This law of consequence however, is not divine judgement To enter the Buddhist community, a person must take the three refuges and the five precepts. Key Festivals Vesak (Theravada): Celebrates the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha and occurs on the first full moon day in May. Vassa (Theravada): The Rains Retreat observance of a three month retreat during the Asian rainy season Poson Day: Celebrates the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka Buddhist New Year: Celebrates the New Year. Paranirvana Day (Mahayana): Celebrates the death of the Buddha WWW Links Nan Tien Temple at Wollongong Largest Buddhist temple in the southern hemisphere. A branch of the Fo Guang Shan, founded in 1965 by Venerable Master Hsing Yun, which has over 120 branches worldwide. "Nan Tien" in Chinese, literally means "Paradise of the South". Fo Guang Buddhism is rooted in the Mahayana tradition which emphasises that Buddhahood is within everyone's potential reach.

Fo Guang followers strive to bring Buddhism into daily life and aptly term their faith "Humanistic Buddhism." Sydney Buddhist Centre Branch of the The Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, a Buddhist movement founded in London in 1967. It seeks to create all of the conditions needed for the effective practice of Buddhism in modern society. It has grown into a varied and energetic tradition of practice, and communal institutions. Sydney Zen Centre The Sydney Zen Centre is a lay, or non-monastic, Zen Buddhist community whose primary practice is meditation. It is affiliated with the Diamond Sangha, a world-wide network with centres in the Americas, Europe, and Australasia. The lineage of the Diamond Sangha is the Japanese Sanbo Kyodan, or 'Order of the Three Treasures', an independent sect founded early last century, with roots in the Soto school, but incorporating Rinzai elements, such as koan study. Zen Buddhism | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art Works of Art (8) Essay The essential element of Zen Buddhism is found in its name, for Zen means “meditation.” Zen teaches that enlightenment is achieved through the profound realization that one is already an enlightened being.

This awakening can happen gradually or in a flash of insight (as emphasized by the Soto and Rinzai schools, respectively). But in either case, it is the result of one’s own efforts. Deities and scriptures can offer only limited assistance. Zen traces its origins to India , but it was formalized in China. Chan, as it is known in China, was transmitted to Japan and took root there in the thirteenth century. Chan was enthusiastically received in Japan, especially by the samurai class that wielded political power at this time, and it became the most prominent form of Buddhism between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. The immigrant Chinese prelates were educated men, who introduced not only religious practices but also Chinese literature, calligraphy , philosophy, and ink painting to their Japanese disciples, who often in turn traveled to China for further study. Today, ink monochrome painting is the art form most closely associated with Zen Buddhism. In general, the first Japanese artists to work in this medium were Zen monks who painted in a quick and evocative manner to express their religious views and personal convictions. Their preferred subjects were Zen patriarchs, teachers, and enlightened individuals.

In time, however, artists moved on to secular themes such as bamboo, flowering plums, orchids, and birds, which in China were endowed with scholarly symbolism. The range of subject matter eventually broadened to include literary figures and landscapes, and the painting styles often became more important than personal expression. Zen Buddhism’s emphasis on simplicity and the importance of the natural world generated a distinctive aesthetic, which is expressed by the terms wabi and sabi. These two amorphous concepts are used to express a sense of rusticity, melancholy, loneliness, naturalness, and age, so that a misshapen, worn peasant’s jar is considered more beautiful than a pristine, carefully crafted dish. While the latter pleases the senses, the former stimulates the mind and emotions to contemplate the essence of reality. This artistic sensibility has had an enormous impact on Japanese culture up to modern times. Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art October 2002 Citation Department of Asian Art. “Zen Buddhism.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2002) Further Reading Brinker, Helmut, and Hiroshi Kanazawa.

Zen: Masters of Meditation in Images and Writings. Zurich: Artibus Asiae, 1996. Levine, Gregory, and Yukio Lippit. Awakenings: Zen Figure Painting in Medieval Japan. New York: Japan Society, 2007. Mason, Penelope. History of Japanese Art. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. Murase, Miyeko. Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. See on MetPublications Related Meditation Techniques Meditation Techniques Meditation techniques are numerous. Even if meditation is a practice at the very core of Buddhism (The Buddha attained enlightment through meditation after all!) it is not practiced by all Buddhist. Many other traditions and religions also practice meditation, often calling it other things. It is a form of meditation, even if they do not realize it. It is sometimes difficult to start meditation by yourself, without any guidance. Fortunately for us, in our modern world, Meditation is an exercise of the mind. Meditation is you, flexing your mind muscles to make it bend to your will.

It is focusing your mind on a single task, be it walking (as in the walking meditation technique) writing, chanting, manually working or even more difficult, emptying your mind. Meditation techniques are just that: techniques to acheive a goal. The goal behind all meditation techniques is to gain control over your mind, that bucking stallion who will not stop jumping around unless you tame it. Why is it important to tame your mind and quiet it? Good question. You can first have a look at the benefits of meditation. Then, I would tell you that meditation is the single easiest way of being happy. While you meditate, you are with yourself, alone. You build an inner undertanding of who you are and your inner peace is thus boosted to a degree you would not be able to acheive otherwise. In Buddhism, the importance of meditation is so that you can get closer to enlightment. In Zen, zazen -the state of just sitting- is the main way one can acheive enlightment. The chief aims of most Buddhist meditation techniques are to develop mindfulness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranquility, and insight. Below are a list of meditation techniques and some other articles related to the topic.

Please browse through them and learn some. When it comes to meditation though, the most important thing is to just do it. Menu of Meditation Techniques and Topics benefits of meditation

Question: In which Japanese form of Buddhism is meditation most important?
Answer: Zen