ORCHESTRA Here we are presenting general information about an orchestra. An orchestra is an instrumental ensemble, usually fairly large with string, brass, woodwind sections, and possibly a percussion section as well. The term orchestra derives from the name for the area in front of an ancient Greek stage reserved for the Greek chorus. The orchestra grew by accretion throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but changed very little in composition during the course of the twentieth century. A full size orchestra (about 50-100 players) may sometimes be called a "symphony orchestra" or "philharmonic orchestra"; these prefixes do not necessarily indicate any strict difference in either the instrumental constitution or role of the orchestra, but can be useful to distinguish different ensembles based in the same city (for instance, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra). The actual number of musicians employed in a particular performance may vary according to the work being played and the size of the venue.

The typical symphony orchestra consists of four proportionate groups of similar musical instruments, generally appearing in the musical score in the following order: Woodwinds: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon Brass: 2 to 8 horns, 2 to 5 trumpets, 2 trombones, 1 bass trombone and 0 to 2 tubas Percussion: timpani, snare drum, tenor drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, wood block, tambourine, marimba, vibraphone, xylophone, glockenspiel, gong (tam-tam), tubular bells, etc. Strings: 16 to 30 violins, 8 to 12 violas, 8 to 12 violoncellos, and 5 to 8 double basses. The so-called "standard complement" of double winds and brass in the orchestra is generally attributed to the first half of the 19th century. Apart from the core orchestral complement, various other instruments are called for occasionally.

These include the saxophone, heckelphone, flugelhorn, cornet, harpsichord, harpa and organ. Saxophones, for example, appear in a limited range of 19th and 20th century scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Ravel's orchestration of Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition, Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's Bolero and Walton's Belshazzar's Feast, as a member of the orchestral ensemble. Among the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy. Every instrumental group (or section) has a principal who is generally responsible for leading the group and playing orchestral solos. The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, each with its principal. The principal first violin is called the concertmaster (or "leader" in the UK) and is considered the leader of not only the string section, but of the entire orchestra, subordinate only to the conductor.

The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low brass section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. Similarly, the principal oboe is considered the leader of the woodwind section, and is the player to whom all others tune. The horn, while technically a brass instrument, often acts in the role of both woodwind and brass. Most sections also have an assistant principal (or co-principal or associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an assistant concertmaster, who often plays a tutti part in addition to replacing the principal in his or her absence. A section string player plays unison with the rest of the section, except in the case of divided (divisi) parts, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" seated players. Where a solo part is called for in a string section, for example in the violins, the section leader invariably plays that part. Tutti wind and brass players generally play a unique but non-solo part. Section percussionists play parts assigned to them by the principal percussionist.

In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a conductor, although early orchestras did not have one, using instead the concertmaster or the harpsichordist playing the continuo for this role. The most frequently performed repertoire for a symphony orchestra is Western classical music or opera. However, orchestras are sometimes used in popular music, and are used extensively in film music. ORCHESTRA A Short History of the Symphony Orchestra A Short History of the Symphony Orchestra People have been putting instruments together in various combinations for as long as there have been instruments, thousands and thousands of years. But it wasn't until about the last 400 years that musicians started forming into combinations that turned into the modern orchestra. In the old days, when musicians got together to play, they used whatever instruments were around. If there were three lute players, a harp, and two flutes, then that's what they used. By the 1500s, the time known as the Renaissance, the word "consort" was used to mean a group of instrumentalists, and sometimes singers too, making music together or "in concert". Early Renaissance composers usually didn't say what instrument they were writing a part for.

They meant for the parts to be played by whatever was around. But around 1600 in Italy, the composer Claudio Monteverdi liked things just so. He knew just what instruments he wanted to accompany his opera Orfeo (1607), and he said exactly what instruments should play: fifteen viols of different sizes; two violins; four flutes, two large and two medium; two oboes, two cornetts (small wooden trumpets), four trumpets, five trombones, a harp, two harpsichords, and three small organs. You can see that Monteverdi's "Renaissance orchestra" was already starting to look like what we think of as an orchestra: instruments organized into sections; lots of bowed strings; lots of variety. In the next century (up to about 1700, J.S. Bach's time) the orchestra developed still further. The violin family, violin, viola, cello, and bass, replaced the viols, and this new kind of string section became even more central to the Baroque orchestra than the viols had been in the Renaissance.

Musical leadership in the Baroque orchestra came from the keyboard instruments, with the harpsichordist, or sometimes the organist, acting as leader. When J.S. Bach worked with an orchestra, he sat at the organ or harpsichord and gave cues from his bench. In the Baroque era, a musical director occasionally stood and conducted, but not in the way we're used to seeing. Jean-Baptiste Lully, who was in charge of music at the French court in the 1600s, used to pound out the beat for his musicians using a sort of long pole, which he tapped on the floor. But once, he accidentally hit his foot, developed gangrene, and died! In the next century, the orchestra changed a lot. This takes us up to 1800, Haydn's and Beethoven's time. The strings were more important than ever, and the keyboard instruments had taken a back seat. Composers began to write for the specific instrument they had in mind. This meant knowing each instrument's individual "language" and knowing what kind of music would sound best and play easiest on a particular instrument.

Composers also began to be more adventurous about combining instruments to get different sounds and colors. The first violinist, or concertmaster, led the orchestra's performance from his chair, but sometimes, a music director would lead part of a performance with gestures, using a rolled-up piece of white paper that was easy for the musicians to see. This led to the baton that conductors use today. And early in the 1800s, conductor-composers such as Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn actually began to stand up on a podium and conduct from front and center As orchestras were getting bigger and bigger, all those musicians couldn't see and follow the concertmaster. Later in the 1800s, the orchestra reached the size and proportions we know today and even went beyond that size. Some composers, such as Berlioz, really went all-out writing for huge orchestras. Instrument design and construction got better and better, making new instruments such as the piccolo and the tuba available for orchestras. Many composers, including Berlioz, Verdi, Wagner, Mahler, and Richard Strauss, became conductors. Their experiments with orchestration showed the way to the 20th century.

Wagner went so far as to have a new instrument, the Wagner Tuba, designed and built to make certain special sounds in his opera orchestra. In one of his symphonies, Strauss wrote a part for an alphorn, a wooden folk instrument up to 12 feet long! (The alphorn part is usually played by a tuba.) And Arnold Schoenberg wrote a piece called Gurrelieder for a 150-piece orchestra! The 20th century has been a century of freedom and experimentation with the orchestra. It has also been a time of superstar conductors, as the conductor has more and more responsibility and visibility. The "basic" 19th-century orchestra is still around, and composers sometimes add or subtract instruments, depending on the effect they want to get. You might see a hugely expanded percussion section, or lots and lots of woodwinds and brasses. But the orchestra still takes more or less the same form: a big string section, with smaller sections for brasses, woodwinds, percussion, harps and keyboard instruments. After all these years, it still works! Why is the Concertmaster of an orchestra always a violinist?

- Quora Quora Why is the Concertmaster of an orchestra always a violinist? Why not a trumpeter? Or a violist? Or a cellist? Written Nov 11, 2013 · Upvoted by David Skulski , Professional musician (classical) since 1960. and Quora User, I'm an opera singer at the Metropolitan Opera. I know I risk being struck by lightning for suggesting that one of us cellists could do every bit as good of a job as a violinist..... because it's really not that hard to bring the whole orchestra in with a nod of the head, or a sweep of an arm. In chamber music settings the role of leader gets passed around according to what's going on in the music. "How about if you lead that entrance?" is a question which eventually gets asked of every player in a small group. Whoever has moving notes, or those players who need to coordinate something tricky, they are the one(s) who should lead, especially if the violinist has a rest or a long, held-out note. I believe the violinist-concertmaster role is historic, logistic, and practical. Let me tackle logistics first.

The question asked if a trumpet player could lead. In a small setting (4-8 players) they could, but in a full orchestra trumpets sit in the back with the rest of the brass, for a better blend of sound. It would be logistically awkward for players to turn around to see a trumpet-leader, even if s/he is the loudest player on stage. Mozart was an excellent violinist as well as keyboard player, and since a violinist can play while standing, the height advantage is considerable. If his patron wanted a large ensemble to impress his guests, it would have been easier for Mozart to lead the group while standing. If Mozart was the keyboard soloist at the event, he led from the keyboard (as many piano soloists do today in Mozart or even Beethoven piano concertos). During Beethoven's lifetime, as concert halls got bigger (fewer nobility, less patronage = need to sell tickets) ensembles got bigger too, with a dozen or more violinists instead of a handful, etc. A leader/ violinist was by then a tradition, and so it went. The role of soloist changed too.

Brahms wrote more densely for piano than Mozart; it would be much harder to conduct while playing one of his piano concertos, (or his violin concerto). By the time of Brahms the role of conductor was traditional as well. I'm encouraged by the rise of so many small groups that don't rely on a fixed leader, (no conductor or designated concertmaster). But I'm afraid my career will be over before orchestras retire white-tie-and-tails. 16.9k Views · View Upvotes · Answer requested by Written Mar 17, 2014 · Upvoted by Paul Nelson , Amateur chamber music player and orchestra violist since 1969. and Quora User, Principal Second Violin at Young Musicians Symphony Orchestra The concert master/first violinist is also often the one who sets initial bowings for musical passages that are then copied by principals of the other strings. Remember, strings make up the bulk of the orchestra numerically. Usually when the music is rented or bought, the orchestra librarian gives copies of the parts to the concert master to mark, then copies of that part to the other principals so they can set their bowings to match the first part.

And since the first violins usually get the most music to play (the lead melody, more active scale passages, etc.), that's what gets established as the base for everything else to line up with. In amateur groups, sometimes this position is still a paid position since the concertmaster will not only have to play all solos, but also do all this behind the scenes preparation. And traditionally, the concert master is also the person that leads tuning and may take over conducting if necessary. Written Nov 12, 2013 Lots of history around it, but it basically devolves to-- he's closest in position to the conductor, so everyone can see him more or less. The layout of an orchestra is an important aspect of the mix of its sound, and you need someone leading the group (or helping to lead) who is in front. If a trumpeter led, he'd either have his back to some of the group or others would have to spin around in their seat to see him. Likewise, if you moved everybody around so that the trumpeter was in front, then all the audience would hear would be the trumpet part-- the balance of the music would be disturbed.

The first cellist could possibly do the job, but in the case of cueing the group the first violinist has the next best thing to a baton in his hand. The cellist doesn't. There's also something to be said about the historical role of the violin section in carrying much of the primary melody or theme of "classical" music. In smaller groups, with fewer people to organize, the job of concertmaster can naturally be spread around. To the point where in a quartet or trio basically everyone is participating on a more or less equal basis-- depending on skill level and personality. This is mostly experienced conjecture and vague recollection from music history class in college on my part. I'm not a music historian, so I look forward to someone with a more informed response. :) Traits and Skills of a Music Director - League of American Orchestras Traits and Skills of a Music Director Traits and Skills of a Music Director Preface The purpose of this paper, prepared by the League's Conducting Continuum Committee, is to clarify the roles of conductor and music director in American orchestras. It seeks to answer: what does a music director do? and what type of person would make an effective music director?

What follows can serve as a guide for the aspiring conductor or serve as a set of criteria for identifying, selecting, and training conductors. The Committee hopes that discussions emanating from what is written here will lead to a better understanding of what is required to become a music director and provide a common vocabulary with which the orchestra field can discuss issues of artistic leadership. Introduction In America, music directors are called upon to play three overlapping roles: Principal Conductor: a performing musician Artistic Director: the artistic head of the institution Community Arts Leader: an advocate, ambassador, and teacher working on behalf of the orchestra in its community The effective music director will have the ability to perform each of these three roles well; maintaining the proper balance of roles will be critical to his or her success. Being a conductor, and the primacy of musical skills it requires, is the base upon which the other two roles are developedÑthus, this paper begins there before going on to describe the traits and personal qualities that are essential to the artistic director and community arts leader. The focus on conducting skills gives emphasis to the requirement that every music director must be first and foremost a superb conductor.

The conductor's craft may be described as an art of persuasion by which musicians, audiences, and communities come to share a deep connection with the orchestra and its repertoire. Passion, intellect, insight, musical talent, and charisma all come into play. A conductor's authority flows from the respect he or she commands, the power of his or her musical vision, and the skill and facility by which musical ideas are communicated through physical movement as well as verbal instructions. Evaluating conductors objectively can be difficult: There is no "correct" way to perform a given work of art; honest and vigorous differences of opinion are possible. The orchestra, not the conductor, physically creates the sound. It is not always clear to what extent the conductor is responsible for a good (or bad) performance, though the picture generally becomes clearer over time. The conductor's role is rooted in the aristocratic tradition of the 18th and 19th centuries. Until recently, the person on the podium was seldom questioned and never challenged. Today, the role is changing dramatically. The traditional image, confusion about how a conductor influences sound, and lack of consensus about artistic interpretations inhibit objective appraisals of artistic performance.

This situation increases the likelihood that conductors may be evaluated by superficial criteriaÑhow they "look" on the podium, for example, or on how non-artistic functions are fulfilled. Expanded demands on the music director as artistic head and community arts leader are rapidly evolving and are too important to be left to chance. The array of responsibilities are complex and call on many resources beyond those learned on the podium or in the practice room. It is important to be specific about those skills and qualities-they comprise the criteria upon which a music director's performance will be measured. Training in these skills will occur in many forms throughout a career. Music directors should seek opportunities to continue learning and developing, while at the same time encouraging feedback at every stage of development. In considering the following description of traits and skills needed to discharge the music director's three roles, bear in mind that strengths vary from individual to individual in the same way that needs vary from orchestra to orchestra. Some skills are acquired more easily than others, but an effective music director should be accomplished in most of the following eight categories and competent in all of them: Conductor 1.

Performance Skills Mastery of at least one instrument and experience as a solo, chamber, and orchestral performer are vital to the development of greater musical insight and an understanding of music-making from a player's point of view. Interpretive skills and instincts, developed and honed through the sequential performance experiences as a soloist, chamber musician, orchestral musician, and conductor; and a voracious appetite for hearing performances of all types. Inquisitiveness about what composers may have wished to communicate in their music, and a fundamental ability to relate that intent to musicians and audiences. The capacity to invoke a range of emotional responses, and the skill to create drama, contrast, and well-defined gestures in music, from the smallest detail to the overall shape of a piece. 2. Technical Skills Advanced aural skills to deal with complex problems of orchestral intonation, balance, and color; advanced skills in sight-reading and transposition, especially as applied to the preparation of orchestral scores for performance. Detailed knowledge and understanding of all instruments used in orchestral performance; functional keyboard skills. Practical experience in composition so that there is an awareness of the creative process and its choices, systems, and procedures.

Advanced skills in musical analysis based on professional competence in counterpoint, harmony, composition, musical structures, and orchestration. These skills must be integrated to provide the basis of artistic interpretation and the preparation of scores for performance. Demonstrated mastery of various musical styles; an awareness of how to discern the effects of time, place, personality, and relevant performance practice upon the way a work should sound, and an understanding of how it should be played to achieve the intended effect. 3. Conducting skills Baton technique: Ability to maintain continuity of rhythm, line, structure, and interpretive integrity in the overall performance of a work while evoking and controlling response using gestures at all levels of musical detail. Rehearsal technique: Ability to recognize, diagnose, and correct musical, interpretive, rhythmic, balance, and intonation problems in an efficient, sequential, and creative manner. Ability to fuse the analytic knowledge of the structure of a work and an artistic conception into a sonic realization in the available rehearsal time. This skill should be evident with all sizes of ensembles, from coaching soloists and chamber music to rehearsals with full orchestral and choral forces.

Podium presence: Awareness of how the conductor's body language enhances the quality of music-making, as well as how it affects the physical and emotional well being of the players. Ability to communicate effectively with the musicians of the orchestra, both in and out of rehearsal, engendering an environment conducive to a satisfying professional experience and performances of high quality. Ability to gain respect by leading through an example of creativity, knowledge, and dedication. 4. Extensive and insightful knowledge of music, and of the arts and humanities in general Comprehensive knowledge of the orchestral repertoire, as well as chamber orchestra, opera, ballet, and choral/orchestral repertoire; detailed knowledge of scores forming the basic literature of each historical period of orchestral performance.

Comprehensive knowledge of the history of music and its relationship to Western civilization Sufficient language skills to coach singers in French, German, Italian, Latin, Russian, and Spanish (highly desirable); sufficient language skills to conduct rehearsals in modern European languages (desirable); ability to read music source materials in original languages (desirable) Knowledge of the visual arts, particularly of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries and fundamental knowledge of literature and drama, particularly of works that have had a considerable impact on music. Artistic Director 1. Qualities of personal discipline and integrity required for artistic leadership Ability and willingness to assume a creative leadership role within the complex structure of relationships within the organization. Confidence and integrity to make difficult decisions. Adherence to principles fairness and sensitivity in all matters pertaining to orchestra personnel such as auditions, terminations, and seating, etc. Perspective on publicity and reviews and the ability to distinguish between what are worthwhile and what is not. Ability to advance the needs of the orchestra and community over personal ego needs. 2.

Ability to establish an artistic vision for the organization as a whole A passion for the orchestra and its repertoire and an ability to translate that passion into well-coordinated programs and activities that carry out the orchestra's mission. The judgment, imagination, and practical sense to create balanced programs of significance to the ensemble, the occasion, and the community. Knowledge of current solo artists, contemporary music, and performance practices. 3. Administrative skills Functional knowledge of and respect for the orchestra's administrative/business operation, including governance, fund raising, and marketing/public relations. An understanding of musician governance structure and practice and collective bargaining agreements. Ability to work collaboratively with management, boards, volunteers, and members of the orchestra. Thorough grounding in professional ethics Community Artistic Leader 1. Knowledge of how the orchestra operates as an institution A compelling view of the impact an orchestra can have on its community, and an ability to realize that potential through programming, education, outreach, and other activities. Awareness of the role the orchestra plays in a changing society. Ability to serve as an influential community advocate for music and music education. An aptitude for good public and personal relations. Effective public speaking skills. Ability to act with maturity and discretion in sensitive issues.

Awareness of political processes and the development of public policy. Ability to assess the environment in which the orchestra performs and understand the implications of that environment for the orchestras goals and objectives. Conclusion The mystique that surrounds the conductor's role sometimes obscures the fact that it is possible for a conductor to be a clever charlatan-to substitute show for substance, terror for talent. Behavior that masks musical and leadership incompetence must not be tolerated. Conducting is a rigorous discipline-both difficult and demanding-and the music director's authority must flow from a genuine mastery of his or her craft. Many of the qualities needed by a music director are innate. Others are acquired over time. Training does not occur by accident but should be developed purposefully and sequentially. Taken together, these traits and skills are the building blocks by which talent creates art. Contributors Christopher Wilkins (chair, Conducting Continuum Committee), music director, San Antonio Symphony Eileen T. Cline, senior fellow, Institute for Policy Studies; dean emerita, Peabody Conservatory of Music, The Johns Hopkins University John Farrer, music director, Bakersfield (CA) and Roswell (NM) Symphony Orchestras Susan Feder, vice president of promotions, G.

Schirmer/Associated Music Publishers Randy Fisher, former violist, Colorado Springs Symphony Henry Fogel, former president, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, president and CEO, League of American Orchestras Catherine French, former president and CEO, League of American Orchestras Gary Good, executive director, Omaha Symphony Orchestra Daniel Lewis, professor emeritus, Conducting Studies Department, University of Southern California Gustav Meier, professor emeritus of conducting, University of Michigan Craig Sorgi, violinist, San Antonio Symphony Steven Stucky, new music advisor, Los Angeles Philharmonic David Styers, artistic and management services coordinator, League of American Orchestras Susan B. Tilley, regional arts administrator, Kravis Center, Florida Donald Thulean, vice president for orchestra services, League of American Orchestras Albert K. Webster, consultant; director, American Composers Orchestra Benjamin Zander, conductor and music director, Boston Philharmonic Orchestra All rights reserved. © 1997 League of American Orchestras revised January 2001 What instrument do most orchestra conductors play?

- Quora Quora Written Aug 30, 2015 I looked at ten of the sinfinimusic.com top twenty conducters. Eight of them were pianists, and the other two were cellists. This is a small sample, but even before I did the research, my hypothesis was that most conducters would be pianists. I'll bet that the two cellists knew piano, too. Piano is the most helpful tool when composing or studying music. You can actually see the relationship between the harmony and melody in a visual way on the piano. Try figuring out what note someone is playing by looking at their hand position on a cello. In any case, when demonstrating things to the orchestra, or when studying orchestral music on your own, the piano makes the most sense. You can emulate multiple musical lines at the same time; something you can't do on very many other instruments. So I bet that if I continued this study of composers, I'd find that the vast majority of them were pianists. For your elucidation, I have provided links to sources for the top ten conducters and their instruments below.

Written Aug 30, 2015 Violin and piano seem to be the instruments most commonly studied by orchestral conductors. Two of the first career conductors in the history of European music, Louis Spohr and Felix Mendelssohn, are representative: the former was a violinist, and the latter a pianist. At present, the principal conductors of the New York Philharmonic (Gilbert) and the Los Angeles Philharmonic (Dudamel) are violinists; the principal conductors of the Chicago Symphony (Muti) and the San Francisco Symphony (Tilson Thomas) are pianists. Ludovic Morlot of the Seattle Symphony is a violinist, and Andris Nelsons of the Boston Symphony is a trumpeter who also plays the piano. Valery Gergiev of the London Symphony had early training as a pianist, and Sir Simon Rattle of the Berlin Philharmonic studied piano and violin, and played percussion in orchestras. Choral conductors are often trained singers, though this certainly isn't always the case. They also tend to have proficiency at the keyboard, if only for practical reasons. I have known a few great ones who were brass players instead.

In some churches, notably the Church of England and the Episcopal Church, the roles of organist and choirmaster are often covered by the same individual. Wind band conductors may play piano, but more usually specialize in a wind instrument or in percussion, simply because there is a high likelihood that a band conductor will have grown up playing in wind bands at a reasonably high level. (Thanks for the A2A!) Updated Sep 4, 2015 Thanks for the A2A. I don't know that there in an answer for this -- possibly piano/keyboards. My research tells me Hindemith was one of the few composers/conductors who could play every instrument. Part of the job of a conductor is knowing how all the instruments sound and work individually and together. I was almost a music major and know music majors take courses in music appreciation, music theory, and classes in strings/woodwinds/brass/percussion in order to understand how each works. I would guess orchestra conductors would have been music majors and learned to read music from playing at least one instrument.

They were undoubtedly in school bands/orchestras and thus would have an excellent sense of rhythm plus knowledge of each instrument's range, tonal quality, dynamic contour, etc. that will affect how it plays and blends with the rest of the orchestra. 553 Views · View Upvotes · Answer requested by Richard Wagner Controversy | Jewish Virtual Library Tweet When, in 1985, the Richard Wagner Museum in Bayreuth, Germany , opened an exhibition entitled "Wagner and the Jews," its organizer, museum director Manfred Eger, said it was a plea not for Wagner but for the truth. The truth is that some Germans, like many Israelis, still cannot "digest" Wagner, and that the antisemitic composer continues to be an issue - lukewarm in Germany, hot in Israel . "Richard Wagner's antisemitism throws a considerable shadow over his person and his work," Eger states in his introduction to the exhibition: "There are expressions used by him which could have been attributed to the National Socialist violently anti-Semitic Der Stürmer and which are used today to brand him as a proponent of the Holocaust . But there are also remarks in which he retracts some of his earlier pronouncements.

Moreover, several of his colleagues and friends were Jews." (One cannot help recalling the quotation attributed to Field Marshall Göring "It is I who determines who is a Jew .") The fact that an exhibition of this nature was organized on Wagner's home ground is an indication that even there Wagner is still highly controversial. While Richard Wagner lived decades before the birth of Nazism, his influence on the National Socialist movement and especially on its leader was enormous. In a tractate, Das Judenthum in der Musik, first published in 1850 under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, Wagner wrote that Jewish music is bereft of all expression, characterized by coldness and indifference, triviality and nonsense. The Jew, he claimed, has no true passion to impel him to artistic creation. The Jewish composer, according to Wagner, makes a confused heap of the forms and styles of all ages and masters. To admit a Jew into the world of art results in pernicious consequences. In Deutsche Kunst und Deutsche Politik, Wagner spoke of the "harmful influence of Jewry on the morality of the nation," adding that the subversive power of Jewry stands in contrast to the German psyche.

All these ideas, together with the ultranationalistic character of his operas, especially "The Ring," provided a fertile feeding ground for Nazi ideology and cultural conception. In his exhibition introduction, Eger tries to prove that the roots of Hitler's antisemitism did not have their origins in Wagner. The exhibition brochure dwells heavily on Wagner's appreciation of Jewish composers such as Mendelssohn (his "Hebrides Overture") and Halévy (his opera "The Jewess"). Eger cites in detail Wagner's friendships with Jews such as the choirmaster Heinrich Porges and the conductor Hermann Levi, a rabbi's son. (There was even an affair with the half-Jewish French writer, Judith Gautier, daughter of author Theophile Gautier and Jewish singer Giulia Grisi). Eger reduces Wagner's anti-Semitic rages to jealousy over the operatic triumphs of another Jewish composer, his contemporary, Giacomo Meyerbeer. Wagner's Jew-hating pronouncements are quoted in the company of similar antisemitic statements by Voltaire, Marx, Luther, Napoleon and others (as though anyone doubts that antisemitism did not come into the world with Wagner).

These days, claims the brochure, "there is not a trace of antisemitism in Bayreuth: in 1983 alone, the Bayreuth Festival had three Jewish conductors." Eger states that with this exhibition the museum did not want to withhold facts but, he admits, it cannot close an open wound. If the wound is still open in Germany - how much more massive is the wound in Israel, with its Holocaust survivors and their memories? Should Wagner's music be played publicly in this country? The controversy is still very much alive and is often acrimonious. When, in August 1995, Wagner's opera "The Flying Dutchman" was broadcast on Israel radio during prime time (Saturday evening), it partially broke a taboo. But in July 2001, a performance of the "Tristan und Isolde" overture at the Israel Festivel in Jerusalem proved that the contesious debate over Wagner is by no means settled. Wagner's music had been unofficially banned in public in Israel ever since Kristallnacht in 1938. Since then, the debate has raged.

It is a debate carried on passionately not only among music-lovers, but also by citizens, young and old, who bring forceful arguments to support their stand. The clash is marked, on the one hand, by vehement emotion, on the other, by an attempt at a rational approach. Those advocating the rational approach say one must separate art from politics and that emotion should not stand in the way of art. But music, after all, is a matter of the emotions. Music in all its forms appeals to people's feelings - they react to music with their hearts, rather than with their minds. What is undisputed by adherents and objectors alike is the conviction that Wagner's music is superb. Equally undisputed is the perception that Richard Wagner was the spiritual father of much of Nazi ideology, especially its antisemitic character. Wagner coined the expressions "Jewish problem" and "final solution" - by which he meant the disappearance of Jews and Judaism. Thousands of Israelis, both of European origin and native Israelis, perceive Wagner, a loudly-proclaimed favourite of Hitler, as a symbol of the Nazi era. "I don't believe in tying music to racism.

If we did, we would have to stop playing Chopin in Israel - he too was a rabid antisemite," says Nechama Rosler, a violinist with the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra. "But, because Wagner's music arouses such deep emotions, I feel strongly that as long as it disturbs anyone who associates it with the Nazis, with his own or his family's suffering in the Holocaust, Wagner's music should not be played publicly. The function of music, after all, is to soothe, to make the listener feel good, to stimulate or pacify his or her soul. Whoever wants to hear Wagner's music can listen to it in private." "As a listener, I consider Tristan und Isolde a masterpiece of 19th century music, but I am at the same time repelled by Wagner's Weltanschauung. I cannot just sit and enjoy his music. I never put on Wagner's music in my home... Richard Wagner's antisemitic writings will always overshadow my life." So says Gottfried Wagner, the composer's great-grandson, who recently visited Israel on a lecture tour. "I cannot separate the operas from his theoretical work. His writings and his music form a unified whole...

He always considered himself a philosopher first, and a composer only second," says Gottfried Wagner, who has been disowned by his family and lives under threat from neo-Nazi groups. He spends his professional life writing and lecturing on the antisemitism of Richard Wagner and its consequences on German politics and culture. In 1981, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, under the baton of Zubin Mehta, offered an encore at the close of a subscription concert. Commotion broke out, with shouts from the audience aiming to silence the music. In introducing the piece from Tristan und Isolde, Mehta had made a short speech in which he spoke of Israel as a democracy in which all music should be played. But, he added, if this particular music offended the feelings of some of the listeners present, they were free to leave. (Two orchestra members had, at their request, been excused from playing the encore). Some older members of the audience quietly got up and went home. A few continued for a while to protest noisily, even running threateningly onto the stage, but the piece was played to the end. A few years later a survey was conducted on the question - should the Philharmonic play Wagner's music?

Of those questioned, 50 percent were against playing Wagner, 25 percent for, and 25 percent had no firm convictions on the subject. In 1992, the Philharmonic conducted its own poll among its subscribers. The majority was in favour, 30 percent were against. In view of the large minority, it was decided to continue to refrain from playing Wagner, at least for the time being. In July 2001, the prestigious Berlin Staatskapelle performed the "Tristan und Isolde" overture at the Israel Festival. While the orchestra's condutor, Daniel Barenboim (himself a Jew), had promised to respect the ban on Wagner's music, he surprised his audience by asking them if they wanted to hear Wagner as an encore following the scheduled performance. Most of the audience was in favor of the encore, which received a standing ovation from all but a few of the listeners. However, during a half-hour debate that preceded the performance of the overture, numerous Israelis protested and walked out of the theater, some shouting insults as they went. The controversy over the foreign orchestra's performance rekindeled the debate over what course the Israeli orchestras should pursue.

Yaakov Mishori, a leading Philharmonic musician, feels the orchestra should play Wagner. "After all," he says, "Wagner died 50 years before Hitler came to power. Moreover, he was a kind of private anti-Semite, refusing to sign any public declarations against the Jews. He actually worked with many Jews. Wagner's public relations man was a Jew named Neumann, Hermann Levi conducted Wagner's works at the time, and a musician named Rubenstein finished the orchestration of some of his operas." "I am opposed to any ban on culture," says Avi Chanani, director of the classical music division of Israel's state radio. "Zubin Mehta risked playing Wagner in one fell swoop, but I believe in introducing him gradually, and that is what I have been doing. Wagner was a revolutionary in music. His work is central to the development of European music. Without Wagner it is difficult to understand the history of music. That is one important consideration for playing his music.

But what I feel is cardinal in my decision to present Wagner on the radio is my belief that in a democracy, the public has a right to know; it must be exposed to all information." Reuven Dafni, an ex-diplomat, who parachuted into Nazi-held Yugoslavia, concurs: "Even though Zubin Mehta once told me that no orchestra can be a real orchestra without playing Wagner, I would wait until the last of the Holocaust survivors is no longer with us. Nevertheless, I think we are being hypocritical in that we play Carl Orff without compunction - Orff, who was a self-declared, card-holding Nazi." When, in the 1940s, the ban on Wagner was imposed, it included the music of another Richard - Strauss. About 13 years ago, conductor Igor Markevitch was eager to conduct Strauss with the Jerusalem Radio Orchestra (today the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra). This was denied him. But he did make a studio recording of Til Eulenspiegel. Ever since then, radio listeners have been hearing the music of Richard Strauss, "gradually," stresses the radio director. Actually, the stories of the two Richards are quite different.

While Wagner was a theorist whose ideas were meant for posterity, Strauss was a compliant pragmatist. Strauss had been appointed head of the Reichsmusikkammer in 1933; in his two years in this position he managed to get all performing Jewish artists removed from public view. His own undoing came when, in 1935, Nazi censors came upon a letter of his to Stefan Zweig - who, together with another Jew, Hugo von Hofmannstahl, wrote many of his libretti - stating that he wanted to continue working with him. Interestingly, the music of Carl Orff is frequently performed in Israel's concert halls, particularly his popular Carmina Burana, which he composed in 1937, expressly for the leaders of the Nazi regime. At one point, when the Nazi cultural establishment wanted to get rid of the name Mendelssohn as the composer of the popular "Midsummer Night's Dream," they asked Strauss to rewrite the music. He refused, upon which Orff was asked to undertake the task and he agreed. However, the project never came to fruition. Orff seems to have been forgiven, while Wagner remains so controversial.

Motti Schmidt, leader of the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, states: "Wagner was a genius. His was a complicated personality - he was like a many-layered cake - but he was not a good man. If his music still hurts the feelings of people in this country, we should respect the rights of the minority and not play Wagner." Moshe Landau, a retired Supreme Court judge and presiding judge at the Eichmann trial, says: "I have the same opinions today that I held in the 1940s. It was enough for me to have read Judenthum in der Musik. No, I don't think Wagner's music should be played here." The basic question remains - can a discussion of Wagner be continued to be reduced solely to his music? When one talks of "not mixing art and politics," is that not exactly what this German composer did, who not only created the music but also wrote the libretti with a supernationalistic message? The entire argument about playing Wagner in Israel does not, in reality, centre around the quality of his music. The question is not whether Wagner's music is of high or low quality, nor is the argument about how deep-seated was his antisemitism really relevant.

There is no doubt that there have been other composers who were no less antisemitic. While it cannot be maintained that Wagner was directly responsible for German national socialism, there is no doubt that he was a powerful symbol in the Nazi era, and his music held a singular importance in the Nazi psyche. Thus, for Jewish survivors of the Nazi horrors, Wagner's music represents a vivid reminder of that regime. The argument that music must be separated from politics is not cogent in general, and certainly not in this case. If anybody introduced politics into music, it was Richard Wagner himself.

Question: Traditionally, the leader of a symphony orchestra plays what?
Answer: The violin