The Norman Dynasties The Norman Dynasties Formation of the Duchy of Normandy [Normandie] in France (c.911). In the eight and early ninth centuries, over population in the Scandinavian regions of what are today modern Norway and Denmark caused the inhabitants to seek other lands. These 'Northmen' or 'Vikings' launched different kinds of expeditions. The first of these were war-like reconnaissance raids along the sea routes of the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Whenever successful over the local defenders, these Northmen attempted to establish more permanent communities at some of the more desirable regions. The Northmen's most remarkable and enduring efforts were in northwestern France, which became the French province of 'Normandie'. In the early ninth century, the Northmen's attempted settlements at Bordeaux and in the Charente regions failed. They concentrated their raids in the Seine valley, sacking Paris in 845 and 861, but being dramatically repulsed in 885.

Failing to advance further into northern France, the Northmen consolidated their settlement around the ancient town of Bayeux, which had been a Roman town and an important episcopal city, that developed from an earlier Gaulish capital of the Bajocasses. Prior to the arrival of the Northmen, the region had been raided by Bretons and Saxons. One of the last Carolingian kings of the Franks, Charles III 'the Simple' (893-922) designed to create a 'marche' in northwest border of his kingdom to defend against further waves of raids by the Northmen and Saxons. In 911, those Northmen already occupying much of the extreme northwest of France suffered a severe defeat by Richard 'le Justicier' duc de Bourgogne [Burgundy] near Chartes. Taking advantage of this set back, Charles III negotiated the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the leader of the Northmen settlement, Rollo [Rollon; or Rolf 'the Walker' or 'the Ganger']. Rollo accepted Christanity and paid homage to Charles for the duchy of Normandy.

Duke Rollo (911-927) married Popa, the daughter of Count B�ranger, governor of Bayeux. Rollo made the center of his duchy at Rouen. In 905, Rollo and Popa had a son, who became the next duke (927-942) as William 'Longsword'. William's son, Richard I 'the Fearless' followed as duke (942-996); and his son, Richard II 'the Good', was duke from 996 to 1027). By the end of the reign of duke Richard II, the population had stopped speaking Norse and spoke French 'in the vernacular' of the inhabitants of northwestern France. Richard III, son of Richard II, was duke (1027-1028). Robert 'the Devil', another son of Richard II, was duke from 1028 to 1035. Duke Robert had a natural son, William, by a girl called Arlette.

William, despite the status of his birth, was chosen by his relatives to succeed his father [who died on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land] as duke. William quickly demonstrated military prowess and established his clear claim as duke of Normandy [duc de Normandie] (1035-1087). In his claim, duke William was assisted by the French king, Henri I. William went on to win control of the counties of Maine and Brittany, during which he had to contend against the count of Anjou. William married Matilda, daughter of the count of Flanders. French Norman Conquest of the English Kingdom (1066). William would go on to be most famous as William 'the Conqueror' [Guillaume 'le Conqu�rant'] and founder of the Norman dynasty of English kings. There had developed close associations between the Normans in France and the rulers of Anglo-Saxon England. William was a cousin to Edward 'the Confessor', king of England who was childless. Edward spent considerable time in Normandy as a guest of duke William, who had been led to believe that he migh be heir to the English throne.

When another Anglo-Saxon cousin, Harold of Wessex was shipwrecked on the Norman shore, William was credited as saving Harold and claimed to have extracted from Harold William's claim to succeed Edward's English crown. Upon Edward's death in 1066, Harold claimed the English crown. William of Normandy led an invasion and defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066). Overcoming what little resistance remained in southeast England, William led his army to London, and was crowned king on Christmas Day. Although William immediately began to build and garrison castles around the country, he apparently hoped to maintain continuity of rule; many of the English nobility had fallen at Hastings, but most of those who survived were permitted to keep their lands for the time being. The English, however, did not so readily accept him as their king, and the Normans treated the conquest much like an occupation. A detail of the famous 'Bayeux Tapestry' [held by the Museum of Bayeux, France] which depicts the Norman conquest of England. The work was comisioned by the duchess Matilda for her uncle, Odo, bishop of Bayeux.

Contrary to legend, Matilda [William the Conqueror's wife] did not work on making the tapestry, which was likely made in England. Formation of the Anglo-Norman Dynasty (1066-1135 [or 1154]) The victory of William I 'the Conqueror', now king of England (1066-1087) did not give him complete control of England. A series of rebellions broke out, and William suppressed them harshly, ravaging great sections of the country. Titles to the lands of the now decimated native nobility were called in and redistributed to the king's Norman followers. Castles were built by the Normans from France to control the English country (including a fortress at Windsor, and the White Tower at the Tower of London). The lands of defeated Saxon nobles were given to William's followers in return for military service by a certain number of knights, so that the tenants' foremost obligation was allegiance to the King. This firmly established the feudal system as practiced in France. By 1072 the adherents of Edgar Atheling and their Scottish and Danish allies had been defeated and the military part of the Norman Conquest virtually completed.

In the only major rebellion that came thereafter (1075), the chief rebels were Normans. In 1086, William commissioned the Domesday Book, to record land holdings for the assessment of taxes and other dues. William spent long periods in Normandy to maintain his authority there, dealing with rebellions and French invasions. William died in 1087 in Normandy, leaving his duchy to his eldest son, Robert, and England to his next surviving son, William Rufus. William 'the Conqueror' and his wife Matilda were buried at Caen, France, which they virtually made 'the capital' of their Norman Empire'. They were buried in the the two separate pre-gothic churches that each had constructed in Caen: William in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, and Matilda in the Abbaye-aux-dames. William II (known as William Rufus) was strong, outspoken and ruddy (hence his nickname 'Rufus'), William II (reigned 1087-1100) extended his father's policies, taking royal power to the far north of England.

Ruthless in his relations with his brother Robert, William II extended his grip on the duchy of Normandy under an agreement between the brothers in 1091. (Robert went on crusade in 1096.) William II's relations with the Church were not easy; he took over Archbishop Lanfranc's revenues after the latter's death in 1089, kept other bishoprics vacant to make use of their revenues, and had numerous arguments with Lanfranc's popular successor Anselm. William II died on 2 August 1100, after being shot during a hunting expedition. Henry I 'Beauclerc' (reigned 1100-35) succeeded to the throne. Henry I was William II's younger brother, and was present when William II was killed. Henry immediately rushed to London to claim the throne. Henry I was crowned three days after his brother's death. The eldest brother Robert, also claimed the English throne, but Henry I took the initiative and challenged his older brother for the duchy of Normandy. Henry I won the decisive battle of Tinchebrai (1106) in France, where he captured his brother Robert.

Robert was destined to spend the last 28 years of his life as his brother's prisoner. During his captivity, Robert's son, William Clito, escaped and obtained aid from Louis VI 'the Fat', king of France (r.1108-1137). This involved Henry I in wars for the duchy of Normandy (1109-1113, 1116-1120). Henry I 'Beauclerc' formed an alliance with the German emperor Henry V (r.1106-1125). However, the emperor called off his invasion of France in 1121, when confronted by a large force under Louis VI at Rheims. William Clito died in 1128, and Henry I was able to complete his conquest of Normandy, returning the duchy to the dynasty on the Englsih throne. An energetic, decisive and occasionally cruel ruler, Henry centralised the administration of England and Normandy in the royal court, using 'viceroys' in Normandy and a group of advisers in England to act on his behalf when he was absent across the Channel.

Henry successfully sought to increase royal revenues, as shown by the official records of his exchequer (the Pipe Roll of 1130, the first exchequer account to survive). He established peaceful relations with Scotland, through his marriage to Mathilda of Scotland. Henry's name 'Beauclerc' denoted his good education (as the youngest son, his parents possibly expected that he would become a bishop); Henry was probably the first Norman king to be fluent in English. In 1120, his legitimate sons William and Richard drowned in the White Ship which sank in la Manche [the channel between Engalnd and France]. This posed a succession problem, as Henry never allowed any of his illegitimate children to expect succession to either England or Normandy. Henry had one legitimate daughter, Matilda. After she became widow of the German emperor Henry V, she married Geoffrey, comte d'Anjou, in France. However, Matilda's claim to the English throne and the duchy of Normandy was rejected by the Anglo-Norman barons, who mostly were opposed the idea of a female ruler. The barons elected Henry I's nephew, Stephen de Blois as king of England and duke of Normandy.

Stephen was the son of William the Conqueror's daughter Adela. Stephen versus Matilda (1135-1154). Stephen's reign as king of England from 1135 to 1154, was a troubled one. He could neither control his friends nor subdue his enemies, despite the support of his brother Henry de Blois (Bishop of Winchester) and his able wife Matilda de Boulogne. Stephen's rule in England and in Normandy, france was challegned by warfare. Henry I's daughter Matilda invaded England in 1139 to claim the throne, and the country was plunged into civil war. Although anarchy never spread over the whole country, local feuds were pursued under the cover of the civil war; the bond between the King and the nobles broke down, and senior figures (including Stephen's brother Henry) freely changed allegiances as it suited them. In 1141, Stephen was captured at Lincoln and his defeat seemed certain.

However, Matilda's arrogant behaviour antagonised even her own supporters (Angevins and some Normans), and Stephen was released in exchange for her captured ally and illegitimate half-brother earl Robert of Gloucester. After the latter's death in 1147, Matilda retired to Normandy, which her husband, Geoffrey d'Anjou, had conquered in 1144. Stephen's English throne was still disputed. Matilda's eldest son Henry, who had been given Normandy by his father in 1150 and who had married the heiress Eleanor Duchess of Aquitaine, conducted military campaigns in England in 1149 and again in 1153. Stephen fought stubbornly against Henry; Stephen even attempted to ensure his son Eustace's succession by having him crowned in Stephen's lifetime. The Church refused (having quarrelled with king Stephen some years previously). Eustace's death later in 1153 helped lead to a negotiated peace (the treaty of Wallingford) under which Henry would inherit the throne after Stephen's death.

The assumtion of Henru d'Anjou to the English throne essentially incorporated the Anglo-Norman England into the much large 'Angevin Empire'. [See Angevin Dynasties ] In context of the ruling house holding the English crown, the pure 'Anglo-Norman' can be seen as having ended either with Stephen [introducing briefly an 'Anglo-Blois' dynasty], or most definitely with the Angevin 'conquest' of 1154. However, Henri II d'anjou, did not follow the example of the earlier French Norman conquest. Angevin nobles were not imported to replace the existing Anglo-Norman barons in England. The new Angevin king of England found the residual nobility of the earlier French imports to be quite compatable. So there remained among the broader, high nobility in Engalnd a true 'Anglo-Norman' elite, while the monarachy was 'Angevin' and in time, more correctly 'Plantagenet'. THE MEDITERRANEAN NORMAN CONQUESTS Normans in Southern Italy.

In the eleventh century, the three sons of Tancr�de de Hauteville, a small baron from the Coutances area in Normandy, aroused great enthusiasm. The eldest, Guillaume, known as 'Iron Arm', profited from the local imbroglio to chase away those who had summoned him to Italy, and became Guillaume d' Apulia in 1042. His two brothers, however, were the true founders of Norman power in the Mediterranean: Robert Guiscard de Hauteville (c.1015-1085) and, even more, his younger brother Roger I, who became the strongest of all Christian monarachs. Robert Guiscard's sons allowed the duchy of Apulia to lapse into anarachy. Bohemund, another son of Guiscard, established himself [temporarly] as prince of Antioch. Guiscard died campaigning to regain the region in Greece that his son had lost. Roger I count of Sicily (1072-1101), Guiscard's brother, completed the conquest of Sicily. After his death in 1101, his ministers governed effectively in the name of his infant sons.

Simon count of Sicily (1101�05). Son of Roger I. Roger II count of Sicily (1105-1130), king of Sicily (r.1130-1154), second son of Roger I, surpassed all other in brilliance of display. By also acquiring the duchy of Apulia and became undisputed king of Sicily. He brought in a great era of civilization; multi- language culture; very liberal. Guillaume I 'the Bad' (1154-1166), son of Roger II. Continued conquest of Roger II. Defeated Byzantine allies of Pope Adrian IV, compelling the pope to recognize Guillaume's titles in Sicily, Apulia, Naples, Amalfi and Salerno. He supported pope Alexander III agaisnt Emperor Fredericl II. Guillaume II 'the Good' (1166-1189), son of Guillaume I. Tancred of Lecce (1189-1194), [Langer says: 1190-1194] granson of Roger II. Purely Norman rule ended with him.

The last ("not pure line') Norman King of Sicily was Manfred. Manfred, the illegimate son of Frederick II, was made king of Sicily by the populace, who defied papal wishes. He was leader of the Ghibelline faction in Italy. Pope Urban IV, a Frenchman, offered the crown of Sicily to Chalres of Anjou in 1261. Charles of Anjou led a military force to make good his claim and killed Manfred at the Battle of Benevento (1265). [This, like with England, is another occasion that the French Angevins follow a Norman dynasty in the 'overseas' kingdoms.] Return to the Société de l'Oriflamme Web Page. This page is sponsored by Société de l'Oriflamme; originally established 7 January 2002; revised 28 November 2002. English Monarchs - A complete history of the Kings and Queens of England.

English Monarchs Links Welcome to English Monarchs This site is designed to bring to life, as vividly as possible, the history of the Kings and Queens of England from Egbert, first King of the English, who reigned 802-839 A.D., through over a thousand years of the rich and varied tapestry of England's history to the throne's present occupant, Elizabeth II. It contains a short biography of each English monarch along with many illustrations, maps (where applicable) and genealogical tables, in an easy to follow format arranged by dynasties. We also take a look at the Tower of London, the Crown Jewels and the royal residences. This history covers all England's early Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings, including Alfred, the only English monarch ever to be called the Great. Our section on the Normans includes the tumultuous events of 1066, which changed the course of English history. The reign of the stark and ruthless William I, the Conqueror and the Civil War which engulfed England as two of his grandchildren, Stephen and Matilda, became locked in a bitter struggle for the crown.

The Plantagenets, who followed the Normans, were a remarkable family, they produced such characters as the energetic Henry II, arguably one of the ablest of English Monarchs and his son, the legendary Richard the Lionheart who led the Third Crusade into the Holy land. The Plantagenets finally destroyed themselves in a bloody dynastic struggle which we know of as the Wars of the Roses. This section also looks at the evidence and historical controversy as to whether England's last Plantagenet monarch, Richard III, actually murdered his nephews, the so-called Princes in the Tower, to gain possession of the crown. Our history of the Tudors includes that best known of English Monarchs, the tyrannical and bloodstained Henry VIII, who is famous for marrying six wives and executing two of them. His great daughter, Elizabeth I, highly astute and wily she survived an appalling childhood and adolescence to emerge as the ablest of the Tudors and led England to victory over the Spanish, the greatest power of the age.

Our history of the Stuarts, that highly romantic but luckless dynasty, who were to rule over the joint kingdoms of England and Scotland includes, amongst much more, the English Civil War, the execution of Charles I by Oliver Cromwell and the Restoration of Charles II, the Merry Monarch, famous for his many mistresses and his long liaison with Nell Gwynne. It also contains a section on the Stuart Pretenders, one of whom was the courageous but impulsive Bonnie Prince Charlie. Our biographies of the German Hanoverian dynasty includes an examination of the madness of George III and puts forward modern claims that he suffered from a metabolic condition, porphyria. This section of our history also covers the long reign of that endearing if stubborn British Monarch, Queen Victoria, which saw Britain rise as a world power. Last but not least our history culminates in the story of Britain's modern day dynasty, the House of Windsor (formerly Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). We take a close look at the large family of Queen Victoria and the eight of her grandchildren who sat on the thrones of Europe. This section also includes a page on the popular Diana, Princess of Wales and the the enquiry into her tragic death.

ENGLISH ROYAL DYNASTIES ° ENGLISH ROYAL DYNASTIES Here's a well-established mnemonic for remembering the order of succession of English royal dynastic Houses (combined with the Scottish from 1603, to become effectively British): " No Plan Like Yours To Study HISTORY Wisely! " being: Norman (1066-), Plantaganet (1154-), Lancaster (1399-), York (1461-), Tudor (1485-), Stuart (1603-), Hanover (1714-1901), Windsor (1901/1917-present) Be aware however that the immediate list only covers dynasties.

Like many sources, it omits the Houses of Blois (1135-54) as no dynasty was created, Anjou (where land held until 1209) as pseudo-Plantagenet (1154-1399), Orange (1689-1702) as no dynasty and ruled jointly with Mary Stuart, and Saxe-Coburg & Gotha (1901-1917) because it was later renamed Windsor during the Great War. Sympathetic supporters of Blios-ites, Angevins, Orangemen and Saxe-Coburgers/Goths may therefore prefer a new, fuller alternative by Peter Hobbs that adds the B, A, O and SC/G in their rightful places for the complete Houses (rather than the dynasties alone): "No BLOODY ANCIENT Plan Like Yours To Study OLD House-history SCRUTINISINGLY Well!" The full guide includes pages with other mnemonics concerning the Scottish Dynasties and the complete Kings and Queens of England .

BBC Wales - History - Themes - A royal dynasty A royal dynasty A royal dynasty Last updated: 05 August 2008 Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur married into the English royal family, creating a distinctly Welsh royal dynasty. Owain ap Marededd ap Tudur, married secretly to Catherine of Valois, lived with her away from court until her death in 1437. Her son by Henry V, Henry VI, was a minor and the kingdom was ruled by his uncle until he came of age. Owain, now anglicised to Owen Tudor, and his wife had enough of a quiet life to produce four children. Their three sons were called Jasper, Owen and Edmund, reflecting their French, Welsh and English heritage. On Catherine's death, elements at court began to move against Owen and his family. He was imprisoned at Windsor Castle while his sons were cared for in Barking Abbey. Luckily for the Tudors, Owen's step son, exercising power after his uncle's death, pardoned Owen and showed great concern for his half brothers. He made Edmund the Earl of Richmond, and Jasper the Earl of Pembroke.

Edmund married Margaret Beaufort, a descendent of John of Gaunt, the son of Edward III. Edmund and Margaret by this marriage gave their son, Henry, a plausible claim to the throne of England. Henry Tudor became Henry VII in 1485, with the blood of the Plantagenet kings of England, the royal house of Gwynedd and the royal family of France in his veins. HISTORY OF FRANCE Enjoy the Famous Daily Vikings in France: 9th - 12th century As elsewhere in northwest Europe, Viking raids on the coast of France gradually evolve into settlement. During the last decades of the 9th century, Danes are in possession of the territory round the lower reaches of the Seine. Early in the 10th century they are joined by a Norwegian who has already distinguished himself adventuring in Scotland and Ireland. His name is Hrölfr. He is known in western history as Rollo the Ganger. Rollo becomes leader of the Seine Vikings and by 911 he is strong enough to besiege the French city of Chartres. The siege ends when the Frankish king, Charles III, agrees at St.

Clair-sur-Epte to grant Rollo feudal rights over the territory round Rouen. The Viking word for a Scandinavian is Northman, which in medieval French becomes Normand. Rollo the Viking and his successors, rapidly expanding their territory beyond his original feudal grant, are known therefore as Normans. Their dukedom, in its larger boundaries, becomes and remains Normandy. Rollo's descendants rule Normandy for two centuries, until the male line dies out in 1135 with the death of Henry I . Meanwhile they have become keen Christians (Rollo is baptized, though his son William I is the first Norman duke fully committed to the religion). But they lose nothing of their Viking restlessness, which finds expression in adventures outside Normandy . Feudal upstarts: 9th - 10th century The external threat from marauding Vikings in the west and from Magyars in the east aggravates an already grave internal problem for the feudal dynasties of Charlemagne's descendants. Feudalism , with its decentralization of military and territorial power, has at the best of times a tendency to foster regional independence.

In periods of crisis, when the regions need to be well armed if they are to repel invaders, it is almost inevitable that the feudal holders of large tracts of frontier territory grow in strength until they are capable of challenging their own king. Baronial contenders upset the succession to the throne in the west Frankish kingdom from the late 9th century and in the eastern kingdom a few years later. The main rival to the Carolingian kings in Francia Occidentalis is the family of Robert the Strong. Count of extensive territories around the Loire, he plays a leading part in the struggle against the Normans . His son, Eudes, adds Paris to his feudal domains and defends it successfully in 885-6 against a Norman siege. When the west Frankish king dies in 888, the nobles elect Eudes in his place instead of a member of the Carolingian dynasty. Subsequently the crown returns to Carolingian monarchs, but by the mid-10th century they rule only with the support of the descendants of Robert the Strong. One of them, Hugh the Great, exemplifies the nature of a great nobleman's power base.

Part of Hugh's strength derives directly from his feudal lands; he is count of Paris, with large territories between the Seine and the Loire. He also acquires a title of romantic resonance, capable of inspiring a special kind of loyalty; from 937 he is called 'duke of the Franks'. And he has useful brothers-in-law; his first wife is sister of an Anglo-Saxon king of England, his second is sister of the emperor Otto I. More surprisingly, Hugh is the lay abbot of at least four great monasteries, bringing him considerable wealth and a voice in the vast network of Benedictines . This astonishing portfolio, as early as the 10th century, reveals the peculiar blend of secular and religious power in European feudalism. At different periods Hugh supports and opposes the Carolingian dynasty in the west Frankish kingdom, depending on where he considers the best interest of his own family to lie. When he dies in 956, succeeded by three sons, he has considerably extended his territory around Paris and has secured the important duchy of Burgundy for his descendants.

Some thirty years later, in 987, Hugh's eldest son - also Hugh - is elected king by the west Frankish nobles in preference to a Carolingian claimant. His nickname, because of the capa or 'cape' which he wears, is Hugh Capet. His descendants become known as the Capetians. The Capetian kings of France: 987-1328 The choice of Hugh Capet as king in 987 is the moment at which the western half of the empire of the Franks unmistakably becomes France. By a happy accident Hugh and his descendants for twelve generations have sons by whom they are succeeded without conflict, in a direct line of kings of France ruling from Paris. The last of these kings has no living heir, but he is succeeded on the throne by two brothers - making a total of fifteen Capetian kings in what is called 'the direct line'. Meanwhile the duchy of Burgundy , though a separate realm, is held by members of the same family, beginning with two brothers of Hugh Capet. They tend to act in alliance with their cousins on the throne of France.

In the early years of the Capetian dynasty, their feudal lands around Paris are not vast by comparison with the holdings of other powerful dukes and counts. The Capetians gradually extend their power (they have an advantage as kings, being able to claim various royal dues, rights and taxes all over France). But other great lords also strengthen their territories - enlarging them by warfare, securing them by the building of stone castles, calming them by the establishment of monasteries. By far the greatest threat to the royal dynasty comes from the neighbouring counts of Anjou, who by judicious marriages become the Plantagenet rulers of England, Normandy and much of western France. Lands across the Channel: 11th - 15th century The Norman conquest of England introduces a new situation in northwest Europe. Lands on both sides of the English Channel are from this time under the control of a single dynasty. The kings of England are also the dukes of Normandy. A Norman-French royal family crowned in Westminster seeks to extend its territories on the French side of the water. At the same time a Frankish-French royal family crowned in Reims strives to assert its authority over the whole geographical region of France .

The result is a prolonged struggle, eventually spanning some four centuries, in which the identities of medieval Europe's two strongest kingdoms are gradually shaped. The struggle is not just one of warfare and battles. It is a complex game of dynastic marriages and interconnecting obligations. William the Conqueror , king of England, is technically the king of France's vassal - in his other role as the duke of Normandy. Even more dramatic is the case of William's great-grandson, Henry II . Though a vassal of the French king, his lands occupy a region of France which is larger than the royal domain. The French king rules a realm around Paris and Orleans in the north. Henry II inherits a broad swathe down the entire west of the country. Henry receives Anjou from his father's family, and Normandy (together with England) through his mother. But his largest holding in continental Europe comes through his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. Henry is her second husband. Her first was the king of France, Louis VII. Were it not for this matrimonial switch, Louis rather than Henry would have secured Eleanor's regions of Aquitaine and Gascony.

In such a manner, in feudal Europe , are territories gained or lost. The major players in this vast board game are the two French dynasties - the Norman French line in England and the Frankish (or Capetian ) line in France. The princes of the two houses marry within the same limited circle, so western Europe becomes an interconnected web of French-speaking cousins - often with good claims to each other's territories. Louis VII and Henry II set a powerful example, as kings of France and England who marry the same heiress from Aquitaine. But the point can be made almost equally well among their successsors. The kings who follow Henry II on the throne of England marry, in this sequence, daughters of the rulers of Navarre, Angouleme, Provence, Castile, France, Hainaut, Bohemia, Navarre, France and Avignon. During the same period kings of France marry daughters of Navarre, Provence, Castile and Hainaut. In the long run the advantage lies with the French kings. Geography makes the Channel a natural boundary.

A gradual trend away from patchwork feudal territories and towards the cohesive nation state means that eventually the proper place for the English must be north and west of this coastal boundary. The process is a long one, not finally resolved until the end of the Hundred Years' War . The French first make major advances at the expense of the Norman English during the reign of Philip II. Philip II and Louis IX: 1180-1270 The Capetian dynasty greatly extends its control in France during two reigns, of grandfather and grandson, who between them rule for a span of nearly ninety years. The grandfather is Philip II. When he comes to the throne in 1180, the greater part of France owes allegiance not to Paris but to Westminster. Henry II , on the English throne, has among his hereditary possessions Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Aquitaine (granted to his eldest son, Richard) and Brittany (granted to his second son, Geoffrey). Technically the English king is the feudal vassal of the French king in these territories. But between such powerful rulers this is little more than a nicety.

By the end of Philip's reign, in 1223, he has used a feudal pretext (the failure of the English king to present himself when summoned) as an excuse to seize Normandy, Maine, Touraine and Anjou. He completes this programme of armed acquisition in 1204-5. The territories form a convenient bloc with the royal heartland around Paris. To the north Philip makes alliances which bring under his control Artois, Valois and parts of Flanders. In the last years of his reign the crusade against the Albigensians results in much of southern France being attached to the French crown. Philip's son rules for only three years, as Louis VIII. His death in 1226 brings to the throne Philip's 12-year-old grandson, Louis IX. The contribution of Louis, in a reign which lasts until 1270, is to stabilize the newly extended Capetian inheritance. It is a task for which he is well suited. His reputation among his contempories for wisdom and piety is not a mask for weakness.

A measure of that reputation is the English acceptance of Louis as an arbitrator in 1264 between Henry III and his barons . The piety of Saint Louis (he is canonized in 1297) is very much in the spirit of his time. He creates one of the most spectacular of Gothic buildings, the Sainte Chapelle , to house a relic - the supposed Crown of Thorns. And he twice goes on crusade to the Middle East, dying in north Africa during the second expedition. Louis' domestic policy to some extent reflects this piety. Solemn edicts are issued against prostitution, gambling and blasphemy. But he also runs an honest and efficient administration, in which justice and legislation are subject to a new institution, that of parlement , with its own premises in the royal residence in Paris. Centre of medieval Europe: 11th - 13th century The Capetian kings preside over a French civilization which is a glittering source of inspiration within a rapidly developing Europe. Monasteries are powerful forces in that development, and France is the home of the most significant new departures in monasticism.

In the 11th century the reforms of Cluny offer an example widely copied throughout the west. In the late 12th century the two most influential new orders have their origins on French soil - the Carthusians in the Chartreuse region, the Cistercians at Cîteaux. In intellectual matters Paris has a commanding reputation by the 12th century, with teaching carried out in schools attached to the cathedral of Notre Dame and to monasteries in the city. Early in the century Abelard employs his dialectic skills to stimulating and often controversial effect at both Notre Dame and Sainte-Geneviève. In 1231 pope Gregory IX licences the Sorbonne, Paris's university, as an independent institution. It soon becomes Europe's most famous centre of education, attracting theological students from all over western Christendom. Thomas Aquinas teaches there from 1257. France enjoys a similar lead in artistic fields. The Gothic style of architecture has its origins here, first in the royal church at St Denis and then in Chartres. Many of the greatest examples of Gothic cathedrals are in other French cities.

Pioneering developments in sculpture and stained glass form part of the same burst of creativity. Meanwhile French vernacular literature invents and elaborates the medieval theme of romance, in poems such as the chansons de geste and in the lyrics of the troubadours of Provence. France and the papacy: 13th - 14th century From the early 13th century the papacy develops a particularly intense relationship with France. An example is the joint response to the Catharist heresy; the crusade to stamp it out is conducted by French nobles and the French crown on behalf of the pope. In mid-century, Rome has close links with the devotedly Christian monarch Louis IX , who goes twice on crusade to the east and is canonized twenty-seven years after his death. In 1263 it is a French pope, Urban IV, who selects Louis' younger brother Charles of Anjou to rule the kingdom of Naples and Sicily . By the end of the century the relationship is even more intense, but it has turned sour.

From 1296 Boniface VIII is involved in a struggle with Philip IV of France about whether the king has the right to tax and discipline clergy in his own realm without the pope's permission. This struggle for temporal power between church and state prolongs, in another form, the earlier tussle of the investiture controversy . In 1302 Philip enlists the estates general in Paris in support of his cause. Then, claiming that there were irregularities in the election of Boniface, he sends an envoy to Italy with instructions to stir up insurrection against the pope. Hearing in 1303 that Boniface is about to issue a bull excommunicating his royal master, Philip's envoy (Guillaume de Nogaret) takes a bold step. He raises a small armed force and surprises Boniface at his birthplace, Anagni. He arrests the pope and holds him prisoner for two days. Boniface dies a month later in Rome. The prestige of the papacy is severely dented by this episode, while Philip IV's power seems enhanced. A few years later he even contrives to destroy the great order of the Templars , forcing a French pope, Clement V, to comply with his wishes.

Clement formally suppresses the order in 1312. For much of the 14th century France appears to have the papacy in its pocket, almost literally. Clement V is the first of seven French popes in an unbroken succession spanning seventy-three years, to 1378. From 1309 these popes are based not in Rome but on French soil, at Avignon. Clement moves his headquarters to Avignon in 1309 to prepare for a council which he has called in central France, at Vienne, to discuss the king of France's charges against the Templars . The town is friendly, for it belongs to a papal protégé - the Angevin dynasty of Naples . When major extensions to the bishop's palace are undertaken, from 1316, it becomes evident that the papal residence in Avignon is to be a long one.

Question: Which Royal dynasty followed the Normans?
Answer: Plantagenet