A Modern Herbal | Liquorice [ Top ] ---Description--- The plants are graceful, with light, spreading, pinnate foliage, presenting an almost feathery appearance from a distance. The leaflets (like those of the False Acacia) hang down during the night on each side of the midrib, though they do not meet beneath it. From the axils of the leaves spring racemes or spikes of papilionaceous small pale-blue, violet, yellowish-white or purplish flowers, followed by small pods somewhat resembling a partly-grown peapod in form. In the type species glabra, the pods are smooth, hence the specific name; in others they are hairy or spiny. The underground system, as in so many Leguminosae, is double, the one part consisting of a vertical or tap root, often with several branches penetrating to a depth of 3 or 4 feet, the other of horizontal rhizomes, or stolons, thrown off from the root below the surface of the ground, which attain a length of many feet. These runners are furnished with leafbuds and throw up stems in their second year.

The perennial downward-running roots as well as the long horizontal stolons are equally preserved for use. Various indications point to the habit of this plant of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, as do many others of the family. In the species glandulifera (W. and K.) the pods are covered with thick, glandular spines, and the whole plant is pubescent or roughly glandular. The underground portion is not so spreading and produces a carrot-shaped root larger than the Spanish root derived from G. glabra. This species is indigenous to South-east Europe, Syria and Western Asia, and is both wild and cultivated in Russia. Both the Russian and Persian Liquorice of commerce is derived from G. glandulifera, the Russian reaching this country is peeled or unpeeled: its taste although sweet, is accompanied by a more or less perceptible bitterness. It consists chiefly of roots, not runners. Persian Liquorice root, collected in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, from G. glandulifera, and exported in bales from Bussorah, is usually unpeeled, and is in rather large, coarse pieces, closely resembling the Russian root.

Both the Russian and Persian varieties are largely consumed in the United States the root of G. glandulifera is equally official in the United States Pharmacopaeia with that of G. glabra. G. echinata, a native of Hungary, south Russia and Asia Minor, is the official German species. It has short globular heads of flowers and a small, ovoid pod with long spines. Probably a portion of the root from Italy and Sicily is the product of G. echinata, which grows wild in Apulia. The root is also somewhat bitter and there are contradictory statements concerning its quality, due perhaps to its having been confused with G. glandulifera. Asiatic Liquorice is obtained from G. uralensis (Fisch.), found in Turkestan, Mongolia and Siberia, and little inferior to the best Russian Liquorice. G. lepidota (Pursh), American Liquorice, is a species of the north-western United States. The rhizome is said to resemble that of Spanish Liquorice, but is smaller.

It is only grown now to a very limited extent in this country, being cultivated on a small scale near Pontefract in Yorkshire, though formerly it was extensively grown at Mitcham in Surrey, also at Godalming, and at Worksop (Notts). The English Extract of Liquorice, made from the fresh home-grown root, sold in the lozenge form and known as Pontefract or Pomfrey cakes, is said to have a more delicate flavour than that imported, and it is considered that the cultivation of English Liquorice might well be extended, Essex and Surrey being suitable districts for its growth. In southern Italy, large quantities of Liquorice root are grown, but it is chiefly converted into Extract, though some of the root is exported. Spain and the south of France furnish quantities of carefully dried Liquorice root. Up to the year 1890, the cultivation of Spanish Liquorice was small or moderate in comparison with the wild collection. Owing, however, to the depletion of the natural supplies of root of good quality, this cultivation has grown rapidly in South and South-central Europe, where the climate is favourable.

Liquorice grows best on sandy soil near streams, usually not being found in the wild condition more than 50 yards from water. It will not flourish on clay and prefers the rich, fine soil of bottom lands in river valleys, where there is an abundance of moisture during the growing period, but where the ground bakes hard during the hot, late summer months, when the dry heat is very favourable for the formation of the sweet constituents. The plant succeeds most in a warm climate; not only can it not endure severe freezing, but cool weather interferes with the formation of its useful juice and renders it woody. It has been found that a climate particularly favourable to the production of the orange is favourable to that of Liquorice. Owing to the depth to which the root penetrates and its ready propagation from detached pieces, the plant is a most persistent weed in cultivated grounds where it is indigenous and exceedingly difficult of extirpation. It is very healthy and robust and very little subject to disease, at the same time successfully occupying the ground to the exclusion of other plants. For this reason, the continuation of the natural supply may be considered as assured, though it is liable to suffer severe reduction from over-collection.

The supply of natural root has suffered severe fluctuations owing to the exhaustion of supplies in the districts previously worked, alternating with over-production from newlyopened districts. This fact, coupled with the operations of speculators, has resulted in equally great fluctuations in quality, the new districts yielding full-grown root of good quality, the older ones that which has not been allowed to develop properly. The cultivation of Liquorice is easy, sure and profitable and, if properly conducted, conducive to the betterment of the soil. On account of the depth to which the root strikes when the plant has room to flourish, the soil should have a good staple of mould 2 or 3 feet in depth and be manured if necessary. The planting season is either October, or February and March; the latter is preferred. The plants are procured from old plantations, being waste from the harvesting process, consisting of those side roots or runners which have eyes or buds, cut into sections about 6 inches long. They are dibbled in, in rows 3 or 4 feet apart, about 4 inches underneath the surface and about 18 inches apart in the rows.

In the autumn, the ground is dressed with farmyard manure, about 40 tons to the acre. During the first two years the growth is slight, the plants not rising above a foot the first season, and in Calabria the intervening space is generally utilized for the production of potatoes, cabbages and similar crops. The soil being heavily fertilized for the production of Liquorice, these crops are usually very luxuriant. After the second year, the growing Liquorice plants cover the entire soil to the exclusion of other growth. ---Harvesting and Preparation for Market--- Not until the end of the third season will the roots be ready to take up for use, but harvesting generally occurs only in the autumn of the fourth year. The soil is carefully removed from the space between the rows to a depth of 2 or 3 feet as required, thus exposing the roots and rhizomes at the side, the whole being then removed bodily. The earth from the next space is then removed and thrown into the trench thus formed and these operations are repeated continuously. Every portion of the subterranean part of the plant is carefully saved, the drug consisting of both runners and roots, the former constituting the major part.

The roots proper are washed, trimmed and sorted, and either sold in their entire state or cut into shorter lengths and dried, in the latter case the cortical layer being sometimes removed by scraping. The older or 'hard' runners are sorted out and sold separately; the young, called 'soft,' are reserved for propagation. The average yield per acre is from 4 to 5 tons. The same ground yields a crop every three or four years, the fourth-year growth being the best. That of the third year and earlier is deficient in sweet substances, but immediately after the fourth year the texture begins to take on a tough, coarse and woody character. It is desirable also to collect the roots of those plants which have never borne fruit since that process exhausts the sweet substance of the sap. English-grown Liquorice is dug up in late autumn and sold mostly in the fresh state for making extract, only a small amount being dried. Fresh Liquorice (English) when washed is externally of a bright yellowish brown. It is very flexible, easily cut with a knife, exhibiting a light-yellow, juicy internal substance, which consists of a thick bark surrounding a woody column.

Both bark and wood are extremely tough, readily tearing into long, fibrous strings. The root has a peculiar earthy odour and a strong, characteristic, sweet taste. Most of the dried Liquorice root imported into this country comes from Spain and Russia, supplies of the official drug being drawn chiefly from Spain, the better quality of which comes from Tortosa and Alicante. Both Spanish and Russian Liquorice are usually exported in large bales or bundles, or rarely, in the case of the Spanish variety derived from Alicante, loose, or in bags. Spanish Liquorice root is in long, straight, nearly cylindrical, unpeeled pieces, several feet in length, varying in thickness from 1/4 inch to about 1 inch, longitudinally wrinkled, externally greyish brown to dark brown, warty; internally tawny yellow; pliable, tough; texture coarsely fibrous; bark rather thick; wood porous, but dense, in narrow wedges; taste sweet, very slightly acrid. The underground stem which is often present has a similar appearance, but contains a thin pith. That from Alicante is frequently untrimmed and dirty in appearance, but that from Tortosa is usually clean and bright looking.

When peeled, the pieces of root (including runners) are shorter, a pale yellow, slightly fibrous externally, and exhibit no trace of the small dark buds seen on the unpeeled runners here and there. Otherwise it resembles the unpeeled. Nearly all the Russian Liquorice reaching this country has been peeled. It attains a much larger size than the Spanish, and the taste, although sweet, is accompanied by a more or less perceptible but not strong bitterness or acridity. It consists chiefly of roots, not runners, in long often crooked pieces, about 2 inches in thickness, pale yellow externally and internally of a lighter yellow than the Spanish and softer. The size of all cells (when examined microscopically) is seen to be much larger than in the Spanish. [ Top ] ---Extract--- The manufacture of Liquorice Juice, or Extract, is conducted on a liberal scale in Spain, southern France, Sicily, Calabria, Austria, southern Russia, Greece and Asia Minor, but the Extract with which England is supplied is almost exclusively the produce of Calabria, Sicily and Spain; Calabrian Liquorice is generally preferred.

By far the larger part of the Italian and Sicilian crop is now manufactured there and exported in the form of Extract. Spain formerly yielded most of the supply, hence the Extract is still termed 'Spanish Juice,' but that of the first grade has long since depleted to the point of scarcity. The roots and runners of both wild and cultivated plants are taken up in late autumn and stacked through the winter in the cellars and yards of the factories. When required, they are crushed under millstones to a pulp, then transferred to boilers and boiled in water over a naked fire, the decoctions are run off and then evaporated in copper vessels over direct heat, till a suitable consistency is obtained, being constantly stirred to prevent burning. While warm, the mass is taken out and rolled into sticks, stamped and stacked on boards to dry. Vacuum pans and steam power have in some factories replaced the more simple methods. The sticks vary in size, but are commonly about 1 inch in diameter and 6 or 7 inches in length and when imported are usually wrapped in bay leaves. At one end they are stamped with the maker's name or mark.

Stick Liquorice is very commonly impure, either from carelessness in its preparation, or from the fraudulent addition of other substances, such as starch, sand, carbonaceous matter, etc. Small particles of copper are also sometimes found in it. Several varieties of Stick Liquorice are met with in English commerce, the most famous is the Solazzi Juice, manufactured at Corigliano, a small town of Calabria in the Gulf of Toranto. The juice is also imported in a black form, having while warm and soft been allowed to run into the wooden cases of about 2 cwts. each, in which it is exported. This juice, known as Liquorice Paste, is largely imported from Spain and Asia Minor, but on account of a certain bitterness is unsuited for its use as a sweetmeat or in medicine, and is principally employed in the preparation of tobacco for chewing and smoking. Extract of Liquorice in rolls has a black colour, is somewhat glossy and has a sharp and shining fracture. Some small cavities are found in the interior.

The product of the different manufacturers of Stick Liquorice differ from one another not only in size, but often in the odour and taste; while some specimens are almost purely sweet, others are persistently acrid, rendering them unsuitable for medicinal purposes, for which they must be almost devoid of acridity. Hard Extract of Liquorice, as described, is essentially different in composition and properties to the Extract of Liquorice of the British Pharmacopceia, which is entirely soluble in cold water, whereas the so-called Spanish Juice, when treated with cold water, leaves a large residue undissolved, retaining the shape of the stick. The amount soluble in cold water varies considerably and reaches in the best brands about 70 or 75 per cent. The United States and nearly all other Pharmacopoeias recognize the commercial Extract of the root of G. glabra, but the British Pharmacopoeia does not, and gives a process for making an extract which somewhat resembles the purified Extract of Liquorice of the United States Pharmacopoeia.

For the Liquid Extract of Liquorice, the British Pharmacopceiadirects the exhaustion of the Liquorice root with two successive portions of cold water, using each time 50 fluid ounces for 20 OZ. of the drug and allowing the mixture to macerate for 24 hours before expressing. The mixed infusions are heated to boiling point, strained through flannel and evaporated until the liquid has acquired, when cold, a specific gravity of 1.2, one-fourth of its volume of alcohol is added, and the mixture is set aside for 12 hours, after which it is filtered. It has a yellowish-brown colour and a pure sweet taste, free from all acridity. [ Top ] ---Constituents--- The chief constituent of Liquorice root, to which its sweet taste is due, is Glycyrrhizin (6 to 8 per cent), obtainable in the form of a sweet, white crystalline powder, consisting of the calcium and potassium salts of glycyrrhizic acid.

The drug also contains sugar, starch (29 per cent), gum, protein, fat (0.8 per cent), resin, asparagin (2 to 4 per cent), a trace of tannin in the outer bark of the root, yellow colouring matter, and 0.03 of volatile oil. The amount of Glycyrrhizin present in Extract of Liquorice varies from 5 to 24 per cent, and the amount of moisture from 8 to 17 per cent. Upon ignition, the extract yields from 5 to 9 per cent of ash. The roots of G. glandulifera and echinata also contain in addition, Glycyrmarin, a bitter principle occurring mostly in the bark. Glycyrrhizin, or a similar substance, has been obtained from other plants, viz. from the rhizome of Polypodium vulgare, the leaves of Myrrhis odorata, and the bark of Lucuma glycyphloea. [ Top ] ---Medicinal Action and Uses--- The action of Liquorice is demulcent, moderately pectoral and emollient.

It is a popular and well-known remedy for coughs, consumption and chest complaints generally, notably bronchitis, and is an ingredient in almost all popular cough medicines on account of its valuable soothing properties. The Extract enters into the composition of cough lozenges and pastilles, with sedatives and expectorants. It is largely used in conjunction with infusion of linseed in the treatment of irritable cough, sore throat and laryngitis, and an infusion made by boiling 1 OZ. of the bruised root deprived of its bark, with 1 pint of water for a few minutes, may be employed in the treatment of sore throat and in catarrhal conditions of the urinary intestinal tracts. Beach mentions the following recipe as being used by the late Dr. Malone, of London, and speaks most highly of its efficacy: 'Take a large teaspoonful of Linseed, 1 ounce of Liquorice root, and 1/4 lb. of best raisins. Put them into 2 quarts of soft water and simmer down to 1 quart. Then add to it 1/4 lb. of brown sugar candy and a tablespoonful of white wine vinegar or lemon juice.

Drink 1/2 pint when going to bed and take a little whenever the cough is troublesome.' (N.B. - It is best to add the vinegar to that quantity which is required for immediate use.) Fluid Extract of Liquorice is employed almost exclusively as a vehicle for disguising the taste of nauseous medicines, having a remarkable power of converting the flavour of acrid or bitter drugs, such as Mezereon, Quinine or Cascara. The powdered root is useful in pill-making on account of its absorbent qualities, being used to impart stiffness to pill masses and to prevent the adhesion of pills. As a remedial agent, powdered Liquorice root has been almost entirely replaced by the extract, though it is used in the well-known Compound Liquorice Powder, the mild laxative in which Senna and Fennel are the other ingredients. It is added mainly on account of its sweetness and emollient qualities, the action of the powder being mainly due to the Senna contained. Liquorice was prescribed by early physicians from the time of Hippocrates, in cases of dropsy, to prevent thirst, for which it is an excellent thing, though probably the only sweet substance that has this effect.

It is thought, however, that the property does not actually belong to the saccharine juice, but that if a piece of the root be chewed till all the juice is extracted, there remains a bitter, which acts on the salivary glands, and this may contribute to remove thirst. The sugar of Liquorice may safely be taken by diabetic patients. On the whole, Liquorice as a domestic medicine is far more largely used on the Continent than in Great Britain. It is much used in China and largely produced (both L. glabra and L. echinata) in some of the northern provinces, a variety of medicinal preparations being employed, not only as possessing tonic, alterative and expectorant properties, but also for the rejuvenating and highly nutritive qualities attributed to it. It was recommended by Gervase Markham, a noted authority on husbandry and farriery in the early part of the seventeenth century, for the treatment of certain horses' ailments. [ Top ] ---Preparations and Dosages--- Powdered root, 1/2 to 1 drachm. Fluid extract, 1 to 4 drachms. Comp.

powder, B.P., 1 to 2 drachms. Solid extract, 1 drachm. Comp. lozenges, U.S.P. Solid extract in stick form, known as Liquorice Juice. Liquorice is also largely used by brewers, being added to porter and stout to give thickness and blackness. Block Liquorice is employed in the manufacture of tobacco for smoking and chewing. According to the United States press, a new use for Liquorice Root has lately been discovered, the waste root being now utilized for the manufacture of boards for making boxes. After extraction of the Liquorice, the crushed root was formerly considered a waste product and destroyed by burning, but under a recently discovered process this refuse can now be made into a chemical wood pulp and pressed into a board that is said to have satisfactory resisting qualities and strength. Taste and Action of Chinese Herbs TASTE AND ACTION OF CHINESE HERBS Traditional and Modern Viewpoints by Subhuti Dharmananda, Ph.D., Director, Institute for Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon Since ancient times, Chinese herbalists have classified medicinal materials according to their tastes (Chinese: wei).

The taste was understood to have a relationship to the effect of the herb when ingested. This relationship was seen as having great importance in guiding the combining of herbs within formulas. In most traditional Chinese herb books, taste was the first property of an herb to be mentioned, helping to orient the reader to the information that followed. There are five tastes—sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and acrid (sometimes called pungent or spicy)—consistent with the five element concept. Additionally, some herbs are said to be bland in taste, meaning that there is hardly any taste sensation on the tongue when the herb is tested. This term “bland,” however, doesn’t quite capture the Chinese meaning: that the taste is natural, unspoiled, or pure. The bland taste is sometimes considered a subdivision of the sweet taste. Whereas sweet herbs can contribute to accumulation of dampness if taken in too great a quantity, the bland tasting herbs tend to be diuretic, a property that counteracts dampness. There is additionally the designation astringent, which is often considered a subcategory of the sour taste.

Some materials—especially minerals and shells—can be astringing without an obvious sour sensation on the tongue, while most sour tasting herbs also have an astringent action. In some texts, astringent taste is added to the basic group of five flavors plus bland herbs, thus yielding seven categories. It is reasonable to raise the question whether or not the tastes really have a strong correlation with herbal effects now that there is so much more known about the actions of herbs as the result of long historical experience and modern research methods. The answer to this might influence modern herbalists in their decisions about which herbs are appropriate to combine within a formulation. Unless noted otherwise, the traditional designation of taste for herbs mentioned in this article comes from Oriental Materia Medica (1). In several instances, other texts may provide different designations; this is most often the case when an herb is said to have two or more tastes. 1. SWEET TASTE The sweet taste of herb materials—and foods—is traditionally associated with a tonic effect. The main sweet tasting constituents in nature are now known to be carbohydrates (including simple sugars, complex starches, pectins, and polysaccharides) and proteins.

There are some rare exceptions, such as the glycyrrhizin in licorice which is about 50 times as sweet as sugar but is not a type of sugar; still this relatively rare exception basically proves the rule that sweets are sugars, simple or complex. Raw licorice is often used as a detoxicant and anti-inflammatory, as one would do with bitter herbs (see below), and licorice does contain bitter components. To fully utilize licorice as a tonic herb, it is first baked with a substantial amount of honey—adding considerable sugar and possibly neutralizing some of the bitter, cooling, and anti-inflammatory components. The sweet taste is one of the few in nature that is inherently pleasing to all, young and old and regardless of culture. This situation is no doubt a biological survival mechanism by which humans are “directed” to consume nutritious substances as food: of the three basic macro-substances needed in nutrition, sugar and protein tend to be sweet, while the third, fat, appears to elicit appreciation for other flavors, especially sweetness. In nature, fat usually accompanies protein (as in nuts and meat), and thus the food with substantial fat is usually sweet.

It is rare that sweet tasting natural substances are poisonous, which is why it is the only inherently pleasing taste (especially to young children who are exposed first to the sweet taste of mother’s milk). Although the full range of tastes are associated with a relatively limited non-toxic part of our natural environment, most of them are acquired tastes, things that are first approved by those who have survived eating them, and then, with some convincing, passed on to the next generation. Green vegetables, with their slight to strong bitter component, are normally avoided by children, and by quite a large portion of the adult population in America, despite persisting pressure to eat them because of their healthful value. In a modern culture inundated by isolated sugars, it may be hard to imagine how sweet tasting things can be considered beneficial to health, but in the native culture of China there was little in the way of isolated sweets or even overly sweet native foods. Thus, the sweet tasting food substances in Chinese culture were usually starches (such as rice), which have a very mild sweet taste, and meats (mainly chicken and pork).

Relying on a natural diet, one tends to be more sensitive to the sweetness of complex sugars (a perception which seems to vanish with the experience of refined sugars), and more appreciative of their healthful qualities. Most modern research regarding dietary simple sugars is aimed at showing their negative impact, because of the large amounts consumed. Complex carbohydrates are repeatedly demonstrated to be of benefit (at least up to a certain proportion of the diet), and that focus of dietary research comes, in part, from our modern reliance on refined simple sugars replacing complex carbohydrates as the sweet part of the diet. Actually, both types of sugars can be beneficial in the appropriate amounts. Too much of some complex carbohydrates can be detrimental. Very simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are not only nutrients, but they are calming to the body. That is one reason why they are so often sought out now in the form of “treats.” In modest amounts, they not only calm agitation, they also invigorate basic energy as a fundamental nutrient. Sugars also soothe irritated membranes and are thus used successfully in making cough syrups, throat lozenges, and the like.

In China, simple sedative formulas are made from jujube, wheat, licorice, maltose, and other sweet herbs; honey-based cough syrups have been used since ancient times. The modern experience of children becoming uncontrollable when consuming sweets reflects two problems: disharmony in the child’s body and carbohydrate consumption that far exceeds the amounts that would provide a soothing effect. Complex sugars are even better at soothing irritated membranes, and they also bind water in such a way that they can help treat mild diarrhea. Pueraria starch and the pectin-like materials of hoelen are examples. Certain complex sugars interact with cell membranes and promote immune functions: these are polysaccharides that have been of growing interest since their isolation and testing in the late 1960’s. Astragalus has been a major source of such sugars. As an illustration of the connection between traditional and modern approaches to taste and medicinal activity, at a 1981 international conference in Harbin, China, a researcher described how she had decided to test astragalus polysaccharides, one of several types of the herb’s active constituents for immune-promoting.

She said that in traditional Chinese medicine, the tonic quality of astragalus was associated with the sweet taste; she reasoned that the sweet taste would likely be made up of sugars, and so she isolated various saccharides, and tested them for a tonic action, namely, for increasing resistance to disease as measured by specific immunological tests. Her studies showed that the astragalus polysaccharides had a marked effect on several immune responses; this work was followed up in the U.S. and became the basis of recommending astragalus for treatment of cancer patients suffering from chemotherapy-induced leukopenia. Plant parts that have a notable sweet taste are usually fruits and roots/rhizomes/tubers. The reason fruits are sweet is that this attracts fruit eaters among the animals who will then deposit the seeds at some distance from the plant on which the fruit grew, giving a sort of mobility to the plant that it would not otherwise have. The sweet fruit may also attract certain kinds of bacteria and fungi into the process of decay when the fruit falls, providing useful nutrients to the plant. Sweet roots and tubers are storing sugars for the plant to use in growing in the early spring. These roots usually become large and sweet in the late summer or autumn.

Given the natural roles of polysaccharides as a medium for energy metabolism, as a structural material, and as a means of storage under difficult conditions, it is not surprising that the sweet tasting materials are “tonic” in effect when ingested: energizing, building, and storing. Protein is the structural substrate for biological activity. It is the substance of enzymes, muscles, and neurotransmitters. A substantial amount of protein in the human diet is usually obtained from animal sources. Legumes and nuts are the main edible plant sources of protein. Seeds and other reproductive materials (e.g., pollen) have high amounts of protein; it is utilized to initiate the growth process. Some seeds are too tough to eat and others are poisonous (biological mechanisms to aid survival in some cases), so we usually rely on a limited range of them. The taste of the meats, legumes, and nuts are mildly sweet; it is common practice to add salt to them in order to broaden the taste experience in meals. Most of the foods that are consumed in substantial quantity (e.g., grains, beans, meats, many fruits) are classified by the Chinese as having a sweet taste (they may have other tastes as well) and a tonic nature.

They are considered by Chinese diet specialists as tonic to the spleen system (though the different foods can also be subdivided according to benefits to each of the five zang), which is the organ system responsible for distributing the qi from food. That is, good food benefits the spleen and builds up the qi. Our modern understanding of sweet tasting herbs has close correspondence with the traditional classifications: According to five element systematic correspondence, the sweet taste is associated with the spleen, which has functions that revolve around digestion and absorption of nutrients. According to the taste/action dogma, the sweet taste is associated with tonification therapy, and also calming, reducing irritation (soothing), and generating fluid (this latter function is often associated with the ability to overcome thirst and is related to tonification of qi). Of 71 tonic herbs listed as such in Oriental Materia Medica, 38% are roots, rhizomes, and tubers, 21% are animal materials, 13% are seeds, and 11% are fruits, and 17% are from all other types of materials combined, including two mushrooms and maltose (a simple natural sugar product).

Since edible animals, fruits, and seeds are more commonly listed in diet therapy rather than in herb therapy, one can understand why this herb book mainly lists the roots, rhizomes, and tubers. Not all the items in the tonic sections mentioned here have a sweet taste: of the 58 items (82% of the total materials listed) with a sweet taste, 34% are roots, rhizomes, and tubers, 21% are animal materials, 12% are fruits, 11% are seeds and 22% are all other materials combined. Some tonic herbs with sweet taste as the sole classification given (e.g., not sweet and bitter): Qi Tonics 2. SOUR TASTE The sour taste is relatively rare among the herbs of the Chinese Materia Medica, but is fairly prominent in foods, specifically fruits. A variety of organic acids common to the fruits contribute the presence of sour flavor. These include citric, malic, and ascorbic acids.

It is also the fruits that mostly contribute a sour flavor among the herbs in the Oriental Materia Medica (examples of fruit and fruit rind herbs with sour taste are mume, schizandra, terminallia, rubus, rose, cornus, pomegranate, crataegus, chaenomeles, and phaeseolus. Wine (with tartaric acid) and vinegar (mainly comprised of acetic acid) are sometimes used to process herbs that are to be utilized as liver and blood tonics because of their influence on the herb properties that is similar to that of other sour materials. Some herbs have a sour taste due to ingredients other than organic acids. Alum, haloysite, and oxycalcite are classified sour tasting minerals. Roots and stems, such as peony, achyranthes, sanguisorba, and cistanche, have a variety of complex active components that produce a sour taste. There are two major connotations of the sour taste in Chinese medical theory: In five element systematic correspondence, the sour taste is associated with the liver. It has a moistening and softening effect, usually reducing contraction of the ligaments and tendons.

Persons who are overly flexible may find that the sour tasting herbs worsen that condition. Peony, cornus, achyranthes, and chaenomeles are among the main sour herbs used to affect the liver function and said to relax the tendons. According to the taste/action dogma, the sour taste has an astringent and fluid recollecting function (that is, helping to reabsorb fluids as they begin to escape). Chinese medicine considers the sour and astringent qualities as restraining the leakage of any fluid, including perspiration, sputum, semen, vaginal fluids, and blood. Tannins, a class of complex molecules with notable astringent effect, are present in some of the herbs. Schizandra, terminallia, cornus, and sanguisorba are commonly used as astringents. Herbs with Sour Taste Portulaca: alleviates diarrhea, bleeding, and leukorrhea Red peony: promotes circulation of blood, relieves spasms.

Rose: astringes sperm, controls diarrhea, inhibits urinary secretion Rubus: alleviates spermatorrhea, enuresis, and urinary frequency Sanguisorba: alleviates diarrhea and intestinal bleeding Schizandra: reduces perspiration, restrains the lung fluid, restrains essence Terminalia: astringes lungs and intestines Trichosanthes root: reduces fluid swellings Among the items mentioned above are minerals which astringe fluid discharge and numerous fruits. 3. BITTER TASTE The bitter taste is the most common one found among medicinal herb ingredients, especially among the plant materials. It has been suggested that the bitter taste is generally unpleasant because it warns of potentially toxic ingredients. These toxins are strong medicines, and it is because of this that they become common among the ingredients of herbal medicines. Alkaloids, which often affect the nervous system, are consistently bitter, and glycosides, which usually affect the circulatory system, are frequently bitter; so are most flavonoids, which have broad beneficial health effects if taken in sufficient quantities. There are two basic qualities associated with bitter taste: According to the five element systematic correspondence, the bitter taste is associated with the heart system.

The alkaloids and glycosides commonly found in bitter plants help explain this relationship, as the Chinese heart system corresponds mainly to the nervous system and circulatory system of Western medicine, the two systems most strongly impacted by these types of active constituents. According to the taste/action dogma, bitter herbs have a cleansing action (removing heat and toxin). The cleansing action of bitters mainly refers to their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects, which are found with alkaloids, glycosides, and flavonoids. The bitter herbs also dry dampness, and this refers mainly to reduction of mucous membrane secretions; we can recognize today that increased mucus secretion is usually secondary to inflammation and infection. There are so many bitter herbs that one could hardly begin to list them. However, it is in the category of “fire-purging” herbs that the bitter taste is most frequently found. Some of the intensely bitter herbs include: Andrographis These herbs inhibit infections, reduce inflammation, and, in many cases, inhibit tumors. 4. ACRID TASTE The acrid taste indicates a certain burning or numbing sensation of the tongue, which is elicited by a variety of ingredients, but most frequently by essential oils.

Most of the essential oils are highly volatile, giving them a notable fragrance and a dispersing quality. Essential oils may cause the surface blood vessels to dilate, causing sweating and changes in the circulation in the skin and joints. They also tend to stimulate mucus secretion and movement in the lungs and sinuses (see: The use of aromatic agents for regulating qi, vitalizing blood, and relieving pain for additional information about applications and constituents). There are five sections of the Materia Medica that contain a large percentage of acrid herbs, with one section dominated by acrid tasting herbs: the surface-relieving category. Although not all the herbs that relieve the surface contain essential oils as active constituents (ma-huang is an obvious exception, it has an alkaloid as the principal effective ingredient), the majority are rich in essential oils that stimulate circulation and, with adequate dosage and proper administration, induce perspiration. Among the acrid herbs for relieving the surface with essential oils as dominant ingredients are: Angelica Vitex The other associations of acrid taste in traditional Chinese medicine are: According to five element systematic correspondence, the acrid taste is associated with the lungs.

In relation to the surface-relieving herbs, the lungs are the viscera that control the surface circulation. Additionally, some acrid herbs relieve coughing (e.g., aster, tussilago, perilla seed, peucedanum, platycodon) by helping to assure the lungs downward movement of qi. According to the taste/action dogma, the acrid taste is associated activating circulation of qi and dispersing accumulation of moisture. Acrid herbs with these effects include citrus, aquilaria, cyperus, lindera, saussurea, magnolia bark, and pogostemon. From a Western perspective, we know that essential oils are penetrating and have circulation-altering actions. 5. SALTY TASTE The salty taste has two predominant associations in traditional Chinese medicine: According to five element systematic correspondence, the salty taste is associated with the kidneys. Examples of kidney essence (jing) tonics with salty taste are deer antler, gecko, placenta, sea horse, turtle shell, tortoise shell, and mantis; all from animal sources. Actinolitum, a mineral, and cistanche, a root, are salty yang tonics.

The frequently used sour fruits cornus and schizandra also have a salty taste: they are used to both nourish and astringe the essence. According to the taste/action dogma, the salty taste is associated with dissolving masses, removing moisture and phlegm, and softening hardness. These actions fall under the general heading of resolving therapies. Examples of herbs with these actions are laminaria, sargassum, oyster shell, pumice, turtle shell, arca shell, and cuttle bone. These materials are from the sea, though not all the salty resolving agents come from this source: lithospermum, scrophularia, and isatis are land plants with a salty taste used for treating toxic swellings. From a Western perspective, we have come to associate salt (sodium chloride) as being harmful to the kidneys and a cause of fluid retention. However, the primary activity of salty tasting herbs is usually not the result of adding substantial amounts of sodium salts to the body. According to the philosophy of the Nei Jing, herbs with a salty taste are directed to act upon and benefit the kidney, while consumption of large amounts of salt will harm the kidneys.

The herbs for resolving swellings (in most cases, these are not the kidney tonics) usually have a cold nature, and are thus to be used cautiously in persons with cold syndromes, including yang-deficiency diarrhea. They are considered somewhat deleterious if taken over a long period of time by persons with weak stomach/spleen functions. The salty kidney tonic herbs are predominantly of warm nature (turtle and tortoise shell are exceptions) and they should be used cautiously in persons with deficiency fire syndromes. Herbs with Salty Taste Scrophularia: resolves swollen lymph glands, relieves constipation Tortoise shell: nourishes yin Turtle shell: nourishes yin, resolves firm lumps and abdominal tumors It is unclear, from the modern viewpoint, how a salty taste fits with the above listed herbal properties, except that large amounts of salts, as found in the seaweeds, could have an impact on clumping of cells and other phenomena that might yield swellings and could affect diuresis.

Assigned Tastes In the article “The characteristics and functions of traditional Chinese drugs,” presented in the Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine (2), this is reported: “The flavors [of herbs; here called drugs] don’t necessarily refer to the real tastes of the drugs. Sometimes, they are sorted out according to the drugs’ actions other than tastes. Therefore, the flavors of some drugs introduced in books on materia medica are often different from their true tastes.” Anyone who has tasted ginseng roots recognizes the strong bitter flavor, and may feel hard pressed to note the sweet taste, apart from those fresh roots that have been preserved with sugar. The ginseng root contains a substantial amount of starch and sugar, and a small amount of the immune-enhancing polysaccharides. The bitter taste derives from its content of saponin glycosides—the principle active constituents at usual dosages; the more glycosides a root has, the more potent the root is, in terms of tonification. A saponin is a steroid-like molecule and a glycoside is a combination of a complex molecule, such as a steroid, with a sugar (which often has the effect of enhancing absorption).

The sweet taste may have been attributed to ginseng for any number of reasons, including the possibility that when the taste was first assigned in an herbal text, the available roots were from a different plant species (one like codonopsis) which are sweeter than the current ones. No matter the original designation, the reputation of ginseng as a spleen tonic and the description of ginseng as a sweet tasting herb (with mild, bitter quality), coincides with the dogma that the sweet taste is tonic, and especially that it tonifies the spleen. Therefore, the emphasis on ginseng’s sweet taste remains. In similar manner, the essentially white ginseng roots are described as being yellow, consistent with the five element systematic correspondence of the yellow color and the spleen. By contrast with ginseng, astragalus and codonopsis are notably sweet in taste (like many herbs, they also have some bitter quality). These two herbs, like ginseng, are said to tonify the spleen and lung. Although ginseng is considered the “stronger” qi tonic, it is not sweeter than the others.

Thus, the degree of sweetness of an herb is not necessarily associated with the traditionally described degree of tonic effect. Nor is the degree of sweetness by tasting necessarily associated with the degree of sweetness described by herbalists: maltose is a sugary material that is listed in Oriental Materia Medica as having only mild sweetness (others list it as sweet), while tremella, a polysaccharide-rich mushroom, has barely detectable sweetness, but is described in Oriental Materia Medica as being sweet (not mildly so). Ganoderma is an example of a tonic herb (it is classified as a tonic sedative in some books) that is said to have a sweet, mild flavor. Anyone who has tasted the ganoderma extracts notes that it is extremely bitter. This is because of its content of triterpenes, which are molecules quite similar to the saponin glycosides of ginseng. In this herb, both the immune-promoting polysaccharides and the triterpenoids play key roles in providing a healing action. The triterpenoids are responsible for the sedative effect, as well as some other actions, including better oxygen utilization (hence improving energy), and the bitter components of ginseng do the same.

The description of ganoderma as a sweet herb may follow, rather than precede, its description as a tonic agent. Thus, while traditional herbalists were able to properly associate the sweet tasting component of herb materials with tonic effects that we can now confirm experimentally, there are considerable limitations to this simple system based on general observations of nature. Modern investigations raise questions about the emphasis on describing, for example, a sweet taste as a designation of tonic properties of several herbs. The tastes assigned to herbs has sometimes changed over time, and, even today, herb specialists may debate about which designation is correct. In the Zhenzhu Nang (Bag of Pearls), written around 1200 A.D., siler (fangfeng) is described simply as being sweet (not sweet and acrid as it is today), and its effects are described as eliminating wind from the body, especially wind that is moving upwards (3). The acrid quality of siler is emphasized in modern texts, which matches with the dispersing (wind-dispelling) properties that are still attributed to it.

According to Heiner Fruehauf, all the traditional texts, in designating the wei of an herb, are referring to the immaterial function rather than the material basis of the herbs. Therefore, when translating wei to taste, one finds many discrepancies because the word usually implies, to Westerners, only the effect of the substance on the tongue. In sum, one can find modern confirmation of at least some of the traditional assignment of taste as a characteristic associated with herb action. One can also find many situations in which the traditional designations do not seem to make very much sense in light of common knowledge. At least partial resolution of some of the apparent discrepancies may lie in the interpretation of the Chinese term wei; but some of the designations remain the subject of debate among herbal authorities. Changing Views The association of taste with effects on humans was described in detail for the first time in the Neijing Suwen, around 100 A.D. Anyone who has studied this text in detail finds that there are some contradictory statements about the relationship between taste, usually that of foods, and the parts of the body affected and the nature of the affect. Variations in the description of taste and effect continued for some time.

Here is a description from the Bencao Yanyi, written early in the 12th century (3): “When heaven and earth had already been separated, the creation of all things was due solely to the five qi [this is like the six qi of hot, cold, wind, damp, etc.]. After the five qi had been determined, the five tastes arose. Following the genesis of the five tastes, the thousand transformations and ten thousand changes continued without end. Thus it is said that the qi bring forth things, and the tastes complete them. That which was created individually becomes a pair when complete; that which was created as a pair becomes an individual entity when complete. Cold hardens; thus the corresponding taste [salty] can be used to draw things together. Hot influences draw things together, thus the corresponding taste [bitter] hardens things. The influence of wind disperses; thus the corresponding taste [sour] can be used to gather. The influence of dryness gathers; thus the corresponding taste [acrid] can be used to disperse. The zhong influences [central] originate in the soil. They are able to harmonize everything; thus the corresponding taste [sweet] can be used to soothe.

If the qi is firm, strength results. For this reason, the qi [circulating in the body] can be nourished by bitter things. If the vessels are drawn together, they are in harmony. Thus, the vessels can be nourished with salty things. If the bones are gathered together, they are strong. Therefore, the bones can be nourished with sour things. If the muscles are dispersed, they are not cramped. Thus, the muscles can be nourished with acrid things. If the flesh is soothed, it can not be blocked. Therefore, flesh can be nourished with sweet things. If a soothing effect is wanted, the sweet things should be used; if soothing is not wanted, the sweet things should not be used. No applications may be exaggerated; excessive amounts can also cause illness. Anyone in ancient times who wanted to nourish life and cure suffering first had to understand what has been said here. Only very rarely is suffering relieved without such understanding.” While some of the above statements correspond to traditional dogma conveyed today, some of them do not.

Though practitioners do not often think of salty things drawing together in the most general sense, calcined oyster shell and alum are examples of salty astringents used to tighten up membranes and stop dripping of fluid. Most practitioners probably don’t think of qi being nourished by bitter things, vessels being nourished by salty things, or bones being nourished by sour things; these represent areas where the associations have changed. Here is a description in the Tangye Bencao, written during the 13th century (3): If the liver suffers from tensions, sweet herbs should quickly be taken in order to relieve these tensions. Licorice is advisable in this case. If one wishes to disperse obstructions, acrid herbs should be taken quickly. Cnidium is advisable in this case. With acrid herbs, one replenishes the liver, asarum is appropriate. With sour herbs, one drains the liver; peony is appropriate....Bitter herbs replenish the kidneys; rehmannia and phellodendron are appropriate. These descriptions seem somewhat at odds with the dogma of today’s traditional approach.

Liver tensions are often treated with bitter herbs (such as bupleurum and chih-shih); asarum would be deemed inappropriate for a liver deficiency syndrome; the sour herb peony is described as nourishing the blood and astringing the yin, rather than draining; and bitter herbs are used to deplete kidney fire rather than replenish the kidney, though by reducing the deficiency fire, the yin can be naturally restored. Some of the apparent discrepancies and variations might be explained by applications of different aspects of the five elements system (which includes the nurturing and controlling relationships), but others simply represent differing views that arose during the long history of Chinese medicine. Using Taste Designations Today What can not yet be answered is this: is it still an important concern for herbalists today to combine herbs according to their tastes? Was the emphasis on taste of an herb something that was required in earlier times no longer required with detailed information about the constituents and their pharmacological effects?

In the 1995 publication Advanced Textbook of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology (4), this is said: “Since the flavors of drugs have an intrinsic relationship with their efficacies, understanding the characteristics of the five tastes is of great importance in guiding the administration of drugs.” Yet, despite this statement, the relationship is not raised again after the single page that includes a few examples of taste associated with therapeutic effect. One example from this page is that “Drugs such as perilla leaf and mentha for inducing perspiration and relieving exterior syndrome and citrus and saussurea for activating qi are all acrid.” Yet, in the text describing individual herbs, the section on surface-relieving includes the non-acrid cicada skin (salty and slightly sweet), morus leaf (bitter and sweet), and chrysanthemum flower (sweet and bitter); the section on activating qi includes the non-acrid melia (bitter). While the majority of herbs in these two sections have an acrid taste (often combined with another taste), these exceptions do not elicit any commentary.

In the U.S., the taste of an herb is one of the required pieces of information for students to learn, yet descriptions of taste and effect rarely crop up in the American literature, except as simple recitation of the current standard dogma. Herb tastes is a subject left out of the portion of the NCCA examination devoted to herbs that most American acupuncturists now take. Undoubtedly, persons who strongly respect the traditional methods would argue that there is still be too little known about the herbs to disregard the taste as a distinguishing feature. By contrast, persons who follow the modern scientific approach to herbalism may suggest that it is the actions of the main active constituents that determine the effect of a formula, and it does not matter what the actual taste is, since the taste can be influenced by so many different ingredients within the material, some of them not seemingly relevant to the effects. Thus, for example, the lignans of schizandra are deemed especially important components by modern researchers, but these contribute only a bitter taste to the “five flavored fruit.” The sour flavor, conferred by organic acids as found in many other fruits, probably contributes relatively little medicinal action except, possibly, when high dosage decoctions (or dried decoctions) are relied upon.

Observing modern practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine designing treatments for patients reveals two patterns of behavior that suggest there is actually less emphasis on taste than when it was suggested, several centuries ago, as a critical factor in attaining success. First, many doctors use large prescriptions, containing a dozen or more herbs, and with such large prescriptions, one usually finds a complex mix of all five tastes regardless of the therapeutic action intended; it is not clear that an effort was made to coordinate the tastes in coming up with the final formulation. By contrast, taste of herbs in a formula is often raised in descriptions of small ancient prescriptions, such as Cinnamon Combination and Rehmannia Six Formula. Second, it is common to see a base formula developed for treatment of a disease condition which is then modified by various added ingredients for specific symptoms, constitutional patterns, or signs. The additions clearly alter the taste of the formula, but it does not seem to be the case that the taste of the additions is a major consideration; rather, it is their defined actions based on either modern or ancient indications.

Still, disregarding taste may be one of the steps, like so many others taken in modern times, that isolates the herb practitioner from an important interaction of humans with nature: experiencing and responding to a fundamental sensory perception and leaving behind the traditional methods of describing natural phenomena (such as herb actions). It is easy to be overwhelmed by the power of clinical experience and modern research. Without disregarding what has become available through the modern efforts, one may wish to keep aware of the traditional methods with regard to taste and formulation. At the least, one should examine the traditional ideas—in all their variations over time and among authors—until something more definitive can be established by the work that is currently underway to determine how herbs affect human health. REFERENCES Hsu HY, et al., Oriental Materia Medica, 1986 Oriental Healing Arts Institute, Long Beach, CA. Zhang Enqin, The characters and functions of traditional Chinese drugs, Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1990; 10(3):229–234. Unschuld PU, Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics, 1986 University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Advanced Textbook of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology, volume II, 1995 New World Press, Beijing. October 2010

Question: The sweet-tasting root of which plant is sometimes known as ‘Spanish’?
Answer: Liquorice