How to identify animal droppings | Discover Wildlife Local Patch Reporters How to identify animal droppings Mammals are notoriously difficult to see. Often the only signs of their presence are the droppings left on footpaths, your lawn or your bird table. 14th July 2010 Having trouble identifying animal droppings? Download our FREE animal droppings ID guide. March is a good time to look for mammal faeces; new vegetation is yet to come through and many species are actively defending their territories. Identification is often based on smell and/or contents, but either use rubber gloves to handle faeces or small twigs to tease out the contents. Carnivores often use their faeces to mark out their territories, so these are often left in conspicuous places. DROPPINGS TO LOOK OUT FOR: Rabbit and hare Rabbits and hares do not ruminate, and their pellets consist of finely chewed fragments of grasses. Rabbit pellets often in ‘latrines’, where the pellets are generally darker. Hare pellets often difficult to tell from rabbit; generally larger (up to 1cm) and more flattened. More often found away from field edges.

Fox Vary depending on what the fox has eaten. Like a small dog dropping, especially in urban areas where they eat a lot of meat, bread and bird seeds. Frequently twisted at one end, especially in rural areas where foxes eat more birds and mammals. When fresh, best distinguished by a very characteristic ‘foxy’ smell. Water vole and rat Water vole droppings are 8mm–12mm long, rounded at both ends, smooth, found near water, generally at latrine sites. Larger rodents produce similar droppings. Rat droppings are larger than those of water voles, average 12mm long, rough in texture, tapering to a point at one or both ends and frequently deposited in groups. Found in a variety of situations, including near water. Badger Faeces can be very variable – soft and even runny when they have been eating worms, or solid and firm, like a large, fat sausage, when eating wheat or fruit. Where badgers are common, these are generally deposited in shallow pits, but are more generally just left on the surface. Easily recognised by sweet, musky smell.

Squirrel Droppings are cylindrical or rounded, up to 8mm in diameter, generally deposited at random but can accumulate at favoured feeding site, such as a bird table. Otter Spraints left in conspicuous places on rocks in rivers or ledges under bridges. Dark when fresh, pale and crumbly when dry, varying from a small, tarry smear to faeces several centimetres long. Usually contain fish-bones and scales, occasionally feathers or fur. Deer Deer ruminate, so their food is finely digested and their pellets are generally black and shiny with no obvious contents. Often left in small piles on tracks in woods. Generally separate cylindrical pellets, pointed at one end and indented at the other, but sometimes, especially in summer, a single amorphous lump. Hard to tell species apart. Larger species produce larger pellets (up to 3cm in red deer) but there is considerable overlap between species. Bats Droppings generally found stuck to walls or on the ground under holes where bats enter buildings, or in piles in roost sites. Hard to tell species apart, but in buildings they are most likely to be one of the pipistrelles.

Easily told from mouse droppings by rough appearance due to finely chewed insect fragments. Mouse droppings are similar, but are smoother because they are not composed of insect fragments and not found stuck to walls. Hedgehog Droppings cylindrical, up to 5cm long, like a small carnivore. Generally dark, no obvious structure when eating worms but generally studded with shiny fragments of insects. If you would like help to try and ID the droppings you have found, please click here and post the following information on our Forum : A description of the appearance of the animal droppings Where you found the animal droppings (eg. habitat, location, country) What time of year you found the animal droppings A photograph of the animal droppings if you took one We will do our best to answer your query on our Forum . The Straight Dope: Does every type of animal dropping have its own name? A Straight Dope Classic from Cecil's Storehouse of Human Knowledge Does every type of animal dropping have its own name? April 30, 1982 Dear Cecil: Whilst reading through a (fictional) account of King Arthur's childhood, we came upon the word fewmet.

The book explained that the droppings of the beast for which one might quest were fewmets, and that a knight on such a quest might carry some with him (one assumes for comparative purposes). The Oxford English Dictionary was consulted. It said that fewmets, with various spellings, refer specifically to deer droppings. The specificity of the reference moves me ask you, our illustrious illuminator, this question: does this imply that there are other, equally specific terms for the droppings of other beasts? That is, for every gaggle, pride, exaltation, flock, etc., there are left behind trails of things which have names? That there may have been a taxonomist hard at work naming all these creations and that his labors are forgotten should surely tug at the heartstrings of all sensitive Straight Dope readers. — Jim Tolson, Chicago Cecil replies: Jimbo, you're a man after my own heart. I wouldn't go so far as to say every sort of animal caca has a name, but a surprising number do.

We have tath, cattle dung; spraints, otter dung; bodewash, cow dung; the familiar guano, seafowl excrement used as fertilizer; wormcast, a cylindrical mass of earth voided by an earthworm; and coprolite, fossil excrement — e.g., dinosaur poop. For completeness' sake we ought to include cowpies and buffalo chips. A related word is jumentous, pertaining to the smell of horse urine. Nor can we forget ichthyomancy, fortune-telling with fish offal, or spatilomancy, fortune-telling by investigating animal droppings. Other milestones in the fecal vocabulary, as long as we're on the subject, are shardborn, born in dung; stercoricolous, living in dung; and sterquilinian, pertaining to a dunghill. This last one has many obvious applications in interoffice memo writing. But let's not confine ourselves to excremental matters.

There are an amazing number of obscure animal appurtenances that have names attached to them, a mere fraction of which we can relate here: gleet, hawk stomach phlegm (I'm not making this up); curpin, a bird's behind; numbles, edible deer innards; dowcet, a deer testicle; fenks, leftover whale blubber used as manure; axunge, goose grease; pulicous, abounding with fleas; and crapaudine, a horse's ulcer. Useful verbs are blissom, to copulate with a ewe; and caponize, to castrate a chicken. For gourmets we have ranivorous, frog-eating; and scolecophagous, worm-eating. In the animal mania department there is formication, the feeling that bugs are crawling over you; boanthropy, the delusion that you're an ox; cynanthropy, the fantasy that you're a dog; and galeanthropy, the nightmare that you're a cat. Most of the preceding come from Mrs.

Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure and Preposterous Words, by Josefa Heifetz Byrne, a volume no aspiring know-it-all dare be without. More of the same Dear Cecil: This devoted fan (teem as I may, I can hardly imagine 999,999 more like me) finds she must take you to task for your woefully inadequate discussion of terminology for animal excrement. Surely you can appreciate the importance of thoroughness in this regard. Imagine how mortifying for an educated person to have to refer to a pile of animal leavings as "poop" or "doodoo" for lack of the proper term. I enclose copies of a couple pages on the subject from Cyril Hare's Language of Field Sports, which is the locus classicus for this stuff: Hart and all deer — fewmets; hare — crotiles, crotisings; boar — lesses; fox — billitting; other vermin (Hare's term) — fuants; otter — spraints; hawk — mutes. Let me also add scumber for dogs. — Avise N., Mt. Rainier, Maryland Cecil replies: Really now, Avise.

"Poop"? "Doodoo"? I'm trying to run a respectable column here. All the terms you mention check out in the Oxford English Dictionary, allowing for some variation in spelling. The OED also offers buttons, sheep droppings, and suggests that lesses may issue from a bear or wolf as well as a boar. Be that as it may, you've helped expand the pitiful reaches of human knowledge. I'll send you a six-pack as soon as I start collecting on the tankload the Teeming Millions owe me. — Cecil Adams BBC - Nature UK: The truth about poo The truth about poo Share this page Chris Packham | 15:52 UK time, Thursday, 3 June 2010 Editor's note: Chris previously posted this on the Autumnwatch blog but we just couldn't stop him banging on about poo (watch tonight's show and you'll see), so here it is again. I'm sure that many people will consider what they are about to read as a little quirky if not completely mad. But here goes. Ever since I first started to roam and ramble I've been looking at poo.

Not a casual glance or a furtive squint, but a hands-and-knees close-up, full critical examination in terms of colour, size, shape, texture, content and, of course, smell. There is of course a perfectly rational explanation for this. Poo tells me things. Fundamentally it immediately informs me what has been active in the area. Some species are nocturnal or incredibly shy or both and thus their very presence is difficult to detect. The otter is an obvious example. Yet otter poo (or spraint) is pretty easy to find if there are otters about and very easy to identify, certainly through smell if the sample is sufficiently fresh. Indeed, on a chilly winter's morning the bitter twang rising from a steaming spraint is a delicious shot in the nasal passages, always a treat to savour. In order to see this content you need to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed. Visit BBC Webwise for full instructions. If you're reading via RSS, you'll need to visit the blog to access this content. Video: the clue is in the carnivore poo So otter is easy as are fox, badger, weasel and stoat.

All of these have diagnostic aromas despite being variable in terms of their form due to the recently consumed diet. Position is also important, for instance badgers deposit their faeces in pits called ' latrines ' which act as territorial boundary markers. Deer are easy too, with a little practice. As are bats, although I'm not any sort of expert when it comes to chiropteran stuff myself. Bird poo is often a little more tricky than mammal but through direct observation and practice you can get quite close to species specific identification. Narrowing down into groups is a start. Again, as an example, raptor poo or 'mutes' typically have a very thick and plastery white component which when dry is powdery. Tawny owl mutes often seem to have a yellowy wash, as will kestrels', occasionally perhaps an artefact of their broadly similar diets. More investigation is needed here! Poo produced by the grouse family is really easy to identify as it is produced in neat cylindrical pellets. I'm lucky to have in my collection red and black grouse, ptarmigan and the real prize, capercaillie excrement.

Obviously location helps in guaranteeing correct analysis but so does relative diameter, an artefact of the bird's size. Perhaps my favourite bird poo (and I'm sure many other people's too) is produced by the green woodpecker. Again cylindrical, it can be found on short grassy areas where the birds have been foraging. It is about 6-8mm in diameter and somewhere between 25-35mm in length. Its outer skin is white and the interior, visible at either end, is tan brown and roughly textured, so it can look a bit like a crumpled length of a cigarette. Ecology of Dung | Trees for Life Dung Dung The ecology of dung is often overlooked. Admittedly, it doesn't make the best topic for dinner conversation or at parties, but the fact remains that every living thing produces waste - excretion happens, regardless of our sensibilities. Squeamishness aside, it is fascinating to realise how efficiently nature can break down and recycle the nutrients contained within waste products. This process is crucial for healthy ecosystems. When an animal eats, there is inevitably a certain amount of waste that must be expelled from its body as urine and faeces.

Undigested material passes through the gut and emerges as excrement, containing vast amounts of bacteria and often a coating of mucus. The distinct smell is hydrogen sulphide and methane, produced by bacteria. However, the journey doesn't end there: dung usually passes through the digestive tracts of many creatures before being thoroughly broken down into nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as various gases. There is a rich community of animals that both depends on dung, and plays an essential part in its decomposition . All shapes and sizes Perhaps unsurprisingly, the make-up and shape of dung varies from species to species. Even with the same individual the composition of its droppings is affected by various factors, such as diet and state of health. It can however fall into several distinct types. Carnivore dung is easily distinguishable from that of herbivores . In appearance, it is often longer and thinner, and may contain telltale feathers, fur and bones. Fox (Vulpes vulpes) scat is a classic example: narrow and elongated, with a distinctive tapered twist at one end. Carnivores have more efficient digestive systems than herbivores, so there is relatively little energy remaining in their faeces.

It is also a scarce resource (as there are normally fewer carnivores than herbivores in an ecosystem), which accounts for the absence of specialist animals feeding upon it. As a result, it is decomposed primarily by bacteria and fungi . The droppings of insectivores such as hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) are generally harder to find, but usually contains obvious insect remains, such as beetle carapaces. As insect exoskeletons are composed of a tough substance called chitin, parts of the insect pass fairly unscathed through the digestive tract. The elimination habits of birds (carnivorous or otherwise) deserve some special attention. Most people are familiar with the white droppings of many bird species. Birds do not urinate as such – their urine and faeces are eliminated from the same opening, known as a cloaca. The whiteness in their droppings is uric acid. Many raptors (birds of prey) and scavengers regurgitate pellets, as well as defecating. While they are not strictly dung these pellets consist of some of the more indigestible parts of their diet.

In the case of owls, there are often lots of bones present in the pellet, as their digestive juices are somewhat weaker than those of other birds of prey; also owls tend to swallow their prey whole, rather than picking off pieces of flesh. Therefore raptor droppings are usually very white and paint-like, containing little solid matter. The dung of herbivorous mammals is very variable, but tends to be rounded or pellet-shaped. It often contains visible, fine plant remains. Deer droppings for example are generally rounded (resembling chocolate raisins!), while those of grouse species are relatively long and cylindrical. In contrast to that of carnivores, herbivore dung can contain up to around fifty per cent of the energy value of the original food the animal ate. While dung is harmful to animals not adapted to consume it (this is the reason humans have evolved the capacity to be repelled by the smell), there are many for which dung is a welcome feast. Guests at the banquet Nothing in nature is wasted and dung is no exception. The act of eating dung is called coprophagy. From the moment it falls, there are plenty of hungry mouths ready to join the feast.

In fact, some herbivores - including mountain hares (Lepus timidus), a number of rodents and even millipedes - eat their own droppings to digest more of the nutrients; this behaviour is known as refection. The first set of droppings produced by hares is soft and greenish, and are rarely seen as they are eaten quite promptly. It is usually the second round of more well-digested pellets that are found. Unpleasant as this may sound, it is an adaptation that makes sense in nutritional and survival terms. While herbivore dung is more abundant than that of carnivores, it is still a relatively scattered resource and provides ‘islands’ of food and habitat which are mostly used by opportunists. Cow dung, for instance, is consumed by many organisms such as earthworms, as well as being broken down by bacteria and fungi. There are a number of fungi, such as the dung roundhead fungus (Stropharia semiglobata), that are found primarily on deer and other droppings. Some of the more charismatic dung specialists are the various dung beetles. Among those commonly found in our native woodlands is the dor beetle (Geotrupes stercorarius).

This robust and industrious looking insect has an incredible sense of smell, as do many dung–feeding insects. It catches the scent of dung from a considerable distance and is then able to follow the smell upwind to its source. Having located its prize and mated, it dig burrows beneath the dung, and drag pieces of it down into the tunnels as food for its larvae. This helps with both nutrient cycling and aeration of the soil. The role of dung decomposers is highlighted when human-induced imbalances occur. For example, in parts of England the use of insecticides and parasite treatments in cattle has reduced the amount of dung beetles and other insects in their dung. This inhibits the breakdown of dung and also has knock-on effects for bats and other wildlife dependent on these insects. As its name suggests, the yellow dung fly (Scatophaga stercoraria) - along with its other close relatives - is very keen on faeces. The adults feed on flies, nectar, and the occasional swig of liquid dung. It is the larvae however that are entirely dependent on dung. The adults congregate around fresh dung, mate, and then lay their eggs within it.

The larvae hatch and then burrow down into the dung, emerging as a new generation of adults in 3-4 weeks. There are numerous other organisms that feed on dung, such as the European black slug (Arion ater), which is commonly seen on wet days in our native pinewoods. Ecological benefits With this wealth of life attracted to dung, there are knock-on effects throughout the food chain. For example, the myriad insects associated with faeces provide food for a variety of birds. It is quite common to see cowpats riddled with holes made by the beaks of starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) searching for insect larvae. Aerial hunting birds such as swallows (Hirundo rustica) often frequent areas where cattle are present, feasting on the flies associated with dung. In prehistoric times, birds may have demonstrated similar habits in areas where herds of wild cattle or aurochs (Bos primigenius) were present. Dung and its decomposers are crucial to nutrient cycling. Wolves (Canis lupus) and other predators that ingest bone deposit phosphates in their droppings.

Evidence from Canada suggests that bears (Ursus arctos) and other fish eating predators play a significant role in transporting nitrogen and other minerals. By eating salmon (Oncorhynchus spp. ), and then both depositing carcasses, and defecating in the woods (as bears are wont to do), they return carbon and nitrogen to the forest. It is could be speculated that bears had a similar influence in Scottish forests before their extinction here. A clear example of the positive effects of dung are the faeces or ‘casts’ of earthworms. While many parts of the Caledonian Forest are too acidic for earthworms, there can be pockets of brown earth where they are present. As any gardener will testify, the casts demonstrate the crucial role worms can play in breaking down larger organic matter into fine, rich soil. Seed dispersal Many plants have evolved to take advantage of animals’ and birds’ need to defecate. For example, trees such as rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) have tempting red berries, which are an important food for several species of bird as well as mammals such as the pine marten (Martes martes).

Birds in particular can often travel a considerable distance from the source plant before excreting the seed, complete with a package of fertiliser! It is not uncommon to find small rowan trees in otherwise treeless areas. These are often on rocky mounds which serve as perches for birds. The vegetation can be relatively lush as a result of repeated fertilising with bird droppings. Rowans are frequently found growing beneath Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris) in which redwings (Turdus iliacus) and their close relatives have perched and passed out the seeds. Similarly, birds such as mistle thrushes (Turdus viscivorus) help to disperse holly (Ilex aquifolium). Local environmental changes There are many other examples of how frequent deposition of droppings can result in local vegetation changes. For example otters (Lutra lutra) repeatedly deposit their droppings (called spraints) on the same prominent feature such as a rock protruding from the river. Over time, the steady supply of nutrients creates a flush of algae, making the rock a distinct green colour, allowing it to be spotted from some distance.

They often have spraint sites beside these streams and again these can be spotted from a distance because of the rich mound of grass that develops. Badgers (Meles meles) are very fastidious in their defecation habits, and have dedicated latrine areas, usually at a respectable distance from their setts (as their burrow systems are called). In some woodland types, areas that have been occupied by badgers over long periods often have considerable amounts of nettle (Urtica dioica) and elder (Sambucus nigra), which thrive on the elevated levels of nitrogen in the soil. Badgers also eat elderberries so again their dung plays a role in seed dispersal . The influence of agriculture and former human settlements can often be seen for many years after an area has been abandoned by humans. It is common to see abundant growth of nettles around such areas as many years of animal manure being deposited again increases the nitrogen content of the soil. Territorial role Many animals use dung and urine as a means of marking their territory. These deposits are usually scented with secretions from special glands.

Bear in mind that for a lot of mammals smell is the dominant sense, so scent-based messages provide a wealth of information for other animals in the area. Otter spraints are a good example. These are olfactory notices, informing others of the same species that the territory is occupied. For some species these markers indicate whether an animal is ready to mate. Clear marking of territories is vital as it prevents excessive competition for the same resources. This helps the species to stay healthy and ensures that its food source is not depleted, thereby helping to keep the wider ecosystem in balance and health. Surveys and detective work As many of our native animals are so elusive (mammals are often nocturnal and are also able to detect our presence long before we see them!), droppings are among the main clues that naturalists and biologists use to study certain wildlife. As well as indicating the presence of a particular species, the amount of dung can also give an indication of its abundance. Biologists have actually calculated the average number of times that red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) defecate in a day.

Dung counts can be made along a transect line, and then a formula can be used to calculate the number of deer in the area! The contents of faeces can be examined (of course using appropriate hygiene precautions!), giving an insight into an animal’s diet, and sometimes an indication of other creatures in the area. For example, in spring, fox (Vulpes vulpes) droppings are often quite white, because in areas with large vole populations, the high levels of calcium and phosphorous ingested when eating whole voles colours their droppings. These kinds of seasonal changes are quite common, and are particularly noticeable in the droppings of pine martens. During the summer it is not uncommon to find the wing cases of beetles in their scat, while in early autumn they are often filled with rowan and other berries. Some faeces can be seen from a considerable distance revealing the whereabouts of certain wildlife.

The droppings of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), can stain parts of the cliffs and crags where they like to nest , while bats can sometimes be located by the dark stain of urine that appears below the entrance to their roosting places in tree crevices. Vast amounts of dung are produced in the Caledonian Forest, and without the animals, fungi and bacteria that break it down there would soon be an alarming build-up, smothering vegetation and withholding essential nutrients from the ecosystem. Fortunately, with the assistance of numerous organisms adapted to the task, the nutrients contained in dung are eventually returned to the soil – and so the cycle continues. Dan Puplett What droppings can tell us What droppings can tell us June 22, 2015 Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra. L.) are only rarely seen in daylight. One reason why our knowledge about the threatened species is still very limited. Credit: André Künzelmann, UFZ If you want to find out about the shy Eurasian otter, its droppings are a fascinating source of information.

By isolating DNA from otter droppings – known as spraint – researchers can not only identify individual animals but also estimate the size of the population. But it's important to know how to interpret the information correctly. A team led by Simone Lampa from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) in Leipzig reports on the benefits and drawbacks of the method in science journal PLoS ONE. Eurasian otters are elusive creatures. Only rarely do researchers manage to observe these shy animals directly in the wild. Trampled vegetation at the water's edge, slides into the water and accumulations of spraints are often the only clues to their presence. So figuring out how many otters there are in a given locality is very difficult. "But with threatened species, this is very important information," says Simone Lampa from the Department of Conservation Biology at UFZ. Only with reliable figures can we tell whether protective measures are having any impact or whether new problems are emerging. In the case of the otter, all the signs seem to indicate a positive trend. In the 19th and 20th centuries, hunters massively reduced otter numbers and the species completely disappeared from many parts of central Europe.

But since the 1990s, its distribution has gradually been increasing again. Most of the clues have been provided by analysing spraint. The animals leave their droppings in certain places in order to communicate with other otters. The standard method of otter research is therefore to look for these marks and conclude whether or not otters are present in the area. However, this tells us nothing about the number of animals present, because several otters may be living in the same area and leaving droppings in the same places. What's more, otter droppings look very similar to those of the introduced North American mink, which can easily lead to confusion. So for a number of years biologists have been using genetic analysis, which allows them to identify each individual animal. Spraint contains intestinal cells from which the genetic material DNA can be isolated. The DNA contains certain segments typical of otters, and the length of these so-called microsatellites varies from one individual to another. These unique genetic 'fingerprints' are analysed by Simone Lampa and her colleagues in the biosphere reserve of Oberlausitzer Heide- und Teichlandschaft in eastern Saxony. "The otter never disappeared from this area," she explains.

"And from here it's spreading westwards." This makes it even more interesting to find out more about the development of this population . The researchers at UFZ spent six years collecting and genetically analysing otter spraint. They discovered that around 20 otters are living in the investigated area of about 35 square kilometres. The number fluctuates from year to year depending on how many ponds are being farmed and therefore offering rich yields of fish. To arrive at these figures, the researchers don't need to find spraints from each individual animal. Instead, on each collection trip they determine how many spraints come from known individuals and how many from unknown ones. Using this ratio, they can apply mathematical formulae to estimate the probable size of the population. This method, known as non-invasive genetic mark-recapture, has become increasingly popular in conservation research in recent years. During their investigations, however, the UFZ team have discovered some problems with the technique. The method is based on the assumption that every otter exhibits the same marking behaviour. "As far as the amount of spraint is concerned, that is correct," says Simone Lampa. But there are differences in quality.

Otters generally leave different types of spraints: as well as dry droppings and those covered with a slime layer, they also produce lumps of anal secretions, so-called anal jellies. These are often found on rocks and in other exposed places where they are easy to spot. Because it is also easier to isolate DNA from this material than from normal droppings, many studies prefer the analysis of this type of sample. But the Leipzig-based researchers have now discovered that male otters produce anal secretions more frequently than females. As a result, spraints from males are investigated more frequently than spraints from females, distorting the results. Consequently, several otter studies conclude that investigated populations have a surplus of males which probably does not exist in reality. "We shouldn't focus too much on anal secretions," says Simone Lampa. Other spraint samples are more time-consuming to collect and analyse, but they yield more representative results. Another problem is that the analysis of the DNA sequences does not always produce 100% accurate results. Otter DNA passes through the extremely aggressive environment of the animal's digestive tract, and components may be easily misidentified.

Just one mistake of this kind could result in a known individual being identified as an unknown one. This creates 'phantom' animals in the data which do not actually exist. Although Simone Lampa has analysed every sample between three and 26 times to minimise such errors, three or four 'virtual' otters remain. Computer models are available to eliminate errors of this type from the data. "It's essential to use these models in genetic mark-recapture studies," she says. Otherwise the size of the population will be overestimated, which in the case of threatened species like the Eurasian otter could be fatal. The animals themselves don't make the researchers' job any easier, either. Although the analysed spraints are left where they are found, an otter seems to notice if someone has been tampering with them. Animals whose spraint has been analysed display particular eagerness to mark, adding another error to the statistics which needs to be eliminated. "But even when you take all of this into account, genetic mark-recapture studies are a very good method of finding out more about otter populations," says Simone Lampa. For the elusive otters, it's getting harder to keep their secrets to themselves.

What droppings can tell us | EurekAlert! Science News 22-Jun-2015 What droppings can tell us With the right techniques, genetic analysis is uncovering more secrets about the distribution and numbers of the threatened Eurasian otter Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ Print E-Mail ? IMAGE: Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra. L.) are only rarely seen in daylight. One reason why our knowledge about the threatened species is still very limited. view more Credit: Photo: André Künzelmann/ UFZ This news release is available in German . Leipzig. If you want to find out about the shy Eurasian otter, its droppings are a fascinating source of information. By isolating DNA from otter droppings - known as spraint - researchers can not only identify individual animals but also estimate the size of the population. But it's important to know how to interpret the information correctly. A team led by Simone Lampa from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) in Leipzig reports on the benefits and drawbacks of the method in science journal PLOS ONE. Eurasian otters are elusive creatures.

Only rarely do researchers manage to observe these shy animals directly in the wild. Trampled vegetation at the water's edge, slides into the water and accumulations of spraints are often the only clues to their presence. So figuring out how many otters there are in a given locality is very difficult. "But with threatened species, this is very important information," says Simone Lampa from the Department of Conservation Biology at UFZ. Only with reliable figures can we tell whether protective measures are having any impact or whether new problems are emerging. In the case of the otter, all the signs seem to indicate a positive trend. In the 19th and 20th centuries, hunters massively reduced otter numbers and the species completely disappeared from many parts of central Europe. But since the 1990s, its distribution has gradually been increasing again. Most of the clues have been provided by analysing spraint. The animals leave their droppings in certain places in order to communicate with other otters. The standard method of otter research is therefore to look for these marks and conclude whether or not otters are present in the area.

However, this tells us nothing about the number of animals present, because several otters may be living in the same area and leaving droppings in the same places. What's more, otter droppings look very similar to those of the introduced North American mink, which can easily lead to confusion. So for a number of years biologists have been using genetic analysis, which allows them to identify each individual animal. Spraint contains intestinal cells from which the genetic material DNA can be isolated. The DNA contains certain segments typical of otters, and the length of these so-called microsatellites varies from one individual to another. These unique genetic 'fingerprints' are analysed by Simone Lampa and her colleagues in the biosphere reserve of Oberlausitzer Heide- und Teichlandschaft in eastern Saxony. "The otter never disappeared from this area," she explains. "And from here it's spreading westwards." This makes it even more interesting to find out more about the development of this population. The researchers at UFZ spent six years collecting and genetically analysing otter spraint. They discovered that around 20 otters are living in the investigated area of about 35 square kilometres.

The number fluctuates from year to year depending on how many ponds are being farmed and therefore offering rich yields of fish. To arrive at these figures, the researchers don't need to find spraints from each individual animal. Instead, on each collection trip they determine how many spraints come from known individuals and how many from unknown ones. Using this ratio, they can apply mathematical formulae to estimate the probable size of the population. This method, known as non-invasive genetic mark-recapture, has become increasingly popular in conservation research in recent years. During their investigations, however, the UFZ team have discovered some problems with the technique. The method is based on the assumption that every otter exhibits the same marking behaviour. "As far as the amount of spraint is concerned, that is correct," says Simone Lampa. But there are differences in quality. Otters generally leave different types of spraints: as well as dry droppings and those covered with a slime layer, they also produce lumps of anal secretions, so-called anal jellies. These are often found on rocks and in other exposed places where they are easy to spot.

Because it is also easier to isolate DNA from this material than from normal droppings, many studies prefer the analysis of this type of sample. But the Leipzig-based researchers have now discovered that male otters produce anal secretions more frequently than females. As a result, spraints from males are investigated more frequently than spraints from females, distorting the results. Consequently, several otter studies conclude that investigated populations have a surplus of males which probably does not exist in reality. "We shouldn't focus too much on anal secretions," says Simone Lampa. Other spraint samples are more time-consuming to collect and analyse, but they yield more representative results. Another problem is that the analysis of the DNA sequences does not always produce 100% accurate results. Otter DNA passes through the extremely aggressive environment of the animal's digestive tract, and components may be easily misidentified. Just one mistake of this kind could result in a known individual being identified as an unknown one. This creates 'phantom' animals in the data which do not actually exist. Although Simone Lampa has analysed every sample between three and 26 times to minimise such errors, three or four 'virtual' otters remain.

Computer models are available to eliminate errors of this type from the data. "It's essential to use these models in genetic mark-recapture studies," she says. Otherwise the size of the population will be overestimated, which in the case of threatened species like the Eurasian otter could be fatal. The animals themselves don't make the researchers' job any easier, either. Although the analysed spraints are left where they are found, an otter seems to notice if someone has been tampering with them. Animals whose spraint has been analysed display particular eagerness to mark, adding another error to the statistics which needs to be eliminated. "But even when you take all of this into account, genetic mark-recapture studies are a very good method of finding out more about otter populations," says Simone Lampa. For the elusive otters, it's getting harder to keep their secrets to themselves. ### Publication: Simone Lampa, Jean-Baptiste Mihoub, Bernd Gruber, Reinhard Klenke, Klaus Henle (2015): Non-Invasive Genetic Mark-Recapture as a Means to Study Population Sizes and Marking Behaviour of the Elusive Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra).

PLOS ONE 10(5): e0125684. Otter - Norfolk Wildlife Trust Otter Update: 18 January 2017 Following the flooding a... Features Otter at Strumpshaw Fen by Elizabeth Dack 1/9 Otter at Strumpshaw Fen by Elizabeth Dack 2/9 Young otter by Elizabeth Dack 3/9 Otter at Strumpshaw Fen by Elizabeth Dack 4/9 Otter in Little Ouse by Wendy Petty 5/9 Otter by Eddie Deane 6/9 Otter by Elizabeth Dack 7/9 Otter feeding by Elizabeth Dack 8/9 Otter by Elizabeth Dack 9/9 Otter Lutra lutra With its broad head and long, wide tail the otter has a very distinctive appearance and is easily identified. Being a semi-aquatic and nocturnal creature does, though, make this furtive animal difficult to spot. However, it often leaves tell tale signs behind. Conservation status The number of otters is increasing in Norfolk. Otters declined catastrophically throughout England in the late 1950s.

In Norfolk by the 1970s most traditional otter sites were deserted and whole river systems no longer supported any otters. Today though, otters have returned to most of their former haunts in Norfolk. This conservation success story is the result of both better legal protection for otters and the banning of the pesticides which poisoned them. Details Did you know? An otter can roam 10kms in one night. The otter’s droppings are known as spraint and otters use them to mark their territories How to recognise In the UK otters can only really be confused with the introduced American mink, but otters are much larger (95-130cm in length, including tail), with a distinctive white throat. Droppings (spraints) and footprints are more likely to be seen than the actual animal. Where to see Otters like shallow water with plenty of fish. Quiet back waters of the Norfolk broads, reed-fringed freshwater dykes and many of Norfolk’s rivers including the Wensum, Bure, Yare and Nar provide just these conditions. NWT Ranworth Broad and NWT Barton Broad are just two places where otters are regularly recorded in Norfolk.

When to see Throughout the year. To see an otter in the wild demands not only being in the right place at the right time but also that you spot the otter before the otter spots you. Dawn and dusk are the most likely times to chance upon an otter. Find out more How to help Support conservation campaigns to protect wetland areas and ensure our rivers and waterways are free from pollution. Related reserves Related questions & advice Is the otter a protected species? The otter is an European protected species, protected under Schedule 5 Sections 9(1) and 9(4) of the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 and the Conservation (Natural habitats &c.) Regulations 1994. The latter regulations (usually referred to as the Habitat Regulations 1994) implement the European Habitats Directive in the UK. Under the legislation it is an offence to: deliberately kill, injure or take an otter from the wild without a licence; deliberately disturb an otter in its resting place or damage or destroy an otter’s breeding or resting site.

A licence issued by Natural England is required to carry out certain activities that could adversely affect otters if these activities fall within 50 metres of an otter’s holt or resting up site. What do otters eat? Otters will mainly feed on fish (40-90% of their diet)and will take a variety of species depending on the time of year, species such as carp, stickleback and eels. During the spring months amphibians form a large part of their diet. Occasionally otters will take small mammals and water birds such as coots. Manmade,domestic materials have also been found inside otters. Generally they are opportunistic and catch their food whilst travelling throughout their range; their ranges are surprisingly large and in adult males these are likely to be in tens of kilometres. Where do otters live? Since the start of the reintroductions of otters in 1983, they have spread well and now have a presence on most of the rivers in Norfolk as well as on parts of the coast. It isn’t always the main channels of the rivers they use, they will also take advantage of the streams, ditches, fens and reed beds.

Otters mainly sleep and rest during daylight hours in dense cover or in cavities in trees and below ground – the latter are known as holts and these are also used for breeding. Within its range, an otter will use a number of resting and holt sites. It is important to remember that otters are protected by law as well as their habitats and it is an offence to disturb and otter or its habitat. How do I know if otters are present on a site? The most distinctive and easiest way to find otter signs are their droppings which are called spraints. Distinguishing between mink and otter droppings is relatively easy with mink scats being long and twisted in shape with a very unpleasant smell when fresh. Otter spraints are left in prominent places such as on ledges under bridges and on rocks. They vary in shape, colour and consistency but always have a very distinctive musky, fishy smell, reminiscent of jasmine tea or newly mown hay. The spraints have a unique, signature scent that is unique to each individual otter and this is the way of conveying information to one another. Another way of revealing if otters are on site is looking out for their footprints.

The footprints of otters are asymmetric and normally only show four toes even though they have five, although this depends on the surface they have been walking over. The webbing between the toes doesn’t normally show. Print sizes range between 40-80mm across. The prints of mink are much smaller across and the toes more spread out. Has an otter or mink eaten my fish? Both species are agile swimmers and catch fish by chasing them underwater. The otter needs to eat 20 per cent of its body weight in food every day - about 2.5kg and will be able to tackle larger prey items than mink. Otters will usually eat the fishes head first and will quite often leave the tail. The mink has a wider diet but will take smaller fish. A feeding station will contain lots of fish scales and fins especially in the winter months. To ascertain which species is involved you should firstly look for any footprints the animal may have left in the mud around the feeding area: Otters are much bigger than mink and have 5 toes on each foot connected by webbing (although this is not always obvious and the print marks left usually only show four toes).

The overall footprint shape resembles that of a kite with a footprint approx 7cm long and 6cm across. The hind print is generally bigger and can be up to 9cm in length. The claw marks are represented as slight indentations. Mink also have 5 toes on each foot but the prints are much smaller with fore prints approx 3.5cm long and up to 4cm wide. The hind print is up to 4.5cm long. The prints are roughly oval in shape with clearly defined claw marks Your next piece of detective work would be to see if the animal may have left some droppings nearby: Otter droppings (called Spraints) are black and slimy when first deposited and have a strong oily smell. Over time however they become light grey and lose their thick consistency. The droppings are made up almost exclusively of fish bones, scales and the hard shell fragments of crustaceans. Otters use droppings as scent markings and they are quite often left in exposed places (raised banks or vegetation, stones etc). Mink droppings are generally 6-8cm long and approx 6-9mm wide. They are often twisted and pointed at one end.

Close examination is likely to show a much wider range of prey remains including the fur and bone fragments of small rodents, bird feathers and also the husks and pips of fruit and berries. If the mink has been eating fish the droppings are likely to resemble thin otter spraint but with a faintly acrid smell. The droppings are often used as scent markings, although some will be inconspicuously placed. The otter is a protected species and it is illegal to trap or harm it in anyway. The mink however is a relatively recent introduction to Great Britain, and represents a threat to some native animals, in particular the water vole. Mink are categorised as a pest species and are widely trapped. How do I tell the difference between a mink and an otter? The non-native American mink is in the same mammal family as the otter, stoat and weasel, and resembles all of these species in general body shape. It is quite commonly confused with the otter, especially in wetland habitats, but there are several important differences. It has a long, slim body, short legs and a round, fluffy tail that is about a third of its body length.

The otter’s tail is broad-based, flat and tapers towards the tip and is about half the body length. In size American mink are larger than stoats and weasels but smaller than a domestic cat and about half the size of an otter. The average body length is 60cm for males and 50cm for females. The tail adds an extra 14 – 21cm. The fur is rich, glossy and generally dark brown or black, with a white or pale patch on the chin only. The pale markings on an otter extend from the chin to the chest. The muzzle of a mink is pointed and ferret-like whereas the otter has a flattened head shape and a broad dog-like muzzle. The mink swims high in the water with the head and body visible but the otter swims low in the water with only the head and part of the tail on show. How to prevent Otters predating fisheries and ponds It is not possible to trap and/or move otters anywhere within the UK. Otters are protected under the UK Wildlife & Countryside Act and also under European legislation.

Otters are mainly a river dwelling species and it is in their nature to eat fish, eels and crustaceans. About 40-80% of an Otters diet consists of fish with them eating around 1kg a day. An enclosed fishery or pond simply offers a very tempting feeding opportunity for them. It should be remembered that most still waters stocked with fish are artificial, manipulated environments that support high densities of small fish or small concentrations of very large fish (usually carp) which, from the perspective of the otter, constitute part of its range and provide foraging opportunities. The onus for protecting a fishery against predation falls with the owner, or the club/syndicate using the fishery and in relation to otters this can only effectively be achieved by fencing of a specific design. Fisheries that are used by the public may be eligible for a grant from the Environment Agency but otherwise the cost is the responsibility of the fishery owner, club or syndicate.

Information on appropriate/effective fencing specifications is available from a number of sources including the Angling Trust, Specialist Anglers Conservation Group, the Environment Agency and Norfolk Wildlife Trust For smaller garden ponds it may be possible to cover the pond in a mesh or grid to stop the Otter being able to dive down to the fish. When were Otters reintroduced to Norfolk? Otter populations crashed to near extinction across most of lowland England by the mid 1970’s as a result of pesticide poisoning, loss of habitat and hunting. Otters were released by the Otter Trust in Norfolk between 1984 and 1997 with the approval of the statutory conservation bodies existing at the time; there have been no releases since then (other than orphaned otters which are released by the RSPCA as close as possible to the location that they came from). It is worth pointing out that since the 1970s, otters have also spread naturally from western lowland England back across the Midlands into eastern England, so the release programme simply speeded up their natural re-colonisation of Norfolk.

Gallery feed Spraint - definition of spraint by The Free Dictionary Spraint - definition of spraint by The Free Dictionary n (Zoology) (often plural) a piece of otter's dung [C15 sprayntes (pl), from Medieval French espraintes otter's dung, from espreindre to press out: compare express] Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Write what you mean clearly and correctly. References in periodicals archive ? It is my intention to 'blitz' a large number of sites across the whole county with the aid of volunteer surveyors and collect spraint (otter droppings) from these locations. QUIZ OF THE DAY Alternatively, fish could have formed part of these people's diet, as suggested by the presence of deep-water species that must have been caught by humans; Harland and Parks' thorough report on the fish remains draws a useful contrast between these bones and others that most probably entered the tomb as otter spraint.

Delight as otters flourish in county Ray finds an animal track across a road and even sniffs an otter jobby, called a spraint, in the hunt for his quarry. Otters back on the canal; GREEN ACTION PLAN HAS PAID OFF FOR NATURE Each day she checks the stream for otter spraint - that's droppings to you and me. Back to nature to find paradise; Wildlife enthusiast Tina Corbett has the perfect job - minding a countryside reserve Fresh spraint is quite soft,and hardens and loses its colour with time, so it's possible to tell how recently an otter has been in any particular area. DBRC | Otter surveying View marine sightings and marine strandings around Devon's coastline Otter surveying Otters are elusive creatures and the chances of seeing one in the wild is very rare. For otter surveying, we therefore look for signs of otter such as spraint (droppings) and footprints. Spraints and other secretions SPRAINTS are made up of clearly visible fish bones and scales, with some other small bones, fur, feather and insect fragments sometimes present. All contents are bound by a black tarry mucous.

This hardens and dries to pale grey with age. Fresh spraint as shown in this photo on the left is usually black and tarry and if very fresh will be sticky. It has a distinctive sweet-musky odour, which is not unpleasant. Recent spraint is drying out, turning greyish and may crumble when touched. It may smell slightly ottery still. Old spraint, as shown in this photo on the left has dried completely, becoming very pale and crumbly. It may have crumbled completely, leaving a grey ashy deposit, with some fish bones still present. Sometimes has a slight stale ottery smell. Tar spots are blobs or dribbles of black tar found in spraint but with no fish bones present. These can only be confirmed if the distinctive smell is present. Anal jelly, as shown here is a jelly-like secretion, which smells strongly of otter and can vary in colour from pale brown to greenish or amber colour. NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH… Mink Scats (droppings) – twisted and tapered to a point, often with hair or feathers as the most obvious constituent but fish and small mammal bones and crayfish fragments possibly visible too.

No wider that 1cm with a very unpleasant odour of rotting meat and may be mouldy. Bird droppings – these vary with species. Mostly pastey, sometimes gritty, rarely having fish bones in them but insect fragments may be found. Bird pellets – these vary tremendously in shape, content and size. Often have remains of birds, insects, animals, fish or seed pods and plants. Sea bird pellets often will have shell fragments and waders may be very sandy. One difference between these and spraint is that these are bound together but dry, compared to spraint which has a tarry jelly. TRACKS — otter tracks have five toes, which arch around the front of a large pad. In soft ground claw marks and webs between toes may show. However, often only four toes show. These can lead to confusion with other mammal tracks. Width: Female: 5 — 6cm Male: 6.5 — 7cm Cub: under 4.5cm NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH... MINK, DOG AND FOX Mink have five toes like an otter but they are smaller and star shaped with long claws that often show.

Less webbing may show than for otters.Width: 2 — 4cm. Dog and fox tracks have four toes only. Click here to download an ‘operation otter’ footprint guide of tracks on the river bank. DBRC is hosted by Devon Wildlife Trust registered charity No.213224 Our phone number is: (01392) 274128 and our email address is: Otter droppings Otter droppings Otters droppings are often referred to as 'spraint'. Otters are increasing in numbers throughout the UK as rivers are becoming less polluted. Most of the distribution mapping of the fish eating mammal is done by observing the droppings.

Question: The droppings of which British mammal are called ‘spraints’?
Answer: Otter