Did Caligula really make his horse a consul? - Ask History Ask History June 21, 2016 By Elizabeth Nix Share this: Did Caligula really make his horse a consul? Author Did Caligula really make his horse a consul? URL Google According to the ancient historian Suetonius, the Roman emperor known as Caligula loved one of his horses, Incitatus, so much that he gave the steed a marble stall, an ivory manger, a jeweled collar and even a house. Another chronicler, Cassius Dio, later wrote that servants fed the animal oats mixed with gold flakes. Famous for his madness and brutality, Caligula allegedly committed incest with his sisters, fed prisoners to wild beasts and had conversations with the moon—so coddling a beloved horse might seem among the lesser of his various evils. But did he really plan to make Incitatus a consul and only fail to do so because his assassination happened first, as Suetonius would have us believe? Like much of what we think we know about Caligula, the story of Incitatus’ consulship comes from a writer who lived decades after the maligned emperor’s four-year reign.

Historians think that Suetonius and Dio based their scathing accounts of his life on rumors and legends—or simply fabricated sensational tales that turned a not-so-great ruler into an epic villain. Many scholars reject the notion that Caligula terrorized Rome with his unbridled madness, arguing that his fellow lawmakers would likely have whisked him out of power for such conduct. So while Caligula might have had an unusual fondness for his horse, it’s unlikely the emperor went so far as to appoint the stallion. But what if Caligula actually did plot to create Rome’s first equine official? According to historian Aloys Winterling, author of “Caligula: A Biography” (2011), insanity isn’t the only logical explanation for such behavior. In his book, Winterling makes the case that many of the emperor’s wackier stunts, including his treatment of Incitatus, were designed to insult and humiliate senators and other elites. By bestowing a high public office on his horse, then, Caligula aimed to show his underlings that their work was so meaningless an animal could do it.

Tags Caligula & Incitatus : History of Horses CALIGULA AND THE LEGENDARY HORSE INCINATUS By John Reismiller "But when the spur's point ever so lightly touches its flank, a thoroughbred breaks into a gallop, generously out of proportion to the impulse of the spur. The reaction of the horse, rather than a response to an impulse, is a release of exuberant inner energies. Indeed, a skittish horse, with its nervous head and fiery eye, is a splendid image of stirring life. Thus we imagine the magnificent stallion whom Caligula called Incitatus." --Jose Ortega y Gassett Spanish Philosopher Much is lengendary about Incitatus, the favorite mount of the Emperor Caligula. The chroniclers of his imperial rule written years afterward were biased toward the Julian/Claudian clan and wished to make his behavior toward Incitatus and otherwise the object of ridicule. Caligula undoubtedly was guilty of much cruel and bizarre conduct, even by Roman standards. He is thought by modern scholars to have become progressively worse as he continued on the throne. Caligula might have been the victim of a mental disease which was unknown in his day.

But if Caligula ever loved anything, it was his steed Incitatus. His often foolish treatment of this beautiful white stallion may have been an indication of his deteriorating mental soundness. Whatever the reason, Caligula's Incitatus has passed into legend of both horses and man. Some have indicated that Incitatus was attended to by eighteen servants, and was fed oats mixed with gold flakes; according to Suetonius, Incitatus had a stable of marble, with an ivory manger, purple blankets and a collar of precious stones. Suetonius wrote also that Caligula planned to make Incitatus a Consul. Caligula even procured him a wife, a mare named Penelope. It has also been said Caligula claimed his steed to be a 'combination of all the gods' and to be worshipped as such. Incitatus would also "invite" dignitaries to dine with him, and had a house with full complement of servants to entertain such guests.

--Suetonius, Lives of The Twelve Caesars Caligula used to invite Incitatus to dinner, where he would offer him golden barley and drink his health in wine from golden goblets; he swore by the life and fortune of Incitatus and even promised to appoint him consul, a promise that he would certainly have carried out if he had lived longer. --Cassius Dio: Book 69 Incittatus meaning "impetuous" in Latin, came from Spain to add to Caligula's stable of racehorses. The emperor adored Incitatus so much that after ordering a stable built of marble with a veneer of ivory , he later constructed a house and garden with servants so that this steed would lack nothing for the entertainment of his guests. There is a legend that before a race, Caligula slept by the side of his Incitatus to be sure that no one would disturb his rest under pain of death. Caligula shared with most of the Romans a passion for horse-racing. His family owned most of the land where St. Peter's now stands and Caligula built there a private hippodrome, which is usually known as Circo Vaticano o di Nerone.

He embellished this circus by placing at its centre an obelisk. Notwithstanding his private circus, he spent a lot of time at Circo Massimo watching the races in which Incitatus took part. No expense was spared although we do not know whether Incitatus was actually happy to be living in a marble stable or to be eating from an ivory manger. Incitatus was covered with fine cloths with red borders and from this detail historians claim that Caligula appointed him to the position of senator; we do know that he was the best dressed of all the horses in Rome. Ruins of Circo Massimo All copyrights to "Hail to the Chief", written by Jack Reismiller, remain with the author. "Tales of the Horse" is hosted by Banner image above is from Trumpeter, plate from Carrousels, course de tetes et de bagues, Paris, 1727/43 INCITATUS & Caligula: Horse History Article INCITATUS & Caligula By Cheryl R. Lutring (Horse History article copyrighted by Saddle & Bridle Magazine.) Few horses have ruled an empire. Less have been considered as marriage partners by ancient emperors.

But such was the fate of Incitatus. His owner, the Roman Emperor Caligula, (AD 37-41) infamous for his psychotic extremes, was consistent in at least one aspect his devotion to his horse. Albeit sometimes this particular passion took a turn that was not necessarily to the benefit of the animal. Just as his father, Tiberius, had favored a pet dragon, so Caligula s darling was his best racing horse. The original stable name of the stallion was Porcellus, which meant little pig but Caligula thought this unsuitable and renamed him in recognition of his swift-speeding as Incitatus. Incitatus was a chariot racing stallion of no mean repute. It is said he never lost a race. Caligula was fanatical about the sport and favored the Green Faction team as opposed to the White, Red or Blue Factions. To ensure his favorite s best chance, the night before a race, Caligula would send his soldiers to impose silence in the neighborhood of the marble stable, so that the horse might rest peacefully.

One of Caligula s main indulgences was to drive a chariot himself not an ability expected or required of an Emperor and he could be seen at the Circus Maximus pitting his horses with the best of them. However, his normal driver was Eutychus who had the onerous duty of steering the imperial team to a win. Once Caligula was so pleased with his daring skills that at a post-game triumphal feast he awarded him a fortune of 20,000 gold coins. Chariots were raced by teams of horses harnessed in varying arrangements: a pair was a biga; three together was a triga; and the most popular, a team of four abreast was a quadriga. The latter were the most glamorous and most popular, and have been dramatically depicted in the epic film Ben Hur. Each race had to circuit the narrow 340 metre long oval of Rome s Circus Maximus seven times, negotiating its tight turns in a three-mile gallop. He also used him as a riding horse.

Horses of the time were around 14hh and slightly larger ones were used by military officers and people of status, so Incitatus is considered to have been around 14.2hh; certainly in ancient times most horses that were ridden by people of status were gaited a great asset in the days before saddles and stirrups! When it dawned on Caligula that if he was to create a dynasty to follow in his wake, he would have to marry and produce a son, he wavered long over whether such a momentous honor should be given to Incitatus or a woman called Caesonia. After much soul-searching, and probably much delicate advice from his household, Caesonia became the chosen one. It is a puzzle to know why he thought a stallion could bear an offspring of any description! But, Caligula thought Incitatus was feeling rejected and was fretting and petulant, so to appease him he gave the horse political power over the Empire. It was a requirement that Incitatus had to be consulted in the making of tactical decisions. But even this was not enough.

Caligula also had built for him a new palace of his own where he could hold state in suitable surroundings. This was situated alongside Caligula s own magnificent palace and was designed to incorporate many of Rome s more ancient buildings. Incitatus had a marble bedroom with a big straw mat for a bed, a fresh one every day, an ivory manger, a gold bucket to drink from, and pictures by famous artists on the walls. If he fancied a change of scene he could move into a different stall of ivory. He was draped in blankets of the royal purple and sported a gem-encrusted collar. He had his own slaves who attended to his every whim, and magnificent feasts were staged when senators and citizens of high rank were invited as guests of Incitatus. In addition, whenever he won a race the horse was seated in the place of honor beside the emperor at the table of royal banquets and Caligula would ply him with fashionable delicacies such as sea urchin, parrot and dormouse. But Incitatus resisted such epicurean delights and would only take barley (dusted with gold in his honor!) from the golden bowl.

At all such feasts, the assembled guests had to toast the health of Incitatus 20 times over. But even all this apparently did little to console the spurned and desolate horse. So convinced was Caligula that Incitatus was irrevocably grief-stricken by his marriage to a woman, that he continually tried to make recompense: he included his name in every sentence he spoke, and had his name used as part of the binding oath for legal documentation; when new temples were built in honor of the new god, Emperor Caligula, the loyalty of Incitatus was rewarded by appointing him deputy head priest, which meant he had great responsibility for supervising the rites of the temple, in consideration for which he received an excellent salary. Caligula was so excessively fond of him that he made him first a Citizen of Rome and then a senator, and nominated him as a future candidate for the coveted Consulship. Maybe his perceived intention to so honor the horse was merely an ironic indication of his view of the unworthiness of the men in the government. Perhaps it is for this last distinction that Incitatus name has passed down through the historical record.

Some sources report that eventually Incitatus tired of his duties and privileges and, reverting perhaps to the implication of his original name Little Pig, turned on Caligula, savaging him severely. Caligula was swift with retaliation and beheaded his treasured Incitatus. Such can be the fate of the unwise favorites of the powerful. Historical Oddities: Incitatus, the Horse Caligula Made Senator | The Time Stream Historical Oddities: Incitatus, the Horse Caligula Made Senator Posted on October 10, 2013 by Charlie Wilcox Many Roman Emperors are now known for the more eccentric moments of their reigns than their actions as rulers. Caligula , consul and Emperor of Rome from 37 to 41 AD, is probably one of the more well known, and the more eccentric. Caligula’s short reign was characterized by a feud between himself and the Roman Senate, and efforts by the Emperor to increase his own personal power within the empire. Caligula also expanded Rome into northwest Africa. However, the accounts of his insanity are far more remembered, and one of the most well-known aspects of this is the story of his horse, Incitatus .

Incitatus, whose name means “swift” in Latin, was Caligula’s favorite horse. The emperor pampered him during his reign. According to the historian Suetonius, Incitatus lived in a stable made of marble, and slept in an ivory manger with purple blankets. In Roman times, the color purple was a very rare dye and was used to signify royalty and the greatest social status. Suetonius also says that Incitatus had an elaborate and jeweled collar. Another chronicler, Cassius Dio, writes that Incitatus was fed meals of oats mixed with gold leaf. There are two significant incidences involving Incitatus during Caligula’s imperial rule. The first was in 39 AD. Caligula ordered grain barges to be assembled on the water in the Bay of Baiae between the cities of Baiae and Puteoli (today Pozzuoli) . A bridge was constructed on the barges across the two mile wide stretch of water. Caligula, who could not swim, rode Incitatus across the bridge in a spectacular stunt wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.

The stunt was to refute a prediction by Thrasyllus of Mendes , soothsayer for Caligula’s great uncle and predecessor Tiberius. Thrasyllus’ prophecy had claimed that Caligula had no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae. The second incident with Incitatus has also become what Caligula is most remembered for; naming the horse to the Senate and possibly proclaiming him consul alongside Caligula. There were also other rumors claiming that Caligula also appointed the stallion as a priest. The plan to appoint Incitatus as consul was used as a proof of Caligula’s insanity. However, if the story is true, it may not be one of insanity but rather an attempt to make a political statement. By making Incitatus a senator and a consul, Caligula could have been making the claim that the Senate was no better at their job than an animal, or that Incitatus was actually better at their positions that the senators were. Additionally, this affront may have been an attempt to outright provoke the Senate during Caligula’s feud with them.

In the end, however, Caligula never could make Incitatus a consul as the emperor was assassinated in 41 AD, four short years into his reign. Like this: Nero - John Simm (Caligula Introduces Senator Incitatus) - YouTube Nero - John Simm (Caligula Introduces Senator Incitatus) Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Sep 21, 2008 Category Caligula - Ancient History - HISTORY.com Google Caligula’s Early Life Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus was born in 12 A.D., the third son of the renowned Roman general Germanicus and his wife, Agrippina the Elder. During his childhood, his family lived at his father’s posting on the Rhine, where the general’s troops gave the future emperor his nickname “Caligula,” meaning “little boot,” in reference to the miniature uniform in which his parents dressed him. Did You Know?

Though known for his harsh treatment of others, the infamous Roman emperor Caligula lavished attention upon his horse Incitatus, giving the animal his own house with a marble stall and ivory manger. As an expression of his absolute power, Caligula planned to appoint the horse to the high office of consul, but he was assassinated before he could do so. After Germanicus died in 17 A.D., Caligula’s family fell from favor in the eyes of the emperor Tiberius and the powerful Praetorian guardsman Sejanus, who saw the elder sons of the popular general as political rivals. Caligula’s mother and brothers were accused of treason, and all died in prison or exile. Caligula’s grandmother Antonia managed to shield him from these intrigues until Sejunus’ death in 31. The next year, Caligula moved in with the aging Tiberius, who gleefully indulged his great-nephew’s worst habits, commenting that he was “nursing a viper in Rome’s bosom.” Tiberius adopted Caligula and made him and his cousin Gemellus equal heirs to the empire.

When the emperor died in 37, Caligula’s Praetorian ally Marco arranged for Caligula to be proclaimed sole emperor. A year later, Caligula would order both Marco and Gemellus put to death. The Emperor Caligula Caligula was not quite 25 years old when he took power in 37 A.D. At first, his succession was welcomed in Rome: He announced political reforms and recalled all exiles. But in October of 37, a serious illness unhinged Caligula, leading him to spend the remainder of his reign exploring the worst aspects of his nature. Caligula lavished money on building projects, from the practical (aqueducts and harbors) to the cultural (theaters and temples) to the downright bizarre (requisitioning hundreds of Roman merchant ships to construct a 2-mile floating bridge across the Bay of Bauli so he could spend two days galloping back and forth across it). In 39 and 40 he led military campaigns to the Rhine and the English Channel, where he eschewed battles for theatrical displays, commanding his troops to “plunder the sea” by gathering shells in their helmets).

His relationships with other individuals were turbulent as well. His biographer Suetonius quotes his oft-repeated phrase, “Remember that I have the right to do anything to anybody.” He tormented high-ranking senators by making them run for miles in front of his chariot. He had brazen affairs with the wives of his allies and was rumored to have incestuous relationships with his sisters. Caligula was tall, pale and so hairy that he made it a capital offense to mention a goat in his presence. He worked to accentuate his natural ugliness by practicing terrifying facial expressions in a mirror. But he literally wallowed in luxury, allegedly rolling around in piles of money and drinking precious pearls dissolved in vinegar. He continued his childhood games of dress-up, donning strange clothing, women’s shoes and lavish accessories and wigs—eager, according to his biographer Cassius Dio, “to appear to be anything rather than a human being and an emperor.” Caligula’s Downfall Caligula’s profligacy was draining the Roman treasury faster than he could replenish it through taxes and extortion.

A conspiracy formed between the Praetorian Guard, the Senate and the equestrian order, and in late January of 41 A.D. Caligula was stabbed to death, along with his wife and daughter, by officers of the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea. Thus, Cassius Dio notes, Caligula “learned by actual experience that he was not a god.” The Senate attempted to use the disastrous end of Caligula’s reign as a pretext to reestablish the Roman Republic, but Claudius, the heir designate, took the throne after gaining the support of the Praetorian Guard. The Julio-Claudian dynasty would remain secure for another 17 years, until Nero’s suicide in 68. Tags Caligula Statue Unveiled in Italy - Seeker Jul 14, 2011 07:51 PM ET Caligula Statue Unveiled in Italy The statue, found in an illegal dig, depicts the ancient Roman emperor sitting on a throne. Italian police unveiled a colossal marble statue believed to be a rare image of the incestuous and lunatic Roman emperor Caligula sitting on a throne.

The statue lay buried for nearly 2,000 years near Lake Nemi, south of Rome, where Rome’s third emperor Caligula, who ruled from 37 to 41 A.D., had two enormous “love boats.” The statue was recovered last January, when finance police stopped tomb robbers trying to smuggle large, elaborately carved, marble pieces out of the country. ( Video of the recovery by Italy’s finance police). In order to find the statue's missing pieces, the archaeologists excavated the area where the tomb robbers conducted their illegal dig. The remains of a large, semicircular nymphaeum, or fountain court, emerged. Originally enclosed by a series of 23-foot-tall columns, the fountain court boasted a niche at its center in which Caligula’ statue once stood. Indeed, the area contained more than one hundred fragments belonging to the statue, including the head. Moreover, the archaeologists unearthed some other 150 objects, such as vases and pieces of jewelry.

"We even found a lead pipe with a stamp bearing the name of Caius Iulius Silanus, who most likely was the villa’s first owner," said Giuseppina Ghini, of the Archaeological Superintendency of Lazio. Made from Greek marble of Paros, considered in antiquity the world’s best and most precious, the statue shows a young robed man, sitting under a pillow on a beautifully decorated throne as the god Zeus. Wide Angle: Ancient Roman Building Marvels On the left foot, the statue is wearing the "caligae" military boot after which the notorious Roman emperor, whose real name was Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was nicknamed. "It’s a unique sculpture, a piece of incredible beauty. Indeed, it shows a rare image of Caligula," Ghini said. The capricious emperor, who is said to have made his favorite horse Incitatus a senator, used to sail his spectacular ships on Lake Nemi, not far from where his statue stood, indulging his sensual proclivities.

According to the Roman historian Suetonius, the vessels had "sterns studded with gems and ample space for baths, porticoes, and dining rooms, and a great variety of vines and fruit-bearing trees. Reclining on these ships all day long, he would sail amid choral dancing and singing." The ships were scuttled in a "damnatio memoriae" (aimed at erasing someone from history) after the 29-year-old emperor was murdered in his palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome by his own guard. They were recovered in 1927 during the rule of dictator Benito Mussolini. Measuring 230 feet by 66 feet, the ships still feature details such as exquisite wolf heads adorning the end of the beams and decks covered with marble and mosaics. A lakeside ship museum was built for the extraordinary finds, but German troops torched them during World War II. Although the ships are lost forever, Caligula is set to return to Nemi. His colossal statue, cleaned of the earth that had covered it for two millennia and re-assembled, will be permanently displayed at the ship museum.

Photos: The statue in pieces: the caligae military boot; details of the throne and the head. Courtesy of Guardia di Finanza di Roma. Caligula: Mad, bad, and maybe a little misunderstood - Telegraph History Caligula: Mad, bad, and maybe a little misunderstood Caligula’s notoriety as an unhinged, bloodthirsty Roman emperor may not tell the whole story. And we have the gossipy historian Suetonius to thank for that Caligula: a wild but intelligent young man who wanted to be a good emperor Photo: Alamy By Allan Massie Comments Later this month Mary Beard, Professor of Classics at Cambridge, will present a television programme, which, it is reported, will attempt to rehabilitate the Emperor Caligula. Uphill work, you may say. After all, what most people know, or think they know, about him is that he was one of the mad Roman emperors, the chap who made his horse a consul, imposed a reign of terror on Rome, and was assassinated after only four years. Mad, bad and altogether horrible, you see. Actually, a lot of the evidence is pretty shaky.

All the best stories are to be found in the brief biography by Suetonius in The Twelve Caesars. Suetonius, however, is not exactly the horse’s mouth, not even the horse-consul’s. For one thing, though he worked in the imperial archives and was the Emperor Hadrian’s secretary, he was born circa AD69 – Caligula died AD41. For another, he was a terrible, if delicious, gossip, unable to resist a good story. Take the one about Caligula’s abandoned invasion of Britain. He reputedly set his legionaries to collecting seashells when he called it off – clear evidence of absurdity, if not lunacy, yes? That was the story that went round Roman dinner tables. But the word for seashells – musculi – was also soldier’s slang for the engineers’ huts. So when Caligula, a child of the camp who liked to employ soldiers’ slang himself, said “pick up the musculi”, he probably meant huts, not seashells. I have a particular interest in Caligula because I wrote a novel about him.

Incidentally, “Caligula” was a nickname, given him by the legionaries in the army commanded by his father Germanicus. His real name was Gaius, and they called him Caligula, which means “Little Boot” or “Bootikins”, because as a small child he liked to parade about the camp on the Rhine frontier dressed as a legionary. They adored him, and he was always popular with the soldiers. He was popular with the people, too, partly because he did the “bread and circuses” stuff excellently, but also as the only surviving son of their hero, Germanicus. The story of Germanicus offers the first key to Gaius. He was the step-grandson of the Emperor Augustus, married to Augustus’s granddaughter, Agrippina, and designated as the heir to his uncle, Tiberius. When he died of a mysterious illness, Agrippina insisted that he had been poisoned and held Tiberius responsible. She aired this belief widely. Her children, as they grew up, became objects of suspicion. Whether she plotted against Tiberius is unknown, but she was accused of this, possibly framed by Sejanus, the Praetorian prefect.

She was exiled, her two elder sons arrested; both died in prison. Gaius survived, protected by his grandmother, Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony and Augustus’s sister, Octavia. She took him to Capri where the aged Tiberius lived in retirement, scandalously, according to gossip retailed by Suetonius. When the old man died, Gaius became emperor. His youth had been terrifying, but when he examined the documents relating to the charges of treason brought against his mother and brothers, he said that it was impossible Tiberius shouldn’t have believed them guilty on the evidence offered. The Roman people had hated Tiberius; they gave Gaius a wonderful reception. The Senate was perhaps more doubtful, some still hankering, impossibly, for the Republic. Gaius began well, with an amnesty for exiles and promises to reform the procedure for treason trials. He was intelligent but wayward, and power soon went to his head – he was only 24. His sense of humour was Quilpish.

Once, at a dinner party, he burst out laughing, and, on being asked to share the joke, said, “I’ve just thought that I’ve only to give the word and you’ll all have your throats cut.” Charming – if true. Related Articles Caligula 'Caligula' Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (AD 12 - AD 41) Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus was the third son of Germanicus (nephew of Tiberius) and Agrippina the elder and was born at Antium in AD 12. It was during his stay with his parents on the German frontier, when he was between two and four, that his miniature versions of military sandals (caligae), caused the soldiers to call him Caligula, 'little sandal'. It was a nickname which remained with him for the rest of his life. When he was in his late teens his mother and elder brothers were arrested and died horribly due to the plotting of the praetorian prefect Sejanus. No doubt the horrendous demise of his closest relatives must have had a profound effect on the young Caligula.

Attempting to rid himself of Gaius, Sejanus, under the belief that he may be a potential successor, went too far and was alas arrested and put to death by orders of emperor Tiberius in AD 31. In the same year Caligula was invested as a priest. From AD 32 onwards he lived on the island of Capreae (Capri) in the emperor's lush residence and was appointed joint heir with Tiberius Gemellus, son of Drusus the younger. Though by that time Tiberius was in old age and, with Gemellus still a child, it was obvious that it would be Caligula who would truly inherit the power for himself. By AD 33 he was made quaestor, though was given no further administrative training at all. Caligula was very tall, with spindly legs and a thin neck. His eyes and temples were sunken and his forehead broad and glowering. His hair was thin and he was bald on top, though he had a hairy body (during his reign it was a crime punishable by death to look down on him as he passed by, or to mention a goat in his presence).

There were rumours surrounding the death of Tiberius. It is very likely that the 77 year-old emperor did simply die of old age. But one account tells of how Tiberius was thought to have died. Caligula drew the imperial signet ring from his finger and was greeted as emperor by the crowd. Then however news reached the would-be emperor that Tiberius had recovered and was requesting food be brought to him. Caligula, terrified at any revenge by the emperor returned from the dead, froze on the spot. But Naevius Cordus Sertorius Macro, commander of the praetorians, rushed inside and smothered Tiberius with a cushion, suffocating him. In any case, with the support of Macro, Caligula was immediately hailed as princeps ('first citizen') by the senate (AD 37). No sooner did he get back to Rome the senate bestowed upon him all the powers of imperial office, and - declaring Tiberius' will invalid - the child Gemellus was not granted his claim to the joint reign. But it was above all the army which, very loyal to the house of Germanicus, sought to see Caligula as sole ruler.

Caligula quietly dropped an initial request for the deification of the deeply unpopular Tiberius. All around there was much rejoicing at the investment of a new emperor after the dark later years of his predecessor. Caligula abolished Tiberius' gruesome treason trials, paid generous bequests to the people of Rome and an especially handsome bonus to the praetorian guard. There is an amusing anecdote surrounding Caligula's accession to the throne. For he had a pontoon bridge built leading across the sea from Baiae to Puzzuoli; a stretch of water two and a half miles long. The bridge was even covered with earth. With the bridge in place, Caligula then, in the attire of a Thracian gladiator, mounted a horse a rode across it. Once at one end, he got off his horse and returned on a chariot drawn by two horses. These crossings are said to have lasted for two days. The historian Suetonius explains that this bizarre behaviour was down to a prediction made by an astrologer called Trasyllus to emperor Tiberius, that 'Caligula had no more chance of becoming emperor than of crossing the bay of Baiae on horseback'.

Then, only six months later (October AD 37), Caligula fell very ill. His popularity was such that his illness caused great concern throughout the entire empire. But, when Caligula recovered, he was no longer the same man. Rome soon found itself living in a nightmare. According to the historian Suetonius, Caligula since childhood suffered from epilepsy, known in Roman times as the 'parliamentary disease', since it was regarded as an especially bad omen if anyone had a fit while public business was being conducted - Caligula's very distant cousin, Julius Caesar, also suffered occasional attacks. This, or some other cause, violently affected his mental state, and he became totally irrational, with delusions not only of grandeur but also of divinity. He now suffered from a chronic inability to sleep, managing only few hours of sleep a night, and then suffering from horrendous nightmares. Often he would wander through the palace waiting for daylight. Caligula had four wives, three of them during his reign as emperor and he was said to have committed incest with each of his three sisters in turn. In AD 38 Caligula put to death without trial his principal supporter, the praetorian prefect Macro.

The young Tiberius Gemellus suffered the same fate. Marcus Junius Silanus, the father of the first of Caligula's wives was compelled to commit suicide. Caligula became ever more unbalanced. Seeing the emperor ordering an altar to be built to himself was worrying to Romans. But to propose that statues of himself should be erected in synagogues was more than merely worrying. Caligula's excesses knew no bounds, and he introduced heavy taxation to help pay for his personal expenditure. He also created a new tax on prostitutes and is said to have opened a brothel in a wing of the imperial palace. All these occurrences naturally alarmed the senate. By now there was no doubt that the emperor of the civilized world was in fact a dangerous madman. Confirming their worst fears, in AD 39 Caligula announced the revival of the treason trials, the bloodthirsty trials which had given an air of terror to the latter years of Tiberius' reign. Caligula also kept his favourite racehorse, Incitatus, inside the palace in a stable box of carved ivory, dressed in purple blankets and collars of precious stones. Dinner guests were invited to the palace in the horse's name.

And the horse, too, was invited to dine with the emperor. Caligula was even said to have considered making the horse consul. Rumours of disloyalty began to reach an ever more deranged emperor. In the light of this a recently retired governor of Pannonia was ordered to commit suicide. Then Caligula considered plans to revive the expansionist campaigns of his father Germanicus across the Rhine. But before he left Rome he learnt that the army commander of Upper Germany, Cnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, was conspiring to have him assassinated. In spite of this Caligula in September AD 39 set out for Germany, accompanied by a strong detachment of the praetorian guard and his sisters Julia Agrippina, Julia Livilla and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (widower of Caligula's dead sister Julia Drusilla). Soon after he had arrived in Germany not only Gaetulicus but also Lepidus were put to death. Julia Agrippina and Julia Livilla were banished and their property seized by the emperor. The following winter Caligula spent along the Rhine and in Gaul.

Neither his planned German campaign nor a proposed military expedition to Britain ever took place. Though there are reports of his soldiers being ordered to gather shells on the shore as trophies for Caligula's 'conquest of the sea'. Meanwhile, a terrified senate granted him all kind of honours for his imaginary victories. It comes as no surprise then that at least three further conspiracies were soon launched against Caligula's life. Were some foiled, then alas one succeeded. Caligula's suspicion that his joint praetorian prefects, Marcus Arrecinus Clemens and his unknown colleague, were planning his assassination prompted them, in order to avoid their execution, to join a part of senators in a plot. The conspirators found a willing assassin in the praetorian officer Cassius Chaerea, whom Caligula had openly mocked at court for his effeminacy. In 24 January AD 41 Cassius Chaerea, together with two military colleagues fell upon the emperor in a corridor of his palace. Some of his German personal guards rushed to his aid but came too late. Several praetorians then swept through the palace seeking to kill any surviving relatives.

Caligula's fourth wife Caesonia was stabbed to death, her baby daughter's skull smashed against a wall. The scene was truly a gruesome one, but it freed Rome from the insane rule of a tyrant. Caligula had been emperor for less than four years. Roman Empire

Question: Which Roman emperor is said to have made his horse Incitatus a senator ?
Answer: CALIGULA