Zoroastrianism - Religion of the Persian Empire Zoroastrianism - Religion of the Persian Empire MB Faith ^ | 6/25/05 | MB Faith Posted on 06/25/2005 8:31:30 PM PDT by freedom44 During the 7th and 6th centuries BC the ancient polytheistic religion of the Iranians was reformed and given new dimensions by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathusthra). Zoroaster's life dates have been traditionally given as (c. 628 - 551 BC), but many scholars argue for earlier dates. Linguistic evidence suggests that he was born in northeastern Iran, but the prophet's message was to spread throughout the Persian Empire. Adopted as the faith of the Persian kings, Zoroastrianism became the official religion of the Achaemenid empire and flourished under its successors, the Parthian and Sassanian empires. Its theology and cosmology may have influenced the development of Greek, later Jewish, Christian, and Muslim thought. The Muslim conquest of the 7th century AD marked the beginning of a steady decline of Zoroastrianism.

Persecution resulted in the migration (about the 10th century) of the majority of Zoroastrians to India, where the Parsis of Bombay are their modern descendants. The religion of ancient Iran was derived from that of the ancient Indo Europeans, or Aryans. The language of the earliest Zoroastrian writings is close to that of the Indian Vedas, and much of the mythology is recognizably the same. Two groups of gods were worshiped, the ahuras and the daevas. The worship of the ahuras (lords) may have reflected the practice of the pastoral upper classes, and tradition holds that Zoroaster was born into a family that worshiped only the ahuras. The message of the prophet, however, was that Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, was the sole creator and lord of the world and that the worship of the daevas was the worship of evil. In Zoroaster's theology the Amesha Spentas, or Bountiful Immortals, were divine beings who acted essentially as agents of the power of Ahura Mazda; they were traditionally seven in number: Bounteous Spirit, Good Mind, Truth, Rightmindedness, Dominion, Health, and Life.

The first of these, Spenta Mainyu, is of special importance in that he is paired with a "twin," Angra Mainyu, or Hostile Spirit. When given a choice between good and evil, or truth and the lie, Bounteous Spirit chose truth and Hostile Spirit the lie. Creation becomes a battleground, with the demoted ahuras invoked for the doing of good and the daevas enlisted by Angra Mainyu in the doing of evil. Nevertheless, Ahura Mazda has decreed that truth will triumph, and the old world will be destroyed by fire and a new creation instituted. In the period following Zoroaster, for which little evidence remains, Zoroastrianism consolidated its position and spread throughout Iran. The rise of the southern Persians and Medes seems to have been accompanied by the reinstatement of many of the ahuras, although Ahura Mazda is still recognized as supreme god. Among the most important figures to revive at this time were Mithra (Mithraism), usually associated with the sun, and Anahita, associated with the waters and fertility.

Ahura Mazda (who becomes Ormazd) becomes identified with Spenta Mainyu, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) remains his antagonist. Ahura Mazda has relinquished some of his absolute supremacy and appears to need the assistance of the lesser ahuras, particularly Mithra, who appears as mediator and protector of the created world. This dualist view eventually became the orthodox position. Its development may have owed much to the Magi, a hereditary priestly caste, although their role is unclear. From them, however, the Greco Roman world learned much of what it knew of the religion. An important reform movement, however, arose within Zoroastrianism - the movement around Zurvan. The Zurvanites posited a supreme god, Zurvan (Infinite Time), who had sacrificed for 1,000 years in order to gain offspring. At the end of that time he experienced momentary doubt, and from that doubt arose Ahriman; at the same time, Ormazd came into being because of the efficacy of the sacrifices. At the end of 3,000 years Ahriman crossed the void that separated them and attacked Ormazd.

The two made a pact to limit the struggle, and Ahriman fell back into the abyss, where he lay for 3,000 years. During that period Ormazd created the material and spiritual world; in retaliation, Ahriman called into being six demons and an opposing material world. In the next 3,000 year period Ahriman attempted to corrupt the creation of Ormazd; he was successful but was trapped in the world of light. The final period of 3,000 years was ushered in by the birth of Zoroaster, who revealed this struggle to man; the prophet is to be followed by three saviors, appearing at intervals of 1,000 years. At the appearance of the last, a day of judgment will occur, the drink of immortality will be offered to those who have fought against Ahriman, and a new creation will be established. The sacred literature of Zoroastrianism is found in the Avesta, which was compiled sometime during the Sassanian period (224 - 640 AD) from much earlier materials.

Only a portion of the Avesta remains, but the language of its earliest sections is extremely ancient, closely related to that of the Indian Vedas. These sections, the Gathas, are thought to be by Zoroaster himself. They are hymns and form the primary part of the Yasna, the central liturgy of the religion. Also contained in the Avesta are the Yashts, hymns to a number of the ahuras, and later in date than the Gathas. Finally comes the Videvdat, which is concerned with purity and ritual. A large body of commentary exists in Pahlavi, dating from the 9th century AD, which contains quotations from earlier material no longer extant. The rituals of Zoroastrianism revolve around devotion to the good and the battle against the forces of evil. Fire plays a major role, being seen as the manifestation of the truth of Ahura Mazda, as preached by Zoroaster. Also important is the ritual drink, haoma, which is related to the Vedic soma.

The fundamental idea of Zoroastrianism is that since the beginning, there has existed a spirit of good (Ahura Mazda or Ormazd) and a spirit of evil (Ahriman) who are in perpetual conflict, with the soul of man as the great object of the war. Ormazd created men free, so that if they allow themselves to fall under the sway of Ahriman they are held to be justly punishable. When a person dies, his good and evil deeds will be weighed against each other, and accordingly as the balance is struck he will be sent to heaven or to hell. If they are exactly equal, the soul passes into an intermediate state and remains there until the day of judgment. Ormazd is to triumph ultimately, and then there will be one undivided kingdom of God in heaven and on earth. The 'bible' of Zoroastrians is the Zend - Avesta.

It is divided into 5 parts: * Yama liturgical book of the Parsees * Vispered the lesser liturgy * Vendidad priestly code of the Parsees * Yashts hymn book * Khordah prayer book Zoroaster taught a higher moral plane, where men attained virtue by good thoughts and conduct rather than by sacrifice. All of a man's good works are actually entered into the book of life as credits, and bad works as debits. If the total score is positive, the soul goes to heaven; if negative, hell. If the balance is close, the soul stays in an intermediate state until the final judgment. Sins could never be washed away, but just balanced out.

Zoroastrianism is a religion that developed in Iran from about the sixth century BC, generally ascribed to Zoroaster (Zarathustra), who was born in Iran '258 years before Alexander.' The date of Zoroaster's birth has been given variously as 6000 BC, 1400 BC, and 1000 BC, but Herzfeld accepts the traditional date, approximately, as now confirmed (Herzfeld, (570 - 500 BC); Jackson, 660 - 583 BC). Accordingly, Zoroaster was contemporary with other great religious personages, including Buddha, Confucius, Lao Tze, and several Hebrew prophets. That Zoroaster used Vedic materials found in early Hinduism can hardly be denied; that he was a polytheist like Darius, Xerxes, and others who were probably Zoroastrians (at least, their inscriptions pay homage to Ahura Mazda) seems most likely.

But Zoroaster was protesting against the false and cruel in religion, and followed the principle, "If the gods do aught shameful, they are not gods." Accordingly, he exalted Ahura Mazda ("wise Lord," often improperly translated "Lord of light") as supreme among the gods or spirits, and viewed the world as an agelong struggle between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainy (or Ahramanyus, Ahriman, "Spirit of evil"), both of whom came into existence independently in the distant past. Zoroastrianism is therefore called a dualism, but it is a limited dualism. Zoroaster calls upon human beings to join in this conflict on the side of Ahura Mazda, the key words of such religion being "good thoughts, good works, good deeds." The ultimate victory of Ahura Mazda, however, was not to be accomplished by human assistance but by the advent of a messiahlike figure, the Saoshyant. The duration of the struggle was to be six thousand years (three thousand had already passed when Zoroaster was born), following which was to be the resurrection and judgment.

Many of the details of Zoroastrianism are later developments, some post Christian and even post Mohammedan, and scholars are divided on what elements are to be traced to Zoroaster's own teaching. Because of the fact that the revelation of the doctrines of resurrection, angels, Satan, and the Messiah comes late in the OT or even in the intertestamental period in early Judaism, scholars have frequently traced these ideas to Zoroastrian influence exerted upon the Jewish people after the Babylonian exile. Moulton examined these points in detail and concluded that they were "not proven." The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has reopened the discussion, due to the presence of marked "Zoroastrian" influences in the Qumran literature. Some of the most striking parallels to Jewish Christian eschatology can be shown to be very late developments in Zoroastrianism. On the other hand, it would not do violence to a high view of inspiration to admit that God could have used Zoroastrianism as a means of stimulating the Jewish mind to think on these subjects even as he used hellenism to prepare the Jewish mind for the Christian revelation (witness Saul of Tarsus).

The magi ("wise men") of the birth narrative may have been Zoroastrian priests. A branch of Zoroastrians is the Parsees, who are fire worshipers. Zoroastrians generally worship natural objects, such as the sun and fire, and of great heroes. Zoroastrianism Advanced Information Zoroastrianism is a religion that developed in Iran from about the sixth century B.C., generally ascribed to Zoroaster (Zarathustra), who was born in Iran "258 years before Alexander." The date of Zoroaster's birth has been given variously as 6000 B.C., 1400 B.C., and 1000 B.C., but Herzfeld accepts the traditional date, approximately, as now confirmed (Herzfeld, 570-500 B.C.; Jackson, 660-583 B.C.). Accordingly, Zoroaster was contemporary with other great religious personages, including Buddha, Confucius, Lao Tze, and several Hebrew prophets.

That Zoroaster used Vedic materials found in early Hinduism can hardly be denied; that he was a polytheist like Darius, Xerxes, and others who were probably Zoroastrians (at least, their inscriptions pay homage to Ahura Mazda) seems most likely. But Zoroaster was protesting against the false and cruel in religion, and followed the principle, "If the gods do aught shameful, they are not gods." Accordingly, he exalted Ahura Mazda ("wise Lord," often improperly translated "Lord of light") as supreme among the gods or spirits, and viewed the world as an agelong struggle between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainy (or Ahramanyus, Ahriman, "Spirit of evil"), both of whom came into existence independently in the distant past. Zoroastrianism is therefore called a dualism, but it is a limited dualism.

Zoroaster calls upon human beings to join in this conflict on the side of Ahura Mazda, the key words of such religion being "good thoughts, good works, good deeds." The ultimate victory of Ahura Mazda, however, was not to be accomplished by human assistance but by the advent of a messiahlike figure, the Saoshyant. The duration of the struggle was to be six thousand years (three thousand had already passed when Zoroaster was born), following which was to be the resurrection and judgment. Many of the details of Zoroastrianism are later developments, some post-Christian and even post-Mohammedan, and scholars are divided on what elements are to be traced to Zoroaster's own teaching. Because of the fact that the revelation of the doctrines of resurrection, angels, Satan, and the Messiah comes late in the OT or even in the intertestamental period in early Judaism, scholars have frequently traced these ideas to Zoroastrian influence exerted upon the Jewish people after the Babylonian exile.

Moulton examined these points in detail and concluded that they were "not proven." The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has reopened the discussion, due to the presence of marked "Zoroastrian" influences in the Qumran literature. Some of the most striking parallels to Jewish-Christian eschatology can be shown to be very late developments in Zoroastrianism. On the other hand, it would not do violence to a high view of inspiration to admit that God could have used Zoroastrianism as a means of stimulating the Jewish mind to think on these subjects even as he used hellenism to prepare the Jewish mind for the Christian revelation (witness Saul of Tarsus). The magi ("wise men") of the birth narrative may have been Zoroastrian priests. [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 1 | View Replies ] To: marty60 Zoroastrianism doesn't really have anything to do with India - other than Iranians fled Arab persecution to seek refuge there after the Muslim invasion in 600 A.D. It may be the key to helping remove the radicals in controlling Iran because they are so far out of touch with their history and culture.

6 posted on 06/25/2005 8:42:45 PM PDT by freedom44 [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 5 | View Replies ] To: freedom44 Zoroaster taught a higher moral plane, where men attained virtue by good thoughts and conduct rather than by sacrifice. All of a man's good works are actually entered into the book of life as credits, and bad works as debits. If the total score is positive, the soul goes to heaven; if negative, hell. If the balance is close, the soul stays in an intermediate state until the final judgment. Sins could never be washed away, but just balanced out.

Zoroastrianism is a religion that developed in Iran from about the sixth century BC, generally ascribed to Zoroaster (Zarathustra), who was born in Iran '258 years before Alexander.' The date of Zoroaster's birth has been given variously as 6000 BC, 1400 BC, and 1000 BC, but Herzfeld accepts the traditional date, approximately, as now confirmed (Herzfeld, (570 - 500 BC); Jackson, 660 - 583 BC). Accordingly, Zoroaster was contemporary with other great religious personages, including Buddha, Confucius, Lao Tze, and several Hebrew prophets. That Zoroaster used Vedic materials found in early Hinduism can hardly be denied; that he was a polytheist like Darius, Xerxes, and others who were probably Zoroastrians (at least, their inscriptions pay homage to Ahura Mazda) seems most likely.

7 posted on 06/25/2005 8:47:01 PM PDT by CarrotAndStick (The articles posted by me needn't necessarily reflect my opinion.) To: CarrotAndStick The Bible on Zoroastrian Cyrus the Great: God calls King Cyrus of Persia by name before he is even born to serve Him God Calls King Cyrus by Name This is what the LORD says to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I take hold of to subdue nations before him and to strip kings of their armor, to open doors before him so that gates will not be shut: I will go before you and will level the mountains; I will break down gates of bronze and cut through bars of iron. I will give you the treasures of darkness, riches stored in secret places, so that you may know that I am the LORD, the God of Israel, who summons you by name. For the sake of Jacob my servant, of Israel my chosen, I summon you by name and bestow on you a title of honor, though you do not acknowledge me. I am the LORD, and there is no other; apart from me there is no God.

I will strengthen you, though you have not acknowledged me, so that from the rising of the sun to the place of its setting men may know there is none besides me. I am the LORD, and there is no other. I form the light and create darkness, I bring prosperity and create disaster; I, the LORD, do all these things. "You heavens above, rain down righteousness; let the clouds shower it down. Let the earth open wide, let salvation spring up, let righteousness grow with it; I, the LORD, have created it. Isaiah 45:1-8 9 posted on 06/25/2005 8:50:40 PM PDT by freedom44 [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 5 | View Replies ] To: freedom44 As the Iranian people just found out. Nothing will rid Iran of the Islamofascist but force. They are like a plague of locast.

11 posted on 06/25/2005 8:52:54 PM PDT by marty60 [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 6 | View Replies ] To: blam; FairOpinion; Ernest_at_the_Beach; StayAt HomeMother; SunkenCiv; 24Karet; 3AngelaD; ... Please FREEPMAIL me if you want on, off, or alter the " Gods, Graves, Glyphs" PING list -- Archaeology/Anthropology/Ancient Cultures/Artifacts/Antiquities, etc. I will ping the GGG list until July 2, 2005, during SunkenCiv's temporary absence from the board. If you see articles appropriate for the GGG ping list, please ping me. 12 posted on 06/25/2005 8:58:32 PM PDT by FairOpinion [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 1 | View Replies ] To: freedom44 I see that you are familiar with the tenets of Zoroastrianism. It beats me why the Iranians converted enmasse to Islam.

And since the same forces of Islam were as much dominant in Persia as much as it has been in Moghul India, I wonder why there was no mass conversion to Islam in India too. I'd love to hear from you about your views on the same. The oppressive forces of Islam acting in both India and Persia circa the middle ages were so much similar, yet the outcome is so drastically different. I mean, if there were any people who had reasons to convert, the Indians probably had more, especially in light of the "caste" problem, that so many profess here as a "particularly rampant" problem (I do not disagree casteism is an evil, but differ in opinion with respect to its extent). Anyway, as a pragmatist, I am open for revision of my views. It is sad that the Persians wrongly saw Islam as means of Deliverance, rather than the other faiths that they must have been aware of around the time.

14 posted on 06/25/2005 9:29:07 PM PDT by CarrotAndStick (The articles posted by me needn't necessarily reflect my opinion.) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 16 | View Replies ] To: freedom44 Due to the Arabs' invasion of Iran, which was cruel (_See Koran Sura 9 Al Tauba  Ayeh 5 and 29 and 123 ) , most Parsis left their own country, and emigrated to India in the ninth century. Even, at present time, if Iranians are asked about Zoroastrians identity, most of them will answer, those people are fire worshipers and like Jews and other pagans and Christians are unclean people ( See Koran Sura 9 Ayeh 28 ). 18 posted on 06/25/2005 10:17:04 PM PDT by satchmodog9 (Murder and weather are our only news) To: freedom44 Darius was a monotheist Yes, he prayed to Ahura Mazda.

Alexander prayed to a pantheon of gods, including new ones he encountered in the territories he conquered. 20 posted on 06/25/2005 10:32:25 PM PDT by Ciexyz (Let us always remember, the Lord is in control.) To: freedom44 "Its theology and cosmology may have influenced the development of Greek, later Jewish, Christian, and Muslim thought." It affected Judaism from Babylon, through the Persian, then the Greek, Essenes (Alexandria), Ascetics (last of influence on Jews), then Christians (from the Ascetics--see Eusebius, below) and Islamics to this day. I'm doing quite a bit of study on that. The Essenes (also probably known as the Therapeutae from Egypt and later as the Ascetics to Roman historians) were not the traditional Sadducees and were quite different from the original Zadok. The Essenes were the 1st Century root of Christianity, although some of their unique beliefs go back to religion in Babylon. Eusebius (born about 260, CE) was one of those who put the Christian New Testament together during the time of the Emperor Constantine.

And he wrote more comments than the following about the Essenes. Eusebius wrote, in his Ecclesiastical History (History of the Christian Church), Book II, CHAPTER XVII of Philo's Account of the Ascetics of Egypt "But it is highly probable that the works of the ancients, which he says they [the Essenes] had, were the Gospels and the writings of the apostles, and probably some expositions of the ancient prophets, such as are contained in the Epistle to the Hebrews, and in many others of Paul's Epistles." Read more at New Advent (only source of Eusebius' "History" that I have found on the Net), if you like. In related research, the translation of the Tanakh to the Greek Septuagint (containing added Hellenisms) in Alexandria is an interesting study. The Pentateuch (from the Torah) contained the fewest errors in translation, but there were many in the rest of the books. 21 posted on 06/25/2005 11:04:29 PM PDT by familyop ("Let us try" sounds better, don't you think?

"Essayons" is so...Latin.) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 1 | View Replies ] To: CarrotAndStick I see that you are familiar with the tenets of Zoroastrianism. It beats me why the Iranians converted enmasse to Islam. Brute force? It beats me why the Egyptians caved in from practicing Christianity, but weren't they were forced as well? Islam has indeed made huge inroads into India, but did the real jihadis ever penetrate as deeply there as they did elsewhere? Sorry, didn't mean to make this a list a questions, but I am unclear enough on the answers to make a definitive statement. 22 posted on 06/26/2005 5:00:59 AM PDT by DGray ( To: FairOpinion it's unlikely that ford's contemporary mazda will achieve victory. (/s) 25 posted on 06/26/2005 7:28:06 AM PDT by ken21 (it takes a village to steal your child + to steal your property!

/s) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 12 | View Replies ] To: freedom44 Tnx for posting this. I read a translation I have of the Avesta again as a result. It's not easy without the secret double decoder ring. It seems to say that attitude counts when you are out there trying to grow corn in your field. You should also wash your hands before planting or working with the corn and then all Creation will be happy and your wife will appreciate it, too. 26 posted on 06/26/2005 9:02:08 AM PDT by RightWhale (withdraw from the 1967 UN Outer Space Treaty) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 1 | View Replies ] To: Ciexyz King Darius prayed to Ahura Mazda for success in his battles with Alexander the Great, who prayed to the Greek gods to grant him victory. History showed us whose gods were stronger. Interesting. Alexander claimed to be the son of Zeus Ammon, the Greek version of the Egyptian oracle god, Amun.

Amun had the horns and legs of a ram; and in the Zoroastrian tradition, was considered to be one of the evil spirits, the eternal rival of the Persian god Ahura Mazda. Ever since, the devil is depicted with ram's legs and horns. Ammon Alexander with horns and lion skin Ammon is probably related to Baal Hammon, or what we now call the Semitic god Baal. If you want to believe Alexander's defeat of Darius III depended on Baal being "stronger" than Ahura Mazda ... that's your opinion. I'll put my money on the capture of Tyre and 60,000 Macedonian reinforcements. JMO. 27 posted on 06/26/2005 10:29:13 AM PDT by dread78645 (Sorry Mr.

Franklin, We couldn't keep it.) To: freedom44 BUMP 28 posted on 06/26/2005 3:28:10 PM PDT by F14 Pilot (Democracy is a process not a product) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 2 | View Replies ] To: dread78645 For the record, I don't believe "the gods" helped Alexander win his battles. I threw in that comment for levity's sake. Alexander's leadership, his cadre of competent officers, and the esprit de corps he instilled in his soldiers, were the deciding factors. 29 posted on 06/26/2005 9:17:45 PM PDT by Ciexyz (Let us always remember, the Lord is in control.) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 27 | View Replies ] To: freedom44 Zoroastrianism doesn't really have anything to do with India - other than Iranians fled Arab persecution to seek refuge there after the Muslim invasion in 600 A.D Actually it does -- without the escape to India, Zoroastrianism would be dead.

Also the Zoroastrian religion is linked to the ancient Vedic Hindu religion. 30 posted on 06/27/2005 12:51:33 AM PDT by Cronos (Never forget 9/11) [ Post Reply | Private Reply | To 6 | View Replies ] Disclaimer: Opinions posted on Free Republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of Free Republic or its management. All materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works. Persian Empire Chapter 1: The Persian Empire Copyright ©2009, 2010 by T. Pavlidis Overview Starting in the 6th century BCE the big power in the Eastern Mediterranean was the Persian Empire. It stretched from parts of today's Afghanistan and Pakistan in the East to what is now Turkey and parts of northern Greece. It also included Egypt and all the countries of Middle East. (See also the Wikipedia article: ) The Persian Empire was certainly an authoritarian state with the "great king" ruling the vast empire through regional governors, the satraps.

That the latter word has entered the English language as a synonym for a petty tyrant tells something about the way the Persian Empire was administered. However, it was also an improvement over previous rulers in the treatment of the various ethnic groups that lived in its land. This has been well document in the case of the Jews. It also included a level of government organization not seen before. For example, the Persian Empire is credited with the first postal service in the world. The phrase "Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these courageous couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds" was written by the Greek historian Herodotus while describing that service. ( A version of that statement has been engraved on the neoclassical building of the New York City General Post Office. It is not the motto of the U.S. Postal Service.) Of course the couriers carried only royal correspondence and the service meant to consolidate the king's control over the empire. (See for a discussion of this phrase.) Figure 1: MAP OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE CIRCA 500BCE Click on the map for a larger display.

Source: , Early in the 5th century BCE the Persians tried to extend their rule to Greece but they were soundly defeated. The modern Marathon race commemorates the Persian defeat at the battle of Marathon, about 26 miles from Athens although hardly any participants or spectators are aware of that meaning. Some historians refer to the Greek victories as saving the ideals of democracy from despotism. However the democratic Greek city states did not last very long and, eventually, the Persian form of government prevailed in that region of the world (we discuss that in the next chapter). The end of the 5th century saw another Greek-Persian military encounter. Cyrus, the younger brother of the Persian king Artaxerxes staged a campaign against his brother so that he would become the king. A large part of his force was a troop of Greek mercenaries that helped defeat the king's army in a crucial battle. However, Cyrus himself was killed in that battle, so the mercenaries were left with no goal. They had to make their long way home through hostile territory.

One of the leaders of the mercenaries was Xenophon who also happened to be a gifted writer and he left two books about the campaign: Κυρου Αναβασις (The Ascend of Cyrus) and Καθοδος των Μυριων (The Descend of the Myriad). The first describes the campaign on behalf of the pretender Cyrus and the second describes the return of the mercenaries (about 10,000 of them, or a myriad in classical Greek) to Greece. The ability of Greek soldiers to repeatedly defeat the much larger Persian army did not go unnoticed. In the latter part of the 4th century the Macedonian king Phillip started planning a campaign against the Persians. First he subjugated the Greek city states (putting an end to the Athenian democracy) and he was ready to invade the Persian Empire when he was assassinated. It was left to his son Alexander the Great (reigned 336-323BCE) to carry out the plan.

In a span of ten years Alexander conquered the immense Persian Empire reaching all the way to India, even though his army was much smaller than that of the Persians. Alexander died soon after the completion of the conquest and his empire broke up into several kingdoms headed by his former generals. These kingdoms flourished at what used to be the western part of the Persian Empire, but they soon lost Persia proper. In 238BCE , a Parthian kingdom rose in the area of Persia and the Greek rulers were expelled. However the Greek rulers of Bactria (modern day Afghanistan) lasted for another century. The Parthians were an Iranian people, so the core of Persia reverted to native rulers. Around 224CE, the Persian lands fell under the Sassanid dynasty that lasted until the Islamic conquest in the 7th century. Under either dynasty the Persian Empire remained a serious rival to the Roman Empire. Persian Military Weakness against the Greeks The ease with which Alexander's Greek army conquered the mighty Persian empire raises some questions. How can a small army overwhelm a big one? One answer is the wedge formation illustrated below. This formation has been used throughout the centuries, most recently by the Germans in WW II.

(See the Wikipedia article for more on this subject.) The Greeks had tried the wedge formation in the first Greek-Persian war circa 490BCE and several decades later it was used by Greek mercenaries that Xenophon wrote about. The Persians never managed to defend against the wedge and the next question is why? There is a defense against the wedge by using the flanks to encircle the attacker as shown in the illustration below. Figure 2: Military Strategies Far Left: Successful wedge attack. The center of the enemy line breaks and the flanks do nothing. Near Left: Successful defense against the wedge. The center retreats in an orderly way and the flanks encircle the attackers. This type of defense against the wedge is shown beautifully in Eisenstein's movie "Alexander Nevsky". (The battle on the ice.) The overall battle of Stalingrad as it evolved over several months was a successful application of this defense. We cannot be sure about the reasons for the Persian failure but here is a hypothesis. In a highly centralized autocratic regime the leader could command a lot of reluctant followers. The troops at the center were under the direct command of the king and they might have been quite capable.

However, the reluctant followers at the flanks were there because of the fear of the king's authority. Once the king was on the run, they would also join the retreat. We many evenventure a generalization: The strongest the internal position of the ruling elite, the more vulnerable they are to external attacks. Zoroastrianism One characteristic of the Persian Empire (both before and after Alexander) is that it had an organized state religion. That was Zoroastrianism, named after its founder Zoroaster. (This is the Hellenized version of his name. A more faithful rendering of his Persian name is Zarathusthra.) Scholars do not agree about the time that Zoroaster lived but it was well before the 6th century BCE, the time of Cyrus the Great. The basic tenet of the religion that there is a supreme creator god, Ahura Mazda, that is in constant battle with Ahriman, that embodies all evil. The king was considered the favorite of Ahura Mazda, so obedience to the king was associated with religion. Such a religion reinforces state control of the subjects and this practice has been followed widely through the Middle Ages and even in our times.

Zoroastrianism is arguably the first monotheistic religion in history and that had the political effect of solidifying the position of the king. In the religion of ancient Egypt Pharaoh was a god and so was the emperor in pagan Rome. But being a god was no big deal in a religion where there were hundreds of other gods, some of them more important than the ruler god. In the Persian system the ruler gave up the pretension of being a god, but because he was the favorite of the only god, it strengthened his position. Bernard Lewis [ BL95 , p. 29] points out that there was a state-imposed orthodoxy and the functions of the priesthood included the detection and suppression of heresy. Some scholars, particularly James Kugel, think that Judaism did not become monotheistic until the time of the half-century long Babylonian exile and the subsequent restoration of the Temple by the Persian king Cyrus [ Wr09 , Ku07 , p. 560, PC98, pp. 152-156]. Until then the God of Israel was one of many gods, although more powerful than the others, as the hymn Mi Kamocha demonstrates.

The critical passage of the Persian influence can be found in Isaiah:45. "Thus said the LORD to CYRUS, His anointed one - ....". Also the concept of life after death in Judaism appears for the first time in the same period. It is worth noting that the word Paradise is of Persian origin. Another novel feature of Zoroastrianism was its collection of holy texts or scripture (Avesta). The pagan religions did not have such texts. It is an interesting coincidence that the Jewish bible was codified only after the return from the Babylonian exile, i.e. after the Jews had contact with Zoroastrianism. The priests of Zoroastrianism were the Magi who under the Sassanids evolved into a well organized priesthood that was part of the apparatus of the government. At the top of the hierarchy were the dasturs who had a function similar to that of bishops. Such an organization was absent from all the pagan religions but it existed in the Jewish sect of the Essenes. The Essenes existed several centuries before the Sassanids came to power but Zoroastrianism as a religion predates the Essenes.

It is possible that the Essenes were influenced by the Zoroastrians, not only in adopting the organization of the priests but also in adopting their world view of a battle between good and evil. Both the organization and the views were passed on to Christianity (Satan is Ahriman, see PC98, p. 154). The story of the Nativity with the three Magi bringing gifts to the new-born Jesus offers another instance of Persian influence. Finally the story of the virgin birth of a savior, Saoshyant, is also present in Zoroastrianism. According to Zoroastrian tradition a Saoshyant acting as an agent of Ahura Mazda will resurrect the dead and start the era of righteousness and immortality. (See the Wikipedia article of Saoshyant: .) Today Zoroastrianism survives mainly in India where its adherents are known as Parsi, i.e. Persians.

There is a significant Parsi diaspora in the West but there are very few Zoroastrian communities in Iran, the place of its origin [MB77].( As it often happens with religious minorities, Zoroastrians are well represented in the arts, the sciences, and the professions.) Even though it is no longer a major religion, it has influenced the major religions of our times, both in theology (monotheism) and in organization. Both the theology and the organization were developed for the strengthening of the state and they seem to continue to be used to that effect in modern times. We will return to these issues in Chapter 3. Some Sources on Zoroastrianism S. A. NIgosian The Zoroastrian Faith, McGill-Queen's Univ. Press, 1993. Eunuchs The Persian kings made extensive use of eunuchs not only to guard their women but also to staff the state administration. Gibbon [ EG , Chapter XIX, vol. 2, pp.

177, Footnote 1] quotes the Greek historian Xenophon as stating that the Persian king Cyrus the Great (585-529BCE) entrusted his person to the guard of the eunuchs because "those separated from the rest of human kind would be more firmly attached to the person of their benefactor." (Gibbon questions the wisdom of Cyrus' decision but he has the benefit of hindsight.) The most likely reasoning behind Cyrus' decision was that because eunuchs cannot have children they will be dependant on their master to look after them in their old age. Therefore they had to be loyal servants. It should be noted that Xenophon is probably wrong in attributing the first use of eunuchs to Cyrus. Eunuchs (as part of the retinue of a king) are mentioned in the first book of Samuel in the Bible (8.15) and in the book of Jeremiah (38.7). The latter lists a eunuch in the service of the last king of Judah Zedekiah who reigned 597-587BCE, well before Cyrus.

The former mentions eunuchs as part of a warning that Samuel gives to the people of Israel when they ask him to appoint a king for them. The text (Samuel I, 8.11-8.18) is a list of the oppressive actions of kings, clearly a reflection of the oppressive practices of kings in the Middle East. Samuel I was written well before the reign of Cyrus. There is also a mention of eunuchs in the Deuteronomy (23.2) and that book probably dates from the time of the religious reforms of king Josiah, circa 621BCE. Still, the Persians are the ones who introduced eunuchs to their Greek conquerors and they in turn introduced them to the Romans. When the Greek queen of Egypt Cleopatra visited Rome she had eunuchs in her entourage and the Romans were appalled by their spectacle [ EG , Chapter XIX, vol. 2, pp. 176]. However, it soon became acceptable within the Roman empire to employ eunuchs. Eventually, they were employed in large scale by emperors such as Diocletian.

Constantine the Great limited their employ but his son Constantius II reversed that policy so eunuchs "acquired the knowledge, and at length the direction of the secret councils of Constantius" [ibid, pp. 177]. The deliberate mutilation of human beings is by itself a sign of a despotic regime and that practice alone tells something of the the nature of the Persian Empire. Entrusting a significant part of the state administration to eunuchs creates a layer of "marked" people between the king and his subjects. This makes a revolution by the state organs against the king unlikely but it also isolates the king from his subjects. It is worth noting that while this practice continued in the Easter Roman Empire until its fall (1453), it was not adopted in the western parts of the empire. Persian Empire [ushistory.org] 4e. Persian Empire Cyrus managed in relatively no time to establish Persian control over the ancient Near East, Egypt, and parts of India, giving the Greek city-states a run for their money. The Persian Empire was the largest Empire that had ever been established.

The Persian Empire spanned from Egypt in the west to Turkey in the north, and through Mesopotamia to the Indus River in the east. More Information ... Persia is today the country of Iran. By the 5th century B.C.E., it was the largest empire the world had ever seen, surpassing the size of their Assyrian predecessors. Cyrus Is Desirous In 539 B.C.E., King Cyrus decided to expand the boundaries of Persia. He began by conquering Babylon. Unlike Assyrian kings, Cyrus was known for his mercy rather than his cruelty. For example, he allowed the Hebrews, who had been captives in Babylon for over fifty years to return to the holy city of Jerusalem, instead of turning them into slaves. He returned sacred items that were stolen from them and allowed the rebuilding of their capital and the temple. Cyrus also allowed the Hebrews to continue living and worshiping as they chose. The Jewish prophet, Isaiah, called Cyrus "God's shepherd," and said that "God would go before him and level the mountains." The Empty Quarter is the largest area of continuous sand in the world. Cyrus's generosity toward the Jews was not an isolated event.

He and his successors employed a policy of adaptation and reconciliation toward all of their new subjects. They cooperated with local rulers and interfered as little as possible in matters that did not directly relate to their rule. They respected local traditions and even adopted some of their subjects' religious practices for themselves. A Kinder, Gentler Kingdom Rather than destroy local economies for their own selfish gain, the Persians worked to increase trade throughout their kingdom. They standardized weights, developed official coinage, and implemented universal laws. The Persian leaders required cooperation and imposed a 20 percent tax on all agriculture and manufacturing. They also taxed religious institutions, which despite their wealth had previously not been taxed. The Persians themselves paid no taxes. The Persian kings — especially Cyrus and, later, Darius I (522-486 B.C.E.) — developed a model for the administration of a large empire that was copied by others in the future. Laws were carried out fairly and evenly among all of the various subject peoples. The Persians divided their empire into 20 provinces that were managed by governors. In addition, they provided land to feudal lords in exchange for loyalty and guarantees of soldiers for the Persian army.

Most of the people in the empire, including average Persians, simply remained struggling farmers or craftspeople. Cyrus built the foundations of a courier, or mail, system. Darius I built a communication network that connected most of the empire. A 1,600-mile-long royal road was built from Sardis to Susa, one of the administrative capitals. Along this road, were numerous places for lodging, where royal couriers could obtain fresh horses and supplies. A Bedouin man on a camel wears clothing that shields him from the heat of the hot desert sun. Thus Spake Zarathustra The Persians also developed a religion based on monotheism, the belief in one god. It was founded by the prophet Zoroaster, called Zarathustra in old Iranian. Many of his ideas were collected in a series of poems called the Gathas, which became part of the religion's most sacred book, the Avesta. Zoroaster believed that people were training for a future life. He taught that the earthly world was torn by a constant struggle between good and evil. Humans would have to choose between the two in preparation for a final judgment when good would triumph over evil.

When this happened, all earthly existence would disappear. The Zoroastrian god, Ahura Mazda, embodied goodness and wisdom. Some religious scholars believe that Zoroaster's ideas strongly influenced on the development of the Hebrew and Christian religions. Despite the Persians' effective and conciliatory leadership, their empire did not last. Under King Xerxes in 480 B.C.E., the Persians made an attempt to expand their empire into Greece. The Greek city-states cooperated and held off the Persian threat and even succeeded in almost obliterating the Persian navy. When Alexander the Great rose to power in 331 B.C.E., he put an end to Persian dreams of expanding their empire. Only in his early twenties, Alexander had no equal as a military strategist. He swept through the ancient world, conquering all of the Persian Empire. BBC - Religions - Zoroastrian: Under Persian rule Under Persian rule This page provides an overview of the ancient history of Zoroastrianism.

On this page The Archaemenian The Archaemenian (549 BCE - 331 BCE) In 549 BCE, the Persians, led by Cyrus the Great of the Archaemenian family, overthrew the Median court of Western Iran. Cyrus thus founded the first Persian Empire. The Archaemenian kings are known to have been very pious Zoroastrians, trying to rule justly and in accordance with the Zoroastrian law of asha (truth and righteousness). Carving from the ruins of Persepolis © Cyrus the Great was relatively liberal. While he himself ruled according to Zoroastrian beliefs, he made no attempt to impose Zoroastrianism on the people of his subject territories. The Jews most famously benefited from this; Cyrus permitted them to return to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon, and rebuild their temple. This act of kindness made a huge impact on Judaism. Zoroastrian philosophy powerfully influenced post-Exilic Judaism. Darius the Great was famously pious and showed the same general tolerance for other faiths as his predecessor Cyrus. His piety is expressed in religious inscriptions left on his tomb.

Alexander the Great, Seleucids, Arcasids Alexander the Great and Iran Alexander of Macedonia defeated Darius III in battle in 331BCE. Within five years he had conquered most of the Persian territories. Zoroastrianism received a savage blow. Many priests were killed and texts destroyed. Much was lost forever, but the core of the religion - recorded in the Gathas - survived. The Seleucids (311 BCE - 141 BCE) and Arcasids (141 BCE - 224 ACE) The Seleucids were Greeks and took power after the death of Alexander. Zoroastrianism became regionally autonomous under the Seleucids. The Parthian Arcasids overthrew the Seleucids and ruled for a much longer period than the Archaemenian, but their rule was less centralised.

The gathering of Zoroastrian texts from the provinces started under the Arcasids The Vendidad, or 'Law against Demons' (a text concerned with purity rites) is considered to have been compiled at this time The Arcasids generally kept to the tradition of tolerance towards other faiths and were known to govern within the Zoroastrian law of asha (truth and righteousness), like the Archaemenians The Sasanians The Sasanians (224 CE - 7th Century) The Sasanian, Ardashir, was an unknown who had succeeded to the usurped throne of a Persian vassal king. He rebelled and overthrew the Arcasids. This caused shock and resentment throughout Iran. However, Ardashir was a great politician and used religious propaganda to assert his authority. He cleverly based one of his claims to the throne on Zoroastrian orthodoxy, stating that the Arcasids were not orthodox Zoroastrians.

Important developments during the early Sasanian period were: A single Zoroastrian church was created under the control of Persia A single canon of Avestan texts was compiled by Ardashir's chief priest and religious propagandist, Tansar The Gathas was still central to these texts and remained unchanged The reformation of the Zoroastrian calendar The old calendar had 360 days split into 12 months of 30 days. A thirteenth month was added every six years to keep the dates in line with the seasons. The new calendar was a 365-day calendar. It kept to the same pattern as the old calendar with the exception of five days added at the end of the year. This caused many problems that still, to this day, have not been fully resolved. The Zoroastrian festivals are celebrated twice or linked together by six days so they can be celebrated on the traditional day as well as the implemented one.

The use of images in worship was banned Fire Temples were promoted The traditional tolerance towards other religions was abandoned Important developments in the later Sasanian period were: The development of the Avestan alphabet The core of the Avesta could now be written down An extension of liturgies Further texts, such as the Bundahishn and the Denkard (concerned with history, myth and laws of the land) were written. Further reforms to the Zoroastrian calendar to compensate for the yearly loss of a quarter day. This created even more confusion and increased the number of rituals. The periodic persecution of Christians and Jews By the end of the Sasanian period the authoritarian Zoroastrian church-state was immensely wealthy. This had positive and negative effects on the religion. The umbrella of the Persian church kept Zoroastrianism dominant in Persia. This meant Zoroastrianism stayed free from the influence of other religions becoming popular at the time ( Judaism , Christianity , Buddhism etc). However, Zoroastrianism became more ritualised and oppressive under this church, demanding a large amount of time and money from ordinary Persians.

Zoroastrianism in Persia at the end of the Sasanian period is considered to have been as ripe for reform as Christianity was in Europe during the Middle Ages. The rise and fall of the Sasanian Empire Founded in 226 AD, the Sasanian Empire lasted over 400 years. It traded goods from Constantinople to Beijing, handed regular defeats to the Roman army and only fell to the Islamic conquests of the 7th century. It still influences Persian identity to this day. The Arab conquest The Arab conquest In the 7th century the Islamic Arabs invaded and conquered Persia. The disastrous effect this had on Zoroastrianism surpassed that of Alexander. Many libraries were burned and much cultural heritage was lost. The Islamic invaders treated the Zoroastrians as dhimmis (People of the Book). This meant that, like Jews and Christians, they could retain their religious practices, but must pay extra taxes. There were also many other laws and social humiliations implemented to make life difficult for the Zoroastrians in the hope that they would convert to Islam. Over time many Iranians did convert and Zoroastrianism became a minority religion in Iran.

Invasions of the Turks and Mongols Zoroastrianism suffered again at the hands of the invading Turks. Even more damaging were the Mongol invasions which destroyed more religious texts. This time Islamic texts also suffered irreparable loss. Within half a century of the conquest, Gazan Khan converted to Islam and Zoroastrianism dwindled even further through renewed persecution. Religion and Enviornment - Persian Empire Persian Empire Religion The main religion of the ancient Persian empire was called Zoroastrianism. It was created by Zoroaster, a Persian prophet. They mainly believed that choices one makes affect ones fate and determined where they will spend life after death. They were monotheistic and their main god was Ahura Mazda. In this religion the goal in afterlife is to get to Ahura Mazda ("The Wise Lord"). They believe in the principles making good desicions or Asha and that life is what make of it on earth and not just the reward of afterlife. The Avesta was their sacred book that was divided into different sections. Environment Persia is in Southwest Asia and had natural barriers like the Zagros Mountains and Caucasus Mountains.

They were settled where modern day Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan,Pakistan, Syria, Turkey, Israel, and bits of Egypt and India. Create a free website

Question: What was the state religion of the Persian empires?
Answer: Zoroastrianism