Pakistan - Geography Geography Pakistan Table of Contents Located in the northwestern part of the South Asian subcontinent, Pakistan became a state as a result of the partition of British India on August 14, 1947. Pakistan annexed Azad (Free) Kashmir after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48. Initially, Pakistan also included the northeastern sector of the subcontinent, where Muslims are also in the majority. The East Wing and West Wing of Pakistan were, however, separated by 1,600 kilometers of hostile Indian territory. The country's East Wing, or East Pakistan, became the independent state of Bangladesh in December 1971. Pakistan occupies a position of great geostrategic importance, bordered by Iran on the west, Afghanistan on the northwest, China on the northeast, India on the east, and the Arabian Sea on the south. The total land area is estimated at 803,940 square kilometers. The boundary with Iran, some 800 kilometers in length, was first delimited by a British commission in 1893, separating Iran from what was then British Indian Balochistan.

In 1957 Pakistan signed a frontier agreement with Iran, and since then the border between the two countries has not been a subject of serious dispute. Pakistan's boundary with Afghanistan is about 2,250 kilometers long. In the north, it runs along the ridges of the Hindu Kush (meaning Hindu Killer) mountains and the Pamirs, where a narrow strip of Afghan territory called the Wakhan Corridor extends between Pakistan and Tajikistan. The Hindu Kush was traditionally regarded as the last northwestern outpost where Hindus could venture in safety. The boundary line with Afghanistan was drawn in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, then foreign secretary in British India, and was acceded to by the amir of Afghanistan that same year. This boundary, called the Durand Line, was not in doubt when Pakistan became independent in 1947, although its legitimacy was in later years disputed periodically by the Afghan government as well as by Pakhtun tribes straddling the Pakistan-Afghanistan border.

On the one hand, Afghanistan claimed that the Durand Line had been imposed by a stronger power upon a weaker one, and it favored the establishment of still another state to be called Pashtunistan or Pakhtunistan. On the other hand, Pakistan, as the legatee of the British in the region, insisted on the legality and permanence of the boundary. The Durand Line remained in effect in 1994. In the northeastern tip of the country, Pakistan controls about 84,159 square kilometers of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. This area, consisting of Azad Kashmir (11,639 square kilometers) and most of the Northern Areas (72,520 square kilometers), which includes Gilgit and Baltistan, is the most visually stunning of Pakistan. The Northern Areas has five of the world's seventeen highest mountains.

It also has such extensive glaciers that it has sometimes been called the "third pole." The boundary line has been a matter of pivotal dispute between Pakistan and India since 1947, and the Siachen Glacier in northern Kashmir has been an important arena for fighting between the two sides since 1984, although far more soldiers have died of exposure to the cold than from any skirmishes in the conflict. From the eastern end of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, a boundary of about 520 kilometers runs generally southeast between China and Pakistan, ending near the Karakoram Pass. This line was determined from 1961 to 1965 in a series of agreements between China and Pakistan. By mutual agreement, a new boundary treaty is to be negotiated between China and Pakistan when the dispute over Kashmir is finally resolved between India and Pakistan. The Pakistan-India cease-fire line runs from the Karakoram Pass west-southwest to a point about 130 kilometers northeast of Lahore. This line, about 770 kilometers long, was arranged with United Nations (UN) assistance at the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48.

The cease-fire line came into effect on January 1, 1949, after eighteen months of fighting and was last adjusted and agreed upon by the two countries in the Simla Agreement of July 1972. Since then, it has been generally known as the Line of Control. The Pakistan-India boundary continues irregularly southward for about 1,280 kilometers, following the line of the 1947 Radcliffe Award, named for Sir Cyril Radcliffe, the head of the British boundary commission on the partition of Punjab and Bengal in 1947. Although this boundary with India is not formally disputed, passions still run high on both sides of the border. Many Indians had expected the original boundary line to run farther to the west, thereby ceding Lahore to India; Pakistanis had expected the line to run much farther east, possibly granting them control of Delhi, the imperial capital of the Mughal Empire. The southern borders are far less contentious than those in the north. The Thar Desert in the province of Sindh is separated in the south from the salt flats of the Rann of Kutch by a boundary that was first delineated in 1923-24.

After partition, Pakistan contested the southern boundary of Sindh, and a succession of border incidents resulted. They were less dangerous and less widespread, however, than the conflict that erupted in Kashmir in the Indo-Pakistani War of August 1965. These southern hostilities were ended by British mediation, and both sides accepted the award of the Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary Case Tribunal designated by the UN secretary general. The tribunal made its award on February 19, 1968, delimiting a line of 403 kilometers that was later demarcated by joint survey teams. Of its original claim of some 9,100 square kilometers, Pakistan was awarded only about 780 square kilometers. Beyond the western terminus of the tribunal's award, the final stretch of Pakistan's border with India is about 80 kilometers long, running west and southwest to an inlet of the Arabian Sea. Pakistan Pakistan City vs City: Compare cities in the U.S. by population, crime, education and other data.

Compare: Official name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan Area: 803,940 square kilometers (310,403 square miles) Highest point on mainland: K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen) (8,611 meters/28,251 feet) Lowest point on land: Sea level Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern P.M.

= noon GMT Longest distances: 1,875 kilometers (1,165 miles) from northeast to southwest; 1,006 kilometers (625 miles) from southeast to northwest Land boundaries: 6,774 kilometers (4,209 miles) total boundary length; China 523 kilometers (325 miles); India 2,912 kilometers (1,809 miles); Iran 909 kilometers (565 miles); Afghanistan 2,430 kilometers (1,510 miles) Coastline: 1,046 kilometers (650 miles) Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles) 1 LOCATION AND SIZE Pakistan is located in South Asia between the Himalaya Mountains and the Arabian Sea—west of India, east of Iran and Afghanistan, and south of China. The nation is almost two times the size of California, and is divided up into four provinces and one territory. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES Since their creation as independent countries in 1947, India and Pakistan have disputed ownership of the northern region of Jammu and Kashmir.

The simmering tension has erupted into fighting between the neighbors in 1948, 1965, and 1971; the dispute continues to be a source of sporadic conflict in the early 2000s. 3 CLIMATE Pakistan is in the temperate zone and varies greatly in weather conditions—from the humid coast to the dry, hot desert interior to the icy mountains in the north. Four seasons are experienced in the country: winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the arrival of the southwest monsoon from June through September; and the northeast monsoon from October through November. In the north and west, the rainy season occurs during the winter The northern capital, Islamabad, has average temperatures ranging from a low of 2°C (35°F) in January to a high of 40°C (104°F) in June. The southern port of Karachi has average temperatures varying from a low of 13°C (55°F) in winter to a high of 34°C (93°F) in summer. Arid conditions prevail in most of Pakistan, which misses the full force of the monsoons.

Punjab has had major fluctuations in monsoon rainfall, with droughts in some years and floods in others. On Pakistan's plains, the average annual rainfall is a mere 13 centimeters (5 inches), while in the highlands it is 89 centimeters (35 inches). Hailstorms are common, and snow falls in the north in winter. The lofty mountains of the north are permanently cloaked in snow and ice. 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS Pakistan can be divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Baluchistan Plateau. About one-third of the Pakistan-India border is also the cease-fire line in the Jammu and Kashmir region, disputed between the two countries since their independence. Pakistan lies at the border of three tec-tonic plates: the Arabian, Indian, and Eurasian. The Arabian Plate meets with the Eurasian Plate at the coastline in southeastern Pakistan. On Pakistan's eastern and northeastern border, the Eurasian Plate collides with the Indian Plate; as a result, seismic activity is high along this border. The region surrounding Quetta is also prone to frequent and devastating earthquakes.

5 OCEANS AND SEAS The coastline of Pakistan meets the Arabian Sea of the northern Indian Ocean. Sea Inlets and Straits There are no notable sea inlets or straits in Pakistan. Islands and Archipelagos Pakistan's only major offshore island is Astola (Haft Talar), about 25 kilometers (15 miles) south of Baluchistan in the Arabian Sea, with an area of 50 square kilometers (19 square miles). Astola is a turtle-nesting area and a bird and reptile habitat. Coastal Features Baluchistan's Ormara Turtle Beaches, about 10 kilometers (6 miles) along the western coast, are a habitat for endangered sea turtles; mud volcanoes also sputter along this shore. The central coast is indented by Sonmiani Bay. The coast has few settlements, except for Pakistan's largest city, the port of Karachi. The city's beaches are badly polluted by oil spills, sewage, and industrial toxic waste, all of which pours directly into the ocean.

6 INLAND LAKES In Pakistan's southeast is Manchhar Lake, once a large body of fresh water (roughly 259 square kilometers/100 square miles) and a major habitat for birds and fish. Pollution and water diversion have shrunk the lake dramatically, however, and made its waters increasingly saline. Other lakes in the lower Indus region face extinction, including Kerjhar Lake and Hammal Lake. Kinjhar (Kalri) Lake, Haleji Lake, and Drigh Lake are wildlife sanctuaries in this region. Further north are the Khabbaki, Uchali and Jahlar Lakes. The far-northern basin known as Snow Lake is a massive snowbed, comprising the Sim Gang Glacier and a frozen glacial lake with ice more than 15 kilometers (9 miles) thick. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS The Indus River is an irrigation lifeline for much of the country. The Indus rises in the Tibetan Himalayas. After crossing the Indian-administered portion of Jammu and Kashmir, it enters Pakistan and flows southwest for 1,609 kilometers (1,000 miles) to the Arabian Sea.

At Attock, the Indus receives the waters of the Kabul River from the west. After being joined by the Gumal River, the Indus continues south to Mithanhot, where it is joined by its major tributary, the Panjnad. The short Panjnad River, about 121 kilometers (75 miles) long, is actually the combined input of the "five rivers of the Punjab": the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The principal river of Baluchistan is the Zhob, running along the southern slopes of the Toba Kakar Range and north into the Gumal River. In southern Baluchistan, several minor rivers flow into the Arabian Sea; these include the Dasht, Mashkai, Nal, and Porali. 8 DESERTS Pakistan's Thal Desert is south of the Salt Range, between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers. The Thar Desert (Cholistan Desert) lies south of the Sutlej River along the Pakistan-India border. Both these Pakistani desert regions are extensions of India's Thar Desert.

The Baluchistan Plateau is largely a desert area with erosion, sand dunes, and sandstorms. There is also a dry region in the northern Chilas-Gilgit area. In addition to existing deserts, the environmental change called desertification is occurring across Pakistan, with more than one-third of the country considered at risk. Deforestation, depletion of soil, and water shortages are causing desertification as vegetation is cut and stripped away. 9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN The upper Indus River plain, in Punjab, varies from about 152 to 304 meters (500 to 1,000 feet) in elevation. The lower Indus Plain, generally corresponding to the province of Sind, is lower in altitude. On the Indus plain, grasslands called doabs provide grazing on the strips of land between rivers. Coniferous and deciduous forests, scrub woods, mangrove forests, and tree plantations grow in Pakistan. Some 40 percent of the forests are conifer or scrub woods, found mainly in mountain watershed areas. Pakistan's forest cover has been reduced to less than four percent of the land area. Deforestation in northern Pakistan has caused severe erosion.

The Margalla Hills, 610 to 914 meters (2,000 to 3,000 feet) high, are foothills of the northern mountains that overlook Islamabad, the capital. The Swat and Chitral Hills in the northwest have heights of 1,524 to 1,829 meters (5,000 to 6,000 feet). 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES The northern highlands are a convergence of some of the most rugged mountains in the world. The Himalayas stretch from northeast India to the northeast corner of Pakistan, where they merge into the Karakoram and Pamirs mountain ranges. West of the Pamirs are the heights and steep valleys of the Hindu Kush. In the northern mountains, virtually all elevations are higher than 2,438 meters (8,000 ft) above sea level. More than fifty peaks are above 6,705 meters (22,000 feet).

The soaring summits of K2 (Mount Godwin Austen) in the Karakoram Range, the world's second-highest mountain (8,611 meters/28,251 feet), and Nanga Parbat (8,126 meters/26,660 feet) in the Himalayan range, have posed often-deadly challenges to climbing expeditions. Enormous glaciers sprawl across this region, including Baltoro and Pasu, each of which is longer than 50 kilometers (31 miles). The Safed Koh range south of the northern highlands and west of the Indus River plain reaches 4,761 meters (15,620 feet) in its extension to the Afghanistan border. This area includes the strategic Khyber Pass, which connects the Peshawar Valley to Afghanistan. South of the Safed Koh and near the border are the mountains of Waziristan. Beyond them, the Toba Kakar range, with an average elevation of about 2,743 meters (9,000 feet), extends from northern Baluchistan to the Khojak Pass.

The Rās Koh range, west of the city of Quetta, and the Chagai Hills extending further west complete the western highlands. 11 CANYONS AND CAVES Northern Pakistan has many narrow, twisting canyons, particularly in Hunza. The Indus River rushes through the steep Attock Gorge near the Khyber Pass. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS The Baluchistan Plateau, at an elevation of 914 to 1,219 meters (3,000 to 4,000 feet), is an arid tableland of approximately 350,945 square kilometers (135,000 square miles). The Potwar Plateau, at the foot of the mountains south of Islamabad, is a dry, eroded area where most of Pakistan's oil is located. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES Pakistan has two major river dams. In northern Punjab, near Kashmir, the Mangla Dam sits on the Jhelum River. The Tarbela Dam is situated on the Indus near Taxila. Dams on the Indus River, built for hydropower or agricultural water diversion, have been extremely controversial.

The provincial governments of Sind and Baluchistan believe that Punjab Province is diverting too much water from the Indus. Intensive irrigation has led to a crisis of water-logging and salinity throughout the farmlands of the Indus Basin. In this geological syndrome, salty water seeps from canals into surrounding soil, which the salt renders useless for farming as the water evaporates. 14 FURTHER READING Britton, Tamara L. Pakistan . Edina, MN: Abdo, 2003. Deady, Kathleen. Pakistan . Mankato, MN: Bridgestone Books, 2001. Schofield, Victoria. Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan, and the Unfinished War . New York: I.B. Taurus, 2000. Web Sites Thar Desert | desert, Asia | Britannica.com Thar Desert Alternative Title: Great Indian Desert Related Topics Thar Desert, also called Great Indian Desert, arid region of rolling sand hills on the Indian subcontinent. It is located partly in Rajasthan state, northwestern India , and partly in Punjab and Sindh (Sind) provinces, eastern Pakistan . Thar (Great Indian) Desert.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The Thar Desert covers some 77,000 square miles (200,000 square km) of territory. It is bordered by the irrigated Indus River plain to the west, the Punjab Plain to the north and northeast, the Aravalli Range to the southeast, and the Rann of Kachchh to the south. The subtropical desert climate there results from persistent high pressure and subsidence at that latitude. The prevailing southwest monsoon winds that bring rain to much of the subcontinent in summer tend to bypass the Thar to the east. The name Thar is derived from thul, the general term for the region’s sand ridges. Scrub vegetation in the Thar (Great Indian) Desert, western Rajasthan, India.

© Rafal Gaweda/Fotolia Land The Thar’s desert sands overlie Archean (early Precambrian ) gneiss (metamorphic rocks formed between 4 billion and 2.5 billion years ago), Proterozoic (later Precambrian) sedimentary rocks (about 541 million to 2.5 billion years old), and more-recent alluvium (material deposited by rivers). The surface consists of aeolian (wind-deposited) sand that has accumulated over the past 1.8 million years. Undulating sand dunes in the Thar (Great Indian) Desert. © Keith Wheatley/Fotolia The desert presents an undulating surface, with high and low sand dunes separated by sandy plains and low barren hills, or bhakars, which rise abruptly from the surrounding plains. The dunes are in continual motion and take on varying shapes and sizes. Older dunes, however, are in a semi-stabilized or stabilized condition, and many rise to a height of almost 500 feet (150 metres) above the surrounding areas. Several playas (saline lake beds), locally known as dhands, are scattered throughout the region.

Similar Topics Arabian Desert The soils consist of several main groups—desert soils, red desertic soils, sierozems (brownish gray soils), the red and yellow soils of the foothills, the saline soils of the depressions, and the lithosols (shallow weathered soils) and regosols (soft loose soils) found in the hills. All those soils are predominantly coarse-textured, well-drained, and calcareous (calcium-bearing). A thick accumulation of lime often occurs at varying depths. The soils are generally infertile and, because of severe wind erosion, are overblown with sand. The amount of annual rainfall in the desert is generally low, ranging from about 4 inches (100 mm) or less in the west to about 20 inches (500 mm) in the east. Precipitation amounts fluctuate widely from year to year. About 90 percent of the total annual rainfall occurs during the season of the southwest monsoon, from July to September. During other seasons the prevailing wind is the dry northeast monsoon. May and June are the hottest months of the year, with temperatures rising to 122 °F (50 °C).

During January, the coldest month, the mean minimum temperature ranges between 41 and 50 °F (5 and 10 °C), and frost is frequent. Dust storms and dust-raising winds, often blowing with velocities of 87 to 93 miles (140 to 150 km) per hour, are common in May and June. The desert vegetation is mostly herbaceous or stunted scrub; drought-resistant trees occasionally dot the landscape, especially in the east. On the hills, gum arabic acacia and euphorbia may be found. The khajri (or khejri) tree (Prosopis cineraria) grows throughout the plains. Khajri (khejri) … Laxman Burdak The thinly populated grasslands support black bucks, chikara (gazelles), and some feathered game, notably francolins (partridges) and quail. Among the migratory birds, sand grouse, ducks, and geese are common. The desert is also the home of the endangered great bustard. People All About Asia Most of the desert’s inhabitants reside in rural areas and are distributed in varying densities.

Both Islam and Hinduism are practiced, and the population is divided into complex economic and social groups. The prevailing languages are Sindhi in the southwest, Lahnda in the northwest, and Rajasthani languages —especially Marwari—in central and eastern portions of the Thar. The ethnic composition of the Thar is diverse . Among the most prominent groups are the Rajputs , who inhabit the central Thar. Many nomads are engaged in animal husbandry , crafts, or trade. In general, the nomads are symbiotically related to the sedentary population and its economy. Hindu pilgrims gathering at Pushkar, in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan state, India. © Brian A. Vikander/West Light 2017 Rock Hall Inductees Announced The grasses form the main natural resources of the desert. They provide nutritive pasturage as well as medicines used locally by the inhabitants. Alkaloids, used for making medicine and oils for making soap are also extracted. There are five major breeds of cattle in the Thar. Among those the Tharparkar breed is the highest yielder of milk, and the Kankre breed is good both as a beast of burden and as a milk producer.

Sheep are bred for both medium-fine and rough wool. Camels are commonly used for transport as well as for plowing the land and other agricultural purposes. Where water is available, farmers grow crops such as wheat and cotton. Section of the Sukkur Barrage irrigation project, on the Indus River, southern Thar Desert, … Frederic Ohringer—Nancy Palmer Agency/EB Inc. However, water is scarce. Whatever seasonal rain falls is collected in tanks and reservoirs and is used for drinking and domestic purposes. Most groundwater cannot be utilized, because it lies deep underground and is often saline. Good aquifers have been detected in the central part of the desert. Apart from wells and tanks, canals are the main sources of water in the desert. The Sukkur Barrage on the Indus River, completed in 1932, irrigates the southern Thar region in Pakistan by means of canals, and the Gang Canal carries water from the Sutlej River to the northwest. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates a vast amount of land in the Indian portion of the Thar.

The canal begins at the Harike Barrage —at the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas rivers in the Indian Punjab—and continues in a southwesterly direction for some 290 miles (470 km). Well in the Thar (Great Indian) Desert, western Rajasthan, India. © virdg/Fotolia India - Geography Geography India Table of Contents India's total land mass is 2,973,190 square kilometers and is divided into three main geological regions: the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Himalayas, and the Peninsula region. The Indo-Gangetic Plain and those portions of the Himalayas within India are collectively known as North India. South India consists of the peninsular region, often termed simply the Peninsula.

On the basis of its physiography, India is divided into ten regions: the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the northern mountains of the Himalayas, the Central Highlands, the Deccan or Peninsular Plateau, the East Coast (Coromandel Coast in the south), the West Coast (Konkan, Kankara, and Malabar coasts), the Great Indian Desert (a geographic feature known as the Thar Desert in Pakistan) and the Rann of Kutch, the valley of the Brahmaputra in Assam, the northeastern hill ranges surrounding the Assam Valley, and the islands of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Indo-Gangetic Plain In social and economic terms, the Indo-Gangetic Plain is the most important region of India. The plain is a great alluvial crescent stretching from the Indus River system in Pakistan to the Punjab Plain (in both Pakistan and India) and the Haryana Plain to the delta of the Ganga (or Ganges) in Bangladesh (where it is called the Padma). Topographically the plain is homogeneous, with only floodplain bluffs and other related features of river erosion and changes in river channels forming important natural features.

Two narrow terrain belts, collectively known as the Terai, constitute the northern boundary of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Where the foothills of the Himalayas encounter the plain, small hills known locally as ghar (meaning house in Hindi) have been formed by coarse sands and pebbles deposited by mountain streams. Groundwater from these areas flows on the surface where the plains begin and converts large areas along the rivers into swamps. The southern boundary of the plain begins along the edge of the Great Indian Desert in the state of Rajasthan and continues east along the base of the hills of the Central Highlands to the Bay of Bengal. The hills, varying in elevation from 300 to 1,200 meters, lie on a general east-west axis. The Central Highlands are divided into northern and southern parts. The northern part is centered on the Aravalli Range of eastern Rajasthan. In the northern part of the state of Madhya Pradesh, the Malwa Plateau comprises the southern part of the Central Highlands and merges with the Vindhya Range to the south. The main rivers that flow through the southern part of the plain--the Narmada, the Tapti, and the Mahanadi--delineate North India from South India.

Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into three parts: the Indus Valley (mostly in Pakistan), the Punjab (divided between India and Pakistan) and Haryana plains, and the middle and lower Ganga. These regional distinctions are based primarily on the availability of water. By another definition, the Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage systems. This divide is only 300 meters above sea level, contributing to the perception that the Indo-Gangetic Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins. The Punjab Plain is centered in the land between five rivers: the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej. (The name Punjab comes from the Sanskrit pancha ab , meaning five waters or rivers.) Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers.

The irrigation projects emanating from these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water reaching the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valley in Pakistan. The benefits that increased irrigation has brought to farmers in the state of Haryana are controversial in light of the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan. The middle Ganga extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganga and the Assam Valley are more lush and verdant than the middle Ganga. The lower Ganga is centered in West Bengal from which it flows into Bangladesh and, after joining the Jamuna (as the lower reaches of the Brahmaputra are known in Bangladesh), forms the delta of the Ganga. The Brahmaputra (meaning son of Brahma) rises in Tibet (China's Xizang Autonomous Region) as the Yarlung Zangbo River, flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, and then crosses into Bangladesh. Average annual rainfall increases moving west to east from approximately 600 millimeters in the Punjab Plain to 1,500 millimeters around the lower Ganga and Brahmaputra.

The Himalayas The Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world, extend along the northern frontiers of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma. They were formed geologically as a result of the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia. This process of plate tectonics is ongoing, and the gradual northward drift of the Indian subcontinent still causes earthquakes (see Earthquakes, this ch.). Lesser ranges jut southward from the main body of the Himalayas at both the eastern and western ends. The Himalayan system, about 2,400 kilometers in length and varying in width from 240 to 330 kilometers, is made up of three parallel ranges--the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas--sometimes collectively called the Great Himalayan Range.

The Greater Himalayas, or northern range, average approximately 6,000 meters in height and contain the three highest mountains on earth: Mount Everest (8,796 meters) on the China-Nepal border; K2 (8,611 meters, also known as Mount Godwin-Austen, and in China as Qogir Feng) in an area claimed by India, Pakistan, and China; and Kanchenjunga (8,598 meters) on the India-Nepal border. Many major mountains are located entirely within India, such as Nanda Devi (7,817 meters) in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The snow line averages 4,500 to 6,000 meters on the southern side of the Greater Himalayas and 5,500 to 6,000 on the northern side. Because of climatic conditions, the snow line in the eastern Himalayas averages 4,300 meters, while in the western Himalayas it averages 5,800 meters.

The Lesser Himalayas, located in northwestern India in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, in north-central India in the state of Sikkim, and in northeastern India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, range from 1,500 to 5,000 meters in height. Located in the Lesser Himalayas are the hill stations of Shimla (Simla) and Darjiling (Darjeeling). During the colonial period, these and other hill stations were used by the British as summer retreats to escape the intense heat of the plains. It is in this transitional vegetation zone that the contrasts between the bare southern slopes and the forested northern slopes become most noticeable. The Outer or Southern Himalayas, averaging 900 to 1,200 meters in elevation, lie between the Lesser Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. In Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, this southernmost range is often referred to as the Siwalik Hills. It is possible to identify a fourth, and northernmost range, known as the Trans-Himalaya.

This range is located entirely on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, north of the great west-to-east trending valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River. Although the Trans-Himalaya Range is divided from the Great Himalayan Range for most of its length, it merges with the Great Himalayan Range in the western section--the Karakoram Range--where India, Pakistan, and China meet. The southern slopes of each of the Himalayan ranges are too steep to accumulate snow or support much tree life; the northern slopes generally are forested below the snow line. Between the ranges are extensive high plateaus, deep gorges, and fertile valleys, such as the vales of Kashmir and Kulu. The Himalayas serve a very important purpose. They provide a physical screen within which the monsoon system operates and are the source of the great river systems that water the alluvial plains below (see Climate, this ch.). As a result of erosion, the rivers coming from the mountains carry vast quantities of silt that enrich the plains.

The area of northeastern India adjacent to Burma and Bangladesh consists of numerous hill tracts, averaging between 1,000 and 2,000 meters in elevation, that are not associated with the eastern part of the Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh. The Naga Hills, rising to heights of more than 3,000 meters, form the watershed between India and Burma. The Mizo Hills are the southern part of the northeastern ranges in India. The Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills are centered in the state of Meghalaya and, isolated from the northeastern ranges, divide the Assam Valley from Bangladesh to the south and west. The Peninsula The Peninsula proper is an old, geologically stable region with an average elevation between 300 and 1,800 meters. The Vindhya Range constitutes the main dividing line between the geological regions of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Peninsula. This range lies north of the Narmada River, and when viewed from there, it is possible to discern the prominent escarpments that rise between 800 and 1,400 meters.

The Vindhya Range defines the north-central and northwestern boundary of the Peninsula, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau of southern Bihar forms the northeastern boundary. The uplifting of the plateau of the central Peninsula and its eastward tilt formed the Western Ghats, a line of hills running from the Tapti River south to the tip of the Peninsula. The Eastern Ghats mark the eastern end of the plateau; they begin in the hills of the Mahanadi River basin and converge with the Western Ghats at the Peninsula's southern tip. The interior of the Peninsula, south of the Narmada River, often termed the Deccan Plateau or simply the Deccan (from the Sanskrit daksina , meaning south), is a series of plateaus topped by rolling hills and intersected by many rivers. The plateau averages roughly 300 to 750 meters in elevation. Its major rivers--the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri--rise in the Western Ghats and flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal. The coastal plain borders the plateau.

On the northwestern side, it is characterized by tidal marshes, drowned valleys, and estuaries; and in the south by lagoons, marshes, and beach ridges. Coastal plains on the eastern side are wider than those in the west; they are focused on large river deltas that serve as the centers of human settlement. Offshore Islands India's offshore islands, constituting roughly one-quarter of 1 percent of the nation's territory, lie in two groups located off the east and west coasts. The northernmost point of the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands lies 1,100 kilometers southeast of Calcutta. Situated in the Bay of Bengal in a chain stretching some 800 kilometers, the Andaman Islands comprise 204 islands and islets, and their topography is characterized by hills and narrow valleys. Although their location is tropical, the climate of the islands is tempered by sea breezes; rainfall is irregular. The Nicobar Islands, which are south of the Andaman Islands, comprise nineteen islands, some with flat, coral-covered surfaces and others with hills. The islands have a nearly equatorial climate, heavy rainfall, and high temperatures.

The union territory of Lakshadweep (the name means 100,000 islands) in the Arabian Sea, comprises--from north to south--the Amindivi, Laccadive, Cannanore, and Minicoy islands. The islands, only ten of which are inhabited, are spread throughout an area of approximately 77,000 square kilometers. The islands are low-lying coral-based formations capable of limited cultivation. Depart: 3rd Dec 2016 (Saturday) Return: 10th Dec 2016 (Saturday) Price: SGD1850 (Twin share) / SGD2250 (Single) Group Size : 8 (min) / 12 (max) Highlights: Explore Jodphur the world’s most famous “Blue City”, where every brick, beam and boundary have been painted in the cool fashion. Sunset at the magnificent Mehrangarh Fort, sitting at 122 meters above Jodphur city and Jal Mahal, the water palace in thehe middle of the Man Sagar Lake at Jaipur city.

Sunset over Thar Desert, known as the Great Indian Desert, forms a natural boundary running along the border between India and Pakistan. Holy City Pushkar, one the oldest existing cities of India, lies on the shore of Pushkar lake where pilgrims descend to the lake to bathe in the sacred waters. View point of Nahargarh Fort on the edge of the Aravalli Hills, overlooking the pink city of Jaipur in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Mandawa at Shekhawati Region, referred as the Open Art Gallery, with lavishly painted mansions (havelis). Chandhi Chowk - the oldest oldest and busiest markets in Old Dehi and Jama Masjid, the largest mosque in India contruscted by Shah Jahan in 1644 Unique combonation of lodging arrangement with 4 star hotel, luxury tents and boutique and heritage hotel. Authentic India cuisine with mixture selection of restaurant. Singapore - New Delhi Depart from Changi Airport and arrive Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi. Check in hotel, overnight at Delhi. Jodhpur (B/L/D) Early proceed for domestic flight to Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

Arrive at Jodhpur for early lunch, and visit Bishnoi village. The Bishnoi’s live a very rich cultural life and have a deep love for nature and animals. Enjoy the sunset over Thar Desert, known as the Great Indian Desert. Dinner will be arranged at the wonderful rooftop with a view of sunset with the Merangarh Fort. Overnight at Jodhpur. The Blue City (B/L/D) Morning visit the market located next to the Clock tower, and venture into the maze of blue ancient buildings to experience the morning activities of the Blue city. After lunch, visit Mehrangarh Fort, which is one of the largest forts in India and photography the sunset over the city of blue. Overnight at Jodhpur. Pushkar, The Holy City (B/L/D) Watching sunrise over at Mehrangarh Fort, followed by breakfast. Check out and proceed to holy city Pushkar, said to be one of the oldest cities of India. Pushkar town is built around a holy lake, which has 52 ghats where Indian pilgrims come to descend to the lake to bathe in the sacred waters.

The holdy is also full of sadhus (the holy men) who roam around the town. Ride to Thar desert by camel cart and visit the desert nomadic tribe. Overnight at Pushkar. Jaipur - Capital of Rajasthan (B/L/D) Sunrise and morning walk around Pushkar lake. After having the breakfast, check out and head east to Jaipur the Capital of Rajathan Region. Visit Hawa Mahal - the Palace of Winds, and the complex of Gaitor. After lunch, proceed to Nahargarh Fort, the fort is built on the edge of the Aravalli Hills, overlooking the the pink city of Jaipur in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Enjoy the sunset at Jal Mahal, a water palace located in the middle of the Man Sagar Lake. Overnight at Jaipur. Mandawa, The Open Art Gallery (B/L/D) Sunrise from Amber Fort, a magnificiant fort located high at the hill and known for its artistic Hindu style elements, followed by a visit to one of the gorgeous stepwell which the water may be reached by descending a set of steps. Proceed to Mandawa at Shekhawati Region.

Mandawa town has been referred to as the "open art gallery" of Rajasthan because Mandawa is dotted with fascinating mansions (havelis) that have lavishly painted walls. Roam around each corner to explore and enjoy admiring the detailed work and intricately painted walls of the havelies. Overnight at Mandawa. Old Delhi (B/L/D) Visit the open market at the town and check out. Proceed to Old Delhi for lunch, and visit i) Chandni Chowk, one of the oldest and busiest markets in Old Delhi, was designed and established by Princess Jahanara, Shah Jahan’s favourite daughter, in 1650. and ii) Jama Masjid, the great mosque of Old Delhi is the largest in India construted in 1644 by Shah Jahan. Dinner and check in hotel, overnight at Delhi. Delhi - Singapore (B) Early depart to Dehli airport. Email was sent successfully!

1 domestic flight New Delhi to Jodhpur, economy class with taxes and fuel charges Private vehicle with 2 seats per pax with extra space for camer equipment 7 nights accommodation with the unique combonation of hotel (traditional havelis, tent, boutique, 3 & 4 star hotel) All entrance fees and permit All meals as stated per itinerary above Leica Akademie photography instructor (x1) and tour assistant (x1) Pre departure notes AIG Travel Insurance - Classic plan with 8 days coverage ( *T&C applies, for participants departing and returning Singapore only ) Exclusions : Visa entry to India (if applicable) International flight to India from your departing country Meals not stated in the itinerary Additional beverages (including alcohol) not included in meals Any other incidental expenses incurred by participants Tips for both driver (voluntary basis) Remarks NASA Visible Earth: Great Indian Desert Great Indian Desert Credit: Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert (lower left), straddles the border between northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. This desert supports a largely pastoral economy, since not much grows in the broken rocks and sand dunes but scrub vegetation.

Bordered on the west by the deep green Indus and Sutlej river valleys and the thin bright green Aravalli Range to the southeast, the region is remote and sparsely populated. In this image, a thin veil of dust gently blurs the features of the land. Beyond the edges of the desert, much of India remains covered in shades of green vegetation. The southern- and western-faces of the Himalayas are particularly verdant, in distinct contrast to the northern and eastern faces, which are starkly tan and capped with snow. This transition between vegetation and barren soil marks the edges of the Plateau of Tibet, which averages an astonishing 5,000 to 6,000 meters (16,404 to 19,686 feet) above sea level. Finally, in the bottom left corner, pools of green, blue, and brown water along the Pakistan-India border are the slowly-evaporating remains of the annual flooding of the Rann of Kutch . This true-color Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image was acquired on October 1, 2003. Images & Animations

Question: Which desert runs along the border between India and Pakistan?
Answer: Thar Desert