What is Paleontology? Paleontology is a rich field, imbued with a long and interesting past and an even more intriguing and hopeful future. Many people think paleontology is the study of fossils. In fact, paleontology is much more. Paleontology is traditionally divided into various subdisciplines: Micropaleontology: Study of generally microscopic fossils, regardless of the group to which they belong. Paleobotany: Study of fossil plants; traditionally includes the study of fossil algae and fungi in addition to land plants. Palynology: Study of pollen and spores, both living and fossil, produced by land plants and protists. Invertebrate Paleontology: Study of invertebrate animal fossils, such as mollusks, echinoderms, and others. Vertebrate Paleontology: Study of vertebrate fossils, from primitive fishes to mammals. Human Paleontology (Paleoanthropology): The study of prehistoric human and proto-human fossils. Taphonomy: Study of the processes of decay, preservation, and the formation of fossils in general. Ichnology: Study of fossil tracks, trails, and footprints.

Paleoecology: Study of the ecology and climate of the past, as revealed both by fossils and by other methods. In short, paleontology is the study of what fossils tell us about the ecologies of the past, about evolution, and about our place, as humans, in the world. Paleontology incorporates knowledge from biology, geology, ecology, anthropology, archaeology, and even computer science to understand the processes that have led to the origination and eventual destruction of the different types of organisms since life arose. The exhibits that we have set up here are created by paleontologists. More than just an overview of the diversity that has existed through time on this planet, the exhibits also highlight some of the research that paleontologists are conducting at the Museum of Paleontology. Paleontology Norman Ross of the division of Paleontology, National Museum, is preparing the skeleton of a baby dinosaur some seven or eight million years old for exhibition. [ more ] Paleontology What is Paleontology? Paleontology, put simply, is the study of prehistoric life. This includes the history of the earth , the organisms in it, as well as their evolution, and their interactions with other organisms and the environment.

It is a historical science, meaning it describes the past and its causes as opposed to physics which performs experiments to learn the effects. Paleontology is difficult to distinguish from archeology. Archeology is the study of human remains and civilizations, while paleontologists study human evolution and the effects that the environment had on early humans. The two are separate but frequently overlap. Paleontology is also in-between the sciences of biology and geology as it uses many elements of both. Paleontology uses many sciences as part of its study. For instance, a paleontologist might study ecology through ancient plant samples, or he/she might study the chemistry of fossils or rocks to determine the environment of the earth at that time. It is obvious that Paleontology is a wide spread science, but it also contains subdivisions such as Paleobotany, the study of prehistoric plants, or Biostratigraphy, the dating of fossils in relation to other fossils around it. What do Paleontologists do? Paleontologists study both body fossils and trace fossils. Body fossils are perhaps the most informative and include fossils like dinosaur bones, old seashells, and other skeletons. However, body fossils can be somewhat biased.

In order to fossilize well, an organism must usually have a hard skeleton, shell, or otherwise durable body part. It is almost certain that many organisms existed that have never been found fossilized because they didn't fulfill these prerequisites. Paleontologists also study trace fossils which are evidences of an organisms interaction with the environment. These can include footprints or teethmarks. Paleontologists also study the geochemical properties of fossils and rocks to determine evidences of micro-cellular life as well as the climate of the time period. This is a study shared with Geologists. For example, deposits of iridium found at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary highly suggest that dinosaurs became extinct due to a large meteorite impact or volcanic activity. After these evidences are collected an attempt is made to date them. They can be dated relative to other fossils or given an absolute date based on the decay of certain elements contained in the fossil. A paleontologist collects all the data they can from these fossils and other evidences, then attempt to classify them. There are two methods of classification, the Linnaean system and the more widely used cladistics. The Linnaean system has a set number of levels that an organism can be classified into.

This presents limitations however, and is not widely used by paleontologists. Using cladistics a paleontologist can draw a variation of a genealogical tree showing the evolution of the organisms and tracing them through time. History of Paleontology Although paleontology did not become an official practice until the early 1800s, some evidences of early paleontology exist. The Ancient Greeks hypothesized, because of fossilized seashells and other fossils, that some areas of land were previously under water. But it wasn't until the late 1700s that fossils began to prove that some animals had existed long ago and had become extinct. This lead eventually to the study of these evidences and the emergence of Paleontology. In the 1800s many advancements were made and an increase of interest led to many museums and displays. The geological timescale was invented based on evidences in the layers of the earths crust. The word "paleontology" was officially coined in 1822 by Henri Marie Ducrotay. Advancements continued with Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 and the theory of evolution.

Since then, we have continued to fill in the blanks and learn more and more about our earth's history. ScienceViews Writer: Jason Hamilton. Paleontology: Describing the Purpose of Fossilized Life Paleontology is the study of the fossil evidence for all life on planet earth—plant and animal alike. Here are some additional definitions from scholars in the field.—Kris Hirst Paleontology Definitions Paleontology is the study of what fossils tell us about the ecologies of the past, about evolution, and about our place, as humans, in the world.... [It is] a field which integrates both biology and geology to solve the riddles of the history of life. Douglas H. Erwin. 1995. Quo Vadis Paleontology? The PaleoNet Forum: An Irregular Electronic Journal 1(2). Paleontology is among the broadest of all human pursuits, literally essential for an adequate understanding of the history (and future) of the Earth's climate, as well as its biodiversity, ocean circulation, and geochemical cycles.

Fossils are key tools for the dating of rocks and the location of hydrocarbons, and for reconstructing past positions of continents and oceans (and thus for an understanding of the tectonic and seismic history of the Earth). continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States It is now widely recognized by Earth scientists that life is one of the most important geological forces on this planet. From erosion to carbon and oxygen in the atmosphere, organisms have been profoundly affecting geological processes for several billion years. We know this in large part because of paleontology. Warren Almon. 1999. Everything is Paleontology . Paleontological Research Institute. Paleontology is the science that deals with the fossils of animals and plants through their fossilized remains. It is the study of what fossils tell us about the ecologies of the past, about evolution, and about our place, as humans, in the world. Paleontology incorporates knowledge from biology, geology, ecology, anthropology, archaeology, and even computer science to understand the processes that have led to the origination and eventual destruction of the different types of organisms since life arose. Omics online: Paleontology definition.

2nd International Conference on Geology, Aril 21-22, 2016. Dubai. Paleontology aims at a reconstruction of the history of life on Earth. Hubert G. Schrenck. 1928. The Biostratigraphic Aspect of Micropaleontology . Journal of Paleontology 2(2):158-165. Paleontology is concerned with fossils, the remains of organisms that lived in the past. The fossil record is diverse and discontinuous--a record that was not fully understood until the theory of evolution was formulated. It is a remarkable record in spite of its imperfections. The list of fossils includes animals that range in size and organic complexity from the shells of microscopic protozoans to the frozen bodies of elephants. Paleontology includes tests of microscopic plant-like organisms (diatoma) and trunks of forest trees. Even bacteria have been preserved and, in rare instances, the impressions of soft-bodied forms such as jellyfish. Harry S. Ladd. 1959. Ecology, Paleontology, and Stratigraphy. Science 129(3341):69-78.

The extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil record persist as the trade secret of paleontology. The evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of fossils... We fancy ourselves as the only true students of life's history, yet to preserve our favored account of evolution by natural selection we view our data as so bad that we never see the very process we profess to study. Stephen Jay Gould. 1977. Evolution's erratic pace. Natural History 86:14. - Shamelessly borrowed by Kris Hirst from the Quote Mine at Talk Origins Paleontology is the study of a unique data set and associated evidence. The unique data set is the preserved, incomplete remains of organisms, the geological age of which can be established within certain limits and which have had a particular preservational history, of which a partial record is preserved in the rock matrix in which the fossil was found. Kenneth Stewart Thomson. 1985. Marginalia: Is paleontology going extinct? American Scientist 73(6):570-572.

Paleontology provides the means of inferring historical events which can be employed in the testing of evolutionary theories. To accomplish this requires that immensely complicated inferences be performed in which the danger of presupposing the theory to be tested must constantly be guarded against. With the greater use of auxiliary assumptions from geology and with improvements in their own craft, paleontologists will increasingly attempt to draw theoretically significant information from the fossil record. David B. Kitts. 1974. Paleontology and Evolutionary Theory . Evolution 28(3):458-472. More Definitions Some paleontologists who study hominids such as Australopithecus and Homo erectus before they picked up a rock and began using it to butcher other animals with it, call themselves archaeologists. Since the line between human and hominid is to some extent fluid, and the study is pretty interesting, who am I to quibble?— Kris Hirst What is Paleontology? - Definition, History & Facts | Study.com What is Paleontology?

- Definition, History & Facts Watch short & fun videos Start Your Free Trial Today Instructor: Elizabeth (Nikki) Wyman Nikki has a master's degree in teaching chemistry and has taught high school chemistry, biology and astronomy. Add to Add to Add to Want to watch this again later? Log in or sign up to add this lesson to a Custom Course. Custom Courses are courses that you create from Study.com lessons. Use them just like other courses to track progress, access quizzes and exams, and share content. Teachers Organize and share selected lessons with your class. Make planning easier by creating your own custom course. Students Create a new course from any lesson page or your dashboard. From any lesson page: Click "Add to" located below the video player and follow the prompts to name your course and save your lesson. From your dashboard: Click on the "Custom Courses" tab, then click "Create course". Next, go to any lesson page and begin adding lessons. Edit your Custom Course directly from your dashboard. Personalize: Name your Custom Course and add an optional description or learning objective. Organize: Create chapters to group lesson within your course. Remove and reorder chapters and lessons at any time. Share your Custom Course or assign lessons and chapters.

Teacher Edition: Share or assign lessons and chapters by clicking the "Teacher" tab on the lesson or chapter page you want to assign. Students' quiz scores and video views will be trackable in your "Teacher" tab. Premium Edition: You can share your Custom Course by copying and pasting the course URL. Only Study.com members will be able to access the entire course. Like this lesson Share For most of human history, paleontology was like the fossil evidence it is based on--undiscovered. Once unearthed, the science of paleontology grew rapidly, evolving in unpredictable ways. Learn the definition of paleontology and the history of this rock solid science, then test your new knowledge with a quiz. What is Paleontology? Everything we know about dinosaurs and other dinosaur-like creatures comes from the work done in paleontology. If you have every enjoyed a movie featuring a scary Tyrannosaurus Rex, played with miniature versions of Stegosaurus or seen a fossilized Triceratops in a museum, then you have the science of paleontology to thank. Paleontology is the study of dinosaurs. It is based on fossil evidence, or the mineralized and preserved remains of dinosaurs. Paleontologists are the people who work in paleontology.

They study a variety of fossils, including dinosaur bones, foot prints, teeth, eggs, nests and even dung. By studying all of this evidence, paleontologists can learn all about dinosaur lives, from the food they ate to the ways they tended their young. Paleontologists study any fossilized dinosaur remains, including this nest of dinosaur eggs. A Brief History of Paleontology Though dinosaurs themselves lived 220 to 65 million years ago, humans have only been absolutely certain about their existence for less than 200 years. Ancient people speculated about the existence of creatures like dinosaurs. Greek and Roman philosophers thought that fossils were remnants of ancient life forms that had been preserved by the earth. People in China thought that fossilized dinosaur bones were the bones of dragons and used them for medicinal purposes. In the Dark Ages of Europe, however, many of the enlightened thoughts of the Greeks and Romans were lost, especially those about fossils. From about the 6th to the 15th century, Europeans thought that fossils were the Devil's work, or that fossils were the remains of creatures that died during the Great Flood.

Birth of Modern Paleontology Beginning in the Renaissance, scientists began to study fossils and develop theories about where fossils came from and how they were made. Biologists, geologists and even chemists contributed observations to the development of these theories. Charles Lyell noticed that fossils changed gradually over time, an idea supported by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Georges Cuvier, often noted to be the father of paleontology, observed the correlation between the age of fossils and the layers of rock they were found in; the older the fossil, the farther down it was buried. At the same time these theories were being made, the first paleontologists were studying dinosaur bones and assembling some of the first fossilized skeletons. In 1824, William Buckland published the first description of a dinosaur, the Megalosaur. Even at this time, the concept of a dinosaur was nonexistent. Early conception of Megalosaur. After Buckland's paper, the study of dinosaurs became very popular. In 1841 Richard Owen created the concept of dinosaurs, announcing these extinct creatures belong to a prehistoric group called Dinosauria, meaning 'terrible lizards'.

This group was made of three genera of dinosaurs: Megalosaurus, Iguanodons, and Hylaeosaurus. In the years that followed, more dinosaurs would be unearthed and studied, and Dinosauria would expand to contain more than 130 genera of dinosaurs. Belgian paleontologists assemble an Iguanodon skeleton. Dinosaurs and Birds In the late 1800s, Herman von Meyer discovered the winged, chicken-like Archaeopteryx. The strange likeness of this dinosaur to birds got scientists thinking that perhaps there was a connection between modern birds and extinct dinosaurs. Research done in the mid and late 1900s by John H. Ostrom firmly established the connection between modern birds and dinosaurs. It is now widely accepted that birds are the descendants of certain dinosaurs. Fossilized archaeopteryx found in Germany. Paleontology Today Today paleontologists estimate that over 1,500 species of dinosaurs once walked the earth. Modern technology allows paleontologists to chemically analyze contents of fossilized eggs and dung or explore un-excavated areas for dinosaur bones without ever having to pick up a shovel.

Paleontologists can learn about dinosaur lifestyles by studying footprints and nests and compare thoughts with paleontologists on the other side of the world. A paleontologist working at an excavation site. × palaeontology | Definition, meaning & more | Collins Dictionary C19: from palaeo- + onto- + -logy palaeontology for learners of EnglishPowered by COBUILD (pæliɒntɒlədʒi , US peɪl- ) also paleontology Definitions uncountable noun Palaeontology is the study of fossils as a guide to the history of life on Earth . palaeontologist Word forms: palaeontologists countable noun ⇒ ...just as a palaeontologist can reconstruct a dinosaur from one of its toes. COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary. Copyright © Harper Collins Publishers Paleontological Research Institution I Want To Be A Paleontologist! Advice for Students and Parents There is no luckier person than the person who can make their passion their career. Most professional paleontologists are just such lucky people. They are people consumed with a passion to understand the history of life on earth. Paleontology is fun, thrilling, and fascinating, but it is also hard work.

It is not "easier" than the more traditional "core" science disciplines of physics, chemistry, biology, or geology. In many ways, paleontology is more difficult than any other science -- because to be a good paleontologist you must know a great deal about all of these fields. Paleontology is among the broadest of sciences. What is paleontology? Paleontology is more than just dinosaurs! Paleontology is the study of the history of life on Earth as reflected in the fossil record. Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and other single-celled living things) that lived in the geological past and are preserved in the crust of the Earth.

There are many subdivisions of the field of paleontology including vertebrate paleontology (the study of fossils of animals with backbones), invertebrate paleontology (the study of fossils of animals without backbones), micropaleontology (the study of fossils of single-celled organisms), paleobotany (the study of plant fossils), taphonomy (the study of how fossils form and are preserved), biostratigraphy (the study of the vertical distribution of fossils in rocks), and paleoecology (the study of ancient ecosystems and how they developed). Paleontologists frequently are involved in studies of evolutionary biology. What background do I need in high school? The best starting point is a college preparatory program with as many science and math courses as possible. Outside reading in paleontology and visiting museums with fossil displays is helpful for building up knowledge of fossils themselves. No matter how interested or knowledgeable a student is in paleontology, however, good overall grades in high school are almost always required for admission to a good college or university, which is a necessary prerequisite for a career in paleontology. What background do I need in college? A strong background in the sciences is absolutely essential along with a strong concentration in both biology and geology.

An undergraduate institution should be chosen on the basis of its quality of general science education and especially the quality of its biology and geology programs. At this stage the student often has to make a difficult decision about whether to major in biology or geology. The ideal arrangement is a double-major, with full undergraduate training in both biology and geology. If this is not possible, the best solution is to major in one and take substantial course work in the other. Liberal arts courses should not be ignored. A good reading knowledge of a modern language (especially German, French or Russian) should be obtained as an undergraduate. Don't wait until graduate school! At least a full year of chemistry, physics, and mathematics through calculus, are required by most graduate programs and should be taken as early as possible as an undergraduate. The courses that are most pertinent to paleontology include the following: mineralogy, stratigraphy/sedimentation, sedimentary petrology, invertebrate paleontology, ecology, invertebrate and vertebrate zoology, evolutionary biology, genetics. Ability in statistical analysis and solid computer skills are absolutely required in modern paleontology and should not be left for graduate school. The more courses and experience in these areas at the undergraduate level, the better.

What other experience can I get? Although strong academic course work is the most important element of paleontological training, students interested in paleontology can also benefit from obtaining first-hand experience in the field itself. Access to such experiences depend greatly on where you live. Before college, you can often seek out a paleontologist at a nearby museum, college, or university. These people will usually be able to suggest places to collect fossils, and may have volunteer opportunities in their institutions. Local gem and mineral or fossil clubs are often excellent avenues for learning where and how to collect fossils in the local area, and for meeting other people interested in and knowledgeable about fossils. During the undergraduate years, opportunities for outside experiences often increase. If there is a paleontologist at the college or university, you may be able to pursue independent research. If not, you may be able to find volunteer opportunities at nearby museums. It is very important during the undergraduate years to talk directly with a professional paleontologist who can answer your questions about not just the science but how the field works and how you can enter it. Where should I go to graduate school? A doctoral degree or PhD is almost always necessary for any serious professional career in paleontology.

Many universities offer graduate training in paleontology, at both the Masters and PhD levels. Depending on your specific paleontological interests, specific requirements of individual schools, or personal considerations, you may wish to pursue a MS degree before a PhD or enter a PhD program directly. If you have not had much first-hand experience with research in college (such as writing a senior thesis), a master's degree first may be a good idea. More schools offer master's degrees than PhDs. After obtaining a MS degree, you may be able to remain at the same institution for your PhD or move on to another institution. Different universities have different strengths in different areas of paleontology, usually depending on the interests of individual professors. You can find out what professors are interesting to you by reading their published papers in professional journals such as Journal of Paleontology, Paleobiology, American Paleontologist, Palaios and Geology. At least some of these journals are available in most college libraries. You should make an effort to contact professors whose work interests you directly, by letter, email or phone, and arrange to visit their departments. This not only helps you learn more about their graduate programs, but may impress them with the seriousness of your interest.

A MS in paleontology usually takes 2-3 years to complete. A PhD usually takes 4-6 years (if you already have received a MS) or 6-8 years (if you do not already have a MS). Where can I get a job? Most professional paleontologists in the United States today are college and university professors. Most work in departments of geology, where they usually teach general geology courses in addition to paleontology. Smaller numbers of professional paleontologists work in museums. These paleontologists generally carry out their own research and teach and consult on exhibits only occasionally. A much smaller number of paleontologists work for government surveys, usually in geological mapping or other applied geological problem solving. Until relatively recently, a large number of paleontologists worked for major oil companies, helping to search for petroleum. These companies still employ some paleontologists, but a much smaller number than before. Overall, there are probably fewer jobs in paleontology in the U.S. than there were a few years ago, but a few good jobs still become available each year.

Sources of More Information Paleontological Research Institution The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology PO Box 809183 Palaeontology - Geoscience Australia Palaeontology Spectral Geology Palaeontology Palaeontology is the study of fossils and what they reveal about the history of our planet. In marine environments microfossils collected within in layers of sediment cores provide a rich source of information about the environmental history of an area. X-ray and photograph of a sediment core. Note the layers of sediment revealed by the X-ray. View of microfossils from View of microfossils from Antarctica down a microscope. Microfossils are fossils that generally are smaller than 4mm in length. There are a range of microfossils in marine sediments, including: Calcareous microfossils e.g. foraminifera, ostracods, coccoliths, pteropods Siliceous microfossils e.g. diatoms, radiolaria, spicules Organic microfossils e.g. pollen, spores, dinoflagellate cysts Spore Diatoms from near Kergeulen Island.

Reproduced with permission from in sediment core from shallow to deep water environment. Different organisms and species have specific distributions that are related to environmental factors such as: water depth food sources and current strength. Mapping the occurrence and abundance of microfossil species down sediment cores collected from the ocean reveals changes in environmental conditions through time when combined with knowledge of how animals are related to the different environmental factors. Planktonic foraminifera can be considered to be the thermometers of the oceans. Living in the near-surface layers of the ocean, these tiny calcareous animals are very particular about the temperatures they will tolerate (see image). The association of different species of foraminifera with specific temperature ranges makes these organisms a very powerful tool for palaeoclimate reconstructions. Many species of planktonic foraminifera occur in waters with a narrow temperature range which makes them very useful for tracking past changes in water temperature. Calcareous organisms, such as planktonic and benthic foraminifera, are incredibly useful sources of chemical information. Analysis of the carbonate chemistry of the foraminiferal test (or shell) reveals changes in the isotopic composition of the sea water at the time the organism was growing.

The carbon isotope ratio is linked to changes in biological productivity and therefore nutrient concentration. The oxygen isotope ratio tells us about past changes in temperature and global sea-level. Knowledge about the timing of the appearance and disappearance of certain microfossils can also be used in conjunction with their distribution and abundance in cores to assign ages to the different sediments. Microfossils which are known to have occurred over a relatively short time span and are widespread, such as ammonites, are particularly useful as stratigraphic markers. The carbonate chemistry of calcareous organisms can be useful also for aging sediment through radiometric dating. By comparing the 14C isotopes of the sample to the known natural decay rate of 14C in the atmosphere, an age for the organism, and hence the sediment layer in which it was deposited can be obtained for up to 60 000 years before present. Geoscience Australia is using palaeontology to characterise and understand modern seabed environments. It is also used to develop an understanding of past environmental changes as context for predicting future changes to the ocean environment.

Recent areas of research include: the history of Antarctic ice sheets and shelf communities (see also Antarctica ) analysis of a sediment core collected beneath the Amery Ice Shelf a hundred kilometres from open water provided the first glimpse of this seabed environment and its biological community. Patterns in the diversity and ecology of biology communities (see also Surrogacy ) investigation of the distribution of species of benthic foraminifera in surface sediments from Torres Strait revealed the range of seabed environments in the area which act to structure these benthic communities. Analysis of the composition of surface sediments in Torres Strait provided important baseline information on sediment sources which helped to develop a better understanding of the factors influencing seagrass dieback. Related Information paleontology - National Geographic Society paleontology Photograph by Robert Sisson Mary Anning The 19th-century British fossil collector Mary Anning proved you don't have to be a paleontologist to contribute to science. Anning was the first person to collect, display, and correctly identify the fossils of dinosaurs such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and pterosaurs.

Her contributions to the understanding of Jurassic life were so impressive that in 2010, Anning was named among the ten British women who have most influenced the history of science. Fossils and Myths Ancient cultures did not always understand what fossils were, and adapted their discovery to fit with myths and stories. China is rich in dinosaur fossils. Dinosaurs are ancient reptiles whose bones share characteristics with both reptiles and birds. Ancient Chinese people often interpreted dinosaur skeletons as the remains of flying dragons! Fossilized remains of dwarf elephants have been found on several Mediterranean islands. Dwarf elephants grew to only 2 meters (6 feet) tall. Their skulls are about the same size as a human skull, with a large hole in the middle where the living animal's trunk is. In the ancient Mediterranean cultures of Greece and Rome, the remains of dwarf elephants were often interpreted as the remains of cyclopes, a type of feared, one-eyed giant. Soaking Up History The oldest fossils ever discovered are stromatolites, the remains of ancient cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae. The oldest animal fossils ever discovered are sponges. Prehistoric sponges have been discovered on the Arabian Peninsula and Australia.

Evolutionary Biology Many paleontologists are also evolutionary biologists. Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin, development, and changes (evolution) in species over time. Other scientists that contribute to evolutionary biology are geologists and geneticists. Paleontology is the study of the history of life on Earth as based on fossil s. Fossils are the remains of plant s, animal s, fungi , bacteria , and single-celled living things that have been replaced by rock material or impressions of organisms preserved in rock. Paleontologist s use fossil remains to understand different aspect s of extinct and living organisms. Individual fossils may contain information about an organism’s life and environment. Much like the rings of a tree, for example, each ring on the surface of an oyster shell denotes one year of its life. Studying oyster fossils can help paleontologists discover how long the oyster lived, and in what conditions. If the climate was favorable for the oyster, the oyster probably grew more quickly and the rings would be thicker. If the oyster struggled for survival, the rings would be thinner.

Thinner rings would indicate an environment not favorable to organisms like the oyster—too warm or too cold, for example, or lacking nutrient s necessary for them to grow. Some fossils show how an organism lived. Amber , for instance, is hardened, fossilized tree resin . As the sticky resin dripped down a tree trunk, it trapped air bubbles, as well as small insects and some organisms as large as frogs and lizards. Paleontologists study amber, called “fossil resin,” to observe these complete specimen s. Amber can preserve tissue as delicate as dragonfly wings. Some ants were trapped in amber while eating leaves, allowing scientists to know exactly what they ate, and how they ate it. Even the air bubbles trapped in amber are valuable to paleontologists. By analyzing the chemistry of the air, scientists can tell if there was a volcanic eruption or other atmospheric changes nearby. The behavior of organisms can also be deduce d from fossil evidence. Paleontologists suggest that hadrosaur s, duck-billed dinosaurs, lived in large herd s, for instance. They made this hypothesis after observing evidence of social behavior, including a single site with approximately 10,000 skeletons.

Fossils can also provide evidence of the evolutionary history of organisms. Paleontologists infer that whales evolve d from land-dwelling animals, for instance. Fossils of extinct animals closely related to whales have front limbs like paddles, similar to front legs. They even have tiny back limbs. Although the front limbs of these fossil animals are in some ways similar to legs, in other ways they also show strong similarities to the fins of modern whales. Subdisciplines of Paleontology The field of paleontology has many subdiscipline s. A subdiscipline is a specialized field of study within a broader subject or discipline. In the case of paleontology, subdisciplines can focus on a specific fossil type or a specific aspect of the Earth, such as its climate. Vertebrate Paleontology One important subdiscipline is vertebrate paleontology , the study of fossils of animals with backbones. Vertebrate paleontologists have discovered and reconstructed the skeleton s of dinosaurs, turtles, cats, and many other animals to show how they lived and their evolutionary history.

Using fossil evidence, vertebrate paleontologists deduced that pterosaur s, a group of flying reptiles, could fly by flapping their wings, as opposed to just gliding. Reconstructed skeletons of pterosaurs have hollow and light bones like modern birds. One type of pterosaur, Quetzalcoatlus , is considered one of the largest flying creatures in history. It had a wingspan of 11 meters (36 feet). Paleontologists have competing theories about if and how Quetzalcoatlus flew. Some paleontologists argue it was too heavy to fly at all. Others maintain it could distribute its weight well enough to soar slowly. Still other scientists say Quetzalcoatlus was muscular enough to fly quickly over short distances. These theories demonstrate how vertebrate paleontologists can interpret fossil evidence differently. Invertebrate Paleontology Invertebrate paleontologists examine the fossils of animals without backbones— mollusk s, coral s, arthropod s such as crabs and shrimp, echinoderm s such as sand dollars and sea stars, sponge s, and worms.

Unlike vertebrates, invertebrates do not have bones—they do leave behind evidence of their existence in the form of fossilized shells and exoskeleton s, impressions of their soft body parts, and tracks from their movement along the ground or ocean floor. Invertebrate fossils are especially important to the study and reconstruction of prehistoric aquatic environments. For example, large communities of 200-million-year-old invertebrate marine fossils found in the desert s of the U.S. state of Nevada tell us that certain areas of the state were covered by water during that period of time. Paleobotany Paleobotanists study the fossils of ancient plants. These fossils can be impressions of plants left on rock surfaces, or they can be parts of the plants themselves, such as leaves and seeds, that have been preserved by rock material. These fossils help us understand the evolution and diversity of plants, in addition to being a key part of the reconstruction of ancient environments and climates, subdisciplines known as paleoecology (the study of ancient environments) and paleoclimatology (the study of ancient climates).

At a small site in the Patagonia region of Argentina, paleobotanists discovered the fossils of more than 100 plant species that date back about 52 million years. Prior to this discovery, many scientists said South America’s biological diversity is a result of glacier s breaking up the continent into isolate d ecosystem "islands" 2 million years ago. The Patagonia leaf fossils disprove this theory. Paleobotanists now have evidence that the continent’s diversity of plant species was present 50 million years before the end of the last ice age . Some plant fossils are found in hard lumps called coal ball s. Coal , a fossil fuel , is formed from the remains of decompose d plants. Coal balls are also formed from the plant remains of forests and swamps, but these materials did not turn into coal. They slowly petrified, or were replaced by rock. Coal balls, found in or near coal deposits, preserve evidence of the different plants that formed the coal, making them important for studying ancient environments, and for understanding a major energy source. Micropaleontology Micropaleontology is the study of fossils of microscopic organisms, such as protist s, algae , tiny crustacean s, and pollen .

Micropaleontologists use powerful electron microscope s to study microfossil s that are generally smaller than four millimeters (0.16 inches). Microfossil species tend to be short-lived and abundant where they are found, which makes them helpful for identifying rock layers that are the same age, a process known as biostratigraphy . The chemical make-up of some microfossils can be used to learn about the environment when the organism was alive, making them important for paleoclimatology. Micropaleontologists study shells from deep-sea microorganism s in order to understand how Earth’s climate has changed. Shells accumulate on the ocean floor after the organisms die. Because the organisms draw the element s for their shells from the ocean water around them, the composition of the shells reflects the current composition of the ocean. By chemically analyzing the shells, paleontologists can determine the amount of oxygen, carbon, and other life-sustaining nutrients in the ocean when the shells developed. They can then compare shells from one period of time to another, or from one geographic area to another. Differences in the chemical composition of the ocean can be good indicator s of differences in climate.

Micropaleontologists often study the oldest fossils on Earth. The oldest fossils are of cyanobacteria , sometimes called blue-green algae or pond scum. Cyanobacteria grew in shallow oceans when the Earth was still cooling, billions of years ago. Fossils formed by cyanobacteria are called stromatolite s. The oldest fossils on Earth are stromatolites discovered in western Australia that are 3.5 billion years old. History of Paleontology Throughout human history, fossils have been used, studied, and understood in different ways. Early civilization s used fossils for decorative or religious purposes, but did not always understand where they came from. Although some ancient Greek and Roman scientists recognized that fossils were the remains of life forms, many early scholar s believed fossils were evidence of myth ological creatures such as dragons. From the Middle Ages until the early 1700s, fossils were widely regarded as works of the devil or of a higher power. Many people believed the remains had special curative or destructive powers. Many scholars also believed that fossils were remains left by Noah's flood and other biblical disasters. Some ancient scientists did understand what fossils were, and were able to formulate complex hypotheses based on fossil evidence.

Greek biologist Xenophanes discovered seashells on land, and deduced that the land was once a seafloor. Remarkably, Chinese scientist Shen Kuo was able to use fossilized bamboo to form a theory of climate change . The formal science of paleontology—fossil collection and description—began in the 1700s, a period of time known as the Age of Enlightenment . Scientists began to describe and map rock formations and classify fossils. Geologist s discovered that rock layers were the product of long periods of sediment buildup, rather than the result of single events or catastrophe s. In the early 1800s, Georges Cuvier and William Smith , considered the pioneers of paleontology, found that rock layers in different areas could be compared and matched on the basis of their fossils. Later that century, the works of Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin strongly influenced how society understood the history of Earth and its organisms. Lyell’s Principles of Geology stated that the fossils in one rock layer were similar, but fossils in other rock layers were different. This sequence could be used to show relationships between similar rock layers separated by great distances.

Fossils discovered in South America may have more in common with fossils from Africa than fossils from different rock layers nearby. Darwin’s On The Origin of Species observed somewhat similar sequencing in the living world. Darwin suggested that new species evolve over time. New fossil discoveries supported Darwin’s theory that creatures living in the distant past were different from, yet sometimes interconnected with, those living today. This theory allowed paleontologists to study living organisms for clues to understanding fossil evidence. The Archaeopteryx , for example, had wings like a bird, but had other features (such as teeth) typical of a type of dinosaur called a theropod . Now regarded as a very early bird, Archaeopteryx retains more similarities to theropods than does any modern bird. Studying the physical features of Archaeopteryx is an example of how paleontologists and other scientists establish a sequence, or ordering, of when one species evolved relative to another. The dating of rock layers and fossils was revolutionize d after the discovery of radioactivity in the late 1800s. Using a process known as radiometric dating , scientists can determine the age of a rock layer by examining how certain atom s in the rock have changed since the rock formed.

As atoms change, they emit different levels of radioactivity. Changes in radioactivity are standard and can be accurately measured in units of time. By measuring radioactive material in an ancient sample and comparing it to a current sample, scientists can calculate how much time has passed. Radiometric dating allows ages to be assigned to rock layers, which can then be used to determine the ages of fossils. Paleontologists used radiometric dating to study the fossilized eggshells of Genyornis , an extinct bird from Australia. They discovered that Genyornis became extinct between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago. Fossil evidence from plants and other organisms in the region shows that there was abundant food for the large, flightless bird at the time of its extinction. Climate changes were too slow to explain the relatively quick extinction. By studying human fossils and ancient Australian cave paintings that were dated to the same time period, paleontologists hypothesized that human beings—the earliest people to inhabit Australia—may have contributed to the extinction of Genyornis. Paleontology Today Modern paleontologists have a variety of tools that help them discover, examine, and describe fossils.

Electron microscopes allow paleontologists to study the tiniest details of the smallest fossils. X-ray machines and CT scanner s reveal fossils' internal structures. Advanced computer programs can analyze fossil data , reconstruct skeletons, and visualize the bodies and movements of extinct organisms. Paleontologists and biologists used a CT scan to study the preserved body of a baby mammoth discovered in Siberia in 2007. A CT scanner rotates 360 degrees, allowing scientists to construct 3-D representations of the bones and tissue of the organism. Using this technology, scientists were able to see that the baby mammoth had healthy teeth, bones, and muscle tissue. However, the animal’s lung s and trunk were full of mud and debris . This suggested to scientists that the animal was healthy, but most likely suffocate d in a muddy river or lake. Scientists can even extract genetic material from bones and tissues. Paleontologists made a remarkable genetic discovery when the bones of a Tyrannosaurus rex were broken during an excavation in the 1990s. Soft tissue was discovered inside the bones. Soft tissue is the actual connective tissue of an organism, such as muscles, fat, and blood. Soft tissue is rarely preserved during fossilization.

Paleontologists usually must rely on fossilized remains—rocks. Paleontologists now hope to use this rare discovery of 68-million-year-old tissue to study the biology and possibly even the DNA of the T. rex . Even with all these advancements, paleontologists still make important discoveries by using simple tools and basic techniques in the field. The National Geographic Society supports field work in paleontology throughout the world. Emerging Explorer Zeresenay "Zeray" Alemseged conducts studies in northern Ethiopia. There, Alemseged and his colleague s unearth and study fossils that contribute to the understanding of human evolution. Emerging Explorer Bolortsetseg Minjin is a paleontologist who has found fossils of dinosaurs, ancient mammals, and even corals in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. She also works to teach Mongolian students about the dinosaurs in their own backyard, and is hoping to establish a paleontology museum in the country. Many dig sites offer visitors the chance to watch paleontologists work in the field, including the Gray Fossil Site in Gray, Tennessee; the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California; and the Ashfall Fossil Beds in Royal, Nebraska.

Term Age of Enlightenment Noun (1700s) period in European history where science and reason were promoted as ideals of good citizens and society. algae (singular: alga) diverse group of aquatic organisms, the largest of which are seaweeds. amber Noun translucent, yellow-orange material made of the resin of ancient trees. Amber is sometimes considered a gemstone. animal Noun organisms that have a well-defined shape and limited growth, can move voluntarily, acquire food and digest it internally, and can respond rapidly to stimuli. appendage Noun part of something that extends out from the main body, such as an arm or leg. aquatic having to do with water. Archaeopteryx extinct reptilian bird that lived about 150 million years ago. arthropod invertebrate animal with a segmented body, exoskeleton, and jointed appendages. aspect atmospheric changes Noun alterations in the layer of air surrounding the Earth, such as an increase of pollution or humidity. atom the basic unit of an element, composed of three major parts: electrons, protons, and neutrons. bacteria (singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found in every ecosystem on Earth.

biblical having to do with the Bible, the holy book of Christianity. biologist scientist who studies living organisms. biostratigraphy study of the dating of rock layers. catastrophe disaster or sudden, violent change. cell smallest working part of a living organism. Charles Darwin study of the atoms and molecules that make up different substances. civilization to identify or arrange by specific type or characteristic. climate dark, solid fossil fuel mined from the earth. coal ball spherical structure of fossilized plant matter found in and around coal deposits. colleague material that surrounds or links different organs or other parts of an organism. continent tiny ocean animal, some of which secrete calcium carbonate to form reefs. crust crustacean Noun type of animal (an arthropod) with a hard shell and segmented body that usually lives in the water. CT scanner Noun (computerized tomography scanner) device combining X-ray and computerized equipment to provide cross-sectional images of internal body structures. Also called a CAT scanner. curative able to cure or treat a disease or illness. cyanobacteria Noun type of aquatic bacteria that can photosynthesize light to create energy.

Also called blue-green algae (even though it is not algae) and (in freshwater habitats) pond scum. data (singular: datum) information collected during a scientific study. debris remains of something broken or destroyed; waste, or garbage. decompose to decay or break down. deduce to reach a conclusion based on clues or evidence. desert Noun dig site Noun place where paleontologists, archaeologists, or other scientists are digging into the Earth to find artifacts or fossils. Also called an excavation. disprove (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule in every living organism that contains specific genetic information on that organism. echinoderm phylum of marine invertebrate including sea stars and sea urchins. ecosystem powerful device that uses electrons, not light, to magnify an image. element chemical that cannot be separated into simpler substances. Emerging Explorer Noun an adventurer, scientist, innovator, or storyteller recognized by National Geographic for their visionary work while still early in their careers. emit to give off or send out. environment conditions that surround and influence an organism or community. establish to form or officially organize. evolution change in heritable traits of a population over time.

evolve to develop new characteristics based on adaptation and natural selection. excavation area that has been dug up or exposed for study. exoskeleton the hard external shell or covering of some animals. extinct large, flat limb used by marine mammals for swimming. forest ecosystem filled with trees and underbrush. formulate fossil fuel Noun coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals. fungi Plural Noun (singular: fungus) organisms that survive by decomposing and absorbing nutrients in organic material such as soil or dead organisms. genetic having to do with genes, inherited characteristics or heredity. Genyornis extinct large, flightless bird indigenous to Australia. geologist person who studies the physical formations of the Earth. Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) French paleontologist and biologist. glacier large desert in China and Mongolia. hadrosaur hypothesis Noun statement or suggestion that explains certain questions about certain facts. A hypothesis is tested to determine if it is accurate. ice age Noun long period of cold climate where glaciers cover large parts of the Earth. The last ice age peaked about 20,000 years ago.

Also called glacial age. indicator study of the fossils of animals without spines, such as corals, sponges, and insects. isolate to set one thing or organism apart from others. lung organ in an animal that is necessary for breathing. mammal Noun animal with hair that gives birth to live offspring. Female mammals produce milk to feed their offspring. mammoth Noun one of many extinct species of large animals related to elephants, with long, curved tusks. The last mammoths became extinct about 5,000 years ago. marine having to do with the ocean. microfossil Noun fossil that can only be seen and analyzed with a microscope, such as a grain of pollen or a single bacterium. microorganism study of fossils of microorganisms. Middle Ages (500-1500) period in European history between the Roman Empire and the Renaissance. mold type of fungi that forms on the surface of materials. mollusk (1888) organization whose mission is "Inspiring people to care about the planet." nest protected area built by birds to hatch their eggs and raise their young.

Noah's flood story in the Bible, a catastrophe that eliminated almost all life on Earth. nutrient type of marine animal (mollusk). paleobotany study of the fossils of ancient plants. paleoclimatology study of the atmosphere of prehistoric Earth. paleoecology study of prehistoric environments and habitats. paleontologist person who studies fossils and life from early geologic periods. paleontology large plateau in southern South America, stretching from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. petrify person who is among the first to do something. plant organism that produces its own food through photosynthesis and whose cells have walls. pollen Noun powdery material produced by plants, each grain of which contains a male gamete capable of fertilizing a female ovule. prehistoric period of time that occurred before the invention of written records. prior extinct order of flying reptiles that flourished from 220 million-65 million years ago. Quetzalcoatlus flying reptile that lived about 70 million years ago, native to North America. radioactive having unstable atomic nuclei and emitting subatomic particles and radiation.

radiometric dating Noun method of dating material such as rocks that compares the amount of a naturally occuring isotope of an atom and its decay rates. Also called radioactive dating. resin clear, sticky substance produced by some plants. revolutionize to completely change a process or way of doing something. root Noun part of a plant that secures it in the soil, obtains water and nutrients, and often stores food made by leaves. scholar surface layer of the bottom of the ocean. sediment (1031-1095) Chinese scientist, politician, and poet. Siberia region of land stretching across Russia from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. skeleton connective tissue of an organism, such as blood, muscle, and skin. specimen individual organism that is a typical example of its classification. sponge simple type of marine animal permanently attached to something in the water. stromatolite fossil of ancient cyanobacteria that forms a rounded or column-like structure. subdiscipline field of study within a larger area of research. suffocate to be unable to breathe. sustain technology Noun the science of using tools and complex machines to make human life easier or more profitable.

theropod type of dinosaur that walked on two legs and was usually carnivorous. T. rex (Tyrannosaurus rex) large carnivorous or scavenger dinosaur. unearth organism with a backbone or spine. vertebrate paleontology study of the fossils of animals with spines, such as dinosaurs. volcanic eruption activity that includes a discharge of gas, ash, or lava from a volcano. William Smith the distance between the tips of a bird's wings when stretched out. worm animal with a long, limbless body. Xenophanes Dinosaurs for Kids | American Museum of Natural History American Museum of Natural History Paleontology What is Paleontology? Paleontology is the study of ancient life, from dinosaurs to prehistoric plants, mammals, fish, insects, fungi, and even microbes. Fossil evidence reveals how organisms changed over time and what our planet was like long ago.

Question: Palaeontology is the study of what?
Answer: Fossils