The Roman Arena - Archaeology Magazine Archive The Roman Arena by Shelby Brown How the Games Worked Many popular ideas about the Roman arena were formed in the nineteenth century from popular images and accounts. The influential artist Jean Léon Gérôme used genuine gladiatorial art and equipment from Pompeii as models for his paintings of ancient Rome and the arena, but he also invented freely in dramatizing his scenes. Movies from Quo Vadis to Gladiator have drawn on such works to depict a world of strangely armed gladiators, Christians nobly awaiting attack by lions, and "thumbs down" death-gestures by emperors and rabid crowds. Actual Roman images of the arena are quite different: crowds and emperors are rarely shown, we are not sure which direction the thumb actually pointed in the famous death gesture, and victims of attack by big cats were certainly neither dignified nor noble. The Romans glorified the bravery shown in the arena, but trivialized the events and degraded the participants. Mosaic pictures of executions and combats, graphically violent to our eyes, were displayed in the public rooms and even dining rooms in the homes of wealthy Romans. How can the viewer today possibly understand such images?

Until fairly recently, modern authors writing about the arena minimized its significance and represented the institutionalized violence as a sideline to Roman history. The tendency was also to view the events through our own eyes and to see them as pitiful or horrifying, although to most Romans empathy with victims of the arena was inconceivable. In the past few decades, however, scholars have started to analyze the complex motivations for deadly public entertainments and for contradictory views of gladiators as despised, yet beloved hero-slaves. Artist Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904) painted several scenes of the arena, including Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down) in 1872 and The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer in 1883. Images from the Art Renewal Center website, . Click on thumbnails for larger versions on that site. Protests by Romans against the games were rare (Seneca, Letters 7.2-5), and complaints (at least by non-Christians) tended to focus on the low aspect of the entertainment rather than on the cruelty of the events.

Far from being pitiful or horrifying, the image of an adult being thrown to the beasts was a reminder of an edifying entertainment. Roman scenes in different media show bloody attacks by lions and leopards against men propped up in the arms of animal-handlers, or tied to stakes in moveable carts. The image might have made a new, foreign slave wince as he cleaned the mosaic floor, and it might have caused him to think twice about running away. Nevertheless, it was clearly not intended to make those household slaves whose roles were well-established feel uncomfortably empathetic. Rather, it documented the brutal maintenance of social order and reinforced the solidarity of those who already belonged to that order. The Context of the Games The arena played a significant role in Roman public life from the third century B.C. into the fifth century A.D., but the origin of gladiatorial games is somewhat obscure. The earliest recorded Roman examples were hand-to-hand combats, probably involving captives, performed at funerary games at Rome. The first took place in in the Forum Boarium (the cattle market) in 264 B.C.

The two sons of Brutus Pera gave an exhibition of an unspecified number of gladiators in honor of their dead father (Valerius Maximus 2.4.7). The three sons of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus presented funeral games for three days in their father's honor in the Forum Romanum in 216 B.C., providing 22 pairs of gladiators (Livy 23.30.15). From these relatively modest beginnings the games grew and grew. The arena played a significant role in Roman public life from the third century B.C. into the fifth century A.D., but the direct origin of gladiatorial games is somewhat obscure. The Etruscans are credited (secondhand, by the Greek writer Athenaeus in the first century A.D., who was quoting an earlier, lost source) as the originators of the games, but Etruscan art does not depict any clear gladiatorial combat. Campanian tomb paintings from the area of Paestum do show combat by pairs of men in the fourth century B.C. The earliest recorded Roman examples were hand-to-hand combats, probably involving captives, performed at funerary games at Rome.

The first took place in the Forum Boarium (the cattle market) in 264 B.C. The two sons of Brutus Pera gave an exhibition of an unspecified number of gladiators in honor of their dead father (Valerius Maximus 2.4.7). The three sons of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus presented funeral games for three days in their father's honor in the Forum Romanum in 216 B.C., providing twenty-two pairs of gladiators (Livy 23.30.15). From these relatively modest beginnings the games grew and grew. Julius Caesar Titus Trajan By the late Republic the full political potential of gladiatorial and other shows was increasingly exploited. A show, munus, was paid for by a munerarius or editor to fulfill his civic and religious duties and illustrate his wealth and social or political status. Games were no longer produced just for funerals and memorials, but also for birthdays, dedications, inaugurations, victories, and other occasions. Munerarii expended vast sums on exhibitions pitting men and beasts against one another in various combinations.

In the mid-sixties B.C., Julius Caesar (the future dictator) made himself extremely popular by giving lavish public theatrical performances, banquets, parades, and a show including 320 gladiators (Plutarch, Caesar 5). On numerous occasions the senate passed decrees restricting who could give gladiatorial games and regulating both an editor's expenses and the numbers of gladiators he could exhibit. By the first century A.D., giving games was made a requirement of certain public offices, which helped guarantee the presentation of shows on a regular basis. Costs for games not organized by an emperor were limited, and gladiatorial schools came under Imperial control. These regulations kept munerarii from bankrupting themselves. More important, wealthy individuals were prevented from building up armies of gladiators or making themselves too popular by hosting extravagant shows. Gladiatorial and other games of the arena became state-sponsored events, presided over whenever possible by the emperor. The scope of some of the games was staggering; Titus's games in A.D. 80, at the inauguration of the Colosseum, and Trajan's in A.D.

108 went on literally for months and involved many thousands of animals and men (Dio Cassius 66.25, 68.15). The presentation of games and beast-fights spread throughout the empire. New cities included amphitheaters among their public buildings, while older cities added them or made do with existing structures or temporary wooden ones. Audiences represented all members of society, and artists and craftsmen created images of the arena suitable for all social classes. Mosaics, gemstones, ivories, and metal objects were intended for the wealthy, who sometimes also commissioned art to show events they had paid for or especially enjoyed. Mass-produced items such as vessels, lamps, and figurines of clay and bronze were aimed at a wider, poorer audience and served as souvenirs and mementos of executions, beast-fighting, and gladiatorial combats. Arenas and Other Facilities (Courtesy Mark Rose) The term arena, signifying the place of combat, is derived from arena or harena, the sand sprinkled on the fighting field to soak up blood and facilitate cleaning. Spectacula, from which our word "spectacle" comes, can signify the seats as well as the events viewed in an arena.

Although the amphitheater was developed as the special space for gladiatorial events, it was not the first or only site for them. Fora (public squares) and circuses (venues for chariot-racing) were used first. A theater and stadium could also served, in the absence of an amphitheater or circus, as a site for arena games, especially in Greece and the east. (The words "theater" and "stadium" in Greek and Latin could also signify "amphitheater.") In a pinch, any open space might do. The rectangular open area of a Republican forum was considered an especially suitable space for combats. According to Vitruvius, a Roman architect of the first century B.C., the Romans could not lay out their fora the way the Greeks did, since the practice of holding gladiatorial games there had been handed down from the Romans' ancestors (de Architectura 5.1). Vitruvius recommended forum proportions of 3:2 length to width (de Architectura 5.1.2).

To transform a forum into an arena, the giver of the games would construct wooden seats on the upper floors and balconies of the surrounding buildings and erect barriers at the entry points on ground level (Cicero, pro Sestio 124-26, Plutarch, Life of Gracchus 12.3). Thus, the viewers were raised above the fray and the exits for combatants were closed, as was later the case in amphitheaters. In the Roman Forum, many thousands of spectators were packed into the seats, which extended up the Capitoline Hill. Beast-hunts were often presented in circuses (or in stadia and hippodromes in the Greek world) until the seventh century A.D. Cages for wild animals were possibly added to the Circus Maximus in Rome in 174 B.C. (Livy 41.27.6). The seating area around the long, open field of a small circus or stadium was not necessarily larger than that around the open area of a forum.

A larger circus, however, could seat as many as 100,000 viewers (the Circus Maximus in Rome may have held as many as 250,000), making it impossible for spectators at one end to see anything clearly at the other. The central spine or barrier (spina) around which chariots raced also impeded lines of sight. In circuses, organizers spaced combatants and animal hunts throughout the field so that everyone would have something to watch. As amphitheaters became increasingly common in the first century B.C., fora went out of favor as places for holding games. The symmetrical shape of the permanent facility made it easier to see, and munerarii did not have to pay for the construction of seats. The word "amphitheater" (a theater on both sides) is first attested in the late first century B.C. by Vitruvius (de Architectura I.7.1).

The first amphitheater in Rome (in 52 B.C.) was Gaius Curio's wooden model, formed by rotating and joining two theaters built back-to-back so that they formed an oval (Pliny, Natural History 36.113-120). Statilius Taurus constructed a stone amphitheater in 29 B.C., destroyed in Nero's famous fire of A.D. 64 (Dio 51.23). The Colosseum, although famous as the symbol of gladiatorial combat in Rome, was not inaugurated by Titus until A.D. 80. It was unusually large, perhaps seating over 50,000 viewers. Some of the best-preserved amphitheaters survive today in France (Arles, Nimes), Italy (Pompeii, Rome) and Tunisia (El Djem). Arenas at Nimes, El Djem, and Arles (Courtesy Shelby Brown) The Arena: Shows in the Morning When a munerarius could afford it, he tantalized the crowd with shows exotic and large in scale as well as violent and bloody.

There were, of course, vast differences in the numbers and scale of entertainments offered at Rome or other large urban centers and those provided in smaller towns. While the games in small towns were relatively expensive productions, nothing could match the shows put on in Rome by an emperor. The populace was regularly treated to a variety of entertainments, and Romans became blasé. In the first century B.C., Cicero, who thought there was nothing especially appealing about watching a human being mangled by a more powerful animal, was not horrified by the idea, but bored of it. Even if it was supposed to be exciting, he said, there was nothing new in it (Letters to Friends 7.1.3). The mainstay of the games was violent combat between various combinations of animals and people. Animals included the mundane and tame as well as the exotic and ferocious. The majority of human participants were male, although women were sometimes punished in the arena or even (rarely) served as gladiators. Events may be crudely subdivided into three categories. First, in venatio (plural venationes), trained hunters (venatores) killed dangerous animals with spears in a display reminiscent of the animal hunts of Roman aristocrats.

In a munus lasting a day or longer, a venatio might serve as the morning's entertainment. Carnivores were also set upon one another or incited to attack weaker animals, and men less skilled than venatores fought dangerous beasts or massacred tame ones in various ways. The crowd expected to see animals killed rather than merely displayed. Depictions in art reveal that the Romans enjoyed watching both the inevitable subjugation of weaker by stronger and also the combat of different, but equally dangerous, opponents (such as a bear and a bull). Although munerarii expended enormous amounts of money to obtain animals, ship them, and keep them healthy for a show, in the end it was often probably cheaper to kill them than to house, feed, and doctor exotic animals to maintain them for later use. Second, the arena served as a place of dramatic public execution in the form of such tortures as crux (crucifixion), crematio or vivicomburium (burning alive), or damnatio ad bestias (throwing people to the beasts). These executions sometimes took place during the noon break, when some members of the audience might leave for a meal and a nap.

A painted announcement of an upcoming show, preserved at the entrance to tombs of the Via delle Tombe at Puteoli, describes the highlights of games to be held at Cumae, including 20 pairs of gladiators, crucifixions, and a venatio, and the announcement stresses that an awning will be provided for the spectators (see Tumolesi's 1980 work listed in the bibliography , pp. 107-108). Since viewers sat all day in the hot sun, an awning was a significant attraction. Nero Caligula The people executed publicly were usually criminals, prisoners of war, deserters from the army, and other troublemakers and outcasts (such as slaves who had run away, or Christians who would not offer a sacrifice to the gods of the state or to the emperor). At least in theory, such damnati opposed social or military order and deserved their harsh fate. They were treated as no better than animals, and are illustrated in art in conjunction with animal-fights and the slaughter of prey animals, a distinction the Romans made, which could include everything from ostriches to deer. Even so, wanton cruelty by an official did not go unnoticed.

Tacitus comments on the negative reaction when Nero (A.D. 54-68) punished Christians seemingly out of cruelty rather than for the public good (Tacitus, Annals 15.44). Caligula (A.D. 37-41) was known for forcing anyone he did not like into the ring, including spectators who annoyed him (Dio Cassius 59.10, 13-14). This subversion of the proper relationship of munerarius and audience and spectator and spectacle was especially offensive. The story of Androclus and the lion documents several aspects of execution by damnatio ad bestias: the crime, communication by placard, and the viewers' influence on the outcome of a show. It also illustrates the crowd's love of the unusual. Androclus was the runaway slave of a proconsul in Africa during the time of the emperor Caligula. He was caught after his master had completed his official duties and returned to Rome, and so Androclus was sent to Rome as well and ended up being thrown to the beasts in the Circus Maximus.

When a lion sent to attack Androclus instead licked him, the crowd's interest was piqued, and Caligula questioned the slave. Androclus explained that he had hidden in the lion's den in Africa, where he had removed a splinter from its foot. Coincidentally, the lion and the slave had both been captured at about the same time and sent to Rome. Androclus's story was summarized on a placard (probably on several) and carried around the circus. The crowd requested (by yells or chants) that Caligula set Androclus free and present him with the lion, and Caligula obliged (Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 5.14). The Arena: Shows in the Afternoon The third and most prestigious category of events in the arena, saved for the afternoon, was gladiatorial combat. Most gladiators were prisoners or slaves compelled to fight, but some also enlisted voluntarily as free or freed men.

Gladiators took an oath to hand themselves over to their master, body and soul, and to submit to being beaten, burned, or put to the sword (Horace, Satires 2.7.58-59; Petronius, Satyricon 117; Juvenal 11.5-8), so even volunteer gladiators became property. Although gladiators as a group were despised for their low status and occupation, individual fighters could become famous and even rich. Untrained men were sometimes sent out to die, but gladiators, like soldiers, were trained to use specialized defensive and offensive weaponry and to survive as long as possible. Straightforward combat between similarly armed warriors was a major component of gladiatorial games. The Roman interest in watching the conflict of different but equal opponents, however, seen so clearly in depictions of beast-fighting, is also reflected in human combat. The most famous confrontation of fighters using different styles (immortalized in the movie Spartacus) involved a retiarius, a semi-nude fighter armed with a long trident and a net, and a heavily armed warrior protected by body armor and carrying a shield and sword.

The retiarius could keep his less mobile opponent at a distance with the trident and immobilize him with the net, but was in grave danger during close combat. The gladiator with his finger raised reflects the tradition of fighting ad digitum, that is, until one opponent raises a finger, signaling defeat. (Courtesy Ministero dei Beni Culturali) Gladiatorial duels provided the crowd with a direct opportunity to participate in life-and-death decisions. A gladiator who knew he was about to lose his duel would ask the munerarius to pass judgment on him and grant him missio--allow him to be "sent away" (missus) alive. A fighter who was still standing would raise his finger in the air, while one who was down would raise his arm or make some other gesture to signal defeat. A munerarius was expected to turn the matter over to the crowd, which expressed its verdict by yelling or by making the famous gesture generally assumed to be "thumbs down." The art depicting gladiatorial combat illustrates that referees intervened between the fighters while the munerarius decided what to do.

A gladiator who fought well enough to win his duels (or to lose but earn missio) was a good investment, since he knew how to please an audience and survived to fight another day. Under the system of missio, the time and money invested in training gladiators was not wasted after only one combat. The audience demanded courage and respected a good combatant, whatever his social standing. An exhibition of skill or bravery was supposed to be uplifting (Pliny, Panegyric 33), and a gladiator who was not granted missio was expected to kneel with dignity to accept the death-blow. If he pleased the crowd and survived long enough, he could eventually win his freedom. Many gladiators whose chances for a decent life outside the arena were small, or who did not want to abandon excitement and fame, actually reenlisted when they had served their time. A parallel, although a less deadly one, can be drawn with boxing and now "ultimate fighting" to which retired fighters sometimes return. The numerous funerary monuments erected by family members for gladiators who died in the arena indicate that, in the long run, a voluntary gamble with one's life did not pay.

Surviving even ten combats was rare (see Edwards 2007, page 51, listed in the bibliography ). Social Hierarchy and Public Punishment The Roman arena functioned on one level as a display of the social order, from the slaves and the dispossessed in the ring to the powerful provider of the games at the top of the hierarchy. The illustration of social status in the stands at public shows of all kinds was an important aspect of public entertainment. Tacitus (Annals 13.54) uses the term discrimina ordinum (the separation of the orders) to describe the segregation of senators, equites "knights;" members of the Roman middle class who originally served in the cavalry), and plebes (the Roman lower classes) in the theater. Although seating in the circus and amphitheater may have been more lax than in the theater, there was clearly a hierarchy of arena seating according to social rank. The best seats were those closest to the sand, where emperors and presiding officials had special boxes. In an era without news media, games and other public entertainments served as occasions for the exchange of information between different levels of society.

As in the story of Androclus, the emperor or responsible official addressed the crowd by means of heralds and placards, and the crowd expressed itself with yells, chants, and gestures, or with unresponsive silence. The emphasis on relative social position made it especially inappropriate, and therefore thrilling for a member of the upper orders to appear in the arena. The senate repeatedly passed laws against the participation of senators or equites as gladiators, since some men (and even some women) were willing to disgrace themselves by fighting for the sake of money or excitement. Although we have no specific evidence about special treatment for higher-class participants, it is hard to believe they would have entered the arena if the same harsh rules applied to them as to the lower orders and slaves. The Romans punished the social classes quite differently, so a member of an upper order could not be condemned to the games. A senator might be exiled and an eques conceivably paraded or flogged as a public humiliation (Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Hadrian 18.9), but he would not face condemnation to the beasts, to the gladiatorial games, or to other degrading, physically dangerous penalties.

We are today particularly struck by the fact that the Romans institutionalized killing as public entertainment. Although a munerarius certainly wanted his show to entertain the audience, the penal aspect of the games and events in the arena was crucial. The Romans saw harsh public discipline, at least for the lower orders, as an appropriate form of retribution and an effective deterrent to wrongdoing. The arena was only one place of public punishment; criminals were also crucified along roads and at crossroads. Both the widespread belief in the inferiority of those lower down the social scale, and also the longstanding idea that criminals deserved to feel pain, facilitated the crowd's ability to distance itself from those in the ring and watch their deaths with excitement and pleasure. The art depicting combats and executions takes for granted an emotional distance between viewer and viewed. Many other societies have also made punishment a form of public show at which watchers are both entertained and warned about the results of antisocial behavior. Public hangings are an example from our own history. Nor is it unusual for upper classes or the socially and politically more powerful to be punished differently from lower classes.

The Romans are unusual, however, in transforming public killing into entertainment to this degree and in allowing an audience to affect the outcome of gladiatorial duels. The Romans' emphasis on martial values and courage, their class structure, their belief in slavery, and their love of public shows all merged in the creation of a unique institution that functioned on many levels. The state encouraged, rather than merely sanctioned or oversaw, the public killing of criminals in an atmosphere of sometimes carnival revelry. Roman militarism and familiarity with war, society's desire for scapegoats, a need for mass release of tension, the cathartic public confrontation of death, and many other explanations have been given for the Roman love of the arena. A single reason is unlikely; the relationship of spectator and spectacle was a complex social construct rather than a simple symbol of pagan violence. Shelby Brown is a classical archaeologist who has served as the Vice President for Education and Outreach of the Archaeological Institute of America. Her research interests include gender studies and institutionalized violence, including the Roman arena and Phoenician child sacrifice.

She teaches Greek and Roman Archaeology and Latin at The Archer School for Girls in Los Angeles and is a Research Associate at the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. For more on gladiators, see archaeology.org/gladiators . © 2007 by the Archaeological Institute of America archive.archaeology.org/gladiators/arena.html Gladiatorial Games ARENA: GLADIATORIAL GAMES Like chariot racing, contests of gladiators probably originated as funeral games ; these contests were much less ancient than races, however. The first recorded gladiatorial combat in Rome occurred when three pairs of gladiators fought to the death during the funeral of Junius Brutus in 264 BCE, though others may have been held earlier. Gladiatorial games (called munera since they were originally duties paid to dead ancestors) gradually lost their exclusive connection with the funerals of individuals and became an important part of the public spectacles staged by politicians and emperors (click here for some modern assessments of the cultural meaning of the arena).

The popularity of gladiatorial games is indicated by the large number of wall paintings and mosaics depicting gladiators; for example, this very large mosaic illustrating many different aspects of the games covered an entire floor of a Roman villa in Nennig, Germany. Many household items were decorated with gladiatorial motifs, such as this lamp and this flask . ARENA: Gladiatorial contests, like chariot races, were originally held in large open spaces with temporary seating; there is evidence that some munera were held in the Roman Forum, for example. As the games became more frequent and popular, there was need for a larger and more permanent structure. Although the Circus Maximus was often pressed into service because of its huge seating capacity, the Romans eventually designed a building specifically for this type of spectacle (called an amphitheatrum because the seating extended all the way around the oval or elliptical performance area, which was covered with sand, harena).

Early amphitheaters, both in Rome and elsewhere, were built of wood, but stone amphitheaters proved to be much more durable; the oldest stone amphitheater , built in Pompeii in the first century CE and seating approximately 20,000, is still well preserved (see also this view through an archway on the upper level, a section of stone seats with staircase, and the exterior walls with stairway ). Like Roman theaters, amphitheaters were freestanding; because they did not require natural hills, as Greek theaters did, they could be built anywhere. A remarkable painting from a house in Pompeii depicts the amphitheater. In the tree-shaded area in front, vendors have set up temporary shops to sell food and drinks; the exercise-ground to the right was equipped with a large latrine so spectators could relieve themselves. This fresco depicts a specific event that took place in 59 CE, when a fight erupted between the Pompeians and the neighboring Nucerians (much like modern soccer brawls); in punishment for the riot, Nero imposed a ten-year ban on gladiatorial fights in the amphitheater.

Colosseum: The reconstruction drawing at the top of this page depicts the grandest of all Roman amphitheaters, known in antiquity as the Flavian Amphitheater because it was built by the emperors of the gens Flavia, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, and later called the Colosseum, either because of its size of because of the colossal statue of Nero which stood in the vicinity. The inaugural games were held in 80 CE, though construction continued for some time after that. The exterior walls were four stories high, and the first three stories were adorned with half-columns illustrating the three classic architectural styles (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian). Only a small part of the full structure survives (not because it collapsed, though it was damaged by several earthquakes, but because later Italians used the building as a quarry for centuries, stealing the stones to build St. Peter's and many palaces). What remains of the Colosseum today gives no idea of this amphitheaters lavish decorations, such as colorfully painted statues, decorative marble, and painted stucco. This model demonstrates the intact structure, and this cutaway section shows details of the construction, as does this labeled drawing .

Looking down at the interior of the Colosseum from the top story gives some sense of its size; estimates of seating capacity vary from 40-60,000, with 50,000 most likely. Because the floor of the Colosseum has not survived, we can see the maze of underground structures , corridors , ramps, animal pens ( this image from the amphitheater in Pozzuoli shows what the pens in the Colosseum were like), and rooms for prisoners. This view of amphitheater at Capua illustrates what the floor of the Colosseum would have looked like without the wooden coverings and layer of sand; we can clearly see the rims which held the wooden trapdoors through which animals and men would magically appear and which could be used to produce other special effects. When the trapdoors were closed, this subterranean area must have been very dark and frightening, echoing with the roaring of caged animals and the cries of prisoners awaiting execution in the arena (see, for example, this image from Pozzuoli).

The top story of the Colosseum was equipped with posts to which were attached a huge awning that would shield the spectators from the hot sun; this image shows the post holders for this awning. Seating in the amphitheater was arranged by rank, with a special box for the emperor and his family and ring-side seats for senators. Those who had the least political clout, foreigners and women, relegated to the topmost rows. Enjoy a virtual day at the gladiatorial games by visiting the Colosseum in Region III of VRoma, either via the web gateway or the anonymous browser . GLADIATORS: Status: Gladiators (named after the Roman sword called the gladius) were mostly unfree individuals (condemned criminals, prisoners of war, slaves). Some gladiators were volunteers (mostly freedmen or very low classes of freeborn men) who chose to take on the status of a slave for the monetary rewards or the fame and excitement. Anyone who became a gladiator was automatically infamis, beneath the law and by definition not a respectable citizen.

A small number of upper-class men did compete in the arena (though this was explicitly prohibited by law), but they did not live with the other gladiators and constituted a special, esoteric form of entertainment (as did the extremely rare women who competed in the arena ; see some Latin passages referring to female gladiators ). All gladiators swore a solemn oath (sacramentum gladiatorium), similar to that sworn by the legionary but much more dire: I will endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword (uri, vinciri, verberari, ferroque necari, Petronius Satyricon 117). Paradoxically, this terrible oath gave a measure of volition and even honor to the gladiator.

As Carlin Barton states, The gladiator, by his oath, transforms what had originally been an involuntary act to a voluntary one, and so, at the very moment that he becomes a slave condemned to death, he becomes a free agent and a man with honor to uphold (The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster [Princeton University Press, 1993] 15). Trained gladiators had the possibility of surviving and even thriving. Some gladiators did not fight more than two or three times a year, and the best of them became popular heroes (appearing often on graffiti, for example: Celadus the Thraex is the heart-throb of the girls). Skilled fighters might win a good deal of money and the wooden sword (rudis) that symbolized their freedom. Freed gladiators could continue to fight for money, but they often became trainers in the gladiatorial schools or free-lance bodyguards for the wealthy. Types of Gladiators: There were many categories of gladiators , who were distinguished by the kind of armor they wore, the weapons they used, and their style of fighting.

Most gladiators stayed in one category, and matches usually involved two different categories of gladiator. The following examples will illustrate some of the different types of gladiators which modern scholars have identified: Eques (horseman): The Eques (plural, equites) usually fought against another gladiator of the same type. They probably began their matches on horseback, but they ended in hand-to-hand combat . These were the only gladiators who wore regular tunics rather than any type of body armor (see modern mannequin ), though they wore bronze helmets with two feathers and padded shin-protectors; they carried round shields and often fought with long swords . Hoplomachus (heavy-weapons fighter): The Hoplomachus , named after the Greek Hoplite warrior, fought with a long spear as well as a short sword or dagger; he wore a visored helmet with crest and long greaves over both legs to protect them since he carried only a small shield, usually round (see original and replica ). In this terracotta relief , a Hoplomachus battles a Thraex, who is attempting to reach over his shield and stab him.

A late Republican funeral monument depicts a Thraex fighting against a kneeling Hoplomachus , though both gladiators wear early types of crested helmets without visors. Murmillo (fish): The Murmillo , named for a Greek saltwater fish, wore a large visored helmet with a high crest ; these helmets became increasingly enhanced with relief decorations, as for example the head of Hercules (see also replica ), military trophies (see front and side of replica ), and the Gorgon , Mars Ultor , and decorative vessels (see replica ). The Murmillo was protected by a large, slightly curved, rectangular shield (see replica ), so he needed only one short shin-guard (ocrea) to protect his left leg ( side view ; replica ). He fought with a short stabbing sword (gladius). The wreaths on a tombstone from Ephesus indicate that this Murmillo won many combats.

In another relief from Ephesus, the Murmillo Asteropaios , on the left, is attempting to stab the Thraex Drakon; both gladiators have lost their shields and are fighting in a clinch. Provocator (attacker): The Provocator was the most heavily armed gladiator; he was the only gladiator who wore a pectoral covering the vulnerable upper chest. He also wore a padded arm-protector and one greave on his left leg; he carried a large rectangular shield and stabbing sword. His large, distinctive visored helmet had no crest and extended over his shoulders (see also replica ). The extent of his armor made the Provocator slower and less agile than other gladiators, which may explain why he tended to be paired with another gladiator of the same type in combat. Retiarius (netman): The Retiarius was the quickest and most mobile of gladiators; as the only type of gladiator who wore no helmet, he had much more range of vision than his opponents.

However, since he wore practically no defensive armor, he was also more vulnerable to serious wounds; his only body protection was a padded arm-protector (manica) on his left arm often topped with a high metal shoulder protector (galerus), also shown in this replica . His weapons were a large net with which he attempted to entangle his opponent , a long trident, and a small dagger (see also replica ). The Retiarius in this relief advances on a Secutor who has lost his shield (which is held by the referee). However, looking at the Retiarius in this mosaic , one has to ask, Why is this man smiling? because the Secutor appears about to stab him, while the kneeling position of this Retiarius indicates that he has surrendered to the Secutor who stands menacingly above him. Secutor (pursuer): The Secutor was typically paired with a Retiarius. His egg-shaped helmet with round eye-holes had no crest or reliefs to snag on the net of the Retiarius but also gave him little range of vision .

He wore a short shin protector (ocrea) on one leg and an arm protector ; he carried a large rectangular shield and stabbing sword . The wreaths on this tombstone of a Secutor indicate his many victories, while an exultant Secutor named Improbus prepares to dispatch a fallen Retiarius in this relief. Thraex (Thracian): The Thraex gladiator was loosely based on the Thracians, former enemies of Rome. His most distinctive feature was his weapon, a short sword (sica) whose blade was either curved or kinked . His visored helmet with wide brim resembled that of a Murmillo except that it was topped with the head of a griffin (see replica ). Because the Thraex carried a short rectangular shield, he wore an arm-protector and long shin protectors (ocreae) on both legs (these are decorated with theatrical masks and an eagle vs. snake motif ; see also replica ). The victorious gladiator in this mosaic is a Thraex, while this Thraex holds up an index finger to signal surrender.

A tombstone from Antalya and one from Akhisar in Turkey provide good illustrations of this type of gladiator, In addition, the Bestiarius (animal-fighter) was a special type of gladiator trained to handle and fight all sorts of animals. The bestiarii were the lowest ranking gladiators; they did not become as popular or individually well known as other types of gladiators. Although this relief depicts bestiarii wearing armor, most depictions show them without armor, equipped with whips or spears , wearing cloth or leather garments and leggings . Training: The manager of a gladiatorial troupe was called a lanista; he provided lengthy and demanding training in schools (ludi) especially designed for this purpose and usually located near the great amphitheaters. Pompeii, for example, had both a small training area surrounded by gladiatorial barracks near the theater, while there was a large exercise-ground (palaestra) right next to the amphitheater. During the imperial period all the gladiatorial schools in Rome were under the direct control of the emperor.

The largest of these schools, the Ludus Magnus , was located next to the Colosseum; it included a practice amphitheater whose partially excavated ruins can be seen today. A DAY AT THE ARENA: Gladiatorial games began with an elaborate procession that included the combatants and was led by the sponsor of the games, the editor; in Rome during the imperial period, this usually was the emperor, and in the provinces it was a high-ranking magistrate. The parade and subsequent events were often accompanied by music; the mosaic at right depicts a water organ and the curved horn (cornu) . The morning's events might begin with mock fights such as this contest . These would be followed by animal displays, sometimes featuring trained animals that performed tricks, but more often staged as hunts (venationes) in which increasingly exotic animals were pitted against each other or hunted and killed by bestiarii (click here for more information about venationes).

The lunch break was devoted to executions of criminals who had committed particularly heinous crimesmurder, arson, sacrilege (the Christians, for example, were considered to be guilty of sacrilege and treason, because they refused to participate in rites of the state religion or to acknowledge the divinity of the emperor). The public nature of the execution made it degrading as well as painful and was intended to serve as a deterrent to others. One form of execution in the arena was damnatio ad bestias , in which the condemned were cast into the arena with violent animals or were made to participate in dramatic reenactments of mythological tales in which the stars really died (as for example the myth of Dirce , killed by being tied to a bull). Criminals could also be forced to fight in the arena with no previous training; in such bouts death was a foregone conclusion, since the victor had to face further opponents until he died (such combatants were not, of course, professional gladiators). In extraordinary circumstances, criminals might be forced to stage an elaborate naval battle (naumachia).

Although these were usually fought on lakes, some scholars think they might also have been staged in the Colosseum, as shown in this modern drawing. In the afternoon came the high point of the gamesindividual gladiatorial combats. These were usually matches between gladiators with different types of armor and fighting styles, supervised by a referee carrying a long staff (summa rudis) . Although it is popularly believed that these bouts began with the gladiators saying Those who are about to die salute you, the only evidence for this phrase is only found in the description of a naumachia staged by Claudius using condemned criminals, where the men supposedly said Ave, imperator; morituri te salutant (Suetonius, Claudius 21.6). This was certainly not a typical gladiatorial combat and cannot be used as evidence for customary practice. There were, however, many rituals in the arena. When a gladiator had been wounded and wished to concede defeat, he would hold up an index finger, as clearly depicted on the Colchester vase and on the mosaic below.

At this point the crowd would indicate with gestures whether they wished the defeated gladiator to be killed or spared. The popular belief (illustrated in  Pollice Verso , an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme; see this detail ) is that thumbs down meant kill and thumbs up meant spare, but we have no visual evidence for this, and the written evidence states that pollicem vertere (to turn the thumb) meant kill and pollicem premere (to press the thumb) meant spare. This may, in fact, indicate that those who wanted the gladiator killed waved their thumbs in any direction, and those who wanted him spared kept their thumbs pressed against their hands (as illustrated in this relief ; see especially detail of the hand ). In any case, the sponsor of the games decided whether or not to give the defeated gladiator a reprieve (missio). If the gladiator was to be killed, he was expected to accept the final blow in a ritualized fashion , without crying out or flinching.

Some scholars believe there was also a ritual for removing the bodies of dead gladiators, with a man impersonating Dis Pater (Hades) hitting the body with a hammer to make sure he was really dead and then a slave dragging the body with a hook through a gate called the Porta Libitinensis (Libitina was a death goddess), as depicted in this modern drawing . History: Ancient Rome for Kids Ancient Rome for Kids Back to History for Kids Ancient Rome was a powerful and important civilization that ruled much of Europe for nearly 1000 years. The culture of Ancient Rome was spread throughout Europe during its rule. As a result, Rome's culture still has an impact in the Western world today. The basis for much of Western culture comes from Ancient Rome, especially in areas such as government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature. The city of Rome is the capital of Italy today Map of Italy from the CIA World Factbook The Roman Republic Rome first grew into power as a Republic. This meant that Rome's leaders, such as senators, were elected officials that served for a limited amount of time, not kings who were born into leadership and ruled for life.

They had a complex government with written laws, a constitution, and a balance of powers. These concepts became very important in forming future democratic governments, like the United States. The Republic would rule Rome for hundreds of years from around 509 BC to 45 BC. The Roman Empire In 45 BC Julius Caesar took over the Roman Republic and made himself the supreme dictator. This was the end of the republic. A few years later, in 27 BC, Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and this was the start of the Roman Empire. Much of the lower level government stayed the same, but now the Emperor had supreme power. The Roman Forum was the center of government Photo by Adrian Pingstone The Empire Splits As the Roman Empire grew it became more and more difficult to manage from the city of Rome. Eventually the Roman leaders decided to split Rome into two empires. One was the Western Roman Empire and was ruled out of the city of Rome. The other was the Eastern Roman Empire and was ruled out of Constantinople (today's Istanbul in Turkey). The Eastern Roman Empire would become known as Byzantium or the Byzantine Empire . Fall of Rome The fall of Rome generally refers to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

It fell in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, would rule parts of Eastern Europe for another 1000 years. Fun Facts about Ancient Rome The city of Rome is the capital of Italy today. It sits on the same site as the city of ancient Rome. If you were to visit Rome you could see many of the original ancient buildings such as the Colosseum and the Roman Forum. The Circus Maximus, a huge stadium built for chariot races, could seat around 150,000 people. The fall of Western Rome is considered the start of the "Dark Ages" in Europe. The highest position in the Roman Republic was the consul. There were two consuls at the same time to make sure that one didn't become too powerful. The native language of the Romans was Latin, but they often spoke Greek as well. When Julius Caesar took power he named himself dictator for life. However, this didn't last long as he was assassinated a year later. Recommended books and references: Nature Company Discoveries library: Ancient Rome by Judith Simpson. 1997.

Exploring the culture, people & ideas of this powerful empire by Avery Hart & Sandra Gallagher ; illustrations by Michael Kline. 2002. Eyewitness Books: Ancient Rome written by Simon James. 2004. Activities Arena - definition of arena by The Free Dictionary Arena - definition of arena by The Free Dictionary Related to arena: Arena football a·re·na a. An enclosed area for the presentation of sports events and spectacles. b. A building housing such an area. 2. A place or scene where forces contend or events unfold: withdrew from the political arena; the world as an arena of moral conflict. 3. The area in the center of an ancient Roman amphitheater where contests and other spectacles were held. [Latin harēna, arēna, sand, a sand-strewn place of combat in an amphitheater; akin to Sabine fasēna, sand, perhaps ultimately of Etruscan origin.] arena n 1. (General Sporting Terms) a. an enclosure or platform, usually surrounded by seats on all sides, in which sports events, contests, entertainments, etc, take place: a boxing arena. b. (as modifier): arena stage. 2.

(Historical Terms) the central area of an ancient Roman amphitheatre, in which gladiatorial contests and other spectacles were held 3. a sphere or scene of conflict or intense activity: the political arena. [C17: from Latin harēna sand, place where sand was strewn for the combats] a•re•na (əˈri nə) n., pl. -nas. 1. a central area used for sports or other forms of entertainment and surrounded by seats for spectators. 2. a building housing an arena. 3. the oval space in the center of a Roman amphitheater for gladiatorial combats or other spectacles. 4. a field of competition or activity: the arena of politics. [1620–30; < Latin (h)arēna sand, sandy place, area sanded for combat] ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1.

arena - a particular environment or walk of life; "his social sphere is limited"; "it was a closed area of employment"; "he's out of my orbit" environment - the totality of surrounding conditions; "he longed for the comfortable environment of his living room" distaff - the sphere of work by women front - a sphere of activity involving effort; "the Japanese were active last week on the diplomatic front"; "they advertise on many different fronts" kingdom , realm , land - a domain in which something is dominant; "the untroubled kingdom of reason"; "a land of make-believe"; "the rise of the realm of cotton in the south" lap - an area of control or responsibility; "the job fell right in my lap" political arena , political sphere - a sphere of intense political activity preserve - a domain that seems to be specially reserved for someone; "medicine is no longer a male preserve" province , responsibility - the proper sphere or extent of your activities; "it was his province to take care of himself" 2.

arena - the central area of an ancient Roman amphitheater where contests and spectacles were held; especially an area that was strewn with sand area , country - a particular geographical region of indefinite boundary (usually serving some special purpose or distinguished by its people or culture or geography); "it was a mountainous area"; "Bible country" 3.

sports stadium , stadium , bowl coliseum , amphitheater , amphitheatre - an oval large stadium with tiers of seats; an arena in which contests and spectacles are held ballpark , park - a facility in which ball games are played (especially baseball games); "take me out to the ballpark" bullring - a stadium where bullfights take place circus - (antiquity) an open-air stadium for chariot races and gladiatorial games covered stadium , domed stadium , dome - a stadium that has a roof field house - an athletic facility where athletes prepare for sport football stadium - a stadium where football games are held hippodrome - a stadium for horse shows or horse races skybox - an elevated box for viewing events at a sports stadium stand - tiered seats consisting of a structure (often made of wood) where people can sit to watch an event (game or parade) standing room - room for passengers or spectators to stand; "there was standing room for thousands more people" structure , construction - a thing constructed; a complex entity constructed of many parts; "the structure consisted of a series of arches"; "she wore her hair in an amazing construction of whirls and ribbons" tiered seat - seating that is arranged in sloping

 tiers so that spectators in the back can see over the heads of those in front athletic field , playing area , playing field , field - a piece of land prepared for playing a game; "the home crowd cheered when Princeton took the field" 4.

Question: What mobile entertainment takes its name from the ancient Roman rounded arenas?
Answer: Circus