What is Cyrogenics ? | Technotif Home » Article » Tech Article » What is Cyrogenics ? What is Cyrogenics ? In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123 K). Cryogenics is the science of extreme cold. Research in this field aims to understand how to produce and maintain temperatures below 123 degrees Kelvin, or minus-150 degrees Celsius (minus-238 degrees Fahrenheit), and to study the effects of these freezing environments on various different physical, chemical and biological processes. Heat is generated by the random movement of molecules, and as the temperature drops they start to slow down. According to the laws of thermodynamics this cannot continue indefinitely – there must be a bottom, a point at which molecular motion stops completely. This point, the coldest possible temperature, is known as absolute zero, or zero degrees Kelvin (minus-273.15 degrees Celsius / minus-459.67 degrees Fahrenheit). As materials’ temperature approaches absolute zero, their behaviour changes dramatically.

When permanent gases such as nitrogen and oxygen reach temperatures in the tens of Kelvins, they can be turned into liquids, which can be used as fuel for spacecraft, to rapidly cool food for preservation, or even for the surgical removal of damaged cells in the body. When niobium alloys drop close to absolute zero, they completely lose their electrical resistance, and become superconductors, capable of producing powerful electromagnets that can accelerate subatomic particles to almost the speed of light. And when the temperature reaches 2.19 degrees Kelvin or lower, helium loses its viscosity and becomes a superfl uid that can, amazingly enough, crawl up the sides of glass beakers. (Source : How-It-Works Magz) Cryogenics - CreationWiki, the encyclopedia of creation science Cryogenics Jump to: navigation , search Scientist working on cryopreservation substance. cryogenics is the study of the production and behavior of materials at very low temperatures . Someone who studies this field of expertise is known as a cryogenicist. cryogenics is implemented in many ways that may or may not affect our lives. Scientists are trying to implement cryogenics into their studies to improve their experiments.

Some ways cryogenics can be used are to preserve human tissues, bacteria and even foods. When it comes to humans, cryogenics is able to preserve the human organs and tissues until one day scientists are able to figure out a way to bring the patients back to life. There are many branches of cryogenics that study different ways of how cryofreezing can and will affect the planet. Some examples of other branches are Cryoelectronics, which is used to study electricity at low temperatures and another branch is cryosurgery which is the implication of cold temperatures in surgery. Contents Cryobiology The MUSE machine is used to find chemical and physical properties of atoms Cryobilolgy is a branch of Cryogenics that has to do with the study of how the temperature can affect living things within Earth's cryosphere. Scientist use cryobiology to study the abnormal temperatures and how it affects the materials on earth. Many branches of cryobiology are also studied such as adaption of micro organisms in cold temperatures, cryopreservation of cells and other living organisms, and the physics of super-cooling and mechanical engineering aspects of heat transfer during cooling and warming. [1] Several of these topics require Cryogenics to function at their full potential.

Scientists have experimented with many bacteria and plants with cryopreservation to understand the time and chemical activity going on when frozen for a prolonged time. Cryobiology can be dated back to as early as 2500 B.C. People in Egypt used low temperatures as a source of medicine. They used the cold to stop or postpone bleeding or swelling. Robert Boyle was the first to study cold temperatures on living organisms. In 1964 Christopher Polge was the first scientist to cryopreserve bull semen. [1] This discovery led to a much wider study of cryopreservation and eventually led to the preservation of organs in liquid nitrogen. Scientists have enabled cryobiology for humans and aloud cryopreservation for humans as well. Cryopreservation of humans involves the freezing of sperm and embryos to postpone the process of life. Cryosurgery Scientist use nitrogen in Cryosurgery Cryosurgery is the use of extreme cold for surgery to remove dead or diseased tissue. This type of surgery has been used to treat a number of skin diseases. Many cancers and warts are treated by this surgery. Including some internal cancers such as liver, prostate and lung cancers.

Almost all cancers and other problems able to be reached by cryoprobes are able to be treated. The destructive force of cold temperatures on cells is what causes cryosurgery to be so useful. The low temperatures cause ice crystals to form on the cells and end up tearing them apart. A very common way of cryosurgery is using liquid nitrogen to freeze the treated area. The area could be sprayed with the nitrogen through a cryoprobe or simply dabbed on by a cotton swab. Carbon dioxide is also another way of treating diseased or dead skin. Recent technological advances have aloud scientists to control argon gas to shape ice in a principal known as Joule-Thompson effect. This procedure gives scientist huge control over ice for small and precise surgeries. Cryonics Cryonics is the study and actual preservation of humans, who cannot be sustained by regular medicine, in an ultra cool chamber with the chance of resuscitation and restoration to full health in the near future. Once done, cryopreservation of humans cannot be undone. Cryonics is based off the belief that death is a process rather than an event. [2] Doctors can diagnose someone as a clinical death which is a prognosis of death and no an official death.

These procedures cannot begin until the doctors have legally diagnosed the body as dead. Cryonic procedures usually immediately begin minutes after death and are covered by cryoprotectants to prevent ice from forming on the body. Cost fro cryonics can and may include payment for medical personnel to be on call for the verification of death as well as transportation. Payment for the indefinite storage inside liquid nitrogen is also included. As of five years ago, initial cost for all of this can range from twenty eight thousand dollars to over two hundred thousand dollars. For caution scientists gradually lower the temperature until it reaches -130 degrees Celsius so that the cells inside the human body will only become dehydrated and not form ice crystals on them. without cryoprotection the bodies cells have a chance of bursting. Uses Liquid nitrogen is used in cryogenics Many liquefied gases are used in the implication of cryogenics. Liquid helium in the most commonly used liquid gas out of all other gases. This gas is used to attain the lowest possible temperatures. All cold liquids are stored in tubes called Dewar flasks, which are double walled tubes with a high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer in the liquid.

[3] Cryogenics didn't come into play until World War two, when scientists found out low temperature liquids can preserve and contain living things. Scientists originally used cryogenics to increase the life expectancy of metal tools by cryogenic tempering them instead of heat tempering them. Another use of cryogenics is using them for fuels for rockets and other scientific purposes. [4] Liquid nitrogen is used more as an oxidizer than anything else. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) is another commonly used method that has cryogenics implemented in its system. NMR is used to determine the physical and chemical properties of atoms. Liquid helium is used to cool the coils inside of the machine. Other machines that use liquid nitrogen to cool their insides are the MRI and electric power transmissions. Cryogenic gases can also be used in the distribution and transportation of frozen foods. Video Dr, Michio talks about Cryogenics References What is Cryogenics? (with pictures) What is Cryogenics? Last Modified Date: 20 December 2016 Copyright Protected: Can you see through these real-life optical illusions? Cryogenics is the study of the production of extremely cold temperatures.

This field of science also looks at what happens to a wide variety of materials from metals to gases when they are exposed to these temperatures. Cryogenics has a wide number of potential and actual applications, ranging from tempering metals so that they will be more durable to improving the tone of musical instruments. There are a number of research opportunities in this field of science, for people who are interested in the study of very low temperatures. Etymologically speaking, cryogenics is literally the study of “things that produce incredibly cold temperatures.” There are a number of branches of this field, including the study of the impact of freezing on electrical components, and the study of the effect that deep freezing has on biological material like animals or plants. Some scientists focus purely on finding new ways to produce and maintain extremely cold temperatures, allowing others to build on their work in various offshoots of this field of study. Ad The temperature ranges used in cryogenics vary. Many people consider the study of any temperatures below -190 degrees Fahrenheit (-123 degrees Celsius) to be cryogenics. These temperatures are well below the freezing point, and they can have a dramatic impact on materials introduced to these very cold environments.

There are a number of ways to produce temperatures this cold, ranging from specialized deep freezers to the use of liquefied gases like nitrogen which will control temperatures under the right pressure conditions. When metals are frozen cryogenically, the strength of their molecular structure can increase, causing the metal itself to be stronger and more durable. Many high-end metal products may be subjected to cryogenics as part of the tempering process. The process is also used in the preparation of specialized medications, and in preservation of a wide range of materials. Cryogenic fuels are also popular for rockets and shuttles. One branch of cryogenic preservation known as cryonics pops up in the news periodically. Humans and other animals can be deep frozen under controlled conditions in the hopes that medical advances will allow them to be resuscitated at some point in the future. Cryonics facilities often charge a hefty fee for their services, and the actual possibility of resuscitation after cryogenic freezing is a topic of debate in the scientific and medical community. Ad Deep Cryogenic Treatment- Thermal Processing Magazine Get in Touch Deep Cryogenic Treatment DCT is a very important process to the gear making industry. If done correctly, it can increase product durability and reduce tooling costs.

Apr 5, 2013 PDF Digital What is deep cryogenic treatment? Deep cryogenic treatment (DCT) of steels and other materials is a distinct process that uses the application of extreme cold applied with distinct time/temperature profiles to modify the performance of materials. This process is also referred to as cryogenic processing, cryogenic tempering, deep cryogenic treatment, deep cryogenic tempering, and deep cryogenic processing. What are cryogenic temperatures? The scientific community generally defines cryogenic temperatures as temperatures below -150°C (-238°F or 123°K). This is, admittedly, an artificial upper limit; temperatures used presently in cryogenic treatment are generally -185°C (-300°F or 89°K). DCT is often confused with cold treating, a process used on hardened steel to reduce retained austenite. DCT is differentiated from cold treatment by the use of cryogenic temperatures, having distinct time/temperature profiles, and by its applicability to materials other than steel. Go to a metallurgical conference and start talking about cryogenic processing and you will get some very interesting conversations.

Amid cries of “Snake oil!” and “Get the tar and feathers!” you will have some quiet voices telling you that they use DCT to vanquish their competitors. Indeed, during the writing of this paper, disparaging remarks about DCT were made on a conference call of metallurgists who were planning a metal treating conference. And this was the same group that was told earlier that a webinar about DCT scored the biggest number of participants and the most questions in this organization’s webinar history. So what is it about this process that creates such differing opinions? Are those that swear by the process alchemists, sorcerers, wizards, shamans, and enchanters? Are dark forces called into play to get the reported results? Are those who specify DCT delusional victims of placebo effects hoping to find some meager advantage that will show the world that they too can be smart? And what of those who disparage DCT? Are they intelligent scientists who know a con when they see it? How can reducing the temperature of a solid change it? Why does this process polarize the materials science community? There are many reasons for the above behavior. Until recently, DCT was an empirically developed process.

It is common wisdom that heat changes things, but cold frozen things are, well, frozen. Humans have been using heat to modify metals for over 7,000 years. We’ve only had cryogenic temperatures in useful quantities for a little over 100 years, so our cultural and scientific knowledge of cryogenic cold is limited. DCT has only been around since the late 1930s, where it was developed for use on aircraft engines in Germany, and independently in the United States for use on knives. There was generally a lack of research about the process; what research existed centered on the validity of the process’s results. Even with the careful research of Dr. Randall Barron, the metallurgical community did not recognize the process. Another reason for the problems was inflated claims of what could be done with DCT. Early practitioners advertised that treated engines would get 120 miles per gallon, that nobody had ever had a treated engine fail, and that the process increased the tensile strength of steel ten times. These claims did terrible damage to the process’s reputation. A corollary to the inflated claim problem was that DCT actually does give results that seem inflated. A study of five metals by Dr.

Barron showed that, while cold treating increased wear resistance by factors of 1.2 to 2.0, DCT increased wear resistance on the same metal/heat treat combination by factors ranging from 2.0 to 6.6 (Barron, 1984). Also, the use of DCT on metals other than heat-treated steel drew scorn even though research showed good results with most metals, cemented carbides, and some plastics (Kalia, 2010) (Stewart, 2004) (Yong, 2006). Brake rotors do show a two to seven times increase in life when tested in the laboratory even though their microstructure is pearlitic and they have no austenite. In real life use, they consistently last three times longer than untreated rotors even under racing conditions. The assumption that DCT is the same as cold treatment has also skewed some of the research. Cold treatment involves inserting the component to be treated into the cold temperature. This has led researchers to immerse components to be DCT treated directly into liquid nitrogen.

However, DCT involves lowering the temperature of the component slowly, holding it there for a period of time, and then warming it slowly to ambient temperature. One or more tempering cycles may follow. Immersion has been shown to be mostly useless. It does not allow time for the changes in the crystal structure to occur and can cause severe stress in the part being treated. The timing is critical. Some research is being done to optimize the profiles for individual steels. For instance, some research indicates the holding time for AISI T42 steel should not be longer than eight hours (C. L. Gogte, 2010). In contrast, research indicates that the hold time should be 36 hours for AISI D2 (D. Das, 2009). The point is this: Like heat treating, the process must be done correctly for good results. What Does DCT Do To Metals? There are several theories concerning reasons for the effects of cryogenic treatment. One theory involves the more nearly-complete transformation of retained austenite into martensite. This theory has been verified by x-ray diffraction measurements.

Another theory is based on the strengthening of the material brought about by precipitation of submicroscopic carbides as a result of the cryogenic treatment (Collins, 1998) (Fanju Meng, 1994). Allied with this is the reduction in internal stresses in the martensite that happens when the submicroscopic carbide precipitation occurs. A reduction in micro cracking tendencies resulting from reduced internal stresses is also suggested as a reason for improved properties. Studies also show reduction in residual stresses. Another area to consider is the basic effect of cold on the crystal structure of metals. Point defects in the crystal structure are temperature-dependent. Lowering the temperature of the crystal structure will cause the number of point defects in the crystal structure to change according to the equation: Nd = N exp(-Ed/kT) Nd is the number of defects present, N is the total number of atomic sites, Ed is the activation energy needed to form the defect, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Reducing the temperature at a suitably slow rate drives the point defects out of the structure to the grain boundaries. In other words, the solubility of vacancies and other point defects in the matrix drops.

Note that the rate of descent of the temperature needs to be suitably slow for this to happen. Another theory is that there is a discreet distance between atoms in a crystal structure that is associated with the lowest energy state in the metallic bond. Crystals that have all the atoms at this exact distance are stronger and therefore more wear-resistant. By reducing the temperature slowly, we take the extra energy out of the atom-to-atom bond and, when gently warmed up, more of the atoms are at the ideal distance from each other. It is likely that the results achieved with DCT are due to a combination of all of the above factors. More research is needed to determine how much each factor contributes. Knowing how much each factor contributes to the results of DCT would be of great help in optimizing it for any given situation. That being said, the results of DCT are so significant that using it can give huge competitive advantages. What Does This Mean To Gear Makers? DCT is valuable to the gear industry in two major areas: product and tooling.

A study conducted by the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute for the US Army Aviation and Missile Command concluded that DCT created 50% more pitting resistance life and 5% more load-carrying capacity on 9310 steel than cold treating. It also noted that DCT raised the tempering temperature of the metal (Swiglo, 2000). Further studies conclude that the wear resistance of cold-treated EN353 is increased 85% over conventionally heat-treated steel; but DCT showed an increase of 372% (Bensely, 2005). Studies of the impact strength of the same material show that it is increased by DCT to a similar extent as with cold treatment (A. Prabhakaran, 2004). Of note in studies of EN353 is that the samples were subjected to DCT directly after quench with no snap temper. It would be interesting to see what a safety temper after quenching but before DCT would accomplish on the same steel. Most work performed on gears until now has been done in the racing industry, where OEM gears and shafts are treated long after they were manufactured.

Although racing is not a good means of scientific testing since every race is different, our customers consistently report about a three times life increase on treated transmissions. We’ve found that one must take the type of race into account, as drag racing imparts very sudden shock loads, whereas track racing creates more wear. Tempering temperatures must therefore be adjusted. Although this is not scientific, considering all variables are controlled, real-world experience shows that the reliable final result is one of major life increase. The ability to withstand the vagaries of actual use is a testament to the value of DCT. We treat transmission components for racing transmission manufacturers who use them in their standard products. Tooling Perishable tooling is a major cost in manufacturing. DCT has been used for years on both HSS and carbide cutting tools. Many studies are available that show the value of DCT in making tool steels more wear-resistant and tough, resulting in reduced costs. One study on both M2 steel and H13 steel predicts a 50% decrease in tooling costs (Molinari, 2001). Industrial tests have shown tremendous increases in life.

Like racing, the ability to control all parameters is limited, but again, the world outside the laboratory is the world we live in. Carbide has been shown to undergo a phase change when DCT is applied, which makes it more wear-resistant. It was noted that if the tool is allowed to become hot while cutting, the phase would change back to “normal.” This is a good indication as to why interrupted cuts with DCT-treated carbide tooling were always successful (Yong, 2006). Grinding wheels also show particular increases in life. We are only now getting into laboratory tests as to why diamond wheels and CBN wheels show increases in life up to ten times. Grinding is an important field of study, in that the variables of grinding have to be very carefully controlled in order to avoid inducing tensile residual stresses into the part being ground. Increasing the wheel life without affecting the other parameters could lead to significant cost reductions along with maintaining the integrity of the part being ground. Equipment All cryogenic processing equipment is comprised of a thermally insulated container and some means of extracting the latent heat of the payload to reach the desired low temperature. In most cases the insulation is a solid material that contains small closed cells of trapped still air.

The thermal conductivity of such insulation is essentially that of still, non-convecting air, assuming that the solid material that encloses the air pockets is of thin cross-section and low conductivity. Examples are polyurethane foam, aerogel, and expanded glass foam. Six inches of any of these will conduct approximately 15 BTU/hr.ft2 across a temperature differential of 400ºF, which exists between the interior of a refrigerator at –320ºF and an ambient temperature of +80ºF. These solid insulating materials are relatively inexpensive and, in the case of foamed in place polyurethane, can readily fill irregularly-shaped cavities. They all suffer from one important drawback. Temperature cycling establishes a temperature gradient across the insulating slab, which results in differential contraction in the material. Repeated temperature cycles ultimately result in fatigue cracking of the insulation. Energy expenditure to sustain the temperature difference goes up, and temperature uniformity within the refrigerator may deteriorate. The use of vacuum insulation in cryoprocessor design avoids these problems. A vacuum insulated container consists of two concentric shells, usually cylindrical, separated by a small distance relative to their diameters, which are joined around the perimeter of one end of the shells.

The space between the shells contains reflective insulation and is evacuated to a pressure of about 10-6 torr. This essentially eliminates heat flow by conduction and convection because most of the conducting or convecting gas has been removed. Heat gain via infrared radiation is minimized by multiple reflective layers placed in the vacuum space. Heat flow across a vacuum insulated space, given a temperature difference across the walls of 400ºF, is 0.008 BTU/hr.ft2, a factor of 1900 better than solid insulation of 6” thickness (Jeffrey Levine, 2001). The principal mode of heat transmission into the interior of a vacuum insulated container is metallic conduction through the perimeter that joins the inner and outer shells. In addition to providing a barrier to flow relative to solid insulation, the vacuum insulated vessel is immune to thermal cycling fatigue. Additionally, the vacuum insulated vessel can sustain elevated operating temperatures far in excess of that permissible with the use of polyurethane. This permits the post-refrigeration tempering of components in one device, eliminating the need for a separate tempering oven. Heat extraction from the payload is affected by the phase change of a low boiling-point fluid.

If mechanical refrigeration is used, a high-pressure fluid is allowed to expand and become a gas within an evaporator coil inside the insulated space. The evaporator coil is a heat exchanger, which absorbs heat from the payload via convection, natural or forced, within the chamber. This ensures the relatively slow cooling of the payload and avoids thermal shock resulting from a too rapid cooling. Rapid cooling can cause shrinkage of the outside of the cooled component while the relatively warm interior is not shrinking. Tensile stress induced this way can lead to cracking or the initiation of residual stress, especially at sharp edges. Reaching cryogenic temperatures by mechanical refrigeration for industrial size payloads requires multistage refrigeration. These are very expensive machines to build and maintain. Fortunately, liquid nitrogen is abundant, readily available, and relatively inexpensive. It has a boiling point of -321º F, and a heat of vaporization of about 150 BTU/liter. It is produced in huge industrial gas production facilities and delivered to your facility where the expansion and phase change occurs free of the capital and maintenance expense demanded by in-house mechanical refrigerators.

Two other approaches have been tried and have presented difficulties: A hybrid of mechanical refrigeration and LN2 cooling A controlled immersion of components into LN2. The hybrid approach uses mechanical refrigeration to do an initial cooling of the payload to some sub-atmospheric temperature that is well above the desired cryogenic range. At that point, a spray of LN2 droplets is showered onto the payload to bring the temperature down to the desired point. Unless the mechanical refrigeration has a sufficient BTU removal rate, the payload will be substantially warmer than indicated by the thermocouple that monitors chamber temperature. This will cause the LN2 spray to come on prematurely with the resultant rapid cooling of parts and the increased possibility of cracking. The controlled immersion of components into LN2 has been tried in two versions: The payload is lowered slowly into a pool of LN2. A chamber is slowly flooded with LN2 so that the liquid level rises to and eventually covers the payload. Both suffer from a serious weakness arising from fundamental physics. First, the temperature gradient above a pool of LN2 is very steep.

Second, the rate of heat transport between a warm solid and a cold gas at -320ºF is much slower than the rate between the same warm solid and a liquid at -320ºF. Therefore, in either of the above methods, a slow decrease in the distance separating the part and the liquid does not ensure a slow cooling rate of the part. The steep temperature gradient above the liquid, and the sudden increase in the heat transfer rate when liquid contact is made, increases the risk of thermal shock. Thermal shock can negate the benefits of DCT. Conclusions DCT is a very important process to the gear making industry. If done correctly, it can increase product durability and reduce tooling costs. It has been proven in the laboratory and in the real world. It remains to be seen how much the processing parameters can be optimized for both performance and for cost. This is starting to be done with good effect. About The Author Frederick J. (Rick) Diekman has over 30 years of experience in the field of wear resistance. He is President of Controlled Thermal Processing, Inc. and has over 20 years of experience with Deep Cryogenic Treatment.

He is founder and co-chair of the ASM International Cryogenic Processing Sub Committee, has taught an ASM course on DCT. He works closely with the Cryogenic Society of America, and was instrumental in the CSA’s establishment of its data base of research articles on DCT. Related Articles Thermal Processing Thermal Processing magazine focuses on the industrial heat treating industry. Produced six times a year by Media Solutions Inc — publishers of Gear Solutions and Wind Systems magazines — Thermal Processing covers the technologies and processes for the advancement of materials. Science & Technology: cryogenics Science & Technology The extreme blog to find anything about science and technology.... Saturday, January 3, 2009 cryogenics In physics and engineering, cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperatures (below –150 °C, –238 °F or 123 K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. Rather than the familiar temperature scales of Fahrenheit and Celsius, cryogenicists use the Kelvin (and formerly Rankine) scales 1 Definitions and distinctions 8 Coldest temperature recorded on Earth Definitions and distinctions The terms cryogenics, cryobiology and cryonics are frequently confused.

Other new terms with the prefix cryo- have also been introduced. Cryogenics The branches of physics and engineering that involve the study of very low temperatures, how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures. Cryobiology The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms (most often for the purpose of achieving cryopreservation). Cryonics The emerging medical technology of cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of future revival. The word cryogenics means "the production of freezing cold"; however the term is used today as a synonym for the low-temperature state. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins. The workers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology at Boulder, Colorado have chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below –180 °C (93.15 K).

This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie below -180 °C while the Freon refrigerants, hydrogen sulfide, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above -180 °C. Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached. These liquids are held in either special containers known as Dewar flasks, which are generally about six feet tall (1.8 m) and three feet (91.5 cm) in diameter, or giant tanks in larger commercial operations. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen. Museums typically display smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing. Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer Liquefied Natural Gas from LNG Carriers to LNG storage tanks.

Cryogenic processing The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch. With a background in the heat treating industry, Busch founded a company in Detroit called CryoTech in 1966. Though CryoTech later merged with 300 Below to create the largest and oldest commercial cryogenics company in the world, they originally experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200%-400% of the original life expectancy using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating. Cryogens, like liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Nonetheless these cryogens have many applications in the control and tampering with human beings. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately -100 °C. Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment.

The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems. Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes cryogenic milling (grinding) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures. Cryogenic hardening Cryogenic hardening is a heat treatment in which the material is cooled to cryogenic temperatures to the order of -185 °C, usually using liquid nitrogen. It can have a profound effect on the mechanical properties of certain steels, provided their composition and prior heat treatment are such that they retain some austenite at room temperature. It is designed to increase the amount of martensite in the steel's crystal structure, increasing its strength and hardness, sometimes at the cost of toughness. Presently this treatment is being practiced over tool steels, high-carbon, and high-chromium steels to obtain excellent wear resistance. Recent research shows that there is precipitation of fine carbides in the matrix during this treatment which imparts very high wear resistance to the steels. The transformation from austenite to martensite is mostly accomplished through quenching, but in general it is driven farther and farther toward completion as temperature decreases.

In higher-alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel, the onset of transformation can require temperatures much lower than room temperature. More commonly, an incomplete transformation occurs in the initial quench, so that cryogenic treatments merely enhance the effects of prior quenching. It should be noted that the transformation between these phases is instantaneous and not at all dependent upon diffusion, and also that this treatment causes more complete hardening rather than moderating extreme hardness, both of which make the term "cryogenic tempering" technically incorrect. Hardening can also be accomplished by cold work at cryogenic temperatures. Cryogenic processor A Cryogenic processor is a unit designed to reach ultra-low temperatures (usually around -300°F / -150°C) at a slow rate in order to prevent thermal shock to the components being treated. The first commercial unit was developed by Ed Busch in the late 1960s[1]. The development of programmable microprocessor controls allowed the machines to follow temperature profiles that greatly increased the effectiveness of the process. Some manufacturers make cryoprocessors with home computers to define the temperature profile. The reliability of these computers in an industrial environment is greatly in doubt.

The general processing cycle for modern cryogenic processors occurs within a three day time window, with 24 hours to reach the optimal bottom temperature for a product, 24 hours to hold at the bottom temperature, and 24 hours to return to room temperature. Depending on the product, some items will be heated in an oven to even higher temperatures. Some processors are capable of providing both the negative and positive extreme temperatures, separate units (a cryogenic processor and a dedicated oven) can sometimes produce better results depending upon the application.. Coldest temperature recorded on Earth The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89 °C (−129°F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica July 21, 1983.[1] Lower temperatures have been achieved artificially, including a record cold temperature of 450 pK, or 4.5 × 10-10 K at MIT in 2003. Posted by Cryogenics Cryogenics is the science that deals with subfreezing temperatures and how they effect matter. There are several different fields of cryogenics, such as cryobiology. Cryobiologists study the effect ...

Cryogenics is a largely growing field, relatively innovative in the field of science and research. It deals with freezing temperatures below –150 degrees Celsius (-238 degrees Fahrenheit) using oxygen, helium I, helium II (which are both are chemically identical), and nitrogen. These are cooled to the point of liquidation and used to freeze diverse materials and substances. “At these extreme conditions, such properties of materials as strength, thermal conductivity, ductility and electrical resistance are altered…materials at cryogenic temperatures are as Cryogenic Cryogenics is an entire field of physical science. It is the study of matter at temperatures much colder than those that occur naturally on Earth. Cryogenic temperatures are considerably ... close to a static and highly ordered state as possible.” ;Cryogenics is more than the term for freezing, but more precisely for temperatures below –150 degrees Celsius. “Cryogenic temperatures are achieved either by rapid evaporation of volatile liquids or by the expansion of gases confined initially at pressures of 150-200 atmospheres.” ;This ability to freeze materials at such low temperature aids in the exploration of human research and development as well as freeze-dried foods, and aeronautics.

Among the different Cryogenics Allograft A tissue graft between donor and recipient of the same species, but where they could react antigenically. Antibody A protein that is produced in the body in response to ... materials that can be cryogenically frozen, food is almost certainly the most familiar one. Liquid nitrogen is used in this process by being sprayed onto the food. This causes the heat to completely absorb from the food and the food is then preserved. This is most commonly known as “astronaut food” ;and is not only used in space, but also for people needing to carry light loads like extreme hikers or mountain bikers. The human body can also be frozen Cryogenics Allograft A tissue graft between donor and recipient of the same species, but where they could react antigenically. Antibody A protein that is produced in the body in response to ... in different ways and as a whole or in parts. Body parts such as a knee or elbow are frozen and can be later used for medical students or more recently in other people. Orthopedic tissue such as bone tendons like the quadriceps, Achilles and patellar tendons are transplanted after being cut and sized after being frozen to help better match the recipient.

New tendons are “doubled up” ;for more strength and are stiffer. After the replacement surgery, the tendon Cryogenics And The Future Cryogenics is a study that is of great importance to the human race and has been a major project for engineers for the last 100 years. Cryogenics, which is derived ... will be stronger than it was will heal better. The meniscus is also being replaced in cryogenic surgery and becoming increasingly more popular. The pain a patient receives after the surgery was put into a scale called the Lysholm scale. “Patients were asked to rate the overall severity of their pain on a scale of 0 to 10 with 0 representing no pain and 10 representing the worst pain imaginable. The average postoperative pain level was 2.7.” ;Most patients were Cryogenics and the Future Cryogenics and the Future Cryogenics is a study that is of great importance to the human race and has been a major project for engineers for the last 100 ... able to do most of the normal pivoting knee exercises that they were able to do prior to receiving the operation.

Veins and blood vessels are cultivated for transportation from either one body to another or from one body part to another on the same person. These veins are used in vascular reconstruction. This replacement can save a patients entire appendage. A vein, specifically the saphenous vein, from a patient can be taken out and cryogenically preserved and transplanted in

Question: Cryogenics is the study of materials in extreme?
Answer: Cold