Heart of Hinduism: Holy Rivers, Lakes, and Oceans Holy Rivers, Lakes, and Oceans The Goddess Ganga, riding her crocodile. She plays an important role at the beginning of the Mahabharata. Bathers in the Ganges, which is considered to wash away accumulated sins (image courtesy Prof. Robert Jackson) Near Vrindavan, Radha-Kunda (the pond of Radha) is considered especially sacred Water is of special significance in Hinduism, not only for its life-sustaining properties, but also because of its use in rituals and because of the stress given to cleanliness. Bathing also has religious significance, especially in rivers considered sacred. Mother Ganga (the Ganges) is considered to purify the bather of sins (papa – see The Law of Karma ). There are seven principle holy rivers, although others, such as the Krishna in South India, are also important. Of the seven, the Ganges (Ganga), Yamuna, and Sarasvati are most important. According to different opinions, the Sarasvati is now invisible, extinct or running underground, and meets with the Ganga and Yamuna at Prayaga. Most rivers are considered female and are personified as goddesses.

Ganga, who features in the Mahabharata, is usually shown riding on a crocodile (see right). Yamuna is shown in much iconography connected with the Pushti Marg sampradaya, and rides on a turtle. The famous story of the descent of Ganga-devi is connected with Vishnu and with Shiva, who is depicted with the Ganges entering the locks of his hair. Certain spots on the seashore are also holy. Puri is considered sanctified to Vaishnavas, and Cape Commorin (Kanyakumari) is sacred to followers of Shiva and devotees of Rama. Some lakes and ponds are also considered especially sacred. Particularly in the South, tanks (man-made ponds) are constructed so that worshippers can bathe before entering the temple. The Seven Holy Rivers Yamuna – meets Ganga in North Godavari – South India Sindhu the Indus, now in Pakistan Kaveri – South India The Descent of Mother Ganga (STO-501) How Ganga came to earth. Krishna Defeats the Kaliya Serpent (STO-502) Krishna's dance in the middle of the Yamuna.

Ganga is the Goddess of the Holy Ganges By Subhamoy Das Updated November 28, 2016. The River Ganges or Ganga is perhaps the holiest river in any religion. Though equally polluted, it bears immense significance to the Hindus. Ganga originates from the Gangotri glacier at Gaumukh in the Indian Himalayas at 4,100 meters above sea level and flows 2,525 km across northern India before meeting the Bay of Bengal in the east India and Bangladesh. As a river, the Ganga contributes to more than 25 percent of India's total water resources. Besides being a sacred river, Ganga is also worshiped as a deity in Hinduism and respectfully referred to as 'Gangaji' or 'Ganga Maiya' (Mother Ganga). About Goddess Ganga The various myths associated with Ganga and staunch Hindu beliefs associated with the river sanctify it as a goddess. Hindus view goddess Ganga as a fair complexioned beautiful woman wearing a white crown with a water lily and a water pot in her hands, and riding her pet crocodile.

The Hallowed River Hindus believe that rituals performed by the river Ganga multiply in their blessedness. The water of Ganges, called 'Gangajal' (Ganga = Ganges; jal = water), is held so sacred that holding this water in hand no Hindu dares to lie or be deceitful. The 'Puranas' or ancient Hindu scriptures say that the sight, the name, and the touch of Ganga cleanses one of all sins and taking a dip in the holy Ganga bestows heavenly blessings. The 'Narada Purana,' prophesied pilgrimages in the present Kali Yuga to the Ganges will be of utmost importance. Dying By the Ganges The land over which Ganga flows is regarded as hallowed ground. It is believed that those who die around this river reach the heavenly abode with all their sins washed away. The cremation of a dead body at the banks of Ganga or even casting the ashes of the deceased in its water is thought auspicious and leads to the salvation of the departed. The famous Ganga Ghats of Varanasi and Hardwar are known for being the holiest funeral detestation of the Hindus.

Ganga in Mythology The name of Ganga appears only twice in the Rig Veda , and it was only later that Ganga assumed great importance as a goddess. According to the 'Vishnu Purana,' she was created from the sweat of Lord Vishnu 's feet. Hence, she is also called 'Vishmupadi' - the one flowing from the foot of Vishnu. Another mythological tale states that Ganga is Parvataraja's daughter, and the sister of Parvati, Lord Shiva 's consort. A popular legend cites that Ganga was devoted to Lord Krishna in heaven, which made his lover Radha jealous, who cursed Ganga to go down to earth and flow as a river. Sri Ganga Dusshera/Dashami Festival Every summer, the Ganga Dusshera or Ganga Dashami festival venerates the auspicious occasion of the descent of the sacred river on earth from heaven. On this day, a dip in the holy river invoking the Goddess is said to cleanse all sins. A devotee worships by lighting incense and lamp and offers sandalwood, flowers, and milk. Fishes and other aquatic animals are fed flour balls.

BBC - Religions - Hinduism: Worship Religions Worship Last updated 2005-09-27 Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the temple. On this page Puja Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the universe (yantras). Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the temple. A shrine to Ganesh Individual rather than communal Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god. Worship at home The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said. A shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity. Family members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day.

Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants). At the temple for a festival Temple worship At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning. The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any "twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras Religious rites Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories: Nitya Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing puja to the family deities. Naimittika Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on. Kamya Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such. Worship and pilgrimage Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism.

It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity. Indian women worshipping Shiva on the Ganges Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest in the world. Kumbh Mela Once every 12 years, up to 10 million people share in ritual bathing at the Kumbh Mela festival at Allahabad where the waters of the Ganges and Jumna combine. Hindus from all walks of life gather there for ritual bathing, believing that their sins will be washed away. The bathing is followed by spiritual purification and a ceremony which secures the blessings of the deity. River Ganges Hinduism Crowning [] Motherland [] Crown of the Vedic Age [] New Sacrifice [] Search [] Atman [] Identity [] Karma [] Emancipation I. Introduction Hinduism, religion that originated in India and is still practiced by most of its inhabitants, as well as by those whose families have migrated from India to other parts of the world (chiefly East Africa, South Africa, Southeast Asia, the East Indies, and England).

The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit word sindhu (ï¿½riverï¿½ï¿½more specifically, the Indus); the Persians in the 5th century BC called the Hindus by that name, identifying them as the people of the land of the Indus. The Hindus define their community as ï¿½those who believe in the Vedasï¿½ (see Veda ) or ï¿½those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages of life (ashramas).ï¿½ Hinduism is a major world religion, not merely by virtue of its many followers (estimated at more than 700 million) but also because of its profound influence on many other religions during its long, unbroken history, which dates from about 1500 BC . The corresponding influence of these various religions on Hinduism (it has an extraordinary tendency to absorb foreign elements) has greatly contributed to the religion's syncretismï¿½the wide variety of beliefs and practices that it encompasses.

Moreover, the geographic, rather than ideological, basis of the religion (the fact that it comprises whatever all the people of India have believed and done) has given Hinduism the character of a social and doctrinal system that extends to every aspect of human life. II. Fundamental Principles The canon of Hinduism is basically defined by what people do rather than what they think. Consequently, far more uniformity of behavior than of belief is found among Hindus, although very few practices or beliefs are shared by all. A few usages are observed by almost all Hindus: reverence for Brahmans and cows; abstention from meat (especially beef); and marriage within the caste (jati), in the hope of producing male heirs. Most Hindus chant the gayatri hymn to the sun at dawn, but little agreement exists as to what other prayers should be chanted. Most Hindus worship Shiva , Vishnu , or the Goddess (Devi), but they also worship hundreds of additional minor deities peculiar to a particular village or even to a particular family.

Although Hindus believe and do many apparently contradictory thingsï¿½contradictory not merely from one Hindu to the next, but also within the daily religious life of a single Hinduï¿½each individual perceives an orderly pattern that gives form and meaning to his or her own life. No doctrinal or ecclesiastical hierarchy exists in Hinduism, but the intricate hierarchy of the social system (which is inseparable from the religion) gives each person a sense of place within the whole. A. Texts The ultimate canonical authority for all Hindus is the Vedas. The oldest of the four Vedas is the Rig-Veda , which was composed in an ancient form of the Sanskrit language in northwest India. This text, probably composed between about 1500 and 1000 BC and consisting of 1028 hymns to a pantheon of gods, has been memorized syllable by syllable and preserved orally to the present day. The Rig-Veda was supplemented by two other Vedas, the Yajur-Veda (the textbook for sacrifice) and the Sama-Veda (the hymnal).

A fourth book, the Atharva-Veda (a collection of magic spells), was probably added about 900 BC . At this time, too, the Brahmanasï¿½lengthy Sanskrit texts expounding priestly ritual and the myths behind itï¿½were composed. Between the 8th century BC and the 5th century BC , the Upanishads were composed; these are mystical-philosophical meditations on the meaning of existence and the nature of the universe. The Vedas, including the Brahmanas and the Upanishads, are regarded as revealed canon (shruti,ï¿½what has been heard [from the gods]ï¿½), and no syllable can be changed. The actual content of this canon, however, is unknown to most Hindus. The practical compendium of Hinduism is contained in the Smriti, or ï¿½what is remembered,ï¿½ which is also orally preserved. No prohibition is made against improvising variations on, rewording, or challenging the Smriti.

The Smriti includes the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana ; the many Sanskrit Puranas , including 18 great Puranas and several dozen more subordinate Puranas; and the many Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras (textbooks on sacred law), of which the one attributed to the sage Manu is the most frequently cited. The two epics are built around central narratives. The Mahabharata tells of the war between the Pandava brothers, led by their cousin Krishna , and their cousins the Kauravas. The Ramayana tells of the journey of Rama to recover his wife Sita after she is stolen by the demon Ravana. But these stories are embedded in a rich corpus of other tales and discourses on philosophy, law, geography, political science, and astronomy, so that the Mahabharata (about 200,000 lines long) constitutes a kind of encyclopedia or even a literature, and the Ramayana (more than 50,000 lines long) is comparable.

Although it is therefore impossible to fix their dates, the main bodies of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were probably composed between 400 BC and AD 400. Both, however, continued to grow even after they were translated into the vernacular languages of India (such as Tamil and Hindi) in the succeeding centuries. The Puranas were composed after the epics, and several of them develop themes found in the epics (for instance, the Bhagavata-Purana describes the childhood of Krishna, a topic not elaborated in the Mahabharata). The Puranas also include subsidiary myths, hymns of praise, philosophies, iconography, and rituals. Most of the Puranas are predominantly sectarian in nature; the great Puranas (and some subordinate Puranas) are dedicated to the worship of Shiva or Vishnu or the Goddess, and several subordinate Puranas are devoted to Ganesha or Skanda or the sun.

In addition, they all contain a great deal of nonsectarian material, probably of earlier origin, such as the ï¿½five marks,ï¿½ or topics (panchalakshana), of the Puranas: the creation of the universe, the destruction and re-creation of the universe, the dynasties of the solar and lunar gods, the genealogy of the gods and holy sages, and the ages of the founding fathers of humankind (the Manus). B. Philosophy Incorporated in this rich literature is a complex cosmology. Hindus believe that the universe is a great, enclosed sphere, a cosmic egg, within which are numerous concentric heavens, hells, oceans, and continents, with India at the center. They believe that time is both degenerativeï¿½going from the golden age, or Krita Yuga, through two intermediate periods of decreasing goodness, to the present age, or Kali Yugaï¿½and cyclic: At the end of each Kali Yuga, the universe is destroyed by fire and flood, and a new golden age begins.

Human life, too, is cyclic: After death, the soul leaves the body and is reborn in the body of another person, animal, vegetable, or mineral. This condition of endless entanglement in activity and rebirth is called samsara (see Transmigration ). The precise quality of the new birth is determined by the accumulated merit and demerit that result from all the actions, or karma , that the soul has committed in its past life or lives. All Hindus believe that karma accrues in this way; they also believe, however, that it can be counteracted by expiations and rituals, by ï¿½working outï¿½ through punishment or reward, and by achieving release (moksha) from the entire process of samsara through the renunciation of all worldly desires. Hindus may thus be divided into two groups: those who seek the sacred and profane rewards of this world (health, wealth, children, and a good rebirth), and those who seek release from the world. The principles of the first way of life were drawn from the Vedas and are represented today in temple Hinduism and in the religion of Brahmans and the caste system.

The second way, which is prescribed in the Upanishads, is represented not only in the cults of renunciation (sannyasa) but also in the ideological ideals of most Hindus. T he worldly aspect of Hinduism originally had three Vedas, three classes of society (varnas), three stages of life (ashramas), and three ï¿½goals of a manï¿½ (purusharthas), the goals or needs of women being seldom discussed in the ancient texts. To the first three Vedas was added the Atharva-Veda. The first three classes (Brahman, or priestly; Kshatriya, or warrior; and Vaisya, or general populace) were derived from the tripartite division of ancient Indo-European society, traces of which can be detected in certain social and religious institutions of ancient Greece and Rome. To the three classes were added the Shudras, or servants, after the Indo-Aryans settled into the Punjab and began to move down into the Ganges Valley. The three original ashramas were the chaste student (brahmachari), the householder (grihastha), and the forest-dweller (vanaprastha).

They were said to owe three debts: study of the Vedas (owed to the sages); a son (to the ancestors); and sacrifice (to the gods). The three goals were artha (material success), dharma (righteous social behavior), and kama (sensual pleasures). Shortly after the composition of the first Upanishads, during the rise of Buddhism (6th century BC ), a fourth ashrama and a corresponding fourth goal were added: the renouncer (sannyasi), whose goal is release (moksha) from the other stages, goals, and debts. Each of these two ways of being Hindu developed its own complementary metaphysical and social systems. The caste system and its supporting philosophy of svadharma (ï¿½one's own dharmaï¿½) developed within the worldly way.

Svadharma comprises the beliefs that each person is born to perform a specific job, marry a specific person, eat certain food, and beget children to do likewise and that it is better to fulfill one's own dharma than that of anyone else (even if one's own is low or reprehensible, such as that of the Harijan caste, the Untouchables, whose mere presence was once considered polluting to other castes). The primary goal of the worldly Hindu is to produce and raise a son who will make offerings to the ancestors (the shraddha ceremony). The second, renunciatory way of Hinduism, on the other hand, is based on the Upanishadic philosophy of the unity of the individual soul, or atman , with Brahman, the universal world soul, or godhead. The full realization of this is believed to be sufficient to release the worshiper from rebirth; in this view, nothing could be more detrimental to salvation than the birth of a child.

Many of the goals and ideals of renunciatory Hinduism have been incorporated into worldly Hinduism, particularly the eternal dharma (sanatana dharma), an absolute and general ethical code that purports to transcend and embrace all subsidiary, relative, specific dharmas. The most important tenet of sanatana dharma for all Hindus is ahimsa, the absence of a desire to injure, which is used to justify vegetarianism (although it does not preclude physical violence toward animals or humans, or blood sacrifices in temples). In addition to sanatana dharma, numerous attempts have been made to reconcile the two Hinduisms. The Bhagavad-Gita describes three paths to religious realization. To the path of works, or karma (here designating sacrificial and ritual acts), and the path of knowledge, or jnana (the Upanishadic meditation on the godhead), was added a mediating third path, the passionate devotion to God, or bhakti , a religious ideal that came to combine and transcend the other two paths.

Bhakti in a general form can be traced in the epics and even in some of the Upanishads, but its fullest statement appears only after the Bhagavad-Gita. It gained momentum from the vernacular poems and songs to local deities, particularly those of the Alvars, Nayanars, and Virashaivas of southern India and the Bengali worshipers of Krishna (see below). In this way Hindus have been able to reconcile their Vedantic monism (see Vedanta ) with their Vedic polytheism: All the individual Hindu gods (who are said to be saguna,ï¿½with attributesï¿½) are subsumed under the godhead (nirguna,ï¿½without attributesï¿½), from which they all emanate. Therefore, most Hindus are devoted (through bhakti) to gods whom they worship in rituals (through karma) and whom they understand (through jnana) as aspects of ultimate reality, the material reflection of which is all an illusion (maya) wrought by God in a spirit of play (lila). C.

Gods Although all Hindus acknowledge the existence and importance of a number of gods and demigods, most individual worshipers are primarily devoted to a single god or goddess, of whom Shiva, Vishnu, and the Goddess are the most popular. Shiva embodies the apparently contradictory aspects of a god of ascetics and a god of the phallus. He is the deity of renouncers, particularly of the many Shaiva sects that imitate him: Kapalikas, who carry skulls to reenact the myth in which Shiva beheaded his father, the incestuous Brahma, and was condemned to carry the skull until he found release in Benares; Pashupatas, worshipers of Shiva Pashupati, ï¿½Lord of Beastsï¿½; and Aghoris, ï¿½to whom nothing is horrible,ï¿½ yogis who eat ordure or flesh in order to demonstrate their complete indifference to pleasure or pain.

Shiva is also the deity whose phallus (linga) is the central shrine of all Shaiva temples and the personal shrine of all Shaiva householders; his priapism is said to have resulted in his castration and the subsequent worship of his severed member. In addition, Shiva is said to have appeared on earth in various human, animal, and vegetable forms, establishing his many local shrines. To his worshipers, Vishnu is all-pervasive and supreme; he is the god from whose navel a lotus sprang, giving birth to the creator (Brahma). Vishnu created the universe by separating heaven and earth, and he rescued it on a number of subsequent occasions. He is also worshiped in the form of a number of ï¿½descentsï¿½ï¿½avatars (see Avatar ), or, roughly, incarnations. Several of these are animals that recur in iconography: the fish, the tortoise, and the boar.

Others are the dwarf (Vamana, who became a giant in order to trick the demon Bali out of the entire universe); the man-lion (Narasimha, who disemboweled the demon Hiranyakashipu); the Buddha (who became incarnate in order to teach a false doctrine to the pious demons); Rama-with-an-Axe (Parashurama, who beheaded his unchaste mother and destroyed the entire class of Kshatriyas to avenge his father); and Kalki (the rider on the white horse, who will come to destroy the universe at the end of the age of Kali). Most popular by far are Rama (hero of the Ramayana) and Krishna (hero of the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata-Purana), both of whom are said to be avatars of Vishnu, although they were originally human heroes. Along with these two great male gods, several goddesses are the object of primary devotion. They are sometimes said to be various aspects of the Goddess, Devi. In some myths Devi is the prime mover, who commands the male gods to do the work of creation and destruction.

As Durga, the Unapproachable, she kills the buffalo demon Mahisha in a great battle; as Kali, the Black, she dances in a mad frenzy on the corpses of those she has slain and eaten, adorned with the still-dripping skulls and severed hands of her victims. The Goddess is also worshiped by the Shaktas, devotees of Shakti, the female power. This sect arose in the medieval period along with the Tantrists, whose esoteric ceremonies involved a black mass in which such forbidden substances as meat, fish, and wine were eaten and forbidden sexual acts were performed ritually. In many Tantric cults the Goddess is identified as Krishna's consort Radha. More peaceful manifestations of the Goddess are seen in wives of the great gods: Lakshmi, the meek, docile wife of Vishnu and a fertility goddess in her own right; and Parvati, the wife of Shiva and the daughter of the Himalayas. The great river goddess Ganga (the Ganges), also worshiped alone, is said to be a wife of Shiva; a goddess of music and literature, Sarasvati, associated with the Saraswati River, is the wife of Brahma.

Many of the local goddesses of Indiaï¿½Manasha, the goddess of snakes, in Bengal, and Minakshi in Maduraiï¿½are married to Hindu gods, while others, such as Shitala, goddess of smallpox, are worshiped alone. These unmarried goddesses are feared for their untamed powers and angry, unpredictable outbursts. Many minor gods are assimilated into the central pantheon by being identified with the great gods or with their children and friends. Hanuman, the monkey god, appears in the Ramayana as the cunning assistant of Rama in the siege of Lanka. Skanda, the general of the army of the gods, is the son of Shiva and Parvati, as is Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of scribes and merchants, the remover of obstacles, and the object of worship at the beginning of any important enterprise. D. Worship and Ritual The great and lesser Hindu gods are worshiped in a number of concentric circles of public and private devotion. Because of the social basis of Hinduism, the most fundamental ceremonies for every Hindu are those that involve the rites of passage (samskaras).

These begin with birth and the first time the child eats solid food (rice). Later rites include the first haircutting (for a young boy) and the purification after the first menstruation (for a girl); marriage; and the blessings upon a pregnancy, to produce a male child and to ensure a successful delivery and the child's survival of the first six dangerous days after birth (the concern of Shashti, goddess of Six). Last are the funeral ceremonies (cremation and, if possible, the sprinkling of ashes in a holy river such as the Ganges) and the yearly offerings to dead ancestors. The most notable of the latter is the pinda, a ball of rice and sesame seeds given by the eldest male child so that the ghost of his father may pass from limbo into rebirth. In daily ritual, a Hindu (generally the wife, who is thought to have more power to intercede with the gods) makes offerings (puja) of fruit or flowers before a small shrine in the house. She also makes offerings to local snakes or trees or obscure spirits (benevolent and malevolent) dwelling in her own garden or at crossroads or other magical places in the village.

Many villages, and all sizable towns, have temples where priests perform ceremonies throughout the day: sunrise prayers and noises to awaken the god within the holy of holies (the garbagriha, or ï¿½womb-houseï¿½); bathing, clothing, and fanning the god; feeding the god and distributing the remains of the food (prasada) to worshipers. The temple is also a cultural center where songs are sung, holy texts read aloud (in Sanskrit and vernaculars), and sunset rituals performed; devout laity may be present at most of these ceremonies. In many temples, particularly those sacred to goddesses (such as the Kalighat temple to Kali, in Kolkata), goats are sacrificed on special occasions. The sacrifice is often carried out by a special low-caste priest outside the bounds of the temple itself. Thousands of simple local temples exist; each may be nothing more than a small stone box enclosing a formless effigy swathed in cloth, or a slightly more imposing edifice with a small tank in which to bathe.

In addition, India has many temples of great size as well as complex temple cities, some hewn out of caves (such as Elephanta and Ellora), some formed of great monolithic slabs (such as those at Mahabalipuram), and some built of imported and elaborately carved stone slabs (such as the temples at Khajuraho, Bhubaneshwar, Madurai, and Kanjeevaram). On special days, usually once a year, the image of the god is taken from its central shrine and paraded around the temple complex on a magnificently carved wooden chariot (ratha). Many holy places or shrines (tirthas, literally ï¿½fordsï¿½), such as Rishikesh in the Himalayas or Benares on the Ganges, are the objects of pilgrimages from all over India; others are essentially local shrines. Certain shrines are most frequently visited at special yearly festivals.

For example, Prayaga, where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers join at Allahabad, is always sacred, but it is crowded with pilgrims during the Kumbha Mela festival each January and overwhelmed by the millions who come to the special ceremony held every 12 years. In Bengal, the goddess Durga's visit to her family and return to her husband Shiva are celebrated every year at Durgapuja, when images of the goddess are created out of papier-mï¿½chï¿½, worshiped for ten days, and then cast into the Ganges in a dramatic midnight ceremony ringing with drums and glowing with candles. Some festivals are celebrated throughout India: Diwali, the festival of lights in early winter; and Holi, the spring carnival, when members of all castes mingle and let down their hair, sprinkling one another with cascades of red powder and liquid, symbolic of the blood that was probably used in past centuries. III. History The basic beliefs and practices of Hinduism cannot be understood outside their historical context. Although the early texts and events are impossible to date with precision, the general chronological development is clear. A.

Vedic Civilization About 2000 BC , a highly developed civilization flourished in the Indus Valley, around the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By about 1500 BC , when the Indo-Aryan tribes invaded India, this civilization was in a serious decline. It is therefore impossible to know, on present evidence, whether or not the two civilizations had any significant contact. Many elements of Hinduism that were not present in Vedic civilization (such as worship of the phallus and of goddesses, bathing in temple tanks, and the postures of yoga) may have been derived from the Indus civilization, however. See Indus Valley Civilization . By about 1500 BC , the Indo-Aryans had settled in the Punjab, bringing with them their predominantly male Indo-European pantheon of gods and a simple warrior ethic that was vigorous and worldly, yet also profoundly religious. Gods of the Vedic pantheon survive in later Hinduism, but no longer as objects of worship: Indra, king of the gods and god of the storm and of fertility; Agni, god of fire; and Soma, god of the sacred, intoxicating Soma plant and the drink made from it.

By 900 BC the use of iron allowed the Indo-Aryans to move down into the lush Ganges Valley, where they developed a far more elaborate civilization and social system. By the 6th century BC , Buddhism had begun to make its mark on India and what was to be more than a millennium of fruitful interaction with Hinduism. B. Classical Hindu Civilization The Ganges River | The Story of India - Photo Gallery | PBS The Story of India Hindu woman bathing in the Ganges River Explore the Topic Click for detailed map A Hindu woman bathes in the waters of the Ganges River . She is dressed in a cotton sari and her forehead is adorned with the traditional Hindu markings, the bindi and sindoor. For the 80% of Indians who are Hindus, the Ganges is considered sacred, the terrestrial home of the goddess Ganga, and has held a vaunted place within the faith for centuries. Hindus from all over the subcontinent make annual pilgrimages to the many temples and shrines located along its shores and believe it is auspicious to drink, bathe, and, after death, have their ashes scattered in the river.

Bathing in the Ganges is a purifying ritual that is thought to wash away a penitent's sins, and spreading one's ashes in the water upon death may improve one's karma and hasten salvation. India's longest river, the Ganges flows eastward from its source in the snow-capped western Himalayas across the plains of northern India until it empties into the Bay of Bengal. During its 1,554 mile journey, the Ganges passes through the Indian states of Uttarakhand, home to the sacred city of Haridwar; Uttar Pradesh, where the holy cities of Allahabad and Varanasi (Benares) are located; Bihar; and Bengal, home to India's cultural capital, Calcutta (Kolkata). The Ganges plain has been the birthplace of several empires, including the Gupta Empire . Hinduism Brahma, Tanjore Practiced primarily in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal, Hinduism is considered the world's oldest religion, with traditions originating in and before the Neolithic era, around 8,000 years ago.

Hinduism may have had its beginnings in the Indus River Valley in modern Pakistan, and the word hindu comes from the Persian name for that river. A heterogeneous philosophy, Hinduism has no one founder and includes many sacred texts, the most ancient being the Vedas. Among the variety of genres included in the Vedic texts, composed 1500 – 1100 BCE, are hymns to gods, descriptions of rituals and philosophical writings. Commentaries on the Vedic books, written between 800 and 100 BCE, discuss the transcendent principal of Brahman, the source of the universe. Also influential are the great epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana written between 500 BCE and 200 CE. Among these epics, the Bhagavad Gita describes the central idea of moksha, or liberation of the soul from the cycle of perpetual death and rebirth. The primary principle of karma determines the character of the soul in this cycle. Although Hinduism contains elements of polytheism, monotheism and monism, all gods within Hinduism are today considered manifestations of Brahman.

Many Hindus practice devotion to one of three main deities: Brahma , the creator of the cosmos; Vishnu , preserver of the cosmos; and Shiva , destroyer of the cosmos. In Hinduism, the nature of the universe and the structure of society are closely linked. Brahman is the ultimate reality and also the name given to the highest (priestly) caste. The concept of dharma describes both cosmic law and the conduct of individuals in society, including adherence to the social order. Castes in orthodox Hindu society distinguished among people of priestly, military, merchant, peasant, and untouchable (individuals with no social standing) castes—now known as dalits and the focus of positive discrimination legislation and job quotas in today's democratic India. Approximately 80% of India's population today practices Hinduism. Ganges Ganges River at Varanasi India's most revered river, the Ganges, or Ganga, is formed by the merging of two mountain streams, the Bhagirathi, which is fed by the melting of the Gangotri glacier, and the Alaknanda, at the village of Deoprayag in the foothills of the Himalayas.

The Ganges flows parallel to, but several hundred miles south of, the Himalayas as it crosses northern India on its route east to the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries bring down sediment-filled water from the mountains, which help create a wide, fertile plain that provides food and sustenance for nearly a billion people. The river has played a vital role in the growth of the civilizations that developed along its shores, not only in terms of agriculture but commerce as well, and been worshipped by Hindus since ancient times. According to Hindu mythology, the Ganges is a goddess, Ganga, who dwelled in the heavens until a human king, Bhagiratha, prayed to the god Brahma to have her descend to Earth. Bhagiratha made this request in order to help cleanse and release the souls of his ancestors who had been burnt to death and condemned to wander in the nether-world. Although Brahma granted Bhagiratha's wish, Ganga was displeased and threatened to descend with such force that it would destroy the Earth. Bhagiratha then prayed to the god Shiva , who caught Ganga in his hair and released her in small streams to the Earth.

Related Web Sites Top Sari A daily garment worn by women throughout India, the sari, also spelled saree, is a single piece of seamless cloth that is five to nine yards long and draped around the body. Thought to be in use in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years, the sari can be wrapped in numerous ways, depending on the region, social class, and ethnic background of the wearer. Today, the Nivi style, which began to be widely adopted in the mid-20th century, is the most popular. Woven on both hand and power looms, saris are made of cotton, silk, and synthetic fibers and commonly worn with two foundational garments: the pavada, a thin, cotton petticoat that extends to the ankles and is secured at the waist with a drawstring and a tailored short-sleeve or sleeveless blouse that is fitted and covers the bosom. In the Nivi style, most of the cloth is wrapped around the lower part of the body and pleated and tucked into the pavada at the center of the waist. The remaining material is then draped across the blouse, either loosely or tightly with pleats, and falls over the left shoulder.

The portion that hangs from the shoulder is called the pallu and is often the most highly decorated element of the garment, picking up on the motifs found on the sari's border and body. Top Bindi The bindi is an ornamental mark on the forehead, placed between the two eyebrows, worn by Hindu women. It is known as a pottu in Tamil , a bottu in Malayalam, and a tikli in Marathi. Traditionally, the red bindi was worn solely by Hindu women as a marker of their marital status. The round, red dot was created by applying a dab of kumkum, or vermillion powder, over a sticky wax paste with the tip of the forefinger. The circular black bindi, more commonly sported by young girls, particularly in southern India, was made with a kohl pencil. Today, the bindi has evolved from a propitious symbol of marriage into a decorative element that is worn by girls and women throughout South Asia and can vary in size, shape, material, and color. Application has been simplified with the creation of the self-adhesive, disposable bindi made of felt or thin metal with glue on one side that allows it to easily stick to the forehead.

Women can match the bindi to their dress and enhance their appearance even further by donning the highly embellished bindis that feature sequins, beads, and sparkling stones. Gupta Empire Iron Pillar, Qutub Complex, Delhi, erected during Gupta period Although preceded by two Guptan rulers, Chandragupta I (reign 320-335 CE) is credited with establishing the Gupta Empire in the Ganges River valley in about 320 CE, when he assumed the name of the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The period of Gupta rule between 300 and 600 CE has been called the Golden Age of India for its advances in science and emphasis on classical Indian art and literature. Gupta rulers acquired much of the land previously held by the Mauryan Empire , and peace and trade flourished under their rule. Sanskrit became the official court language, and the dramatist and poet Kalidasa wrote celebrated Sanskrit plays and poems under the presumed patronage of Chandragupta II. The Kama Sutra , a treatise on romantic love, is also dated to the Gupta era.

In 499 CE, the mathematician Aryabhata published his landmark treatise on Indian astronomy and mathematics , Aryabhatiya, which described the earth as a sphere moving around the sun. Detailed gold coins featuring portraits of the Gupta kings stand out as unique art pieces from this period and celebrate their accomplishments. Chandragupta's son Samudragupta (r. 350 to 375 CE) further expanded the empire, and a detailed account of his exploits was inscribed on an Ashokan pillar in Allahabad toward the end of his reign. Unlike the Mauryan Empire's centralized bureaucracy, the Gupta Empire allowed defeated rulers to retain their kingdoms in return for a service, such as tribute or military assistance. Samudragupta's son Chandragupta II (r. 375–415 CE) waged a long campaign against the Shaka Satraps in western India, which gave the Guptas access to Gujarat's ports, in northwest India, and international maritime trade. Kumaragupta (r. 415–454 CE) and Skandagupta (r. c.

454–467 CE), Chandragupta II's son and grandson respectively, defended against attacks from the Central Asian Huna tribe (a branch of the Huns) that greatly weakened the empire. By 550 CE, the original Gupta line had no successor and the empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms with independent rulers. Top Discussion Questions Why did the Ganges River become such an important part of Hinduism? How do Hindus show their reverence for the Ganges River? The word Karma is often used in American popular culture. What are its Hindu origins? Is the adoption of religious concepts in a secular context disrespectful towards the original religion? How are Hinduism and the caste system connected? While India outlawed the caste system at independence, why do problems persist?

Question: What is Hinduism's holiest river?
Answer: Ganges