Cold War The Berlin Wall A General Overview of the Cold War The Cold War was an ideological war between the two world superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, beginning after World War Two. After the war, Germany was left defeated, and Britain and France were left drained and exhausted. The United States and the Soviet Union, though also drained, held considerable power, and both soon rose to superpower status. The two became rivals through "conflicting ideologies and mutual distrust"1, and constantly competed for power. The Soviet Union wanted to spread Communism in Eastern Europe and create a "buffer zone" of friendly governments as defense against Germany. In 1946, with Eastern Europe under Soviet control and influence, Europe was divided into a West (western democracies and the United States) bloc and East (Soviet Union and Soviet occupied territory) bloc. An "iron curtain" separated Europe. Germany Divided The aftereffects of World War Two were what shaped Cold War Germany. The post-war state of Germany was grim: about 1/4 of housing had been destroyed, the economic infrastructure had largely collapsed, inflation was rampant, there was a shortage of food, and millions of homeless Germans from the east were returning.

After its unconditional surrender, Germany was divided into four zones of Allied military occupation: American, French, British, and Soviet. The old capital of Berlin was also divided into four zones, but Berlin itself remained inside of the Soviet zone. In 1949, the French, British, and American zones merged and formed the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublic Deutschland), with its capital city Bonn. Also in 1949, the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik) with the Soviet sector of Berlin as the capital. West Germany became a suprisingly stable western democracy. A new policy required a 5% vote for a political party to be represented in the Bundestag (the upper legislative house), in order to prevent any small extremist parties from gaining representation too easily. This was what brought the downfall of the Weimar Republic and the rise of the Nazi Party, after all. East Germany was established as a Stalin-style Socialist state. It became a member of the Warsaw Pact and came to have one of the most advanced economies and standard of living of the Soviet-bloc states (though that's not saying much, as it still lagged behind West Germany).

The East German government was formed into a centralized and dictatorial regime. The State Security Police (Stasi) maintained the Soviet expectation of the people. Free speech and opinions against the regime were not tolerated, and artistic and intellectual programs were strongly controlled. The partition and division of Germany drove a block in between both United States to Russia relations and West German to East German relations. The Allies were at the same time trying to be forgiving to the Germans for World War Two while also insuring that the Germans could never again begin the expansionism that had led to the two previous wars. During the Cold War, Germany became the center for all the tensions between Democracy and Communism. The location of Germany as the gateway between East and West Europe made it the ideal place for these political struggles to occur. When Russia had tried to expand in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, they were checked by the rising power of the German state. Therefore, after Germany fell in World War Two, Russia attempted to begin its expansion across a now weakened Europe. The end of World War Two left Russia in possession of all of Germany up to 300 miles west of Berlin.

This new annexation caused the powers in Europe to become unbalanced and Russia replaced Germany as the country that was getting too big. Contrary to their actions against rising powers in the past, England did not try to stop the Russian expansion. They did this because they thought it preferable to give Russia parts of Germany over giving them other territories that would allow Russia access to the Mediterranean. The Allies had many reasons for partitioning Germany. Overall, the purpose of dividing land up was to control Germany until a new government could be instated. France, America, England and Russia all had parts of Germany that were put temporarily under their control. While the Allies were still in occupation of the country, decisions were made by a council of the four powers. The representatives were then responsible for carrying out the decisions of the council in their allotted territory. There was a catch that the Russians exploited to thwart the other powers. According to the treaty, proposals to the council were only put into effect if there was a unanimous vote. The Russians could use this just like they used the U.N. Security Council. The Russians had annoyed the other powers by using their veto power in the Security Council to veto every proposition that came before them.

By exercising their right to arbitrarily veto any decision made regarding Germany, they could prevent any actions that were against their best interest. The Soviets then would be able to run Eastern Germany as they wished, because no proposition stopping them from doing so could be passed. The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine In June 1947, the Marshall Plan was put into effect in order to stop the Russians from influencing any of the weakened western powers. During the time the United States sent massive economic aid to Europe democracies to help rebuild. Billions of dollars were spent to help countries recover quickly and to reduce the influence of Communism. This plan helped to restore West Germany and rebuild it as a new ally in America's fight against Russia. Russia refused the aid of the Marshall Plan and, as a result, East Germany was not completely rebuilt. This lack of reconstruction showed through even after the reunification. The German economy after reunification took a big hit, because it had to pay for all the reconstruction that the Communists never did. The Truman Doctrine, a plan to help states going through a struggle for freedom against their oppressors, was instituted in 1948.

President Truman said, "I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." The Truman Doctrine instituted a policy of containment; Communism would be limited only to areas already under Soviet control, and Americans would resist Soviet expansion everywhere else. The Truman Doctrine could not have been more clearly directed towards East Germany and, technically, West Germany. Germany was both under subjugation by an outside force and also under the power of the armed minority that the Russians would soon put into power in the form of the DDR (Deutsches Demokratische Republik). In 1949 the Allies made good on what they promised in the Truman Doctrine and unified West Germany into the BDR (Federal Republic of Germany). At the same time the Russians instituted the DDR, which turned out to be more of a regime than a government. The Berlin Crisis and the Berlin Airlift Due to horrible conditions in East Germany, its citizens had begun to cross over to West Germany and were allowed to proclaim themselves refugees. 2.6 million out of 17.5 million residents of East Germany had crossed over by 1961.

This caused labor shortages in East Germany and also the further degradation of an already failing East German economy. As East Germany got worse and worse, Russia became willing to take offensive measures to reclaim West Berlin. In December of 1947, Russia and the United States finally parted ways and the Western Powers began to meet about German business without the Russian ambassador present. On March 20, 1948, Russia declared that the Allied Control Council of Berlin no longer existed and voluntarily withdrew from all of their meetings. As a result, there were no government relations existing between Russia and the other Allies. The problems worsened when the Russians decided that they wanted all of Berlin under their control. There had been no previous treaties giving the Allies free access to West Berlin through Russian territory, so Russia exploited this situation and isolated Berlin from American soldiers and supplies. The Berlin Blockade began in mid 1948 as Russian forces surrounded West Berlin in an effort to make Allied soldiers there surrender from starvation. The Soviets sealed off railroads and highways to the Western sector of Berlin, effectively cutting it off from the Western Allied sector of Germany.

In response to this, the Allies instituted the Berlin Airlift on June 21, 1948, in order to provide West Berlin with food and fuel. Cargo planes dropped food, fuel, and other supplies into West Germany 24 hours a day. Russia rationalized the blockade by saying that they were doing extensive roadwork (this didn't fool anyone). Russia then went on to claim that Berlin was rightfully theirs and that the Western powers had control only of West Berlin because they had more votes when the partition was being made. Marshall answered this by declaring to the Russian government that all Allies had a right to be in Berlin and that the United States intended to stay. He then went on to cut off all passage of trains between East and West Germany. The conflict intensified when America secretly moved 60 long-range bombers into the British Isles. Russia saw that the Allies did not intend to surrender so they offered the citizens of West Berlin food on the condition that they came over to the Russian side. The West Berliners decided that they would rather starve than be under Russian authority. In May, 1949, Russia called off the failed blockade. They lost this confrontation for two reasons.

First, the Russians had not yet acquired nuclear capabilities and therefore could not stage a larger offensive. Second, the Russians were in an extremely bad position in regard to foreign relations; "...before the eyes of the world, it appeared to be trying to starve over 2 million men, women, and children in West Berlin. While the Berlin Airlift continuing month after month provided a tangible demonstration of western determination and competence."2 So basically, through this whole conflict, Russia was making themselves look like murderers and the Allies looked like saviors. The Western powers' unflinching support of Berlin gave other parts of Germany more confidence in their commitment to Germany's well-being. Reconciliation West Germany began their first big step toward making amends with France in March of 1950. They made a peace treaty with the French that ended the conflict that had been going on since the early 1800s. The peace treaty was a step toward assuring the Allies that there was no possibility of German expansion and the outbreak of another war, the only things the Allies required to guarantee Germany its autonomy.

On May 9, 1950, France and Germany made a treaty that gave joint control of the steel and coal industry in Germany and France making it "not merely unthinkable, but materially impossible"3 to have a war between the two countries. This treaty was called the Schuman Plan and was a large step toward France's approval of West Germany's autonomy. Soon after, the European Coal and Steel Community was established consisting of six European powers. As a result of these actions, West Germany became accepted again in European affairs. At about the same time as the treaty (May 1950), the Korean War broke out, and Europe tensed for a Russian invasion into the West. West Germany was allowed to contribute soldiers under the power of NATO. This showed that some of the Allies were beginning to trust the Germans again. The only obstacle was France, who greatly opposed any German army, even under the authority of NATO. They thought if German got an army of any kind, they would immediately make an alliance with Russia and attack the French. On May 26, 1952, the occupation of West German was officially over according to the treaty, and West Germany was supposed to have its own government.

The Allies would not let go of the country until they were absolutely sure that Germany would not return as a threat. On May 27, 1952, a defensive treaty against Russia called the European Defense Treaty was proposed between France, Italy, Holland, Germany, Luxembourg, and Belgium. This was to create an army that was composed of all these countries under the command of NATO. The French Assembly rejected this treaty for fear of the German army, and as a result, attempts to unify West Germany under its own authority were very temporarily dropped. The English, on October 3, 1952, made the last step that France needed to be assured that Germany was not a threat by declaring that they would maintain a military presence on mainland Europe. This gave France the security they wanted against a German invasion. France then consisted to end the occupation of West Germany and to admit it into the 1948 Brussels Treaty. West Germany was now a wholly independent state except for West Berlin. Tension Between the Superpowers Rises During the time elapsed between the first blockade and 1958, Russia had developed nuclear capabilities and they were ready to go after West Berlin again.

In 1958, East Germany began to again block immigration to West Germany by establishing barbed wire fences and patrols along the whole border between East and West Germany. Berlin was the only spot open to immigration between the two countries. At the time of Russia's second offensive, the Western powers had 11,000 troops in Berlin compared to the 550,000 that Russia had. The Russians restricted access to West Berlin, except through two routes. The first route consisted of heavily guarded roads where Russian soldiers harassed travelers. The second consisted of three airlines; Russian fighter planes "buzzed" flights. Basically, these tactics were adopted to demonstrate to the Allies that they were helpless to stop any Russian movement. Russia at that time had the technology to prevent another airlift, so the Allies had no option of peacefully supplying West Berlin with food. "We are certainly not going to fight a ground war in Europe.

What good would it do to send a few more thousand or indeed a few divisions into Europe with something like 175 Soviet divisions in the area?" -President Eisenhower Russia intensified the conflict when it declared it would hand over all power in East Berlin to the DDR regime effective on May 27, 1952. The Allies had no alliances with the DDR in terms of established passages into Berlin, and so the Allies had no way to hold Berlin, but still refused to let it go. Russia and the Allies entered a stalemate. But, as May 27 got closer, Russia began to look for a way to back down and get out of the situation. Russia launched a flurry of new deadlines. On March 5, they declared that they were willing to delay the transition of power to the DDR. On March 9, they declared that they wanted to have all countries involved in the conflict withdraw their troops. They finally backed down completely on March 11, when they declared that they would allow free access to West Berlin for all travelers. And so, again, the Communists lost the cosmic game of chicken.

The Berlin Wall In 1961, Berlin, the last place through which immigrants could leave East Germany, was blocked off by the "infamous" Berlin Wall, at which more than 80 persons were shot while trying to escape East Germany on non-consecutive occasions. This state of affairs continued until the the summer of 1989, when the reforming Hungarian government opened Hungary's borders and allowed passage of East Germans through that country. From Hungary, East Germans could go directly into West Germany. The Berlin Wall was then rendered useless (except to keep the neighbors' dog out, and even it could go through Hungary). By November 9, 1989, the people had begun to openly destroy the Wall and so Russia decided to take it down, allowing free immigration between the countries and also instigating the first of the movements to unify Germany. ---------- During the Cold War, Germany became the center for the conflict between Communism and Democracy. Germany was the site where all the tensions between the two ideals was played out. Because of its location as the farthest western city to the east, Berlin was torn in half by the struggling parties. The repercussions of this are what is shaping the problems in modern day Germany.

The neglect that East Germany suffered through at the hands of the Communists would cause not only economic problems but also social problems as the Western and Eastern Germans grew apart as a people. The scars that the Communist Party left on the East Germans are still being repaired. The reconstruction of East Germany would almost bankrupt the West. Not only had much of East Germany not been rebuilt, most of what was produced had been shipped back to the Soviet Union as "war reparations". Divided Germany had also caused a social split to occur between the Eastern and Western Germans. The Western German's lives had greatly improved since the end of World War Two but the Eastern German's lives were still mired in the destruction wrought by the war that could not be fixed under the Communist regime. These differences caused East Germans to view their western relatives as pampered and privileged. These social end economic issues are still being repaired in Germany and the end of the social schism does not appear yet to be in sight. 1. World History: Connections to Today, 809- 813. 2. Halle,250 Cold War Signals Home War on the Waves An important part of the Cold War was fought over radio waves and this battle continues to this day.

All kinds of radio signals, from communication signals in voice, Morse or data, to technical signals such as radar, navigation and radio jamming are transmitted and intercepted. Especially during the Cold War, the arms race and the need for intelligence fueled a rapid development of sophisticated electronics. The interception and analysis of enemy signals became just as important as the performance and protection of one's own signals. Signals intelligence (SIGINT), the gathering of intelligence by interception of signals, comprises two main parts: communications intelligence (COMINT) and electronic intelligence (ELINT). COMINT focuses on voice, Morse and data communications to retrieve the content of the messages, the identity and location of the person, organisation or unit that broadcast, and the broadcast frequencies and schedules. These communications are often encrypted to protect them from eavesdropping, requiring cryptanalysis to make them readable. Even when all cryptanalytic attacks fail, information can still be extracted by traffic analysis, the deduction of information from patterns in the communications (message size and volume, time, location). ELINT comprises the interception and analysis of signals from weapons systems, navigation, guidance and radar systems, to find out which systems the opponent uses, how the equipment works and how it performs.

Goal is to know the opponent's capabilities, his order of battle, and to develop electronic counter measures (ECM) against his equipment. The opponent, on the other hand, will develop electronic counter-counter measures (ECCM), for instance encryption or frequency hopping, to prevent exploitation or jamming of his systems. SIGINT truck near Czechoslovakian border mid 1960's Source: ASA Det J Schneeberg veterans East versus West In todays world of global communications, the Internet and freedom of travel, we tend to forget that, only a few years ago, there were two separated worlds on this planet: the East and the West. Until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, East and West werent merely geographically expressions. Almost every country on the globe had taken side, willingly or not. The Cold War raged over the world for almost 45 years and it was often far from cold in many Asian, African, Middle Eastern and South American countries. The separation of these two worlds was nowhere more visible than on the border between Western Europe and the Soviet Union, the co-called Iron Curtain.

It was a border that few were allowed to cross and on-the-spot intelligence gathering was a very risky business. Consequently, for decades, little was known about the opponent and huge efforts were made to retrieve even the smallest piece of military, political or economical information from 'the other side'. These were the heydays of espionage, intelligence agencies and SIGINT organisations. Both the West and the Soviet Union had build up huge armies with an enormous arsenal. The skies were crowded with various signals and SIGINT was an ideal method to collect information from a  relatively  safe distance. Huge resources and a lot of money were spent to intercept each others signals. Both sides deployed many mobile and fixed intercept stations. Eavesdropping on the Enemy The content or technical information behind some signals could be read or analysed immediately, but much of the intercepted information could not be read because it was encrypted. The introduction of digital systems made possible the development of far more complex encryption schemes. Nevertheless, both the Western countries and the Soviets still had their successes. A key factor in breaking encrypted signals was to collect enough data. More data means more statistical information for the mathematicians who attack the codes. Both the United States and the Soviet Union had plenty of the brightest mathematicians.

Now they just needed plenty of data. No problem! The global intercept capabilities of the American ECHELON system, in close cooperation with NSAs codebreakers, are renowed. During the Cold War, ASA and later NSA operated important SIGINT stations in Germany, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, some of which are still operational. In Germany, the frontier of the Cold War, some well known examples were the American SIGINT Field Station Berlin on top of Teufelsberg and ASA Det J in Schneeberg, near Czechoslovakia. The Soviets also had their share in the worldwide eavesdropping competition with, among others, SIGINT stations at Lourdes in Cuba, Cam Ranh Bay in Vietnam, near Tallinn in Estland and in South Yemen. They also had several stations in East Germany, such as the Yenisei and Urian listening posts in Brocken. The GRU (military intelligence), the KGB's 16th Directorat (interception of communications and Signal Intelligence) and 8th Main Directorat (communication and cryptography) did their part in processing the intercepted traffic.

They also operate a large satellite network for interception and communications and have a large number of intercept stations around the world. Teufelsberg Field Station Berlin Nonetheless, even some smaller countries were more than capable. The HVA, the East German foreign intelligence service under control of the Ministerium fï¿½r Staatssicherheit (Stasi), was well known and feared for its excellent espionage capabilities by human intelligence (HUMINT) with an enormous number of agents operating in the West. However, for decades, their technical capabilities were heavily underestimated. After the dissolving of the German Democratic Republic, it became clear that the Stasi SIGINT directorat HA III had 25 departments, over 2000 staff officers and some 80 installations in East Germany. They monitored shortwave transmissions and more than 30,000 West German telephones from military, diplomatic and intelligence personnel from both West Germany and NATO. They eavesdropped on radio signal paths (telephone) used by the Federal Post Office, and on VHF radios of the BND (West German intelligence) surveillance teams. Virtually all West German satellite-based telephone, Telex, fax, and data transmissions were monitored.

Short range signals (VHF, radar, missile guidance) often required interception from closer distances. Airborne SIGINT and ELINT platforms constantly patrolled close to and often even beyond enemy borders to eavesdrop on their signals . These were most dangerous missions, even in peacetime. Many of the crews never returned home. The shootdown of a C-130 above Armenia in 1958 and an EC-121 above the Sea of Japan in 1968 are only a few well known of over 40 U.S. aircraft that were lost. These reconnaissance programs were top secret and the public usually never knew about these losses. Other welll know U.S. SIGINT platforms were the RC-135, the EA-3B and EA-6B. The famous Soviet TU-95 and TU-142 were also known for their regular testing of the limits at the NATO borders. SIGINT collection by ships was just as hazardous, with the capture of AGER-2 USS Pueblo by North Korea in 1968 being the most notorious and most damaging for U.S. communications security. The Soviet spy trailers were also regular visitors in Western coastal waters.

Some naval SIGINT operations were most daring. In 1971, during operation Ivy Bells, the nuclear U.S. submarine USS Halibut placed a 6 ton weighing wiretap on an undersea communications cable in the Sea of Okhotsk. AGER-2 USS Pueblo SIGINT vessel in 1967 The cable connected the Soviet naval submarine base in Kamchatsky, north-east of the Kuril Islands, with Vladivostok Fleet headquarters. The Sea of Okhotsk was Soviet territorial waters, forbidden for foreign ships, heavily protected and a playground for numerous Soviet surface and subsurface naval exercises. Not quite a friendly environment for U.S. submarines. Similar Soviet submarine SIGINT missions undoubtedly remain hidden in Russian archives. Mysterious Cold War Signals Often, the secrets behind unreachable signals were unveiled, either by ELINT, COMINT or espionage. However, despite huge efforts and risks, some signals remained unidentified and some of them even rose to the stardom of mysterious Cold War signals. These signals also caught the attention of both Intelligence organisations and civilian radio amateurs.

There was much speculation about the purpose of these signals, some of which were in voice or Morse, others were strange analogue or digital transmissions that lasted for decades. Once such station was nicknamed the Russian Woodpecker, because of its characteristic repetitive tapping noise. The Woodpecker's annoying high-power signal (an estimated 10 Megawatt) switched between different shortwave frequencies and disrupted legitimate utility and amateur broadcasts all over the world. The broadcast started in 1976 and continued for 10 years. For decades, its purpose remained unknown to the general public. After the fall of the Soviet Union it was confirmed that the strange signal originated from an over-the-horizon (OTH) radar as part of the Soviet Anti Ballistic Missile early warning system. The enormous antenna of the Duga-3 OTH system is located in Chernobyl (now Ukraine). The transmitter site, called Chernobyl-2, was codenamed Steel Yard by Western military intelligence, who apparently managed to photograph the transmitter site during the Cold War. Noteworthy is that site now lays within the 18 miles Chernobyl exclusion zone, adding to its mystery status.

The United States also had their part in long-distance snooping by developing the MELODY system, a so-called bistatic interception that uses objects like the Soviet's own missiles, or even the moon, to reflect radar signals over very large distance, far beyond the horizon. This enabled tracking and analysis of remote radar locations inside Russia. Another famous Soviet signal is known under its call-sign UVB-76. The station, nicknamed the Buzzer, started broadcast in 1982 with a two-second beep tone and switched, after a decade of operation, to a monotonous 25 buzz tones per minute. Continuously, every hour, every single day, year after year. The station is extensively observed by radio amateurs (without doubt an equally monotonous job) and only a handful of voice conversations were ever recorded in its 28 years of operation. Its call-sign UVB-76 was revealed during one of its rare voice conversations. The station, which apparently relocated in 2010, is currently known under its new callsign UVB-76 / MDZhB. The purpose of The Buzzer remains unknown until today.

"Woodpecker" Duga-3 antenna at the Chernobyl-2 site Some believe that the Buzzer simply occupies certain frequencies to have them available in case of a crisis or war. Others believe that the uninterrupted signal is part of the notorious so-called Dead Hand, an autonomous launch system for clusters of nuclear missile sites that supposedly would be activated if the signal was interrupted, due to elimination of Soviet military command by an American first strike. As we now know, the dead hand systems did actually exist, but the relation between UVB-76 and the doomsday system is nothing more than pure speculation. Nevertheless, the few interrupts of the signal did raise some eyebrows at the time. Another true Cold War icon is, of course, the notorious numbers station. These stations broadcast streams of numbers or letters in voice or Morse, and these unlicensed and officially non-existing stations are transmitting since many decades. During the Cold War, there was much speculation by radio amateurs who intercepted these mysterious messages. Some believed these were spy stations, but governments denied their existence or claimed them to be weather signals, buoys or beacons.

Today, theres plenty of evidence, from spy case court documents and archives, that they are indeed encrypted messages, send by intelligence agencies to their agents in the field. Mostly, these messages are encrypted with the unbreakable one-time pad system. Although the Cold War officially ended, there are still many active numbers stations and new keep popping up, sending messages in many different languages. Who is listening to them remains a mystery. More about numbers station is found on this webpage . Sounds from the Cold War How did the Cold War over radio waves actually sound like? Below some examples of intercepted signals, accompanied by a short description. Click the icons or the links to listen. You will notice that some sounds are very mysterious and, given the paranoid mind set during the Cold War, must have sounded pretty scary at the time. The most intriguing of all is that the end of the Cold War did not end this war of the waves. In the contrary, the Cold War is merely replaced by a Cold Peace, with a flourishing world of mysterious of signals. A shortwave receiver with a good antenna was, and still is, all you need to discover innumerable signals... Woodpecker Soviet Duga-3 station at the Chernobyl-2 site.

Its very powerful signal disrupted radio communications all over the world. According to the former commander of the Chernobyl-2 site, the installation was damaged during the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and never became operational again. The Buzzer Soviet UVB-76 transmitter, sending its monotone buzz tones for several decades. The purpose of The Buzzer has never been disclosed. According to some sources, the transmitter site was located near Povarovo, 25 miles north-west of Moscow, but relocated in 2010. ELBRUS Analogue T-217M voice encryption system from the former East German NVA (Nationale Volksarmee). Sound sample from Der SAS- und Chiffrierdienst. For more information about East German equipment, please visit Der SAS- und Chiffrierdienst website and select "Technik" pages. Czech lady Numbers station from the former Czechoslovakian StB (State Security Service). A well recognizable introduction signals was followed by the actual message, mostly encrypted with the unbreakable one-time pad system Stasi gong station This is one the most sinister numbers station ever, operated by the East German Stasi.

The station with its very recognizable weird gong sounds transmitted nearly a decade and suddenly stopped in may 1990, in the last months of East Germany's existence. Attencion Station Numbers station of the Cuban intelligence service DG. These stations remain very active to this day. Several Cuban agents, receiving orders through these stations, were arrested in the United States. The most recent spy case was in 2009. Russian Male Unidentified Russian numbers station, believed to be KGB operated. More on this website Cold War glossary Past Peculiar Cold War glossary This Cold War glossary contains definitions for key terms, concepts and events between 1945 and 1991. It has been written and compiled by Alpha History authors. A tripartite military alliance between Australia, New Zealand and the US, signed in 1951. arms race A period where two or more nations engage in rapid production of military technology and equipment, often in competition to each other. AVH Abbreviation for Allamvedelmi Hatosag, the state security police in communist Hungary.

Bay of Pigs A beach in Cuba, which became famous as the main location for the failed 1961 invasion by CIA-backed Cuban exiles. Berlin airlift A massive program using aircraft to supply Western zones of Berlin with food, fuel and coal, during the Soviet and East German blockade of the city. Berlin blockade Joseph Stalin and East Germany’s closure of land corridors and entry points to the Western zones of Berlin in 1948-49, an attempt to starve the Western allies out of the capital. Berlin Wall A fortified wall constructed around the Western zones of Berlin in 1961, to prevent the escape and defection of East Germans to the West. It remained a symbol of Cold War division until 1989. Bizonia The name adopted by the US and British zones of West Germany when they merged in 1947. blockade A military action to surround or barricade a port, island, city or nation, often with naval vessels. Brandenburg Gate A Berlin landmark, once a main city entrance, later closed by the Berlin Wall. brinkmanship Bold, aggressive or risky measures that risk war, to pressure the other side to back down.

Brussels Pact (or Treaty of Brussels) A 1948 agreement between five European states, a forerunner to the NATO agreement. Checkpoint Charlie A US-manned gateway on the border of East and West Berlin. CIA Central Intelligence Agency, US government body formed in 1947. Responsible for intelligence gathering, espionage and covert operations. Comecon Abbreviation for the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, a Soviet-led council that facilitated trade, economic, technical and scientific cooperation between Soviet bloc nations. It was formed in 1949 and disbanded in 1991. Cominform Abbreviation for the Communist Information Bureau, a committee of delegates from communist countries that met between 1947 and 1956. One function of Cominform was to ensure conformity and unity between Soviet bloc governments. Comintern Abbreviation for the Communist International, a committee of delegates from communist parties around the world. The Comintern met regularly in Moscow between 1919 and its dissolution in 1943. Its main function was to expand communism by assisting communist movements with tactical direction and support.

Commonwealth of Independent States (or CIS) A confederation of 11 former Soviet bloc countries, formed in December 1991 after the dissolution of the USSR. communism A political ideology and system that strives for a society with no classes or structures of government. CONELRAD An emergency broadcasting system, introduced by the US government in 1951, for use in the event of a Soviet nuclear attack. conscription (also draft) Compulsory military service, especially in times of war. containment The policy of restricting communist expansion, a key element of the Truman Doctrine. coup d’etat (pronounced ‘coo-day tar’) Seizure of power by a small group, usually comprised of military officers. The US ‘defence readiness condition’, ranging from DEFCON 5 (peace) to DEFCON 1 (imminent war). detente (pronounced ‘day-tont’) A state of improved relations after a period of conflict or tension. In the Cold War it refers to the decade-long ‘thaw’ in US-Soviet relations between the late 1960s and late 1970s.

Domino Theory Anti-communist theory, contending that the rise of communism in one country would inevitably lead to it spreading to neighbouring countries, particularly in Asia. duck and cover A civil defence slogan, used to teach American citizens how to respond in the event of a nuclear strike. espionage The practice of using agents and spies to advance government policy, through secret activities such as information-gathering, sabotage or assassination. evil empire Term used by Ronald Reagan in 1983 to describe the Soviet bloc. EXCOMM Abbreviation for Executive Committee, a group of politicians, defence personnel and advisors assembled by John F Kennedy during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis. fallout shelter (also nuclear shelter, atomic shelter) A secure building, often underground, to protect inhabitants from fallout following a nuclear attack. Federal Bureau of Investigation (or FBI) A US civilian law enforcement body, formed 1908. Responsible for investigating and prosecuting federal crimes and protecting domestic security. Federal Republic of Germany (also FRG or BRD) The formal title of the Western-aligned nation of West Germany between 1949 and 1990.

first strike The ability of one nation to launch a pre-emptive or surprise attack on another, giving them a significant advantage. foreign policy A government’s policies with regard to other nations. Can relate to areas such as diplomacy, alliances, trade, sanctions and military involvement or intervention. German Democratic Republic (also GDR or DDR) The formal title of the Soviet-aligned East Germany between 1949 and 1990. glasnost Russian for ‘openness’. A Soviet reform implemented by Mikhail Gorbachev during the late 1980s, encouraging open debate, discussion and freedom of speech. Grepo East German armed police, responsible for guarding the Berlin Wall and other borders. gulags Russian prison camps used between 1940 and 1960, for isolating political prisoners, career criminals and other undesirables, while exploiting their labour. Helsinki Accords An agreement signed in 1975, aimed at improving communications and relationships between Soviet bloc and Western countries. hotline A communications system directly linking two remote points. Usually refers to teletype machines installed in the White House and Kremlin in 1963.

HUAC Acronym for the House Un-American Activities Committee, a committee of the US Congress that investigated and questioned suspect communists and communist sympathisers, particularly in the late 1940s and 1950s. intercontinental ballistic missile (or ICBM) A long-range missile capable of sub-orbital flight. During the Cold War, these missiles could be fired from the US to hit targets in Europe and Soviet Russia, and vice versa. Iron Curtain A term invented by Winston Churchill to describe the political and physical barriers between the Soviet bloc and the ‘free’ countries of Europe. isolationism A foreign policy position, where a nation refuses to commit to alliances or ‘take sides’ in international disputes Jupiter A nuclear-capable US ballistic missile, deployed early in the Cold War. KGB ‘Committee for State Security’, formed 1954. The Soviet Union intelligence-gathering and espionage agency and secret police; the broad equivalent of the CIA. Kitchen Debate An informal but politically charged discussion between Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev in 1959.

Korean War A-C | D-F | G-K | L-R | S-Z Long Telegram A diplomatic cable sent by George Kennan in 1946, offering advice on the Soviet Union and possible foreign policy approaches. Kennan’s advice formed the basis of the Truman Doctrine. MAD (see mutually-assured destruction) Marshall Plan A US-financed relief package, providing funds to European nations to assist their reconstruction after World War II. Marxism A political philosophy and theory of history, developed in the 1800s by Karl Marx. McCarthyism A period of anti-communist investigations, persecution and hysteria in the US during the early 1950s. Named for Senator Joe McCarthy, its chief instigator. MI5 Short for ‘Military Intelligence Section 5’, the main British intelligence and espionage agency. military-industrial complex A conspiracy theory, suggesting links between politicians, military leaders and industrialists who produce weapons and other military equipment. Minuteman An American ballistic missile, developed in the early 1960s to carry nuclear payloads. missile gap A 1950s American perception that the Soviet Union had a larger stockpile of missiles. This was later proved to be incorrect.

mujahideen Islamic resistance fighters who fought against the Soviets in Afghanistan, with US backing. Mutual Defense Assistance Act An act of the US Congress, passed in October 1949, authorising the government to supply military aid, equipment and support to nations at risk from communism. Later dubbed the ‘Military Marshall Plan’. mutually-assured destruction (or MAD) The Cold War assumption that both the US and USSR would refrain from launching nuclear weapons, since each knew the other would retaliate, and this would lead to devastation on both sides. National Liberation Front (see Viet Cong) National Security Agency (or NSA) A US agency that gathers information and intelligence by monitoring, intercepting and deciphering radio and signals traffic. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (or NATO) A global military alliance formed in 1949; its members included US, Great Britain, France and West Germany. nuclear fallout Radioactive particles that remain in the atmosphere after a nuclear explosion and are disbursed by weather. Fallout can potentially cause radioactive sickness, cancer, birth deformities and death. nuclear sharing The Cold War practice of sharing US nuclear weapons with its NATO partners. nuclear weapons Explosive devices that generate enormous heat and destructive power through nuclear fission.

nuclear winter A long period where fallout and other particles left by a nuclear war linger in the atmosphere, blocking out sunlight. This leads to a slow-down in plant and animal growth, making food production very difficult. Ostpolitik A detente-era policy adopted by West Germany and its leader Willy Brandt, who sought to improve communication and economic ties with East Germany. perestroika Russian for ‘restructuring’. A reform movement in the USSR during the 1980s, led by Mikhael Gorbachev. It involved some liberal reforms and a relaxing of centralised controls over the economy. Politburo The executive council or cabinet of ministers in the Soviet Union and other communist nations. Prague Spring The liberal reform movement in Czechoslovakia in 1968, ultimately suppressed by Moscow. Project A119 An American project, devised in 1958 and aimed at advancing ahead of the USSR in the Space Race. The objective of Project A119 was to detonate a large nuclear weapon on the Moon that would be visible to the naked eye. It was abandoned in 1959.

proxy war A conflict where larger nations support and supply smaller nations involved in a war or civil war, without becoming directly involved. rapprochement A French term describing the reconciliation or re-establishment of good relations between previously nations or governments that were previously hostile. In the context of the Cold War, rapprochement generally refers to the improved relations that occurred during detente (early 1970s) and the Gorbachev era (late 1980s). Reagan Doctrine A term given to the foreign policy of the Reagan administration, particularly regard to the Soviet Union. At the core of the Reagan Doctrine was the ‘rollback’ of communism, to be achieved by supporting anti-communist groups and movements. Red Scare Two periods of anti-communist hysteria in the United States, the first following the Russian Revolution (1918-19), the second in the late 1940s and early 1950s. revolution A period of rapid political, social and/or economic change in a particular nation or region, often involving some violence. rollback A policy advocated by US president Ronald Reagan, who wanted to reduce the size of the Soviet bloc, rather than to contain it.

SALT (see Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) satellite nation A nation that is nominally independent but relies on a larger nation for political and/or economic direction and support. SDI (see Strategic Defence Initiative) Second Cold War Name sometimes given to the post-detente revival of Cold War tensions during the early 1980s. Secret Speech An address given to the Soviet Congress by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956, in which he denounced the tyranny, brutality and “abuse of power” perpetrated by the Soviet government under Joseph Stalin. secret police A state-run police force that investigates, spies on, identifies and eliminates potential opponents. Securitate The secret police force of the communist regime in Romania for most of the Cold War. self-determination The belief that a population should have the right to form a nation, declare independence and decide on their own political system and government. Singing Revolution Describes the independence movement in the Baltic States – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania – between 1987 and 1991, so-called because it began with sustained public singing.

Sino-Soviet split A breakdown in relations between China and USSR during the 1960s, culminating in border clashes in 1969. socialism An ideology and political system, with the objective of transitioning from capitalism to communism. Socialist economies do not permit private ownership of capital, profit or other elements of capitalism. South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (or SEATO) An eight-nation alliance of Asia-Pacific countries, formed in 1955 to limit communism in Asia. Soviet bloc Term describing the communist nations of Europe, under the influence of the Soviet Union. space race US-Soviet competition in rocket technology and space exploration, between the 1950s and 1975. Speech of Hope The name given to an address given by US Secretary of State James F Byrne in Stuttgart in September 1946. Byrne assured listeners that the US would protect German sovereignty and, in time, allow a return to German self-government. sphere of influence A region or group of nations controlled or influenced by another major nation. Sputnik The name of the first two man-made satellites to orbit Earth, launched by the USSR in 1957.

Star Wars (see Strategic Defence Initiative) Stasi An abbreviation for the Ministry of State Security, an East German secret police agency responsible for security and intelligence-gathering. The Stasi was one of the Cold War’s most repressive and brutal security forces. StB An abbreviation for Statni Bezpecnost, a plain-clothed secret police agency in communist Czechoslovakia. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (or SALT I and SALT II) The name of two US-Soviet arms reduction summits, held in 1972 and 1979, and the agreements they produced. Strategic Defence Initiative (or SDI) The Reagan administration’s revitalised missile defence program, initiated in 1983. It included early warning systems, missile interception systems and research into the use of armed satellites. strategic nuclear weapon A larger yield nuclear weapon, intended for launching against cities, ports, military bases or other targets of major significance. tactical nuclear weapon A smaller yield nuclear weapon, intended for battlefield use against enemy forces. Tet Offensive A major campaign launched by communists in Vietnam in January 1968, suggesting that a US victory was years away.

Tiananmen Square A large public square in Beijing, China. The site where Mao Zedong proclaimed a communist victory in October 1949; also the location of a student demonstration that was crushed by Chinese troops in June 1989. Truman Doctrine Broadly refers to US Cold War foreign policy, based on Harry Truman’s pledge to support nations in their struggle to resist communism. Tsar Bomba Russian for ‘King Bomb’. A 50-megaton nuclear weapon, the largest ever tested, detonated by the USSR in 1961. U-2 An American spy plane, able to fly undetected at high altitude for the covert collection of surveillance photographs. United Nations (or UN) A multilateral body formed in 1945 to consider international problems and offer resolutions, with a view to avoiding conflict. Velvet Revolution The peaceful popular movement that emerged in Czechoslovakia in late 1989, leading to political reform and free elections. Viet Cong A popular term for the National Liberation Front, or NLF, a group of communist guerrillas who fought against the South Vietnamese and American forces between 1959 and 1975.

Viet Minh Vietnamese communist-nationalist group, led by Ho Chi Minh, which defeated French colonial forces in 1954. Vietnam War A south-east Asian conflict (1959-75) between communist North Vietnam and the Viet Cong (backed by China and the USSR) and non-communist South Vietnam (supported by US military aid and involvement). It ended with the 1975 takeover of Vietnam by communist forces. Warsaw Pact

Question: What was the name of the security organisation that operated in East Germany during the Cold War?
Answer: STASI