Color – The Physics Hypertextbook Discussion red green blue Color is a function of the human visual system, and is not an intrinsic property. Objects don't "have" color, they give off light that "appears" to be a color. Spectral power distributions exist in the physical world, but color exists only in the mind of the beholder. Color is determined first by frequency and then by how those frequencies are combined or mixed when they reach they eye. This is the physics part of the topic. Light falls on specialized receptor cells (called rods) at the back of the eye (called the retina) and a signal is sent to the brain along a neural pathway (called the optic nerve). This signal is processed by the part of the brain near the back of the skull (called the occipital lobe). Here's where the biology kicks in, or maybe it's the psychology, or maybe it's both. They eye is very much like a camera, but the brain is not like a video recorder. The brain is not like a computer with fixed hardware of transistors and capacitors executing some sort of software code.

The neurons of the brain are probably best thought of as wetware — a fusion of hardware and software or maybe something completely different. I don't feel qualified to say much about that end of this process. Once the visual information leaves the eye, basic physics ends and neurocognition takes over. Color is determined first by frequency. Let's start by determining what a typical person would see when looking at electromagnetic radiation of a single frequency. Physicists call this monochromatic light. (The literal meaning of this word is "single color", but the actual meaning is "single frequency".) Low frequency radiation is invisible. With an adequately bright source, starting somewhere around 400 THz (1 THz = 1012 Hz) most humans begin to perceive a dull red. As the frequency is increased, the perceived color gradually changes from red to orange to yellow to green to blue to violet. The eye doesn't perceive violet so well. It always seems to look dark compared to other sources at equal intensity. Somewhere between 700 THz and 800 THz the world goes dark again. How many colors are there in the spectrum above? How many did I name?

red blue violet The simple named colors are mostly monosyllabic English words — red, green, brown, black, white, gray. Brevity indicates an Old English (Anglo-Saxon) origin. Monosyllabic words are generally the oldest words in the English language — head, eye, nose, foot, cat, dog, cow, eat, drink, man, wife, house, sleep, rain, snow, sword, sheath, God…. These words go back more than fifteen centuries. Yellow, purple, and blue are exceptions to the one-syllable-equals-English rule. Yellow and purple are Old English color words with two syllables. Blue is a one syllable French word (bleu) that replaced a two syllable Old English word (hǽwen) eight hundred years ago. Some of the names for colors are loan words from French (many of which are loan words from other languages). Since the ʒ (zh) sound doesn't exist in Old English, orange and beige are obviously French. (Garage is also a very French word.) The words violet and orange were the names of plants (nouns) before they were the names of colors (adjectives).

Violet came from 14th Century French, which came from Latin. Orange came from 16th Century French, which came from Italian, which came from Arabic, which came from Persian, which came from Sanskrit. English arose when three Germanic tribes — the Angles, The Saxons, and the Jutes — migrated from continental Europe to the British Isles in the Fifth Century. The language they spoke is called Anglo-Saxon or Old English. You would hardly recognize this language if you heard it spoken or saw it written today. Danes probably have the best chance of understanding spoken Old English, Icelanders the best chance of understanding written Old English. Of the six named colors in my spectrum, only four were known to the Anglo-Saxons: reád, geolu, grÉne, hǽwen. Do you recognize any of them? réad grÉne hǽwen In the year 1066, an invasion of French speaking peoples — the Normans, the Bretons, and the French — swept over the British Isles. The last Anglo-Saxon King of England, King Harold II, was succeeded by the first Norman king, William the Conqueror.

The Normans had an odd empire (if that's the word for it) that included the British Isles, northern France (appropriately named Normandy), southern Italy, Sicily, Syria, Cyprus, and Libya. William was a Norman, descended from Norsemen, but he spoke French not Swedish or Norwegian or Danish. One factor leading to the rise of the Normans in their scattered empire is their ability to quickly integrate themselves into the culture of the peoples they conquered. For purposes of this discussion, we care about language. When the Normans got to northern France, they started speaking French. When the Normans got to England they got the Anglo-Saxons to start speaking French too (sort of). In about a hundred years, Anglo-Saxon had mutated into something closer to what we would recognize as English today — neither French nor Anglo-Saxon. Old English became Middle English. This is when English acquired the words blue (which replaced hǽwen) and violet (which never existed as an English color word before). rede blu violet The next change in the English language was one of pronunciation — the Great Vowel Shift (1350–1700).

This is when silent e and other spelling rules that frustrate both native and second language speakers arose. The notion of long and short vowels also changed. At one time a long vowel was one that was pronounced for a longer time than a short vowel. Take the words pan and pane. Before the Great Vowel Shift, pan was pronounced "pan" and pane was pronounced "paaaneh" with a literal looong vowel and a non-silent "eh" at the end. Being mostly a change in pronunciation, the rise of Modern English around 1550 doesn't affect our discussion of color words. Movable type printing invented in Germany around 1445 is probably more important. Books became relatively plentiful, spelling became standardized, and tracking down the first occurrence of a word became easier. The Modern English period is when the words orange and indigo were first used to identify colors. red The Compleat Gentleman by Henry Peacham (1622) There is no physical significance in color names. It's all a matter of culture and culture depends on where you live, what language you speak, and what century it is.

A given wave of light has the same frequency no matter who is viewing it, but the person perceiving the color will call it a word appropriate to their culture. Color discrimination is probably the same for all people in all cultures (all people with properly working eyeballs). Did the English see orange or violet before the French told them about it? Of course they could. They probably called orange reád (red) or geolo-reád (yellow-red) and violet hǽwen (blue) or blæc-hǽwen (dark blue) because those were the words they had available. Why is an orange called an orange but a lemon not called a yellow and a lime not called a green? What would you call indigo if I showed it to you? Most certainly blue. I don't know anyone who uses the word indigo in everyday conversation. Maybe some painters do. That'd be about it for indigo as far as Modern English speakers were concerned. In some languages blue and indigo are equally significant color words. Maybe the real question is do we need blue, indigo, and violet? …World Color Survey… Frequency determines color, but when it comes to light, wavelength is the easier thing to measure.

A good approximate range of wavelengths for the visible spectrum is 400 nm to 700 nm (1 nm = 10−9 m) although most humans can detect light just outside that range. Since wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency the color sequence gets reversed. 400 nm is a dull violet (but violet always appears dull). 700 nm is a dull red. Wavelength varies with the speed of light, which varies with medium. The speed of light is about 0.03% slower in air than in vacuum. If you're trying to understand color, wavelength is just as good as frequency. We humans who speak English and live at the dawn of the 21st Century have identified six wavelength bands in the electromagnetic spectrum as significant enough to warrant a designation with a special name. They are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Where one color ends and another begins is a matter of debate as you will see in the table below. Wavelength ranges for monochromatic light (nm) 1 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 1966. 2 Hazel Rossotti. Color. Princeton University Press, 1983. 3 Edwin R. Jones.

Physics 153 Class Notes . University of South Carolina, 1999. 4 Deane B. Judd. Goethe's Theory of Colors. MIT Press, 1970. color 400–450 400–450 Which brings us to indigo. How many of you reading this learned about "Roy G. Biv" (Americans, I presume) or that "Richard of York Gave Battle In Vain" (Britons, I presume)? Who among you learned that between blue and violet there was this special color called indigo? Indigo. The only time I ever hear it is when students recite the visible spectrum. Indigo is a color of relatively little importance. If indigo counts as a color then so should canary, and mauve, and puce, and brick, and teal, and so on. Where is their place in the spectrum? How many colors are there in this swatch? How many were you taught in elementary school? The inclusion of indigo in the spectrum goes back to Isaac Newton . More on this after the data table.

If you believe that indigo is an important color, then here's a set of spectral tables for you. Wavelength ranges for monochromatic light (nm) with indigo 5 Howard L. Cohen. AST 1002 Study Guide . University of Florida, 1999–2003. 6 J.L. Morton. Color Matters , 1995–2002. 7 A Dictionary of Science. Oxford University Press, 2000. 390–425 425–460 Did Richard of York give battle in vain so that future citizens in the dismantled British Empire would forever remember indigo? Did Mr. and Mrs. Biv conceive little Roy G. so that future generations of Americans might learn the true nature of light? Where did indigo come from?

When Newton attempted to reckon up the rays of light decomposed by the prism and ventured to assign the famous number seven, he was apparently influenced by some lurking disposition towards mysticism, If any unprejudiced person will fairly repeat the experiment, he must soon be convinced that the various coloured spaces which paint the spectrum slide into each other by indefinite shadings: he may name four or five principal colors, but the subordinate spaces are evidently so multiplied as to be incapable of enumeration. The same illustrious mathematician, we can hardly doubt, was betrayed by a passion for analogy, when he imagined that the primary colours are distributed over the spectrum after the proportion of the diatonic scale of music, since those intermediate spaces have really no precise defined limits. фиолетовый fiolyetoviy The human eye can distinguish something on the order of 7 to 10 million colors — that's a number greater than the number of words in the English language (the largest language on earth). The retina… The rods, which far outnumber the cones, respond to wavelengths in the middle portion of the spectrum of light. If you had only rods in your retina, you would see in black and white. The cones in our eyes provide us with our color vision.

There are three types of cone, identified by a capital letter, each of which responds primarily to a region of the visible spectrum: L to red, M to green, and S to blue. The peak sensitivities are 580 nm for red (L), 540 nm for green (M), and 440 nm for blue (S). Red and green cones respond to nearly all visible wavelengths, while blue cones are insensitive to wavelengths longer than 550 nm. The total response of all three cones together peaks at 560 nm — somewhere between yellow and green in the spectrum. Paraphrase… While red, green, and blue are spaced somewhat equally across the visible spectrum, the specific sensitivities of the L, M, and S cones are not. This might seem a little confusing, especially since the L cones aren't even closely centered on the red area of the spectrum. Fortunately, the spectral sensitivity of the cones is only one part of how the brain decodes color information. Additional processing takes these sensitivities into account. Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage The relative response of the red and green cones to different colors of light are plotted on the horizontal and vertical axes, respectively.

Values on the tongue shaped perimeter are for light of a single wavelength (in nanometers). Values within the curve are for light of mixed frequency. The point in the center labeled D65 corresponds to light from a blackbody radiator at 6500 K — the effective temperature of daylight at midday, a generally accepted standard value of white light. white & black Spectral Classification of Stars additive color mixing The absence of light is darkness. Add light and human eyes to the darkness and you get color — a perception of the human visual system. The retina at the back of the human eye has three types of neurons called cones, each sensitive to a different band of wavelengths — one long, one medium, and one short. The long wavelength cones are most stimulated by light that appears red, the medium wavelength cones by light that appears green, and the short wavelength cones by light that appears blue. A monochromatic wavelength of light (or a narrow band of wavelengths) can be selected as a representative for each of these colors. These become the primary colors of a system that can be used to reproduce other colors in a process known as additive color mixing.

Additive Primary Colors = white Most of us with typical human eyes and a basic knowledge of the English language are familar with the color yellow. This is probably not the case for cyan and magenta. Because inkjet printers (which have cyan, magenta, yellow, and black cartridges) are commonplace nowadays, it's not uncommon for people to recognise the words cyan and magenta, but not know how to pronounce them (ˈsīˌan and məˈjentə). As you'd expect given that it's a combination of blue and green light, cyan appears blue-green — something like the blue of the sky but not exactly. I'd say more like the semiprecious stone turquois than anything else. Magenta is often confused with pink, but magenta is much more vibrant. Pink is desaturated red. Magenta is considered a pure color. (More on this later.) A close relative of magenta is fuschia, which is a synthetic dye. I can't think of anything natural that looks like magenta. These rules are better understood with a diagram than a series of equations. Color mixing is not an all or nothing process.

Red light and green light together appear yellow, it's true, but they can also appear orange when mixed if the red light is brighter than the green light. Red light and green light can be combined in other proportions to produce light that appears to be a color halfway between red and orange, and orange and yellow, and yellow and green. We can keep dividing and subdividing like this to produce new, distinct colors. red yellow-green green One convenient way to represent some of the possibilities is with a continuous color wheel. Starting on the right side and going counterclockwise as is the tradition in mathematics, red is placed on the circumference at 0°, green at 120°, and blue at 240°. The complimentary colors are halfway between the primaries — yellow at 60°, cyan at 180°, and magenta at 300°. These numbers are called hue angles. White is at the origin. The distance from the origin to any point on the colorwheel stated as a fraction of the radius is known as the saturation. White is completely desaturated. Its saturation is 0%. Colors with low saturation are often identified as pale or pastel.

Colors with a high saturation are bright or vibrant. Colors with 100% saturation are said to be pure. more talk optical, superposition: lamp overlap, projection TV with 3 CRTs temporal, rapid alternation, persistence of vision: biased LED spatial, small elements: TV/computer monitor pixels [insert image - pixels?] Purple and violet are similar, though purple is closer to red. In optics, there is an important difference; purple is a composite color made by combining red and blue, while violet is a spectral color, with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light. subtractive color mixing The absence of pigment is white paper. (The absence of pigment is paper that appears white when illuminated with white light.) Add pigment to it. (Subtract certain wavelength ranges.) Subtractive Primary Colors optical, superposition: paints, dyes and pigments are reflective filters spatial, small elements: halftone dots A five color press: yellow, magenta, cyan, black, spot color. historical junk The painter's color wheel is a convenient way to understand how to mimic some colors by mixing red, yellow, and blue pigments. This does not make red, yellow, and blue the primary colors of the human visual system.

They do not satisfy the definition of primary. They can't reproduce the widest variety of colors when combined. Cyan, magenta, and yellow have a greater chromatic range as evidenced by their ability to produce a reasonable black. No combination of red, yellow, and blue pigments will approach black as closely as do cyan, magenta, and yellow. The primary colors are red, green, and blue — not red, yellow, and blue. more talk Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), student of the arts, theatrical director, and author (Iphigenia at Taurus, Egmont, Faust). Lots of interesting descriptive information on the subjective nature of color, which many physicists of his day ignored, but does not propose a physical model of color. The theory of colors, in particular, has suffered much, and its progress has been incalculably retarded by having been mixed up with optics generally, a science which cannot dispense with mathematics; whereas the theory of colors, in strictness, may be investigated quite independently of optics.

Colour is a law of nature in relation with the sense of sight… [It] is an elementary phenomenon in nature adapted to the sense of vision… It is not light, in an abstract sense, but a luminous image that we have to consider. Yellow, blue, and red, may be assumed as pure elementary colors, already existing; from these, violet, orange, and green, are the simplest combined results. That all the colours mixed together produce white, is an absurdity which people have credulously been accustomed to repeat for a century, in opposition to the evidence of their senses. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, 1810 Hmmm. Alright then.

Now, as it is almost impossible to conceive each sensitive point of the retina to contain an infinite number of particles, each capable of vibrating in perfect unison with every possible undulation, it becomes necessary to suppose the number limited, for instance, to the three principal colours, red, yellow, and blue, of which the undulations are related in magnitude nearly as the numbers 8, 7, and 6; and that each of the particles is capable of being put in motion less or more forcibley by undulations differing less or more from a perfect unison; for instance the undulations of green light being nearly in the ratio of 6½, will affect equally the particles in unison with yellow and blue, and produce the same effect as a light composed of these two species: and each sensitive filament of the nerve may consist of three portions, one for each principal colour.

paints, inks, dyes, pigments hemoglobin chlorophyll a is bright blue-green and is twice as common as the olive colored chlorophyll b; carotenoids are yellow orange (carrots, squash, tomatoes) two kinds of carotenes have nutritional significance; anthocyanins provide the red purple blue color of red grapes, red cabbage, apples, radishes, eggplants; anthoxanthins pale yellow of potatoes, onions, cauliflower; transmission stained glass, photographic filters, tinted sunglasses, red sunsets scattering nitrogen molecules make the sky blue foam, froth, clouds, smoke a colloid is basically a suspension of very small particles in another substance: clouds, smoke, haze emulsions are suspensions of one liquid in another: mayonnaise, cosmetic creams milk (fat globules 1-5 μm diameter reduced to <1 μm after homogenization, micelles of milk protein casein 0.1 μm diameter) gels are liquids dispersed in a solid: pudding is water dispersed in starch sols are solids particles dispersed in a liquid: flour and cornstarch thickened sauces dispersion rainbows, diamonds, flint glass, chromatic aberration interference path length differences thin films,

 insect wings & shells, pigeon necks, peacock feathers, mother of pearl, heat stains on metals, spider webs, halos, bubbles, watered silks, mist on glass, photoelastic stress, iridescence, opalescence, pearlescence MTLE Content at Minnesota State University, Mankato - StudyBlue StudyBlue Protolinguistic Stage of Oral Language Development baby noises, physical movements, and interactions with others.

Protolinguistic, Transition, and Language Three stages of Oral Language development Advertisement ) Transition Stage of Oral Language Development Mimicking words and sounds in the child's native tongue Language Stage of Oral Language Development The child is able to communicate about shared experiences with another. Word Consciousness, Language and Conventions of Print, Functions of Print, and Fluency 4 Meta-linguistic abilities acquired through reading activities word consciousness Having an awareness of and interest in words and word meanings as well as seeing connections between spoken words and the printed words. Language and Conventions of Print Include learning how to hold a book, where to begin to read, the left to right motion of reading, and how to continue from one line to another. Functions of Print the reason for the text (entertainment or informational) Fluency The ability to read most words in context quickly, accurately, and automatically and with appropriate expression Phonics The connection between the sounds and letters on a page. Phonological Awareness The ability of the reader to recognize the sounds of spoken language Phonemic awareness The understanding that language is made up of sounds and these sounds can be manipulated to make different words. Phonological Awareness Skills Identifying the beginning and end sounds Segmenting words into sounds 1.

Knowledge of patterns of sounds, letter sound related to syllables. 2. Memorizing sight words. 3. Writing those words correctly many times 4. Writing the words in personal writing. Phonemic Awareness Tasks 1.Ability to hear rhymes and alliteration 2. Ability to do oddity tasks (which one is not like the others) 3. Orally blend words and split syllables 4. The ability to orally segment words 5. The ability to do phonics manipulation tasks Advertisement Rhyming The understanding that the ending sounds of words sound the same. the sounds that make up words with the letters that are used to make up those sounds. Phonics assessment needs to combine _________________. Oral Language, Reading, Writing Activities, and their connectedness. Literacy refers to _____________________. A child's speech and language development. Alphabetic principle The idea that individual letters represent individual speech sounds; therefore, words may be read by saying the sounds represented by the letter, and words may be spelled by writing the letter that represent the sounds. in their own language; speak English, read in English. Ell students should first learn to read _________ then ________ and finally _________.

Traditional approach to spelling Student learns to spell by phonemes and word families. Whole Language Approach to Spelling supports the idea that the student learns to spell by remembering what the word looks like rather than by remembering how it sounds. Developmental Approach to Spelling Student go through several stages of development from invented spelling to conventional spelling Stages of the Developmental Approach 1. Precommunicative Precomminicative Stage of Developmental Spelling Random letters are heard that may match beginning sounds Semiphonetic stage of Developmental Spelling One or more letters representing sounds that are heard, usually without medial vowels. Phonetic Stage of developmental spelling More letters are included such as vowels. They are usually spelled exactly as the perceives the sounds. Transitional Stage of Developmental Spelling Letters are included for all sounds and words contain the correct number of syllables Conventional Stage of Developmental Spelling Mostly correct spelling with only errors in difficult spelling patterns. Structured Language approach to spelling An in-depth focus on letter/sound relationships and progresses through letters, phonemes, blended syllables, to whole words.

Morphology The study of word structure Syntax The rules or patterned relationships that correctly create phrases and sentences from words Word Analysis the process readers use to figure out unfamiliar words based on written patterns Word Recognition The process of automatically determining the pronunciation and some degree of the meaning of an unknown word. Decoding To change communication signals into messages. Root Word The primary base of a word Prefix The affix that is placed at the start of a root word but can't make a word on its own. Suffix follows the root word to which it attaches and appears at the end of the word High Frequency Words the words most often used in the English Language Sight words words that the reader learns to read spontaneously either because of fluency or lack of conformity to orthographic (letter) rules Prosody versification of text and involves such matters as which syllable of a word is accented.

Closed Syllable Type Closed in by a consonant - vowel makes its short sound Open Syllable Type Ends in a vowel - vowel makes a long sound Silent "E" Ends in a vowel consonant "e" - Vowel makes a long sound Vowel Combination Syllable Type Two vowels together make the sound "R" Controlled Contains a vowel plus "R" - Vowel sound is changed Consonant "L" - "E" Syllable Type Applied at the end of a word Dialect Variation Reading Error Pronunciation difference due to dialect ex. caw for car Intonation Shift or Prosody Stress or emphasis changes meaning ex. the girl WAS vs. the GIRL was Graphic Similarity Word looks similar to the correct one ex. horse for house Sound Similarity Rhyme ex. cook for look Grammatical Similarity reading error or simple mistake ex. the blue book is read as the red book Semantic Acceptability meaning is the same ex. child is read as kid Meaning Change substituting a word that changes the meaning of the sentence ex. He rode the horse read as He wrote the horse. Self-Correction with Semantic Acceptability A stand-alone linguistic unit, which cannot be deconstructed or broken down into smaller words.

Contractions Shortened forms of two words in which a letter or letters have been delected Compound Words Two or more words are connected to form a new word. Inflectional Endings Types of suffixes that impart a new meaning to the base or root word. These endings change the gender, number, tense, or form of the base or root words. Context Clues Hints in a sentence or paragraph what an unknown word means Etymology The study of the origin or history of a word Topic What a paragraph or story is about Main Idea The important ideas that the author wants the reader to know about a topic Topic Sentence indicates what the passage is about Paragraph a group of sentences about one main idea Supporting Details sentences that provide more information about the topic and main idea Author's Tone attitude reflected in the statement or passage Author's Purpose Why the author wrote the text (entertain, persuade, inform, describe, or narrate) Summarization Review of the main point of the text and a few supporting points that help describe the main point. Question Answering Method of Comprehension in which the students answer questions the teacher provides regarding the text. Question Gathering Students generate questions about the texts that help them comprehend and think critically about the information or story.

Text Structures Used informational text: title, table of contents, headings, subheadings, bold and italicized words, illustrations, photographs, labeled diagrams, charts, graphs, tables, glossary, and index Setting the place, or location, where a story takes place Theme the underlying message that a writer wants to convey Mood the atmosphere or attitude the writer conveys through descriptive language Prior Knowledge all of an individual's prior experiences, learning, and development that precede entering a specific learning situation or attempting to comprehend a specific text Schemata those structures that represent generic concepts stored in our memory Think-Alouds deliberate explanations of comprehension strategies provided to students out loud by the teacher Self-Questioning reminders to students to keep comprehension visible as they read by asking themselves common questions about their text Retelling a comprehension assessment strategy in which the student retells a story that he or she has read to highlight the main themes Imagery a word or sequence of words that refer to any sensory experience; anything that can be seen tasted smelled, heard, or felt on the skin or with fingers Symbol an object that can be observed with the senses and that suggest other things Allusion an implied reference to a person, event, thing or part of another text.

Simile Direct comparison between two things Metaphor Indirect comparison between two things in which are not already related Parallelism The arrangement of ideas in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs that balance one element with another of equal importance and similar wording Personification Attributing human characteristics to an inanimate object, an abstract quality, or an animal. Euphemism An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant Hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration for effect or comic effect Climax A number of phrases or sentences arranged in ascending order of rhetorical forcefulness Oxymoron Figure of speech which combines contradictory words in a brief phrase Irony The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning. Alliteration Repetition of the same consonant sounds, usually at the beginning of words.

Onomatopoeia a word or group of words that imitate the sound its describing Graphs show specific relationships between two or more variables in a given circumstance Antecedent the word or word group that a pronoun stands for Present Tense expresses action which is currently happening or always true Past tense expresses action that occurred in a past time Future Tense expresses action or condition of future time Present Perfect tense expresses action or a condition that started in the past and is continued or completed in the present Past Perfect Tense expresses action or a condition that occurred as a precedent to some other past action or condition Future Perfect Tense expresses action that started in the past and will continue or conclude in the future Fact Statements that must be supported in order to be accepted Argument a generalization that is proven or supported with facts Persuasion a piece of writing whose purpose is to change the minds of the audience member or to get them to do something Expository Writing a form of writing where the only purpose is to inform Narration discourse that is arranged chronologically Descriptive Writing making an experience available through one of the five senses Prewriting a stage of the writing process during which students gather ideas; this stage may include clustering, listing, brainstorming, mapping, free writing, and charting Revision

 a stage of the writing process where students examine their work and make changes in wording, details, and ideas Editing a stage of the writing process where students continues to make changes to draft, enhancing the ideas rather than altering or changing them Proofreading A stage of the writing process where grammatical and technical errors are addressed Publishing a stage in the writing process at which students may have their work display on a bulletin board, read aloud, or printed in a literary magazine or school anthology Social Competence the ability to get along with and be accepted by peers, family members, teachers, and coaches Self-Esteem how we judge our worth and indicates the extent to which an individual believes he or she is capable, significant, successful, and worthy.

Positive Approach More frequent encouragement, positive reinforcement for effort and corrective, instructional feedback. Reflex Movements Activities that create an automatic response to stimuli. Basic Fundamental Locomotor Movements Activities that utilize instinctive patterns of movement established by combining reflex movements Perceptual Abilities Activities that involve interpreting auditory, visual, and tactile stimuli in order to coordinate adjustments Physical Abilities Activities to develop physical characteristics of fitness, providing students with the stamina necessary for highly advanced, skilled movement. Skilled Movements Activities that involve instinctive, effective performance of complex movement. Problem Solving The instructor presents the initial task and students come to an acceptable solution in unique and divergent ways. Conceptual Theory The instructors focus is on acquisition of knowledge Guided Inquiry Stages of instructions strategically guide students through a sequence of experiences Abstract An image that reduces a subject to its essential visual elements such as lines, shapes, and colors. Background Portions or areas of composition that are behind the primary or dominant subject matter or design areas.

Balance The arrangement of one or more elements in a work of art so that they appear symmetrical or asymmetrical in design and proportion Contrast Juxtaposing one or more elements in opposition, to show their differences Emphasis Making one or more elements in a work of art stand out in such a way as to appear more important or significant. Unity The arrangement of one or more of the elements used to create a coherence of parts and a feeling of completeness or wholeness. Melody the tune, a specific arrangement of sounds in a pleasing pattern Harmony refers to the vertical aspect of music or the musical chords related to a melody Rhythm refers to the duration of musical notes Timbre The quality of a sound Dynamics The loudness or softness or music Place Value System One in which the position of a digit determines its value Rational Numbers can be expressed as a ratio of two integers; a/b where b ≠ 0 Integer The positive and negative whole numbers and zero Whole numbers the natural numbers and zero Natural Number real numbers that cannot be written as the ratio of two integers Percent A base-ten positional notation system for numbers Decimal A number written with a whole-number part, a decimal point, and a decimal part.

Ordinal Numbers Indicate the order of things in a set (1st, 2nd, 3rd ...) Prime number Numbers that can only be factored into 1 and the number itself Greatest common factor the largest number that is a factor of all the numbers in the problem Least Common Multiple The number that is the smallest multiple that all the given numbers will divide into evenly Composite Numbers Whole numbers that have more than two different factors Linear Relationship a relationship in which two qualities are proportional to each other. Nonlinear Relationship A relationship in which change in one quantity does not affect the other quantity to the same extent Order of Operations the order in which mathematical operations should be performed Exponent Form A shortcut method to write repeated multiplication Base the factor number in the exponent Exponent tells how many times the base is multiplied by itself Linear Function A function defined by the equation f(x)=mx+b Exponential Function a function defined by the equation y=abx where a is the starting value, b is the growth factor and x tells how many times to multiply by the growth factor.

Surface Area the sum of all of the faces of a prism or sphere Tesselation An arrangement of closed shapes that completely covers the plane without overlapping or leaving gaps Transformation The change in the position, shape, or size of a geometric figure.

Transformational Geometry The study of the manipulation of objects through movement, rotation, and scaling Symmetry exact similarity between two parts or halves, as if one were a mirror image of the other Translation A transformation that "slides" an object a fixed distance in a given direction Rotation Transformation that turns a figure about a fixed point called the center of rotation Reflection objects have the same shape and size, but the figures face in opposite directions Line of Reflection the line where a mirror may be places the distance from one point to this line is the same point as the distance from the points image to this line Glide Reflection a combination of a reflection and a translation Tolerance the greatest measure of error allowed Perimeter the sum of the lengths of the sides of any polygon Area the number of square units covered by a polygon Sine Ratio instruments that measure angle in degrees Mean the sum off the numbers given divided by the number of data values Median the middle number of a set of data values Mode the number that occurs most often in a set of numbers Range the difference between the highest and lowest values Frequency the number of times any particular data value occurs Relative frequency the number of times an event has occurred divided by the number of attempts Sampling or Surveying collecting data on a small percentage of a population with the goal of obtaining

 the same results that would result from collecting on the entire population Random Sampling choosing events or individuals without regard to time, place, or result Number of Permutations the number of ways in which r items can be selected from n number of items and arrange in a specific order Number of Combinations the number if ways in which r elements can be selected from n elements Inductive thinking the process of finding a pattern from a group of examples.

Deductive Reasoning the process of arriving at a conclusion on the basis of other statements that are all known to be true, such as theorems, axioms, or postulates Manipulatives materials that students can physically handle and move Equillibrium a state in which forces are balanced resulting in stability Static Equilibrium Stability due to lack of changes Dynamic Equilibrium Stability due to a balance between opposite forces Variable Any condition that can be changed Control an extra setup in which all the conditions are the same except for the variable being tested.

Abstract of a paper a summary of the report written at the beginning of the paper Purpose defines and states the results Observations and Results the recorded outcomes of the experiment Conclusions explains why they results proved or disproved the hypothesis Mass a measure of the amount of matter in am object Weight the measure of the Earth's pull of gravity on an object Volume the amount of cubic space that an object occupies Density the mass of a substance contained per unit of volume Specific Gravity the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water Element a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element Molecule the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that substance Compound two or more elements that have been chemically combined Dynamics the study of the relationship between motion and the forces affecting motion Electrical Forces the influential power resulting from electricity as an attractive or repulsive interaction between two charged objects Force of Gravity the force at which the Earth, Moon, or other massively large object attracts another object toward itself Centripetal Force inward force that keeps an object moving in a circle Mechanical Advantage the amount of effort saved when one uses simple or complex machines Physical Property A behavior or apperance of a substance that can be observed without changing the identity of

 a substance Chemical Property the ability of a substance to be changed into new substances Physical change a change that does not result in a new substance (ex.

water to ice - still water just frozen) Chemical change any change of a substance into one or more other substances Chemical Formula a shorthand way of showing what is in a compound through symbols and subscripts Mixture any combination of two or more substances in which the substances keep their own properties. Acid contains the element hydrogen (H); have a very sour taste Bases have a bitter taste contain oxygen and hydrogen (OH) Indicator changes color when in contact with an acid or a base. Salt formed when acids and bases combine chemically Neutralization the combination of acids and bases to form a salt Oxides compounds that are formed when oxygen combines with another element Friction resistance in motion created by surfaces that touch each other Conduction Direct transfer of heat by contact from one substance to another Example: Air touching the surface of the earth can be heated by conduction (Heat energy is transfered from the surface of the earth to the air molecules) Convection the movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which consequently results in transfer of heat. Radiation The transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. Reflection Bouncing back of wave when hits a surface through which it cant pass.

Refraction The bending or change of speed of a wave as it enters a different medium Diffract when waves spread as they travel and encounter obstacles Conductors Materials through which electric charges can flow easily Insulators Materials through which electric charges do NOT flow easily Grounding the removal of static electricity by conduction Calorie the amount of energy it takes to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius Heat Capacity the amount of heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of an object by one degree. Specific heat heat capacity per unit of mass Thermal Energy the total internal energy of objects created by the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules Acoustic Energy energy in the form of mechanical waves that are able to propagate through materials. Radiant Energy The energy that propagates by way of electromagnetic waves (light, x-rays, infrared waves, radio waves, etc) Thermal Energy the total internal energy of objects created by the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules Acoustic Energy energy in the form of mechanical waves that are able to propagate through materials.

Radiant Energy The energy that propagates by way of electromagnetic waves (light, x-rays, infrared waves, radio waves, etc) Electrical energy Energy which results from the movement of charged particles Magnetic Energy The force of attraction or repulsion created by moving or spinning charges. Solar Energy is energy from the sun Chemical Energy Potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction. Mechanical Energy Energy due to the position of something or the movement of something Kinetic Energy energy due to the motion of the object Potential energy the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure Nuclear energy energy found within the atomic nucleus What makes up the axial skeleton? bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage appendicular skeleton bones of shoulder, pelvis, and upper and lower extremities What is the main function of the muscular system? Locomotion and other movement What is the main function of the Skeletal System? supports the body, and protects internal organs. What is the main function of the nervous system? coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them What is the main function of the immune and lymphatic system? body defense (fighting infections and cancer) What is the main function of the respiratory system?

to supply the body tissues with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide Digestive system - main function a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions Photosynthesis the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. Cellular Respiration process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen Transpiration the process the plant uses to transport water to the leaves from the roots Tropism the response of the plant to grow toward or away from a stimulus in the environment speciation formation of a new species Igneous Rock formed from molten rock (magma) sedimentary rocks formed by layered deposits of inorganic and/or organic matter metamorphic rocks created when rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures masses of frozen gases cosmic dust and small rocky particles composed of particles of rock and metal or various sizes a meteoroid that burns up in Earth's atmosphere; a "shooting star" Meteorite meteors that strike Earth's surface Oort cloud A spherical shell of comets that orbit the Sun at a great distance (roughly two light years from the Sun).

Kuiper Belt -it is a region in the solar system outside the orbit of Neptune -where comets are thought to originate. Tide The daily rising or falling of sea level at a given point on the Earth. Sea Breeze the unequal heating of the land and an adjacent, large body of water Thunderstorm a usually brief, local storm produced by the rapid movement of warm moist air within a cumulo-nimbus cloud Land Breeze a breeze that blows from the land to the ocean or a large lake Monsoons winds that change direction with the change of seasons.

Dew Point Temperature at which condensation begins Relative humidity the ratio of the air's water vapor content to its water vapor capacity tornadoes circular storm that starts over land hurricane storms that develop when warm moist air carried by trade winds rotate around a low-pressure eye Waterspout A swirling, funnel-shaped cloud that extends downward and touches a body of water the series of natural processes by which water continually moves among oceans, land, and the atmosphere Leaching liquid extraction of substances contained in a solid Aquifer natural mountain building Faults fractures in the earth's crust that has been created by either tension or compression forces transmitted through the crust volcanism the eruption of molten rock, or lava, from a planet's interior onto its surface Active Volcano A volcano that is currently erupting or likely to erupt.

Dormant Volcanoes A volcano that has not erupted for many years but does have the potential to erupt again in the future Extinct Volcanoes a volcano no longer capable of erupting Intrusive Rock any igneous rock that was formed below the earth's surface extrusive rock any igneous rock that was formed at the earths surface Dikes Old lava tubes formed when magma entered a vertical fracture and hardened Caldera normally formed by the collapse of the top of a volcano Primary Source works, records, etc., that were created during the period of history being studied or immediately after it Secondary Sources works written significantly after the period being studied and abased on primary sources Great Circle any circle that cuts a sphere into two equal parts Geography the study of location and how living things and Earth's features are disturbed throughout the Earth Culture the set of values, conventions, or social practices associated with a particular group Civilization a high level of cultural and technological development Prehistory the period of man's achievements before the development of writing Monotheism the worship of one god Secularism when emphasis shifts away from religion to the state Scientific Revolution characterized by a shift in scientific approach and ideas Agricultural Revolution marked by experimentation that resulted in increased production of crops from land and a new and more technical approach to the

 management of crops Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid growth during which machines became essential to industry Information Technology Revolution The rapid changes brought about by all forms of technology used to create, store, exchange, and use information Tories Colonists who remained loyal to Britain Whigs The name used by advocates of colonial resistance to British measures during the 1760s and 1770s.

first great awakening a religious revival of the 1700s that stressed a personal experience of God and helped develop a national identity among the american colonists Missouri Compromise Congressional solution to the addition of slave states to the union; it forbade slaves to the states north of the Mason-Dixon line Kansas - Nebraska Act Law passed in 1854 creating the Kansas and Nebraska Territories but leaving the question of slavery open to residents, thereby repealing the Missouri Compromise Marshall Plan program for rebuilding the economic foundation of western Europe following WWII Truman Doctrine President Truman's foreign policy declaring US the "leader of the free world" Cold War the state of political tension and military rivalry between the soviet union and the west from the end of WWII to the 1980s United Nations an international organization composed of most countries of the world and dedicated to promoting peace, security, and economic development.

Detente the easing of tensions or strained relations between rivals Natural resources naturally occurring materials and energy in nature that are essential or useful to humans Renewable Resources Resources that can be replaced by natural processes in a relatively short amount of time Nonrenewable resources Resources that are used faster than they can be replaced by natural processes Authoritarian Government Governments in which the head of state is responsible for governing his or her subjects Communist Government Governments in which all members of a government belong to one political party, and in which industries are owned by the state Representative Government government in which the people are ultimately responsible for the government's actions and the laws it passes because members of government are chosen in public elections Constitutional Monarchy a form of government in which a monarch functions as the head of state, but an elected body, such as a parliament, has the most input or output in determining the government's actions Representation The idea that a people can vote Declaration of Independence founding document of the united states Articles of Confederation a weak constitution that governed America during the Revolutionary war Constitution The fundamental law of the republic System of Checks and Balances the determination that no branch of government should have enough power to continually dominate the others Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the constitutions dealing with civil liberties and civil rights Ethnocentrism

 Belief that one's culture is the central and superior culture Physical Geography the locations such features as climate, water, and land; how these relate to each other; and the forces that shaped and changed them Cultural Geography studies the location, characteristics, and influence of the physical environment on different cultures around the world Population a group of people living within a certain geographic area Traditional Economy an economy based on tradition and old ways of doing things Capitalism an economic system based on private ownership of capital Command Economy an economy in which decisions about production and allocation are made by the government Mixed Economy an economy in which certain sectors are left to private ownership and the free market, while others are regulated by the governement Technological system a system that consists of different parts and uses scientific knowledge to solve problems Technological service a service that is provided to the society using scientific knowledge Technology Solution a solution using the knowledge of science to solve a problem Transfer of learning Who wrote the principle of the "Golden Rule"?

Recursive Function Requiresthe computation of all previous terms in order to find a subsequent term Geometric Sequence A set of numbers that share a constant ratio Arithmetic Sequence A set of numbers where the common difference between the term is constant Permutation In which does order count - combination or permutation? Combination In which is replacement allowed - combination or permutation? Repetition Repeating the information so that it is stored in your memory Concentration Focusing attention on one thing only Visualization Creating a strong, vivid picture in your mind of what you are trying to remember Association Remembering things by relating them to each other in some way Association,Visualization, Concentration, and Repetition. the 4 processes thatenhance students’ ability to remember Inflectional Morphemes Morphemesthat allow speakers to encode grammatical information such as tense, action,possession, and third-person Syntax deals with the structure of sentences and morphology deals with the structureof words What is the difference between syntax and morphology?

4 basic word types Regular for reading and spelling, regular for reading but not spelling, irregular, and rule based Free Morphemes Morphemes that can stand by themselves Bound Morphemes Morphemes that can not stand alone Derivational Morphemes Morphemes that are added to words to change their meaning (happiness - unhappiness) Allegory A story in verse or prose with characters representing virtues and vices. Ballad A simple narrative verse that tells a story that is sung or recited. Drama Play - comedy, modern, or tragedy - typically in 5 acts Epic Long poem reflecting values inherent in the generative society Traditional literature Includes tales that have been handed down from one generation to the next that depict good vs. evil, right vs. wrong, talking animals, heroes, etc. Folktales/Fairy tales adventures of animals or humans and the supernatural characterize these stories. The hero is on a quest. Focuses on good verses evil and rewards and punishment Fables Animals that act like humans which teach us a lesson Myths A traditional story about gods, ancestors, or heroes told to explain the natural world or the customs and beliefs of a society.

Legends Same as myths only with more recent events Tall Tales Purposefully exaggerated accounts of individuals with superhuman strength. Modern fantasy Includes stories with unrealistic or unworldly elements that are started out based in reality Realistic Fiction Tells about characters and events that are like people and events in real life Historical Fiction A story that is set in the past and portrays people, places, and events that did or could have happened. Newspaper Articles Short texts that rely on factual information, in order to present information in a quick and efficient manner Essays Take on an opinion and describe how the opinion was arrived at or why the opinion was a good one. Eastern Art examining time trends in census data to identify growth for a specific area Spatial analysis find commonalities between population and other factors such as health, wealth, education, etc. Geographic Correlation studies interrelationships of the census data between population centers allowing us to compare and contrast different regions Balanced force does not cause movement or change in movement that is occurring.

Unbalanced force always causes a change in motion Force causes motion (a push or pull) Magnetic force occurs when magnetized objects interact with other items Circuit breakers over current protection device that opens a circuit when an overload condition or short occurs Resistor change the amount of electrical current passing through a wire Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction Angiosperms remain dormant for a long period of time and still produce plants (seeds) flowering plants Parasitism Two species that occupy the same place; parasite benefits - host is harmed Commensalism two species that occupy the same place; neither is harmed or benefited. Mutualism An interaction in which both species benefit. folding the bending of rock layers due to stress result in mountains. Appalachian mountains dip-slip faults movement of plates is vertical and opposite Reverse Faults A fault in which the material above the fault plane moves up in relation to the material below Strike-slip faults rocks slide past each other horizontally Shield Volcanoes Redshift and Distance in the Expanding Universe – Starts With A Bang Last week, we began talking about understanding the size of the Universe , and we continued this week with some information on distances and motion in the Universe .

This brings us to my favorite application, which leads to the Hubble expansion : Redshift. You see, whenever an atom or molecule emits light, it gives off that light at a very few particular wavelengths. For instance, if you have hydrogen, you’ll always get light at wavelengths of 656 nanometers (red), 486 nm (cyan), 434 nm (indigo), 410 nm (violet), and 397 nm (on the border of violet/ultraviolet): Now there are three things — and only three things (unless you really want to get technical ) — that can happen to this light to change the wavelengths that you see. Let’s go over what they are. 1. Gravitational Redshift. If you’re deep in a gravitational field (like close to a black hole), you have to use up energy to climb out of it. For light of all types, energy and wavelength are very closely related to each other. Smaller wavelength = higher energy and larger wavelength = lower energy, so if you need to climb out of a strong gravitational field, you lose energy, and therefore your light gets shifted towards the red.

This is what we call redshift , where something happens to make the wavelength of your light longer and lower in energy. But gravitational redshift is rarely significant; two other effects are far more important. 2. Redshift due to motion. If an object that emits light moves away from you, the light from it gets redshifted . This is the same exact effect — the doppler shift — that causes police sirens to sound lower pitched when they move away from you. One thing that’s neat? If a light-emitting object moves towards you, the light gets blue-shifted, and becomes more energetic! (We see this happening for the Andromeda galaxy, one of the only ones in the Universe that moves towards us.) And although this is incredibly useful, this is not what’s happening to light in the Universe. Remember, I told you that these distant galaxies aren’t moving, the space between them is just expanding . Well, guess what? 3. Expanding space causes a redshift! (And thanks to av8n.com for the image!) You see, as space expands (above), the wavelengths of the light in it also expand, as you can see below. And this last effect is so important for the expanding Universe. Why?

Well, if we measure the light from many, many distant objects and determine their distances, we can — simply based on the objects’ redshifts — learn the entire history of how the Universe expanded. The redshift isn’t hard to measure, either: It is from literally millions and millions of these individual measurements that we’ve been able to determine the entire history of how the Universe expanded. That, among other things, is how we discovered dark energy and the accelerating Universe ! Pretty remarkable stuff, and yet, not intuitive at all. So what should you take away from this? That as light travels through space and space expands, it causes the wavelength of that very light to expand, too. And that’s how we learn about the history of cosmic expansion in our Universe. Again, it’s expansion that’s causing this redshift, and not motion. Hope this helps shed some light on some of the most confusing stuff out there!

Question: When explaining the Doppler Effect which suffix follows the words 'Red' and 'Blue'?
Answer: Shif