Egypt: About the Red Sea of Egypt Contact Us About us Tour Egypt aims to offer the ultimate Egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. We offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to Egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand. The second way to experience Egypt is from the comfort of your own home: online. Egypt: About the Red Sea of Egypt About The Red Sea To anyone standing on its shore and gazing out across its heavenly waters, the Red Sea may seem to be a mislabeling. Its blueness is eternal and anything less red cannot be fantasized. The Red Sea, where the desert meets the ocean, is truly one of the planets most exotic and fascinating natural seascape environments. The Red Sea is located between Asia and Africa. At its most northerly point forms the Sinai Peninsula and stretches over 1000 miles south to join the Indian Ocean, between Ethiopia and Yemen.

In the north and west are desert plains, while in the south a mountainous region (2642 meters high), which is part of the mountain range stretching from deep in Saudi Arabia, across the Sinai and then into Nubia of the African continent. The Red Sea holds beneath its crystal blue surface an oasis of living creatures, reefs, and coral formation. Its use as a highway between East and West has attracted man since the beginning of time. The Red Sea was created by the movement of plates in the Earths surface about 30 million years ago. In that time, the Arab peninsula started to part from Africa along a thin break line which was filled by the oceans water. However, "Mother Nature" did not stop there. Twenty million years ago another geological movement started. The Arab peninsula which parted from Africa, started to move to the north. That movement struck resistance in Turkey and swung to the east, and another break line was formed. This one stretching all the way from the northern part of Israel, through the Jordan valley to the Dead Sea, and finally through the Gulf of Eilat to Ras Mohamad at the southern point of the Sinai.

The young age of the Gulf of Eilat is what makes it so deep, 100 meters in Dahab and 1800 meters north of the Straits of Tiran. On the other hand, the old Gulf of Suez is relatively shallow, with a 85 meters maximum depth. The Red Sea is still widening at about one-half inch per year, the rift is the youngest region of continental breakup on the planet, allowing geologists to learn about processes that occurred in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans hundreds of millions of years earlier. Water temperatures in the Red Sea remain unusually constant year round, averaging 22^ C in the summer. Low pressure systems develop in the Sahara Desert and draw hot dry east winds from Asia which cause the temperature to rise frequently along with sand storms. At the same time, lows develop over the Red Sea, bringing moist cold air from the south and creating clouds, haze, and more often rain. The northern land mass is the primary influence over temperature in the gulf, but this decreases to the south the closer you get to open sea.

The open seas cooling effect creates an interesting temperature pattern: maximum summer temperatures are lower in the south while minimum temperatures are higher in the north with the opposite occurring during the winter. In any case, the coldest moth of the year is January and the warmest months are July and August. The Red Sea is notorious among seafarers for its high speed surface winds and aggressively short irregular motion. It may be calm on the inward shore, but journeys to exposed sites like The Brothers islands , a remote off-shore site east of El Quseir, can be perilous and boats have been seen literally to fall apart under the force of the journey. Cargo vessels, oil tankers, fishing boats, and passenger liners all move their trade across this great waterway, but for many, the true enchantment of the Red Sea is hidden just below its surface. There are over 1000 species of invertebrates and around 200 recorded coral types to be found. Moreover, the Red Sea boasts over a thousand species of fish, more species than any other proportional body of water. Not surprisingly, therefore, the Red Sea is considered by many to offer the very best diving available in the marine world.

The Red Sea attracts divers, photographers, marine scientists, and leisure seekers from all over the world, hoping to experience and explore the incalculable wonders of the colorful, abounding marine life and the Red Seas lavish coral reefs. In places, the exceptional living reef stretches way out to sea, forming a elaborate system of caves, lagoons, gardens, and plateaus. Some of these coral summits plunge dramatically thousands of feet to the ocean floor. The Red Sea is not all a delight however, as it has its troubles which you will have to stay away from. There is minimal danger from marine animals in the Red Sea, and with a little common sense, even these dangers can be eliminated. Some of the marine animals are dangerous to touch, others dangerous to eat, and some are dangerous to come face to face with. There are fire corals and stinging hydroids which can be extremely painful if accidentally touched as well. Snorkeling is a popular way to view the edge of the reef, especially for those with limited confidence in their swimming ability. Sharks , manta rays , turtles , and eels will take pieces of bread from your hand, and brilliantly colored schools of fish team all around in bewildering color.

However, most divers will tell you that there is nothing to beat the thrill of experiencing the depth of the reef and the abounding marine life to be found in the Red Sea. The lure of the reef is such that many novice divers become totally "hooked" and cannot imagine why they have never joined in the fun before. Furthermore, when asked to compare their local diving conditions with those in the Red Sea, they find it a "paradise" with clear visibility, little wave action, and warm temperatures all year long. Fishing is an art which still preserves time-honored methods, mostly due to the difficulties imposed by the dangers of the reef. The hook-and-line method of fishing has been in use for more than four thousand years and is still going strong. Conservation of certain species of fish and the dangers of over-fishing are both important issues for the government. The fisherman land a total of 8,000 metric tons of fish per year, which, although eight times as much as the Sudan, is less than half Egypts total catch. The water of the Red Sea is also a vital asset.

Surrounding cities are totally dependent on it for household and industrial supplies, and tremendous desalination plants are in operation. These supply drinking water which has been purified to a high standard, as well as non-potable domestic water. Sea water is also used in large quantities by oil refineries and cement works situated along the coastline. The danger of pollution is always present in the Red Sea, particularly from oil spillage. A Royal Decree forbids the discharge of any pollutant substances, including oil, within 100 miles of the Saudi Arabian coastline. Currently, the areas of the Eastern Desert and around the Red Sea have received a great deal of overdue attention. A joint expedition from the University of Delaware and Leiden University and Leiden University has been working at the ancient Red Sea port of Berinike. The past season the Delaware-Leiden team excavated in two areas, opened a total of seven trenches, and found four public buildings. One of the sites contained offering tables, an incense burner, a stela stand and an almost life-size bronze figure of a cloaked woman clasping a snake. Scraps of colorful textile from the Fourth and Fifth centuries A.D. have also been found.

In addition, evidence of trade appears in the form of imported coconuts, pepper, and rice. So, while the edges of the Red Sea are being explored, the sea itself is being plunged in a survey of sunken wrecks. The Institute for Nautical Archaeology in Egypt, is continuing the underwater survey started last season, plotting the locations of shipwrecks along the Red Sea coast. For swimmers, divers, traders, industrialists, fishermen, archaeologists, and tourists, the Red Sea has its own kind of incomparability. And even the leisured gazer, speculating the inaccessible blue/red abnormality, can be said to have been given something to think about. The underwater amazement of the Red Sea remains a living tapestry of resounding corals and exotic fish, waiting for you to discover its secrets. Landforms of Africa, Deserts of Africa, Mountain Ranges of Africa, Rivers of Africa - Worldatlas.com Print this map Atlas Mountains: This mountain system runs from southwestern Morocco along the Mediterranean coastline to the eastern edge of Tunisia. Several smaller ranges are included, namely the High Atlas, Middle Atlas and Maritime Atlas. The highest peak is Mt.

Toubkal in western Morocco at 13,671 ft. (4,167 m). Congo River Basin: The Congo River Basin of Central Africa dominates the landscape of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and much of neighboring Congo. In addition, it stretches into Angola, Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Zambia. The fertile basin is about 1,400,000 sq. miles (3,600,000 sq. km) in size and contains almost 20% of the world's rain forest. The Congo River is the second longest river in Africa, and it's network of rivers, tributaries and streams help link the people and cities of the interior. Ethiopian Highlands: The Ethiopian Highlands are a rugged mass of mountains in Ethiopia, Eritrea (which is sometimes referred to as the Eritrean Highlands), and northern Somalia in the Horn of Africa. The Ethiopian Highlands form the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, with little of its surface falling below 1500 m (4,921 ft.), while the summits reach heights of up to 4550 m (14,928 ft.).

Sometimes it is referred to as the Roof of Africa for its height and large area. Great Rift Valley: A dramatic depression on the earth's surface, approximately 4,000 miles (6,400 km) in length, extends from the Red Sea area near Jordan in the Middle East, south to the African country of Mozambique. In essence, it's a series of geological faults caused by huge volcanic eruptions centuries back, that subsequently created what we now call the Ethiopian Highlands, and a series of perpendicular cliffs, mountain ridges, rugged valleys and very deep lakes along it's entire length. Many of Africa's highest mountains front the Rift Valley, including Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya and Mount Margherita. Hoggar (Ahaggar) Mountains: The Hoggar Mountains, also known as the Ahaggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, or southern Algeria, along the Tropic of Cancer. They are located about 1,500 km (900 mi) south of the capital, Algiers and just west of Tamanghasset. The region is largely rocky desert with an average altitude of more than 900 metres (2,953 feet) above sea level.

The highest peak is at 3,003 meters (Mount Tahat). Kalahari Desert: It's about 100,000 sq. miles (259,000 sq. km) in size and covers much of Botswana, the southwestern region of South Africa and all of western Namibia. The desert plateau is criss-crossed by dry rivers beds and dense scrub. A few small mountain ranges are situated here including the Karas and the Huns. Large herds of wildlife are found in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, located in South Africa near its border with Namibia. Namib Desert: The Namib is a coastal desert in southern Africa that stretches for more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) along the Atlantic coasts of Angola, Namibia, and South Africa, extending southward from the Carunjamba River in Angola, through Namibia and to the Olifants River in Western Cape, South Africa. From the Atlantic coast eastward, the Namib gradually ascends in elevation, reaching up to 200 km (120 mi) inland to the foot of the Great Escarpment.

Annual precipitation ranges from 2 mm (0.079 in) in the most arid regions to 200 mm (7.9 in) at the escarpment, making the Namib the only true desert in southern Africa. The Namib is also the oldest desert in the world and its geology consists of sand seas near the coast, while gravel plains and scattered mountain outcrops occur further inland. The desert's sand dunes, some of which are 300 m (980 ft) high and span 32 km (20 mi) long, are the second largest in the world after the Badain Jaran Desert dunes in China. Nile River System: The longest river in the world (flows north), rising from the highlands of southeastern Africa and running about 4,160 miles (6,693 km) in length, to then drain in the Mediterranean Sea. In simple terms it's a series of dams, rapids, streams, swamps, tributaries and waterfalls. Numerous (major) rivers comprise the overall system, including the Albert Nile, Blue Nile, Victoria Nile and White Nile.

Sahel: The Sahel is a wide stretch of land running completely across north-central Africa, just on the southern edges of the ever-expanding Sahara Desert. This border region is the transition zone between the dry areas of the north and the tropical areas of the south. It receives very little rain (six - eight inches a year) and most of the vegetation is a savanna growth of sparse grasses and shrubs. Sahara Desert: Covering almost one-third of the continent, the Sahara is the largest desert in the world at approximately 3,500,000 sq. miles (9,065,000 sq. km) in total size. Topography includes areas of rock-strew plains, rolling sand dunes and numerous sand seas. It ranges in elevation from 100 ft. below sea level, to peaks in the Ahaggar and Tibesti mountains that exceed 11,000 ft. (3,350m). Regional deserts include the Libyan, Nubian and the Western desert of Egypt, just to the west of the Nile. Almost completely without rainfall, a few underground rivers flow from the Atlas Mountains, helping to irrigate isolated oases.

In the east, the water's of the Nile help fertilize smaller parts of the landscape. Africa Map / Map of Africa - Facts, Geography, History of Africa - Worldatlas.com African History African Origin of Modern Humans As for Africa, scientists have formerly concluded that it is the birthplace of mankind, as large numbers of human-like fossils (discovered no where else) were found on the continent, some dating back 3.5 million years. About 1.75 million years ago, early man spread throughout parts of Africa. They became aggressive hunters, lived in caves and used fire and their ability to create stone tools just to survive. The Neanderthals arose some 200,000 years ago and inhabited regions in northern Africa and across parts of southern Europe. There is also clear evidence that they had control of fire, lived in caves, as well as open-air structures of stone and vegetation. One of the most important developments of primitive man was the creation of stone tools. By 5000 BC farming was somewhat common in the northern areas of Africa, as people were growing crops and herding livestock. During that time the Sahara Desert was a fertile area.

Ancient African History In 3200 BC the Egyptian culture emerged along the lower reaches of the Nile River; it was among the earliest civilizations and their tools and weapons were made of bronze. They also pioneered the building of massive pyramids and temples. Egyptians also developed mathematics, an innovative system of medicine, irrigation and agricultural production techniques, writing and the first ships. In short, the Egyptians left a lasting legacy upon the world. Around 600 BC the use of metal tools spread across small population bases and farming groups in North Africa, and their use gradually spread south into what is now called South Africa. The Phoenicians were an enterprising maritime trading culture from Lebanon who spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC. In 814 BC, they founded the city of Carthage in what is now Tunisia in north Africa; only to be destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC. Meanwhile, the Egyptians continued to spread their culture across Northern Africa, and kingdoms were created in Ethiopia and Sudan. The then-growing Roman Empire continued to expand its influence, and in 30 BC Egypt became a province of Rome; Morocco the same in 42 AD.

Before the Middle Ages began, the Roman Empire collapsed and the Arabs quickly took their place on the continent. In 698-700 they invaded Tunis and Carthage and soon controlled all of coastal North Africa. The Arabs were Muslims, and most of North Africa converted to Islam; Ethiopia was the exception. Soon kingdoms emerged in Africa; they traded with the Arabs using gold plus a valuable commodity - slaves. One of the first kingdoms was Ghana, located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. The empire grew rich from the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt, but then lost its power in the 11th century. Additional kingdoms developed across the continent, including those in Benin and Mali. Both became rich by trading in gold, horse salt, and of course, slaves. And like most kingdoms before them on any continent, they were invaded and in the end destroyed. Mogadishu, the now largest city in Somalia, was settled by Arabs who traveled and traded on the east coast of Africa. The Arabs' reach extended to Zanzibar, which was used as a base for voyages between the Middle East and India.

As other organized kingdoms were formed in central and southern Africa, the Portuguese began to explore the western coast of Africa. By 1445 they reached the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Senegal, and the mouth of the River Congo in 1482. They even sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. African Colonization and the Slave Trade The continent-changing 16th Century began with Europeans transporting African slaves to the Americas for profit. A slave purchased on the African coast for the equivalent of 14 English pounds in bartered goods could sell for 45 pounds in the American market. The best-known method of commerce at the time was called the Triangular Trading System. It involved British and other European countries' manufactured goods which were shipped to Africa, then slaves from there to the West Indies and then sugar and other products back to Europe. At the same time, Barbary pirates along the North African coast captured thousands of ships. From the 16th to 19th century, an estimated 800,000 to 1.25 million people were taken captive as slaves. The pirates' impact on the continent, however, peaked in the early to mid-17th century.

As tales of African riches spread north, the Europeans founded their first real colonies in the early 16th century, when the Portuguese settled in what is now Angola. Later, the Dutch founded a colony in what is now South Africa. Strong movements to end slavery began in the late 18th century. France became one of the first countries to abolish slavery in 1794. Britain banned slave trade in 1807, but it was not officially abolished for good until 1848. In some parts of Africa, slave-like practices continue to this day and have proven difficult to eliminate. Wholesale colonization of Africa by European countries began in 1814 when the British snatched the Dutch Colony of South Africa. Carved up like a large pie, the Brits, Dutch, French, Germans and Portuguese grabbed all of the available pieces. By the end of the 19th century, from Algeria to Zimbabwe, and from Botswana to Niger, the continent was now all but controlled by European powers. In the early 20th century the land grab continued as the British took control of Egypt.

By 1920, the forced occupation of African lands began to sour in Europe, and change was in the wind. Africans were also driven by their passionate desire for independence and the movement for same became unstoppable. By mid-century most of the continent was independent, with Angola finally free in 1975. Post-Colonial Africa Self-government brought more than its share of civil wars, coup d'états and ethnic conflicts to the newly emerged countries. Add to that mix some horrible genocides, along with famines and out-of-control disease (HIV/AIDS), and Africa was teetering on the edge, and in many areas still does today. Although Africa remains the world's poorest inhabited continent, there are many bright spots in this land of over one billion people and its 2,000 + languages. Significant economic and social gains have taken place over the last few years, with South Africa, Nigeria, Morocco and Egypt leading the way. The largest segments of modern Africa's economies are agriculture and mining, with tourism growing in some areas. Manufacturing industries have grown large enough to ship products across the planet, and the oil export revenues of Angola, Libya and Nigeria have the potential to change the lives of millions.

Today the 54 countries of Africa have great potential, but this question must be asked: "Can it change soon enough to meet the needs of its people?" We can only hope so. Africa Geography Facts For additional geography details please use the yellow navigation bar at the top of this page. Algeria is Africa's largest country The Seychelles are Africa's smallest country Nigeria is Africa's largest country by population The Seychelles are Africa's smallest country by population Africa's highest point is Mt Kilimanjaro in Tanzania Africa's lowest point is Lake Assal in Djibouti Interesting Facts About Africa Two of Africa's most interesting geographical features are the Nile River System and Sahara Desert; both impressive in so many ways. Nile River System: The Nile is a north-flowing river considered the longest river in the world at 6,650 km (4,130 mi) long. It is shared by and benefits eleven countries. The White Nile and Blue Nile are its major tributaries. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, flowing north from Tanzania to South Sudan .

The Blue Nile is the source of most of the water and both rivers join near Khartoum, Sudan The northern section of the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into Egypt. The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Sahara Desert: It's the world's hottest desert, the third largest desert after Antarctica and the Arctic, and almost as large as China. Covering almost one-third of the continent, the Sahara is the largest hot desert in the world at approximately 3,500,000 sq. miles (9,065,000 sq. km) in total size. Topography includes areas of rock-strewn plains, rolling sand dunes and numerous sand seas. It ranges in elevation from 100 ft. below sea level, to peaks in the Ahaggar and Tibesti Mountains, that exceed 11,000 ft. (3,350m). Regional deserts include the Libyan, Nubian and the Western desert of Egypt, just to the west of the Nile. Almost completely without rainfall, a few underground rivers flow from the Atlas Mountains, helping to irrigate isolated oases.

In the east, the waters of the Nile help fertilize smaller parts of the landscape. Africa Information Africa weather forecasts and current conditions Maps of Africa Africa, the planet's 2nd largest continent and the second most-populous continent (after Asia) includes (54) individual countries, and Western Sahara, a member state of the African Union whose statehood is disputed by Morocco. Note that South Sudan is the continent's newest country. With a 2011 population of 1,032,532,974, it accounts for just over 14% of the world's human population. It also contains the Nile River system, the world's longest, and the massive Sahara Desert, the world's largest. Africa is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the east and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Country Map of Africa Outline Outline map of the Africa continent including the disputed territory of Western Sahara AN OVERVIEW OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA PHYSICAL FEATURES Africa straddles the equator, having an almost equal south and north extent.

This division of Africa into almost two equal parts (lengthwise) across the equator makes the climatic and physical conditions in the north repeat themselves in the south. For example, the Kalahari Desert is the south's answer to the Sahara; the Karoo matches the Maghreb, while the conditions in the Cape area are almost identical to those of the Mediterranean region. Africa is the most tropical of all continents. Climate and vegetation range from equatorial rainforests, tropical deserts and savanna grassland to Mediterranean. The Sahara Desert, the largest of its kind anywhere in the world, is over 10.4 million km2 n North to south is approx. 1800 kms and east-west is 5600km. GEOLOGY, RELIEF AND DRAINAGE Fig 2.1a page 26 In terms of structure and relief features, Africa appears to be different from the other continents. Its surface is almost invariably consisting of a geologically stable land mass made up of the pre-Cambrian basement rock overlain in part by sedimentary cover of a later period.

The continent is made up of very old crystalline, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks of great hardness (collectively known as 'basement complex'). Africa's land mass is made up of a simple tectonic plate (some geographers attempt to separate the Rift Valley system from the rest of the continent). The continent has some extensive areas of faulted plateau. It has however suffered little in terms of folding hence young folded mountain similar to the Rockies and Andes are missing. Only the Atlas Mountains in the North and the Drakensburg mountains in the South are exceptions. Most of the highlands and mountains are the result of recent volcanic activities (e.g east African mountains like the Kilmanjaro -19,340 ft (5895 m); Kenya 17,058 ft (5200 m); Meru -4569 m and Elgon 4053 m and in the Ethiopian highlands Ras Dashen is about 15,000ft (4,573 m).

In West/Central Africa, mountains such as the Cameroon (4070m), Jos Plateau in Nigeria 5,840 ft (1,780 m), Fouta Djalon highlands in Guinea, the Ahaggar and Tibesti Massifs fall within the same category of highlands. Lower average altitudes characterize most of the areas in the North. The Southern and Eastern areas have most of the highest areas of the continent (900-1200m). The African plateau is underlain primarily by Precambrian rock that dates back to more than 600 years. The Rift Valley System (Fig 2.3 page 28) A unique feature of Africa's physiography is its Y-shaped integrated Rift Valley system that is believed to have been caused by the movement of the continental plates. The Rift Valley begins from the Red Sea and extends through the Ethiopian highlands to the Lake Victorian region where it subdivides into an east and west segments and continues southward through Lake Malawi to Mozambique. Its total length is estimated to be 6,000 miles (9,600 m).

Average width ranges between 20 miles (32 km) and 50 miles (80 km). Rift Valley Lakes: The valley system has been occupied by elongated lakes lying within very deep trenches (Lakes Tangayika, 2133 feet (650 m) below sea level, Malawi, Turkana, Albert, Nyansa). Volcanic highlands and block moountains (e.g. Ruwenzori massif 16, 404 feet, (5000 m) rises within the valley floor in places. COASTLINE: Africaï¿½s coastline is generally straight and relatively short compared with that of other continents thereby resulting in more artificial harbors than natural ones. The shape of Africa is relatively simple with a remarkably smooth outline. The rivers plunge off the edges of the plateau into the sea in a series of falls and rapids. The coast is fringed with coral reefs, sand bars, mangrove swamps and lagoons that block passage to the continents interior. The coastline of Africa is remarkably straight, free from the indentations that make for good natural harbors.

The narrow continental shelf is related to the steep face that the continent generally presents to the sea and the faulting that has produced its general shape. The only place with an extended continental shelf is the Agulhas Bank (extends 320 kms or 200 miles off shore). The absence of any major continental shelf as in Europe and the northeastern part of North America limits the development of fishing grounds and the opportunities of exploring for major petroleum sources of the coast. No major coastal island (except Madagascar - the 4th largest island in the world). The coastline is generally smooth. DRAINAGE Fig 2.1b page 27 Some of the world's largest and longest rivers found in Africa, e.g the Nile, Zambezi, Congo and the Niger. The rivers are not effective as transportation routes due to the existence of a large amount of rapids and cataracts. Almost all the rapids are found at points where the rivers descend the interior plateau some few kilometers from the coast. For example, the Zaire River is interrupted by 32 rapids and cataracts (which constitute the Livingstone Falls) in a descent of approximately 200 meters over a distance of 214 kilometers.

In other continents the rivers offer the best entry into the interior from the coast (e.g the St. Lawrence and Mississippi and also served as a cheaper means of transportation for industrial goods but this is not the case in Africa. Despite being impediments to transportation, most of the rivers provide a great potential for the production of hydro-electricity. Indeed, Africa has the greatest potential than any of the other continent. For instance, out of the world's total potential of 555,000 megawatts, Africa has 26% (145,000 mw). Less than 10% of this potential is being tapped now. Highest potentials of HEP: Zaire-78,000; Madagascar-11,500; Zambia- 17,000. ISLANDS: Although Africa consists of one landmass, it has a number of islands, which are structurally not different from the main land.

Major Islands are Madagascar, Zanzibar and Pemba; the Comoros; Mauritius; Reunion, Seychelles (all in the Indian Ocean); Cape Verde, Fernando Po, Principe, Sao Tome and Annobon (all in the Atlantic). Africa linked to Asia by an isthmus that was cut into a canal in 1869 (Africa's location between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and its great latitudinal extent constituted a barrier to trade between Europe and Asia). CLIMATE Africa is the most tropical of all continents. Africa is the only continent that straddles the equator and therefore incorporates both the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. The climate south of the equator mirrors that of the north of the equator but the shape of the northern half of Africa reduces any maritime influence. This shape difference results in a large desert, Sahara in the north and a much smaller one, Kalahari, in the south. The shape difference again makes the southern portion of Africa cooler than the northern section of the continent (thereby making East Africa more favorable for European settlement than West Africa: Zambia and Niger are both located on Latitude 15 degrees from the equator but Niger is warmer).

Archaeological studies and Satellite images show that the climate of Africa has not always remained the same. Conditions that are more humid had once existed in the Sahara desert and other drier parts of the continent. Rainfall is the most significant climatic factor in Africa. Temperature is high through the continent because of the continentï¿½s location relative to Equator. Range of temperature is quite small and Wind is much less of a feature than in temperate climates Climatic Factors: Pressure Systems, Winds and ITCZ (page 31). Located on about Latitude 30o North and South of the Equator are Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts that dictate surface wind patterns and also influence rainfall and temperature regimes on the continent. The Subtropical High Pressure Systems on both sides of the Equator generate two wind systems that converge on the equator in a zone termed Inter-Tropical Converge Zone (ITCZ). From the north, Subtropical High Pressure Belt zone blows the Northeast Trade Winds (locally called Harmattan). The Harmattan is dry and cool and blows over Sub-Saharan Africa from about November to April. From the south Sub-tropical High Pressure belt zone blows the Southwest Trade Winds (locally called Monsoon).

The Monsoon winds are moist and bring rainfall to the coasts of West Africa. The African continent does not extend much beyond 35o of latitude from the equator. The implication is that the range of climatic conditions is limited and that the general direction of wind movement is towards the equator (or in more accurate terms towards the inter-tropical convergence zone -ITCZ). The ITCZ shifts with the seasonal movement of the sun across the tropics: ï¿½ In June: the northern Summer season, the ITCZ is located at about 13 degrees of latitude in North Africa at the southern boundary of the Sahara; ï¿½ In December: the Northern winter season, the ITCZ moves southward along the West African Coast and to the northern and eastern margins of the Zaire basin and continues to Madagascar Movements in the ITCZ are closely related to distribution of rainfall and climatic zones. The climatic zones assume symmetry around the equator, although the high altitudes in some parts of the continent and the adjacent disturb the symmetry.

Rainfall averages from 5000mm (200 inches) in the coastal strips of Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Cameroun and eastern Madagascar to 500m (20 inches) in the Sahel and 200mm (8 inches) or less in the arid regions (Sahara and Kalahari). Temperatures range from 12o C (54oF) to over 32oC (90oF). The highest recorded 57.7oC (136.4o F) in Azizia, Libya. Mean annual temperature is 3oC to 5.5oC (5.5-10oF) range for a greater part of the continent with <3oC (5.5oF) in the forest belt around the equator. Diurnal mean range of temperature: 10 to over 15oC (18-27o F+) Major Ocean Currents (Refer to any Atlas map of Africa): Winds that tend to blow persistently over the ocean tend to drag a thin surface layer of the water in their direction of flow.

This layer of ocean water called Ocean Current dictates the temperature and moisture characteristics of the wind and the coastal regions over which the wind blows. When ocean currents blow from low latitudes (near to the equator) towards higher latitudes (towards the pole) the currents carry WARM ocean water into relatively cool regions. Such an ocean current is called Warm Ocean Current. Examples are the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic coast of the Eastern USA and Mexico. Warm Ocean Currents supply moisture to winds blowing over them to develop rainfall on the adjacent Coasts. In Africa Warm Ocean Currents include, Warm Guinea Currents -ï¿½West Africa, Warm Mozambique current ï¿½ Southeast Africa. The cool surface of Cool Ocean Currents causes moisture in winds blowing over them to condense and form fogs, etc. The winds are deprived of their moisture so they tend to absorb rather than deposit moisture at the adjacent coasts. Cool currents therefore cause dry conditions and in Africa the Cool Canary Currents - the western coast of the Sahara Desert, the Cool Benguela Currents ï¿½ the Western coast of Kalahari Desert. The cool ocean currents tend to create rich fishing grounds.

Rich fishing grounds exist along the Morocco and Spanish Saharan Coasts washed by the Cool Canary Currents. The Namibian coast that is washed by the Cool Benguelan current also has rich fishing grounds. Maritime versus Continental Climates Large water bodies such as the Ocean and huge lakes modify climates in adjacent lands. In the continental interior, where there are no large bodies of water, temperatures get VERY WARM in summer or during the day. Land is solid so it heats up more rapidly during the day. The compact nature of the land means that only a thin surface gets heated. As a result, heat absorbed into the thin layer of surface rocks is released very rapidly. The land surface is therefore VERY COOL at nights and in winter. The interior location does not also allow rainfall to reach such places thereby creating Warm, humid, hot and dry climates. These extremities in climate affect all states located in the interior of continents. Such climates are called Continental Climates as against Maritime climates experienced on lands located along coasts. In places such as Timbuktu, Mail, the diurnal and annual ranges in Temperature are very high because of continentality.

Altitude Since energy from the sun is transformed into heat on the surface of the earth, air temperature decreases with altitude at an average rate of 3.5 o F per 1,000 feet (6.4 o C per 1000 meters) called the LAPSE RATE. Because of this decrease of temperature with height, mountainous regions such as the Ethiopian highlands have very cool temperatures. Very high peaks such as Mountain Kilimanjaro located along the equator even have permanent snow cover. The combination effect of the above factors create variations in temperature, rainfall and other climatic factors resulting in the following climatic types. 1. Humid Equatorial Climates (Af) 2. Semi-arid cimates (Bsh) 5. Humid Temperate climates (C) a. Cool summers b. Dry summers and wet winters (Mediterranean)- Eastern South Africa and North Africa c. Cool summers- Cape province in South Africa VEGETATION & ECOLOGY OF AFRICA Fig 2.11 a page 38 Plant and animal life distribution and the different climatic/soil belts are closely related.

Although some parts of the continent retain their natural/virgin flora and fauna, increasing population and human activities seem to be endangering these places. The Following types of vegetation types identified: 1. Tropical Rain forest: This vegetation develops in low land areas with year-round precipitation. It extends throughout the Congo (Zaire) basin and along the West coast of Africa with its widest in Sierra Leone. It is also found in a narrow belt along the Southeastern coast south from the equator. Madagascar has a unique rain forest with special species of fauna and flora not available on the main land. Generally, a heavy canopy of foliage with lianes and epiphytes characterizes the rain forest. It occurs in regions where high temperatures are combined with heavy precipitation. 2. Temperate Forest: This vegetation is poorly represented in Africa. It is only found on the lower slopes of the Ethiopian highlands and elsewhere on the highlands of considerable elevation and rainfall 3. Mediterranean Woodland These are evergreen trees and shrubs adapted to the hot dry season and mild wet season. In North West Africa, the hilly belts support forests of evergreen oak, including cork oak and cedar, although they are now much reduced by clearing and grazing.

Evergreen shrubs with hard and usually small leaves are common as growth is slow but continuous throughout the year. The vegetation in the Southwest corner is similar This vegetation is found at the inter-tidal flats of the coastlines within the tropics. 5. Savanna or Tropical Grassland The margin of the Savannah coincides with the rain forest belt where dry conditions begin. In such areas, there is often a mosaic of forest savanna. Further away from the forest, as the dry season becomes more pronounced and more prolonged, the Savannah woodland thins out, and trees that are more drought resistant are found. Generally, the prevailing vegetation cover is grass interspersed with trees (except in areas around streams and moist hollows). In the zone of lower rainfall the huge baobab tree illustrates storage of water while 'umbrella' trees show adaptation to dry wind. Acacias, some producing gum, are a feature of the drier Sudan savanna. The Savanna extends with similar differences in character over the Lake plateau across the Zambezi to the Drakensberg and dries towards the Kalahari in the thorny scrubs of the Bushveld. Major crops produced in the Savanna: millet, sorghum, peanuts, and cotton.

6. Temperate Grassland or Veld This is found in the veld areas of South Africa. Characterized by short grass and plants adapted to a brief growing season but there are considerable differences due to altitude. It is by no means adapted everywhere to cultivation, but maize, tobacco and temperate cereals are grown 7. Semi-desert and desert Areas further north, the Savanna degenerate into semi-arid and then desert. This is the environment of the Sahel ranging from thorn, wooded grassland to tussocky grasses with large bare patches of bare earth between. Human and animals overpopulate the semi arid areas and both take their toll on the environment. As pasture is destroyed through overgrazing and cultivation, the desert advances southward further restricting populations and increasing densities in a vicious circle of desertification. AFRICAN SOILS. Fig 2.12 page 40 The best soils are alluvial deposits found in the major river valleys. With a few exceptions, most of the soils are difficult to cultivate although improvements can be made to increase natural fertility. Soils in the humid tropics can be quite rich due to the forest cover and the rapid decomposition of organic matter.

However, intense rainfall leaches out most of the plant nutrients. This results in a hard pan formed of iron or aluminum oxides - latosols/ferrosols. Between the wet tropics are well-formed soils rich in plant nutrients. But the high iron-oxide content turn and the alternate wet and dry climates turn it into a hard pan - luvisols. Towards the deserts, the soils are sandy and deep but low in humus and quite infertile (arenosols). These give way to xerosols that are quite low in humus. STUDY QUESTION: 1. Examine the advantages and impediments that Africa's location and physiography places on the development of its people. Discussion - Advantages: 1. Centrally located among continents hence the opportunity to develop early trade and embark upon the conquest of surrounding countries. The central location also allows external powers to converge on the continent and to scramble for its people and resources. It seems however that Ancient Africans were content with what they had and had no incentive to leave the continent. 2. Most tropical of all continents means warm weather occur throughout the continent 3.

Very few natural disasters such as devastating earthquakes, floods, volcanoes etc occur on mainland Africa 4. Several long and wide rivers cut across the continent in both north-south and east-west directions that could provide transportation and hydroelectric power. 5. Relatively flat land with very few mountains - ideal for transportation development 6. Very old crystalline rocks rich in valuable minerals such as gold, diamond and bauxite.

Question: Where are the almost the only mountainous areas near the African coast of the Red Sea?
Answer: Ethiopia