Glossary of Useful Musical Terms! | Your Personal Singing Guide ~~ A ~~ Absolute Pitch Ability to determine the exact pitch of a note as played on a musical instrument just by listening to it A Cappella One or more singers performing without instrumental accompaniment A Tempo To sing or play as per the original tempo of the song Accelerando To gradually quicken the tempo of the song Accent Rhythmically significant stress in a line of verse Accidentals Any of various signs that indicate the alteration of a note by one or two semitones or the cancellation of a previous sign. Accompaniment Music that is played as background to a solo singer or lead instrumentalist Ad Libitum (Ad Lib; Latin) At liberty; the performer decides how to sing or play the respective section or notes Adagio At a moderate tempo Arpeggio When the notes of a chord are played quickly, one after another. Usually used as accompaniment for a song, for example, broken chords.

~~ B ~~ Unit of music contained between 2 bar lines; measure Baritone Mid ranged male singing voice Bass Lowest of the male singing voices Bass Clef A symbol placed on the fourth line of a staff to indicate that the fourth line of the staff corresponds to the F next below middle C; F clef. Beat Basic unit of musical rhythm, a single stroke of a rhythmic accent Bridge A transitional passage that connects 2 sections of a composition or song. Usually placed after the chorus of a song. Broken Chord A chord in which the notes are not played simultaneously at once, but in some consistent sequence. Notes are played either consecutively one after another, or 2 notes by 2 notes in a specific order. ~~ C ~~ Cadence A musical term referring to a chord sequence that brings an end to a musical phrase Canon Musical form where a melody or phrase is imitated by individual instrument or voice parts at various intervals of the song. The melody or phrase may be repeated backwards, inverted, or even at various tempos.

Cantabile 3 or 4 notes played simultaneously in specific harmony Chord Progression A series of chords played in succession Chorus A group of singers; The main hook of a song that is repeated many times Chromatic Scale A musical scale that includes all the notes within an octave, including sharps and flats. Total of 12 distinct notes within a chromatic scale. Clef Symbol at the beginning of the staff that decides the pitch of the notes on the staff. Most common clefs are the treble and bass clef. Crescendo A musical term for dynamics direction; gradually getting louder Coda Tail; closing section appended to a movement or song Coloratura Colouration, ornamentation of a vocal line or phrase. Can also refer to a Soprano voice suited for such colouration or ornamentation. Common Time The time signature of 4/4; four beats per measure, each beat a quarter note (a crotchet) in length. 4/4 is often written on the musical staff as ‘C’.

Compound Time Metrical time such that 3 beats are counted as one; each beat is divisible by 3 Contralto Lowest female classical singing voice part Countertenor Highest male classical singing voice part Crotchet Quarter-note; 1 beat in duration ~~ D ~~ Dal Segno Da Capo To repeat from the beginning of the piece and ending on the final chord of the song Dal Segno Repeat from the Dal Segno (D.S.) sign Dal Segno al Coda Repeat from the D.S. sign and continue until directed to move to the Coda, a separate ending section Dal Segno al Fine Repeat from the D.S. sign and end at the last bar of the song (Fine) Decrescendo Gradually getting softer (Same as Diminuendo) Demi-semiquaver One out of 32 parts of a Whole Note; 1/16th of a beat in duration Diminuendo Gradually getting softer (Same as Decrescendo) Dolce An interval of a distance of 4 notes ~~ G ~~ Sliding quickly between 2 notes Grave ~~ H ~~ Harmony 2 or 3 tones played together that create a pleasant sound or musical effect, often to back up the melody or solo singer.

Can also refer to the study of chord progressions. ~~ I ~~ Interlude Instrumental music played between scenes in an opera or play. Can also refer to the music break in a song when the singer does not sing. Interval Distance in pitch between 2 notes Inversion A chord that is not played with the root note at the bottom, but with the other notes of the chord taking the bass position ~~ K ~~ A system of tones and pitches based on the respective key note Key Signature The sharps and flats indicated at the beginning of a song, referring to the key of the song or piece of music. ~~ L ~~ The second highest female classical singing voice part, just below the Soprano voice Minim Half-note; 2 beats in duration Minor One of 2 modes of the tonal system. Music that is written using the major key has a negative or sad character.

Modulation To transition to another key ~~ N ~~ Natural To return the note to its original pitch after it has been augmented or diminished by a sharp(s) or flat(s) ~~ O ~~ Octave Musical term referring to 2 notes that are 8 full tones apart, indicating the start and end of a scale Opera Performance of a drama where words are sung to instrumental music and not spoken ~~ P ~~ The parts of a singing voice where register transitions occur Pause To suspend or stop momentarily Pedal To engage the piano or keyboard pedal and cause the respective notes or chords to sound for a longer duration Pentatonic Scale A musical term referring to a musical scale consisting of only 5 basic tones. Often used in Oriental or Chinese music. Pianissimo Measure consisting of 4 beats or pulses, with accents on the 1st and 3rd beats Quartet A group of 4 musicians performing a piece of music consisting of 4 parts Quaver One-eighth of a Whole Note; ½ a beat in duration Quintet A group of 5 musicians performing a piece of music consisting of 5 parts ~~ R ~~ Broadening of the tempo, becoming progressively slower. Similar to Ritardando.

Register A section of the range of an instrument or a voice Repeat To play a certain section again Rest To stop playing or singing for the specific note duration Rit. Abbreviation for Ritardando. Sometimes used for Ritenuto although less frequent. Ritardando Musical term for tempo direction; slowing down, decelerating Ritenuto Held back, slower. Usually more so and also more temporarily than a ritardando. Ritenuto may apply to a single note, unlike ritardando.

Root Principal note of a triad Root Position Position of a triad and its notes where the root note is in the bass ~~ S ~~ Scale Musical term referring to successive notes of a key or mode that are either ascending or descending in a specific defined pattern Second An interval of a distance of 2 notes Segno Sign, usually used in Dal Segno (D.S.) Semitone Half of a tone; the basic pitch unit of the classical music system Semiquaver One-sixteenth of a Whole Note; 1/8 of a beat in duration Seventh An interval of a distance of 7 notes Sharp To raise the pitch of the specific note by 1 semitone Simple Time Rhythm characterized by 2 or 3 beats or pulses to a measure Sixth An interval of a distance of 6 notes Slur A curve over certain note(s) indicating that the respective note(s) are to be played or sung smoothly Solo To perform or sing alone Soprano The highest female classical singing voice Staccato To sing or play in a short or detached manner Staff 5 horizontal parallel lines on or between which musical notes are written, indicating their pitch or key Stave 4th note of a musical scale Submediant 6th note of a musical scale Supert

onic 2nd note of a musical scale Sustain To sing or play a specific note for the specified duration ~~ T ~~ Speed of a piece of music or a song Tenor The 2nd highest male classical singing voice part Tessitura The most comfortable singing range of a singer Third An interval of a distance of 3 notes Tie A musical term referring to a curved line over 2 notes that indicates that the note is to be held for the duration specified Timbre Tone colour and quality of sound that distinguishes an instrument or singer from another Time Signature Symbol at the start of a song or music score, indicating the number of beats to a measure or bar Tonality Sum of relations existing between the tones of a scale or musical system.

Can also refer to the quality of tones. Tone Intonation, pitch and modulation of a piece of music or song, affecting the mood, expression or feel Tonic 1st note of a musical scale, also called the keynote Treble Highest part in harmonized music. Or, highest pitch or range. Treble Clef A sign that indicates the G above middle C, placed on the second line of the staff; Also known as the G clef. Triple Time Time signature with 3 beats to the measure Triplet 3 notes played in the same amount of time as 1 or 2 beats Tune Succession of musical notes, melody for instruments or voices ~~ U ~~ Various singers or instruments singing or playing the same note(s) together ~~ V ~~ Section of a song usually at the start, leading to the chorus or pre chorus Vibrato Rapidly repeated slight pitch variation during a sustained note, to give a richer and more varied sound Vivace Musical Terms and Concepts | SUNY Potsdam Musical Terms and Concepts Musical Terms and Concepts Explanations and musical examples can be found through the Oxford Music Online, accessed through the Potsdam Library page at . Click on Music Reference, then Oxford Music Online.

Key terms and concepts contour: the shape of the melody as rising or falling conjunct: stepwise melodic motion, moving mostly by step in intervals of a 2nd disjunct: melodic motion in intervals larger than a 2nd, often with a large number of wide skips range: the distance between the lowest and highest pitches, usually referred to as narrow (> octave) or wide (< octave) motive: a short pattern of 3-5 notes (melodic, rhythmic, harmonic or any combination of these) that is repetitive in a composition phrase: a musical unit with a terminal point, or cadence. Lengths of phrases can vary.

Related to rhythm: measures or bars: a metrical unit separated by lines in musical notation meter: groups of beats in a recurring pattern with accentuation on strong beats non-metric, unmetrical: free rhythm, no discernable time simple meters: beats subdivided into two parts (2/4, 3/4, 4/4) compound meters: beats subdivided into three parts (6/8, 9/8, 12/8) asymmetrical meters: meters with an uneven number of subdivisions (7/4, 5/8) mixed meters: shifting between meters mensurations: used in music from 1300-1600, the ratios of rhythmic durations Related to harmony: chords: three or more pitches sounding simultaneously triads: three notes that can be arranged into superimposed thirds extended chords: thirds added above the triad, usually as a 9th, 11th or 13th consonance: a harmonic combination that is stable, usually in thirds dissonance: a harmonic combination that is unstable, often including seconds or sevenths parallel motion: two or more parts moving in the same direction and same intervals, as in parallel fifths contrary motion: two or more

 parts moving in the opposite direction oblique motion: occurs when one voice remains on a single pitch while the other ascends or descends canon: (meaning rule) one melody is strictly imitated by a second part after a delay in the entrance of the second part.

In order for the parts to end simultaneously, the canon may break down at the end of the composition. The canonic parts may occur at the unison or some other interval. round: an exact canon, ending at different times, as in ?Row, row, row your boat.? imitation: two or more parts that have the same or similar phrase beginning and with delays between entrances (as in a round or canon), but after the beginning of the phrase, the parts diverge into separate melodies Related to tonality: diatonic: a seven-note scale with a regular pattern of 5 whole and 2 half steps. Diatonic intervals are found within this type of scale. chromatic: using pitches outside of a particular diatonic scale, or using a succession of half steps. major tonality: pitches are related to a central pitch called the tonic. Major scales are used. minor tonality: pitches are related to a central pitch called the tonic. Minor scales are used.

modal: refers to music using diatonic scales with Greek names (Western) or non-Western scales modulation: moving from one key area to another key atonality: music that is not tonal or not based on any system of keys or modes bitonality: the simultaneous use of two key areas. polytonality: the simultaneous use of two or more key areas. Related to texture: monophony (noun; monophonic = adjective, as in monophonic texture): literally ?one sound? - one melodic line, without harmony or any accompaniment, which can occur when one person or many people sing a melody simultaneously. Singing in octaves is considered a monophonic texture. homophony (noun; homophonic = adjective): one melodic line with a harmonic accompaniment that supports the melody. polyphony (noun; polyphonic = adjective): two or more parts sung or played simultaneously. heterophony (noun; heterophonic = adjective): multiple voices singing a single melodic line, but with simultaneous melodic variants between the singers. Heterophony often occurs in non-Western music and sometimes in folk music.

homorhythms: the same rhythms in all parts, as in the singing of a hymn. counterpoint (noun; contrapuntal = adjective): like polyphony in that it has two or more compatible melodies performed simultaneously.

Related to tempo: consult the Oxford Music Online commonly in Italian from the 17th-18th c., and then increasingly in other vernacular languages largo, lento, adagio, andante, moderato, allegretto, allegro, presto, prestissimo qualifying terms: meno (less), pi (more), molto (very or much) poco a poco (little by little), assai (very) mosso (motion), sostenuto (sustained), non troppo (not too much) Related to expression: terraced dynamics: a sudden and dramatic shift from loud to soft or soft to loud accelerando Releated to timbre: classifications of instruments chordophone: string instruments aerophones: wind produces the sound (woodwinds and brass instruments) membranophone: a vibrating membrane produces the sound (drums) idiophone: sound is produced from the material (wood, glass, stone, metal) Related to ensembles: voice ranges: bass, tenor, alto, soprano (from lowest to highest) choral: music written for a choir a cappella: choral music without instrumental accompaniment, literally ?at the chapel?

polychoral: two or more choirs in a composition, usually with an antiphonal or echo effect orchestra: large instrumental ensemble with strings band: large instrumental ensemble without strings chamber ensembles: trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, octet Standard ensemble combinations: string trio: three string instruments piano trio: piano, violin, cello string quartet: two violins, viola, cello piano quintet: piano and a string quartet brass quintet: 2 trumpets, french horn, trombone, tuba wind quintet: flute, clarinet, oboe, bassoon, french horn Related to text and music: syllabic: one syllable sung to each note melismatic: one syllable sung to several notes sacred: religious music, often for the church liturgy (services) secular: worldly, non-religious music, usually in the vernacular vernacular: texts in the language of the people (English, French, Spanish, German, etc.) Related to musical forms: Generally capital letters are used to distinguish different sections of a composition. A capital refers to an exact repetition. A lowercase letter refers to the same music but new text.

A prime number after the capital refers to a variation of the music from the original section. repetitive forms: strophic: a vocal form consisting of several phrases. The musical form is repeated using different verses of text, as in a hymn or folksong. modified strophic: simply means that the repetitions of the sections are varied slightly, but not so much that they are a significant variation or the original. bar form: two sections of music, with only the first section A repeated. Many hymns use the far form. binary form: two sections of music, usually with each A and B section repeated. This is typically used in dances. When a group dances are combined into a suite, the dances generally all stay in the same key. processive forms: variation forms: continuous variations: includes an ostinato -- a repeated bass line or set of chords (usually 4-8 measures) with continuous variations above the bass pattern. This term is also called a ground bass, a chaconne, and a passacaglia. These are common in the Renaissance and Baroque periods. sectional variations: a theme and variation set, where usually each section is clearly marked. Generally in a theme and variations, the theme itself is identifiable.

Variation sets are commonly used in the Classical period as the slow movement of a string quartet or symphony. fugue: a one-subject (also called monothematic) composition in which the subject is continually restated on different pitches and in various keys, processing the modulations, fragments or registers of the subject. Like the other variation forms, there is usually a return to the subject in the original key. return forms: the initial section returns following a contrasting middle section. rounded binary: two sections, with a return of A in the second section: |: A :|: B A :| This form is typical of late Baroque dances and of minuets/scherzos and trios of the Classical period. ternary: ABA, with new material in the middle section and a return to the first A material (exactly or varied). The return to the final A section can be recopied in the music, denoted by a phrase above the music (da capo), or a sign (da capo al segno), which is common in da capo arias. rondo forms: ABACA, ABACADA, etc.

the initial section is contrasted with episodes in different keys and styles from the original A material. Rondos are typically used as the last movement of a Classical sonata, string quartet or symphony. rondeau: a medieval song/dance, ABaAabAB virelai: a medieval song/dance, AbbaA sonata form: two contrasting key areas in the first section (exposition) are developed in the middle section (development) and return in the final section (recapitulation) in the tonic key. The sonata form emerges from an expanded rounded binary form in the Classical period. compound forms: any two forms combined to make a new, large form. two binary forms can be combined (Minuet ? Trio - Minuet) to produce a larger ABA structure sonata-rondo: combines the contrasting rondo sections ABA-C-ABA with the sonata principles of an exposition, development and recapitulation. concerto-sonata form: derived from sonata form, but with two expositions (1. orchestra, 2. orchestra and soloist) and a solo cadenza between the recapitulation and the coda.

additive form: through-composed: continuous contrasting sections are composed together without repetitions of previous material. Ballad songs and improvisatory instrumental pieces, like the fantasia, toccata or prelude are examples of additive compositions. Some Renaissance genres (mass, motet, madrigal) are typically through-composed. Related to genres: compositional types or categories of works examples of sacred vocal genres: chant, plainsong or Gregorian chant mass tone poem/symphonic poem program symphony Nota bene: Instruments, terms, concepts, tempi and expressions often go by different names in foreign languages. It is best to look up unfamiliar words when they are encountered. Historical periods, musical styles and principal genres Middle Ages (also referred to as medieval music): 600-1420. Generally called the Middle Ages, this long historical era can be broken into several distinct developmental periods and falls between Classical Antiquity and the Renaissance. Students are encouraged to listen to several examples of each style at online sources available through Classical Music.net, Naxos, or other online sites and to listen for the characteristics given below.

Early medieval music to 850: mainly plainsongs (chants) written in Latin for the church sacred: worship music for the church, always in Latin texture: monophonic text settings: syllabic and melismatic rhythm: free rhythms based on the syllables of the text scales: modal, based on the pitches D (Dorian), E (Phrygian), F (Lydian), G (Mixolydian) ranges: narrow, usually less than an octave notation: neumes --groups of notes in symbols, showing the direction of the melodic patterns.

musical staff: ranging from one to four lines, c-clefs, no bar lines or meters accidentals: B-flat only sources: manuscripts are hand copied on parchment genres: numerous types of chants (songs in Latin for the church services) composers: mostly anonymous harmony: perfect consonances (perfect fourths, fifths and octaves) harmonic motion: parallel, then in contrary and oblique motion melodic motion: conjunct in each voice part text settings: syllabic and melismatic, mostly in Latin scales: modal rhythm: repetitive rhythmic patterns in compound time called rhythmic modes notation: modal; signs (neumes) show the groups of notes that form each rhythmic unit musical staff: four to five lines, c-clefs, no bar lines or meters, no dynamics or expression marks, voice designations: tenor, duplum, triplum, quadruplum sources: manuscripts are hand copied on parchment genres: organum (chant combined with polyphony), motet (polyphonic settings with new and separate texts added to each voice chants composers: Leonin and Perotin (Notre Dame in Paris), Hildegard of Bingen Development of secular music: 1100-1300

 secular: worldly music not written for religious services texts: vernacular languages - French, German, Spanish, English texture: mostly monophonic text settings: syllabic and melismatic rhythm: mostly unmetered rhythms until 1250, metered for dances scales: modal ranges: narrow, usually less than an octave traditions: troubadours (South French), trouvres (North French), Minnesingers (German) instrumental dances instruments: organs, recorders, sackbuts (trombone), shawm (double reed), vielles (string) composers: Bernart of Ventadorn, Beatrice of Dia, Adam de la Halle, and hundreds of others Late medieval music: 1300-1420 ?the New Art (Ars nova) textures: polyphonic rhythm: complex rhythmic patterns, simple and compound metrical groups, often syncopated melodic motion: conjunct lines harmony: consonances: (P=perfect) P4, P5, P8, some thirds ranges: often an octave in each voice cantus firmus: a pre-existent melody (chant, for example) used in the lower voice (tenor) musical notation: mensural; early time signatures

 (mensuration signs), but still no bar lines 5-line staff with c and f clefs, flats and sharps used on individual notes, and flats at the beginning of a line apply throughout the line, but not as ?tonal?

key signatures. voice designations: tenor, contratenor, triplum, cantus sources: manuscripts are hand copied on parchment genres: isorhythmic motets, masses, dance songs (ballade, virelai, rondeau) composers: Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut, Francesco Landini Renaissance ("rebirth"): 1420-1600 texture: polyphonic, often organized by imitation and canons, or homorhythmic motion: conjunct lines with some wider skips rhythm: regular pulses, but often without a metrical pulse in vocal music; metrical rhythms and strong downbeats in dances and instrumental music harmony: triadic, but cadences on perfect fifths and octaves (some Picardy thirds at cadences ? the name Picardy comes from north French region where many of these composers originated) ranges: expand to utilize the full SATB registers genres: growth of numerous sacred and secular genres vocal: predominant in sacred and secular music sacred music: sung a cappella secular music: can be sung with instruments notation: mensural; early time signatures (mensuration signs), but still no bar lines.

5-line staff with c and f clefs, parts written on individual sections of the page, no dynamic markings voice designations: tenor, contratenor, cantus, later changing to cantus, altus, tenor, bassus. sources: music printing develops in 1501 in Italy. Manuscripts also continue to be hand copied.

genres: single-movement compositions, except for the Mass cycle and dance pairs mass cycle: sacred choral, a capella composition with specific Ordinary sections of the Catholic service composed as a group, often with the same cantus firmus in the tenor part motet: sacred choral, a capella composition with words in Latin chorale: sacred hymn with words in German chanson: secular polyphonic composition with words in French madrigal: secular polyphonic composition with words in Italian Lied: secular polyphonic composition with words in German ayre: secular polyphonic composition with words in English canzona: instrumental composition in the style of a chanson dances: usually in pairs, like the slow pavan and the fast galliard musical instruments: harpsichord (also called the virginal), clavichord, lute, viola da gamba family (also called viols), recorders, cornetto, shawm, sackbut. The violin is developed, but is mostly used outdoors. Instruments are not usually specified for compositions. ensembles: called ?consorts.?

A whole consort is an ensemble of the same family (e.g., all recorders, SATB) and a broken consort is a mixed ensemble. composers: Du Fay, Dunstable, Binchois, Ockeghem, Josquin des Prez, Palestrina, Byrd, Morley, Dowland, Marenzio, Monteverdi, and hundreds or others Baroque Era: 1600-1750 textures: homophonic, polyphonic, and contrapuntal textures rhythms: metrical rhythms, strong and weak beat pulses motives: short ideas become the basis for continuous pitch and register manipulation, often presented without regular pauses in the music scales: major and minor scales develop harmonic rhythm: changes often occur on every beat or every two beats basso continuo: bass line played by the harpsichord and cello or other solo bass instrument figured bass: develops c. 1600; number notations that inform the continuo player of the intervals and accidentals in relation to the bass notes; the realization of the harmonies is improvised.

terraced dynamics: contrasting piano and forte in abrupt dynamic shifts ornamentation: melodic decorations, often improvised or added from symbols given in scores affections: music expresses specific emotions concertato style: contrast is emphasized through alternating groups of voices and/or instruments polychoral: a composition for multiple choirs or voices and/or instruments ritornello: instrumental refrain that frequently returns, as in a concerto or between verses of a song notation: modern symbols, written in score notation with time signatures, key signatures, dynamics (piano and forte), measures with bar lines, instrument and voice designations. instruments: the violin family, horns and trumpets (without valves) are not new instruments, but they begin to appear and gain importance in specific ensembles. Harpsichords, and especially organs, become more fully developed as solo instruments. The oboe and bassoon replace the shawm and the dulcian as the principal double reeds.

ensembles: string orchestras are expanded with individual instruments that contrast in timbre to each other genres: numerous multi-movement compositions opera seria: Italian opera, serious in nature, in which the narrative (recitative) and reflective (aria) numbers are all sung, and including staging, costumes, scenery and dramatic acting. oratorio: work for soloists, chorus and orchestra, based on a sacred story; with no acting costumes or scenery. cantata: a composition for one or more voices and accompaniment chorale cantata: a work with soloists, chorus and orchestra, incorporating hymns into the composition. trio sonata: two solo instruments, keyboard and continuous bass instrument fantasia/prelude/toccata: improvisatory compositions, often paired with a fugue fugue: paired with an improvisatory composition (fantasia, toccata or prelude) suite: a collection of dances (allemande, courant, saraband, gigue) solo concerto: a solo instrument and a chamber orchestra concerto grosso: a small group of solo instruments contrasted with a chamber orchestra.

A multi- movement composition overture: instrumental movement used at the beginning of an opera or oratorio composers: Monteverdi, Schtz, Corelli, Couperin, Handel, Vivaldi, J. S. Bach Classical Era: 1750-1800 aesthetic: balance, symmetry and formality, reflecting the rational objectivity of the Enlightenment melody: sometimes tuneful and folk-like; at other times motivically constructed; lyrical themes contrast with dramatic ones phrasing: periodic, in multiples of 4, usually separated by rests; balanced antecedent-consequent phrase relationships tonality: major and minor keys, with major more prevalent texture: homophonic, with occasional counterpoint, especially in developmental sections harmony: triadic with 7th chords used for color and tension; primary chords (I ?IV-V-I) predominate harmonic rhythm: slow, changing every two to four beats modulations: to closely related keys (e.g., to IV or V in Major; to III in minor).

accompaniments: broken triadic patterns (Alberti bass); repetitive broken octaves (murky bass) instrumentation: homogeneous sounds (orchestras with doubling of winds), musical material organized by families; standardized combinations of instruments within a genre; piano and clarinet (both invented in the Baroque) added to the repertory forms: standardized sonata form, theme and variations, minuet & trio, rondo, concerto-sonata dynamic gradations and expansions: crescendos, diminuendos, piano and forte dynamic (pp & ff very occasionally); occasional accents on off-beats, sforzandos genres: composers: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven Romantic Era: 1800-1900, or nineteenth-century music aesthetic: freedom from boundaries, including those that separate the arts: music becomes more programmatic, merging with literature, art, and philosophy; programmatic elements reflect this trend; interest in the subjective, including the emotions and the supernatural, in contrast with the more objective and rational Classic.

melody: long, emotional, and memorable, using wide leaps for expression phrases: of irregular lengths, with less symmetry than those of the Classic rhythm: displaced accents, shifting and overlapping of duple and triple patterns texture: homophony predominates, highlighting the melody, but counterpoint appears at times harmony: more extensive, with chord extensions and greater dissonance tonality: tonal, but with distant chord progressions and modulations; chromaticism is used extensively; key areas often change freely within movements; minor mode predominates, in contrast with the Classic accompaniment: complex, sometimes contrapuntal, with wide ranges and disjunct intervals dynamics: dramatic, at extremes of the dynamic range; tempi use expressive terminology meter and tempo: freer meters and tempi forms: less clearly defined by sections and tonality instrumentation: larger forces of the orchestra, with a greatly expanded range of timbres that demanded instrumental evolution (valves for brass instruments, more keys for winds, larger and stronger pianos, pedaled harps; new instruments, including the tuba, saxophone, and celeste); inclusion of voice and chorus in later symphonic works scale: on one hand, short, intimate compositions for piano (character piece

) or voice and piano (lied, chanson); on the other, expansion of proportions of the symphony, chamber music, concerto, sonata, mass; opera roles demand bigger voices to match more grandiose dramatic concepts genres: single-movement character pieces and dances for piano composers: Schubert, Robert and Clara Schumann, Verdi, Brahms, Twentieth-century music: 1900-2000 wide range of tonal, modal, whole tone, atonal, serial, and approaches to composition wide range of harmonic structures: triadic, quartal, clusters rhythms: polymeters, asymmetrical meters melodies: disjunct, Sprechstimme (half sung/half spoken) timbres: non-traditional uses of instruments, global instruments, electronic sounds mixed media: music combined with film, art, theater form: traditional and non-traditional structures expression: ranges from subdued works (Impressionism) to excessive exaggeration (Expressionism) nationalism and folk elements return to musical characteristics of earlier periods: Neo-Classicism (including Neo-Baroque elements) and Neo-Romanticism jazz and other African-American influences composers: Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Debussy, Bartok, I

ves, Barber, Copland, Cage, and Glass.

A Cappella, Acappella, Acapella, A Capella, Acappela or Acapela? A Cappella, Acappella, Acapella, A Capella, Acapella or A Capela? The phrase a cappella is among the most butchered and misunderstood musical terms. The predominant, and most "correct" spelling, is ... a cappella - two words, two "p's", two "l's." A Cappella, A Picky Definition Musicologists have fun debating the extent to which a cappella, "in the style of the chapel," can include instrumental accompaniment. Some argue that early sacred a cappella performances would sometimes include instruments that double a human voice part. So, the correct definition of a cappella should be something like "singing without independent instrumental accompaniment." At Primarily A Cappella, we are trying to popularize this style of music, so we like to keep it simple. a cappella - two words, two "p's", two "l's." singing without instruments Those of you who are serious singers may say, "my voice is my instrument!" True.

But will the general public understand the meaning of "singing without other instruments?" Or the more cumbersome, "singing without non-vocal instruments?" A Capella? Some musical dictionaries indicate the Italian a cappella is preferred over the Latin a capella (one "p") yet both are technically correct. Why do those dictionaries muddy the waters with two spellings? The phrase was first used in Italian Catholic churches, where Latin was the language for sacred text. Thus, the Latin spelling for 'in the style of the chapel' - a capella - has some historical basis. However, most other musical terms - forte, accelerando, and many others - are Italian in origin. Since the Italian spelling is more consistent with other musical terms, it has been used more frequently. Given the difficulty of spelling our favorite style of music, we'd like to endorse the simplicity of a single spelling: a cappella - two words, two "p's", two "l's." singing without instruments Acappella Joining the two Italian words together to make Acappella is a popular variation in the U.S. For many streetcorner singing fans, Acappella means unaccompanied singing of '50s (and early '60s) songs.

There were a series of recordings released in the early 1960's of Mid-Atlantic unaccompanied doo-wop groups called "The Best of Acappella." The liner notes on the first LP noted that Acappella means "singing without music." In this matter we do tend towards being picky - instruments do not alone music make! A cappella (or Acappella) singers make music while they are ... singing without instruments A more recent, second meaning of Acappella has emerged. The Contemporary Christian group Acappella is the first formed by prolific songwriter Keith Lancaster. In the early 1990's he added Acappella Vocal Band (now mostly known as AVB) and "Acappella: The Series" which uses studio singers (plus LOTS of electronic help) to perform songs around specific themes. All of these efforts are now combined in The Acappella Company. The good news is they have sold millions of recordings and have contributed greatly to the awareness of a cappella. The bad news is they have popularized a spelling variation, and through the heavy use of electronically manipulated voice (which can sound like any other synthesized instrument) have chipped away at the idea of ...

singing without instruments. There's now a third meaning that has emerged on urban music singles - voices without instrument tracks. There are often remixes of the song labelled acappella (or some variation, rarely the traditional spelling). Even on largely rap songs, an acappella mix will stand on its own. It's not really singing, but it's acappella! A Capela This spelling is totally wrong, and yet has been used by those who should know better. The most prominent occurrence is on the re-release of first album by the Singers Unlimited. Originally titled "Try to Remember," this very popular collection of vocal jazz arrangements by Gene Puerling has no doubt led some to misspell, or at least question the correct spelling of ... a cappella - two words, two "p's", two "l's." singing without instruments Occapella The Manhattan Transfer sang a song with this title on their debut, eponymous album. Ironically, the whole song is accompanied, as are most of their songs by this group, so one can only guess at the intended meaning.

The lyrics "Everything's gonna be mellow, Listen while we sing it occapella" precede a refrain of scat-like harmony (with the band receding into the background but still audible). Also ironically, The Manhattan Transfer are often the group music lovers think of when they hear the phrase "a cappella." Many people associate "close harmony" with "a cappella," which certainly makes a great deal of sense. Popular 20th century a cappella is characterized by extensive use of close harmony - when voices separated by small intervals (seconds, thirds, fourths) sing the same rhythm and words. The Manhattan Transfer sing great close harmony, but most of it includes instrumental accompaniment. Only a handful of their dozens of songs are performed a cappella. Oxapello? (yech!) The Blenders open their second album "From the Mouth" with a schtick by this title.

On this brief cut, the group is trying to discuss their new recording with an unenlightened agent, who keeps referring to the style of "Oxapello." Hopefully the next time you run into someone similarly confused, you'll remember to politely tell them: a cappella - two words, two "p's", two "l's." singing without instruments A Cappello On the Trenchcoats' second album, "Your Joy," one of the fun originals is "A Cappello Blues." The phrase is sung straight (that is, pronounced incorrectly) until the final chorus, when a hesitating voice-over says "uh, isn't it, a cappella, with an "a"?" By now, hopefully, you've got the correct spelling emblazed in your brain. Why "Primarily" A Cappella? Singing without instruments comes in many shapes and sizes. One of the attractions for artists is the nearly unlimited pallet the voice provides.

The same singer can sound sultry and sexy one minute, cold and machine-like the next, then change to a trumpet, and morph again to a soft harmonic background "ooooh." In short, a cappella enables "out of the box" music - art that defies singular categorization. It's not surprising, then, that the artists who create breathtaking, out of the box a cappella performances sometimes want to add instruments. The vocal pallet does have some limitations, after all. We endorse artistic creativity, and so we include recordings that include accompanied songs along with a cappella performances. Another issue debated among purists is whether a cappella allows for percussion accompaniment. While we think the Nylons, Acappella and others should be allowed to describe themselves as "singing without instruments" without saying 'but with a drum track,' our 'primarily' moniker allows us to step aside and let customers decide. Of course, it's not always the artists that choose to add instruments. Recording industry executives by and large don't appreciate the marketing potential of a cappella beyond the token ballad cover.

So, many groups performing luscious close harmony capable of standing on its own are told by their record labels in no uncertain terms that the recordings will include instruments. Still, the music is appreciated by the same fans who love pure a cappella ... and those fans are our customers, so we want to alert you to great harmony wherever it's found! Finally, some of the best close harmony in vocal jazz and doo-wop is found on 100% accompanied recordings. Many a cappella aficionados are also fans of the Hi-Lo's, The Four Freshmen and similar groups. We want to be your one-stop shop! In most of our recording reviews, we mention how many of the songs are unaccompanied by instruments so that you won't be shocked. So maybe that's a bit more than you wanted to know, but now you know how to spell "it" ... right?

Question: What is the musical term for one or more vocalists performing without an accompaniment?
Answer: A Cappella