respiratory disease | human disease | Britannica.com Respiratory disease Respiratory disease, any of the diseases and disorders that affect human respiration . Tissue damage, in the forms of bronchitis and emphysema, is evident when the cross section of a … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Diseases of the respiratory system may affect any of the structures and organs that have to do with breathing , including the nasal cavities, the pharynx (or throat), the larynx , the trachea (or windpipe), the bronchi and bronchioles, the tissues of the lungs , and the respiratory muscles of the chest cage. Emphysema destroys the walls of the alveoli of the lungs, resulting in a loss of surface area … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The respiratory tract is the site of an exceptionally large range of disorders for three main reasons: 1) it is exposed to the environment and therefore may be affected by inhaled organisms, dusts, or gases; 2) it possesses a large network of capillaries through which the entire output of the heart has to pass, which means that diseases that affect the small blood vessels are likely to affect the lung; and 3) it may be the site of “sensitivity” or allergic phenomena that may profoundly affect function. During normal breathing, inhaled air travels through two main channels (primary bronchi) that … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. This article discusses the signs and symptoms of respiratory disease , the natural defenses of the human respiratory system, the methods of detecting respiratory disease, and the different diseases of the respiratory system. For more information about the anatomy of the human respiratory system and the process of respiration, see human respiratory system . Signs and symptoms The symptoms of lung disease are relatively few. Cough is a particularly important sign of all diseases that affect any part of the bronchial tree.

A cough productive of sputum is the most important manifestation of inflammatory or malignant diseases of the major airways, of which bronchitis is a common example. In severe bronchitis the mucous glands lining the bronchi enlarge greatly, and, commonly, 30 to 60 ml of sputum are produced in a 24-hour period, particularly in the first two hours after awakening in the morning. An irritative cough without sputum may be caused by extension of malignant disease to the bronchial tree from nearby organs. The presence of blood in the sputum ( hemoptysis ) is an important sign that should never be disregarded. Although it may result simply from an exacerbation of an existing infection, it may also indicate the presence of inflammation , capillary damage, or a tumour . Hemoptysis is also a classic sign of tuberculosis of the lungs. Similar Topics incidence The second most important symptom of lung disease is dyspnea, or shortness of breath . This sensation, of complex origin, may arise acutely, as when a foreign body is inhaled into the trachea, or with the onset of a severe attack of asthma .

More often, it is insidious in onset and slowly progressive. What is noted is a slowly progressive difficulty in completing some task, such as walking up a flight of stairs, playing golf, or walking uphill. The shortness of breath may vary in severity, but in diseases such as emphysema (see below Pulmonary emphysema ), in which there is irreversible lung damage, it is constantly present. It may become so severe as to immobilize the victim, and tasks such as dressing cannot be performed without difficulty. Severe fibrosis of the lung, resulting from occupational lung disease or arising from no identifiable antecedent condition, may also cause severe and unremitting dyspnea. Dyspnea is also an early symptom of congestion of the lung as a result of impaired function of the left ventricle of the heart. When this occurs, if the right ventricle that pumps blood through the lungs is functioning normally, the lung capillaries become engorged, and fluid may accumulate in small alveoli and airways.

It is commonly dyspnea that first causes a patient to seek medical advice, but absence of the symptom does not mean that serious lung disease is not present, since, for example, a small lung cancer that is not obstructing an airway does not produce shortness of breath. Britannica Stories Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent Chest pain may be an early symptom of lung disease, but it is most often associated with an attack of pneumonia , in which case it is due to an inflammation of the pleura that follows the onset of the pneumonic process. Pain associated with inflammation of the pleura is characteristically felt when a deep breath is taken. The pain disappears when fluid accumulates in the pleural space, a condition known as a pleural effusion . Acute pleurisy with pain may signal a blockage in a pulmonary vessel, which leads to acute congestion of the affected part. For example, pulmonary embolism , the occlusion of a pulmonary artery by a fat deposit or by a blood clot that has dislodged from a site elsewhere in the body, can cause pleurisy. Sudden blockage of a blood vessel injures the lung tissue to which the vessel normally delivers blood.

In addition, severe chest pain may be caused by the spread of malignant disease to involve the pleura, or by a tumour that arises from the pleura itself, such as a mesothelioma. Severe, intractable pain caused by such conditions may require surgery to cut the nerves that supply the affected segment. Fortunately, pain of this severity is rare. Apples and Doctors: Fact or Fiction? To these major symptoms of lung disease—coughing, dyspnea, and chest pain—may be added several others. A wheeziness in the chest may be heard. This is caused by narrowing of the airways, such as occurs in asthma. Some diseases of the lung are associated with the swelling of the fingertips (and, rarely, of the toes) called “ clubbing.” Clubbing may be a feature of bronchiectasis (chronic inflammation and dilation of the major airways), diffuse fibrosis of the lung from any cause, and lung cancer . In the case of lung cancer, this unusual sign may disappear after surgical removal of the tumour.

In some lung diseases, the first symptom may be a swelling of the lymph nodes that drain the affected area, particularly the small nodes above the collarbone in the neck; enlargement of the lymph nodes in these regions should always lead to a suspicion of intrathoracic disease. Not infrequently, the presenting symptom of a lung cancer is caused by spread of the tumour to other organs. Thus, a hip fracture from bone metastases, cerebral signs from intracranial metastases, or jaundice from liver involvement may all be the first evidence of a primary lung cancer, as may sensory changes in the legs, since a peripheral neuropathy may also be the presenting evidence of these tumours. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest The generally debilitating effect of many lung diseases is well recognized. A person with active lung tuberculosis or with lung cancer, for example, may be conscious of only a general feeling of malaise , unusual fatigue , or seemingly minor symptoms as the first indication of disease. Loss of appetite and loss of weight, a disinclination for physical activity, general psychological depression , and some symptoms apparently unrelated to the lung, such as mild indigestion or headaches , may be diverse indicators of lung disease.

Not infrequently, the patient may feel as one does when convalescent after an attack of influenza . Because the symptoms of lung disease, especially in the early stage, are variable and nonspecific, physical and radiographic examination of the chest are an essential part of the evaluation of persons with these complaints. Defenses of the respiratory system Exposed as it is to the outside environment, the respiratory tract possesses a complicated but comprehensive series of defenses against inhaled material. As air passes through the nose , large particles of debris are filtered out by cilia and by mucus that is secreted from the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity. The air then travels through the pharynx, which is the last portion of the upper airway, through the larynx, which is the beginning portion of the lower airways, and into the trachea. Further filtration of the air occurs as it passes over cilia and sticky layers of mucus in the trachea. In addition, lymphatic vessels in the wall of the trachea transport cells of the immune system , such as lymphocytes and macrophages, that act to trap and destroy foreign particles.

Bands of muscle that surround the cartilage of the trachea play an important role in narrowing the airway during coughing, thus providing a forceful defense mechanism by which sputum and other substances can be quickly expelled from the respiratory tract. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies In the bronchial tree, cilia beat in unison in one direction, moving substances up and out of the airways. Covering the cilia in the bronchioles and small bronchi is a thin layer of fluid, which increases in thickness and becomes layered with mucus as the small bronchi converge into the large bronchi. When the cilia beat, foreign particles are transported along in the fluid and mucus layers. This system, known as the mucociliary escalator , carries debris as far as the pharynx, where the fluid and mucus is then swallowed and the debris eliminated by the digestive system. Macrophages form the first line of defense in the smaller branches of the airways. These cells, located within the alveoli of the lungs, ingest and destroy bacteria and viruses and remove small particles.

They also secrete chemicals that attract other immune cells such as white blood cells to the site, and hence they can initiate an inflammatory response in the lung. Particles picked up by macrophages are carried into the lymphatic system of the lung and stored in adjacent lymph nodes in the lung and mediastinum (the region between the lungs). Soluble particles are removed into the bloodstream and are eventually excreted by the kidneys . Methods of investigation Physical examination of the chest remains important, as it may reveal the presence of an area of inflammation, a pleural effusion , or an airway obstruction. Methods of examination include physical inspection and palpation for masses, tender areas, and abnormal breathing patterns; percussion to gauge the resonance of the underlying lung; and auscultation (listening) with a stethoscope to determine pitch and loudness of breath sounds. The sounds detected with a stethoscope may reveal abnormalities of the airways, the lung tissue, or the pleural space. Examination of the sputum for bacteria allows the identification of many infectious organisms and the institution of specific treatment; sputum examination for malignant cells is occasionally helpful.

Trending Topics Opium Wars The conventional radiological examination of the chest has been greatly enhanced by the technique of computerized tomography (CT). This technique produces a complete picture of the lungs by using X-rays to create two dimensional images that are integrated into one image by a computer. While the resolution of computerized tomography is much better than most other visualization techniques, lung ventilation and perfusion scanning can also be helpful in detecting abnormalities of the lungs. In these techniques, a radioactive tracer molecule is either inhaled, in the case of ventilation scanning, or injected, in the case of perfusion scanning. The ventilation scan allows visualization of gas exchange in the bronchi and trachea, and the perfusion scan allows visualization of the blood vessels in the lungs. The combined results from ventilation and perfusion scanning are important for the detection of focal occlusion of pulmonary blood vessels by pulmonary emboli. Although magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) plays a limited role in examination of the lung, because the technique is not well suited to imaging air-filled spaces, MRI is useful for imaging the heart and blood vessels within the thorax. Positron emission tomography (PET scanning) is used to distinguish malignant lung tissue from scar tissue on tissues such as the lymph nodes .

Flexible fibre-optic bronchoscopes that can be inserted into the upper airway through the mouth are used to examine the larynx, trachea, and major bronchi. By feeding a surgical instrument through a special channel of the bronchoscope, physicians can collect fluid and small tissue samples from the airways. Tissue samples are examined for histological changes that indicate certain diseases and are cultured to determine whether harmful bacteria are present. A number of tests are available to determine the functional status of the lung and the effects of disease on pulmonary function. Spirometry, the measurement of the rate and quantity of air exhaled forcibly from a full respiration, allows measurement of the ventilation capacity of the lungs and quantification of the degree of airflow obstruction. Ventilatory capability can be measured with a peak flow meter, which is often used in field studies. More complex laboratory equipment is necessary to measure the volumes of gas in the lung; the distribution of ventilation within the lung; airflow resistance; the stiffness of the lung, or the pressure required to inflate it; and the rate of gas transfer across the lung, which is commonly measured by recording the rate of absorption of carbon monoxide into the blood ( hemoglobin has a high affinity for carbon monoxide).

Arterial blood gases and pH values indicate the adequacy of oxygenation and ventilation and are routinely measured in patients in intensive care units. Tests of exercise capability, in which workload, total ventilation, and gas exchange are compared before, during, and after exercise, are useful in assessing functional impairment and disability. Lung transplantation Early attempts at transplanting a single lung in patients with severe bilateral lung disease were not successful, but from the late 1970s bilateral lung transplantation had some striking results. Persons severely disabled by cystic fibrosis , emphysema , sarcoidosis , pulmonary fibrosis , or severe primary pulmonary hypertension can achieve nearly normal lung function several months after the procedure. Because transplantation offers the only hope for persons with severe lung disease, who may be relatively young, the techniques are being pursued aggressively in specialized centres. Availability of donor lungs is sharply limited by the number of suitable donors; for example, many people who die of severe head injuries, which presumably would leave the lungs intact, often have also suffered lung injury or lung infection. With proper selection of donor organs and proper transplantation technique, survival at one year has been reported at 90 percent.

Many recipients of single or double lung transplantation develop bronchiolitis obliterans beginning several months or years after surgery. This complication is thought to represent gradual immunologic rejection of the transplanted tissue despite the use of immunosuppressant drugs. Brochiolitis obliterans and the constant risk of serious infection brought about by the use of immunosuppressant drugs limit survival to approximately 40 to 60 percent five years after surgery. Morphological classification of respiratory disease The main divisions of the respiratory system serve as a basis for the morphological description of respiratory system diseases. The upper airway consists of the nose , nasopharynx, and larynx . Below these structures lies the trachea . Thereafter the airway divides into two major airways, right and left, and then into progressively smaller tubes until finally the terminal bronchioles , which are about one millimetre in diameter, are reached. On average, 16 generations of division occur between the trachea and the terminal bronchioles. Although there is only one airway at the beginning—the trachea—there are about 650,000 terminal bronchioles.

The cross-sectional area of the bronchial tree increases with increasing subdivision. The end of each terminal bronchiole opens into an acinus , so called because the structure resembles a cluster of grapes, and from this point onward the gas-exchanging portion of the lung is reached. The alveoli, or air sacs, which are divided into groups or lobules by fibrous partitions, or septa, are small hexagonal structures forming a blind end to the acinus. The wall of the acinus consists of blood capillaries , and the remaining structures are extremely thin, only providing supporting tissue for the rich capillary bed that constitutes the parenchyma , or the essential tissue of the lung itself. The parenchyma is the gas-exchanging tissue of the lung and has a surface area roughly comparable to that of a tennis court. Blood is distributed to the lung through the branching pulmonary artery , which subdivides with the bronchial tree and accompanies the smaller bronchioles into the region of the acinus to supply the capillaries of the alveolar wall. Oxygenated blood from the acini is collected into pulmonary veins , which run at some little distance from the bronchioles.

An interstitial space exists around the alveoli and around the bronchioles and blood vessels, and this connects the lymph nodes (the small masses of lymphatic tissue that occur along the course of the lymph vessels) situated in the midline of the thoracic cavity and extending in a chain up into the neck and down into the abdomen. The diaphragm forces air in and out of the lungs. However, diaphragmatic paralysis, which can occur … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The bronchioles of the lungs are the site where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide during the … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Each lung is covered by a protective membrane, or pleura, which consists of a visceral layer that lines the outer surface of the lung and a parietal layer that lines the inside of the chest wall. The space between these two layers, called the intrapleural space, normally contains no air and only a few millilitres of fluid for lubrication purposes, as during breathing one layer must slide on another. The pleurae may become involved by inflammation or neoplastic disease, in which case an effusion of fluid may occur between the two layers.

From this general description, diseases of the respiratory system may be grouped into the following categories. Diseases of the upper airway The nasal sinuses are frequently the site of both acute and chronic infections. In common with the palate and the nasopharynx, they are also the site of malignant neoplastic changes. Cancer of the larynx is much more common in smokers than in nonsmokers. Sagittal section of the pharynx. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The occurrence of upper airway obstruction (particularly common in people who snore) has been documented in sleep laboratory studies. Sleep apnea , which sometimes involves upper airway obstruction, is characterized by cessation of breathing for up to a minute and by a marked fall in blood oxygen levels, thus arousing an affected individual from sleep. Sleep apnea affects approximately 4 percent of adults. It is not confined to the very obese, although it forms part of the syndrome of severe obesity in which sleep disturbance is common, and it is associated with the daytime somnolence known as the pickwickian syndrome , after Charles Dickens ’s description of the fat boy in The Pickwick Papers.

Sleep apnea is sometimes caused by relaxation of muscles around the pharynx and obstruction of the airway by the palate and tongue . It is related to narrow anatomical dimensions in this area but is also more likely to occur if alcohol is ingested shortly before sleep. Sleep apnea may cause a rise in systemic blood pressure , and pickwickian syndrome may affect one’s performance at work and ability to do other tasks carried out during the day. In severe cases, sleep apnea leads to right ventricular heart failure . Diseases of the major bronchi The major bronchi can become the seat of chronic inflammation , as in chronic bronchitis or bronchiectasis . The latter disease may be caused by the familial disease cystic fibrosis (see below Bronchiectasis ). The major bronchi may also be the site of development of malignant disease. Diseases of the smaller bronchi and bronchioles It is in the smaller bronchi that major obstruction commonly occurs in asthma : these bronchi contain smooth muscle in their walls, and the muscle may contract, causing airway obstruction.

The small radicles of the bronchial tree, the bronchioles, are commonly involved in infective processes such as viral infections; they are also the primary site of deposition of inhaled dust and particles. Because of the large cross-sectional area of this part of the airway, considerable disease may be present in the bronchioles without affecting the expiratory flow rate. The bronchioles are occasionally the site of a primary noninfective bronchiolitis in persons with rheumatoid arthritis or other systemic inflammatory diseases. Diseases of the alveolar ducts and alveoli These structures are the site of primary involvement in many infections, including pneumonia , and it is on the parenchyma of the lung that the main effects of blockage of a pulmonary artery ( pulmonary embolism ) occur. The capillary bed surrounding the alveoli is subject to damage, and fluid may leak through the alveolar capillaries to accumulate in the lungs ( pulmonary edema ). The capillary bed is also extensively damaged in the condition known generally as acute respiratory distress syndrome ; the exact mechanism of the damage is not yet fully understood.

The alveolar walls themselves may undergo diffuse interstitial thickening, a characteristic of diseases grouped under the heading of “diffuse interstitial fibrosis”; interstitial thickening may also occur as a manifestation of collagen diseases such as scleroderma . One of the common forms of emphysema , in which alveolar destruction occurs, entails early loss of tissue at the point where the bronchiole ends in the acinus, resulting in a punched-out lesion in the centriacinar region. This form of emphysema is the one that most commonly develops after years of cigarette smoking. The lung parenchyma is the site of the discrete aggregations of cells , usually giant cells, that form the granulomas characteristic of the generalized disease known as sarcoidosis , and it is in the lung parenchyma that nodules caused by the inhalation of silica particles are found. Diseases of the pleura The pleura may be involved in inflammatory or neoplastic processes, either of which may lead to fluid accumulation ( pleural effusion ) between the two layers.

The pleural membranes of the lungs may become perforated and spontaneously rupture , usually over a small collection of congenital blebs, or cysts at the apex of the lung. This causes spontaneous pneumothorax , a partial or occasionally complete collapse of the lung. In the majority of cases, a pneumothorax resolves slowly of its own accord, although pleural suction may be needed to expedite recovery. If repetitive attacks occur, the blebs may be removed surgically, and the pleural membrane of the affected lung may be sealed to the pleural membrane of the inner wall of the thorax to prevent a recurrence. The most common disease of the pleura is caused by inflammation and is referred to as pleurisy . A pleurisy with an effusion may be the presenting symptom of pulmonary tuberculosis , and pleurisy may accompany any kind of pneumonia . When a pleural effusion in a person with bacterial pneumonia becomes infected, pus accumulates in the pleural cavity ( empyema ).

This complication—dreaded before the widespread availability of antibiotics in the mid-20th century and after the outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in the late 20th and early 21st centuries—requires drainage of the pleural space. In severe instances of empyema, video-assisted thoracic surgery is performed to evacuate viscous or semisolid infected material from the space. Mesothelioma, a cancer of the pleura, may occur many years after inhalation of asbestos fibres (see below Asbestosis and mesothelioma ). The cancerous cells of the pleura can eventually metastasize and invade nearby and distant tissues, including tissues of the neck and head. Diseases of the mediastinum and diaphragm The mediastinum comprises the fibrous membrane in the centre of the thoracic cavity, together with the many important structures situated within it. Enlargement of lymph glands in this region is common, particularly in the presence of lung tumours or as part of a generalized enlargement of lymphatic tissue in disease.

Primary tumours of mediastinal structures may arise from the thymus gland or the lower part of the thyroid gland ; noninvasive cysts of different kinds are also found in the mediastinum. The diaphragm may be incompletely formed, leading to herniation of abdominal viscera through it. In adult life an important disease involving the diaphragm is bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis. This leads to a severe reduction in vital capacity, especially when the subject is recumbent. In many cases the cause of the paralysis cannot be determined. Paralysis of the diaphragm on one side is more common and better tolerated than bilateral paralysis, although some shortness of breath on exertion is often present. The function of the diaphragm may be compromised when the lung is highly overinflated, as occurs in emphysema ; diaphragmatic fatigue may limit the exercise capability of affected persons. Although these divisions provide a general outline of the ways in which diseases may affect the lung, they are by no means rigid. It is common for more than one part of the system to be involved in any particular disease process, and disease in one region frequently leads to involvement of other parts.

Page 1 of 3 Cardiovascular disease terms | World Heart Federation Cardiovascular disease terms Download the fact sheet in PDF > Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term for a range of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels. A heart attack or stroke may be the first warning of an underlying disease. Heart attack symptoms include discomfort in the center of the chest that lasts for more than a few minutes or that goes away and comes back; pain in other body parts such as arms, back, neck, jaw or stomach; shortness of breath; nausea, breaking out in a cold sweat and light-headedness. Stroke symptoms include sudden weakness of the face, arm or leg – most often on one side of the body; sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding; sudden difficulty in seeing; sudden trouble walking or dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; and sudden, severe headache without a known cause. Types of cardiovascular disease include: There are many different types of disease that can lead to either a heart attack or stroke and for ease we have separated these diseases into those that directly affect the heart, the brain and the peripheral circulatory system.

Heart-related cardiovascular disease Acute coronary syndromes A term that refers to situations where the blood-supply to the heart muscle is suddenly blocked, resulting in heart attacks and unstable angina. Angina Angina pectoris, commonly known as angina, is chest pain due to a lack of blood to the heart muscle. Worsening angina attacks are a sign of unstable angina that can lead to a heart attack. Arrhythmia Arrhythmia describes an abnormal heart rhythm. The heart can beat too slowly, too fast or irregularly affecting how well the heart works and how blood is pumped around the body. Cardiomyopathy Literally, this means heart muscle disease and cardiomyopathy refers to any disease that affects the muscle of the heart. Often leads to arrhythmia or sudden cardiac death. Congenital heart disease Refers to heart malformations that are present at birth. In many cases the cause is unknown but examples of the disease include “holes in the heart”, abnormal valves or abnormal heart chambers. All of which affect the heart’s ability to work normally. Coronary heart disease A disease where one or more of the arteries supplying blood to the heart muscle becomes blocked.

Blockage of these arteries means that some of the heart muscle becomes deprived of oxygen, which results in angina or a heart attack. Heart failure Heart failure is a condition where the heart is not pumping enough blood to meet the needs of the body. It is a progressive disease where the heart starts to work harder to meet the body’s need until it can no longer sustain the effort needed. Congestive heart failure occurs when the heart cannot pump out all the blood that returns to it and the blood starts backing up in the veins that lead to the heart. This results in fluid accumulating in various parts of the body causing swelling (edema). Inflammatory heart disease Inflammatory heart disease involves inflammation of the heart muscle and/or the tissue surrounding it. Ischaemic heart disease Ischaemic heart disease is characterized by reduced blood supply to the heart muscle i.e. myocardium. This occurs when plaque builds up inside the coronary arteries, a condition called atherosclerosis. Rheumatic heart disease An acquired heart disease that is caused by rheumatic fever, which itself is caused by a preceding group A streptococcal (strep) infection of the throat.

If left untreated this disease affects the valves of the heart and can eventually lead to serious complications or even death. Valvular disease Valvular disease describes a disease of the valves within the heart that are needed to regulate blood flow. Valve disease means that the valves either don’t open enough to allow blood to flow freely or they don’t close effectively and blood can flow backwards. Brain-related cardiovascular disease Cerebrovascular disease (stroke) A stroke is the brain equivalent of a heart attack and is where blood flow to the brain is blocked or interrupted. The affected part of the brain is then deprived of oxygen and nutrients leading to cell death. There are two types of stroke – haemorrhagic and ischaemic. Haemorrhagic stroke Hemorrhagic strokes occur when weakened blood vessels rupture and bleed into the surrounding brain tissue. The blood then accumulates and starts to compress the brain. Further, brain tissue beyond the rupture is starved of oxygen. Ischaemic stroke In an ischaemic stroke, blood supply to part of the brain is blocked. The decrease in blood supply causes brain cells to die, which affects a person’s ability to carry out vital functions such as walking or talking.

Circulatory system-related cardiovascular diseases Deep vein thrombosis A condition where blood clots form in the veins, usually the leg veins. These clots can then dislodge and travel through bloodstream to an artery in lungs, where they block blood flow. This condition is called pulmonary embolism. Hypertensive heart disease Refers to heart damage that results from high blood pressure and includes coronary artery disease, heart failure and thickening of the heart muscle. Peripheral artery disease (PAD) Refers to a narrowing of the arteries outside of the heart or brain – most commonly to the lower extremities. It results in the reduction or stoppage of blood flowing to these extremities. If severe and prolonged, this can lead to tissue death and if left untreated can result in the need to amputate the affected limb. Pulmonary embolism A sudden blockage in an artery going to the lung by a blood clot that was formed elsewhere in the body. It can cause permanent damage to the lung that can prevent other organs from getting oxygenated blood. If the clot is large or there are many clots it can cause sudden death.

Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases By Kim Ann Zimmermann, Live Science Contributor | March 11, 2016 07:43pm ET MORE Credit: Juan Gaertner | Shutterstock The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body. The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are similar to the circulatory system's veins and capillaries. The vessels are connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph is filtered. The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system. Description of the lymphatic system There are hundreds of lymph nodes in the human body. They are located deep inside the body, such as around the lungs and heart, or closer to the surface, such as under the arm or groin, according to the American Cancer Society .

The spleen , which is located on the left side of the body just above the kidney, is the largest lymphatic organ, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It controls the amount of red blood cells and blood storage in the body, and helps to fight infection. If the spleen detects potentially dangerous bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms in the blood, it — along with the lymph nodes — creates white blood cells called lymphocytes, which act as defenders against invaders. The lymphocytes produce antibodies to kill the foreign microorganisms and stop infections from spreading. Humans can live without a spleen, although people who have lost their spleen to disease or injury are more prone to infections. The lymphatic system helps keep the body healthy by eliminating infections and diseases. Credit: by Ross Toro, Infographics Artist The thymus is located in the chest just above the heart, according to Merck Manual . This small organ stores immature lymphocytes (specialized white blood cells) and prepares them to become active T cells, which help destroy infected or cancerous cells. Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells found in the pharynx.

According to the American Academy of Otolaryngology , they are the body's "first line of defense as part of the immune system. They sample bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the mouth or nose." They sometimes become infected, and although tonsillectomies occur much less frequently today then they did in the 1950s, it is still among the most common operations performed and typically follows frequent throat infections. Lymph is a clear and colorless fluid; the word "lymph" comes from the Latin word lympha, which means "connected to water," according to the National Lymphadema Network . Plasma leaves the body's cells once it has delivered its nutrients and removed debris. Most of this fluid returns to the venous circulation through tiny blood vessels called venules and continues as venous blood. The remainder becomes lymph, according to the Mayo Clinic. Unlike blood, which flows throughout the body in a continue loop, lymph flows in only one direction — upward toward the neck. Lymphatic vessels connect to two subclavian veins, which are located on either sides of the neck near the collarbones, and the fluid re-enters the circulatory system, according to the Mayo Clinic.

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system are typically treated by immunologists. Vascular surgeons, dermatologists, oncologists and physiatrists also get involved in treatment of various lymphatic ailments. There are also lymphedema therapists who specialize in the manual drainage of the lymphatic system. The most common diseases of the lymphatic system are enlargement of the lymph nodes (also known as lymphadenopathy), swelling due to lymph node blockage (also known as lymphedema) and cancers involving the lymphatic system, according to Dr. James Hamrick, chief of medical oncology and hematology at Kaiser Permanente in Atlanta. When bacteria are recognized in the lymph fluid, the lymph nodes make more infection-fighting white blood cells, which can cause swelling. The swollen nodes can sometimes be felt in the neck, underarms and groin, according to the NLM. Lymphadenopathy is usually caused by infection, inflammation, or cancer. Infections that cause lymphadenopathy include bacterial infections such as strep throat, locally infected skin wounds, or viral infections such as mononucleosis or HIV infection, Hamrick stated.

“The enlargement of the lymph nodes may be localized to the area of infection, as in strep throat, or more generalized as in HIV infection. In some areas of the body the enlarged lymph nodes are palpable, while others are to deep to feel and can be seen on CT scan or MRI.” Inflammatory or autoimmune conditions occur when a person's immune system is active, and can result in enlargement of lymph nodes. This can happen in lupus, according to Hamrick. Lymphoma is cancer of the lymph nodes. It occurs when lymphocytes grow and multiply uncontrollably. There are a number of different types of lymphoma, according to Dr. Jeffrey P. Sharman, director of research at Willamette Valley Cancer Institute and medical director of hematology research for the U.S. Oncology Network. “The first ‘branch point’ is the difference between Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL),” Sharman said. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more common of the two, according to the Lymphoma Research Foundation.

The most common types of NHL are follicular, which accounts for about 30 percent of all NHL cases; diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), which comprises 40 to 50 percent of NHL cases; and Burkitt's lymphoma, which accounts for 5 percent of NHL cases. "The remainder of cases makes up the bewildering complexity of NHL,” Sharman said. “Though there can be a significant range within an individual category, the clinical approach to each category is unique and the expectations of patient outcome varies by category," Sharman said. When a person has had surgery and/or radiation to remove a cancer, the lymphatic flow back to the heart and can result in swelling or lymphedema, Hamrick noted. This most commonly occurs in women who have had surgery to remove a breast cancer. Part of the operation to remove the breast cancer involves removing lymph nodes in the armpit. The more lymph nodes removed the higher the risk of chronic bothersome swelling and pain due to lymphedema in the arm, Hamrick explained.

“Fortunately modern surgical techniques are allowing for fewer lymph nodes to be removed, and thus fewer cases of severe lymphedema for breast cancer survivors.” Castleman disease is a group of inflammatory disorders that cause lymph node enlargement and can result in multiple-organ dysfunction, according to the Castleman Disease Cooperative Network . While not specifically a cancer, it is a similar to a lymphoma and is often treated with chemotherapy. It can be unicentric (one lymph node) or multicentric, involving multiple lymph nodes. Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels, according to the Lymphangiomatosis & Gorham's Disease Alliance . It is thought to be the result of a genetic mutation. Diagnosis and treatment Diseases of the lymphatic system are usually diagnosed when lymph nodes are enlarged, Hamrick noted. This may be discovered when the lymph nodes become enlarged enough to be felt ("palpable lymphadenopathy") or are seen on imaging studies such as CT scans or MRIs. The majority of enlarged lymph nodes are not dangerous; they are the body's way of fighting off an infection, such as a viral upper respiratory infection.

If the lymph nodes become significantly enlarged and persist longer than the infection then they are more worrisome. There is no specific size cutoff, but typically nodes that persist at larger than a centimeter are more worrisome and warrant examination by a doctor. Common symptoms of any lymphatic disorder include swelling of the arm or groin, weight loss, fever and night sweats, according to Stephanie Bernik, chief of surgical oncology at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York. “A PET or CAT scan is usually ordered to further investigate.” The diagnosis of lymphadenopathy depends on the location of the abnormal lymph nodes and other things that are going on with the patient. If the patient has a known infection, then the lymph nodes can simply be followed to await resolution with treatment of the infection. If the nodes are growing quickly and there is no obvious explanation then typically a biopsy is warranted to look for a cancer or an infection. If the node can be felt then this can be done at the bedside with a needle, according to Hamrick. If the lymph node is deeper, such as in the abdomen or pelvis, Hamrick said the biopsy might need to be done by an interventional radiologist using image guidance to place the needle into the node.

Sometimes the biopsy needs to be done by a surgeon in the operating room. This is often where the most tissue can be obtained to make a diagnosis, he said. With many types of lymphoma and leukemia, there are unique treatment options for each type, according to Sharman. “There is no one ‘summary’ of treatment options. Treatment options can include traditional chemotherapy, immunotherapy (such as using antibodies or immune modulating drugs), and even radiation.” Treatment of lymphatic diseases depends on treating the underlying cause. Infections are treated with antibiotics, supportive care (while the immune system does its job, as in a viral infection) or antivirals. Lymphedema can be treated by elevation, compression and physical therapy. Cancers of the lymphatic system are treated by chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, or a combination of those modalities, Hamrick noted. In last several years, Sharman noted that there has been explosion of new treatment options. “There are a handful of newly approved drugs that target the actual disease causing processes within cells.

Ibrutinib, idelalisib, obinutuzumab, lenalidomide have been approved in various indications and it is likely that we will see multiple more in coming year.” Scoliosis Affects the Entire Body Scoliosis Affects the Entire Body in Scoliosis Scoliosis is generally viewed as a lateral curvature of the spine with an axial twist that causes a distortion of the ribs. Current research shows that ideopathic scoliosis is a multifaceted disease that compromises five of the body’s systems: digestive, hormonal, muscular, osseous (bones), and neurological. Scoliosis affects the entire skeletal system including the spine, ribs, and pelvis. It impacts upon the brain and central nervous system and affects the body’s hormonal and digestive systems. It can deplete the body’s nutritional resources and damage its major organs including the heart and lungs. Some factors that can cause scoliosis include: cerebral palsy, birth defects, muscular dystrophy and Marfan syndrome. However, 80% of scoliosis is idiopathic (unknown in origin). According to the International Scoliosis Society, one in nine females and a smaller percentage of males have some sign of scoliosis.

Approximately 4% of the general population is affected. While the average patient is between 10-15 years of age, many adults suffer from this disease as well. Conditions arising as a result of scoliosis include rib deformity, shortness of breath, digestive problems, chronic fatigue, acute or dull back pain, leg, hip, and knee pain, acute headaches, mood swings, and menstrual disturbances. Scoliosis is a progressive condition that can continue to progress even after skeletal maturity. Millions of scoliosis sufferers are routinely misinformed about the accelerating nature of their spinal curvature progression Contact: Gary A. Deutchman, D.C., P.C. 1-800-281-5010 20 Ways Lupus Affects the Body Lupus in the Lungs Lupus in the Muscles Lupus is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect every part of the body, including skin, joints, and major organs. Visualize the Effects of Lupus on the Body Lupus, also known as systemic lupus erythematosus, is an autoimmune disease that can affect almost any part of the body, especially the skin, blood, joints, kidneys, heart, lungs, and brain.

According to the American College of Rheumatology , lupus is diagnosed 10 times as often in women as in men, and most are diagnosed in their 20s and 30s. It’s a complex disease generally treated by a specialist called a rheumatologist. Symptoms of lupus can flare up and go away periodically, and they can mimic those of many other conditions. Treatment focuses on preventing major damage to the kidneys and other organs. Other treatments aim to reduce individual symptoms like pain and inflammation. Skin and Hair The hallmark sign of lupus is a butterfly-shaped rash that often appears over the bridge of the nose and extends to the cheeks. A rash also may occur on the neck or chest, and the skin may appear scaly. People with lupus tend to be sensitive to sunlight and prone to sunburns after only brief exposure to sun. In some cases, skin ulcers may form on the inside of the nose, mouth, or tongue. Some people with lupus develop Raynaud’s phenomenon, a condition in which the skin of the ears, nose, fingers, and toes turn numb and pale or purple when exposed to cold. Lupus may cause hair to break easily.

Inflammation of the skin is often an early sign of lupus that usually results in thinning of the hair and loss of eyelashes, eyebrows, facial hair, and body hair. Hair may grow back with treatment. However, permanent hair loss occurs when lesions form on the scalp. Digestive System The digestive system is responsible for extracting nutrients from the food you eat and ridding your body of waste products. Lupus can affect the entire digestive system, beginning with the mouth. People with lupus are prone to lesions on the inside of the cheeks, the lower lip, or the roof of the mouth. Certain medications prescribed to treat lupus can increase your risk for oral lesions. Some people with lupus develop secondary Sjogren’s syndrome, an autoimmune disease that attacks glands in the mouth and eyes, causing dryness. Lack of saliva encourages dental cavities and gum disease. When the esophagus is inflamed, stomach acid can be forced back into the esophagus (acid reflux), causing heartburn and gas. It can also make swallowing difficult (dysphagia). Some people with lupus take nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

This can increase risk of bleeding ulcers in the stomach lining or where the stomach meets the bile duct, pancreatic duct, and small intestine (duodenum). Helicobacter pylori bacterium also can cause ulcers, a common problem for people with lupus. Inflammation can cause fluids to build up in the lining on the inside of the abdomen (peritoneum). Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, fever, and constipation. Lupus patients are at increased risk for inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis). Use of diuretics, immunosuppressants, or corticosteroids increases this risk. Digestive symptoms include constipation, diarrhea, and nausea. These problems can be aggravated by the use of corticosteroids or NSAIDs. Ulcers that form in the colon and rectum may cause bloody diarrhea. Excretory System The excretory system helps eliminate toxins from the body. The kidneys may become inflamed, but symptoms aren’t always obvious. Problems with the kidneys are usually detected with a blood test. Inflammation can cause the liver to become enlarged.

People with lupus are prone to jaundice, which can cause yellowing of the skin and eyes, and autoimmune hepatitis, which can scar the liver. Circulatory System The circulatory system is responsible for circulating blood through the body. Lupus can lower the body’s ability to make red blood cells, resulting in anemia. Lupus can also cause inflammation of the heart or blood vessels, which can interfere with blood flow. This can lead to heart attack, infection, and tissue death. The Lupus Foundation of America cites heart disease (coronary artery disease) as the leading cause of death for people with lupus. Pericarditis is a condition in which the sac that surrounds the heart (pericardium) becomes inflamed. Chronic pericarditis can scar heart tissue and affect the heart’s ability to pump blood effectively. Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocardium) can cause an irregular heartbeat. Lupus also can cause a thickening of the surfaces of the heart valve (endocarditis). This increases risk for infection and formation of clots. People with lupus are at increased risk of atherosclerosis caused by plaque, which narrows blood vessels and hinders blood flow.

Corticosteroids, which are used to treat lupus, may increase risk of hypertension, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes. Central Nervous System Restricted blood flow in the brain can cause dizziness, headaches, mood swings, and concentration problems. In rare cases, it can lead to seizures. Lupus patients who develop secondary Sjogren’s syndrome have decreased tear secretion, resulting in very dry eyes. This can cause burning, itching, sensitivity to light, and blurry vision. Chronic dry eyes can lead to scarring or ulceration of the cornea. Reproductive System Women with lupus are advised not to use intrauterine devices due to increased risk of infection. Some women are unable to tolerate birth control pills. Having lupus can complicate a woman’s childbearing years. Women with lupus may have difficulty conceiving and are at higher risk for miscarriage, especially early or late term. Careful monitoring can help reduce the risk. Flare-ups of lupus are more likely to occur during pregnancy, and so are hypertension, kidney problems, and diabetes. The good news is that with proper medical care, most women with lupus can have healthy babies.

Immune System The immune system exists to ward off attacks from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses. In people with an autoimmune disease, the system mistakenly launches a sustained attack on healthy tissue in the body. In the case of lupus, attacks cause inflammation that can occur almost anywhere. The most common areas are the skin and joints. General symptoms include fatigue, fever with no known cause, and swollen glands. Researchers don’t know exactly what triggers lupus, and there is no cure. Treatment focuses on symptom management and preventing damage to major organs. Respiratory System It can hurt to breathe when the lungs or the linings of the chest cavity become inflamed. It also may cause shortness of breath and chest pain. Inflammation of lungs increases risk of pneumonia. Skeletal System When inflammation occurs in and around the joints, resulting in pain, stiffness, swelling, and limited range of motion. Chronic inflammation in the joints can wear down bone and destroy cartilage. Muscular System Inflammation can cause muscle aches and pains. Rarely, muscles can appear red and swollen, and feel warm to the touch. Muscle inflammation due to lupus doesn’t usually result in permanently weakened muscles.

Over-the-counter medications, heating pads, cold packs, or warm showers and baths can usually relieve symptoms. Recommended for You Lupus Expert Q&A: Betty Diamond, MD Hear from one of the United States' leading lupus researchers, Dr. Betty Diamond. Get answers on a range of topics, from the cause of lupus to what you can do about symptoms.

Question: Byssinosis is a disease affecting which part of the body?
Answer: Lungs