Psychology History � Bibliography Abraham Harold Maslow was born on April 1, 1908, in Brooklyn, New York. The first of seven children, he was the son of Samuel and Rose (Schilofsky) Maslow. His parents were Jewish immigrants from Russia who were quite destitute and rather uneducated. Maslow was the sole Jewish boy in his neighborhood; therefore, he was unhappy and lonesome throughout the majority of his childhood. Because of this, he solicited refuge and comfort in books. "I was a little Jewish boy in the non-Jewish neighborhood. It was a little like being the first Negro enrolled in an all-white school. I was isolated and unhappy. I grew up in libraries and among books, without friends" (Hall, 1968, p. 37). Furthermore, Maslow had various problems within his own home. He and his father were constantly at odds. His father, Samuel, continually degraded him and pushed him to excel in areas that were of no interest to him. According to Maslow's own recollections, his father loved whiskey, women, and fighting, and regarded his son as ugly and stupid. He even publicly announced that his son was repulsively ugly.

His father's cutting comments negatively impacted his self-image. Because he too thought of himself as disgusting, Maslow would often look for empty cars when riding the subway so that no one else would have to come in contact with his detestable image. His mother, Rose, did not treat Maslow much different. In fact, she may have treated him even worse than his father. Maslow deeply loathed his mother and wanted no interaction with her whatsoever. His intense hatred originated from the fact that she kept a bolted lock on the refrigerator door. She only removed the lock when she was in the mood. On another occasion, Maslow found two abandoned kittens on the street. He decided to take them home and care for them. One evening, his mother discovered him giving the hungry kittens some milk in the families' basement. She immediately became enraged and smashed the kitten's heads against the basement wall right before the youngster's eyes. Maslow perceived his mother as being entirely insensitive and unloving. She exhibited no sign of affection or love for anyone she encountered, even her own family. Maslow never desired any sort of reconciliation with his mother. His intense hatred continued to grow and he even refused to attend her funeral.

However, he eventually reconciled differences with his father and even spoke of him in a positive manner on some occasions. Maslow managed to become quite close with his uncle throughout his lifetime since his parents virtually alienated him. At the impressionable age of 17, Maslow enrolled at the City College of New York (CCNY). In an effort to appease his father, he registered for evening classes at the Brooklyn Law School in 1926. Within two weeks Maslow discovered that law was not for him and he departed the school. In 1927, he transferred to Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Maslow became discouraged and, for the time being, lost his love for psychology when he took an introductory psychology course from Edward B. Titchner. Titchner's theory of "scientific introspection" was dull and temporarily discouraged Maslow. At the end of the semester at Cornell, Maslow returned to New York and re-enrolled at the City College once again. Next, he transferred to the University of Wisconsin in 1928. There he acquired his BA in 1930, his MA in 1931, and his PhD in 1934.

On December 31, 1928, Abraham Maslow married Bertha Goodman, his longtime sweetheart and first cousin. He was 20 years old while Bertha was 19 at the time. The couple had two daughters, Ann and Ellen. While Maslow stated that his marriage to Bertha was the true beginning of his life, they remained happily married until his death. While studying at the University of Wisconsin, Maslow became the first doctoral student of Harry Harlow, a distinguished experimental psychologist of the time. Maslow's discourse involved dominance among a colony of monkeys. After he received his PhD in 1934, he continued to teach at the University of Wisconsin. For a brief period he enrolled in their medical school, but quickly dropped out. He moved to Columbia University as a Carnegie fellow in 1935. He remained there for approximately 18 months while he worked with the prominent Edward L. Thorndike. While they worked closely, Thorndike gave Maslow an intelligence test. Much to their surprise, he responded with an IQ of 195. Shortly thereafter, Thorndike gave him permission to begin research on human sexuality.

Between 1937 and 1942 Maslow published various articles regarding female sexuality. He discovered that dominant females tended to be extroverted and more willing to be sexually adventurous. The dominant females were attracted to high-dominance males who were aggressive and self-confident. On the other hand, low-dominance females were attracted to men who were friendly and gentle. Maslow once again relocated in 1937. This time he ventured to Brooklyn College where he remained until 1951. Maslow taught full time and continued his human sexuality studies. In 1947, Maslow was compelled to take a medical leave after he suffered a heart attack. With his wife, Rose, and their two daughters, the Maslow's moved to Pleasanton, California. For the time being, he headed a division of the Maslow Cooperage Corporation. After he recuperated he returned to Brooklyn College in 1949. In 1951, Maslow migrated again. This time to Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts where he served as chairman of the psychology department. During this time, he endured psychoanalysis for his persistent repulsion of his mother.

Soon after, Maslow assumed the control of the third force psychology. He published Motivation and Personality in 1954. On July 8, 1966, Maslow was elected president of the American Psychological Association. Because of his failing health, he decided to quit teaching in 1968. The Saga Administrative Corporation then offered him a fellowship. Maslow graciously accepted the opportunity and was very happy and relaxed in his new position. Nevertheless, on June 8, 1970, while slowly jogging, he suffered a fatal heart attack. Abraham Harold Maslow died at the age of 62 in Menlo Park, California. Maslow's Major Influences Maslow felt that all of psychology pessimistically portrayed humans because it centered on their negative and animalistic aspects. But Maslow was optimistic that he could formulate an inclusive theory of human motivation. He desired a theory that would include both the positive and negative aspects of human dispositions. Maslow hoped that humanistic psychology would be the answer to this problem. He hypothesized that the holistic-analytic approach to science could be effective. This approach studies the person as completely thinking and feeling.

Maslow even went so far as to criticize other scientists of the time, who did not use this approach, claiming that they were afraid to uncover their own nature. Maslow felt that psychology in the past had neglected to focus on normal, fully functioning human beings. This new approach was later termed as the third force. In 1962, Maslow founded the American Association of Humanistic Psychology with such figures as Gordon Allport, George Kelly, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. They adhered to the following principles: (Hergenhahn & Olson, 1999) 1. The primary study of psychology should be experiencing the person. 2. Choice, creativity, and self-realization, rather than mechanistic reductionism, are the concern of the humanistic psychologist. 3. Only personally and socially significant problems should be studied- significance, not objectivity, is the watchword. 4. The major concern of psychology should be the dignity and enhancement of people. Maslow theorized that humans have several inborn needs that are instinctoid. These needs are the basis for his theory of motivation on the hierarchy of needs. Furthermore, he believed that the needs are ranked in terms of a hierarchy.

Nonhumans can possess the lower, more basic needs also, but only humans may possess the higher needs. First, physiological needs are related to survival. These necessities include food, water, elimination, sex, and sleep. If one of these needs is not achieved, it will rule the individual's life. Maslow believed that most humans achieve these needs easily. After one need is met, the individual moves onto the next level. However, Maslow stressed that a person can experience periodic times of hunger or thirst and still move onto higher levels, but the individual's life cannot be dominated by just one need. Safety needs appear when physiological needs are fulfilled. These are the needs for structure, order, security, and predictability. Reducing uncertainty is the chief objective at this stage. Individuals are free from danger, fear, and chaos when the safety needs are adequately met. Affiliation is the next level after the physiological and safety needs are attained. This level includes the need for friends, family, identification with a group, and a personally intimate relationship. A person may experience feelings of solitude and emptiness if these needs are not quenched. The esteem needs will follow only if one has achieved the physiological, safety, and belongingness needs.

In this stage, approval must come from earned respect and not from fame or social status. Acceptance and self-esteem originate from engaging in activities that are deemed as being socially constructive. An individual may possess feelings of inferiority if the esteem needs are not reached. If the previous needs are sufficiently met, a person now has the opportunity to become self-actualized. However, self-actualization is an exceptional feat since it is so rarely occurs. A person who reaches this stage strives for growth and self- improvement. Maslow was fascinated by self-actualization. Therefore, he searched for people who were fully functioning, but it was difficult for him to find such a characteristic in people. He approximated that only about 1% of the entire population will actually become self-actualized. By gathering and comparing data of people who he perceived to be self-actualized, Maslow concluded that these unique individuals possessed certain characteristics. First, they perceived reality accurately and fairly. They also accepted themselves, others, and nature. Self-actualizers are also spontaneous, simplistic, and natural. They are concerned with problems and not themselves. They have a need for privacy and are able to detach from others and are autonomous.

Self-actualizers are also able to experience wonder and awe throughout their lives while they also have periodic peak experiences. Those who become self-actualized are deeply concerned with all cultures throughout the world, but they form deep friendships with only a few select people. They adopt democratic values and do not judge anyone on the basis of race, religion, or culture. Additionally, self-actualizers are ethically strong. They have a well-developed sense of humor that is not aggressive and they are creative. Lastly, they do not conform to the standards of anyone or anything. Nonetheless, Maslow emphasized that there are truly no perfect human beings, including those who had reached self-actualization. He admitted that self-actualizers also had a number of faults. Including stubbornness, irritability, and the tendency to be boring on occasion. He also stated that temper outbursts are not rare for them. Most disturbing is their ability to be cold and calculating. For example, they are able to quickly recover from a loved one's death while showing virtually no emotion. According to Maslow, the majority of people advance through the hierarchy of needs from the bottom up, in an orderly fashion. However, he was sure to note that there are exceptions to this order.

For instance, a person may not have all of their physiological needs fulfilled. They may lack sex or elimination, but be satisfied if they have enough food and water. Similarly, a person may not get an adequate amount of love and affection in the early stages of his or her development. Consequently, they may lack the desire for love throughout the remainder of their lives. They may also be unable to express love and affection towards others. In addition, Maslow postulated that an individual could work on various needs at the same time. 100 percent of the need does not have to be satisfied before meeting other needs. In fact, most members of the society function quite well although most of their basic needs are not completely attained. Additionally noted is the fact that a person may regress back to lower levels of the hierarchy at any time. If a lesser need is frustrated, the person will return to that level of the hierarchy in order to satisfy the unmet need. Also, to proceed up the hierarchy, an individual must possess the desire to know and understand. This knowledge aids a person in resolving problems and eventually satisfying the basic needs. Furthermore, a person who is near self-actualization is differs from those still trying to achieve their basic needs.

Being values (B-values) start to rule the self-actualizers life. Maslow also identified these needs as metamotives. He labeled this theory as growth motivation since it affects personal inner development. Maslow identified 17 meta-needs. Some examples are goodness, perfection, beauty, truth, and simplicity. According to Maslow, a metapathology results when a meta-need is not satisfied. Some examples are insecurity, disbelief, depression, fatigue, and feelings of incompleteness. In contrast, deficiency motives (D-motives) rule the lives of those who are not actualized. These people are affected by the lack of needs such as love, food, or esteem.

Time Line of Maslow's Life 1908- Born in Brooklyn, New York 1925- Enrolled at the City College of New York Enrolled in evening classes at the Brooklyn Law School 1926- Transferred to Cornell University 1928- Transferred to the University of Wisconsin; marries Bertha Goodman 1930- Received his BA from the University of Wisconsin 1931- Received his MA from the University of Wisconsin 1934- Received his PhD from the University of Wisconsin and continues to teach there 1935- Moved to Columbia University to work with Edward Thorndike; began his Research on human sexuality 1937- Moved to Old Brooklyn College 1947- Suffered a heart attack 1949- Returned to Brooklyn College 1951- Moved to Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts to serve as chairman of Psychology department 1954- Motivation and Personality is published 1962- Established the American Association of Humanistic Psychology; went to Non- Linear Systems, Inc., as a visiting fellow; Toward a Psychology of Being is published 196

4- Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences is published 1965- Eupsychian Management is published 1966- The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance is published 1967- American Humanist Association Humanist of the Year 1968- Toward a Psychology of Being is published; offered a fellowship by the Saga Administration Corporation 1970- Died in Menlo Park, California 1971- The Farther Reaches of Human Nature is published; received the American Psychological Foundation's Gold Medal Award References Hall, M.

H. (1968). A conversation with Abraham Maslow. Psychology Today, pp. 35-37, 54-57. Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1999). An Introduction to: Theories of Personality. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (1999). Psychology: An Introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ~cgboere/maslow.html Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Theory, Needs, Pyramid - StudiousGuy Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Theory, Needs, Pyramid Prev Article Next Article Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory A big question in terms of motivation is “what motivates behavior?”One theory called Maslow’s Hierarchy focuses on behavior of individuals to achieve certain needs. Abraham Maslow was the man behind introducing the concept of hierarchy of needs. His book “Motivation and personality” published in 1943 suggests people are motivated in fulfilling the basics needs first before they move on to other things.

Maslow was very much interested in knowing what are the things that make people happy and the things they do to reach them. As any other human being, Maslow understood that people have certain innate wish to reach self actualization. Under his belief to achieve the ultimate goal a number of basics needs should be satisfied first, for example food, safety, self respect etc. Maslow Theory is often represented in a pyramid, where the lowest level represents the most basic needs of the person. Most complex needs are always at the top of the pyramid. The needs that are at the bottom of the pyramid are usually the basic physical requirements. He believes that once this basic need at the lower level is achieved then they can move to the other levels. As the individual progresses up the pyramid, needs become more of social and psychological in nature. It is Maslow who emphasized that self actualization is very important for any individual. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs These are needs that are parallel to instincts which play a very vital role in motivating behavior. Fulfilling the lower level needs will prevent repulsive feelings and consequences. Maslow termed these needs as D-Needs, meaning deficiency needs, because these needs arise due to deprivation.

He termed the highest need as B-Needs meaning being needs, in other words they can also called growth needs. As these needs does not arise due to lack of something, but a desire from within to grow as a person. ∗ Five Levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs There are five levels in Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs Sponsored Physiological Needs: These are the most basic needs which are required for survival, like food, water, sleep etc. He gave importance to these needs as they are the natural instincts, as all other needs will become secondary until and unless this need is fulfilled. Security Needs: This includes needs for safety and security. Security needs are essential but not as vital as basic needs. Examples of security needs are longing for stable job, welfare and health care, good employees around them etc. Social Needs: As per Maslow these needs are less essential, when compared to the first two. Social needs includes love and affection, any kind of relationships like friendship, families etc. Contribution in any social or religious activity is also considered as social needs. Esteem Needs: Once the first three get satisfied, then comes the needs for things that reveal self respect and personal merit.

Self Actualization needs: It the highest level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. Here people are conscious and concerned about personal growth. They are not worried about the opinions of others nor are they interested in fulfilling them. Let us now depict Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs pyramid. This theory has come into a lot of criticism, since the main drawback is it cannot be tested. There is no tool that can measure how satisfied is the individual at one level before going to the other. More than advantages this theory has limitations which are explained below: The theory lacks about motivators of externally determined individuals. At Level 4 and Level 5 in the chart, this theory is disputed as to individuals who are determined by external factors. For example, now-a-days people are unhappy with co workers and resent their superiors, yet they perform well as they are rewarded with incentives. Though at level 3, he/she might not have a good relationship with friends/co workers, he is still motivated by the factor of MONEY which is not listed in the pyramid. The HR manager finds it difficult to recognize the need level of employees. For example, any employee moving from Level 3 to Level 4 might feel that his efforts and contributions are being recognized by his supervisor.

In case, here, if the superior does not recognize or does not give good appraisal, the motivation of the employees will definitely decline. This theory is not supported by any studies or experiments. The basic needs might not be satisfied to grant higher needs. Human factors cannot be measured in terms of numbers, as there are a lot of inconsistencies in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Sponsored Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – the sixth level | The Psychologist Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – the sixth level Hazel Skelsey Guest on the lesser-known aspects of a famous theory Cambridge University has a residential adult education centre in the delightful Madingley Hall. Some time ago I ran a weekend course there on ‘The Life and Work of Abraham Maslow’, and among the end-of-course essays I was surprised to find that two students reproduced the Hierarchy of Needs with only five levels – physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualisation. This was in spite of the fact that I had spent one and a half hours on the sixth level – intrinsic values – which Maslow added to his list of motivational needs shortly before his death.

It seemed that these students had previously been taught that there are five basic motivations, with self-actualisation at the top, and as far as they were concerned nothing I had said would change that. What was going on? The clue was in the fact that the students fell into two distinct groups. There were those who came from a background in humanistic or transpersonal psychology, and were either already familiar with the sixth motivation or ready to accept it. The other group had a background in the practical application of motivation theory to the world of business and management, and to them self-actualisation was the ultimate goal and the sixth level was completely new. The first group were completely ignorant of Maslow’s extensive practical work in applying his theories in the workplace and the boardroom, while the second group had never heard of his theoretical work on self-actualisers, what motivates them, peak experiences or humanistic and transpersonal psychology. How had this dichotomy between two different branches of psychology come about? The answer is historical.

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), some-time President of the American Psychological Association, is best known for his work on human motivation and in particular for his Hierarchy of Needs, which was first defined in a paper of 1943. This 1943 paper subsequently became a standard feature in the practical application of motivation theory in business and management, and it has been reproduced in at least 22 different books and journals (Maslow, 1971, pp.379–380). Five basic needs are defined, all of which he considered to be hard-wired in the human species. They are arranged hierarchically, with self-actualisation referring to: people’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, the tendency for them to become actualized in what they are potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

(Maslow, 1943; 1954/1987, p.22) Maslow’s 1943 paper mentions cognitive needs such as the desire to know and to understand, and also aesthetics, but does not place them within the hierarchy of five. In other words Maslow recognised, even at this early stage, that his list was incomplete. In spite of this reservation it has been widely reproduced as a complete theory, on the way acquiring its own pictorial representation in the form of a triangle or pyramid, which is reproduced in countless publications. Because the five needs are latently or actively present in all members of the human species, they are described as being ‘biologically rooted’. This is a key theme throughout Maslow’s work. He is dealing with the characteristics of a particular species, some of which may be shared with other species, but nevertheless he avoids extrapolating from one species to another. The higher need is a later phyletic or evolutionary development. We share the need for food with all living things, the need for love with (perhaps) the higher apes, the need for self-actualization with nobody. The higher the need the more specifically human it is.

(Maslow, 1954/1987, p.57). Following the 1943 paper Maslow’s work took two distinct directions. One was the practical application of his theories to the workplace. This involved detailed observation of working practices in various organisations with a view to improving motivation, and with this work came international recognition. An example is the journal he kept while at Non-Linear Systems in Del Mar, California in the summer of 1962, which was republished recently as Maslow on Management (1998). The other strand to his work involved a study of those people who could be considered to be self-actualisers: those who have achieved, or are achieving, their full potential as individuals (Maslow, 1962/1968). The obvious question he asked was: If someone is already self-actualising, what then motivates that person?

In seeking an answer he came up with motivation by intrinsic values such as ‘truth, goodness, beauty, perfection, excellence, simplicity, elegance, and so on’ (Maslow, 1969, p.4), in other words values that transcend the individual’s personal self-interests and for which he coined the term ‘B-values’. This is in contrast to the other five motivational levels, all of which involve self-interest in some form or other. In turn this led to concepts such as ego-transcendence and peak-experiences (Maslow, 1962/1968, 1964/1970), and eventually to the founding of transpersonal psychology. The fully developed (and very fortunate) human being, working under the best conditions tends to be motivated by values which transcend his self. They are not selfish anymore in the old sense of that term. Beauty is not within one’s skin nor is justice or order. One can hardly class these desires as selfish in the sense that my desire for food might be. My satisfaction with achieving or allowing justice is not within my own skin; it does not lie along my arteries.

It is equally outside and inside: therefore, it has transcended the geographical limitations of the self. (Maslow, 1969, p.4). Initially Maslow perceived these motivations as spiritual and therefore did not add them to his hierarchy of biologically rooted motivational needs. We are the products of evolution, and whatever characterises the whole human species must be biological in nature. Only a percentage of human beings are motivated at this level, so he coined the terms ‘metaneeds’ and ‘metamotivation’, as if they were somehow beyond what could be defined as characteristic of the whole of the human species. Thus self-actualisation was still at the top of his hierarchy of universal, biologically rooted, motivating human needs. This meant that when Maslow wrote of self-actualisers, sometimes he meant those who are still pursuing further aspects of self-fulfilment and sometimes he meant those who are pursuing B-values i.e. metamotivated people (Maslow, 1962/1968). Eventually this overlap was resolved when he finally conceded that these spiritual motivations are also part of our biological nature as members of the human species (Maslow, 1967).

His friend and colleague Anthony Sutich wrote: He told me that he had just completed writing a paper that was, in his own words, ‘…the culmination of 30 years of work in the field of psychology.’ … Maslow’s manuscript arrived in June 1967. The title, ‘A theory of metamotivation: The biological rooting of the value-life’… was rather long and in conversation we referred to it as the ‘metamotivation paper’. (Sutich, 1976, p.11). The pursuit of what he had called ‘metaneeds’ could now be added to his hierarchy as a sixth level because it satisfied the criterion of being biologically rooted in our species just like the other five needs. Writing in his ‘metamotivation paper’ (these extracts taken from its reprint as chapter 23 in The Farther Reaches of Human Nature: Maslow, 1971), Maslow said that these metaneeds, ‘though having certain special characteristics which differentiate them from basic needs, are yet in the same realm of discourse and of research as, for instance, the need for vitamin C or for calcium’ (p.309).

Basic needs and metaneeds were viewed in the same continuum, ‘in the same realm of discourse…they are all biologically desirable, and all foster biological success’ (pp.311–312). Although Maslow felt that intrinsic values are not ‘fully evident or actualized (made real and functionally existing) in most people’, he also wrote that the full definition of the person or of human nature must include them: ‘they are not excluded as potentials in any human being born into the world’ (pp.304–305). ‘The so-called spiritual…life is clearly rooted in the biological nature of the species’ (p.315). These quotes demonstrate that Maslow finally considered the Hierarchy to include the so-called ‘metaneeds’, the need to pursue intrinsic values that transcend self-interest, as a sixth distinct level beyond the need to self-actualise. Yet so much of the literature on the subject overlooks this addition. All five preceding levels involve the individual’s self-interest, including self-actualisation, which is about achieving one’s own full potential. It is at the sixth level that one is motivated by values that can be called ‘ego-transcendent’.

The two motivations that Maslow left unassigned in his seminal 1943 paper can also now be placed at level six: the desire to know, and aesthetics, are to do with knowledge and truth, beauty and harmony, all of which are intrinsic values. The metamotivation paper was published in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. This was a fledgling branch of psychology in the States and had not yet found its way into psychology on this side of the Atlantic, dominated as it was by psychoanalysis and behavioural psychology. It is unlikely to have been read over here by more than a handful of humanistic psychology pioneers. In January 1968 Maslow had his first serious heart attack and he died in June 1970 (Sutich, 1976). He therefore had little chance to consolidate his new perception of the Hierarchy, and he never actually spelled out in print the new list of motivational needs. Values arising from religious beliefs are now addressed within transpersonal psychology, but at that time this embryonic branch of the profession had not yet been defined or even named, for it emerged with the first issue of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology in 1969.

Yet within transpersonal psychology today there does not seem to be an acknowledgement of these ego-transcendent motivations being separate from the ego-centred need to self-actualise. It is a matter for regret that Maslow’s insight concerning the addition of this level has gone almost unnoticed, especially as he described it as ‘the culmination of 30 years of work in the field of psychology’ (Sutich, 1976, p.11). Had he lived longer I feel sure he would have built upon his new integrated theory of motivation embracing the physiological, emotional, social and spiritual aspects of human nature, together with its practical applications to the workplace and to society in general. - Hazel Skelsey Guest is a retired mathematics lecturer and transpersonal psychotherapist References Maslow, A.H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396. Reprinted as chapter 2 in Motivation and personality (3rd edn), 1987. Maslow, A.H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd edn). New York: Harper.

(Original work published 1954) Maslow, A.H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd edn). New York: Van Nostrand. (Original work published 1962) Maslow, A.H. (1970). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. New York: Viking Press. (Original work published 1964) Maslow, A.H. (1967). A theory of metamotivation. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 7, 93–127. Reprinted as chapter 23 in The farther reaches of human nature, 1971. Maslow, A.H. (1969). The farther reaches of human nature. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1(1), 1–9. Maslow, A.H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking Press. Maslow, A.H. (1998). Maslow on management (D.C. Stephens & G. Heil, Eds.). New York: Wiley. Sutich, A. (1976).

The emergence of the transpersonal orientation: A personal account. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 8(1), 5–19. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and subpersonality work Maslow's hierarchy of need Maslow's hierarchy of need The physiological needs: Man has before anything else the need for water and food in order to survive. That's why the physiological needs are the strongest of all the needs. When a person is hungry the area of consciousness is filled with the desire to eat and all the other needs steps in the background and is in a way non-existent. The future perspective seems to change according to the present need. The hungry person only thinks about eating and acquire enough food for his hunger. He thinks that his happiness would be complete if he just had plenty of food. Life is about eating - freedom, love and idealism are non-existent. A man living under these conditions lives in a way by bread alone. But what happens when there is plenty of bread? Instantly a new and higher need arises and that need will now dominate man. When this need is gratified a new will emerge and so on. In this way the basic needs are organized in a hierarchy of relative strength.

The safety and security needs: After the physiological needs the need for security, stability, protection, freedom from fear, anxiety and chaos emerge and according to them, the need for structure, order, law, borders etc. A major part in child development is to give them insight in how the world is functioning, and thereby reduce the fear of the unknown. Children have a need for order, structure, rituals and borders because it gives them an ability to find security in a big world. Injustice and unpredictable behaviour from parents creates insecure children because the world gets unpredictable. That's why chaos, aggression and disturbance in the home environment are a major block for establishing security in the child. In the civilised world nowadays the security needs express themselves as the need for a regular income, savings and insurance. Religion, science and philosophy can also serve as an important security measure, which explains the world and gives a feeling of safety in the face of death. But there are of course many other needs attached to them. Love and belonging needs: When security is properly gratified the need for love, tenderness and belonging emerge. In this state we become painfully aware about the lack of friends, lovers, spouse and children. We will be longing for a loving and nurturing family life.

It can be harmful for children and adults to live without a family or in exile according to Maslow, and he also states that the need for community is underestimated in modern times because of urbanization and individualisation. The love needs imply giving and receiving love, and when these needs are gratified sufficiently the need for individuality arises. Esteem needs: Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-esteem, strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The last one is higher because it rest more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can leads to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and outer recognition instead of inner competence. Healthy self-respect is based on earned respect. The need for self-actualization: In this article there is not sufficient room for a thorough presentation of this need, because it includes so many "higher urges".

Assagioli compares it to the level of personal psychosynthesis,[8] the development of a well-rounded personality where all the psychological functions are developed. Maslow stated that: "Even if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing what he, individually, is fitted for. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. He must be true to his own nature. This need we may call self-actualisation." The need for self actualisation relates to our need for self-perfection, to be what we have the potential to be. In this respect Maslow discriminates between deficit motivation and growth motivation, the latter corresponding to self-actualisation. Deficit needs can be fulfilled, Being needs will always be there and lead us to unceasingly new possibilities. Maslow acknowledged an even higher need he called transcendence and it corresponds to spiritual psychosynthesis. [9] Can subpersonalities be integrated in the hierarchy of needs? I will now briefly touch on this question from a theoretical perspective.

According to psychosynthesis it's not a foreign thought because Assagioli very often mentioned Maslow's discoveries. Maslow as well as Assagioli uses a stage model to describe the individual development and if we look to Ken Wilber's work we find an overwhelming testimony to that concept. The scientific research has indeed contributed with a large body of evidence in that respect. Assagioli describes the process of self-realisation as a phase going through the personal and spiritual psychosynthesis. It is of course much more complicated and in The Act of Will he agrees with Maslows findings: "Maslow has presented an illuminating progression of five stages of evolutionary development. The types belonging to the first two stages are under Theory X. They are primarily determined by deficiency needs. The third and fourth types come under Theory Y. They are primarily determined by drives to self-actualization. The fifth type is under what he calls Theory Z. This is the person who aligns his life with transcending values." [10] Maslow explains the emergence of needs emanating from an "essential inner nature which is instinctoid, intrinsic, given ...

this inner core shows itself as natural inclinations, propensities or inner bent."[11] He continues: "It has a dynamic force of its own, pressing always for open, uninhibited expression. ... This force is one main aspect of the 'will to health', the urge to grow, the pressure to self-actualisation, the quest for ones identity. It is this that makes psychotherapy, education and self-improvement possible in principle." [12] Here Maslow stresses the will and he comes very close to Assagioli's notion of the self even though they have different notions on several points. In psychosynthesis we will also see the emergence of needs as a result of the realisation of the self � or the soul's evolutionary development and its "will to be". Seen from this perspective there are no children � only souls on different levels of development. In childhood the soul or self will express its "will to be" through the lower needs and later through the higher being needs. The emergence of subpersonalities Earlier we have defined subpersonalities as "traits which are organized around a role ...

they are different beings � they act differently, they show very different traits." But how are they developed, organised and integrated in the personality? Gretchen Sliker deals with this question in Multiple Mind: "Subpersonalities are a natural and normal product of development. As a child grows, the schemas become increasingly complex. ... Biological functions are mastered, and life is maintained more and more automatically, leaving the child ever freer to join the group in which she is nurtured. As the survival thrust becomes increasingly social, the child is faced with different challenges in each cultural group in order to secure her position in the group. The template for the subpersonalities lies first in biology, and second in the cultural pattern.... "The subpersonality is a particular kind of elaborate schema as distinguished from other schemas by its social orientation and function. It develops its particular configuration in correlation with the unique personal history and experience of the child. ... The core of each subpersonality is a necessary life function. ...

Contained in the layers of the subpersonality is a developing self-image of the world and the feelings associated with these particular images." [13] According to Sliker the template for the subpersonalities lies first in biology, but we must always remember the subject � the inner core and self � as the first cause for these subpersonalities or else we leave one of the major insights of psychosynthesis. But then it's correct to assume that the self expresses its will through the biological drives in early childhood. Sliker's thoughts correspond very well to Maslow's theory of early need gratification through the basic needs. So I will conclude that subpersonalities emerge according to the strategy the self uses to fulfill its need gratification and the environmental response to that strategy. It is my assumption that all the needs, drives and urges organised in subpersonalities arise and develop according to the self's need to express its will on different developmental levels and stages and their modification by culture. Sliker calls the core of each subpersonality a necessary life function, but couldn't we just as well call it a necessary need expressed by the self.

In The Act of Will Roberto Assagioli gives another example of how subpersonalities develop according to the conflict between lower and higher needs: "A realistic observation of the flow of the psychological life in ourselves and in others shows clearly the existence of a number of differing and conflicting tendencies, which at times constitute the nuclei of semi-independent sub-personalities. ... Another basic conflict is that between inertia, laziness, tendency to preservation, craving for security (which expresses itself in conformity) on the one hand and the tendency towards growth, self-assertion and adventure on the other.

Still another source of conflict is that of the awakening of new drives or needs which oppose pre-existing ones; this occurs on two chief occasions: first, the tumultuous awakening of new tendencies at the time of adolescence, and second, the awakening of religious aspirations and new spiritual interest, particularly in middle age." Here Assagioli states that: "the awakening of new drives or needs" is a cause to "a number of differing and conflicting tendencies, which at times constitute the nuclei of semi-independent sub-personalities." According to this it would be fair to conclude that the subpersonalities that are developed in order to secure the need for safety and security will sometimes be opposed to the need for change in one's career for the sake of expanded self-esteem, because of the inherent risk of losing a secure income. It would also be reasonable to conclude that a new subpersonality will be developed and organised around the new need and sometimes it will meet fierce opposition (fear) from lower subpersonalities. If the individual succeeds in making a synthesis between the old and new needs, then the old subpersonality in some instances will be transformed to handle both needs.

It is not a rule, according to Assagioli, that all the new needs automatically will be developed from the materialistic (subpersonalities) already present in the psyche. Sometimes we experience new material from the higher unconscious that come in from sources not normally available to the waking consciousness. "What is necessary is to differentiate this superconscious but previously unconscious material from the type of material that may come from the lower levels of the unconscious which have been extensively studied by Freud and his followers. It seems that in some of the extreme cases of irruption from superconscious levels the material that comes arrives � so to speak � almost ready made, and has very little connection with previous experiences. It is not something which arises in the usual way from the lower unconscious as the result of now released but previously repressed experiential contents; it is something new and, as said above, sometimes has little relationship to preceding personal experiences of the individual." [14] This new material can, according to Assagioli, create new motivations and therefore � needs.

"Let us now examine another way of making decisions, especially those that are determined by motives originating in or arriving via the higher unconscious (superconscious) in the form of illuminations, inspirations, and urges to action, both inner and outer. Broadly speaking, such motives can be considered transpersonal in character: artistic creativity, altruistic and humanitarian impulses, the search for truth, etc. Their origin often cannot be identified with certainty, they may be activities of the superconscious, they may come from the higher or Transpersonal Self, or they may have other sources." [15] Conclusion on subpersonalities Assagioli as well as Maslow uses an evolutionary model with higher and lower needs to explain the individual development from childhood to maturity. According to this it makes sense to place the subpersonalities within Maslow's framework and the hierarchy of needs, because it seems that these subpersonalities come into existence according to the need gratifications on different levels of the hierarchy. I assume that the core motivation in each subpersonality is an expression of a need generated by the inner being of a person in order to manifest on different levels of the hierarchy and modified by cultural response.

The emergence of a new need can in some instances create a totally new motivation and subpersonality � a pattern of traits, social skills, and cognitive abilities � all directed against fulfilling the new need. I have not dealt with the possibility of several different subpersonalities that all handle the same basic need, but it is my experience that it is possible and very likely. From a theoretical point of view I will conclude that subpersonalities can and indeed do work inside the framework of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Let me now exemplify these thoughts through a clinical casestory. A casestory on subpersonality work and the hierarchy of needs Karen was a 42 year old woman who came to my clinic in order to work with symptoms of stress from a work related crisis. In September 2003 she resigned from a job as a counsellor in the business world in order to change her career. She started a new educational course in educational theory and practice on a full time basis. Her plan was to relax and study for a year and then take up a new job around September 2004.

But the period was far from harmonic and not as relaxed as she has anticipated, because inner forces of insecurity and stress urged her to work non-stop in order to prepare for her new career. Very often she tried to slow down but failed because she distrusted her future career opportunities and this made her feel permanently unsafe. In May 2004 she applied for a job in the same area as she used to work, even though she earlier promised to herself to finally quit it. She actually didn't feel any positive energy towards this area but her fear for the future and feelings of insecurity make her change her mind. The employment was short � five months � but these months made it perfectly clear that she didn't have anything more to give. In November 2004 she was declared sick from work related stress and the desperation of the situation urged her to consult me. It was in one of the first sessions that a subpersonality called "The Refugee" entered the scene. In this specific session the theme was her fear for the future job situation and the basic insecurity she felt. During this session she established a close emotional contact with the inner stressful atmosphere and she created an inner image and expressed it in a drawing and called it "The Refugee".

Free drawing is one of the most valuable therapeutic techniques I know of, when a subpersonality has to be identified. The drawing became a significant awakening for Karen because it revealed the primary need and strategy of the subpersonality. The Refugee The refugee was without any doubt activated by her job situation when the transition from a stable and secure situation to an uncertain oneprogressed. In this connection it is quite easy to see the correspondence to Maslow's security needs, but later there were some quite profound developments that complicated the clear picture. The strategy for survival implemented by the Refugee turned out to be a full-time effort to develop new educational programs. She had always lived of her knowledge and driven by fear she read tons of books and thought out a multitude of new learning programs in a totally new area. The old knowledge was not sufficient any more because a new and higher need had emerged during the last years. In 2002 she got a new vision that she felt was a "higher" call because she wanted to go into the helping profession even though it meant a reduction in her income. But from the heights of aspirations to the valleys of daily living there is a profound difference.

The need for security and fear of future The primary drive in the Refugee was on one level the need for security and fear for the future. When we look at the drawing we can see fear in the face turned backwards toward the past. Asked about the past se recalls a forgotten traumatic experience in connection with a period of unemployment where she lived through a deep meaningless life stage. In that light the situation is not just a question of survival, but it entails also a very important issue about meaning or the lack of it (self-actualisation need). The therapy revealed a deep fear of being forced into jobs without meaning (regression) by the authorities, because she now received unemployment relief. It was a fear of not be in a position to use her higher potentials. The fear also express it self through the great hand of "Destiny", that symbolises the power of the authorities and the "unknown will of God". The feverishly activity was a way to dope the pain. As long as she worked she could control the fear. It was not a fear that was prominent all the time but it created an underlying basic atmosphere that disrupted her state of being and enjoyment of her time off.

Whenever the Refugee emerged in the sessions it helped her to identify and accept a primary subpersonality that used to control a lot of her life. The drawing was often in the center of our discussions and it was very revealing for her to see the fumbling approach toward the star, which symbolises her future dreams. The redemption of the Refugee's pain and despair connected with her earlier feelings of meaninglessness did calm it quite a bit. Transpersonal potentials It was a very deep realization to see the Refugee's need for a meaningful job that allowed her higher feelings to express themselves. The pure survival moyivation was not enough for this subpersonality, and we did indeed discuss whether this living being really did serve her survival needs or her need for self-actualisation, because meaning plays such an important role. But Karen's intuitive feeling was that it was a survival need even though it was guided by higher values, and from this dilemma we got an important insight. Whenever a person's overall development is focused on the higher needs, when the center or gravity of the personal self is on the edge between the personal and transpersonal area of the consciousness all the other parts of the personality tend to be governed by the personal self's higher values.

It is of course not true in all instances because there are many examples of how highly developed people can be quite neurotic in many personal issues. Another important aspect about subpersonalities is the notion that they all conceal a transpersonal potential in the core despite how thwarted and distorted they express themselves. In this respect a subpersonality originally designed for survival would later on a higher level tend to do it in an altruistic way. The Refugee's development At this moment (May 2005) Karen still experiences that her Refugee becomes nervous once in a while because her income is still not secured. But her situation has become quite improved after the therapeutic sessions and her new part time job. Her work with this subpersonality � among many others � has been an effort focussed on building a basic trust to the future based on a positive view on the skills and qualities she possesses. Faith in her own resources, the good will of her collaborators and the great life she wishes to serve has been the transpersonal potential she works to secure through this process. Karen is on her way. Conclusion I hope that with this article and the casestory I have showed that Maslow's hierarchy of needs and subpersonality work is a good match.

I have not been able to show all my findings within the framework of a short article but my main point has been stated. I was indeed very happy to see that a security based subpersonality in real life can be governed by higher values. This is of course due to the fact that Karen doesn't live in a poor country without a public health care and financial support by the collective. In that case I am sure that her subpersonality just wanted to surviveany way possible. It is also very important that Karen's life was guided by higher values and the need for self-actualisation and self-transcendence. This will colour many of her "lower" functions and give them a much more transpersonal touch contrary to the person who values money above spiritual values. To work with subpersonalities within Maslow's framework is in my experience very helpful in order to identify the central need that governs them. It also provides a theoretical framework, which helps to create some order. This gives perspective and eases the ability to make wise decisions based on a free will that knows the hidden motives behind the different urges at play.

I know that this article is just is a beginning and perhaps its not even new knowledge, but for my part it has been a very promising development in my clinical practise. Notes 1. 2002, p. 120 2. John Rowan investigates the concept in his book Subpersonalities and concludes that this idea was known in the Antique. 3. (1975, p. 75) Assagioli, Roberto, (1975) Psychosynthesis, Turnstone Press Limited. Assagioli, Roberto, (2002) The Act of Will, Psychosynthesis & Education Trust Maslow, Abraham (1970), Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row Publishers Maslow, Abraham (1999), Toward a Psychology of Being, Wiley and Sons Rowan, John (2001), Subpersonalities, Brunner-Routledge Rueffler, Margret (1996), Our Inner Actors, PsychoPolitical Institute Press. Sliker, Gretchen (1992), Multiple Mind, Shamballa Vargiu, James (1974), "Subpersonalities", Synthesis, vol. 1.

Question: Abraham Maslow's seminal book introducing the 'Hierearchy of Needs' is called?
Answer: Motivation and Personality