fungus | biology | Britannica.com biology Ascomycota Fungus, plural fungi, any of about 99,000 known species of organisms of the kingdom Fungi, which includes the yeasts , rusts , smuts , mildews , molds , and mushrooms . There are also many funguslike organisms, including slime molds and oomycetes (water molds), that do not belong to kingdom Fungi but are often called fungi. Many of these funguslike organisms are included in the kingdom Chromista. Fungi are among the most widely distributed organisms on Earth and are of great environmental and medical importance. Many fungi are free-living in soil or water; others form parasitic or symbiotic relationships with plants or animals. Panther cap mushrooms (Amanita pantherina). Closely related to the death cap mushroom … © asfloro/Fotolia Toxic fruiting bodies of the fungus Podostroma cornu-damae. The fungus can be confused with … Image Republic Inc./Alamy Artist’s conk (Ganoderma applanatum), a bracket fungi. Distributed worldwide, the artist’s … Eric Steinert The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a poisonous fungus.

Sven Samelius Fungi are eukaryotic organisms; i.e., their cells contain membrane-bound organelles and clearly defined nuclei. Historically, fungi were included in the plant kingdom; however, because fungi lack chlorophyll and are distinguished by unique structural and physiological features (i.e., components of the cell wall and cell membrane), they have been separated from plants. In addition, fungi are clearly distinguished from all other living organisms, including animals, by their principal modes of vegetative growth and nutrient intake. Fungi grow from the tips of filaments (hyphae) that make up the bodies of the organisms ( mycelia ), and they digest organic matter externally before absorbing it into their mycelia. Learn about the important characteristics that distinguish fungi from plants and animals. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. While mushrooms and toadstools (poisonous mushrooms) are by no means the most numerous or economically significant fungi, they are the most easily recognized. The Latin word for mushroom, fungus (plural fungi), has come to stand for the whole group. Similarly, the study of fungi is known as mycology —a broad application of the Greek word for mushroom, mykēs.

Fungi other than mushrooms are sometimes collectively called molds, although this term is better restricted to fungi of the sort represented by bread mold . (For information about slime molds, which exhibit features of both the animal and the fungal worlds, see protist .) Edible porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis). Porcini mushrooms are widely distributed in the … © Henk Bentlage/Fotolia algae Humans have been indirectly aware of fungi since the first loaf of leavened bread was baked and the first tub of grape must was turned into wine . Ancient peoples were familiar with the ravages of fungi in agriculture but attributed these diseases to the wrath of the gods. The Romans designated a particular deity, Robigus, as the god of rust and, in an effort to appease him, organized an annual festival, the Robigalia , in his honour. Fungi are everywhere in very large numbers—in the soil and the air , in lakes, rivers, and seas, on and within plants and animals, in food and clothing, and in the human body. Together with bacteria , fungi are responsible for breaking down organic matter and releasing carbon , oxygen , nitrogen , and phosphorus into the soil and the atmosphere.

Fungi are essential to many household and industrial processes, notably the making of bread, wine, beer , and certain cheeses . Fungi are also used as food; for example, some mushrooms, morels , and truffles are epicurean delicacies, and mycoproteins (fungal proteins ), derived from the mycelia of certain species of fungi, are used to make foods that are high in protein. The role of fungi in the decomposition of forest litter. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Bacteria, Mold, and Lichen: Fact or Fiction? Studies of fungi have greatly contributed to the accumulation of fundamental knowledge in biology . For example, studies of ordinary baker’s or brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) led to discoveries of basic cellular biochemistry and metabolism . Some of these pioneering discoveries were made at the end of the 19th century and continued during the first half of the 20th century. From 1920 through the 1940s, geneticists and biochemists who studied mutants of the red bread mold, Neurospora, established the one- gene –one-enzyme theory, thus contributing to the foundation of modern genetics .

Fungi continue to be useful for studying cell and molecular biology , genetic engineering , and other basic disciplines of biology. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a type of budding yeast, is able to ferment … A to Z Botanical Collection/EB Inc. Britannica Stories Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent The medical relevance of fungi was discovered in 1928, when Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming noticed the green mold Penicillium notatum growing in a culture dish of Staphylococcus bacteria. Around the spot of mold was a clear ring in which no bacteria grew. Fleming successfully isolated the substance from the mold that inhibited the growth of bacteria. In 1929 he published a scientific report announcing the discovery of penicillin , the first of a series of antibiotics —many of them derived from fungi—that have revolutionized medical practice . Penicillium, a genus of green mold, attacks many fruits and is the … Walter Dawn Another medically important fungus is Claviceps purpurea, which is commonly called ergot and causes a plant disease of the same name. The disease is characterized by a growth that develops on grasses , especially on rye .

Ergot is a source of several chemicals used in drugs that induce labour in pregnant women and that control hemorrhage after birth. Ergot is also the source of lysergic acid , the active principle of the psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide ( LSD ). Other species of fungi contain chemicals that are extracted and used to produce drugs known as statins, which control cholesterol levels and ward off coronary heart disease . Fungi are also used in the production of a number of organic acids , enzymes , and vitamins . Wheat infected by ergot (Claviceps purpurea). This fungus is also the source of lysergic … burgkirsch Form and function of fungi Size range The mushrooms, because of their size, are easily seen in fields and forests and consequently were the only fungi known before the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. The microscope made it possible to recognize and identify the great variety of fungal species living on dead or live organic matter. The part of a fungus that is generally visible is the fruiting body, or sporophore . Sporophores vary greatly in size, shape, colour, and longevity.

Some are microscopic and completely invisible to the unaided eye; others are no larger than a pin head; still others are gigantic structures. Among the largest sporophores are those of mushrooms, bracket fungi , and puffballs . Some mushrooms reach a diameter of 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 inches) and a height of 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12 inches). Bracket, or shelf, fungi can reach 40 cm (16 inches) or more in diameter. A specimen of the bracket fungus Fomitiporia ellipsoidea discovered in 2010 on Hainan Island in southern China had a fruiting body measuring 10.8 metres (35.4 feet) in length and 82–88 cm (2.7–2.9 feet) in width. It may have held some 450 million spores and weighed an estimated 400–500 kg (882–1,102 pounds), at the time making it the largest fungal fruiting body ever documented. Puffballs also can grow to impressive sizes.

The largest puffballs on record measured 150 cm (5 feet) in diameter. The number of spores within such giants reaches several trillion. Bracket fungi, which grow on tree trunks, are among some of the largest fungi. Some species may … H.S. Knighton What is fungus? What are fungi? - Medical News Today What is fungus? What are fungi? Written by Christian Nordqvist 4.5 64 6 Fungi (Singular: fungus) are classified within their own kingdom - The Kingdom Fungi, while some are in The Kingdom Protista. A fungus is neither a plant nor an animal. It is similar to a plant, but it has no chlorophyll and cannot make its own food like a plant can through photosynthesis. They get their food by absorbing nutrients from their surroundings. Kingdom Fungi includes mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, molds, and yeasts, and thousands of other organisms and microorganisms. They range from microscopic single-celled organisms, such as yeast, to gigantic multicellular organisms. Many fungi play a crucial role in decomposition (breaking things down) and returning nutrients to the soil.

They are also used in medicine, an example is the antibiotic penicillin , as well as in industry and food preparation. For a long time fungi were classified as plants, mainly because of their similar lifestyles - both are seen to grow in soil and are sessile (permanently attached; not moving). Plant and fungal cells both have a cell wall, while cells from the animal kingdom don't. Fungi are thought to have diverged from the plant and animal kingdoms about one billion years ago. Human feet have hundreds of fungi - researchers from the National Human Genome Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, USA, reported in the journal Nature that nearly 200 types of fungi species live on our feet. Our feet harbor more fungi than any other part of the body . What is Mycology? Mycology is the study of fungi - it is a branch of biology. A mycologist studies fungi's genes, biochemical properties, their use to us as a source of food, their hallucinogenic, poisonous and pathogenic (ability to cause disease) properties. It was not until the 16th century, when the microscope was developed, that mycology became a well established science.

What is the difference between a mushroom and a toadstool? Most reputable scientific reference sources indicate that there is no scientific difference. People tend to refer to toadstools as the toxic (poisonous) ones and mushrooms as the edible ones. However, many mushrooms are poisonous too. A number of non-scientefic dictionaries state that a toadstool is an inedible mushroom. So, the safest answer is "There is no scientific difference, but people refer to toadstools as the inedible or toxic ones." The word toadstool is commonly used in children's stories to indicate a poisonous or colorful mushroom. Where do fungi exist? Fungi exist in various habitats, including deep down in the ocean, lakes, rocks, deserts, very salty environments, and areas of extremely high or low temperatures. Some can prevail even after being exposed to intense UV and cosmic radiation as one would encounter during space travel. During the 13 years the Mir space station was in orbit, a great deal of equipment was continuously being damaged by mutated fungi that had been breeding in the space station. At first technicians were puzzled and thought the problems must have been due to faulty workmanship. The majority of fungi live on land.

Fungi and bacteria are the main decomposers of organic matter in virtually all ecosystems on Earth. Taxonomists have classified approximately 70,000 types of fungi. Experts say there are many more - possibly 1.5 million. Fungi used to be classified according to their shape, structure, biological and biochemical characteristics. Advances in DNA sequencing have helped extend the classification of different species of fungi. Taxonomy is the classification of organisms. How do fungi feed? Although fungi are similar to plants in many ways, they do not have chlorophyll, the green pigment that enables plants to make their own food with the aid of sunlight (photosynthesis). Fungi release digestive enzymes that decompose things around them, turning them into food. The fungus then absorbs the dissolved foods through the walls of its cells. Fungi have adapted various ways of doing this: Parasitic fungi - several species of fungi exist as parasites, feeding on live hosts, which might be animals, plants or even other fungi. Some of these parasitic fungi damage our crops, sicken farm animals, and harm or completely destroy trees. Dutch elm disease, caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi destroyed hundreds of millions of elm tress worldwide.

The rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae can devastate rice crops. The following fungi can cause serious diseases to humans: aspergilloses, candidoses, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. An example is vaginal yeast infection. Saprobes or saprophytes - these break down dead organisms and substances that contain organic compounds and feed on them when they have rotted. Humans welcome saprobes and also fear them. They are useful decomposers of organic material, but also damage wood products and spoil our food. When ships used to be made of wood they were often rendered unusable by wood-digesting saprobes (polypores). Symbiosis - this is when one living thing builds up a relationship with another for the mutual survival of both. Some fungi form mycorrhizae which enhance a plant-root's capacity to absorb nutrients. The plant synthesizes nutrients the fungus needs and exchanges these nutrients for minerals the fungus absorbs from the soil - i.e. the plant and the fungus trade nutrients. Some leaf-cutting ants eat nothing but a type of fungi that lives in their nests.

The fungi live on nothing but the leaves the ants carry in for them. If the ant starved the fungi and killed them the ant would have no food and would die; if the fungi found a way of poisoning the ants and killing them off, the fungi would have no food and would die. They both depend on each other for survival. The structure of fungi The majority of fungi - except for the one-celled oranisms - are composed of hyphae; threadlike tubular filaments. Hyphae is the plural of hypha. A hypha has a rigid wall around it generally made of chitin. The outer skeletons (exoskeletons) of insects are also made of chitin. The hyphae may be partitioned by dividing cross walls called septate hyphae - and are called septate hyphae, while those without cross walls are called nonseptate, or coenocytic hyphae. The cells of all species of fungi contain cytoplasm - a mixture of nutrients and fluids. The cytoplasm flows inside the hyphae and nourishes any part that requires it.

The tips of a hypha grow by elongation and branch out to form an interwoven mat known as the mycelium. As the mycelium gets bigger it may produce structures (fruiting bodies) that contain spores. The fruiting bodies generally grow above the soil or other surfaces so that the spores can blow in the wind and spread. The mycelium is generally beneath the surface of whatever the fungus is decomposing. The umbrella-like structure of a mushroom is its fruiting body and is typically above the surface of whatever animal, plant or substance it is decomposing, while its mycelium is below the surface. How do fungi reproduce? Most fungi reproduce by making spores. A puffball may contain trillions of spores. Sexual reproduction - fungi generally undergo a reproductive cycle that includes the production of sexual spores. A sexual spore contains one nucleus that has set of chromosomes; just half of the total set of the fungal-cell chromosomes - they are haploid. Human sperm and eggs are haploid; they contain 23 chromosomes each, half of the 46 that exist in human cells. Some spores contain two or more nuclei.

When a spore germinates it eventually develops into a mycelium that produces fruiting bodies with sexual spores - and so the reproductive cycle starts all over again. Asexual reproduction - asexual spores may be produced directly from the hypha in some fungi - without the need for fruiting bodies. The spores then germinate and produce additional mycelium, which spreads rapidly. Experts say this allows more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The dikaryon stage - There are two mating strains of hyphae which exist in the mycelium - the plus and the minus strain. They both look the same, but are different. Sexual reproduction occurs when the plus and minus strains fuse. Their nuclei will remain separate during the initial stages - this intermediate stage is called the dikaryon. Dikaryon means a pair of associated but unfused haploid nuclei of a fungus cell capable of participating in repeated cell division as separate entities before their eventual fusion - i.e. two nuclei, each with one half of the chromosome pairs, participating in cell division, but with nuclei not fusing yet, before the nuclei eventually fuse.

With some species the dikaryon stage may last for several years, while with others it may be just a question of weeks. Eventually the two nuclei fuse and become one nucleus with the pairs of chromosomes joined up (two sets containing half the total chromosomes each), forming a diploid cell. The diploid cell then divides producing daughter cells with half the parent cell's genetic material - this process is called meiosis. Usually four genetically unique haploid spores are produced, and the cycle restarts. This form of procreation using genetically different spores helps fungi adapt more effectively to novel diseases and environmental changes. If all the fungi were genetically identical they could all be destroyed by a single disease or a significant environmental change. Fragmentation - in some types of fungi the hyphae fragment, with each fragment developing into a new separate organism. With the single cell of yeast, a bump forms on the cell which eventually breaks off and ultimately becomes a new yeast cell. How are fungi classified? The classification of fungi has long been a subject of controversy among experts. Pier Antonio Micheli, an Italian botanist, was the first to describe fungi in scientific terms we are used to today. He classed them as plants.

For a long time the study of fungi (Mycology) was a subdivision of botany. Robert H. Wittaker (USA, 1920-1980) a vegetation ecologist introduced a 5-Kingdom taxonomy, granting fungi equal status with animals and plants. The 5-Kingdom taxonomy included: Kingdom Animalia (animal kingdom) The Kingdom Plantae (plant kingdom) Kingdom Fungi (fungi kingdom) Kingdom Protista (types of eukaryotic organisms; containing complex structures enclosed within membranes) Kingdom Monera (types of microscopic single-celled organisms whose genetic material is loose in the cell, instead of being held in the cell's nucleus) Today some countries, such as the USA use a 6-Kingdom system: Kingdom Animalia Kingdom Protista Kingdom Prokaryota/Monera Current mycologists say that as some slime molds, mildews and water molds have similar feeding stages to amoebas, plus some other qualities, they should be part of a separate kingdom called Kingdom Protista, while others talk about Kingdom Stremenopila for water molds and downy mildews that have no chitin, as well as some other characteristics.

Kingdoms are divided into phila Today, the main criteria for fungus classification is the type of spores and fruiting bodies it produces. All Kingdoms are divided into phyla (singular: phylum). A phylum is a primary division of a kingdom. Fungi are commonly divided into four broad phyla: Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) - these are microscopic fungi and are mostly found in freshwater or damp/drenched soil. The majority of chytrids are parasites of algae and animals. Some are saprobes (living on decomposed organic matter). A chytrid called Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis causes disease in amphibians. Scientists have identified over 800 species of chytrids. Zygomycota - these mold that forms on bread and many other foods. The mold has tiny black dots (sporangia) which produce sporangiospores - asexual spores. Many types of zygomycota are insect and spider parasites. Ascomycota - there are about 33,000 identified species of ascomycetes that feed on both living and dead matter.

Ascomycetes are primary decomposers of plants. They are also important causes of plant and human diseases. They are used in brewing, baking, winemaking, and as sources of therapeutic drugs. They are also used in the production of some cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort and Stilton. Basidiomycota - Both edible and poisonous mushrooms are types of basidiomicetes. They cause devastating plant diseases. Basidiomicetes are commonly found in birds' nests. Most decomposition of living or dead wood that occurs in forests as well as inside man-made structures is caused by basidiomicetes. Leaf ants live exclusively on a type of basidiomicetes, as do some termites. Cryptococcosis, a human infection caused by inhaling a basidiomicetes fungus called Cryptococcus neoformans, commonly infects patients with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV / AIDS , or people receiving medications that suppress their immune system. Infection is usually limited to the lungs, but can spread to other parts of the body, causing meningitis . What do humans use fungi for?

Fungi as a food or used in food preparation Humans have been eating fungi since before we started walking on our hind legs. Today we eat an enormous variety of edible fungi, including truffles, mushrooms, quorn, shitake and hundreds others. We also use fungi, e.g. yeast, in food manufacturing. Yeast is needed for the fermentation of wine, beers and other alcoholic drinks. We add yeast to dough to make the bread rise when we bake it. Fungi used in industry and agriculture Fungi are used in the production of ethanol. They are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals, such as citric acid, gluconic acid, malic acid, and biological detergents. The production of many deliberately faded garments would be much more difficult without using fungi. They are used in bioremediation - the detoxification of polluted water or soil. Fungi are also used in agriculture for pest control and to protect crops from diseases. Fungi used in medicine Antibiotics - Many types of antibiotics come from fungi, such as penicillin (Penicillium chrysogenum), cephalosporin (Acremonium) , and griseofulvin (Penicillium griseofulvin).

Penicillin works by destroying the wall of a bacterial cell. Fungal antibiotics are extensively used for treating tuberculosis , syphilis , and leprosy, to name but a few diseases. Chemotherapy - Antibacterial chemotherapy uses fungi. Lentilan, a drug used in cancer treatment, is sourced from the shiitake mushroom. Immunosuppressants - Cyclosporin is a medication that transplant patients take to suppress their immune system. It is produced by the fungus Beauveria nivea and significantly lowers the risk of transplanted organ refection. Many successful transplant procedures could not have occurred without this drug. Laboratory studies indicate that Agaricus blazei may stimulate the human immune system and could have major implications for human health - especially in the treatment of many cancers. Extracts of the mushroom Phellinus linteus may halt breast cancer growth , according to scientists from the Methodist Research Institute in Indianapolis, USA. Traditional Chinese Medicine includes several types of mushrooms, such as Agaricus, Ganoderma, and Cordyceps among its various therapies. Fungi that cause human diseases - pathogenic fungi Mycosis is a disease caused by a fungus (plural: mycoses).

Fungi that cause diseases are called pathogenic fungi. Mycoses can be divided into four broad groups; these groups are classified according to how deeply the fungus penetrates into the body: Superficial mycosis The fungus does not penetrate at all. It is present only on the surface of the skin or on the patient's hair. This may include various types of ringworm (tinea), including athlete's foot, scalp ringworm, and body (skin) ringworm. Candida albicans is a yeast that causes candidiasis . As a superficial mycosis candidiasis usually affects the vagina of females or the mouth of both males and females. It exists normally in the vagina or gastrointestinal tract, but may multiply rapidly, especially if the person is ill or has a weakened immune system. Taking antibiotics may sometimes result in rapid reproduction of Candida albicans. Fungi that obtain nutrients from keratinized material are called dermatophytes. Dermatophytes cause superficial and cutaneous mycosis (below). Cutaneous mycosis The infection is generally limited to the nonliving keratinized layers of skin, hair, and nails - no living tissue is invaded.

Also includes tinea (ringworm), as well as candidiasis of the skin, mucus membranes and nails (Candida albicans and related species). Subcutaneous mycosis The fungi reach below the skin and infect subcutaneous (area just below the skin), connective and bone tissue. These infections are usually chronic (long-lasting) and often occur when the skin is pierced or wounded, allowing the fungi to enter, usually in the form of vegetable matter. These infections may be hard to treat and often require removal of damaged skin (debridement). Subcutaneous mycoses are much more common in the tropics. Sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix schenckii is an example of subcutaneous mycosis. Sporotrichosis used to be common in Europe, but is very rare there today. It is more common in Australia, South Africa and in the warmer regions of the Americas. Infection may occur as a result of an insect bite, a thorn prick or a scratch from any sharp object. Infection risk is higher among florists, farmers, gardeners and people who work with hay and moss.

Systemic mycosis This is a fungal infection that may reach any part of the body, including the brain and heart, as well as the bloodstream. The fungi usually enter via the lungs, gastrointestinal tract or intravenously. An example of systemic mycosis is cryptococcosis, which is caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, a type of yeast. It can cause subacute or chronic meningitis. The fungi enter the body by inhalation. Infected patients may also develop lung infections. Cryptococcus neoformans may be found in pigeon droppings. Written by Christian Nordqvist Contact our news editors For any corrections of factual information, or to contact our editorial team, please see our contact page . Please note: Any medical information published on this website is not intended as a substitute for informed medical advice and you should not take any action before consulting with a health care professional. For more information, please read our terms of use . Copyright Medical News Today: Excluding email/sharing services explicitly offered on this website, material published on Medical News Today may not be reproduced, or distributed without the prior written permission of Medilexicon International Ltd. Please contact us for further details .

Most popular in: Biology / Biochemistry Scientific Names Home > Catalog >Name_Game The Name Game: Scientific Names Is it mold or mildew in that basement corner? Is the bright umbrella-shaped fungus you have found beneath a tree a mushroom or a toadstool? Have you ever seen a horse wearing a Dryad's Saddle, or spread your morning toast with Witch's Butter? All the above terms, like toadstool, are common names. Common names are given to organisms in the language of the people who live with them. For example, "horse", "cheval", "el caballo" and "pferd" are all common names for the organism with the scientific name Equus caballus . In some countries, if a horse possesses white patches on a darker coat, it can also be called by the name of "Pinto". Its scientific name will still be Equus caballus, because a Pinto's unique color does not make it a different animal from any other Equus caballus. In horses, color is not a "diagnostic characteristic". Diagnostic characteristics are those features that make one particular species unique from all other species.

While an organism can have common names in many languages, it possesses only one scientific name, in Latin. This name is unique, only being used once in science to describe an organism. A scientific name has two parts: the genus name, and the species epithet. Equus is the genus name for horses and their close relatives. There can be many species in a genus. Another species in the genus Equus is Equus burchellii, the plains zebra of Africa. The species epithet burchellii, combined with the genus name Equus sets the zebra apart from the horse. The system of scientific names is an information system that organizes life forms into groups, based on their biological and evolutionary relationships. The largest of these groups is called a "kingdom". There are five kingdoms, one of which is the Fungi. Within the Fungi, as in all the kingdoms, the members are organized into ascending ranks. Closely related species are grouped into the rank of genus. Because "systematic" groups are based on biological and evolutionary relationships, all members of a group are similar to one another.

For example, all species in the fungus genus Puccinia are plant rusts, a kind of parasite which grows on live plants. Genera are grouped into families, whose members may show more variety, but are basically the same kind of organism. The genus Puccinia is placed in the family Pucciniaceae. All the genera in the family Pucciniaceae are plant parasites. Scientists carefully research and study the relationships between fungi and other forms of life in order to understand them and assign scientific names based on their understanding. Why do they work so hard, when the people who live with the organisms have already given them common names? Why have both? Spanish: Rodellón Like a scientific name, the answer has two parts. First, not all organisms have a common name. In the Fungi, many species live in the soil and escape notice in everyday life. Others are not edible, or, at this time, not economically important, and are ignored. These fungi will probably never receive common names, though they all have scientific names. This name duplication cannot happen with scientific names. Their unique status is enforced by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature's rules for creating a single "valid name".

The procedure includes publishing a Latin description of the organism. With fungi, as with all organisms, common names can borrow from mythology or local history, and are often descriptive of the physical properties of a fungus. The fungus genus name Geastrum is a combination of the Latin Ge, meaning "earth" and astrum, meaning "star". The common name used for all the species in this genus is " earthstar ". Field guides sometimes translate scientific names into common names because their format requires them. This might be the way Lactarius camphoratus, named over 160 years ago by a Swedish mycologist, received the modern English common name "Camphory Lactarius". Although unique, a scientific name may change. As improved methods of research provide scientists with more information on a species' evolutionary relationships, their scientific name is sometimes changed to reflect this better understanding. The fungus may be placed in a different genus, or family. The change from evaluating fungi with the naked eye to the use of a microscope to examine spores was one improvement in research that resulted in name changes.

More recently, the assignment of names that accurately reflect biological relationships has been helped by the highly detailed spore images that result from scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and DNA analysis. Further Resources: Tom Volk's Fungi, . Lots of great information on fungi, including a "Fungus of the Month" feature. Information on the Dryad's saddle , from Tom Volk's Fungi. Information on Witch's Butter , from Tom Volk's Fungi. The common names of Boletus edulis were taken from the web site of the Mycological Society of San Francisco (see Cookbook, Table of Contents) . BACK TO CATALOG Last update: 08 Dec 06. © 1998, Robert Fogel, Ivins, UT 84738. Edited by Patricia Rogers. Boletus edulis painted by Louis C. C. Krieger. This image is the property of the Regents of the University of Michigan. To inquire about copyright or use permission contact Patricia Rogers (progersl@umich.edu).

fungi notes b1 Reproduce by sexual & asexual spores Antibiotic penicillin comes from Penicillium mold Classified by their sexual reproductive structures Grow best in warm, moist environments preferring shade Mycology ï¿½ study of fungi Fungicide ï¿½ chemicals used to kill fungi Includes yeasts, molds, mushrooms, ringworm, puffballs, rusts, smuts, etc.

Fungi may have evolved from prokaryotes by endosymbiosis Vegetative (nonreproductive) Structures of Fungi Body of a fungus made of tiny filaments or tubes called hyphae Hyphae contain cytoplasm & nuclei and has a cell wall of chitin HYPHAE Each hyphae is one continuous cell Hyphae continually grow & branch Septum (septa-plural) are cross walls with pores to allow the movement of cytoplasm in hyphae Hyphae with septa are called septate hyphae Hyphae without septa are called coenocytic hyphae Tangled mats of hyphae are known as mycelium All hyphae within a mycelium share the same cytoplasm so materials move quickly Hyphae grow rapidly from the tips by cell division Stolon is a horizontal hyphae that connects groups of hyphae to each other Rhizoids are rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus Reproductive Structures Most fungi reproduce asexually & sexually Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms & is the most common method used Sexual reproduction in fungi occurs when nutrients or water are scarce Fruiting bodies are modified hyphae that make asexual

 spores Fruiting bodies consist of an upright stalk or sporangiophore with a sac containing spores called the sporangium SPORANGIOPHORES Types of fruiting bodies include basidia, sporangia, & ascus Spores ï¿½ haploid cells with dehydrated cytoplasm & a protective coat capable of developing into new individuals Wind, animals, water, & insects spread spores When spore lands on moist surface, new hyphae form Asexual Reproduction in Fungi Fungi reproduce asexually when environmental conditions are favorable Some unicellular fungi reproduce by mitosis Yeast cells reproduce by budding where a part of the cell pinches off to produce more yeast cells Athleteï¿½s foot fungus reproduce by fragmentation from a small piece of mycelium Most fungi reproduce asexually by spores Penicillium mold produces spores called conidia without a protective sac on the top of a stalk called the conidiophore Sexual Reproduction in Fungi Fungi reproduce sexually when environmental conditions are unfavorable No male or female fungi Two mating types --- plus (+) and minus (-) Fertilization occurs when (+) hyphae fuse with (-) hyphae to form a 2N

 or diploid zygote Some fungi show dimorphism (ability to change their form in response to their environmental conditions) Classification of Fungi Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures The 4 phyla of fungi are Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, & Deuteromycota Zygomycota Called sporangium fungi or common molds Includes molds & blights such as Rhizopus stolonifer (bread mold) No septa in hyphae (coenocytic) Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium & produces sporangiospores Rhizoids anchor the mold, release digestive enzymes, & absorb food Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium & produces sporangiospores Sexual spore produced by conjugation when (+) hyphae & (-) fuse is called zygospore Zygospores can endure harsh environments until conditions improve & new sporangium Basidiomycota Includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, bracket fungi, shelf fungi, stinkhorns, rusts, & smuts Some are used as food (mushroom) & others cause crop damage (rusts & smuts) Seldom reproduce asexually Basdiocarp

 made up of stalk called the stipe & a flattened cap Stipe may have a skirt like ring below cap called the annulus Gills are found on the underside of the cap & are lined with basidia Basidium ï¿½ sexual reproductive structure that make basidiospores Basidiospores are released from the gills & germinate to form new hyphae & mycelia Vegetative structures found below ground & include rhizoids (anchor & absorb nutrients), hyphae, & mycelia Ascomycota Includes yeast, cup fungi, truffles, powdery mildew, & morels Some are parasites causing Dutch elm disease & chestnut blight Sac Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually Yeast reproduce asexually by budding (form small, bud-like cells that break off & make more yeasts) Asexual spores called conidia form on the tips of specialized hyphae called condiophores Ascocarp ï¿½ specialized hyphae formed by parent fungi during sexual reproduction Ascus ï¿½ sacs within the ascocarp that form spores called ascospores Lichens Symbiotic association between a sac fungus & a photosynthetic green algae or cyan

obacteria Both organisms benefit (algae makes food & fungus supplies moisture, shelter, & anchorage) Grow on rocks, trees, buildings, etc.

& help form soil Crustose lichens grow on rocks & trees; fructose lichens grow shrub-like; foliose lichens grow mat-like on the soil Mycorrhizae Symbiotic association of a fungus living on plant roots Most plants have mycorrhizae on their roots Fungus absorbs sugars made by plant Plants absorb more water & minerals with aid of the fungus Importance of Fungi Kingdom Fungi | Classification, Kingdom Fungi Characteristics | Biology@TutorVista.com Top Kingdom Fungi The organisms in kingdom fungi include mushrooms, yeasts, molds, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, and molds. More than 70,000 species of fungi have been identified. The fungi constitute and independent group to that of plants and animals. They live everywhere in air, in water, on land, in soil, and on or in plants and animals. Some fungi are microscopic and other extend for more than a thousand acres. Mycology is a discipline of biology which deals with the study of fungi. Fungi appear like plants but are closely related to animals. Fungi are not capable of producing their own food,so they get their nourishment from other sources.

Fungi are in a wide variety of sizes and forms and have great economic importance. Back to Top Fungi show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, they obtain their nutrients by absorption. The cell wall of fungi are mostly made up of carbohydrate chitin, while the cell wall in plants is made of cellulose. The carbohydrates stored in fungi is in the form of glycogen. The 'fruit' body of fungus is only seen, while the living body of the fungus is a mycelium, it is made of tiny filaments called hyphae. The mycelium is hidden., Nutrition in fungi is by absorbing nutrients from the organic material in which they live. Fungi do not have stomachs, they digest their food before it pass through the cell wall into the hyphae. The hyphae secrets enzymes and acids that break down the organic material into simple compounds. Kingdom Fungi Characteristics General characteristics of fungi are as follows: Fungi are eukaryotic organisms. They reproduce by means of spores. Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be produced. They are typically non-motile. Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.

The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic threads called hyphae. The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically the fungi cell wall are composed of chitin. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They fungi digest the food first and then ingest the food, to accomplish this the fungi produce exoenzymes. Fungi store their food as starch. Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi. The nuclei of the fungi is very small. During mitosis the nuclear envelope is not dissolved. Nutrition in fungi - they are saprophytes, or parasites or symbionts. Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Sexual state is referred to as teleomorph, asexual state is referred to as anamorph. Kingdom Fungi Classification Based on the spore case in which the spores are produced fungi are classified into four divisions. Division Ascomycota: Sac Fungi The sac-fungi produce spores in small cup-shaped sacs called asci, hence the name ascomycota. The mature sac fungi spores are known as ascospores, they are released at the tip of the ascus breaks open.

Yeast is the most common one-celled fungi. Yeast reproduces through asexual process called budding. The buds form at the side of the parent cell, they pinch-off and grow into new yeast cell which is identical to the parent cell. Examples of sac-fungi are morels, truffles, cup fungi and powdery mildews. Example: Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora. Division Basidiomycota: Club Fungi Basidiomycota includes the mushrooms, puff-balls, smuts, rusts and toadstools. The spores are borne on a club-shaped spore case called basidium. In mushrooms the basidia are lined at the gills under the cap. Huge numbers of spores are produced by the club fungi. In fact, an average sized mushroom produces over 16 billion spores. These spores rarely germinate or mature. Example: Agaricus(mushroom), Ustilago(smut), and Puccinia(rust fungus). Division Zygomycota: Zygote forming Fungi These fungi are usually found on cheese, bread, and other decaying food.

They are zygote forming fungi, hence the name zygomycota. The spores are produced in round-shaped case called sporangium. The grayish fuzz seen on bread and decaying food is actually mass of mature sporangia mold. Under the microscope they are seen as pinheads. When the sporangium breaks open hundreds of spores are released. Example: Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo. Division Deuteromycota: Imperfect Fungi These organisms are known as imperfect fungi because they lack sexual reproduction. They reproduce by asexual spores known as conidia. Most of the fungi causes diseases to humans like ringworm, athlete's foot. Economically important imperfect fungi are Penicillium and Aspergillus. Other examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma. Kingdom Fungi Examples Some of the examples of kingdom fungi are as follows: Sac-fungi : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus). Zygote-forming fungi : Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo.

Club fungi: Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus). Imperfect fungi: Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma. Members of the Kingdom Fungi

Question: What is the name of the biological study of fungi in all its forms?
Answer: MYCOLOGY