BBC - Religions - Hinduism: Scripture Religions Scripture Last updated 2009-08-25 Hindus believe that the Vedas texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth. On this page The Vedas These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus. They got their present form between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to India by the Aryans. Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth. Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing. For hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally. Contents of the Vedas The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are arranged chronologically. The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to God. The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties. The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation. The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism.

The Samhitas Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods. Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic sacrifices. Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices. Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae. The Upanishads The Upanishads were so called because they were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers. (upa=near, ni=down, shad=sit). These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical knowledge. The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse. Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century. Originally they were in oral form. The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the sacrificial rites.

Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred power which informs reality. Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher. Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the world's longest poem. The Bhagavad Gita © Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the house of Bharata. It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the remembered tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than shruti (the heard text, such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important place within the Hindu tradition. The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna , his charioteer.

Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches of a royal family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives. He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna, must do his duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not destroy the soul. Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all paths to salvation and that the central value in life is that of loyalty to God. The Ramayana Composed in the same period, the Ramayana is one of India's best known tales. It tells the story of Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife, Sita , and his brother, Lakshamana. Sita was abducted by the evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with the help of the Monkey God, Hanuman. The story is written in 24,000 couplets. The symbolism of the story has been widely interpreted but basically is the story of good overcoming evil. Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.

The Vedas: Ancient Sanskrit Works of India - The Vedas: Ancient Sanskrit Works of India Bronze Meditating Saraswati Holding the Hindu Holy book, the Vedas For those of you unfamiliar, the Vedas are the most sacred books of India, thought to be some of the earliest written works of their kind. Much like the Bible within the Christian religion, the Vedas hold the earliest religious writings of the Hindu religion. They are said to contain spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of living; a guide to Hindu thought and teachings. The word ‘Veda” translates to mean wisdom with their contents acting like a river of Hindu thought. Many believe that the writings are the language of the Hindu Gods , translated into words of human understanding. The laws within hold precedence and regulate Hindu society in social, domestic, legal, and religious matters still to this day. Many wonder of the origin of the Vedas. We can only speculate as to when they first came into existence it was so long ago, however, by some they are thought to be the earliest works of human kind. Many believe that they were not written by humans at all, but by sages receiving sacred knowledge directly from the Gods themselves.

Others believe that sages became enlightened with the ideas to write in the books through sacred transference of the Gods. Whether the Gods actually spoke to the sages or not, the knowledge within the Vedas is not only sacred, but still holds its magnificent power to this day. The Vedas themselves are broken down into four main sections: hymns for singing, rituals for practice, theological thought, and philosophies. Although they are not widely read by followers in present days, the principles within are strictly followed. In Hindu sculpture the Hindu goddess of Wisdom, Saraswati is often shown holding a copy of vedas. This is an apt book for the goddess of wisdom to carry as it holds the spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of living! Sacred-Texts: Hinduism Hinduism Vedas Upanishads Puranas Other Primary Texts Epics Mahabharata Ramayana Bhagavad Gita Vedanta Later texts Modern books The Vedas There are four Vedas, the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The Vedas are the primary texts of Hinduism. They also had a vast influence on Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

Traditionally the text of the Vedas was coeval with the universe. Scholars have determined that the Rig Veda, the oldest of the four Vedas, was composed about 1500 B.C., and codified about 600 B.C. It is unknown when it was finally committed to writing, but this probably was at some point after 300 B.C. The Vedas contain hymns, incantations, and rituals from ancient India. Along with the Book of the Dead , the Enuma Elish , the I Ching , and the Avesta , they are among the most ancient religious texts still in existence. Besides their spiritual value, they also give a unique view of everyday life in India four thousand years ago. The Vedas are also the most ancient extensive texts in an Indo-European language, and as such are invaluable in the study of comparative linguistics. Rig Veda translated by Ralph Griffith [1896] A complete English translation of the Rig Veda. Vedic Hymns, Part I (SBE 32) Hymns to the Maruts, Rudra, Vâyu and Vâta, tr. by F.

Max Müller [1891] A masterpiece of linguistics and comparative mythology: translations and deep analysis of the Vedic Hymns to the Storm Gods. Hymns to Agni, tr. by Hermann Oldenberg [1897] The Vedic Hymns to Agni. An introduction to the Dramatis Personæ of the Rig Veda. Sama Veda The Sama-Veda translated by Ralph Griffith [1895] A collection of hymns used by the priests during the Soma sacrifice. Many of these duplicate in part or in whole hymns from the Rig Veda. This is a complete translation. Yajur Veda The Yajur Veda (Taittiriya Sanhita) translated by Arthur Berriedale Keith [1914] A complete translation of the Black Yajur Veda. The Yajur Veda is a detailed manual of the Vedic sacrificial rites. translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith [1899] A complete translation of the White Yajur Veda.

Atharva Veda The Atharva Veda also contains material from the Rig Veda, but of interest are the numerous incantations and metaphysical texts, which this anthology (part of the Sacred Books of the East series) collects and categorizes. The Atharva Veda was written down much later than the rest of the Vedas, about 200 B.C.; it may have been composed about 1000 B.C. translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith [1895-6] The unabridged Atharva Veda translation by Ralph Griffith. translated by Maurice Bloomfield [1897] (Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42) The Sacred Books of the East translation of the Atharva-veda. Selected hymns from the Atharva-veda. Upanishads The Upanishads are a continuation of the Vedic philosophy, and were written between 800 and 400 B.C. They elaborate on how the soul (Atman) can be united with the ultimate truth (Brahman) through contemplation and mediation, as well as the doctrine of Karma-- the cumulative effects of a persons' actions.

The Upanishads (Sacred Books of the East, vols. 1 and 15): by K. Narayanasvami Aiyar [1914] Thirty shorter Upanishads, principally dealing with Yogic thought and practice. Translations from the Katha, Prasna and Chhandogya Upanishads. Puranas The Puranas are post-Vedic texts which typically contain a complete narrative of the history of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology and geography. There are 17 or 18 canonical Puranas, divided into three categories, each named after a deity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. There are also many other works termed Purana, known as 'Upapuranas.' The Vishnu Purana by H.H. Wilson [1840] A primary text of the Vaishnava branch of Hinduism, and one of the canonical Puranas of the Vishnu category. Among the portions of interest are a cycle of legends of the boyhood deeds of Krishna and Rama. H.H.

Wilson was one of the first Europeans to translate a Hindu sacred text from the original Sanskrit. His style and annotations are exceptional and very readable. translated by Ernest Wood and S.V. Subrahmanyam [1911] A Vishnu Purana with Dantesque descriptions of the afterlife, and details of Hindu funeral rites. translated by Swami Vijnanananda (Hari Prasanna Chatterji) [1921] One of the Upapuranas, devoted to the Devi (Goddess). translated by Swami Vijnanananda (Hari Prasanna Chatterji) [1921] The Song of the Goddess. An excerpt from the S'rimad Devî Bhâgawatam (above) The Prem Sagur (Prem Sagar) by Lallu Lal, translated by W. Hollings [1848] English translation of a popular Hindi retelling of the Krishna cycle, based on the tenth book of the Bhagavata Purana. translated by Henry David Thoreau [1931] An excerpt from the Harivamsa, a Puranic text, translated by the American transcendentalist philosopher.

Kundalini: The Mother of the Universe by Rishi Singh Gherwal [1930] Includes an English translation of the Lalita Sahasranama, the 'Thousand Names of the Goddess,' from the Brahmanda Purana. Other Primary Texts George Bühler, translator [1886] (Sacred Books of the East, vol. 25) Manu was the legendary first man, the Adam of the Hindus. This is a collection of laws attributed to Manu. The popular story of Ruru and Priyumvada from the Mahabharata. Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita, usually considered part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata (dating from about 400 or 300 B.C.), is a central text of Hinduism, a philosphical dialog between the god Krishna and the warrior Arjuna. This is one of the most popular and accessible of all Hindu scriptures, required reading for anyone interested in Hinduism. The Gita discusses selflessness, duty, devotion, and meditation, integrating many different threads of Hindu philosophy.

The Bhagavadgîtâ (SBE 8) with the Sanatsugâtîya and the Anugîtâ translated by Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang, (Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 8) [1882] A scholarly prose translation of the Bhagavad Gita with two other similar, less well known, works from the Mahabharata. (Caurapañcāśikā) by Bilhana, tr. by Edward Powys Mathers [1919] A free verse translation of Bilhana, an 11th century Kashmiri poet. tr. by Sir Richard Burton. [1870] Tales of a Vampire Scheherazade. tr. by F. Kingsbury and G.P. Phillips [1829] Popular Tamil Hindu devotional poetry by worshippers of the god Shiva. Songs of Kabîr Kabir, tr. by Rabindranath Tagore, Introduction by Evelyn Underhill; New York, The Macmillan Company; [1915] Kabir's mystical and devotional poetry has been found inspirational by people of many different faiths.

Kabir tried to find common ground between Hindus and Muslims. by Rishi Singh Gherwal [1930] Excerpts from the shorter Yoga Vasishta Modern Books The Vedas: An Introduction (Origin, Author, Structure) Vedic Astrology Файл:Веда.PNG/Entocyp/Wikimedia Commons The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization, and the most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, and contain spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of our life. Vedic literature with its philosophical maxims has stood the test of time and is the highest religious authority for all sections of Hindus in particular and for mankind in general. Veda means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it manifests the language of the gods in human speech. The laws of the Vedas regulate the social, legal, domestic and religious customs of the Hindus to the present day. All the obligatory duties of the Hindus at birth, marriage, death etc. owe their allegiance to the Vedic ritual. They draw forth the thought of successive generation of thinkers, and so contain within it the different strata of thought.

Origin of the Vedas The Vedas are probably the earliest documents of the human mind and is indeed difficult to say when the earliest portions of the Vedas came into existence. As the ancient Hindus seldom kept any historical record of their religious, literary and political realization, it is difficult to determine the period of the Vedas with precision. Historians provide us many guesses but none of them is free from ambiguity. Who wrote the Vedas? It is believed that humans did not compose the revered compositions of the Vedas, which were handed down through generations by the word of mouth from time immemorial. The general assumption is that the Vedic hymns were either taught by God to the sages or that they were revealed themselves to the sages who were the seers or mantradrasta of the hymns. The Vedas were mainly compiled by Vyasa Krishna Dwaipayana around the time of Lord Krishna (c. 1500 BC) Classification of the Vedas The Vedas are four: The Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda, the Rig Veda being the main.

The four Vedas are collectively known as Chathurveda,  of which the first three Vedas viz., Rig Veda, Sama Veda and Yajur Veda agree in form, language and content. [ Read about each one of them in detail .] Structure of the Vedas Each Veda consists of four parts  the Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and the Upanishads (philosophies). The collection of mantras or hymns is called the Samhita. The Brahmanas are ritualistic texts and include precepts and religious duties. Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Veda and therefore called the Vedanta or the end of the Veda and contains the essence of Vedic teachings. The Upanishads and the Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas, which discuss philosophical problems. The Aryanyakas (forest texts) intend to serve as objects of meditation for ascetics who live in forests and deal with mysticism and symbolism.

The Mother of All Scriptures Although the Vedas are seldom read or understood today, even by the devout, they no doubt form the bedrock of the universal religion or Sanatana Dharma that all Hindus follow. The Vedas have guided our religious direction for ages and will continue to do so for generations to come. And they will forever remain the most comprehensive and universal of all ancient scriptures. Prev Vedic religion | Indian religion | Britannica.com Indian religion Indra Vedic religion, also called Vedism, the religion of the ancient Indo-European-speaking peoples who entered India about 1500 bce from the region of present-day Iran . It takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas . Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism . Knowledge of Vedic religion is derived from surviving texts and also from certain rites that continue to be observed within the framework of modern Hinduism. The earliest Vedic religious beliefs included some held in common with other Indo-European-speaking peoples, particularly with the early Iranians.

Though it is impossible to say when Vedism eventually gave way to classical Hinduism, a decrease in literary activity among the Vedic schools from the 5th century bce onward can be observed, and about that time a more Hindu character began to appear. Vedic texts The only extant Vedic materials are the texts known as the Vedas, which were composed and handed down orally over a period of about 10 centuries, from about the 15th to the 5th century bce. The Vedic corpus is composed in an archaic Sanskrit . The most important texts are also the oldest ones. They are the four collections (Samhitas) that are called the Veda, or Vedas. The Rigveda , or “Veda of Verses,” the earliest of those, is composed of about 1,000 hymns addressed to various deities and mostly arranged to serve the needs of the priestly families who were the custodians of that sacred literature. The Yajurveda , or “Veda of Sacrificial Formulas,” contains prose formulas applicable to various rites, along with verses intended for a similar purpose.

The Samaveda , or “Veda of Chants,” is made up of a selection of verses—drawn almost wholly from the Rigveda—that are provided with musical notation and are intended as an aid to the performance of sacred songs. Finally, the Atharvaveda is a later compilation that includes incantations and magic spells. Similar Topics Ajivika To each Veda is attached a body of prose writings of later date called Brahmanas (c. 800–600 bce), which explain the ceremonial applications of the texts and the origin and importance of the sacrificial rites for which the Vedas were composed. Further appendices, the Aranyakas (c. 600 bce) and the Upanishads (c. 700–500 bce), respectively expound the symbolism of the more difficult rites and speculate on the nature of the universe and humanity’s relation to it. Hinduism: Indo-European sources When Vedic religion gradually evolved into Hinduism between the 6th and 2nd centuries bce, the texts, taken collectively, became the most sacred literature of Hinduism.

They are known as Shruti (“What Is Heard”), the divinely revealed section of Hindu literature—in contrast to the later strata of religious literature known as Smriti (“What Is Remembered”), traditional texts attributed to human authors. But in modern Hinduism the Shruti, with the exception of the Upanishads and a few hymns of the Rigveda, is now little known, while some of the Smriti texts remain extremely influential. Mythology Vedism was a polytheistic sacrificial religion involving the worship of numerous male divinities (and a few goddesses), most of whom were connected with the sky and natural phenomena. The priests who officiated at that worship were drawn from the Brahman social class. The complex Vedic ceremonies, for which the hymns of the Rigveda were composed, centred on the ritual sacrifice of animals and the drinking of a sacred, mind-altering liquor pressed from a plant called soma . The basic Vedic rite was performed by offering those to a sacred fire, which was itself deified as Agni and which carried the oblations to the gods of the Vedic pantheon.

Agni and Soma were at the same time material elements of the ritual offering: Agni was the fire of the sun, of lightning, and of burning wood; Soma was the deified aspect of the liquid poured in the oblation. The god of highest rank, however, was Indra , a warlike god who conquered innumerable human and demon enemies and brought back the sun after it had been stolen, among other feats. Another great deity was Varuna , who was the upholder of the cosmic and moral laws. Vedism had many other lesser deities, among whom were gods, goddesses, demigods, and demons. Ritual Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent The ancient Vedic worshippers offered sacrifices to those gods in the hope that they in return would grant abundant numbers of cattle, good fortune, good health, long life, and male progeny, among other material benefits. To ensure the efficacy of their prayers, the people came to believe that their offerings could be made more acceptable to the gods if accompanied by songs of praise and other invocations of the gods’ might and power. Thus originated the rites described in the Vedas.

Every sacrifice was performed on behalf of an individual, the patron or yajamana (“sacrificer”), who bore the expenses. World Religions & Traditions The rites of Vedic sacrifice were relatively simple in the early period, when the Rigveda was composed. They required neither temples nor images. The ceremonies took place in an open space that was consecrated afresh for every important occasion. The altar (vedi) was a quadrangle marked out by hollowing or slightly raising the ground. The agnyadheya (“installation of the fire”) was a necessary preliminary to all the large public rituals and was preceded by the patron’s fast. The sacrifices themselves were of two major types—domestic (grihya) and public (srauta, or vaitanika). The domestic rites were observed by the householder himself or with the help of a single priest and were performed over the domestic hearth fire. Some occurred daily or monthly, and others accompanied a particular event, such as the samskaras, sacraments marking each stage of an upper-caste Indian’s life, from conception to death.

The grand rites performed in public, by contrast, lasted several days or months and could usually be undertaken only by wealthy men or kings. They required the services of many priests and were usually performed at three fire-altars. Most characteristic of the public ceremonies was the soma sacrifice, which ensured the prosperity and well-being of both human beings and gods. In that basic ritual, a lay sacrificer was first consecrated, after which juice was pressed three times from the soma plant, part being offered to the fire and part consumed by the priests. Each of the three occasions was preceded and followed by recitations and chants. Edibles such as meat, butter, milk, and barley cake could also be offered to a sacred fire. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Animal sacrifice—the killing of a ram or goat—existed either independently or as an integral part of the sacrifice of soma. The celebrated ashvamedha , “horse sacrifice,” was an elaborate variant of the soma sacrifice. Human sacrifice (purushamedha) is described and alluded to as a former practice but probably was merely symbolic.

The sacrifice of the mythical giant Purusha , from whose dismembered limbs sprang up the four major social classes ( varna s), probably served as a model for the conjectured human sacrifices. Other ceremonies marked fixed dates of the lunar calendar , such as the full or new moon or the change of seasons. Development and decline Over the centuries, the Vedic rites became increasingly complex and governed by innumerable rules, which were embodied, together with the hymns and prayer formulas used, in the Vedas. During the late Vedic period the complexities of ritual were emphasized to such an extent that only highly trained Brahmans could carry them out correctly, and it was maintained that improperly or incorrectly performed rites could, unless rectified, bring about disaster or death. In reaction against this excessive emphasis on ritual (as well as the growing power of the Brahmans), Vedic thought in its late period became more speculative and philosophical in approach. Much speculation was directed toward the search for harmony and for correspondences between macrocosm and microcosm, with the ultimate goal being a reduction of reality to an all-embracing unity by way of successive equations.

In the Aranyakas, Vedic ritual is interpreted in a symbolic rather than literal manner, and the Upanishads question the very assumptions on which Vedism rested. The crucial idea that emerged from that period of intense questioning was that of brahman , the ultimate reality and also a sort of guiding principle. The central theme of the Upanishads is that the atman , the unchanging core of a human being, is a part of brahman. The equation of atman with brahman became the basis of Hindu metaphysics . The spread in the 6th century bce of the related concepts of reincarnation , of karma , and of the attainment of release ( moksha ) from this cycle ( samsara ) by meditation rather than through sacrifice marked the end of the Vedic period. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies The legacy of Vedic worship is apparent in several aspects of modern Hinduism.

The basic stratification of Vedic society into four varnas—the Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors or rulers), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (servants)—by and large persisted in later Hinduism. Sacrifices performed according to Vedic rites continue to be performed in India occasionally, and the offering of oblations to a sacred fire (homa) is an important element of much modern Hindu worship (see yajna ). The Hindu rite of initiation (upanayama) is another direct survival of Vedic tradition. Vishnu and Shiva , the major deities of classical Hinduism, are briefly mentioned in Vedic mythology, and Indra remains the king of the gods in narratives, although he is no longer worshipped. More about Vedic religion URI Kids :: World Religions How did Hinduism begin? Hinduism or Sanatana Dharma ("eternal spiritual path") began about 4000 years ago in India. It was the religion of an ancient people known as the Aryans ("noble people") whose philosophy, religion, and customs are recorded in their sacred texts known as the Vedas.

These texts were initially handed down by word of mouth from teacher to student. It was not until much later that they were actually written down. Archeological evidence from the Indus Valley civilization of northwestern India helps to establish Hinduism as the world's oldest living religion. Today, worldwide, there are almost one billion people professing some aspect of Hinduism. The fundamental teachings of Hinduism, which form the foundation of all its different sects, are contained in the concluding portion of the Vedas, and are therefore known as the Vedanta (the "end or concluding portion of the Vedas"). This part of the Vedas is also known as the Upanishads. What do Hindus believe and practice? The fundamental teaching of Hinduism, or Vedanta, is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind. Beyond both of these is the spirit or the spark of God within the soul. This spirit is within us and also within everything we see. All beings and all things are really, in their deepest essence, this pure or divine spirit, full of peace, full of joy and wisdom, ever united with God. This is not just theory, but it can actually be experienced.

Anyone who takes the trouble to undergo the necessary training to purify and refine the mind and senses can begin to feel the truth of this. This training can take various forms and is known as yoga ("union"- union of the individual self with this inner spirit). There are four main types of yoga, meant for the four main types of human temperaments: ï¿½Karma Yoga or the discipline of right actions is for those of active temperament, striving to eliminate selfishness, and to cultivate universal sympathy by seeing the divine reality in all. ï¿½Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion to God whose presence can be felt in all things. God can be worshipped as present in an image in a Temple. God can be worshipped also as present in suffering humanity by service. ï¿½Jnana Yoga, preferred by those of analytical bent of mind, is the discipline of trying to see the divine reality within all things directly, by mentally brushing aside all the obstructing physical and mental coverings that hide it. ï¿½Raja Yoga is the process of mental control, purity, and meditation to make the mind very calm and quiet. In that profound quiet, the inner divine light reveals itself.

What are the manifestation(s) God in Hinduism? What are the different sects of Hinduism? The general name for God in Hinduism is Brahman. The name of the divine essence within us is Atman. They are one and the same, infinite and eternal. However, God is also present in all creation. God's manifestation in creation goes by many names. It is the one infinite, eternal, Divine Being that is manifesting in countless ways. It is like a person at the same time being called "father" by his son, "friend" by his friend, "son" by his own father, "husband" by his wife, etc. A special relationship goes with each name. So the same Divine Lord has been addressed as Shiva, Vishnu, etc and as Divine Mother, Kali, Durga, etc. God can also manifest as an extraordinary being in human form, who is then known as an incarnation of God, such as Krishna, Rama, etc. Since it is the one infinite God alone that is being looked at in different ways, all these manifestations can be prayed to for help and protection. This is the underlying principle behind all the different sects of Hinduism.

Those who prefer a particular manifestation of the divinity will form a sect devoted to the contemplation and worship of that manifestation. All the sects, however, will accept the ancient teachings of the Vedas and the Vedanta as the foundation of their practice What is reincarnation? In this world every cause must have its effect. We are responsible for the results of our actions. Long ages ago, human beings first asked themselves, why are some people born in happy circumstances, whereas others are born to suffer all their lives? The events of this present life are not enough to account for such suffering. To reasonably explain an excess of suffering or of enjoyment in this life, it was assumed that we all have had previous existences, and that we are now reaping the results of those previous actions. It must also be true then that we can take charge of our destiny right now. We can create a better tomorrow by resolving do better actions today. However, as long as desires remain in the mind, the tendency toward rebirth will exist. What is Maya? In this life we do not see things very clearly. We are constantly faced with contradictions. Though we know what is right, we have trouble doing it.

Our thoughts soar high, but our actions cannot rise to the level of our thoughts. The world is full of misery and injustice; as quickly as we remove some, more seems to rush in to take its place. We are told by the saints, and we also feel, that a loving God is at work in this creation, but we cannot reconcile this with what we see around us. This complex situation in which we find ourselves is called maya. The way out of this, according to Hinduism or Vedanta, is that we are not really seeing the world properly. If we saw it properly, we would see that it is God alone before us. Instead, we superimpose all this complex world on that divine reality. The illustration given is that of a rope, mistaken in semi-darkness for a snake. The snake of this world frightens us. What is the solution? Bring a light and you will see its real nature. It is only a rope. Likewise, the real nature or essence of this world is divinity alone. Bring the light of spiritual wisdom through yoga, and you will see God alone everywhere. This is what constitutes spiritual freedom or liberation, Moksha.

When this knowledge dawns, there is complete satisfaction; no desire remains in the mind, and no further impulse for rebirth remains. What code of behavior do Hindus follow? The code of behavior is one's dharma. This is determined by the place in society and the duties associated with it. There are four main social positions or varna; Brahmins (priests and teachers) Kshatriyas (rulers and soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (workers). There are four ideal stages of life described in Hindu scriptures: the student, the family man, the recluse, and the wandering holy man. For most Hindu people these represent a metaphorical path, not an actual path. What are the Hindu sacred texts? Hindu ancient, sacred texts were written in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India. ï¿½The Vedas are the oldest - about 3000 years old. They are a collection of hymns, prayers, and magic spells. ï¿½The Upanishads are stories and parables told by gurus (teachers) to their students ï¿½The Mahabharata is a story of a war between two royal families.

The Bhagavad Gita is a very popular part of this text. ï¿½The Ramayana is a story of the god Rama and the rescue of his wife Sita from Ravana, the evil demon king The Vedas - ReligionFacts ReligionFacts Bowker, John (ed.) The Vedas The most sacred scriptures of Hinduism are the Vedas ("Books of Knowledge"), a collection of texts written in Sanskrit from about 1200 BCE to 100 CE. As sruti, the Vedas are regarded as the absolute authority for religious knowledge and a test of Hindu orthodoxy (both Jains and Buddhists reject the Vedas). "For Hindus, the Veda is a symbol of unchallenged authority and tradition." 1 Selections from the Vedas are still memorized and recited for religious merit today. Yet much of the religion presented in the Vedas is unknown today and plays little to no role in modern Hinduism. As historical and religious literature often is, the text is written from the perspective of the most powerful groups: the priests and warrior-kings. Scholars say it is therefore unlikely that it represents the totality of religious belief and practice in India in the first millennium BCE.

This perspective is especially evident in the earlier parts of the Vedas, in which the primary concerns are war, rain, and dealing with the "slaves," meaning native inhabitants of India. Initially, the Vedas consisted of four collections of mantras (Samhitas), each associated with a particular priest or aspect of ritual: Rig Veda (Wisdom of the Verses); Sama Veda (Wisdom of the Chants); Yajur Veda (Wisdom of the Sacrificial Formulas); and Atharva Veda (Wisdom of the Atharvan Priests). Over the centuries, three kinds of additional literature were attached to each of the Samhitas: Brahmanas (discussions of the ritual); Aranyakas ("books studied in the forest"); and Upanishads (philosophical writings). In these later texts, especially the Upanishads, the polytheism of the earlier Vedas has evolved into a pantheism focused on Brahman, the supreme reality of the universe. This concept remains a key feature of Hindu philosophy today.

The Rig Veda [moved] Yajur Veda and Sama Veda Both the Yajur Veda ("Wisdom of the Sacrifical Formulas") and the Sama Veda ("Wisdom of the Chants") are liturgical works consisting primarily of selections from the Rig Veda. The Yajur Veda was used by udgatri priests and contains brief prose to accompany ritual acts, many of which are addressed to the ritual instruments and offerings. The Sama Veda was chanted in fixed melodies by the adhvaryu priests. Each contain about 2,000 verses. Atharva Veda The Atharva Veda ("Wisdom of the Atharvan Priests) was added significantly later than the first three Samhitas, perhaps as late as 500 BC. It consists of 20 books of hymns and prose, many of which reflect the religious concerns of everyday life. This sets the Arharva Veda apart from the other Vedas, which focus on adoring the gods and performing the liturgy of sacrifice, and makes it an important source of information on the practical religion and magic of the time.

Books 1 through 8 of the Atharva Veda contain magical prayers for long life, prosperity, curses, kingship, love, and a variety of other specific purposes. Books 8 through 12 include cosmological hymns, marking a transition to the loftier philosophy of the Upanishads. The remainder of the books consist of magical and ritual formulas, including marriage and funeral practices. Brahmanas The mythology and significance behind the Vedic rituals of the Samhitas are explained in the Brahmanas. Although they include some detail as to the performance of rituals themselves, the Brahmanas are primarily concerned with the meaning of rituals. A worldview is presented in which sacrifice is central to human life, religious goals, and even the continuation of the cosmos. Included in the Brahmanas are extensive rituals for royal consecration (rajasuya), which endow a king with great power and raise him to the status of a god (at least during the ceremony). Part of the ritual is the elaborate horse sacrifice (asvamedya), in which a single horse is set free, followed and protected by royal forces for a year, then ritually sacrificed at the royal capital.

Aranyakas ("Forest Books") The Aranyakas contain similar material as the Brahmanas and discuss rites deemed not suitable for the village (thus the name "forest"). They also prominently feature the word brahmana, here meaning the creative power behind of the rituals, and by extension, the cosmic order. Upanishads ("Sittings Near a Teacher") The word "Upanishad" means "to sit down near," bringing to mind pupils gathering around their teacher for philosophical instruction. The Upanishads are philosophical works that introduce the now-central ideas of self-realization, yoga, meditation, karma and reincarnation. The theme of the Upanishads is the escape from rebirth through knowledge of the underlying reality of the universe. The Encyclopaedia Britannica explains how this change in perspective came about: Throughout the later Vedic period, the idea that the world of heaven was not the end — and that even in heaven death was inevitable — had been growing.

For Vedic thinkers, the fear of the impermanence of religious merit and its loss in the hereafter, as well as the fear-provoking anticipation of the transience of any form of existence after death, culminating in the much-feared repeated death (punarmrtyu), assumed the character of an obsession. The older Upanishads are affixed to a particular Veda, but more recent ones are not. The most important Upanishads are generally considered to be the Brhadaranyaka ("Great Forest Text") and the Chandogya (pertaining to the Chandoga priests). Both record the traditions of sages (rishis) of the period, most notably Yajñavalkya, who was a pioneer of new religious ideas. Also significant are: Mandukya Upanishad Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions Oxford Dictionary of World Religions Cambridge Illustrated History of World Religions The Hindu Universe Hinduism Society and Culture > Religion > Major Religions of the World Hinduism Hinduism is the major religion of India, practiced by more than 80% of the population. In contrast to other religions, it has no founder.

Considered the oldest religion in the world, it dates back, perhaps, to prehistoric times. No single creed or doctrine binds Hindus together. Intellectually there is complete freedom of belief, and one can be monotheist, polytheist, or atheist. Hinduism is a syncretic religion, welcoming and incorporating a variety of outside influences. The most ancient sacred texts of the Hindu religion are written in Sanskrit and called the Vedas (vedah means “knowledge”). There are four Vedic books, of which the Rig-Veda is the oldest. It discusses multiple gods, the universe, and creation. The dates of these works are unknown (1000 B.C.?). Present-day Hindus rarely refer to these texts but do venerate them. The Upanishads (dated 1000–300 B.C.), commentaries on the Vedic texts, speculate on the origin of the universe and the nature of deity, and atman (the individual soul) and its relationship to Brahman (the universal soul). They introduce the doctrine of karma and recommend meditation and the practice of yoga. Further important sacred writings include the Epics, which contain legendary stories about gods and humans.

They are the Mahabharata (composed between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200) and the Ramayana. The former includes the Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord), an influential text that describes the three paths to salvation. The Puranas (stories in verse, probably written between the 6th and 13th centuries) detail myths of Hindu gods and heroes and also comment on religious practice and cosmology. According to Hindu beliefs, Brahman is the principle and source of the universe. This divine intelligence pervades all beings, including the individual soul. Thus the many Hindu deities are manifestations of the one Brahman. Hinduism is based on the concept of reincarnation, in which all living beings, from plants on earth to gods above, are caught in a cosmic cycle of becoming and perishing. Life is determined by the law of karma—one is reborn to a higher level of existence based on moral behavior in a previous phase of existence. Life on earth is regarded as transient and a burden. The goal of existence is liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death and entrance into the indescribable state of moksha (liberation).

The practice of Hinduism consists of rites and ceremonies centering on birth, marriage, and death. There are many Hindu temples, which are considered to be dwelling places of the deities and to which people bring offerings. Places of pilgrimage include Benares on the Ganges, the most sacred river in India. Of the many Hindu deities, the most popular are the cults of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, and their various incarnations. Also important is Brahma, the creator god. Hindus also venerate human saints. Orthodox Hindu society in India was divided into four major hereditary classes: (1) the Brahmin (priestly and learned class); (2) the Kshatriya (military, professional, ruling, and governing occupations); (3) the Vaishya (landowners, merchants, and business occupations); and (4) the Sudra (artisans, laborers, and peasants). Below the Sudra was a fifth group, the Untouchables (lowest menial occupations and no social standing). The Indian government banned discrimination against the Untouchables in the constitution of India in 1950. Observance of class and caste distinctions varies throughout India.

In modern times work has been done to reform and revive Hinduism. One of the outstanding reformers was Ramakrishna (1836–1886), who inspired many followers, one of whom founded the Ramakrishna mission. The mission is active both in India and in other countries and is known for its scholarly and humanitarian works. See also Encyclopedia: Hinduism . Hinduism-Sacred Texts Sacred Texts and Traditional Tales The Vedic Literature The Vedas The plural term Vedas has two related meanings in Hinduism. First, it refers to the four Veda texts: the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. Second, "Vedas" may also to the literature of the Vedic period which are based upon the four Vedas ; the term thus includes the Brahmanas , which are commentaries on each Veda, and the Upanishads, which are philosophical treatises based upon them. Sometimes the term may also include the Sutras, books which are rules and regulation codified according to different schools, even though these texts were written later in the period of Classical Hinduism.

The Vedas proper were composed and then transmitted orally beginning around 1400 bce and probably recorded in writing about 1000. The first three Vedas are collections of material for sacrifices. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns to the various gods (Indra, Agni , Soma, Rudra, etc.) which a priest recited loudly during a sacrifice to attract the god's attention to it. Many of the Rig Veda's verses are mantras , vocalizations that encapsulate and resound the nature of Brahman . The Yajur Veda contains mantras and other instructions for the priest(s) who actually perform the sacrifice. And the Sama Veda adapts mantras and verses from the Rig Veda to music which is then sung during the sacrifice. The Atharva Veda differs from the first three in that it does not relate to sacrifice and also contains spells and magic rites. The contents of the Vedas should make it clear that these are texts for the Brahmins . It is this varna who monopolized the Vedas and used them as the basis for education, requiring students to memorize large amounts of them.

Until quick recently, it was forbidden for anyone not of the Twice-born castes even to hear the Vedas recited. The Vedas (including the Brahmanas and Upanishads ) constitute the sacred texts of Hinduism. Hinduism considers these texts to be sruti, a word which means "heard." The Vedas were written down by rishis (holy men who are the mythical founders of Hinduism) who "heard" them during deep meditation. Thus, the texts come neither from gods nor men, but from the nature of the cosmos itself. Brahmanas The Brahmanas were composed between 1000 and 700 bce as commentaries on the four Vedas. As such, each Brahmana is attached to a specific Veda. As commentaries, they explicate matters needing explanation. For example, they discuss the meaning of mantras, specify how to perform certain sacrificial actions only briefly mentioned, and describe the impact the sacrifices have on the eternal world. In short, they function as a manual teaching the proper use of the material in the Veda to which it belongs.

Upanishads The Upanishads are as different and diverse as the Vedas to which they belong. Composed between roughly 700 and 300 bce, delve into discussions of the deep inner meaning of their respective Vedas. Thus, discussion can range from the meaning of the sacrificial altar as the center of the world to the priestly singer's role and the meter he sings in. If there is anything that unifies the Upanishads, it is their continual discussion of atman, Brahman and their relationship--a theme which becomes important in Classical Hinduism. For a passage translated from the Upanishads, go here . The Literature of Classical Hinduism This literature is revered but is not considered holy in the same way as the Vedas. They are termed smriti, i.e., "remembered." This means that they are traditional and originally passed on orally. They have a human rather than a divine origin. The Sutras Sutra has two meanings: a short pithy saying (like a proverb), and a collection of such sayings. The Sutras, as the latter, then are a collection of the former.

In this way they organize many of the ideas of the Vedas into a series of rules and regulations than can be practiced. The Sutras came at the end of the Vedic literature and each one is usually derived from a Veda and its commentary literature. One of the most famous sutras in the West is that rulebook of sexual pleasure, the Kama Sutra. The Epics The Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita The Mahabharata centers on the five Pandava brothers, who are sons of a king whose kingdom lies on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. In a fit of passion, the eldest brother gambles away the kingdom and his brothers in a dice game. The rest of the story is about the struggles and battles of the brothers to gain back their kingdom. The greatest warrior of the five brothers is Arjuna. On the night before a major battle, he has doubts about the rightness of killing the enemy, who are his cousins.

At that point, his charioteer, Krishna (who is an avatar of Vishnu ), engages him in a discussion about performing one's duty ( dharma ), and about the paths to a better life, namely, devotion ( bhakti yoga ), action ( karma yoga ), and knowledge ( jnana yoga ), with an emphasis on Karma Yoga. This discussion is known as the Bhagavad Gita and it forms the basis of much popular Hinduism, including strengthening worship (bhakti) and devotion. For some passages translated from the Bhagavad Gita, go here . The Ramayana The Ramayana, composed around 200 bce, is the story of Rama and his wife Sita . Rama is heir apparent to his father, the King of Ayodhya. He learns of the beautiful, royal Sita of a neighboring kingdom and wins her hand in marriage by performing the mighty feat of stringing Shiva's bow. Due to palace intrigue at home, however, Rama is sent into exile as a sadhu for 14 years. Sita, ever faithful, chooses to accompany him.

They have many adventures, the greatest of which happens when Sita is kidnapped by the demon king Ravana, who disappears with her to his kingdom of Lanka (=Sri Lanka). Rama enlists the help of the monkeys, especially their champion Hanuman. Hanuman finds Sita, and enlisting the assistance of a monkey army, helps Rama regain Sita. During her captivity, Sita spurned all Ravana's advances, quoting the Vedas and lecturing him on dharma. Rama is ultimately returned to his kingship in Ayodhya, but the people doubt Sita's faithfullness, since she was a captive for more than a year. In the end, she called upon the earth goddess to bear witness and she is swallowed up forever. Each of the main figures of the story represent an ideal type in Bhakti. Rama is the strong, active, hero, while Sita is the faithful, loyal, beautiful wife. Once it is realized that Rama is the incarnation of Vishnu and Sita is the incarnation of his consort Lakshmi, then Hanuman becomes the representation of an ideal follower, one who is totally devoted to the god.

The Puranas If the Vedic literature was composed by and for the use of the Brahmin caste and thus remained an elite and esoteric literature, then the Puranas and their stories were designed for and used by the average Hindu. The eighteen major Puranas are collections of stories about the gods and their activities. The earliest were composed around 400 ce, but others, especially some minor ones, were created a millennium later. Thus the Puranas span the period from Classical Hinduism into Medieval Hinduism. They tend to emphasize two points: bhakti (devotion to a god) and dharma (doing one's personal and social duty). The Puranas thus fall into three groups: those dealing with the stories of Brahma, those concerning Vishnu (and his avatars and consort(s)), and those about Shiva and the goddesses associated with him.

Question: The Vedas are the ancient, most sacred writings of which religion?
Answer: HINDUISM