A Bridge To The 18th Century - College Essays / Book Reports A Bridge To The 18th Century This essay A Bridge To The 18th Century is available for you on Essays24.com! Search Term Papers, College Essay Examples and Free Essays on Essays24.com - full papers database. Autor: anton • October 31, 2010 • 572 Words (3 Pages) • 540 Views Page 1 of 3 American Plastic Plastic materials have become so numerous that you cannot go through a single day without touching something made of plastic. Toothbrushes, ballpoint pens, unbreakable dishes, cabinets and knobs for machines and appliances, light switches - all of these things and many more are made of plastic. It seems hard to believe that before 1869, there was no such thing as plastic. The first plastic, celluloid, was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, (Meikle 5). A $10,000 prize had been offered to anyone who invented a material that could replace ivory for making billiard balls.

In his experiments, Hyatt dissolved nitrocellulose and camphor in alcohol. This produced a solid, white material that could be pressed into blocks. The celluloid blocks could then be cut and ground into billiard balls. Mr. Hyatt won the prize and patented his invention (10, 11). For more that 40 years afterward, Hyatt's celluloid was the only kind of plastic. Manufacturers began making it into combs and brushes, buttons, piano keys, handles, and stiff collards and cuffs for men's shirts (24, 25). Celluloid also became the main material for making plates for false teeth. The celluloid plastic was lighter and had less taste than the hard rubber that had previously been used to hold false teeth. George Eastman, a manufacturer of photographic equipment, invented a way to make celluloid film. Photographers until then had been taking pictures on chemically treated glass plates. The main problem with celluloid was that it caught fire easily. In 1909, Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian chemist living in New Jersey, invented a new kind of plastic called Bakelite. Bakelite was hard to burn and impossible to melt.

Telephone sets were among the first products made from Bakelite (34-50). Since the early 1900's, many different plastics have been developed, each having a special characteristic or advantage that makes it good for various purposes. Some plastics stood heat better, while some withstood shock better. Some could be spun into thread from making fabrics such as nylon. In 1938, Du Pont publicly announced ... What Are The Billiards History Essay What Are The Billiards History Essay Published: Last Edited: 23rd March, 2015 This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. Billiards is a fascinating and exciting game, no matter what kind you have chosen. Almost all outstanding people of our time and world history liked playing billiards. And not without reason - billiards develops strategic and tactical thinking, reactions and good eye, the ability to control emotions and to use opponent's momentary weakness.

Michael Phelan writes about billiards in his book: This game peculiarly in harmony with the mechanical genius of our people; it combines science with gymnastics, teaching the eye to judge distances, the mind to calculate forces, and the arm to execute with rapidity and skill whatever the mind and eye combine to dictate for its execution; it expands the chest while giving grace and elegance to the form, and affords even to the illiterate mind a practical basis fort the appreciation of mathematic and geometric truth. (p.18) The common term "billiard" combines several varieties of this sport. Yes, sport, today billiard is not only a kind of club entertainment. Every year hundreds of tournaments take place around the world, and champions' fees exceed the prize payments in many other sports. The most popular kinds of billiard are: - Pool (present in different disciplines: "Eight," "Nine", "14 +1") is popular around the world. Pool is played in the U.S., Europe and actively developing in Asia. - Russian billiards ("Russian Pyramid", "Moscow pyramid", "Chicago pool", etc.) is popular, especially in the countries of the former Soviet Union.

That is why, at the World Championships in this type of billiard it is difficult to meet the players from the U.S. - Snooker is rapidly gaining worldwide popularity. Previously, snooker has been the game for the aristocracy of Great Britain, now it marches through Europe and Asia, conquering the hearts of players by its demands to the spatial and tactical thinking. - Carom is popular only in a few countries of Europe, for example, the Netherlands. Its billiard table has no pockets that confuses the players. But when, when and mainly how did this brilliant game appear? Exact time of billiard's appearance is impossible to point. We only know that it is of a very ancient origin, the same as chess, and its birthplace is Asia, according to some other data - India, according to others - China. It is supposed that the first "Chinese" billiards appeared in XV-XVI centuries. However, the games with the principle of modern billiards have been known much earlier. For example, popular German game "Balkespiel" in the Middle Ages and outdoor game "Pall-Mall" in England.

In the middle of the 15th century, many of these games turned from "garden" into "indoor" games. At the beginning of the 17th century billiards became fashionable among British middle and upper strata of society, both men and women. In France under the King Louis XIV billiard among the nobility, as well as in England, was very fashionable. Good skills in billiards can open the doors of royal court. Some publications contain the images of billiard party between Louis XIV and Chamillart. In the XVII century billiard becomes very popular in Germany and other European countries. Billiard tables were quadrangular. Later it was asserted that a table should be proportional: the length of the table is always twice its width. The experience has also shown that larger tables make the game more interesting. Moreover the tables should be made of special materials. Michael Phelan writes: The Billiard tables commonly in use are twelve feet long by six across. The length may vary, but the proportions must remain the same; that is to say, the table must be twice as long as it is broad.

The frame of the ordinary table is made of rosewood, oak, mahogany, or other woods, at the opinion of the purchaser. The bed or surface of the table is of timber, marble, or slate, and should stand at an elevation of some two and thirty inches from the floor. (p.29) Generally, the first billiard tables were imperfect: the cushions were not flexible and, therefore, the balls could not reflect; rough cues could not give the ball sideways rotation; the board, on which rolled the balls was not enough solid and smooth. Later on at the end of the 16th century, billiard considerably improves. Holes-pockets in the cushions were equipped with fishnet pockets, and their number consistently decreased. The table's cushions were lined with wool, and later with rubber for a better reflection of balls. In this regard, it was considered to have only six pockets in a table. Table producers began to manufacture them more carefully, covering both cushions and boards with cloth. Gradually, short stick-hammer gave way to a long cue. The process of making cloth for billiard tables changed a little over the past century.

Sheep wool should be cleaned in hot water with soap, and then softened with water and butter. That is how yarn for cloth appears, which then transforms into thick felt in a special machine under the influence of high temperatures, humidity and pressure. Then it passes the stage of carbonation in order to improve the appearance of cloth, as well as to improve the quality of the game. And only after that the cloth can be colored. Today we can see many colors of tables: not only green, but red, blue, brown, yellow. Earlier the process of making billiard cloth could last more than six months. Today it takes less time, but quality requirements remain as high as before. During several centuries billiard balls were made from elephants' tusks. Before becoming a ball, a bone dried up for a minimum of one year, because the balls should be elastic and durable. Only 4 or 5 balls could be produced from one tusk. Moreover, in the 18th century tusks were also used for the handmade manufacture of cues. These antique balls can be found in our time, but they remain a piece of history.

With the development of science, increasing popularity of billiards and mass demand for balls and cues, balls are made of special resins and plastics, which, as it has turned out, do not concede, but a number of characteristics are even ahead among their bone ancestors. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia cites: Billiard balls have been made from many different materials â€¦ including clay, bakelite, celluloid, crystallite, ivory, plastic, steel and wood. The dominant material from 1627 until the early 20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. In order to have a game of a high level, the ball should follow its trajectory and lie down into the pocket. That is why the balls must be free of scratches, carefully polished. They should be taken care daily, during the game - after every party they should be wiped with woolen cloth, after the game - kept on the shelves, because even a small crack of a ball can damage other ones and expensive green baize of a table.

Whatever may be different in different types of billiards, balls remain unchanged - white balls mean a game in Russian billiards, and colored, if snooker or American pool is played at that moment. Each type of billiards has a characteristic size of balls and their number in a game may vary. In Russian billiards the table rolling balls has diameters from 57 to 68 mm (all depends on the size of tables for Russian billiards). If you play snooker, then use the balls with a diameter 52.4 mm, and for Chicago pool - 57,2 mm. At the same time for Chicago pool and Russian billiard the necessary number of balls is 16 with numeration on them, and for snooker - 22 balls without numbers. Good and high quality billiard balls can give a lot of positive emotions and feelings during a game of billiards. Ways of manufacturing of ideal balls for a game and for the achievement of maximum results changed over the time, but the demands for the quality of balls remained constant: billiard balls should be of certain weight, density, and solidity in order to move with the right trajectory.

Billiard balls should be resistant to high temperatures not to have burn spots of friction on the surface. The ball after the hit gains the speed of 30 km/h in a second and because of friction between the cloth of a table and the ball, the temperature can reach 250 degrees! Therefore, temperature resistance of material preserves not only the ball, but also expensive table cloth. In the middle of the 18th century in connection with the increasing popularity of billiards number of countries introduced restrictive laws according to which part of the profits from the gambling clubs should increase the revenue of the state. To some extent these taxes inhibit the development of billiard sport. France for a long time effectively held a monopoly on the production of billiards. The French were ahead among other Europeans both in the production of billiard equipment, and technology improvement of the game. France was the first country where a special type non-pocket billiards was mastered. In the 70-80s of the 18th century in the homeland of Voltaire and Rousseau three-balls game carom became the custom for the first time, the essence of which was consistent collision of 1 ball with two others.

In this case the winner was the man who first performed previously stipulated or rules prescribed number of caroms. The French, who had created carom rapidly developed this game and introduced the first billiard terms for different types of attacks: "follow", "stop shot", "nip draw", "running English" "kiss shot", etc. The first rules of billiards were published in 1674 in the city of Lyon by a Frenchman Etienne Liason. The interpretation of various gaming moments was complex and sometimes not clear. But in those first rules, the author emphasizes that billiard game is not only good for brain, but also useful for health. There are several opinions about the name of the game. English author John Wilk, for example, noted that the original billiard game had a name "bal-yerds", composed of two ancient Saxon words: bal (ball) and yerds (stick). Up until the late 20s of the 19th century cue movements were not complicated. Its range was only the limited simple blow into the center of the ball, by which it was impossible to give a cue-ball arbitrary direction. The reason for that was filled with plaster hole in the thin end of the cue.

When you try to hit a ball with such a bump, except the center, there was a crash or so called "MISCUE". In addition, every player had several cues that were regularly dipped into liquid plaster. Tables were sticky and had unpleasant appearance. Gypsum cues often tore the cloth. In 1827 the French billiard virtuoso Mengo invented the round leather label for the cue. This seemingly simple innovation made some kind of revolution. With leather labels, the player could perform more complex beats: the ball rotated and moved along a curved trajectory, suddenly stopped and rolled back, etc. Another turning point in the development of billiard was the emergence of new American rubber cushions. The balls reflected nicely from the cushions that immediately affected popularity of this game. In 1873 in New York the first global sporting tournament in carom was conducted, which was won by the Frenchman Garnier. At the beginning of the last century billiard "horizon" had a large number of "stars" playing carom - professional players of many nationalities. With the outbreak of World War I there was a natural decline in the development of international billiard.

The next two decades, the 20-30s billiards not only revived, but grew together with its popularity. New games appeared in this sphere that allowed to introduce into the practice of national and international competitions carom all-round events. In Russia, billiards appeared at the beginning of the 18th century, under Peter I. Being abroad, in Holland, he got acquainted with this game and soon ordered to make billiards for him, which became his favorite pastime. After the example of the King his entourage started buying billiard tables. After a while the game quickly spread to the manorial estates, clubs and palaces of the nobility. The games of traditional Russian billiards also included some carom blows. That is how appeared interesting and beloved by many players party "Five balls with carom" in which French carom successfully combines with laying the balls into the pockets. In Russia from a very beginning the development of billiard passed offline. It is in Moscow and St. Petersburg, appeared not only strict tables on which balls could be moved only by accurate blows, but also new games.

In the 30s of the 19th century "Small Russian pyramid" was invented in Russia and it immediately became popular. This game is still the classics of billiards. In the late XIX-early XX century billiard game increasingly assumes the character of sport. In some countries organized national and international competitions. Maybe once this kind of sports will become the part of the Olympic program. Antique and Vintage Fireplaces and Mantels - 3,338 For Sale at 1stdibs Dimensions: H 9 ft. 8.1 in. W 5 ft. 6.9 in. D 20.08 in. Dealer Location: Saint Ouen, FR Materials & Techniques: Ivory, Mother-of-Pearl, Walnut Maison Des Bambous Attributed to, Japanese Style F... Perret et Vibert Antique Late 19th Century French Japonisme Fireplaces and Mantels Ivory, Mother-of-Pearl, Walnut Antique Japanese style fireplace made out of carved walnut in the late 19th century. The realization of this beautiful fireplace is attributed to the Maison des Bambous by Perret and Vi... H 5 ft. 0.3 in. W 6 ft.

9 in. D 17.5 in. Billiards Table Information cushions . Historically, the umbrella term was billiards. While that familiar name is still employed by some as a generic label for all such games, the word's usage has splintered into more exclusive competing meanings in various parts of the world. For example, in British and Australian English , "billiards" usually refers exclusively to the game of English billiards , while in American and Canadian English it is sometimes used to refer to a particular game or class of games, or to all cue games in general, depending upon dialect and context. There are three major subdivisions of games within cue sports: Carom billiards , referring to games played on tables without , including among others balkline and straight rail , cushion caroms , three-cushion billiards and artistic billiards Pool or pocket billiards, generally played on a table with six pockets, including among others eight-ball (the world's most widely played cue sport), nine-ball , ten-ball , straight pool , one-pocket and bank pool . Snooker , which while technically a pocket billiards game, is generally classified separately based on its historic divergence from other games, as well as a separate culture and terminology that characterize its play.

More obscurely, there are games that make use of obstacles and targets, and table-top games played with disks instead of balls. Billiards has a long and rich history stretching from its inception in the 15th century, to the wrapping of the body of Mary, Queen of Scots , in her billiard table cover in 1586, through its many mentions in the works of Shakespeare , including the famous line "let's to billiards" in Antony and Cleopatra (1606–07), and through the many famous enthusiasts of the sport: Mozart , Louis XIV of France , Marie Antoinette , Immanuel Kant , Napoleon , Abraham Lincoln , Mark Twain , George Washington , French president Jules Grévy , Charles Dickens , George Armstrong Custer , Theodore Roosevelt , Lewis Carroll , W.C. Fields , Babe Ruth , Bob Hope , Jackie Gleason , and many others. History Inset from School of Recreation, 1710.

"We perceive from the engraving of the Billiards of the seventtenth century, that the game was altogether different from what it is now." [3] All cue sports are generally regarded to have evolved into indoor games from outdoor stick-and-ball lawn games (retroactively termed ground billiards ), [4] and as such to be related to trucco , croquet and golf , and more distantly to the stickless bocce and balls . The first known mention of a form of the word "billiards" appears in Edmund Spenser 's Mother Hubberd's Tale in 1591, where he speaks of "all thriftles games that may be found … with dice, with cards, with balliards." [5] The word "billiard" may have evolved from the French word billart or billette, meaning "stick", in reference to the mace , an implement similar to a golf club , which was the forerunner to the modern cue ; the term's origin may have also been from French bille, meaning "ball".

[6] The modern term "cue sports" can be used to encompass the ancestral mace games, and even the modern cueless variants, such as finger billiards , for historical reasons. "Cue" itself came from queue, the French word for a tail . This refers to the early practice of using the tail of the mace to strike the ball when it lay against a . [6] A recognizable form of billiards was played outdoors in the 1340s, and was reminiscent of croquet. King Louis XI of France (1461–1483) had the first known indoor billiard table. [6] Louis XIV further refined and popularized the game, and it swiftly spread amongst the French nobility. [6] While the game had long been played on the ground, this version appears to have died out in the 17th century, in favor of croquet, golf and bowling games, while table billiards had grown in popularity as an indoor activity. [6] Mary, Queen of Scots , claimed that her "table de billiard" had been taken away by what would eventually become her executioners (who covered her body with the table's cloth).

[6] In 1588, the Duke of Norfolk , owned a "billyard bord coered with a greene cloth… three billyard sticks and 11 balls of yvery". [6] Billiards grew to the extent that by 1727, it was being played in almost every Paris cafe . [6] In England, the game was developing into a very popular activity for members of the gentry. [6] By 1670, the thin butt end of the mace began to be used not only for shots under the cushion (which itself was originally only there as a preventative method to stop balls from rolling off), but players increasingly preferred it for other shots as well. The cue as it is known today was finally developed by about 1800. [6] Initially, the mace was used to push the balls, rather than strike them. The newly developed striking cue provided a new challenge. Cushions began to be stuffed with substances to allow the balls to rebound, in order to enhance the appeal of the game. After a transitional period where only the better players would use cues, the cue came to be the first choice of equipment.

[6] The demand for tables and other equipment was initially met in Europe by John Thurston and other furniture makers of the era. The early balls were made from wood and clay , but the rich preferred to use ivory . [6] Early billiard games involved various pieces of additional equipment, including the "arch" (related to the croquet hoop), "port" (a different hoop) and "king" (a pin or skittle near the arch) in the 1770s, but other game variants, relying on the cushions (and eventually on pockets cut into them), were being formed that would go on to play fundamental roles in the development of modern billiards. [6] Illustration of a three ball pocket billiards game in early 19th century Tübingen , Germany , using a table much longer than the modern type. The early croquet-like games eventually led to the development of the carom or carambole billiards category – what most non-US and non-UK speakers mean by the word "billiards".

These games, which once completely dominated the cue sports world but have declined markedly in many areas over the last few generations, are games played with three or sometimes four balls, on a table without holes (and without obstructions or targets in most cases), in which the goal is generally to strike one cue ball , then have the cue ball rebound off of one or more of the cushions and strike a second object ball. Variations include three-cushion , straight rail and the balkline variants , cushion caroms , five-pins , and four-ball , among others. Over time, a type of obstacle returned, originally as a hazard and later as a target, in the form of pockets , or holes partly cut into the table bed and partly into the cushions, leading to the rise of pocket billiards , especially "pool" games, popular around the world in forms such as eight-ball, nine-ball, straight pool and one-pocket amongst numerous others. The terms "pool" and "pocket billiards" are now virtually interchangeable, especially in the US.

English billiards (what UK speakers almost invariably mean by the word "billiards") is a hybrid carom/pocket game, and as such is likely fairly close to the ancestral original pocket billiards outgrowth from 18th to early 19th century carom games. There are few more cheerful sights, when the evenings are long, and the weather dull, than a handsome, well-lighted billiard room, with the smooth, green surface of the billiard table; the ivory balls flying noiselessly here and there, or clicking musically together. [7] —Charles Dickens Jr., (1889) As a sport At least the games with regulated international professional competition have been referred to as "sports" or "sporting" events, not simply "games", since 1893 at the latest. [8] Quite a variety of particular games (i.e. sets of rules and equipment) are the subject of present-day competition, including many of those already mentioned, with competition being especially broad in nine-ball, snooker, three-cushion and eight-ball.

Snooker, though technically a pocket billiards variant and closely related in its equipment and origin to the game of English billiards, is a professional sport organized at the international level, and its rules bear little resemblance to those of pool games. A "Billiards" category encompassing pool, snooker and carom was featured in the 2005 World Games , held in Duisburg , Germany , and the 2006 Asian Games also saw the introduction of a "Cue sports" category . Equipment yellow balls instead of solids and stripes, and are smaller than the American-style; they are used principally in Britain , Ireland , and some Commonwealth countries, though not exclusively, since they are unsuited for playing nine-ball. Snooker balls are also smaller than American-style pool balls, and come in sets of 22 (15 reds, 6 " colours ", and a cue ball). Other games also have custom ball sets, such as Russian pyramid and bumper pool . Billiard balls have been made from many different materials since the start of the game, including clay, bakelite , celluloid , crystallite , ivory , plastic, steel and wood.

The dominant material from 1627 until the early 20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid , invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868, but the material was volatile, sometimes exploding during manufacture and was highly flammable. [9] [10] Tables Main article: Billiard table Pool table with equipment. There are many sizes and styles of pool and billiard tables . Generally, tables are rectangles twice as long as they are wide. Most pool tables are known as 7-, 8-, or 9-footers, referring to the length of the table's long side. Full-size snooker and English billiard tables are 12 feet (3.7 m) long on the longest side. Pool halls tend to have 9-foot (2.7 m) tables and cater to the serious pool player.

Pubs will typically use 7-foot (2.1 m) tables which are often coin-operated. Formerly, 10-foot (3 m) tables were common, but such tables are now considered antique collectors items; a few, usually from the late 19th century, can be found in pool halls from time to time. Ten-foot tables remain the standard size for carom billiard games. The slates on modern carom tables are usually heated to stave off moisture and provide a consistent playing surface. The length of the pool table will typically be a function of space, with many homeowners purchasing an 8-foot (2.4 m) table as a compromise. High quality tables are mostly 4.5 by 9 ft (2.7 m). (interior dimensions), with a bed made of three pieces of thick slate to prevent warping and changes due to humidity. Smaller bar tables are most commonly made with a single piece of slate. Pocket billiards tables normally have six pockets, three on each side (four corner pockets, and two side pockets). Cloth Main article: Baize Women playing on an elaborately decorated green-covered table in an early 1880s advertising poster.

All types of tables are covered with billiard cloth (often called "felt", but actually a woven wool or wool/nylon blend called baize ). Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century. In fact, the predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth, Iwan Simonis , was formed in 1453. Bar or tavern tables, which get a lot of play, use "slower", more durable cloth. The cloth used in upscale pool (and snooker) halls and home billiard rooms is "faster" (i.e. provides less friction, allowing the balls to roll farther across the table bed ), and competition-quality pool cloth is made from 100 % worsted wool . Snooker cloth traditionally has a nap (consistent fiber directionality) and balls behave differently when rolling against versus along with the nap. The cloth of the billiard table has traditionally been green, reflecting its origin (originally the grass of ancestral lawn games), and has been so colored since the 16th century, but it is also produced in other colors such as red and blue.

[11] The cloth was earlier said to be the most important part of the game, most likely because of the reflection of the game's origin. The players were stubborn in the fact that the cloth should not be ripped. They even made women continue to use maces after cues were invented, for fear that they would rip the cloth with the sharper cues. Rack Main article: Rack (billiards) Aluminum billiard rack that is used for 8-ball, 9-ball, and straight pool. A rack is the name given to a frame (usually wood , plastic or aluminum ) used to organize billiard balls at the beginning of a game. This is traditionally triangular in shape, but varies with the type of billiards played. There are two main types of racks; the more common triangular shape which is used for eight-ball and straight pool and the diamond shaped rack used for nine-ball. Cues Main article: Cue stick Billiards games are mostly played with a stick known as a cue. A cue is usually either a one piece tapered stick or a two piece stick divided in the middle by a joint of metal or phenolic resin.

High quality cues are generally two pieces and are made of a hardwood, generally maple for billiards and ash for snooker. The tip is affixed, flush with the ferrule, to make final contact with balls. The tip, in conjunction with chalk, can be used to impart spin to the cue ball when it is not hit in its center. Cheap cues are generally made of pine, low-grade maple (and formerly often of ramin , which is now endangered), or other low-quality wood, with inferior plastic ferrules. A quality cue can be expensive and may be made of exotic woods and other expensive materials which are artfully inlaid in decorative patterns. Many modern cues are also made, like golf clubs , with high-tech materials such as woven graphite. Skilled players may use more than one cue during a game, including a separate generally lighter cue for the opening break shot (because of cue speed gained from a lighter stick) and another, shorter cue with a special tip for .

Mechanical bridge The mechanical bridge, sometimes called a "rake", "bridge stick" or simply "bridge", and "rest" in the UK, is used to extend a player's reach on a shot where the cue ball is too far away for normal hand bridging. It consists of a stick with a grooved metal or plastic head which the cue slides on. Many amateurs refuse to use the mechanical bridge based on the perception that to do so is unmanly. However, many aficionados and most professionals employ the bridge whenever the intended shot so requires. Some players, especially current or former snooker players, use a screw-on cue butt extension instead of or in addition to the mechanical bridge. Bridge head design is varied, and not all designs (especially those with cue shaft-enclosing rings, or wheels on the bottom of the head), are broadly tournament-approved. In Italy a longer, thicker cue is typically available for this kind of tricky shot.

Commonly in snooker they are available in three forms depending on how the player is hampered; the standard rest has a simple cross, the 'spider' has a raised arch around 12 cm with three grooves to rest the cue in and for the most awkward of shots, the 'giraffe' (or 'swan' in England) which has a raised arch much like the 'spider' but with a slender arm reaching out around 15 cm with the groove. Chalk Billiard chalk is applied to the tip of the cue. Chalk is applied to the tip of the cue stick, ideally before every shot, to increase the tip's friction coefficient so that when it impacts the cue ball on a non-center hit, no miscue (unintentional slippage between the cue tip and the struck ball) occurs. Cue tip chalk is not actually the substance typically referred to as " chalk " (generally calcium carbonate , also known as calcite or carbonate of lime ), but any of several proprietary compounds, with a silicate base.

"Chalk" may also refer to a cone of fine, white hand chalk ; like talc (talcum powder) it can be used to reduce friction between the cue and bridge hand during shooting, for a smoother stroke. Some brands of hand chalk actually are made of compressed talc. (Tip chalk is not used for this purpose because it is abrasive, hand-staining and difficult to apply.) Many players prefer a slick pool glove over hand chalk or talc because of the messiness of these powders; buildup of particles on the cloth will affect ball behavior and necessitate more-frequent cloth cleaning. Some players find it useful to moisten the chalk with saliva thereby creating a chalky paste which performs as a lubricant on the cue stick. This lubrication method is usually attributed to professional pool player Hal "Spitty-Smitty" Smith. Cue tip chalk (invented in its modern form by straight rail billiard pro William A. Spinks and chemist William Hoskins in 1897) [12] [13] is made by crushing silica and the abrasive substance corundum or aloxite [13] ( aluminum oxide ), [14] [15] into a powder.

[13] It is combined with dye (originally and most commonly green or blue-green, like traditional billiard cloth , but available today, like the cloth, in many colors) and a binder (glue). [13] Each manufacturer's brand has different qualities, which can significantly affect play. High humidity can also impair the effectiveness of chalk. Harder, drier compounds are generally considered superior by most players. Major games (carom and pocket) Carom billiards table in a Parisian café. Main articles: Carom billiards and Pocket billiards There are two main varieties of billiard games: carom and pocket. The main carom billiards games are straight billiards, balkline and three cushion billiards. All are played on a pocketless table with three balls; two cue balls and one object ball. In all, players shoot a cue ball so that it makes contact with the opponent's cue ball as well as the object ball. The most popular of the large variety of pocket games are eight-ball , nine-ball , one-pocket , bank pool , snooker and, among the old guard, straight pool.

In eight-ball and nine-ball the object is to sink object balls until one can legally pocket the winning eponymous " money ball ". Well-known but waning in popularity is straight pool, in which players seek to continue sinking balls, rack after rack if they can, to reach a pre-determined winning score (typically 150). Related to nine-ball, another well-known game is rotation , where the lowest-numbered object ball on the table must be struck first, although any object ball may be pocketed (i.e., combination shot). Each pocketed ball is worth its number, and the player with the highest score at the end of the rack is the winner. Since there are only 120 points available (1 + 2 + 3 ? + 15 = 120), scoring 61 points leaves no opportunity for the opponent to catch up. In both one-pocket and bank pool, the players must sink a set number of balls; respectively, all in a particular nurse shots to score a seemingly limitless number of points. The first straight rail professional tournament was held in 1879 where Jacob Schaefer, Sr.

scored 690 points in a single turn [11] (that is, 690 separate strokes without a miss). With the balls repetitively hit and barely moving in endless "nursing", there was little for the fans to watch. Balkline Main article: Balkline and straight rail In light of these phenomenal skill developments in straight rail, the game of balkline soon developed to make it impossible for a player to keep the balls gathered in one part of the table for long, greatly limiting the effectiveness of nurse shots. A baulk line , which pertains to the game of English billiards ) is a line parallel to one end of a billiards table. In the games of balkline – 18.1 and 18.2 (pronounced "eighteen-point-two") balkline, among other more obscure variations – the players have to drive at least one object ball past a balkline set at 18 inches (460 mm) from each rail, after one or two points have been scored, respectively.

Three-cushion billiards Main article: Three-cushion billiards A more elegant solution was three-cushion billiards, which requires a player to make contact with the other two balls on the table and contact three rail cushions in the process. This is difficult enough that even the best players can only manage to average one to two points per turn. English billiards Main article: English billiards Dating to approximately 1800, English billiards is a hybrid of carom and pocket billiards played on a 6-foot (1.8 m) by 12-foot (3.7 m) table. Like most carom games, it requires two Main article: Snooker Snooker is a pocket billiards game originated by British officers stationed in India during the 19th century. The name of the game became generalized to also describe one of its prime strategies: to " snooker " the opposing player by causing that player to foul or leave an opening to be exploited. In the United Kingdom, snooker is by far the most popular cue sport at the competitive level. It is played in many other countries as well.

Snooker is far rarer in the U.S., where pool games such as eight-ball and nine-ball dominate. The first International Snooker Championship was held in 1927, and it has been held annually since then with few exceptions. The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) was established in 1968 to regulate the professional game, while the International Billiards and Snooker Federation (IBSF) regulates the amateur games. Eight-ball Eight-ball rack In the United States, the most commonly-played game is eight-ball. The goal of eight-ball, which is played with a full rack of fifteen balls and the cue ball, is to claim a suit (commonly stripes or solids in the US, and reds or yellows in the UK), pocket all of them, then legally pocket the 8 ball, while denying one's opponent opportunities to do the same with their suit, and without sinking the 8 ball early by accident.

On the professional scene, eight-ball players on the International Pool Tour (IPT) were the highest paid players in the world as of 2006 (the IPT nearly folded in 2007, and as of 2008 is attempting a comeback). In the United Kingdom the game is commonly played in pubs, and it is competitively played in leagues on both sides of the Atlantic. The most prestigious tournaments including the World Open are sponsored and sanctioned by the International Pool Tour. Rules vary widely from place to place (and between continents to such an extent that British-style eight-ball pool/blackball is properly regarded as a separate game in its own right). Pool halls in North America are increasingly settling upon the World Pool-Billiard Association International Standardised Rules. But tavern eight-ball (also known as " "), typically played on smaller, coin-operated tables and in a "winner keeps the table" manner, can differ significantly even between two venues in the same city. The growth of local, regional and national amateur leagues may alleviate this confusion eventually. Nine-ball foot spot , the 9 ball at center, the other balls placed randomly, and all balls touching. Nine-ball uses only the 1 through 9 balls and cue ball.

It is a rotation game: The player at the table must make legal contact with the lowest numbered ball on the table or a foul is called. The game is won by legally pocketing the nine ball. Nine-ball is the predominant professional game, though as of 2006–2008 there have been some suggestions that this may change, in favor of ten-ball . [16] [ clarification needed ] There are many local and regional tours and tournaments that are contested with nine-ball. The World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), and it American affiliate the Billiard Congress of America (BCA), publish the World Standardized Rules. The European professional circuit has instituted rules changes, especially to make it more difficult to achieve a legal break shot. [16] [17] The largest nine-ball tournaments are the independent US Open Nine-ball Championship and the WPA World Nine-ball Championship for men and women. Male professionals have a rather fragmented schedule of professional nine-ball tournaments. The United States Professional Pool Players Association (UPA) has been the most dominant association of the 1990s and 2000s.

A hotly contested event is the annual Mosconi Cup , which pits invitational European and US teams against each other in one-on-one and nine-ball matches over a period of several days. The Mosconi Cup games are played under the more stringent European rules, as of 2007. [17] Three-ball Main article: Three-ball A variant using only three balls, generally played such that the player at turn continues shooting until all the balls are pocketed, and the player to do so in the fewest shots wins. The game can be played by two or more players. Dispenses with some fouls common to both nine- and eight-ball. One-pocket Main article: One-pocket One-pocket is a strategic game for two players. Each player is assigned one of the corner pockets on the table. This is the only pocket into which he can legally pocket balls. The first player to pocket the majority of the balls (8) in his pocket wins the game. The game requires far more defensive strategy than offensive strategy, much unlike eight-ball, nine-ball, or straight pool. It has been said[ weasel words ] that if eight-ball is checkers , one-pocket is chess . This statement can be verified by watching a game of one pocket.

Most times, accomplished players choose to position balls near their pocket instead of trying to actually pocket them. This allows them to control the game by forcing their opponent to be on defense instead of taking a low percentage shot that could result in a loss of game. These low percentage shots are known as "flyers" by one pocket aficionados. Bank pool Main article: Bank pool Bank pool has been gaining popularity in recent years. Bank pool can be played with a full rack (can be a long game), but is more typically played with nine balls (frequently called "nine-ball bank"). The balls are racked in nine-ball formation, but in no particular order. The object of the game is simple: to be the first player to bank five balls in any order (eight balls when played with a full rack). Penalties and fouls are similar to one pocket in that the player committing the foul must spot a ball for each foul. This must be done before the incoming player shoots. Speed pool Speed pool is a standard billiards game where the balls must be pocketed in as little time as possible. Rules vary greatly from tournament to tournament. The International Speed Pool Challenge has been held annually since 2006.

1000+ images about Mystery puzzle balls and turned ivory on Pinterest | Antiques, Portal and Rose flowers Forward Puzzle, Alwar, India mid 19th century - a puzzle ball of carved and pierced ivory, consiting of four spheres within each other, all carved from a single block of ivory. The puzzle is to line up the holes in the spheres. This type of ivory carving is influenced by Chinese games and puzzles of the same type. See More

Question: From the 17th century to the early 20th century what was the main material used for billiard balls?
Answer: Ivory