Pavlov's Dog Pavlov's Dog Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) Who was Ivan Pavlov? The Russian scientist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in 1849 in Ryazan, where his father worked as a village priest. In 1870 Ivan Pavlov abandoned the religious career for which he had been preparing, and instead went into science. There he had a great impact on the field of physiology by studying the mechanisms underlying the digestive system in mammals. For his original work in this field of research, Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904. By then he had turned to studying the laws on the formation of conditioned reflexes, a topic on which he worked until his death in 1936. His discoveries in this field paved the way for an objective science of behavior. Pavlov's drooling dogs While Ivan Pavlov worked to unveil the secrets of the digestive system, he also studied what signals triggered related phenomena, such as the secretion of saliva. When a dog encounters food, saliva starts to pour from the salivary glands located in the back of its oral cavity.

This saliva is needed in order to make the food easier to swallow. The fluid also contains enzymes that break down certain compounds in the food. In humans, for example, saliva contains the enzyme amylase, an effective processor of starch. Pavlov became interested in studying reflexes when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat. In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learnt to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. Different kinds of reflexes Reflexes make us react in a certain way. When a light beam hits our eyes, our pupils shrink in response to the light stimulus.

And when the doctor taps you below the knee cap, your leg swings out. These reflexes are called unconditioned, or built-in. The body responds in the same fashion every time the stimuli (the light or the tap) is applied. In the same way, dogs drool when they encounter food. Pavlov's discovery was that environmental events that previously had no relation to a given reflex (such as a bell sound) could, through experience, trigger a reflex (salivation). This kind of learnt response is called conditioned reflex, and the process whereby dogs or humans learn to connect a stimulus to a reflex is called conditioning. Animals generally learn to associate stimuli that are relevant to their survival. Food aversion is an example of a natural conditioned reflex. If an animal eats something with a distinctive vanilla taste and then eats a tasteless poison that leads to nausea, the animal will not be particularly eager to eat vanilla-flavoured food the next time. Linking nausea to taste is an evolutionarily successful strategy, since animals that failed to learn their lesson did not last very long. Why were Pavlov's findings given so much acknowledgment?

Pavlov's description on how animals (and humans) can be trained to respond in a certain way to a particular stimulus drew tremendous interest from the time he first presented his results. His work paved the way for a new, more objective method of studying behavior. So-called Pavlovian training has been used in many fields, with anti-phobia treatment as but one example. An important principle in conditioned learning is that an established conditioned response (salivating in the case of the dogs) decreases in intensity if the conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (food). This process is called extinction. In order to treat phobias evoked by certain environmental situations, such as heights or crowds, this phenomenon can be used. The patient is first taught a muscle relaxation technique. Then he or she is told , over a period of days, to imagine the fear-producing situation while trying to inhibit the anxiety by relaxation. At the end of the series, the strongest anxiety-provoking situation may be brought to mind without anxiety. This process is called systematic desensitization. Conditioning forms the basis of much of learned human behavior. Nowadays, this knowledge has also been exploited by commercial advertising.

An effective commercial should be able to manipulate the response to a stimulus (like seeing a product's name) which initially does not provoke any feeling. The objective is to train people to make the "false" connection between positive emotions (e.g. happiness or feeling attractive) and the particular brand of consumer goods being advertised. Pavlov's prize Although the first image that comes to mind while mentioning Ivan Pavlov's name is his drooling dogs, he became a Nobel Laureate for his research in a different field. In 1904 he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering studies of how the digestive system works. Until Pavlov started to scrutinize this field, our knowledge of how food was digested in the stomach, and what mechanisms were responsible for regulating this, were quite foggy. In order to understand the process, Pavlov developed a new way of monitoring what was happening. He surgically made fistulas in animals' stomachs, which enabled him to study the organs and take samples of body fluids from them while they continued to function normally.

By Lotta Fredholm, Science Journalist First published 15 May 2001 Pavlov’s Dogs | Simply Psychology by Saul McLeod published 2007, updated 2013 < Like many great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning (aka classical conditioning) was discovered accidentally. During the 1890s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was looking at salivation in dogs in response to being fed, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing them food. At first this was something of a nuisance (not to mention messy!). Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is ‘hard wired’ into the dog. In behaviorist terms , it is an unconditioned response (i.e. a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

In behaviorist terms, we write: Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate) Pavlov showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions (see image below). However, when Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learnt to associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery. Accordingly, he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning. Pavlov knew that somehow, the dogs in his lab had learned to associate food with his lab assistant. This must have been learned, because at one point the dogs did not do it, and there came a point where they started, so their behavior had changed. A change in behavior of this type must be the result of learning. In behaviorist terms, the lab assistant was originally a neutral stimulus. It is called neutral because it produces no response. What had happened was that the neutral stimulus (the lab assistant) had become associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food). In his experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus.

Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. As you might expect, the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. So the dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new behavior had been learnt. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus. Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time. He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur. Pavlov and his studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his early work between 1890-1930. Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first systematic study of basic laws of learning / conditioning. Summary To summarize, classical conditioning (later developed by John Watson) involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (i.e.

a reflex) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response. Pavlov developed some rather unfriendly technical terms to describe this process. The unconditioned stimulus (or UCS) is the object or event that originally produces the reflexive / natural response. The response to this is called the unconditioned response (or UCR). The neutral stimulus (NS) is a new stimulus that does not produce a response. Once the neutral stimulus has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). The conditioned response (CR) is the response to the conditioned stimulus. References Pavlov, I. P. (1897/1902). The work of the digestive glands. London: Griffin. Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Lectures on conditioned reflexes. (Translated by W.H. Gantt) London: Allen and Unwin. Pavlov, I. P. (1955). Selected works. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. How to cite this article: McLeod, S. A. (2013). Pavlov's Dogs.

Retrieved from Further Information The behaviour elicited by the stimulus. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments salivation was a response. Unconditioned Stimulus A feature of the environment that causes a natural reflex action. E.g. a puff of air blown into the eye causes an involuntary blink. Conditioned Stimulus A feature of the environment that has an effect through its association with a U.C.S. E.g. Pavlov’s dog learned to salivate at the sound of a bell. Conditioned Response The behaviour elicited by the C.S. E.g. Salivation when the bell rings. Extinction The dying out of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the C.S. and the U.C.S. E.g. When the bell was repeatedly rang and no food presented Pavlov’s dog gradually stopped salivating at the sound of the bell. Spontaneous Recovery The return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time. E.g. When Pavlov waited for a few days and then rang the bell once more the dog salivated again. Generalisation When a stimulus similar to the C.S. also elicits a response. E.g.

Initially Pavlov’s dog salivated at the sound of any bell – not just the food bell. Discrimination The opposite of generalisation i.e. the ability of the subject to tell the difference between two similar stimuli. E.g. Eventually Pavlov’s dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and no longer salivates at the sound of the non-food bell. Theories Of Learning In Psychology (With Pics!) Intelligent Advice for Intelligent People Theories Of Learning In Psychology In psychology, “learning” is defined as a relatively permanent change in, or acquisition of, knowledge or behavior. The key term here is “relatively”, because although we tend to hold on to what we learn, it can be changed a later date. For example, your friend teaches you how to play tennis, but later you get a qualified instructor who modifies and improves your technique. What we learn can also be forgotten over time, especially if we do not regularly use the skills or knowledge that we have acquired. For example, you may learn to drive a car, but if you don’t drive for several years, you will probably forget what you had previously learned and so would need to practice again.

In addition to this, in order for us to learn something, we first need to experience it at the level of sensation via our five senses (i.e. touch, taste, hearing, sight and smell). As without our senses, learning would be virtually impossible. Below we look at some of the main theories of learning that are taught in psychology: Classical Conditioning Theory Ivan Pavlov: Father of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning that has been acquired through experience. One of the best known examples of classical conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his experiments on dogs. In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring. In order to do this, he first showed them food which naturally caused them to salivate. Later, Pavlov would ring a bell every time he brought the food out, until eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving them any food. Pavlov recorded how much drool a dog produced in response to a stimulus. In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex (i.e.

salivation, a natural bodily response) could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex/response. Components of Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning [cc] We can gain a better understanding of classical conditioning by looking at the various components involved in Pavlov’s experiment. These are: The unconditioned stimulus The conditioned reflex Let’s look at each of these classical conditioning components in more detail now. Note: In its strictest definition, classical conditioning is described as a previously neutral stimulus which causes a reflex, where “stimulus” means something which causes a physical response. The Unconditioned Stimulus (food) “Mmm…this stimulus sure smells good!” An unconditioned stimulus is anything which can evoke a response without prior learning or conditioning. For example, when a dog eats some food it causes the dog’s mouth to salivate. Therefore, the food is an unconditioned stimulus because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and without the dog having to learn how to salivate. Unconditioned Stimulus – This causes an automatic reflex response. Conditioned Stimulus (bell) The dog must learn to associate the bell with something.

The conditioned stimulus is created by learning, and therefore, does not create a response without prior conditioning. For example, when Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus because the dogs had learned to associate the bell with food. If they had not learned to associate the bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was rung. Conditioned Stimulus – You need to learn first before the stimulus will create a response. It is an acquired power to change something. Unconditioned Reflex (salivation) You don’t have to train a dog to drool. It already knows how. An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without you having to think about it, such as your mouth salivating at the smell of food. Unconditioned Reflex – A reflex that happens automatically and you didn’t have to learn how to do it. Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell) The process of classical conditioning learning. A conditioned reflex is a reflex that you have learned to associate with something. For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.

Conditioned Reflex – A reflex that can be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus (i.e. a previously neutral stimulus). Behavioral Patterns of Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov The word conditioning is used to mean a type of learning that occurs without you having to think about it, almost like an automatic type of learning. Although later on, this learning may be reinforced by reflecting upon that experience. For example, sometimes you will see a dog flinch when you raise your hand. This flinching is a conditioned reflex, and can be seen in dogs who have been mistreated by their owner. The same can be found in women who are beaten by their husbands. This latter example shows that classical conditioning is not solely confined to animals, as it can just as easily occur in humans. The three main behavioral patterns that are associated with classical conditioning are: Extinction The conditioned stimulus has become extinct. Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented a number of times without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if we ring a bell and cause a dog to salivate, then we have a conditioned stimulus.

But if we keep ringing that bell without giving the dog any food (unconditioned stimulus), then eventually the dog will disassociate (unlearn) the bell from the food and so will no longer salivate. Therefore, extinction has occurred because the bell no longer has any effect on the dog. This process of extinction is used by psychologists to help people overcome their fears or phobias. For example, if you have a strong fear of heights, then by constantly exposing yourself to heights you will eventually unlearn your fear via a process known as desensitization. This can be done through immediate exposure, whereby you go to the top of a very tall building immediately. Or by gradual exposure, where you gradually work your way up a tall building floor by floor. Note: Extinction is different from forgetting, because extinction involves unlearning something. In brief: Extinction occurs when we unlearn something, or become desensitized to it, and the stimulus no longer creates the effect it used to cause. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to a conditioned stimulus creates the conditioned reflex.

For example, if we can make a dog salivate by ringing a bell (conditioned stimulus), and we can make the same dog salivate by ringing a slightly different sounding bell, then what we have demonstrated is stimulus generalization. In brief: Stimulus generalization occurs when something similar to our conditioned stimulus creates the same response (the conditioned reflex). Discrimination Continuing from the example above, if we were then to use another bell which produced a different sound but this time the dog did not salivate, then what we have demonstrated is discrimination because the dog no longer associates that sound with food (i.e. it has discriminated against it). In brief: Discrimination occurs when our new stimulus is too different from our original conditioned stimulus to cause the effect we want (the conditioned reflex). Operant Conditioning Theory Burrhus Frederic Skinner: Operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a term used to describe behavior which has been reinforced by reward or discouraged through punishment. For example, if a mother wants her daughter to clean her room, then she may give her some candy every time she cleans it. Given enough time, the girl will start to clean her room more often because she knows that she will get some candy in return for doing so.

As a result, the girl’s behavior (cleaning her room) has been modified (conditioned) because she has learned to associate a behavior with a reward. Rewards can be an effective way to modify behavior. Although this may sound similar in principle to classical conditioning, it is in fact different because operant conditioning requires action on the part of the learner. As a result, the girl will not get any candy until after she has cleaned her room. In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (candy) is used regardless of what the learner does. The following video discusses the difference between classical and operant conditioning in more detail. Classical vs Operant Conditioning and Negative reinforcement Note: Operant behavior is defined as actions which have consequences. The Skinner Box It was B.F. Skinner who is best known for operant conditioning and the device he invented to research it, a device called the operant conditioning apparatus or the Skinner Box. Operant conditioning The Skinner box involved placing an animal (such as a rat or pigeon) into a sealed box with a lever that would release food when pressed. If food was released every time the rat pressed the lever, it would press it more and more because it learned that doing so gives it food.

Lever pressing is described as an operant behavior, because it is an action that results in a consequence. In other words, it operates on the environment and changes it in some way. The food that is released as a result of pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer, because it causes the operant behavior (lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be described as a conditioned stimulus because it causes an effect to occur. BF Skinner's Operant Conditioning Chamber – Saieed Hasnoo It is important to note though, that there is a difference between a reward and a reinforcer in operant conditioning. A reward is something that has value to the person giving the reward, but may not necessarily be of value to the person receiving the reward. A reinforcer is something that benefits the person receiving it, and so results in an increase of a certain type of behavior. Below are several of the different ways to categorize a reinforcer. positive reinforcement in operant conditioning of a dinosaur A positive reinforcer has some sort of value to whoever is receiving it. For example, food when you are hungry or water when you are thirsty. A positive reinforcer serves to increase an operant behavior.

negative reinforcement in operant conditioning A negative reinforcer has no value to whoever receives it. It may also injure, harm or cause discomfort in some way. For example, a very hot room, an electric shock or a dangerous situation. A negative reinforcer causes the recipient to try to escape from it or avoid it. For example, if a room is very hot, then you may switch on the air conditioning or a fan to try to escape from the heat. If this is successful, you are likely to repeat this behavior the next time you are in a very hot room. Negative reinforcers therefore also serve to increase operant behaviors. Note: Negative reinforcers are not a form of punishment because they precede (i.e. come before) an operant behavior. Punishment occurs after a behavior has already occurred, such as smacking a child after they have done something bad. Another way to classify reinforcers, are as a primary or secondary reinforcer. Primary reinforcer A primary reinforcer has some value to whoever is receiving it, and this value has not been learned. For example, food when you are hungry or water when you are thirsty. Secondary reinforcer A secondary reinforcer has an acquired value to whoever receives it.

This means that you are taught its value/worth over a period of time before you see it as being valuable to you. For example, money is a secondary reinforcer because you have to learn the value of money and what it does before it has any meaning to you. If you are short of cash, then receiving money can also be categorized as a positive reinforcer because it has value to you. Extinction Just like in classical conditioning where presenting a conditioned stimulus a number of times without the unconditioned stimulus results in extinction, a similar process also occurs in operant conditioning when an operant behavior begins to declines. For example, if a rat receives no food when it presses a lever (reinforcement is withheld), then it will gradually press that lever less and less until eventually it stops doing so entirely. The rat will stop pressing the lever if its behavior is not reinforced. In effect, the rat gives up on pressing the lever (stops an operant behavior) because it no longer results in it receiving food (reinforcer). The operant behavior has therefore become extinct. Stopping bad habits This knowledge of extinction can be applied to behavior shaping, such as when trying to stop a bad habit.

So rather than trying to punish a certain behavior, it is usually far more effective to take away the reinforcer(s) associated with it. By doing so, the habit will no longer be seen as having any benefit, and so the undesirable behavior will gradually start to fade away (extinction). Punishment may temporarily reduce a certain behavior, although in the long run, because that behavior is still seen as bringing some sort of benefit, it will continue. In addition to this, punishment can also make the person being punished resent you and then do things behind your back out of spite. Partial reinforcement Behavior that is acquired under partial reinforcement is much more resistant to extinction than behavior which has been acquired under continuous reinforcement. For example, if a rat receives a reinforcer every time it presses the lever, then this would be continuous reinforcement. However, if the rat receives a reinforcer at random, or every second or third time it presses the lever, then this would be partial reinforcement because it does not get the reinforcer every time. If you were to stop giving the reinforcer, the rat receiving partial reinforcement would display a greater resistance to extinction (i.e. it would keep pressing the lever for longer after the reinforcer had been stopped).

Partially reinforced behavior is very resistant to extinction. A good example of partial reinforcement can be seen in casinos. This is why you will often find that despite winning a large sum of money, many gamblers are unable to stop and end up losing all of what they had won. Discriminative stimulus In a slight variation of the original Skinner box, a light bulb was placed above the lever. Whenever the light is on, pressing the lever would result in the rat receiving the reinforcer. But when the light is off, pressing the lever would result in no reinforcer. Given enough time, the rat eventually learns to only press the lever when the light is on and ignores the lever when the light is off. Skinner box utilizing a discriminative stimulus. Skinner called the light a discriminative stimulus, which he defined as a stimulus which allows the animal to tell the difference between “a situation which is reinforcing and one that is not”. In other words, the light allows you to determine whether or not you will get a reward (reinforcer). Some real life examples of discriminative stimuli include hearing a bell before lunch or seeing a traffic light when you are driving.

In both cases, a signal (bell/light) tells you what sort of reinforcement you will receive in that situation. Putting this all together, you can now see that operant conditioning is a modification (conditioning) of an action (operant behavior) which has consequences (e.g. lever pressing releases food) through the use of positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Observational Learning Role models can have a powerful effect on the way we behave. Observational learning occurs when a behavior is acquired by watching the behavior of someone else. This second person is known as a “model” and either intentionally or unintentionally demonstrates a behavior to you. If the observer is able to identify with this behavior and receive some sort of satisfaction from it, then they are said to have received vicarious reinforcement (imagined gratification). For example, if your favorite sports team wins a game, then you receive an internal sense of satisfaction as a result of their victory. You have received vicarious reinforcement, which may then motivate you to play that sport. Vicarious reinforcement can occur in virtually any circumstance in which you, as the observer, receive some sort of gratification from watching the behavior of another person (the model).

Social Learning Theory social learning theory – 1 social learning – 2 Social learning theory is an expansion of observational learning, and deals with how social groups can be affected by their environment. A good example of social learning theory can be found amongst teenagers who follow various celebrity role models. If the teen receives some sort of gratification (vicarious reinforcement) from observing the behavior of their role model, then they are likely to adopt a similar type of behavior. For example, a teen that idolizes a rock star may start playing a musical instrument such as a guitar. As a result, their behavior has now been altered. We can further subdivide the type of behavior we acquire as a result of social learning into either prosocial or antisocial behavior. Prosocial behavior Prosocial behavior is behavior that benefits another person, a group of people or society as a whole. For example, if a child learns to recycle and live an environmentally friendly lifestyle from their parents, then they are likely to act that way for the rest of their life. Their behavior is prosocial, because it benefits the environment and society as a whole. Antisocial behavior Antisocial behaviour is behavior which is destructive to others and very often to yourself.

For example, a teen who steals from other people or who vandalizes property is exhibiting antisocial behavior, because it is destructive to other people and the surrounding environment. Latent Learning Latent Learning and Cognitive Map Latent learning is learning which occurs without reinforcement, and which may later be reactivated with a reinforcer. For example, if a rat is left in a maze, it will randomly explore that maze and try to find a way out. If we repeat this several times, the rat may appear to exhibit the same type of behavior where it randomly explores the maze looking for the exit. Although the rat has been in this maze several times, it appears not to have learned anything because it still takes a long time to get out. If however, we were to then introduce some food into the maze (a reinforcer), the rat would quickly learn to escape the maze. Almost as though it suddenly learned how to do it. The purpose of the reinforcer was to act as an incentive, which activates what the rat had previously learned. In this case, the first few times the rat was exploring the maze it was learning, even though it appeared not to be learning anything.

When we added food to the maze, this prior learning which had remained latent (dormant), suddenly became reactivated thereby allowing the rat to use its previous knowledge of the maze to quickly learn the escape route. Given the right incentive you can learn anything. Basically, what this all means is that you learn things through experience, even though you may not think that you are learning anything at the time. Later, if something reactivated what you had (latently) learned from that experience, you will then be able to learn it very quickly. For example, when you are at school, one of the best ways to improve your understanding of a subject is to research it before you are meant to learn it. So if you have a lecture next week, by studying for that lecture now you will be able to understand it better and faster once you actually take that lecture. Your prior latent learning has allowed for an accelerated future learning. This is hardly surprising if you look at things from the perspective of the brain, as when you learn something, you form neural pathways in the brain related to that activity. This means that the next time you do it, your existing neural pathways will be strengthened and refined thereby allowing you to perform better.

Latent learning may therefore be described as the creation of these pathways, which provides a foundation for future learning. This is why it is important to expose your mind to as much information as you can about a subject, because even though it may seem difficult now, the next time you come across it, you will find things to be a lot easier. Insight Learning Insight learning: Chimpanzee Problem Solving Insight learning is an “a-ha!” moment, when something suddenly seems to click into place and make sense. A good example of this can be found with research done by Wolfgang Kohler on an ape called Sultan. Sultan was put in a cage and given two sticks which could be clicked together to make a longer tool. Slightly outside the reach of the sticks was an orange. Sultan spent a lot of time trying to get the orange. First with his hands, and then with the sticks. However, he was unable to reach the orange no matter what he did. Then one day Sultan clicked the two sticks together, and was able to reach the orange. This “insight” that Sultan received, came as a result of his past attempts to get the orange and a reorganization of those experiences.

So whereas previously Sultan had two seemingly useless sticks, he now had a useful long stick, something which he did not have the insight to see before. Sultan demonstrating insight learning. So insight learning is an insight into our past experiences, from which, we can then use to solve problems we were previously unable to. This has most likely happened to you many times. For example, someone may be trying to explain something to you, but no matter what they say, you just don’t seem to “get it”. Then, all of a sudden, it clicks and “a-ha” you now see what they were trying to say. Resistance to extinction Since insight learning is acquired as a result of past experiences, it tends to be fairly resistant to forgetting. In other words, “once you’ve got it, you’ve got it”. On the other hand, if you were to learn something simply through memorization, then you are likely to forget what you had learned very quickly. This is why it is extremely important to try to actively apply what you mentally do, to solidify that knowledge in the brain.

If you are at school, and are trying to learn a subject well, then a good way to solidify your learning would be to teach it to someone else as you will now be actively using your mental knowledge. Learning to Learn Learning to learn describes the use of learning sets in learning. Basically, it states that we become better at what we repeatedly do. So for example, if you solve crossword puzzles, then over time you are likely to find them easier and easier and so will need harder puzzles to challenge you. The same applies to learning a new subject. At first it seems hard, but the more you study it, the easier it becomes. The brain quickly adapts to repeated stimuli and so needs to be constantly challenged. The idea of learning sets first came from research done by psychologist Harry Harlow, who tested a monkey’s ability to find a grape under a container. The test was to see if the monkey could discriminate between the two different shapes of the containers, by getting the grape from the underneath the correct container. What Harlow found was that after the first exercise, the monkey’s ability to discriminate between different shapes (and get the grape) in subsequent exercises rapidly increased.

The monkey was said to have acquired a learning set, using previous knowledge to quickly solve future problems. The Role of Memory Where would you be without your memory? Memory is defined as the ability to retain knowledge, and is therefore necessary for learning. The process of memory involves three main stages: Encoding Learning Theory - How Dog Training Works | HowStuffWorks How Dog Training Works Prev Next Pavlov's famous study Dog training typically centers on operant conditioning. The first scientist to define this concept was B.F. Skinner, who studied the work of Russian physiologist Dr. Ivan Pavlov on animal behavior. In Pavlov's groundbreaking study, dogs learned that a stimulus (in this case, a bell) meant they were about to be fed. Starting with two things that are naturally paired -- salivating and being fed -- Pavlov added a third component by ringing a bell before feeding. After a few trials, the dogs learned to associate the bell with being fed and would react by salivating at the sound of the bell in anticipation of their food but without any food present. Since dogs naturally begin salivating when offered food, food is an unconditioned stimulus.

No conditioning or special training is necessary to cause the dog to salivate, which is an unconditioned response. In contrast, a ringing bell does not normally cause dogs to salivate; they will do so only if they have been conditioned to associate a bell with being fed. Therefore, the bell is a conditioned stimulus. The dog's new reaction is a reflex to the stimulus and is a conditioned response. Up Next 5 Dog Treat Recipes That Kids Can Make Many of us see this today with our own dogs when they break into a frenzy of barking at the sound of the doorbell, sometimes even a doorbell on television . In this case, the dog has been conditioned to associate the stimulus of the bell with the imminent arrival of a stranger. When we see flashing lights or hear a siren behind us while driving, we may reflexively tense up and our heart rate may increase. We have been conditioned to associate the sound of sirens with the unpleasant and stressful experience of getting a ticket. This is classical conditioning. Both animals and people can learn to relate a pair of events and respond to the first in anticipation of the second. This type of learning is passive and involuntary; it occurs without the learner doing anything and often without awareness.

While Pavlov's work dealt with a reflexive reaction to a conditioned stimulus, Skinner became interested in creating a specific behavioral reaction to a stimulus by adding a reinforcer. A reinforcer can be either a reward or a punisher. A reward is anything that increases the frequency of an action; a punisher is anything that decreases its frequency. When we are rewarded for a certain behavior, we are likely to repeat that behavior. When we are punished for a certain behavior we are likely to stop. This type of learning is active and voluntary; it depends on the actions of the learner. Because the definition of a reinforcer is based on its effectiveness, it's important to remember that a reward for one person may not be meaningful, and thus not a reward, for another. Similarly, what is a reward in one context may not be somewhere else. A rat in a basic Skinner box Skinner showed that both animals and people would perform certain behaviors for a reward. In his experiments with rats and pigeons, Skinner showed how animals could learn to press a lever to get a food reward. When the animals were first introduced to the test box they moved around randomly. When they accidentally depressed the lever, a food pellet was dispensed.

They quickly learned to depress the lever on purpose to get a pellet. He also shaped behaviors that are more complicated by reinforcing them step by step. Skinner called his approach "operant conditioning" because the animal's behavior actually operated on the environment (pressing the lever) in response to the anticipated outcome (getting a food reward). Rewarding to encourage good behavior and punishing to discourage bad is something most of us do instinctively; it's common sense. Operant conditioning had a long history in animal training even before it was ever defined. Colonel Konrad Most, who published "Training Dogs: A Manual" in 1910, was using many of the same principles that Skinner studied, decades before he described them. Col. Most's training methods seem somewhat harsh by today's standards, but he is considered by many to be the father of modern dog training. Most, and other trainers used both rewards and punishers to shape and reinforce desired behavior. Next, we'll look at how reinforcers are used in animal training. Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning The whole idea of classical conditioning started with a Russian scientist that was studying the eating habits of dogs (exciting stuff).

His name was Ivan Pavlov and Pavlov's dogs are like the Beatles of psychology. Let me start by telling you how Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, then I will break it down (like MC Hammer- now where is he today?). So Ivan Pdiddyavlov was examining the digestive habits of dogs when he noticed some pretty interesting (what we would think of as obvious) things. Ivan knew that food in his dogs mouth caused the dogs to salivate. Dogs can't help but to salivate when they are eating, it is one of those unlearned or automatic responses (try eating a peanut butter and fluff sandwich without drooling). Now every time Pavlov opened up his cabinet to get the dog's food, the cabinet door made a creaking sound. One day, Pavlov opened the cabinet (it made the sound) and he noticed that his dogs were salivating without the food. Were the dogs learning? Pavlov decided to test it out. He had a tuning fork (but lets call it a bell because I have never actually seen a tuning fork up close) and he rang the bell for the dogs. The dogs looked at him weirdly and did not salivate.

The bell, at this moment is a neutral stimulus, because it did nothing to the dogs. Pavlov then rang the bell and then gave the dogs food (and they would salivate). He did this many many times; rang the bell and gave the dogs food (and they would salivate). One day he rang the bell but did not give the dogs food. What do you think happened? The dogs salivated. The dogs have learned to link the sound of the bell with the food. He kept ringing the bell and the dogs kept salivating. But after awhile the dogs stopped salivating to the bell if they did not get any food over a long period of time (they have unlearned to associate food and the bell). This is how classical conditioning was started. Let's delve into this.... OK, it is first important to know that classical conditioning is a form of passive learning, which means that the student (in Ivan's case the dogs) have no clue and require no effort to learn- it happens automatically (unlike learning this chapter which requires some effort). The first thing you need in order to classically condition someone is an unconditional stimulus (UCS) and unconditional response (UCR).

These words may seem complicated, but the idea is really simple. A UCS is anything that automatically causes some kind of unlearned response. The best example for a UCS is any type of drug. If I give you a tranquilizer you are going to get tired. You do not have to learn to get tired, your body does it automatically, without any learning at all. A UCR is just the response to the UCS or in the case of the tranquilizer, the UCR is you getting tired. Think of some UCS-UCR relationships- cocaine (UCS) alertness (UCR), alcohol (UCS) depressive effects (UCR), electric shock (UCS) pain (UCR), food (UCS) salivation (UCR). Once you understand the concept of the UCS and UCR, the rest is easy (well not really- but I hope you feel good about yourself). The whole object in classical conditioning is to get your subject to learn to associate something (it really could be anything) with the UCS. In Pavlov's experiment the UCS was the food and the UCR was the salivation.

Pavlov took a bell, which at first meant nothing to the dogs (neutral stimulus), and after many repetitions conditioned the dogs to associate the bell with the food. Now here is the important part. Each time Pavlov gives the dog food after the bell, the bell remains a neutral stimulus. Once Pavlov rings the bell and does NOT give the food and the dogs salivate, the bell becomes what we call a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation becomes a conditioned response (CR). They are called conditioned because conditioned means learned and the dogs have learned to link the bell and the food together, it is NOT unlearned or unconditional. Lets use a different example. Lets say you wanted to become a vegetarian and no longer eat meat. So you go buy some really powerful laxatives that cause abdominal pain and cramping. The laxatives are the UCS and the cramping and pain are the UCR- think about it, do you have to learn to have diarrhea after taking a laxative- no, it is an unlearned response- it is unconditional. Meat is a neutral stimulus to you at first. Now you take some laxatives and then some meat and what's going to happen? You are going to cramp.

You do this everyday over a period of weeks. Every time you do this, the laxative remains the UCS, the meat neutral and the cramping the UCR. The VERY first time you eat meat WITHOUT the laxative, but still cramp- the meat becomes the CS and the cramping the CR. If the laxative is given, the cramping must be the UCR because it is caused by the laxative. But if the laxative is not present then the cramping is caused by the fact that we linked meat with the laxative and becomes the CR. Now where does the learning/conditioning actually take place? Pavlov knew that the moment that you link the laxative with the meat, the bell with the food or the UCS with the CS, learning has taken place. He termed the linking of the UCS and the CS, acquisition, and is the goal of classical conditioning. Now if I stop giving myself a laxative I will still feel the cramping effects for awhile when I eat meat, but will it last forever? Probably not. The moment I no longer cramp when eating meat, or no longer associate the UCS with the CS, I have experienced extinction.

Extinction will always occur if the UCS is not brought back into the equation every once and awhile. Once I experience extinction, I will start eating meat a lot because I am no longer cramping (or associating the meat with the laxative). However, Pavlov discovered that even after extinction, acquisition can come back at random times even years later; a term called spontaneous recovery. Now let's say I have linked together laxatives and meat (acquisition has occurred) and I eat a meat tasting soy product. If the soy is really close to tasting like meat then I may experience what Pavlov called generalization, and cramp from the soy. Generalization is when a stimuli is so close to the CS that it still causes the CR. If I eat a peanut butter sandwich, which is really different than meat, I will probably not cramp because my body will not mistaken the sandwich for meat, a term Pavlov called discrimination. Scheduling the CS and UCS Ok, so now we kind of know what classical conditioning is, but how do you time the UCS and the CS, or in Pavlov's example, the bell and the food. Delayed Conditioning: Present the CS (Bell) first and while the bell is still ringing give the UCS (food).

This is the fastest way to get acquisition. Trace Conditioning: Present the CS (Bell), followed by a short break, then present the UCS (food). Simultaneous Conditioning: CS (bell) and UCS (food) are presented at the same time. Backward Conditioning: UCS (food) is presented first and is followed by the CS (bell). This methods kinda sucks. Try conditioning your own dog and see what happens after numerous trials. Look for when acquisition and extinction occur. Classical Conditioning and Psychology Pavlov was not a psychologist and limited his studies to animals. It was not until American psychologist John Watson conducted his studies on a baby orphan named Albert that classical conditioning was used to actually change a human's behavior. Watson took a pudgy little orphan, Albert, and gave Albert a pet white rat. Albert loved the rat and spent much of the day cuddling with it. Then Watson banged some loud pots in back of Albert and the loud noise made Albert cry. The loud noise in the UCS and Albert's fear is the UCR. Watson then brought out the rat and banged the pots as Albert reached for the rat. After many trials Albert began to associate the rat with the loud banging (acquisition).

Then Watson would bring in the rat without the loud banging. Predictable, Albert started to cry when he saw the white rat because he associated it with the loud noises. Albert also cried when Watson brought in a white bunny or anything that resembled the rat (generalization). Watson actually created a phobia in a human using classical conditioning techniques. The sad part of this story is that Albert was adopted before Watson had a chance to recondition him. Somewhere out there, there is a 88 year old man who is really scared of rats. Want to see the actually Baby Albert footage? Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversions When I was about twelve years old my Dad brought home a large jar of chocolate covered malt balls. I loved those things and pretty much ate the whole jar. A short time later I became incredible ill and threw up those malt balls and bile for about three days. To this day I still gag when I think about chocolate covered balls of malt (commonly called Goobers). A well know researcher, Garcia, discovered that taste aversions are a evolutionary example of classical conditioning that has helped us survive. Unlike other forms of classical conditioning, when the UCS is nausea, it needs only one trial and can last for years.

Our bodies seem to have a knack for remembering really unusual tasting foods compiled with feeling nausea. Classical Conditioning and Therapy We use Classical Conditioning in modern day therapy in two very distinct ways. Aversive Conditioning: Aversive conditioning is usually used to stop a particular behavior. The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea. If I wanted to stop Shanikwa from smoking I could shock her every time she smokes. The shock is the UCS and the pain is the UCR. Once the smoking becomes associated with the electric shock (acquisition), Shanikwa will experience pain when she smokes, even without the shock. Thus the smoking will become the CS and the pain the CR (but only if the shock is no longer given). Systematic Desensitization: Systematic Desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. It works great with phobias. If Akira has a horrific phobia of spiders, the therapist will teach Akira relaxation techniques (or give Akira a magical feel good drug). Slowly spiders are introduced to Akira.

First maybe just a picture, then one in a cage, then one outside of a cage etc... The goal is to get Akira to associate spiders with the drugs or relaxation techniques. Eventually, seeing a spider will cause Akira to relax (in theory). Most of the time, systematic desensitization occurs gradually, but some therapists use a technique called implosive therapy. Here they throw Akira in a room with thousands of spiders with the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will realize their fear is irrational. This technique often produces a lot of anxiety.

Question: Who trained dogs to salivate at the ring of a bell?
Answer: Ivan Pavlov