What Are Cruciferous Vegetables: A Complete List Of Cruciferous Vegetables Image by Kristen Taylor By Heather Rhoades The cruciferous family of vegetables have generated a lot of interest in the health world due to their cancer fighting compounds. This leads many gardeners to wonder what are cruciferous vegetables and can I grow them in my garden. Good news! You probably already grow at least one (and likely several) types of cruciferous veggies. What are Cruciferous Vegetables? Broadly, cruciferous vegetables belong to the Cruciferae family, which mostly contains the Brassica genus, but does include a few other genuses. In general, cruciferous vegetables are cool weather vegetables and have flowers that have four petals so that they resemble a cross. In most cases, the leaves or flower buds of cruciferous vegetables are eaten, but there are a few where either the roots or seeds are also eaten. Because these vegetables belong to the same family, they tend to be susceptible to the same diseases and pests.

Cruciferous vegetable diseases can include: Imported cabbageworm Nematodes (which cause root-knot) Because the cruciferous family of vegetables are susceptible to the same diseases and pests, it’s best to make sure that you rotate the location of all cruciferous vegetables in your garden each year . In other words, don’t plant a cruciferous vegetable where a cruciferous vegetable was planted last year. This will help to protect them from diseases and pests that can overwinter in the soil. Complete List of Cruciferous Vegetables Below you will find a list of cruciferous vegetables. While you may not have heard the term cruciferous vegetable before, it’s likely that you have grown many of them in your garden. They include: How uncommon is it that the number of petals of a flower are not a Fibonacci number? - Quora Quora Numbers (mathematics) How uncommon is it that the number of petals of a flower are not a Fibonacci number? I learned it's common that the number of petals in a flower is a @ Fibonacci number , but there are also exceptions. What's the percentage of the number of flower types whose number of petals is not in Fibonacci sequence compared to the total number of flower types?

How uncommon is it to find a flower whose number of petals is not a Fibonacci number? Written Aug 24, 2015 Fibonacci numbers as petal numbers apply only to certain patterns of flower growth, mostly in the family Asteracae (daisies, sunflowers, etc.). There are many flowers with a small number of petals where the growth is such that Fibonacci is not involved. For example, virtually all monocots have flowers with three or six petals, and most legumes have flowers with five petals. Both 3 and 5 happen to be Fibonacci numbers, but that's just coincidence and not relevant to those flowers because of the way that they grow. There are also many flowers that have four petals (e.g., nearly all of Brassicaceae, Houstonia, etc.). There are somewhere between 250,000 and 300,000 species of flowering plants. A little over half of those are monocots, which are definitely non-Fibonacci. There are around 26,000 species in Asteraceae, most or all of which are Fibonacci.

Of the remaining, there may be some Fibonacci-ness here and there (e.g., possibly in water lilies, Nymphaeales), but I think it's the exception rather than the rule. Written Aug 28, 2015 I have see it stated that plants have structures that follow the fibonacci sequence but it is not at all uncommon for plants to have non fibonacci numbers of petals. For example the cruciferous family of plants which has many hundreds of species is charcterised by the flowers having four petals. This is true for other families such as poppies ruefully and clematis. There are also many flower families that charisteristically have six petals including Lillies aconite chickweeds anemones. Many tubular flowers such as orchids seem to be six fused petals as well (I may be wrong about that, it is based on observation ) With respect to the composite daisy like flowers, as a statistical experiment one year I had my year 7 class collect lawn daisies from the school field and count the petals by ripping them off one by one.

As far as I know the students had no expectation of the outcome, although I was hoping to have some evidence of fibonacci but I was disappointed. A range between 20 and 62 were recorded, and although there could have been some experimental error, for example the 20 could really have been 21, There was not a cluster around 21 34 or 55 or even clusters around those numbers which might have been expected if the students had been out by one or two petals sometimes. In fact the whole thing looked more like a normal distribution bell curve. About 600 plants were tested . This is hardly conclusive and we may well have got different results from the little yellow bobbles in the eyes of the daisies although they are a bit small to count because I can see how the sequence might produce an efficient structure for close packing, but I am inclined to believe that the role of fibonacci sequences in plant structures is overstated although it is undoubtedly there in some cases. 257 Views Eating Healthy with Cruciferous Vegetables The World's Healthiest Foords are health-promoting foods that can change your life.

Watch for the launch of our new WHFoods 7-Day Meal Plan on January 23rd! The George Mateljan Foundation is a not-for-profit foundation with no commercial interests or advertising. Our mission is to help you eat and cook the healthiest way for optimal health. Eating Healthy with Cruciferous Vegetables Many people are familiar with the term "cruciferous vegetables" and can even identify a vegetable like broccoli as belonging to this group. But because research on cruciferous vegetables has skyrocketed over the past three to seven years, many people are not familiar with the latest science on this age-old group of vegetables. The name "cruciferous vegetables" is itself undergoing change! This group of vegetables was originally named for the four equal-sized petals in its flowers that could be viewed as forming a cross-like or crucifix shape. But many scientists are starting to favor the term "brassica vegetables" over "cruciferous vegetables" and the traditional name of this plant family in Latin, Cruciferae, is now being largely replaced by the Latin name Brassicaceae.

(In Latin, the word "brassica" simply translates as "cabbage," and cabbage is definitely a featured member of this vegetable group.) You'll also hear farmers referring to foods in this vegetable group as "cole crops." The word "cole" (which is easy to spot in the word "coleslaw," a dish usually made from cabbage but also from cruciferous vegetables like broccoli) once again takes us back to the Latin language; it comes from the word "caulis" that refers to the stalks of plants, especially to the stalk of the cabbage plant. (Interestingly, you can find this Latin root not in the cabbages that so commonly represent the broader family of cruciferous vegetables, but in cauliflower, which is another important member of this vegetable group.) Cruciferous vegetables are also sometimes referred to as the mustard family vegetables, since the widely popular mustard greens — and mustard seeds and mustard oils — also belong to this vegetable group.

The table below contains a comprehensive list of cruciferous vegetables that are commonly consumed as a part of cuisines worldwide: Cruciferous Vegetables Turnip Watercress The above list makes it clear that we should also be thinking about spices like brown mustard seed, yellow mustard seed, and horseradish as cruciferous vegetables, because they are! Health-supportive molecules like glucosinolates are concentrated in these spices in the same way that they are concentrated in the leaves of the plants (like mustard greens or horseradish greens). Two especially common scientific groupings of cruciferous vegetables are the Brassica oleracea (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, kale, and kohlrabi) and the Brassica rapa (Chinese cabbage and turnips). Brassica campestris is another name for the genus-species grouping called Brassica rapa. Conventional Nutrients in Cruciferous Vegetables In terms of conventional nutrients (vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbs, and fats), we cannot find another vegetable group that is as high in vitamin A carotenoids, vitamin C, folic acid, and fiber as the cruciferous vegetables.

As a group, the cruciferous vegetables are simply superstars in these conventional nutrient areas. The vitamin K content of cruciferous vegetables — especially kale and collards — is fascinating to think about in light of intensive research over the past five years on cancer, inflammation, and cruciferous vegetables. Vitamin K is a conventional nutrient that clearly helps regulate our inflammatory response, including chronic, excessive inflammatory responses that can increase our risk of certain cancers. Studies on cruciferous vegetables and cancer prevention have not typically focused on vitamin K per se, but we suspect that the amazing K content of cruciferous vegetables is definitely related to their cancer-preventive properties through mechanisms involving better control of inflammation. The astonishing concentration of vitamin A carotenoids in cruciferous vegetables and their unusually high content of vitamin C and manganese are clearly key components in their growing reputation as an antioxidant vegetable group. Scientific interest in the antioxidant function of the cruciferous vegetables has been sufficient to trigger funding of isotope studies on cruciferous vegetables that document the uptake of antioxidants in these foods from our digestive tract into our bloodstream.

We've seen studies on 13C-labeled kale that show impressive bioavailability of beta-carotene, lutein, and retinol from this cruciferous vegetable. Significant increases in the blood levels of these key antioxidant nutrients have been seen very quickly in subjects who consume generous amounts of cruciferous vegetables in research studies. ("Generous" in one such study meant consumption of 3 cups of blanched, chopped broccoli during a meal.) The antioxidant richness of cruciferous vegetables has also been explicitly mentioned in several recent studies as one of the strong contributors to the risk-lowering impact of cruciferous vegetables on numerous forms of cancer. One hundred calories' worth of cruciferous vegetables (about 5-6% of a daily diet) provides about 25-40% of your daily fiber requirement! That fact shows what an incredible bargain cruciferous vegetable are when it comes to fiber. We suspect that it's one of the reasons these vegetables have become increasingly prominent in research studies on diet and digestive support. We may not typically think about cruciferous vegetables when considering digestive disorders or risk of digestive tract cancers, but we should.

Two additional macronutrients — proteins and fats — also deserve special mention with respect to recent research on cruciferous vegetables. We tend to think about legumes, nuts, seeds, meats, dairy, and fish as the diet's pre-eminent protein sources — as they are. But cruciferous vegetables can contribute a surprising amount of protein to the diet — over 25% of the Daily Value in 3 cups — and at a very low calorie cost. Two hundred calories of steamed broccoli will provide you with 20 grams of protein — not as much as the 30 grams in two hundred calories of roasted chicken breast — but still a very substantial amount. We suspect that the substantial protein content of cruciferous vegetables may contribute to their risk-lowering impact on certain cancers, partially due to their support of detoxification. (Especially during Phase 2 detoxification, certain amino acids found in protein are known to play a critical role.) We are no more likely to think about cruciferous vegetables as pre-eminent sources of fat in the diet than we are to think about them as pre-eminent sources of protein.

In particular, cruciferous vegetables don't make many popular lists of omega-3 fats and their most important food sources. However, 100 calories' worth of cruciferous vegetables typically gives us somewhere between one-third and one-half of a gram of omega-3 fat (333-500 milligrams). This omega-3 fat is primarily in the form of ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), which serves as the basic building block for all other forms of omega-3 fats in the body. There is actually far more ALA in 100 calories of cabbage than there is in 100 calories of salmon. While fish like salmon do contain most of their omega-3s in the form of EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) or DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) rather than ALA, the amount of total omega-3s in 100 calories of cabbage (520 milligrams) is still substantial in comparison to the amount of total omega-3s in 100 calories of salmon (798 milligrams).

The past 5 years of greatly expanded research on cruciferous vegetables and inflammation points to the omega-3 content of cruciferous vegetables as a potentially critical component of their unique health benefits. The chart below summarizes the conventional nutrient richness of some widely consumed cruciferous vegetables: Cruciferous Vegetables Nutrient Content (Amount for each vegetable = 100 calories) Nutrient 0.36 Cruciferous Vegetable Phytonutrients As impressive as they are in terms of their conventional nutrient content, cruciferous vegetables are even more renowned for their phytonutrients. During the past five years, cruciferous vegetables have largely taken over the world of research in the area of glucosinolates, phytonutrients that clearly have their headquarters in the cruciferous vegetable group. Thanks to research on cruciferous vegetables, scientists have now identified over 100 different glucosinolates in food, and without cruciferous vegetables in our diet, we simply cannot get optimal intake of the glucosinolates. What's so special about glucosinolates is their potential for cancer prevention.

Once converted into other molecules called isothiocyanates, the glucosinolates have an eye-opening track record in lowering the risk of certain cancers. The list below summarizes key glucosinolates found in cruciferous vegetables: Glucosinolates in Cruciferous Vegetables with Known Health Benefits Erucin Sinigrin 4-methoxyglucobrassicin In our article, "Feeling Great with Cruciferous Vegetables," we talk in detail about glucosinolates and explain exactly how they accomplish their cancer-preventive effects. Understanding Differences between Raw and Cooked Cruciferous Vegetables Recent research shows a definite dietary place for cruciferous vegetables in both raw and cooked form. Studies in this area have expanded in recent years, and scientists understand better than ever about the different paths taken by cruciferous vegetables when prepared in different ways. When consumed in raw form, it appears especially helpful for us to have freshly picked cruciferous vegetables. The greater potential benefits here involve enzymes. When cruciferous vegetables like broccoli are freshly picked (for example, within the previous 48 hours), their enzymes are much more likely to remain active.

This better chance of enzyme activity — including activity of the enzyme myrosinase — gives us a better chance of having phytonutrients like glucosinolates converted into uniquely health-supportive molecules (like isothiocyanates). When consumed in fresh, raw, uncooked form, nutrients from the cruciferous vegetables that we eat are also more likely to be absorbed in the upper digestive tract, transported to the liver, and made available to other tissues in the body that might benefit from their presence. When cruciferous vegetables are consumed in cooked form, and especially if they have not been allowed to sit chopped for several minutes prior to cooking, there is unlikely to be much enzyme activity (including myrosinase activity), and the digestive products of the cruciferous vegetables are more likely to pass through the upper digestive tract unabsorbed and continue down into the lower digestive tract (colon). At that point in the digestive process, the cruciferous vegetable nutrients are very likely to be further metabolized by bacteria. Some of the risk reduction seen for colon cancer following intake of cruciferous vegetables may be related to this passage of cooked cruciferous vegetable nutrient down through the digestive tract all the way to the colon without being absorbed.

One way to increase availability of enzyme breakdown products in the upper digestive tract, however, is to chop raw cruciferous vegetables and let them sit in chopped form for several minutes prior to cooking. This process will allow myrosinase enzymes to go to work prior to their deactivation by cooking heats. Eventually, researchers may be able to tell us the exact advantages and disadvantages for each consumption form of cruciferous vegetables (raw and cooked). In addition, researchers predict that we may one day understand how to match individual genetic tendencies with the best mix of cruciferous vegetables and the best balance of raw-versus-cooked consumption. At present, however, we can only conclude that both raw and cooked forms of cruciferous vegetables are very likely to have a place in optimal nourishment. If we look exclusively at cooked cruciferous vegetables, however, and compare different cooking methods and their pros and cons, we will definitely find new information in the research that is well worth noting. First is the preference of steaming over microwaving.

In a study that compared steaming versus microwaving of raw cabbage, researchers found that it took 7 minutes of steaming to result in the same about of enzyme (myrosinase) destruction that occurred with only 2 minutes of microwaving. In other words, short steaming was much better than microwaving for preserving some myrosinase activity in the cabbage. Researchers in this study also found higher concentrations of one particular isothiocyanate (AITC, or allyl-isothiocyanate) in lightly steamed cabbage, and for this reason they concluded that light steaming of cabbage might provide some unique health benefits. Steaming, of course, cooks foods at 212°F/100°C — a relatively low heat. We're convinced that this relatively low level of heat was important in providing steamed cabbage with its higher AITC content. Along this same line of thinking, we've seen another cruciferous vegetable study showing successful delivery of glucosinolates in broccoli to a group of study participants in the form of broccoli soup. Like steamed cabbage, broccoli soup is likely to expose this cruciferous vegetable to a relatively low cooking temperature and help preserve desirable nutrients for this reason.

We'd like to make one final comment about preparation of foods in this cruciferous vegetable food group. Especially within the average U.S. diet, it's difficult to find another food group in which as many different parts of the food are consumed. Within the cruciferous vegetable group, we commonly eat the flowers of the plant (for example, the broccoli florets), the leaves (for example, mustard greens, collard greens, turnip greens, and kale), the stems and stalks (for example, broccoli stems and stalks), the roots (for example, turnips or rutabagas or radishes), and the seeds (for example, mustard seeds). The unique benefits of this cruciferous vegetables food group may be partly related to inclusion of so many different plant parts in a cruciferous foods-including diet. Particularly when it comes to phytonutrients, plants distribute nutrients differently in their different anatomical parts. The fact that we commonly include so many different parts of cruciferous plants in our diet may help us broaden the diversity of phytonutrients that we get from this food group.

Given this diversity of cruciferous plant parts, it's also important to remember that different parts may require different cooking times for optimal nutrient retention. Bitterness of Taste of Cruciferous Vegetables From a chemistry standpoint, the taste of all foods is complicated. A wide variety of different substances contribute to the taste of any particular food. In addition, our individual biochemistry causes us to perceive taste differently, and the exact same food containing the exact same substances can taste extremely different to different people. In the case of cruciferous vegetables, however, a large percentage of individuals describe a certain bitterness of taste, and in research, this taste has been linked to a wide variety of phytonutrients, including glucosinolates, terpenoids, and flavonoids. Recent research has also linked the bitterness of taste in cruciferous vegetables with calcium content. Turnip greens, for example, which taste far more bitter to many people than cabbage, contain about 4 times more calcium than their fellow cruciferous vegetable.

Although the commercial food industry has sometimes attempted to breed out bitter-tasting constituents from cruciferous vegetables (including sinigrin, one of the glucosinolates especially plentiful in cabbage), that practice does not make sense if we want to optimize our nourishment from this vegetable group. A much healthier approach would involve the blending of cruciferous vegetables with differently flavored foods in such a way that the cruciferous vegetables retain some of their natural and noticeable bitterness but within a blended-flavor context that makes the dish delicious! Unique Nourishment from Cruciferous Vegetables: A Practical Summary We are not aware of any food group that matches cruciferous vegetables for what we would call integrated nourishment across such a wide variety of nutritional categories. There are important amounts of macronutrients including fiber, protein, and omega-3s in this group. There are showcase amounts of many antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and detox-related nutrients. Many B-complex vitamins are unusually concentrated in cruciferous vegetables, as are certain minerals. This food group also contains its own unique set of phytonutrients — the glucosinolates — that are simply unavailable to the same extent in any other food group.

By commonly consuming all parts of plants from this group, including flowers, leaves, stems, stalks, roots and seeds, we allow this cruciferous vegetable group to integrate together an unusually wide range of nutrients that is broader than any other single food group subdivision in the average U.S. diet. For all of these reasons, and based on the latest research evidence, we cannot say enough about the healthiness of this food group for most every individual diet plan. Cruciferous Vegetables - Carolina HealthSpan Institute - Charlotte, NC Posted by Dr. Russo March 15, 2016 No Comments The cruciferous (or Brassica) vegetables Broccoli, Kale, Collards, Brussel Sprouts, Cabbage and others all have some pretty powerful substances that clearly work in the battle against cancer. The term cruciferous is used because during growth, the four flowers petals of this species form a cross (cruciferous = cross bearing). Cruciferous vegetables contain the substances Indole-3-Carbinol (I3C), Di-indolmethane (DIM) and many other powerful phytonutrients such as the glucosinolate, sulforaphane.

Each of these compounds play a significant role in the metabolism of estrogen and also may influence cancer genes. When estrogen is metabolized, it is broken down into 2-hydroxyestrone (good estrogen) and 4- and 16-hydroxyestrone (bad, cancer causing estrogen). Cruciferous vegetables modulate the estrogen metabolic pathway to direct the path to lead to the production of 2- and away from 4- and 16-. SImple as that. Nature’s little gift to help in the battle against cancer. We live in a very estrogenic environment, as we are assaulted daily with xeno- (foreign) and phyto- (plant) estrogens, toxins that mimic estrogen and our own self created estrogen, as obesity increases the production of estrogen in both men and women. A common estrogen mimic is petroleum products such as plastic and Bisphenol-A. A worthwhile test to consider is a 24 hour urine estrogen analysis to determine how you personally metabolize estrogen. This simple test can allow you to gauge your risk for the development of an estrogen mediated cancer. The steps taken to positively influence estrogen metabolism are primarily dietary.

Inclusion of cruciferous vegetables is a good start but one my also wish to consider the addition of omega-3 fats, fiber, vitamins b6, b12 and folate, iodine and avoidance of pesticides as much as possible. Vitamin D supplementation is also a good idea for cancer prevention, though it may not directly alter estrogen metabolism. If the question were to be asked, which is better to supplement with? The answer is DIM. DIM is less reactive, better absorbed and has a better safety profile than I3C. Of course a supplement is not mandatory as you could always include an abundance of cruciferous vegetables in your diet to harness the cancer fighting power these vegetables possess. Organic produce is best, as Kale and Collards are frequently noted to be sponges for pesticides and herbicides (sorry to be a downer, just trying to keep you safe). About Dr. Russo Dr. Russo is a Board Certified Physician receiving her medical degree from the Medical College of Pennsylvania. She completed her residency training at the University of Florida in Gainesville. Dr. Russo also completed a Fellowship in Integrative Medicine at the University of Arizona under the direction of Dr. Andrew Wiel.

She received training in Bio-Identical Hormone Replacement under Dr. Ronald Brown Founder of Carolina HealthSpan Institute and author of The Youth Effect. Print Only the hardiest fruits and vegetables can survive the freezing temperatures that inland California farms experienced several nights this week. Frosts and freezes can spell the end of tomatoes, peppers, berries, some lettuces, and other fragile crops. Lucky for us, one of the most cold-tolerant plant families encompasses more vegetables than any other. Brassicaceae has made a substantial contribution to humans’ foods choices: the enormous cabbage family includes turnips, kohlrabi, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, rapini, romanesco, mustard seed, mustard greens, collards, kale, bok choy, canola, rutabaga, radish, watercress, and arugula, among others. Brassicas are also called cruciferous vegetables (from the Latin crux, which means cross) because they bear flowers with four petals in the shape of a cross. The common ancestor of these plants probably originated in Northern Europe where (headless) cabbages were first cultivated thousands of years ago.

Subsequently, the crop spread around Europe and Asia where it malleably transformed into the many cruciferous crops we know today. Vegetables like broccoli, romanesco, and cauliflower were selected for large flowering heads; mustard greens, cabbage, collards, and bok choy for big greens; turnips, radishes, and kohlrabi for bulbous stems and roots. Just a few species comprise most of the brassicas we regularly eat. Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, collard greens, and kohlrabi, different as they look, are all cultivar groups of the species Brassica oleracea. Turnip, rapini, bok choy and tatsoi all belong to the species Brassica rapa. As farmers will attest, humans aren’t the only brassica-loving species. For growers, the vegetables are both a blessing (what else will survive winter frosts?), and a challenge. One of the most virulent brassica pests is the aphid, which quickly reproduces and sucks the fluids out of the crop, stunting growth and sometimes killing plants.

Even if the insects don’t do extensive physical damage, they may still render the harvest unmarketable: aphids (as many of us have experienced) nestle within the leaves of a head of cabbage or amid the broccoli florets and are difficult to remove. To deal with aphids, farmers, like many gardeners, use soap sprays and release beneficial predators like ladybugs. Nigel Walker of Eatwell Farm says that caterpillars are his biggest brassica pest, but the farm has only sprayed the organic insecticide they use to combat the pest once this year. Recently, Eatwell Farm’s pest problems have declined considerably, which Nigel attributes this to the maturity of the farm; it is reaching, he says, a sort of ecological balance. His goal is not to eliminate pest populations completely, but to keep them in check so they don’t do any serious economic damage. If the farm provides habitat for caterpillar predators, like kestrels, and aphid predators, like ladybugs, the farm saves money on expensive insecticides and harvests a hearty crop of crucifers. Besides having a reputation for being a healthful, cancer-fighting class of vegetables, brassicas are known for the eggy aroma they exude when cooked.

These two famous features are actually related: the sulfur-containing compounds called glucosinolates that give the brassicas their pungent smell also give them some of their nutritive qualities. Brassicas contain lots of vitamin A and C, too. Posted In cruciferous vegetables | Chow Line cruciferous vegetables Assortment of cabbages What are cruciferous vegetables, and what kind of health benefits do they provide? More than two dozen types of vegetables are cruciferous, so named because most have flowers with four petals, resembling a cross. They are generally cool-weather vegetables, so you likely will see good prices on them in the produce section of the grocery store at this time of year. Cruciferous vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, radishes, horseradish, wasabi, turnips, rutabaga, arugula, bok choi, collard greens, kale, kohlrabi and watercress. Horticulturally, they belong to the same family (Cruciferae, or Brassicaceae), and all have sulfur-containing compounds called glucosinolates.

Glucosinolates benefit the plants by naturally protecting them from some pests. They are also believed to benefit human health. When we cook, chew and digest cruciferous vegetables, glucosinolates break down and form different phytochemicals, including indoles and isothiocyanates, that are biologically active. According to the American Institute for Cancer Research, studies in the laboratory indicate that these compounds seem to: Decrease inflammation, which is associated with a large number of chronic illnesses, including cancer and cardiovascular disease. Suppress enzymes that are known to activate carcinogens. Stimulate enzymes that deactivate carcinogens and decrease the ability of cancer cells to spread. Despite these promising results in the lab, the AICR says results from studies in humans are inconsistent. It could be that the compounds are affected by differences in how people cook and prepare the food. Or it could be that genetic differences affect how each person’s body reacts to the compounds. Although the research on precise health benefits of glucosinolates from cruciferous vegetables is far from settled, these vegetables still have several other nutrients that benefit health. Most are very high in vitamin C.

Broccoli, for example, is also high in folate, manganese, potassium and fiber, and provides other vitamins and minerals. Dark green members of the cruciferous vegetable family, including broccoli, are a substantial source of vitamin K. Because so many types of cruciferous vegetables are high in vitamin K, it’s important to note that anyone taking the blood thinner warfarin (Coumadin) needs to monitor their intake. Sudden increases or decreases of vitamin K can cause serious changes in the effectiveness of this prescription medicine. It’s extremely important for anyone taking warfarin to keep their vitamin K intake consistent from day to day. For others, though, it’s probably a good idea to increase consumption of cruciferous vegetables. For more information, including research, tips for preparing them and recipes, see the AICR’s website at aicr.org/foods-that-fight-cancer/broccoli-cruciferous.html . Editor: This column was reviewed by Irene Hatsu, Ohio State University Extension specialist in Food Security. Chow Line is a service of the College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences and its outreach and research arms, Ohio State University Extension and the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.

Send questions to Chow Line, c/o Martha Filipic, 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1043, or filipic.3@osu.edu. For a PDF of this column, please click here . Broccoli & Cruciferous Vegetables Broccoli & Cruciferous Vegetables Sign Up For Email Updates: SIGN UP References Broccoli & Cruciferous Vegetables The four-petal flowers from these veggies resemble a cross or "crucifer," hence the name. Broccoli is probably the best known cruciferous vegetable. Like Brussels sprouts, rapini, cabbage (green), cauliflower and turnips (white), it forms a "head." Others - known as the "headless crucifers" - include dark green leafy vegetables like kale and collard greens. What's in Cruciferous Vegetables? Nearly all are excellent or good sources of vitamin C and some are good sources of manganese. Dark greens are high in vitamin K. Glucosinolates are compounds found in all cruciferous vegetables; Glucosinolates form isothiocyanates and indoles.

Other nutrients and phytochemicals vary: Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and rapini are all excellent sources of folate, a B vitamin. Broccoli is a good source of potassium. Broccoli and Brussels sprouts are good sources of dietary fiber and rich in magnesium. Broccoli, Brussels sprouts and rapini contain carotenoids such as beta-carotene. Red cabbage and radishes supply anthocyanins Other cruciferous vegetables provide different polyphenols, such as hydroxycinnamic acids, kaempferol and quercetin. Related Links: The Cancer Research The link between cruciferous vegetables and their components to cancer prevention is relatively well-studied. AICR/WCRF’s expert report and its updates group cruciferous vegetables – and most green vegetables – as non-starchy. (Corn and potatoes, on the other hand, are examples of starchy vegetables.) What Current Evidence Shows: AICR/WCRF Expert Report and its Updates (CUP) Cruciferous vegetables are non-starchy vegetables that contain dietary fiber and carotenoids (including beta-carotene).

After a systematic review of the global scientific literature, AICR/WCRF weighed the strength of the evidence linking these factors to lower risk for several cancers. Diets high in: CONVINCINGLY lower risk of the following cancers: Foods containing dietary fiber PROBABLY lower risk of the following cancers: Non-starchy vegetables Mouth, pharynx and larynx Lung Source: Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective and the 2011 Continuous Update Project: Colorectal Cancer. Genetic differences mean that some people retain cruciferous vegetables’ isothiocyanate compounds in the body longer -- and benefit more -- than others. Open Areas of Investigation: Laboratory Research Cruciferous vegetables are a large group, and each kind contains numerous vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals studied in the lab for cancer protection. Some of the more well-studied compounds include: Glucosinolates, which are broken down into isothiocyanates and indoles. Lab studies have shown these compounds decrease inflammation, a risk factor for cancer. The compounds also inhibit enzymes that activate carcinogens and stimulate enzymes that de-activate carcinogens.

Studies suggest the compounds "turn on" genes that suppress tumors, slowing cancer cell growth and stimulating a process called apoptosis in which cancer cells self-destruct. Some studies show that these substances may also shift the active form of estrogen into a weaker form. (High amounts of estrogen are a risk factor for certain hormone-linked cancers.) Carotenoids act as antioxidants. Beta-carotene, one of the more well-known carotenoids, also promotes cell communication that helps control abnormal cell growth. Vitamin C protects cells as an antioxidant and by supporting the immune system. Kaempferol, quercetin and anthocyanins provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. In cell and animal studies, they slow development of several stages and types of cancer. Folate helps maintain healthy DNA and keeps cancer-promoting genes “turned off.” Animal studies, however, suggest that exceptionally high amounts or intervention after cancer cells have formed might promote development of colon and perhaps other cancers. Open Areas of Investigation: Human Studies Earlier population studies found a strong link between greater consumption of cruciferous vegetables and lower risk of lung, colorectal, stomach, breast, prostate and other cancers.

Among more recent, well-designed studies, the specific link between cruciferous vegetables and reduced cancer risk is not as consistent or strong. One reason may have to do with specific gene-diet interactions that are only now coming to light. For example, scientists recently found that about half of the population does not carry a specific gene involved in determining how long the body retains -- and utilizes -- protective cruciferous compounds from the diet. More research is underway, including intervention trials investigating the possibility that isothiocyanates might interfere with prostate cancer progression. Quite a few studies link consuming too little dietary folate with increased risk of colorectal cancer or pre-cancerous polyps. Recent studies also show a link between relatively high amounts of folic acid -- the form of folate found in supplements and fortified foods -- and increased risk of colorectal cancer. There is no evidence that consuming high amounts of foods naturally high in folate increases cancer risk. AICR-Supported Studies Mechanisms of Anticarcinogenic Componentsfrom Cruciferous Vegetables 09A055: Choose compact, firm heads heavy for their size with no soft spots and no off-odors. Green leaves should be fresh with no yellowing.

Turnips are sweetest when small. Store: Wait to wash until just before use. Refrigerate in an unsealed plastic bag: broccoli, cauliflower and turnips for up to 5 days; others up to a week. Prepare: Steam, microwave, stir-fry or sauté to retain glucosinolates, folate and vitamin C. Boiling greens in a pot of water can cut content of these substances in half. Cook just until tender-crisp, with greens still bright. Overcooking makes them smelly and unattractive. Many are also delicious roasted or baked, especially turnips, Brussels sprouts, broccoli and cauliflower. Add to soup, or make them the star on their own. Many are delicious raw, perhaps dipped in hummus or spread with peanut butter. If the flavor, for example of Brussels sprouts, is too strong to enjoy raw, steam or blanch briefly, cool quickly in ice water and serve cold. Enjoy the depth of flavor they add to green salads. Try broccoli sprouts on salads or in sandwiches.

Cauliflower, Cabbage and Carrot Salad 1 small cauliflower, cut into florets 1 cup finely shredded red cabbage 2 medium carrots, grated 1 small red onion, finely chopped 1/4 cup chopped walnuts 2 Tbsp. chopped fresh parsley 1 Tbsp. white vinegar 1 Tbsp. extra virgin olive oil 1 Tbsp. low-fat mayonnaise Toss together cauliflower with cabbage, carrots, onion, walnuts and parsley. Whisk together vinegar, mustard. Add oil and mayo and whisk. Drizzle over salad and mix well. Makes 6 servings. Per Serving: 90 calories, 6 g total fat (1 g saturated fat), 7 g carbohydrates, 2 g protein, 2 g dietary fiber, 70 mg sodium. More Recipes Below are answers to some of the most frequently asked questions we get asked. Q: Which fruits and vegetables should I be eating? A: Eat as many different vegetables and fruits as you can. Variety is the key to obtaining the many protective phytochemicals. Each vegetable and fruit has its own profile of health-promoting substances.

The phytochemicals found in cantaloupe are different from those in broccoli or leeks or cherries. Try to include a lot of colors on your plate. Aim to eat some bright red, green, orange, blue, purple and yellow vegetables and fruits each day. Q: Should I buy organic foods whenever possible? A: There are many reasons to eat organic foods, but currently, there is no convincing evidence that shows a difference between organic and conventionally grown foods related to cancer risk. Studies show pesticide residues on conventionally grown foods are almost always within safety tolerance limits. If you are concerned about pesticide residues and can afford to spend more, organic produce may be a choice for you. Eating generous servings of a large variety of veggies and fruits - whether organic or not will benefit your health. The advantages of including more vegetables and fruits in your diet outweigh the potential risks from pesticides. Q: Can grilled meats really cause cancer? A: Lab studies show that exposing meats to direct flame, smoke and intense heat (like when you grill or broil) can cause the formation of carcinogens (cancer-causing substances).

Cooking methods that involve less heat, such as microwaving, baking, steaming and poaching, do not promote the formation of these substances. Several strategies you can use to cut carcinogen formation on meat include marinating, flipping frequently, removing excess fat from meat before cooking, and microwaving for part of the cooking time. So for delicious and healthful options, try grilling vegetables, veggie burgers and fruit slices and cut down on meat, fish and poultry. References Cavell, B.E., et al., Anti-angiogenic effects of dietary isothiocyanates: mechanisms of action and implications for human health. Biochemical pharmacology, 2011. 81(3): p. 327-36. Ambrosone, C.B. and L. Tang, Cruciferous vegetable intake and cancer prevention: role of nutrigenetics. Cancer prevention research, 2009. 2(4): p. 298-300. Zhang, Y., Cancer-preventive isothiocyanates: measurement of human exposure and mechanism of action. Mutation research, 2004. 555(1-2): p.

173-90. World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research, Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective, 2007: Washington, DC. p. 82-113. Keum, Y.S., W.S. Jeong, and A.N. Kong, Chemoprevention by isothiocyanates and their underlying molecular signaling mechanisms. Mutation research, 2004. 555(1-2): p. 191-202. Keck, A.S. and J.W. Finley, Cruciferous vegetables: cancer protective mechanisms of glucosinolate hydrolysis products and selenium. Integrative cancer therapies, 2004. 3(1): p. 5-12. Dashwood, R.H. and E. Ho, Dietary histone deacetylase inhibitors: from cells to mice to man. Seminars in cancer biology, 2007. 17(5): p. 363-9.

Clarke, J.D., et al., Differential effects of sulforaphane on histone deacetylases, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in normal prostate cells versus hyperplastic and cancerous prostate cells. Molecular nutrition & food research, 2011. 55(7): p. 999-1009. Gibellini, L., et al., Quercetin and cancer chemoprevention. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM, 2011. 2011: p. 591356. Calderon-Montano, J.M., et al., A review on the dietary flavonoid kaempferol. Mini reviews in medicinal chemistry, 2011. 11(4): p. 298-344. Duthie, S.J., Folate and cancer: how DNA damage, repair and methylation impact on colon carcinogenesis. Journal of inherited metabolic disease, 2011. 34(1): p. 101-9. Du, W., et al., Folate and fiber in the prevention of colorectal cancer: between shadows and the light.

World journal of gastroenterology : WJG, 2010. 16(8): p. 921-6. Kim, M.K. and J.H. Park, Conference on "Multidisciplinary approaches to nutritional problems". Symposium on "Nutrition and health". Cruciferous vegetable intake and the risk of human cancer: epidemiological evidence. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 2009. 68(1): p. 103-10. Giovannucci, E., et al., A prospective study of cruciferous vegetables and prostate cancer. Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology, 2003. 12(12): p. 1403-9. Seow, A., H. Vainio, and M.C. Yu, Effect of glutathione-S-transferase polymorphisms on the cancer preventive potential of isothiocyanates: an epidemiological perspective. Mutation research, 2005. 592(1-2): p. 58-67.

Lee, S.A., et al., Cruciferous vegetables, the GSTP1 Ile105Val genetic polymorphism, and breast cancer risk. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2008. 87(3): p. 753-60. Yang, G., et al., Isothiocyanate exposure, glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms, and colorectal cancer risk. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2010. 91(3): p. 704-11. Traka, M., et al., Broccoli consumption interacts with GSTM1 to perturb oncogenic signalling pathways in the prostate. PloS one, 2008. 3(7): p. e2568. Richman, E.L., P.R. Carroll, and J.M. Chan, Vegetable and fruit intake after diagnosis and risk of prostate cancer progression. International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer, 2011. Kubo, A., et al., Dietary factors and the risks of oesophageal adenocarcinoma and Barrett's oesophagus. Nutrition research reviews, 2010.

23(2): p. 230-46. Musa-Veloso, K., et al., Influence of observational study design on the interpretation of cancer risk reduction by carotenoids. Nutrition reviews, 2009. 67(9): p. 527-45. Gallicchio, L., et al., Carotenoids and the risk of developing lung cancer: a systematic review. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2008. 88(2): p. 372-83. Kim, D.H., et al., Pooled analyses of 13 prospective cohort studies on folate intake and colon cancer. Cancer causes & control : CCC, 2010. 21(11): p. 1919-30. McKillop, D.J., et al., The effect of different cooking methods on folate retention in various foods that are amongst the major contributors to folate intake in the UK diet. The British journal of nutrition, 2002. 88(6): p. 681-8. Song, L. and P.J.

Thornalley, Effect of storage, processing and cooking on glucosinolate content of Brassica vegetables. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association, 2007. 45(2): p. 216-24. McNaughton, S.A. and G.C. Marks, Development of a food composition database for the estimation of dietary intakes of glucosinolates, the biologically active constituents of cruciferous vegetables. The British journal of nutrition, 2003. 90(3): p. 687-97. Cartea, M.E., et al., Phenolic compounds in Brassica vegetables. Molecules, 2011. 16(1): p. 251-80. Shaughnessy, D.T., et al., Inhibition of fried meat-induced colorectal DNA damage and altered systemic genotoxicity in humans by crucifera, chlorophyllin, and yogurt. PloS one, 2011. 6(4): p. e18707.

Zhang, Y., Allyl isothiocyanate as a cancer chemopreventive phytochemical. Molecular nutrition & food research, 2010. 54(1): p. 127-35. December About AICR We fund cutting-edge research and give people practical tools and information to help them prevent — and survive — cancer. Do Most Flowers Have 5 Petals? - The New York Times The New York Times Science |Do Most Flowers Have 5 Petals? Search Do Most Flowers Have 5 Petals? Q&A Continue reading the main story Q. Most flowers I see have five petals. Is this generally true, and if so, why? A. Many showy cultivated plants do indeed have four or five petals, said Melanie Sifton, vice president of horticulture at Brooklyn Botanic Garden , but another big plant category, the monocots, often have three petals or multiples of three. Even then, the numbers and arrangements vary widely. For example, grasses, palms and orchids are all monocots, but they can have great diversity in petal structure and flower shape. “Essentially, this is all about sex,” Ms. Sifton said.

Most petals are modified leaves that surround a plant’s sexual parts and have evolved in many permutations of color and arrangement to encourage pollination, attract pollinators or both. Photo Credit Victoria Roberts For instance, plants with large white petals, like the moonflower Ipomoea alba , are well adapted to attract moths for pollination, Ms. Sifton said. Some flowers have fused petals that look more like funnels or bells, and other flowers have asymmetrically enlarged petals, like orchids. Such arrangements not only attract pollinators visually, they can also act as traps, food mimics and landing pads for pollinators. Other plants, like those in the aster family, might look as if they have hundreds of petals in a circle around a central core, but actually have many small flowers densely arranged around a central disk of even more flowers. “To complicate this matter further, there are other flower parts that might look like petals, but are more accurately identified as sepals or tepals,” Ms. Sifton said. Cruciferous Vegetables and Cancer Prevention - National Cancer Institute Cruciferous Vegetables and Cancer Prevention On This Page What are cruciferous vegetables? Cruciferous vegetables are part of the Brassica genus of plants.

They include the following vegetables, among others: Arugula Wasabi Why are cancer researchers studying cruciferous vegetables? Cruciferous vegetables are rich in nutrients, including several carotenoids ( beta-carotene , lutein, zeaxanthin); vitamins C, E, and K; folate ; and minerals. They also are a good fiber source. In addition, cruciferous vegetables contain a group of substances known as glucosinolates, which are sulfur-containing chemicals. These chemicals are responsible for the pungent aroma and bitter flavor of cruciferous vegetables. During food preparation, chewing, and digestion, the glucosinolates in cruciferous vegetables are broken down to form biologically active compounds such as indoles , nitriles, thiocyanates, and isothiocyanates ( 1 ). Indole-3-carbinol (an indole) and sulforaphane (an isothiocyanate) have been most frequently examined for their anticancer effects. Indoles and isothiocyanates have been found to inhibit the development of cancer in several organs in rats and mice, including the bladder, breast, colon, liver, lung, and stomach ( 2 , 3 ).

Studies in animals and experiments with cells grown in the laboratory have identified several potential ways in which these compounds may help prevent cancer: They help protect cells from DNA damage. They help inactivate carcinogens. They have antiviral and antibacterial effects. They have anti-inflammatory effects. They induce cell death (apoptosis). They inhibit tumor blood vessel formation (angiogenesis) and tumor cell migration (needed for metastasis). Studies in humans, however, have shown mixed results. Is there evidence that cruciferous vegetables can help reduce cancer risk in people? Researchers have investigated possible associations between intake of cruciferous vegetables and the risk of cancer. The evidence has been reviewed by various experts. Key studies regarding four common forms of cancer are described briefly below. Prostate cancer: Cohort studies in the Netherlands ( 4 ), United States ( 5 ), and Europe ( 6 ) have examined a wide range of daily cruciferous vegetable intakes and found little or no association with prostate cancer risk. However, some case-control studies have found that people who ate greater amounts of cruciferous vegetables had a lower risk of prostate cancer ( 7 , 8 ).

Colorectal cancer: Cohort studies in the United States and the Netherlands have generally found no association between cruciferous vegetable intake and colorectal cancer risk ( 9-11 ). The exception is one study in the Netherlands—the Netherlands Cohort Study on Diet and Cancer—in which women (but not men) who had a high intake of cruciferous vegetables had a reduced risk of colon (but not rectal) cancer ( 12 ). Lung cancer: Cohort studies in Europe, the Netherlands, and the United States have had varying results ( 13-15 ). Most studies have reported little association, but one U.S. analysis—using data from the Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals’ Follow-up Study—showed that women who ate more than 5 servings of cruciferous vegetables per week had a lower risk of lung cancer ( 16 ). Breast cancer: One case-control study found that women who ate greater amounts of cruciferous vegetables had a lower risk of breast cancer ( 17 ). A meta-analysis of studies conducted in the United States, Canada, Sweden, and the Netherlands found no association between cruciferous vegetable intake and breast cancer risk ( 18 ).

An additional cohort study of women in the United States similarly showed only a weak association with breast cancer risk ( 19 ). A few studies have shown that the bioactive components of cruciferous vegetables can have beneficial effects on biomarkers of cancer-related processes in people. For example, one study found that indole-3-carbinol was more effective than placebo in reducing the growth of abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix ( 20 ). In addition, several case-control studies have shown that specific forms of the gene that encodes glutathione S-transferase, which is the enzyme that metabolizes and helps eliminate isothiocyanates from the body, may influence the association between cruciferous vegetable intake and human lung and colorectal cancer risk ( 21-23 ). Are cruciferous vegetables part of a healthy diet? The federal government’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 recommend consuming a variety of vegetables each day. Different vegetables are rich in different nutrients. Vegetables are categorized into five subgroups: dark-green, red and orange, beans and peas (legumes), starchy, and other vegetables. Cruciferous vegetables fall into the “dark-green vegetables” category and the “other vegetables” category.

More information about vegetables and diet, including how much of these foods should be eaten daily or weekly, is available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture website Choose My Plate . Higher consumption of vegetables in general may protect against some diseases, including some types of cancer. However, when researchers try to distinguish cruciferous vegetables from other foods in the diet, it can be challenging to get clear results because study participants may have trouble remembering precisely what they ate. Also, people who eat cruciferous vegetables may be more likely than people who don’t to have other healthy behaviors that reduce disease risk. It is also possible that some people, because of their genetic background, metabolize dietary isothiocyanates differently. However, research has not yet revealed a specific group of people who, because of their genetics, benefit more than other people from eating cruciferous vegetables. Selected References Hayes JD, Kelleher MO, Eggleston IM. The cancer chemopreventive actions of phytochemicals derived from glucosinolates. European Journal of Nutrition 2008;47 Suppl 2:73-88.

Question: A cruciferous plant has how many petals?
Answer: Four