Washington Salmon and Steelhead Species Salmonscape Salmon and Steelhead Species in Washington Salmon and steelhead have long played an important role in the ecology, economy and culture of the Pacific Northwest, providing a source of food for humans and wildlife alike. Unfortunately, many naturally spawning stocks are struggling to survive significant losses in spawning and rearing habitat and other factors related to growth in the region's human population over the past century. There are five species of Pacific salmon in Washington - chinook, coho, chum, pink and sockeye - all emerge from eggs and rear in freshwater, migrate to sea to feed, then return to their natal waters to spawn. Scientists use the term "salmonid" to refer to salmon, steelhead and anadromous trout species that share this anadromous lifecycle. Oftentimes "salmon and steelhead" will be used as well as "salmon" to generally refer to all salmon and steelhead species. Each salmonid species is adapted to the natural conditions found in Washington rivers and in the ocean.

Salmon and steelhead are further divided into 486 known "populations," each a scientifically designated, biologically distinct group of individuals (e.g., Lower Columbia River Spring Chinook, Skagit River coho) adapted to specific streams, estuaries and other conditions. When thousands of mature salmon spawn and die, they do far more than produce another generation. They also provide a source of nutrition, arriving in the fall, that allows many animals to survive the harshness of winter. Where salmon runs have become extinct, the local ecosystem suffers. Species such as bear, eagle, mink and river otter suffer large population losses when salmon runs decline. What Salmon need Although the habitat requirements of each species of salmon and steelhead differ somewhat, all share some common habitat needs to support life stage development (Spence et al. 1996). Common habitat functions include: stable incubation environment (flow regime/water quantity), cool, well-oxygenated, unpolluted water (water quality), cover (habitat structure), sufficient sources of prey (food source), and unimpeded access to off-channel areas and saline waters (access). How are Washington's Salmon and Steelhead doing?

In 1991, the federal government declared Snake River sockeye salmon as endangered. In the next few years, 16 more geographically distinct subgroups (i.e., evolutionarily significant units composed of several populations) of Chinook, coho, chum, and sockeye salmon, as well as several steelhead groups, were listed as either threatened or endangered. By 1999 75% of the state was covered by federal listings of at-risk salmon. Washington's 2010 State of the Salmon in Watershed Report provided an overview of which salmon and steelhead populations are increasing, decreasing or showing no changes. For status and information on specific populations in Washington you can click on each species of "salmonid" below and get a listing of all the populations within that species name: Sockeye (Red) Salmon Identification & Information | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife Other names: red salmon, blueback (Columbia and Quinault Rivers), kokanee or "silver trout" (landlocked form) Average size: 5-8 lbs, up to 15 lbs Sockeye are the most flavorful Pacific salmon.

In Washington, sockeye are found in Lake Washington, Baker Lake, Ozette Lake, Quinault Lake, and Lake Wenatchee. Spawning Sockeye are unique in that they require a lake to rear in as fry, so the river they choose to spawn in must have a lake in the system. This seems to be the most important criteria for choosing a spawning ground, as sockeye adapt to a range of water velocities and substrates. Large rivers that supplied sufficient room for spawning and rearing historically supported huge runs of sockeye, numbering into the millions. One such run still exists today on the Adams River in British Columbia, a tributary to the Fraser River. The Canadian government has built viewing platforms for visitors, and annual runs of over a million sockeye are common. Rearing Juvenile sockeye rear for one or two years in a lake, although they are also found in the inlet and outlet streams of the lake. Sockeye fry are often preyed on by resident lake fish, and because they use freshwater year-round, they are susceptible to low water quality. TERMS Alevin - The lifestage of a salmonid between egg and fry.

An alevin looks like a fish with a huge pot belly, which is the remaining egg sac. Alevin remain protected in the gravel riverbed, obtaining nutrition from the egg sac until they are large enough to fend for themselves in the stream. Anadromous - Fish that live part or the majority of their lives in saltwater, but return to freshwater to spawn. Emergence - The act of salmon fry leaving the gravel nest. Fry - A juvenile salmonid that has absorbed its egg sac and is rearing in the stream; the stage of development between an alevin and a parr. Kype - The hooked jaw many male salmon develop during spawning. Parr - Also known as fingerling. A large juvenile salmonid, one between a fry and a smolt. Smolt - A juvenile salmonid which has reared in-stream and is preparing to enter the ocean. Smolts exchange the spotted camouflage of the stream for the chrome of the ocean. Substrate - The material which comprises a stream bottom.

Coho (Silver) Salmon Identification & Information | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife Other names: silver Average size: 6-12 lbs, up to 31 lbs Coho are a very popular sport fish in Puget Sound. This species uses coastal streams and tributaries, and is often present in small neighborhood streams. Coho can even be found in urban settings if their needs of cold, clean, year-round water are met. Spawning Coho spawn in small coastal streams and the tributaries of larger rivers. They prefer areas of mid-velocity water with small to medium sized gravels. Because they use small streams with limited space, they must use many such streams to successfully reproduce, which is why coho can be found in virtually every small coastal stream with a year-round flow. Returning coho often gather at the mouths of streams and wait for the water flow to rise, such as after a rain storm, before heading upstream. The higher flows and deeper water enable the fish to pass obstacles, such as logs across the stream or beaver dams, that would otherwise be impassable. Rearing Coho have a very regular life history.

They are deposited in the gravel as eggs in the fall, emerge from the gravel the next spring, and in their second spring go to sea, about 18 months after being deposited. Coho fry are usually found in the pools of small coastal streams and the tributaries of larger rivers. TERMS Alevin - The lifestage of a salmonid between egg and fry. An alevin looks like a fish with a huge pot belly, which is the remaining egg sac. Alevin remain protected in the gravel riverbed, obtaining nutrition from the egg sac until they are large enough to fend for themselves in the stream. Anadromous - Fish that live part or the majority of their lives in saltwater, but return to freshwater to spawn. Emergence - The act of salmon fry leaving the gravel nest. Fry - A juvenile salmonid that has absorbed its egg sac and is rearing in the stream; the stage of development between an alevin and a parr. Kype - The hooked jaw many male salmon develop during spawning. Parr - Also known as fingerling. A large juvenile salmonid, one between a fry and a smolt.

Smolt - A juvenile salmonid which has reared in-stream and is preparing to enter the ocean. Smolts exchange the spotted camouflage of the stream for the chrome of the ocean. Substrate - The material which comprises a stream bottom. Pacific Salmon (Endangered Species), Wildlife Species Information: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Line Art (3.6 K image) [US FWS Line Art by Robert Savannah] The upriver salmon migration is one of nature's most exciting dramas. But to the five species of Pacific salmon (chinook, chum, coho, pink, and sockeye), it is a long, strenuous, desperate race against time, with every obstacle taking its toll. Pacific salmon belong to a group called anadromous fish that includes Atlantic salmon, sturgeon, lampreys, shad, herring, sea- run cutthroat trout, and steelhead trout. These species hatch and live the first part of their lives in fresh water, then migrate to the ocean to spend their adult lives, which may be as short as 6 months or as long as 7 years. When they reach sexual maturity, they return to the freshwater stream of their origin to lay their eggs.

Pacific salmon make the round trip only once, but some Atlantic salmon may repeat the cycle several times. Migration between fresh and salt water occurs during every season of the year, depending on latitude and genetic characteristics of the fish. Groups of fish that migrate together are called runs or stocks. Salmon spawn in virtually all types of freshwater habitat, from intertidal areas to high mountain streams. Pacific salmon may swim hundreds, even thousands, of miles to get back to the stream where they hatched. However, only a small percentage of salmon live to reach their natal stream or spawning grounds. Those males that survive the trip are often gaunt, with grotesquely humped backs, hooked jaws, and battle-torn fins. The females are swollen with a pound or more of eggs. Both have large white patches of bruised skin on their backs and sides. Since salmon do not feed once they leave the ocean, some will die on the way because they lack enough stored body fat to make the trip. Many will be caught in fishermen's nets. Those that evade the nets may have to swim through polluted waters near cities.

Many must make their way over power dams, leaping up from one tiny pool to the next along cement stairstep cascades called fish ladders. In the tributary streams, waterfalls and rapids are steep and swift enough to eliminate all but the strongest. Otters, eagles, and bears stalk the salmon in shallow riffles. Once on the spawning grounds, the fish battle each other: females against females for places to nest, males against males for available females. The female builds her nest, called a redd, by agitating the bottom gravel with her fins and tail, and bending her body into a U shape first one way, then the other. As soon as she has excavated a depression, she settles onto it and deposits her first batch of eggs, or roe. The male then moves alongside and deposits his sperm, called milt, over the roe. The female rakes her tail back and forth to cover the redd with loose gravel. She then excavates her next redd a short distance upstream. The process continues until all the roe and milt have been deposited. One pair of salmon may have as many as seven redds, with four or five being the average. The salmon die within a few days of spawning.

The translucent salmon eggs range in color from pale yellowish-orange to dark reddish-orange. The color varies both by species and within species and is determined by water temperature, sediment composition, age, and other factors. The eggs vary in size from the tiny sockeye roe (average 1/4 inch or 5.6 mm) to the large chum roe (average almost 1/2 inch or 8.3 mm). Incubation time ranges from 5 to 10 weeks. The newly hatched fish are called fry, or sometimes sac fry because they continue to feed on the yolk sac attached to their bellies. Depending on water temperature, species, and other factors, they may stay in the gravel for several weeks before swimming up into the open water of the stream, where they feed on plankton and other tiny aquatic organisms. By the time they reach fingerling size (approximately 3 inches), most pink and chum salmon have begun the long journey downstream and out to sea. Sockeye, coho, and most chinook spend from 1 to 2 years in fresh water before heading out to sea.

As the stream current carries the young salmon tail-first to the ocean, where they will spend the majority of their lives, their bodies undergo physical and chemical changes to enable them to survive in salt water. Most adult Pacific salmon species feed on aquatic insects and small fish. However, sockeye are filter feeders. They take in water full of plankton, and as the water flows back out of their mouths, specialized organs called gill rakers act like strainers, holding the plankton in to be swallowed. Some species of Pacific salmon stay within a few hundred miles of their home river, while others disperse north, south, west, or in the case of salmon originating in Russian and Japanese rivers and streams, east, into feeding grounds in the Aleutian Islands and other areas of the north Pacific. Chinook salmon may travel as far as 2,500 miles from their home stream and stay out at sea 4 to 7 years. Pink salmon, on the other hand, seldom range more than 150 miles from the mouth of their home river or stream where they hatch in the fall, and turn homeward in the spring, sometimes traveling 45 miles per day to reach their spawning grounds.

Pacific salmon encounter increasing human-caused hazards in their migrations to and from spawning grounds. All salmonids require pure, well-oxygenated cold water and are one of the first species to suffer when water quality is degraded. Many salmon stocks are seriously threatened by what are called the "four H's": Habitat destruction, Hydroelectric dams on migratory rivers, over-Harvest of rare stocks, and competition with Hatchery fish. Some stocks are so severely reduced that they have been listed as endangered or threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. Endangered means they are likely to become extinct. Threatened means they are likely to become endangered in the near future. The winter-run chinook salmon originating in California's Sacramento River was listed as threatened in 1990, but was reclassified to endangered in 1994. In 1992, the Snake River stock of sockeye salmon was listed as endangered wherever found. The spring-summer and fall runs of chinook originating in Idaho's Snake River were listed as threatened in 1992. Others are being considered for listing, including the Columbia River (Washington) chinook and Oregon Coast coho salmon.

A 1991 report by the American Fisheries Society indicated that 214 of about 400 stocks of salmon, steelhead, and sea-run cutthroat trout in the Northwest and California are at risk of extinction. The report also indicated that 106 are already extinct. Primary listing and recovery responsibilities for Pacific salmon belong to the Department of Commerce's National Marine Fisheries Service. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other federal and state agencies also have recovery responsibilities. The largest of the Pacific salmon, chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) average about 24 pounds when they return to their natal river to spawn, most after 2 or 3 years at sea. The chinook is the least abundant of the Pacific salmon. Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), fourth in Pacific fishery abundance, is the number one sport fish. It spends only one winter at sea, returning the next fall to spawn. It averages about 10 pounds when full grown.

Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) make up about 25 percent of the West Coast catch, and chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) make up about 13 percent. Both follow similar migration paths in the Pacific and reach a common weight of about 12 pounds before returning to their natal river to spawn. Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), the smallest of the Pacific salmon, average only about 3 to 5 pounds. However, they make up more than half the total West Coast commercial catch. Pink salmon seldom travel more than 150 miles from the mouth of their natal river. Keywords: animals, fish, endangered, species, salmon Types of Salmon - Salmon Fishing Now Types of Salmon There are 7 types of Salmon Chinook Chinook salmon are the most well known type of salmon in North America. Also known as King salmon, they are the largest of the salmon species. Americans often refer to Chinook as “Kings” because they are the “King” of salmon. Read more about Chinook… Coho Coho salmon are seen as the most hard fighting salmon for their size and are fun on light tackle.

Americans often call them “Silvers” probably because they don’t turn color quite as quickly while heading up the rivers to spawn. Read more about Coho… Sockeye Sockeye salmon are seen as the best eating salmon. They are also the most tricky to catch unless they are in large schools. Most Sockeye salmon are caught in commercial seine nets. During the 1980’s sportsfisherman started to figure out how to catch sockeye on a fishing line. Read more about Sockeye salmon… Chum Chum salmon are generally harvested by commercial fisherman in seine nets as well. The Chum eggs are a prize for many Japanese people who love caviar. Chum salmon look quite ugly by the time they make their way up the river to spawn. Read more about Chum salmon… Pinks Pink salmon are seen as the least desired to catch as they are quite small, don’t fight much and give off quite a putrid smell. They are the most plentiful of the salmon species. Read more about Pink salmon…. Atlantic Salmon Wild Atlantic salmon are on the east coast of North America, the Great Lakes as well as in Europe.

Atlantic salmon are the most durable of the salmon species making them the prime salmon to put in “farms”. Not to be confused with “Hatchery” salmon, farmed alantic salmon are reared all over the world. Be careful when buying salmon to make sure that you are buying wild salmon and not farmed salmon. Wild Atlantic salmon are a hard fighting salmon and lots of fun to play. Steelhead Steelhead are ocean going rainbow trout. Part of the salmon family, Steelhead spend most of their time in the ocean, however, they are rarely caught here and are most well known for being caught in rivers as they come back to spawn. Steelhead will often spawn several times before they die unlike the other salmon species. Salmon Biology - Salmon Fishing Now Salmon Biology Salmon Biology Starting point The life cycle of a salmon doesn’t happen by chance. The instincts of a salmon to find the river it came out of before spawning are amazing. Once the female salmon decides it has reached its place of spawning, it digs a shallow redd in the riverbed. A Redd is a hollow in a sandy or gravel river bed. A salmon usually finds a spot to dig out with its hooked nose.

The redd becomes a nest of sorts for the salmon to lay its eggs. Redds are easily destroyed by animals or humans crossing the river, as well as dirt being washed over the eggs. Clearcut logging too close to a river can cause dirt to erode off the surrounding land into the water shed. Salmon Eggs Salmon need 2-3 months to hatch out of the egg. During this period, their eyes and other organs can be seen developing through the translucent shell of the egg. Colder water can mean a longer incubation period. Alevin Once the salmon is hatched, it is called an Alevin and is about 1 inch in length. It carries a yolk sac which is like its lunch bag. The yolk sac provides vitamins, sugars, minerals and protein necessary to carry out its first few months while it develops its mouth, digestive system and excretory organs. It is completely depended on this sac for survival. During this few months, the Alevin hides in and around the gravel nest until the sac is completely absorbed. When it emerges from the nest, it is about 1.5 inches long. Fry Once the Alevin consumes its egg sac it is called a fry.

It is now ready to leave the gravel area in the stream bed and look for food. The fry must hide around rocks and among vegetation to avoid birds, insects and other fish. However, they still need to feed to survive. Chum and Pink salmon take off immediately to the ocean. Parr Once the salmon starts to get its vertical markings, it is called a Parr. It is in this stage that the 3 other species are getting bigger in preparation for salt water. Chinook wait up to six months while Coho can hang around for as long as one year. Sockeye stay for 1-3 years before beginning the journey to the sea. As mentioned on the sockeye page, they need to be raised in a freshwater lake which is different from the other types of salmon. Smolt When a juvenile salmon loses its vertical markings on its body and turns silvery in color, it is now considered a Smolt. They start schooling together in large groups and at this time the young salmon will adjust their bodies to saltwater, allowing them to swim out into the Pacific Ocean to feed and grow into adult salmon. Science - North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission What is an Anadromous Fish?

Anadromous fish migrate from freshwater where they hatch to the ocean where they spend most of their lives and grow large before returning to freshwater to spawn. Common anadromous fish include salmon, smelt, sturgeon, and lamprey. For the purposes of NPAFC, anadromous fish that migrate into the Convention Area and are listed in the Convention Annex include pink, chum, sockeye, coho, Chinook, and cherry salmon and steelhead trout. What are Pacific Salmon? Pacific salmon are anadromous fish of the genus Oncorhynchus spp. that are hatched in freshwater and spend most of their lives rearing in the ocean before returning to freshwater to spawn. Pacific salmon are semelparous, meaning that after spawning once, all the adults die. There are six species of Pacific salmon: pink , chum , sockeye , coho , Chinook , and cherry salmon . Steelhead trout are also in the genus Oncorhynchus. A steelhead is the anadromous form of the rainbow trout and can make extensive oceanic migrations in the North Pacific.

Unlike Pacific salmon, which are semelparous, steelhead are iteroparous, meaning they can survive spawning and repeat the migration to the ocean and return to freshwater to spawn more than once. Pacific Salmon Species Горбуша (Gorbusha) Russian Pink salmon are the most abundant species of Pacific salmon and originate both in Asia and North America. Upon emergence, pink salmon fry migrate quickly to the sea and grow rapidly as they make extensive feeding migrations. Pink salmon have a fixed two-year life cycle. After eighteen months in the ocean, maturing fish return to their river of origin to spawn. An odd-year dominance cycle of pink salmon exists in many regions of the North Pacific, meaning that the number of adults returning to freshwater in an odd-numbered year is much higher than the number returning in an even-numbered year. Adults are the smallest Pacific salmon and range from 45-55 cm in length and 1.0-2.5 Kg in weight. Pink salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Pink salmon have large oval black spots on the back (dorsolaterally) of the body and on both lobes of the tail fin. Scales are very small.

A large hump develops on the back of maturing males. The meat is pink, relatively soft, and is relatively low in fat content compared with Chinook and sockeye salmon. Кета (Keta) Russian Chum salmon are the second most abundant species of Pacific salmon and originate both in Asia and North America. The fish spawn in streams and the fry migrate to the sea soon after emergence from the gravel. Immature chum salmon distribute themselves widely over the North Pacific Ocean, and the maturing adults return to the home streams in summer or autumn at various ages, usually after spending 2 to 5 winters at sea. Adults have been reported up to 108.8 cm in length and 20.8 kg in weight. Chum salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Chum salmon do not have spots on the body or tail. The tail fin has distinct silver streaks. Compared with other Pacific salmon, the caudal peduncle is relatively narrow and the pupil of the eye is relatively large. The meat is pale pink, slightly firm, and relatively low in fat content compared with Chinook and sockeye salmon.

Нерка (Nerka) Russian Sockeye salmon are the third most abundant species of Pacific salmon and originate both in Asia and North America. Typically juvenile sockeye salmon utilize lakes for rearing areas for one to three years after emergence from the gravel, but some populations can utilize stream areas for rearing and may migrate to sea soon after emergence. Sockeye salmon spend 1-4 years in the ocean before returning to fresh water to spawn. Body size of adults is variable, but can range 45-60 cm in length and 1.6-3.2 Kg in weight. Sockeye salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Sockeye salmon do not have black spots present on the body or tail. Scales are neatly arranged in regular rows on the body. Meat color is bright red, relatively firm, and high in fat content compared to chum and pink salmon. Кижуч (Kizhutch) Russian Coho salmon originate both in Asia and North America. Coho salmon fry generally remain in freshwater for one to two years and then migrate to the ocean. After approximately 18 months at sea, the fish return to their freshwater spawning areas.

The adult size is variable with lengths ranging from 40-88 cm and weights from 1.2-6.8 kg. Coho salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Coho salmon have small black spots on the back that may be also present on the upper lobe of the tail. The tail has bright but not well-demarcated silver coloration. The caudal peduncle is relatively broad and the base of the teeth in the lower jaw is white. The meat is pink and firm and can have a drier texture than other Pacific salmon species when cooked. Чавыча (Tshawytscha) Russian Chinook salmon originate both in Asia and North America. Chinook salmon are not as abundant as chum, pink, and sockeye salmon and can grow to a body size larger than other Pacific Salmon. Their life history includes an array of variations. All Chinook salmon die after spawning (semelparous). "Stream-type" Chinook salmon spend one year as fry or parr in fresh water before migrating to the sea. Typically, this type will return to their natal river in the spring or summer several months prior to spawning.

"Ocean-type" Chinook salmon migrate to sea during their first year of life, normally within three months after emergence from the river gravel, and return to their natal river in the fall shortly before spawning. The length of adults varies from 58 to 89 cm, or larger. The typical weight range of the Chinook salmon is 4.5 to 22.5 kg. How to distinguish the ocean phase: Chinook salmon have small round black spots on the back and both lobes of the tail fin and black color along the base of the teeth in the lower jaw. Meat color is pink, although some Chinook salmon have white meat due to the difference in how they process pigments in the food they consume. The meat is quite firm and has a relatively high fat content compared to chum and pink salmon. Сима (Sima) Russian Cherry salmon originate only in Asia. Most of them mature at three or four years of age, after spending one or more years in rivers and one winter in the ocean. All anadromous cherry salmon die after spawning (semelparous).

They return to the natal river in March-May, spend the summer in the river, and move to headwaters for spawning in the fall. The size of adults varies greatly, generally 50 cm or more in length and 2-2.5 Kg or more in weight. How to distinguish the ocean phase: Cherry salmon most closely resemble coho salmon. Cherry salmon have small black spots on the back and a dark underlying hue under its silvery scales. The meat is bright red and has a firm texture, and it is more moist and fatty than coho salmon. Steelhead Trout Стальноголовая форель, микижа (Raduzhnaya forel) Russian Steelhead trout is the anadromous form of rainbow trout. Steelhead trout originate both North America and Asia. Most steelhead remain in freshwater for 2-3 years, spend 2-3 years in the ocean, and return to the natal river to spawn. Some steelhead may spawn more than once (iteroparous). Typical sizes of adults range 50-58 cm in length and 1.4-6.8 Kg in weight.

How to distinguish the ocean phase: Steelhead trout have small black spots present on the head, back, and tail fin. Silver marking on the tail is confined to the center area. The head is relatively small and the tail relatively large as compared to Pacific salmon. The tail is not forked. Meat is light pink and the texture is firm. For salmon recipes, click here . How Atlantic salmon is different from Pacific Salmon Atlantic salmon is one species Salmo salar. (Pacific salmon comprise six species.) Prior to introductions by humans, Atlantic salmon historical distribution is the North Atlantic, breeding in rivers of Western Europe, Iceland, Greenland, and the East coast of North America. Atlantic salmon is iteroparous, unlike Pacific salmon which is semelparous. Iteroparous means that Atlantic salmon, like steelhead, can survive spawning, return to the ocean, and repeat the migration to freshwater and spawn more than once. Ocean-run Atlantic salmon have large conspicuous black spots above the lateral line, and on the top and sides of the head on the gill cover.

(Pacific salmon do not have black spots on the gill cover.) The North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization is the international organization responsible for the conservation, restoration, and national management of wild Atlantic salmon stocks (NASCO; ) Wild Atlantic salmon catch comprises less than 0.1% of farmed Atlantic salmon harvest while wild Pacific salmon catch exceeds farmed Pacific salmon production (mostly coho and Chinook) by more than 5 times. Trout and Salmon Trout and Salmon Spawning sockeye salmon Trouts and salmon all belong to one large group, the Order Salmoniformes. They are often called "salmonids" because they belong in the Family Salmonidae. Members of this group are found around the world, not only in streams and rivers, but also in lakes and oceans. Salmonids tend to prefer cool temperatures; they can be found even in the Arctic Ocean. The Salmonidae include "true" trouts such as rainbow, brown, cutthroat, Gila, Apache, and golden. Other fish that we also call trouts are not really, but are "chars," like the lake, bull, and brook trout, and Dolly Vardens. Whitefish, ciscos, and graylings are also salmonids.

The "salmon" include chinook (king), coho (silver), chum (dog), pink, sockeye, kokanee, and Atlantic salmon. "True" trouts and Pacific salmon have latin names that begin with the genus name Oncorhynchus, while brown trout and Atlantic salmon have the genus name Salmo. The chars have the genus name Salvelinus, and there are also the Coregonus (whitefish and ciscos). Salmonids are considered to be a "primitive" fish: they developed earlier than most other fishes. They all have an adipose fin (a small, fatty fin between the dorsal fin and the tail), the function of which no one yet knows. They are all predators that eat other fish, and they all have a way of swimming that is called sub-carangiform; that is, they slowly wave most of the body in order to swim forward, with the head waving a little less than the posterior part of the body. Many of them migrate up streams and rivers to spawn and return downstream--to a lake or ocean--when they mature.

Fishes that do this are called anadromous (an-AD-reh-mus), and include most salmon, some trouts, striped bass, sturgeon, lampreys, shad, and herring. (Eels are catadromous: they live in freshwater and migrate to the ocean to breed). Rainbow trout are an anadromous salmonid. Rainbows are called "steelhead" when they are at sea even though they are still the same species, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Other trouts can be found in the ocean as well. Brook trout also often go to sea from northeastern North American streams, but return to their home streams in winter. Anadromous brown trout and brook trout (once believed to be the same species) are both called "sea trout" when they are at sea. Anadromous cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarkii) are called "sea-run cutthroat" when at sea. Many Dolly Varden also turn anadromous. Often, the main factor in whether trouts migrate to sea seems to be whether the coast is near enough to their home streams.

Rainbow trout may be considered land-locked (they never go to sea). Most salmon go to sea, but "kokanee" are land-locked sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). Adult kokanee are smaller than adult sockeye, and they spend their adult lives in lakes or streams instead of the ocean. Salmonids that live in streams, such as trout, some chars, and very young salmon, tend to be more colorful and smaller in size than their ocean-faring cousins. Because they have smaller mouths, they eat smaller food. They begin small, with microscopic cladocerans and copepods, and build up as they grow to aquatic invertebrates like flies, worms, and fly nymphs. Eventually, they will be come so large that they are capable of eating other fish, including younger versions of themselves! Many sea-going salmonids eat large amounts of shrimp-like copepods that have carotenoid pigments. These orange pigments will be transferred to their flesh. That is why some salmonids, like rainbows, chinook and coho salmon, and Atlantic salmon have such bright orange meat.

Sockeye salmon also have an orange tint to their flesh, but when they begin their run upriver to spawn, the orange tint migrates to their skin. Thus their skin becomes bright red, while their flesh turns white. Chum salmon eat mostly jellyfish, and so as you might guess, their flesh is lighter colored--because jellyfish have no carotenoid pigments. Salmon have a fascinating life-cycle. They start life in streams, migrate to the ocean to grow big and fat, and return to the same stream to spawn (to reproduce) and then die. Their deteriorating flesh then provides the nutrients that nourish their young when they hatch. There are exceptions, of course. We've already mentioned that kokanee go to lakes instead of the sea. Chum and pink hardly spend any time at all in their streams, while chinook and coho spend one or two years in them. When adult salmon and anadromous trouts go to sea they turn a bright, silvery color to camoflage themselves from large predators. Trout that stay in their home streams remain colorful.

When adult salmon return to their streams at the end of their lives to spawn, they stop eating and change into brightly colored animals, flashing red and often green. Spawning salmon, especially the males, change shape as well, developing large, vicious looking teeth, curved jaws, and humped backs. They somehow manage to find, most of the time, the very same stream they were spawned in so long ago. They endure many hardships--starvation, disease, and obstacles--to reach the shallow headwaters of their birth. Once there, they make nests in gravel nests (redds), deposit their eggs, fertilize them, and cover them back up. These salmon are now finished with their lives, and die. Spawning coho salmon Underneath the gravel, the large eggs receive oxygen from the water that runs between the rocks. When they hatch, the small fish, with yolks still attached to their bellies, are called alevin. The photo on the left shows two alevin and an egg. When the yolk sacs are gone, they will have to begin eating, so they leave the gravel as fry, shown in the middle photo.

The young salmon will spend most of the rest of their time in the stream as parr, in the photo on the right. Salmon parr look almost alike, and species are hard to tell apart. Most of them are small, silvery, and have dark, vertical blotches down their sides. Two alevins and an egg Fry Parr When it is time for the young salmon to go to sea, they will smoltify. That is, they will turn into smolts and become the silvery color that they will have in the ocean. They also change their body chemistry so that they can withstand exposure to saltwater. (When a fish lives in fresh water, it must work to retain enough salt in its blood. When it enters salt water, it must expel salt from its blood). They swim, taking the long, perilous journey downstream to the ocean. Smolts must avoid birds like eagles, osprey, and kingfishers, and large fish, like squawfish and trout. They may find themselves trapped for too long in the high temperatures of a reservoir behind a dam, or suffer injury and death while trying to get through a dam.

When they finally reach the estuary--the place where river and ocean meet and their waters mingle--they will spend some time there, getting used to the saltwater, new food, and new predators. When they are ready, they will begin their sea voyage. Each run of salmon has its own destination, and some will go farther and range wider than others. All, however, will come home again. Ocean-run chinook salmon If you have comments or suggestions, email me at chaya7@ix.netcom.com Farmed salmon Today the salmons of America, especially the Pacific salmons, are being driven into extinction by over-fishing and loss of habitat. Most of the salmon now offered in stores has been grown on salmon farms. These farms look like docks attached to shorelines. The docks have "net pens" attached to them, in which the salmon live in crowded conditions. They are fed by hand with processed meal. Farmed salmon are raised much like chickens, in other words. Since farmed salmon eat human-prepared meal, they tend to be relatively tasteless. Since they never get any exercise, their flesh is fatty and loose.

Since they never eat crustaceans with orange and pink coloring, their flesh is gray rather than orange or pink. Fish marketers know that consumers would never buy gray salmon, so they dye the flesh orange. So although the salmon you eat for dinner today may be greasy and tasteless, at least it will look authentic. Salmon is good for humans due to its low levels of trans fatty acids and its high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. For all the strangeness of farmed salmon, it is very important that people buy and eat it rather than paying top dollar for wild-caught salmon. Wild salmon species are currently being driven to extinction by political influences that have led to over-fishing, hydroelectric dams, development, pollution, competition with hatchery fish, and climate change. Eating farmed salmon is a much more environmentally friendly way to enjoy salmon. Some salmonid species and their scientific names Salmo salar, Atlantic salmon: Atlantic species. Eats primarily squids, shrimps, and fish. This is the species most commonly farmed. Endangered species. Salmo trutta, brown trout: A large European trout that is notoriously difficult to catch.

Introduced to North America by humans in 1883, this trout has driven the more flavorful brook trout from much of its native range. It has also been introduced to Argentina where it has become anadromous and forms the basis of a popular tourist fishing industry. Oncorhynchus tsawytscha, chinook salmon: Pacific species. Also known as "king salmon." Eat small fish. Endangered and threatened runs. Oncorhynchus kisutch, coho salmon: Pacific species. Eat small fish. Threatened and endangered runs. Oncorhynchus nerka, sockeye salmon: Pacific species. Landlocked variety called "kokanee." Primarily eat plankton, insects, and small crustaceans. Endangered and threatened runs. Oncorhynchus keta, chum salmon: Pacific species. Also known as "dog salmon." Eat primarily jellyfish and plankton. Threatened species. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, pink salmon: Pacific species. Also known as "humpback salmon." Migrate up rivers every other year. Eat primarily plankton, insects, and small crustaceans.

Oncorhynchus mykiss, rainbow or steelhead trout: A trout native only to the Pacific Coast of North America. Now raised in hatcheries and introduced world-wide for sport fishing. An aggressive competitor. The rainbow is the land-locked version of the steelhead trout. Oncorhynchus clarkii, cutthroat trout: A native trout found only west of the Rocky Mtns., and consisting of 10 subspecies. Most are threatened, some are endangered. Often hybridizes with introduced rainbow trout. There is a sea-run form. Oncorhynchus gilae, Gila trout: An endangered species living only in the Gila River in Arizona/New Mexico. Oncorhynchus apache, Apache trout: A threatened species living only in mountain streams in Arizona. Oncorhynchus aguabonita, golden trout: A threatened trout with several subspecies, one of which is threatened. Native to California. Salvelinus fontinalis, brook trout: Actually a char. A small, handsome, easy-to-catch trout native to the Great Lakes Region and NE United States, introduced to Western streams.

Becomes anadromous ("sea trout") in northeastern North America. Salvelinus malma, Dolly Varden: A large char closely related to the bull trout, and native to Pacific Coast states and Northeast Asia. May be found in marine waters as well as fresh water. Salvelinus namaycush, lake trout: A large char found throughout the far north but never in saltwater. Nearly exterminated from the Great Lakes Region by the combined effects of overfishing, introduced fishes, and an intrusion into the great lakes by the sea lamprey, which was caused by human engineering. Salvelinus confluentus, bull trout: An endangered char native to the West. Coregonus clupeaformis, lake whitefish: Extremely popular foodfish. Schools with other whitefish in deep waters of Great Lakes. Coregonus artedi, cisco or lake herring: Small, silvery fish that gathers into spawning schools in fall. An important part of lake trout's diet, as well as that of other large predator fish like pike.

Question: Which creature has varieties called Chinook, Chum, Coho, Sockeye and Steelhead?
Answer: Salmon