Personal names and the development of English | Oxford English Dictionary Home Aspects of English Shapers of English Personal names and the development of English Personal names and the development of English By Peter McClure You may also be interested in Peter’s article on Surnames as sources in the OED . A short history of English personal names It is one of many linguistic consequences of the Norman Conquest that only a few of the original, native English personal names are familiar to us nowadays. In late Anglo-Saxon England, names of Germanic origin like Old English Godwine, Wulfsige, Dodda (all male), Cwēnhild and Godgifu (both female) were commonplace. In eastern and northern England, where Vikings had settled from the late-ninth century onwards, the name stock also included Old Scandinavian names such as Þorgeirr, Tóki (both male), and Gunnhildr (female). By about 1250 almost all of this extensive name-stock had been abandoned by the English in favour of continental names used by their Norman rulers.

In most cases, our modern contact with the old native names is solely through hereditary surnames coined no later than the mid-thirteenth century, thus Goodwin, Wolsey, Dodd, Quennell, Goodeve, Thurgar, Tookey, and Gunnell. After 1250 only a handful of such names remained in general use, in particular Ēadweard, Ēadmund, Cūđbeorht (which was popular in northern England), and Ēadgýđ, which we know in their Middle English forms Edward, Edmund, Cuthbert, and Edith. The Norman name-stock largely consisted of continental Germanic names with a French pronunciation (such as William, Robert, Richard, Hugh, Maud, and Alice) and names from the Bible or from saints’ legends (like Adam, John, Thomas, Beatrice, Cecily, and Margaret). For some brief histories of individual personal names in the revised OED, see Margaret , Mary , Peter, Philip , Richard, and Robert . From the mid-thirteenth to the mid-eighteenth centuries, John, Thomas, Robert, Richard, and William named between them over 70 per cent of the male population.

Clearly, people were christened from a much smaller and more stable name-stock than we are familiar with today. In late fourteenth-century England there were probably fewer than a thousand names in use. The top male name John was borne by about 35 per cent of men, and the top female name Alice by about 17 per cent of women. By contrast in 2009, according to the Office of National Statistics, 60,900 different names were registered as names of babies in England and Wales, and the top boy’s name Oliver and the top girl’s name Olivia together accounted for less than two per cent of the 706,248 babies born in that year. The one major disturbance to the stock of English personal names during the period 1250-1750 arose from the sixteenth-century reformation of the Church, whose Puritan activists preferred to choose names from the Old Testament (for example, Abraham, Isaac, Samuel, Abigail), or to coin new names, especially for girls, based on Christian virtues (Charity, Grace, Prudence, Temperance).

A note on pet forms of personal names In late medieval England there was a much greater variety of hypocoristic or pet forms than in modern times, perhaps reflecting the competitive nature of relatively small, close-knit communities. As many as nine diminutive suffixes were commonly used in Middle English pet forms, viz. French el, et, ot, in, on, un (often used in combination, like elot), Flemish kin, English cok, and also y (a reduced from of in?). All but y disappeared from general use during the post-medieval centuries, though some survive today in fossilized name-forms like Robin, Marion, and Janet. Rhyming pet forms were also popular, notably for short forms of male names in R-, like Ralph, Richard, Robert, and Roger, where substitution of initial R- by D-, H-¸and N- produced Daw, Haw, Dick, Hick, Dob, Hob, Nob, Dodge, Hodge, and Nodge. Pet forms of names beginning in a vowel were often given a prosthetic consonant, e.g. Ned and Ted for Edward or Edmund, and Bib, Lib, Nib, and Tib for Ibbe, which is short for Isabel.

Jack, the most common pet form of John in medieval England, was a borrowing of a Flemish shortening of Jankin. Many of the pet forms with French suffixes had become obsolete by the sixteenth century, while names in kin and cock remained popular into the seventeenth century. They often survive in surnames, e.g. Hewitt (Hugh), Ibbotson (Isabel’s son), Dawkin (Ralph), and Adcock (Adam). The relative stability of this name-stock and the extreme popularity of a few names over such a long period of time were underpinned by the role of baptismal names in expressing family relationships. Most boys were named after their father, grandfather, uncle, or godfather, and many girls were similarly named after their (grand)mother, aunt, or godmother. From the late-eighteenth century through to the twentieth, this tradition has steadily weakened, as a combination of Enlightenment values, industrialization, and Romantic individualism has encouraged parents to draw on names from outside the immediate family.

Anglo-Saxon names such as Alfred, Edgar, and Audrey (in their Middle English forms), and Norman names like Raymond, Reginald, Walter, and Maud have been revived, while others have been borrowed from abroad or from the Celtic name-stocks of the United Kingdom, usually in anglicized forms. We have Albert from Germany, in admiration of Queen Victoria’s consort; Derek from the Low Countries; Valerie from France; Gwen and Owen from Wales; Donald, Fiona, Ian, Kenneth, and Malcolm from Scotland; Kevin, Maureen, and Sheila from Ireland. Many new names have been coined for girls from words connoting perceived feminine attributes, e.g. plant names like Daisy, Heather, Lily, and Violet, and names from precious stones like Beryl, Jade, and Ruby. In the nineteenth century the desire to name a child after a member of the family or a godparent was increasingly satisfied by using a middle name, which could be a personal name or a surname (of the mother’s father, perhaps, or the godfather).

Surnames consequently appear as first names, too, some of which have entered the general name-stock: Bruce, Douglas, Graham, Keith, Leslie, and Stuart are Scottish in origin, Trevor is Welsh, and Rodney, Stanley, and Shirley (popularized by Charlotte Brontë’s use of it in her novel of 1849) are English. In the twentieth century, British personal names have been more and more influenced by American taste, such as the liking for girls’ names derived from place-names (Beverley, Chelsea, Iona) or from compounds and blends (Joleen, Leighanne, Marilyn), which may be spelled in a variety of idiosyncratic ways. The current English name-stock is larger and more varied than at any time in its history, and it is changing with an ever greater speed, with even the most popular names moving in and out of fashion within less than a decade. New names are freely created, though few of them become commonly used unless coined or adopted by influential celebrities. It is also harder than it used to be to identify what is meant by ‘English’. The devolved and multi-cultural Britain of the twenty-first century has many name-stocks rather than a single English one.

Back to top Personal names in the OED: words for people The generic use of personal names has been widespread in English since the late medieval period, when a very few names were so popular that they could be used to denote anyone or anything that was typical. There are three main sense categories: first, words or phrases denoting ordinary people, sometimes implying social disapproval; second, words or phrases for useful man-made objects, especially labour-saving devices; and third, words or phrases for non-human creatures, real or imaginary. Some of these words originated in now-obsolete pet forms, not all of which have yet been identified in the unrevised explanations of the OED. The alliterative Jack and Gill have been the prototypical names for every ordinary man and woman since at least the fifteenth century, out-competing Tom and Tib (recorded in 1606). By extension they have become words for any lad or lass, for a servant, or for someone of the lowest rank in an occupation.

They are often found in phrases like Jack-of-all-trades, and compounds like Jack-Tar ‘sailor’ (first recorded in 1781), lumberjack (1831), and steeplejack (?1881). Both Jack and Tom have been used for the knave of trumps in a pack of cards, and Tib for the ace. Children’s toy people include Jack-in-a box and doll , a pet form of Dorothy. For other examples of other male names used in these ways see Bob n. 7, Bobby n. 1, Dick n. 1, George , Harry n. 2, Jock n. 1, Jockey, Joe n. 2, John, Johnny, Jemmy , Thomas, and Tommy n. 1. The main generic sense ‘a man or woman of the lowest class’ has frequently been specialized to denote someone of low intelligence or morals. Male names have been used for simpletons, and include Daw, Dawkin (obsolete pet forms of Ralph), Hodge , Nodgecock (Roger), Hichcock, Hick n. 1 (Richard), Hob n. 1, Dobby (Robert), Jack fool (see Jack n.

1), Tom-fool, and Tommy n. 1. Female names have been used to denote coarse women or prostitutes and include Doll n. 1, Gill n. 4, Kitty n. 1, Judy , Malkin, Meg n. 1, Mab, n. 1, and Mob n. 1 (both pet forms of Mabel). They have also been used as terms for effeminate men and homosexual men, as in Betty, Jenny, Mary, Molly n. 1, Nancy, and Peggy n. 2. Vice versa, tomboy has denoted a bold woman or boisterous girl since the sixteenth century, while in twentieth-century slang Tom n. 1 and Tommy have the sense ‘a prostitute’. A note on Maud, Mary and some of their shared pet forms. Maud was a hugely popular name in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries but went out of fashion by 1500. Many of its pet forms (Mall, Moll, Malkin and other diminutives) were then transferred to Mary, which in spite of Puritan dislike of saints, had become the favourite girl’s name by the end of the sixteenth century. Derived words include: Maud n.

1 ‘an old woman, a hag’, first recorded a1500, a sign that the name was by then old-fashioned Moll n. 2, ‘a girl, a prostitute’, first recorded in 1604 Poll n. 2 (from 1600) and Polly (possibly from 1616) ‘a parrot’, rhymed on Moll(y); Malkin (also Molkin), a word with a wide range of denotation: ‘a servant or country girl’, first recorded in c1250 ‘a wanton’, first recorded in c1390 (Chaucer, Man of Law’s Tale) ‘the female genitals’, first recorded in 1602. Compare merkin n. 1, from another obsolete pet form of Mary; Fanny n. 4 (an eighteenth-century pet form of Frances), and the male equivalents Dick n. 1 and Willy n. 2).

‘an impotent or effeminate man’, recorded as early as a1425 and as late as 1933 ‘a mop, a bundle of rags fastened to the end of a stick for cleaning an oven’ (1440) ‘a sponge attached to a jointed pole, used for cleaning out ships’ guns’ (1867) ‘a scarecrow, a ragged puppet or grotesque effigy; a guy’, recorded from a1565 until 1930 ‘a hare’, recorded in 1706 (Scottish) ‘a cat’, recorded from a1616 (Shakespeare’s Macbeth) until 1876 (in Scotland) Back to top Personal names in the OED: words for useful objects The use of personal names to denote useful man-made objects is partly an extension of the sense ‘servant’ and is partly anthropomorphic. ‘Malkin’ has already been mentioned as a word for a long-handled mop or sponge. The spinning jenny was first so called in 1789.

Jemmy, first recorded in 1811 as ‘a burglar’s crowbar’ is from a pet form of James. Any contrivance that turns, lifts, or holds stands a chance of being called a jack while Tommy n. 1 has been widely used to denote workmen’s food, especially bread. In the sense ‘something small of its kind’, both jack and tommy are used to denote small devices—such as sockets, levers, spanners, and wrenches—or other small objects like the jack in a game of bowls or the flag flown at the bow of a ship, the origin of the Union Jack. There is a long-standing practice of ‘christening’ powerful mechanical contrivances, such as large bells, artillery, mill engines, blast furnaces, and more recently boring machines and wind turbines. Large bells are frequently named Tom, such as Great Tom and Tom of Oxford. However, great guns and machines more often have female names (which has interesting psychological implications), and only occasionally male ones, as in the guns named Mons Meg, Big Bertha, and Long Tom.

The source of the word gun A siege engine, in the form of a giant crossbow, was named Domina Gunilda (‘Lady Gunild’) in an Anglo-Latin document of 1330-1. However, the usage probably goes back much further. Gunnild was a well-known female name in the twelfth century but was obsolescent or obsolete by 1250. Shortly after 1300 gonnilde appears as a word for a cannon (a1325 in the Middle English Dictionary) as does gun , from the pet form gunne (1339 in OED). From gun comes gunner ‘a cannoneer’ (1334 in OED), but a much earlier example appears in the surname le Gunner (1238-9 in a Dublin Guild merchant roll), which may alternatively have meant ‘an operator of a siege engine’. Back to top Personal names in the OED: words for non-human creatures Anthropomorphic relationships with the natural and supernatural worlds have long been expressed through the use of personal names.

Examples include: the garden flower sweet-william the wild plants Jack-by-the-hedge and ragged-robin the personification of a sharp frost as Jack Frost the marsh gas ignis fatuus, called Will-o’-the-wisp or Jack-a’-lanthern the bird guillemot , a French pet form of William the name dobbin for a cart-horse, a pet form of Robert, as is Hobby in hobby-horse; cf. cuddy (Cuthbert), dicky (Richard), and neddy (Edward) as names for the donkey (a pet form of Duncan?) the insect tommy-long-legs, an obsolete word for the crane fly or daddy-long-legs words and names for imps or sprites, such as hobgoblin n. 1, dobby, roblet, and Robin Goodfellow, all from pet forms of Robert The male and female of a species of the domestic cat are identified in tom cat, gib-cat (from a pet form of Gilbert, see gib , n. 1,), and tabby cat (from a pet form of Tabitha, see tabby n. and adj.). Gill n.

4, short for Gillian, is for the female of polecats and ferrets, as hob n. 1 is for the male, while nanny-goat (from a pet form of Agnes or Ann) is for the female goat as willy-goat (Willy n. 2) and billy-goat are for the male. Jenny , however, is a nickname for the wren of either sex, and also for plant names such as creeping Jenny. The same is true of robin n. 1, which occurs as the name of many birds, fish, and plants. The pied wagtail (of either sex) was once known as Molly washdish and Peggy dishwasher, from the incessant to-and-fro of the tail (see molly n. 1, peggy n. 2). Jack and Tom can denote smallness in bird names like jack snipe and tomtit (as does Dicky in dicky-bird), even though Tom is more generally used to indicate relative largeness (as in tom-toe for the big toe). Choice of personal names for birds can be onomatopoeic. Jack in jackdaw probably echoes the bird’s call.

Similarly the ‘hoohoo-oo-oooo’ cry of the tawny owl may explain why houchin and howlet appear as dialect words for owls, for they derive from Old French and Middle English huchon and hulot, pet forms of Hugh, the vowel originally being pronounced ‘oo’. Pet forms of Margery and Margaret have been prolific sources of words for creatures, including: magpie (also maggoty pie), the bird name meg(gie)-many-feet (or –many-legs), nicknames for the centipede and millipede moggie, a cow or calf, and any sort of domestic cat of either gender padge, a rhyming form of madge n. 1 ‘a barn owl’ peggy n. 2, a bird name for any of the warblers The corpus of currently-used words derived from personal names is dwindling as many old words are lost and few if any new words are being created in this way. The practice has inevitably declined in modern Britain, because the name-stock is so much larger than it was three or seven hundred years ago, and the most popular names are usually only briefly so and are borne by a tiny proportion of the population.

As a significant source of generic terms the personal name has now been supplanted by the surname. Where next with the OED Online? as well as personal names, Peter McClure has also written on the place of surnames in the development of English with examples from the OED Online. other free articles on the ‘shaping of English’ include Bernadette Paton on loan words for textiles .

About the OED city noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com enlarge image 1 [countable] a large and important town the city centre one of the world’s most beautiful cities a major city the country’s capital city Mexico City Manchester City Football Club see also inner city Wordfinder amenity , city , ghetto , high-rise , metropolitan , population , slum , suburb , town , urban 2[countable] (British English) a town that has been given special rights by a king or queen, usually one that has a cathedral the city of York 3[countable] (North American English) a town that has been given special rights by the state government 4 [singular + singular or plural verb] all the people who live in a city The city turned out to welcome the victorious team home. 5the City [singular] (British English) Britain’s financial and business centre, in the oldest part of London a City stockbroker What is the City's reaction to the cut in interest rates? Culturethe CityThe business and financial centre of London is called the City or the City of London.

It covers an area in east central London north of the River Thames, between Blackfriars Bridge and Tower Bridge. It is only about one square mile/2.5 square kilometres in size and is often referred to as the Square Mile.Many financial institutions have their head offices in the City, including the Bank of England in Threadneedle Street, the London Stock Exchange in Old Broad Street and Lloyd's of London in Lime Street. Many banks, insurance companies and stockbrokers (= companies that buy and sell shares for others) have been in the City many years. When journalists talk about ‘the City’ they are usually not referring to the place but to the people involved in business and commerce, as in: The City had been expecting poor results from the company. In fact, the financial businesses and organizations that are based further east,from the Square Mile, in the area known as Canary Wharf are also included in this extended use of the term ‘the City’.In the City old and new buildings stand next to each other. The most famous older buildings include St Paul's Cathedral, the Guildhall and the Mansion House, where the Lord Mayor of London lives.

Tower 42, which is 600 feet/183 metres high, and the Swiss Re Tower, nicknamed ‘the Gherkin’, are two of the City's more recent landmarks. The Shard building, on the south side of the Thames, was opened in 2013 and is currently the tallest building in the European Union. The Barbican Centre includes an art gallery, a theatre and a concert hall, as well as flats/​apartments.Few people live in the City and at night the population is about 7 000. During the day it rises to about half a million, as business people commute (= travel from home to work) to the City by car, bus and train. In the past the traditional image of the City gent was of a businessman in a dark suit and bowler hat, carrying a briefcase (= a leather case for papers, etc.) and a newspaper or an umbrella. The expression She's something in the City means ‘She has an important job with a bank or firm of stockbrokers ’, and suggests wealth and high social status.

See related entries: Economy 6[uncountable] (informal) used after other nouns to say that a place is full of a particular thing It's not exactly fun city here is it? cardboard city (= full of people living in cardboard boxes because they have nowhere else to live) Word Origin Middle English: from Old French cite, from Latin civitas, from civis ‘citizen’. Originally denoting a town, and often used as a Latin equivalent to Old English burh ‘borough’, the term was later applied to foreign and ancient cities and to the more important English boroughs. The connection between city and cathedral grew up under the Norman kings, as the episcopal sees (many had been established in villages) were removed to the chief borough of the diocese.Extra examples Bonn is Oxford’s twin city. Her native city is Tokyo. Parking is difficult in the city centre. Rome is one of the great cities of the world. The building runs the length of a city block. The city grew rapidly in the 19th century. There’s a park just outside the city. We live in a big city.

the host city for the Olympic Games the lost city of Atlantis the old walled city of Cartagena the sister cities of Los Alamos, New Mexico, and Hiroshima, Japan Ely is a cathedral city in East Cambridgeshire. It is one of the world’s most beautiful cities. Mexico City has a population of more than 20 million people.

The city of Boston is one of America’s most historic cities.Idioms the freedom of the city Dictionary of First Names - Oxford Reference Oxford Reference Ancient history (non-classical to 500 CE) Early history (500 CE to 1500) Early Modern History (1500 to 1700) modern history (1700 to 1945) Contemporary History (post 1945) Literary studies (early and medieval) Literary studies (19th century) Literary studies (20th century onwards) Literary studies - fiction, novelists, and prose writers Literary studies - plays and playwrights Literary studies - poetry and poets Literary theory and cultural studies Shakespeare studies and criticism Social Welfare and Social Services Sociology Patrick Hanks, Kate Hardcastle, and Flavia Hodges Over 6,000 names ‘I have returned to this dictionary again and again for sheer pleasure?’ — Financial Times We all have a first name, but how many of us really know its origin and history? This dictionary covers over 6,000 names in common use in English, including the traditional and the very newest.

It tells you the age, origin, and meaning of the name, as well as how it has fared in terms of popularity, and who the famous fictional or historical bearers of the name have been. It covers alternative spellings, short forms and pet forms, masculine and feminine forms, as well as help with pronunciation. Bibliographic Information Commoner | Define Commoner at Dictionary.com commoner a common person, as distinguished from one with rank, status, etc. 2. any person ranking below a peer; a person without a title of nobility. a member of the House of Commons. (at Oxford and some other universities) a student who pays for his or her commons and other expenses and is not supported by any scholarship or foundation. 3. a person who has a joint right in common land. Origin of commoner 1275-1325; Middle English cominer. See common , -er 1 common belonging equally to, or shared alike by, two or more or all in question: common property; common interests. pertaining or belonging equally to an entire community, nation, or culture; public: a common language or history; a common water-supply system. 3.

of frequent occurrence; usual; familiar: a common event; a common mistake. 6. of mediocre or inferior quality; mean; low: a rough-textured suit of the most common fabric. 8. lacking rank, station, distinction, etc.; unexceptional; ordinary: a common soldier; common people; the common man; a common thief. 10. Anatomy. forming or formed by two or more parts or branches: the common carotid arteries. Prosody. (of a syllable) able to be considered as either long or short. 13. Grammar. not belonging to an inflectional paradigm; fulfilling different functions that in some languages require different inflected forms: English nouns are in the common case whether used as subject or object. constituting one of two genders of a language, especially a gender comprising nouns that were formerly masculine or feminine: Swedish nouns are either common or neuter. noting a word that may refer to either a male or a female: French élève has common gender. English lacks a common gender pronoun in the third person singular. (of a noun) belonging to the common gender . 14. Mathematics. bearing a similar relation to two or more entities. 15.

of, relating to, or being common stock: common shares. noun 16. Often, commons. Chiefly New England. a tract of land owned or used jointly by the residents of a community, usually a central square or park in a city or town. 17. Law. the right or liberty, in common with other persons, to take profit from the land or waters of another, as by pasturing animals on another's land (common of pasturage) or fishing in another's waters (common of piscary) 18. commons, (used with a singular or plural verb) the commonalty; the nonruling class. the body of people not of noble birth or not ennobled, as represented in England by the House of Commons. (initial capital letter) the representatives of this body. (initial capital letter) the House of Commons. 19. (used with a singular verb) a large dining room, especially at a university or college. (usually used with a plural verb) British. food provided in such a dining room. (usually used with a plural verb) food or provisions for any group. 20. (sometimes initial capital letter) Ecclesiastical.

an office or form of service used on a festival of a particular kind. the ordinary of the Mass, especially those parts sung by the choir. the part of the missal and breviary containing Masses and offices of those saints assigned to them. 21. in common, in joint possession or use; shared equally: They have a love of adventure in common. Origin Expand 1250-1300; Middle English comun < Anglo-French, Old French < Latin commūnis common, presumably orig. “sharing common duties,” akin to mūnia duties of an office, mūnus task, duty, gift < a base *moin-, cognate with mean 2; cf. com- , immune Related forms common, mutual , reciprocal (see usage note at mutual ) Synonyms See more synonyms on Thesaurus.com 4. universal, prevalent, popular. See general . 5. customary, everyday. 7–9. Common, vulgar, ordinary refer, often with derogatory connotations of cheapness or inferiority, to what is usual or most often experienced.

Common applies to what is accustomed, usually experienced, or inferior, to the opposite of what is exclusive or aristocratic: The park is used by the common people. Vulgar properly means belonging to the people, or characteristic of common people; it connotes low taste, coarseness, or ill breeding: the vulgar view of things; vulgar in manners and speech. Ordinary refers to what is to be expected in the usual order of things; it means average or below average: That is a high price for something of such ordinary quality. Antonyms Examples from the Web for commoner Expand Contemporary Examples George is the first offspring of a “commoner” in 350 years to become heir to the throne. Happy Birthday, Prince George! Will the Wee Royal Be the First King of the 22nd Century? Emma Woolf July 20, 2014 Prince William was hailed as a mould-breaker for marrying a commoner—Kate Middleton—a woman with no noble blood.

Meet the New Queen of Spain - 41-Year Old Divorcee And Commoner Letizia Ortiz Tom Sykes June 1, 2014 The new Queen of Spain, 41-year old Letizia Ortiz, was not just born a commoner, but she was also divorced. William & Kate on Lifetime: 8 Crazy Scenes Jace Lacob April 12, 2011 For the new Queen of Spain, 41-year old Letizia Ortiz, was not just born a commoner, but she was also divorced. The Squire's Daughter Silas K(itto) Hocking There is no commoner or weightier burden in the prophets than this. The Clansman Thomas Dixon The commoner forms are well known, for the beach is often strewn with the carcasses of the larger species. British Dictionary definitions for commoner Expand a person who does not belong to the nobility 2. a person who has a right in or over common land jointly with another or others 3. (Brit) a student at a university or other institution who is not on a scholarship common belonging to or shared by two or more people: common property 2.

belonging to or shared by members of one or more nations or communities; public: a common culture 3. of ordinary standard; average: common decency 4. widely known or frequently encountered; ordinary: a common brand of soap 6. widely known and notorious: a common nuisance 7. (derogatory) considered by the speaker to be low-class, vulgar, or coarse: a common accent 8. (prenominal) having no special distinction, rank, or status: the common man 9. having a specified relationship with a group of numbers or quantities: common denominator (of a tangent) tangential to two or more circles 10. (prosody) (of a syllable) able to be long or short, or (in nonquantitative verse) stressed or unstressed 11. (grammar) (in certain languages) denoting or belonging to a gender of nouns, esp one that includes both masculine and feminine referents: Latin sacerdos is common 12. having branches: the common carotid artery serving more than one function: the common bile duct 13. (Christianity) of or relating to the common of the Mass or divine office 14.

(informal) common or garden, ordinary; unexceptional noun 15. (sometimes pl) a tract of open public land, esp one now used as a recreation area 16. (law) the right to go onto someone else's property and remove natural products, as by pasturing cattle or fishing (esp in the phrase right of common) 17. (Christianity) a form of the proper of the Mass used on festivals that have no special proper of their own the ordinary of the Mass 18. (archaic) the ordinary people; the public, esp those undistinguished by rank or title 19. C13: from Old French commun, from Latin commūnis general, universal Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for commoner Expand early 14c.

(in commoners), from common (adj.). common adj. c.1300, "belonging to all, general," from Old French comun "common, general, free, open, public" (9c., Modern French commun), from Latin communis "in common, public, shared by all or many; general, not specific; familiar, not pretentious," from PIE *ko-moin-i- "held in common," compound adjective formed from *ko- "together" + *moi-n-, suffixed form of root *mei- "change, exchange" (see mutable ), hence literally "shared by all." Second element of the compound also is the source of Latin munia "duties, public duties, functions," those related to munia "office." Perhaps reinforced in Old French by the Germanic form of PIE *ko-moin-i- (cf. Old English gemæne "common, public, general, universal;" see mean (adj.)), which came to French via Frankish. Used disparagingly of women and criminals since c.1300.

Common pleas is 13c., from Anglo-French communs plets, hearing civil actions by one subject against another as opposed to pleas of the crown. Common prayer is contrasted with private prayer. Common stock is attested from 1888. n. late 15c., "land held in common," from common (adj.). Commons "the third estate of the English people as represented in Parliament," is from late 14c. Latin communis also served as a noun meaning "common property, state, commonwealth." Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Idioms and Phrases with commoner Expand Jesus the Christ:the Words and Their Meaning - G. Homer Durham Jesus the Christ:the Words and Their Meaning G. Homer Durham Email Recently, while I was driving on the highway, a car passed. This was not unusual. The bumper sticker was a little different, saying, “Save the Humans.” One sees many bumper stickers these days. This one turned my thoughts to something fundamental, the word save. I thought of the plan of salvation.

I thought of the world of scholarship, and of Professor Arnold Toynbee’s analysis of the many so-called “saviours” found in history. (A Study of History, abridgment, vols. VII–X, D. C. Somervell, chap. XX Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957.) We know that one Savior truly saves—the Lord Jesus Christ. This is His church. We have taken upon ourselves His name. What does the average person mean when he testifies that Jesus is the Christ? Of course, it is the witness of the Spirit that counts. But what do the words Jesus and Christ mean? A brief excursion into the meaning of these two words may be useful, especially to young people, in these times. The Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1933), tells us that the word Jesus came into the English language from Middle English, adapted from the Latin Iesus, which in turn was adapted from the Greek Iesous. This in turn was adapted from the Hebrew or Aramaic word Yeshua or Yehoshua. The earlier root was Joshua.

This dictionary goes on to explain that the word Joshua derived from the Jah of Jahveh, meaning that “Jehovah is salvation.” Thus, the word “Jesus” has parallel meaning with Savior. Dr. David Flusser of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem puts it simply: “Jesus is the common Greek form of the Hebrew name Joshua.” (Encyclopedia Judaica, Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, Ltd., 1971, 10:10.) Webster’s New 20th Century Dictionary of the English Language (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1968), unabridged, sets forth a comparable definition, noting that the Latin-Greek derivation from the Hebrew Joshua means literally, “help of Jehovah.” But in addition, this source states that the word derives from the Hebrew word for Lord God, he who is available to help, to save. In this sense, then, the word Jesus means simply, “God is help.” How “Save the Humans,” as the bumper sticker read? The dictionaries and the gospel give the answer. What of the word Christ?

It also comes to the English-speaking world from Middle English, derived from the Latin Christus, in turn from the Greek Christos, which meant “the Anointed”—a noun made from the past participle of the Greek verb “to anoint”. Webster also states that the word Christ was originally Jesus’ title. Thus, proper usage of the two words in English would be as Elder James E. Talmage titled his book, Jesus the Christ. Usage and revelation have joined the two as part of a sacred, revered name. Elder Talmage defined the two words as follows: “Jesus is the individual name of the Savior, and as thus spelled is of Greek derivation. … In the original the name was well understood as meaning ‘Help of Jehovah,’ or, ‘Savior.’” Elder Talmage emphasized that the word Christ is a sacred title, not “an ordinary … common name; it is of Greek derivation, and … is identical with its Hebrew equivalent Messiah …, signifying the Anointed One.” (Jesus the Christ, Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1973, pp. 35–36.) What was the earliest documented mention of the sacred name Jesus Christ now available to us?

Dr. Joseph Armitage Robinson, one-time Norrisson Professor of Cambridge University, held that it is probably found in the opening verse of First Thessalonians .(Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., vol. 15, s.v. “Jesus.”) Imagine the impact of those words then, as we read them today in English, as received by the Thessalonians possibly two decades after the Crucifixion: “Paul, and Silvanus, and Timotheus, unto the church of the Thessalonians which is in God the Father and in the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace be unto you, and peace, from God our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ.” ( 1 Thes. 1:1 .) Note that the phrase God the Father is separated by the conjunction and from the phrase the Lord Jesus Christ. This demonstrates first-century belief in the separate individuality of the Father and the Son, as restored by the Prophet Joseph Smith. The opening verse of the Gospel according to St.

Mark also comes with great force as a historical document fraught with meaning: “The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God.” ( Mark 1:1 .) The Gospel of John the Beloved is even more eloquent. He records the witness of the Savior’s forerunner, John the Baptist, as follows: “The next day John seeth Jesus coming unto him, and saith, Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world.” ( John 1:29 .) “Save the Humans”? Think of the Baptist’s testimony: “Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world”! How did the Savior of mankind acquire his name in mortality? By revelation. To Joseph of Nazareth, the angel of the Lord appeared in a dream, saying: “Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost. “And she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name JESUS: for he shall save his people from their sins.” ( Matt.

1:20–21 .) Here is confirmation of the dictionary meaning of the name, as recorded by Matthew: “Thou shalt call his name JESUS: for he shall save his people from their sins.” ( Matt. 1:21 .) Mary also had angelic confirmation of the name, as recorded by Luke: “And the angel said unto her, Fear not, Mary: for thou hast found favour with God. “And, behold, thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shalt call his name JESUS.” ( Luke 1:30–31 .) The formal naming of the child when eight days old is recorded by Luke: “His name was called JESUS, which was so named of the angel before he was conceived in the womb.” ( Luke 2:21 .) The name which means “God is help,” “the Anointed One,” “the Promised Messiah,” has thus come to us. Some three decades ago, Professor Arnold Toynbee concluded one of the most extensive studies of history ever undertaken.

He recorded mankind’s quest for “saviours,” for “the way out.” He identified four categories: (1) the “Creative Genius”; (2) the “Saviour with a Sword”; (3) the “Saviour with a Time Machine,” one dreaming of a utopia or an archaic past which never existed; (4) the saviour as a “Philosopher, Masked as a King.” All these history rejects. Finally, Toynbee pointed to “the God Incarnate in a Man,” the Lord Jesus Christ. And then he wrote: “This is in truth the final result of our survey of saviours. When we set out on this quest we found ourselves moving in the midst of a mighty host, but, as we have pressed forward, the marchers, company by company, have fallen out of the race. The first to fail were the swordsmen, the next the archaists and the futurists, the next the philosophers, until only gods were left in the running. … And now, as we stand and gaze with our eyes fixed upon the farther shore, a single figure rises from the flood and straightway fills the whole horizon.

There is the Saviour.” (A Study of History, abridgment, vols. I–VI, D. C. Somervell Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957, p. 547.) We know that Savior to be the Lord Jesus Christ. From many, many experiences over my lifetime, I can truly testify to you that He truly is our Savior; and if the Father is approached in prayer, as His Son has commanded us, doors will open to help us move forward without fear in life. That all men everywhere may come to realize and know the significance of Jesus the Christ, the One chosen before the foundation of the world, is my faith and witness. In the name of Jesus Christ, amen. Related Talks English School in Oxford - British Study Centres Oxford English School in Oxford British Study Centres Oxford is situated in the very heart of the historic city and offers quality English language courses and modern learning environment. School + Learn English in Oxford, a City Made for Students! 40,000 students and 39 university colleges give Oxford a very unique 'student' atmosphere - an ideal place to learn English! The city has a deserved worldwide reputation for the quality of education.

Oxford University is the oldest English-speaking university in the world, dating back to 1249, and is consistently ranked in the top 3 in the world. Oxford is located in the heart of England and has excellent road and rail links to London (50 minutes) and the rest of the United Kingdom. The city sits on the banks of the river Thames and boasts a variety of world-famous museums, galleries and libraries. Besides the traditional attractions, there are hundreds of modern restaurants, pubs, clubs and riverside cafes to enjoy. Read more + Located next to some of the most iconic Oxford University Colleges Centre of Excellence 9 areas of strength in British Council inspection (EL Gazette) No. of students 325 in peak season, 175 in low season Age of students Minimum 16 years, average 25 years Interactive classrooms All classrooms are equipped with a projector, Apple TV or an interactive whiteboard Free Wi-Fi Free Wi-Fi throughout the school. iPads are available at the student lounge and study centre Job Club Free guidance and advice for students looking for a paid job Video Gallery BSC Oxford Video Join our students for a tour around the school and the beautiful university city of Oxford!

Watch the video The School at a Glance Recently refurbished, our school offers modern learning facilities in the heart of historic Oxford. Modern Premises There's always a warm friendly welcome at our stylish Oxford centre. The modern décor compliments our excellent facilities making this an ideal learning environment. Fully-Equipped Study Centre The Port, our bright and airy study centre, is equipped with iPads holding an infinite number of online learning resources as well as bookshelves full of traditional learning materials - exam preparation, grammar or vocabulary books. The space has been designed by an educational furniture specialist so that teaching and learning can be maximised. We also provide a daily drop-in session with a teacher for study tips and our Job Club. Read more + Student Lounge The Den, our student lounge, is fully integrated with technology. In this space students now have the ability to access social media on the school iPads, to do their homework on laptops, to access content streamed on to our big screen TV, to play the video games consoles, or even table football! As well as this, The Den is a place where students can simply eat lunch, drink a coffee from our school coffee shop, or chat with their friends (face-to-face or on social media) in a bright and welcoming atmosphere!

Read more + Interactive Classrooms All of our 17 spacious classrooms benefit from natural light and are equipped with projectors making it possible to wirelessly stream content from the classroom iPads, laptops or even mobile phones on to the whiteboards, which make lessons even more effective and fun. In the busy summer months we use up to 4 additional classrooms no more than 10 minutes walking distance from the school. Rooftop Terrace We are lucky to have our own roof terrace. On a sunny day, this is the perfect place to enjoy a coffee and meet up with fellow students. Central Location We are located in the heart of the city, in the historic St. Giles district, just a few minutes from Christ Church College, where Harry Potter was filmed. Cornmarket, with its shops and cafés, is just 50 metres away. In addition, our Teacher Training centre caters for both UK and overseas teachers wishing to develop their careers. Courses Our Students We are very proud to have made our students' stay in Oxford a memorable and rewarding experience! My stay in Oxford has been a very enriching experience! The staff are really dynamic, qualified and pleasant and I met a lot of students from different countries and cultures.

I hope I'll keep in touch with them and I wish to be able to come again to British Study Centres next year. Julie, France This is my first international trip and since I arrived here, I've been discovering a lot of things about British people, culture, habits, urban myths that make up the atmosphere in this really amazing city! Oxford isn't just museums and colleges! Parks, pubs, libraries and a social life are waiting for you every day! Hilden, Brazil This year I am going on to study a Master's in international relations at Brookes University and I couldn't have done it without BSC. Again, thank you very much! The best thing about the school is that having extremely friendly and attentive staff makes students like to learn everything. Nick, Georgia I like the teachers and the staff. They are very helpful and kind to me. I really would like to come back again. Oxford has amazing parks for picnics and to have fun with your friends and of course night life in Oxford is unbelievable! Catharina, Sweden

Question: What is a common nickname for the English city of Oxford?
Answer: The city of dreaming spires