EMCDDA | Hallucinogenic mushrooms profile (chemistry, effects, other names (magic mushrooms, shrooms…), origin, mode of use, other names, medical use, control status) Further reading Photo: istockphoto ‘Hallucinogenic mushrooms’ is the name commonly given to psychoactive fungi, containing hallucinogenic compounds, most commonly psilocybin and psilocin. At low doses, hallucinogenic drugs have as their primary effects perceptual distortions and alterations of thought, or mood, with the presence of lucid awareness and minimal effects on memory and orientation. Despite their name, the use of hallucinogenic drugs rarely results in true hallucinations . The hallucinogens are a chemically diverse class. Grouping the hallucinogens based on their chemical structure includes, but is not limited to, three major classes: indolealkylamines or tryptamines (e.g. LSD , psilocybine and psilocin), phenethylamines , including mescaline and methylenedioxymethamphetamine ( MDMA ); and cannabinoids.

Chemistry Psilocybin (PY, 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is the main psychoactive principle of hallucinogenic mushrooms. After ingestion, psilocybin is converted into the pharmacologically active form psilocin. Psilocin itself is also present in the mushroom, but in smaller amounts. Psilocybin and psilocin are both indolealkylamines and structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). Besides psilocybin and psilocin, two further tryptamines — baeocystin and norbaeocystin — could also be present but are thought to be less active than the former two. Psilocybin (psilocybine, psilocibina, psilocybinum, psylosybiini) ( CAS -number: 520-52-5) is 4-phosphoryloxy-NN-dimethyltryptamine. According to IUPAC , the fully systematic chemical name is [3-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate.

Psilocybin is the dihydrogen phospate of psilocin. Psilocybin is soluble in water, moderately soluble in methanol and ethanol, and insoluble in most organic solvents. Psilocybin is a prodrug of psilocin, in vivo the molecule is metabolised into psilocin by dephosphorylation. Molecular structure of psilocybin Molecular formula: C12H17N204P Molecular weight: 284.3 g/mol Psilocin (psilocine, psilocyn) ( CAS -number 520-53-6) is 4-hydroxy-NN-dimethyltryptamine (4-OH-DMT) or alternatively 3-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)indol-4-ol. According to IUPAC , the fully systematic chemical name is 3-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-ol. Psilocin is an isomer of bufotenine , it differs only in the position of the hydroxylgroup. Psilocin is relatively unstable in solution.

Under alkaline conditions in the presence of oxygen it immediately forms bluish and black degradation products. Molecular structure of psilocin top of page Physical form Hallucinogenic mushrooms are available in fresh form, treated/preserved (e.g. deliberately dried, cooked, frozen) or even as dry powders or capsules. The fungi containing psilocybin and psilocin mainly belong to the genuses Psilocybe, Panaeolus and Copelandia and their number exceeds 50 species. Most of the mushrooms containing psilocybin are small brown or tan mushrooms. In the wild, these mushrooms are easily mistaken for any number of non-psychoactive, inedible, or poisonous mushrooms. This makes them difficult, and potentially hazardous, to identify. Because it is difficult to distinguish non-psilocybin species from the hallucinogenic ones by morphological observation in the wild, psilocybin-containing mushrooms may also be easily ingested unintentionally. Hallucinogenic mushrooms resemble the common store mushroom Agaricus bisporus, although the flesh of Psilocybe mushrooms characteristically turns blue or green when bruised or cut. An identification method based on a genetic approach has been developed.

A different species of mushroom, Amanita muscaria (fly agaric), produces a state of delirium that also includes hallucinations, but its primary active agents are muscimol and ibotenic acid . top of page Pharmacology Psilocin mainly interacts with 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor subtypes: it is a mixed receptor agonist . In contrast to LSD, psilocin does not have an effect on the dopamine receptor. Tryptamines and phenethylamine hallucinogens both have a relatively high affinity for serotonin 5-HT2 receptors, but they differ in their affinity for other subtypes of serotonin receptors. The correlation between the relative affinity of hallucinogens for 5-HT2-receptors and their potency as hallucinogens in human beings suggest that an important component of the mechanism of action of these substances is through stimulation of brain 5-HT2-receptors. A primary role for the 5-HT2-receptor in the mechanism of hallucinations is further suggested by the observation that antagonists of the 5-HT2-receptor are effective in blocking the behavioural and electrophysiological effects of hallucinogenic drugs in animals and in man.

Although 5HT2-receptors are certainly involved, at present, it is not possible to attribute the psychedelic effects to any single 5-HT receptor subtype. Behavioural effects are dependent on dose and the individual reaction and sensitivity to psilocybin, previous experiences and the setting. The major effects are related to the central nervous system, but there are also some sympathomimetic effects. The subjective effects, however, may vary greatly between individuals and from one episode of use to the next within the same person. The effects range from mild feelings of relaxation, giddiness, euphoria, visual enhancement (seeing colours brighter), visual disturbances (moving surfaces, waves), to delusions, altered perception of real events, images and faces, or real hallucinations. The sensory distortions may be coupled with restlessness, incoordination, feelings of anxiety, impaired judgement of time or distance, sense of unreality or even depersonalisation. These effects may be termed 'bad trips' by users and can also involve panic reactions and psychosis-like states.

In general, the physiological effects are not significant, but may include dizziness, nausea, weakness, muscle aching, shivering, abdominal pain, dilation of pupils (mydriasis), mild-to-moderate increase in heart rate ( tachycardia ) and breathing (tachypnea) and elevation of blood pressure. Generally, body temperature remains normal. However, pronounced physical symptoms such as severe stomach pain, persistent vomiting, diarrhoea etc. have been recorded. top of page Origin Both psilocybin and psilocin can be produced synthetically, but this form of the drug is not often found. Users purchase hallucinogenic mushrooms and by-products from smartshops and on the Internet, or pick them wild. The cubensis varieties are cultivated specifically (mostly in the Netherlands). The types of magic mushrooms most commonly sold by smartshops in the Netherlands are the Psilocybe cubensis varieties. Online shops sell a variety of hallucinogenic mushroom products ranging from fresh mushrooms to spore prints, spawnbags and growkits . The majority of online shops offer international shipping, although most sites do not ship to countries where sales are prohibited.

top of page Mode of use Recreational doses range from 1–5 grams of dry mushrooms depending on the species and individual strength of the specimens. Dosages for fresh mushrooms will be approximately 10 times higher (10–50 grams). The material may be eaten raw, boiled in water to make tea, or cooked with other foods to cover its bitter flavour. After ingestion, the psilocybin is enzymatically converted to psilocin. Absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract, hallucinogenic effects usually occur within 30 minutes of ingestion with a duration of effect of 4–6 hours. top of page Other names Common names in the English language are: shrooms; magic mushrooms; sacred mushrooms; teonanácatl.

Various terms have also been used by users for various forms of psilocybin and psilocin or mushrooms containing these hallucinogens: blue caps; boomers; booms; buttons; caps; champ; fungus; funguys; God's flesh; hombrecitos; las mujercitas; little smoke; Mexican mushroom; mushies; mushroom soup; mushroom tea; mushrooms; musk; pizza toppings; rooms; silly putty; simple Simun; zoomers (Martindale, 2007).

Translations of ‘hallucinogenic mushrooms’ in European languages include: Bulgarian — ‘магически гъби'; Czech — 'magické houby'; Danish — 'psilocybinsvampe', 'magiske svampe'; Estonian — 'hallutsinogeense toimega seened'; Greek — 'μαγικά μανιτάρια'; French — 'champignons hallucinogènes' or 'champis'; German — 'Psychoaktive Pilze' or 'Zauberpilze'; Hungarian — 'varázsgombák', 'hallucinogén gombák', 'pszilocibingombák'; Italian — 'funghi magici'; Latvian — ‘Halucinogēnās (maģiskās) sēnes'; Lithuanian — 'haliucinogeniniai grybai', 'magiškieji grybai'; Norwegian — 'fleinsopp'; Polish — 'magiczne grzybki', 'grzyby halucynogenne'; Portuguese — 'cogumelos mágicos', 'cogumelos psic

adélicos'; Slovakian — 'magické huby'; Slovenian — 'čudeţne gobe'; Spanish — 'hongos alucinógenos', 'hongos lisérgicos', 'honguitos'; Romanian — 'ciuperci halucinogene'; Swedish — 'magiska svampar', 'psykedeliska svampar'.

top of page Typical purities Hallucinogenic mushrooms show a large variety in potency . The potency depends on species, origin, growing conditions and harvest period. The most potent species, e.g. Psilocybe semilanceata, contain up to 1 % (g/g; 10 mg psilocybin per 1 g dried mushrooms), although for other species (e.g. Psilocybe azurenscens, Psilocybe bohemica) higher concentrations than 1 % g/g have been reported. The maximum amount of psilocybin and psilocin in Psilocybe cubensis (ordinary psilocybe) is about 0.6 %. The average percentage of active ingredients in dried mushrooms is about 10 times as high as in fresh mushrooms. This is mainly because about 90 % of the weight of fresh mushrooms is made up by water. Variations in potency are lower in cultivated mushrooms than in those growing in the wild. Some hallucinogenic mushrooms contain various amounts of phenethylamine . Phenylethylamine is a sympathomimetic amine ; it can be responsible for cardiovascular effects ( tachycardia ) and other unwanted reactions.

Reports from the United States suggest that often mushrooms sold as hallucinogenic mushrooms prove to be normal grocery-bought mushrooms laced with LSD, PCP (phencyclidine) or other substances. In an 11-year study, 886 samples that were said to be psilocybin were analysed. Only 28 percent of these were hallucinogenic mushrooms, while 35 percent were other drugs, mostly LSD or PCP, and 37 percent contained no drug at all. top of page Control status Psilocin and psilocybin are controlled substances under Schedule I of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. However, the control of the mushrooms that contain these substances is interpreted in many different ways across Europe. Probably this reflects the extent to which they grow freely in certain conditions, and the fact that they appear to be a somewhat regional phenomenon. For example, in some European countries, the law specifically lists hallucinogenic mushrooms themselves as a controlled substance and forbids their sale or possession. Other countries simply treat the mushrooms as being the controlled substances of psilocin or psilocybin in compound form.

Some look at the intent of the act; they ban cultivation, possession or sale only when for the purposes of abuse. Their condition is also considered — fresh mushrooms might not be considered illegal, but prepared or treated mushrooms are illegal — again perhaps reflecting the intent. Interpretation of the term ‘prepared’ or ‘treated’ is a complex matter for the courts. Other countries use a catch-all phrase in the law (‘cultivation of any plant for the purposes of making a psychoactive substance’). Finally, a number of countries remain with unclear legislation, simply as there have been so few cases that have come to court. For a review of the legal situation in the individual Member States see the ELDD Topic Overview . top of page Prevalence Prevalence estimates for last year use of hallucinogenic mushrooms among young adults (15- to 34-year-olds) range between 0.0 % and 2.2 %. Due to low prevalence questions about the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms are not routinely included in general population surveys.

Lifetime prevalence for the use hallucinogenic mushrooms among 15- to 16-year-old school students ranged from 1 % to 7 % in the 24 EU Member States and Norway with ESPAD surveys in 2011 with only the Czech Republic reporting a prevalence level of 7 %. top of page Price Supplies needed for mushroom cultivation can be purchased over the Internet. The prices of the kits vary between EUR 23–140, depending on the type of hallucinogenic mushroom species for which spores are available. Psilocybe Mexicana, also known as ‘Philosopher’s stones' or truffles, cost between 10 and 17.5 EUR per 10 grams online in 2011 (unpublished results). top of page Medical use In the 1960s, pure synthetic psilocybin (Indocybin®) was marketed by Sandoz for experimental and psychotherapeutic purposes. At present, there are no medical indications for psilocin or psilocybin. Recent research with psilocybin has been reported on the treatment of compulsive disorders in humans.

In the past few years, a growing number of studies using human volunteers have begun to explore the possible therapeutic benefits of drugs such as psilocybin, LSD, DMT, MDMA, ibogaine and ketamine. These studies are looking at psilocybin and other hallucinogens to treat a number of otherwise intractable psychiatric disorders, including chronic depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and drug or alcohol dependency. top of page Bibliography Beck, O., Helander, A., Karlson-Stiber, C., and Stephansson, N. (1998), ‘Presence of phenylethylamine in hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushroom: possible role in adverse reactions’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, Volume 22, No 1, pp. 45–49. Brown, D. J. (2007), ‘Psychedelic healing?’, Scientific American Mind, December 2007/January 2008, pp. 67–71. Delgado, P. L. and Moreno, F. A.

(1998), ‘Hallucinogens, serotonin and obsessive-compulsive disorder’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, Volume 30, No 4, pp. 359–366. Erowid: Mushrooms, Basics , last modified, 19.07.2007 Date accessed: 4 January 2008. Hillebrand, J., Olszewski, D., and Sedefov, R. (2006), ‘Hallucinogenic mushrooms: an emerging trend case study’, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon. Horita, A. and Weber, L. J. (1961), ‘The enzymic dephosphorylation and oxidation of psilocybin and psilocin by mammalian tissue homogenates’, Biochemical Pharmacology, Volume 7, pp. 47–54. Laak, v. d. L. F. J., Wielen, v. d. J. C. A., and Veld in ‘t, P.H. (2002), Psilocybine en psilocine in paddo's.

s'Hertogenbosch, SAZD/01/30/21. Leung, A. Y. and Paul, A. G. (1968), ‘Baeocystin and norbaeocystin: new analogs of psilocybin from Psilocybe baeocystis’, Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Volume 57, No 10, pp. 1667–1671. Martindale (2007), The complete drug reference, 35th edition, S.C. Sweetman Editor, pp. 2152–2153. Maruyama, T., Kawahara, N., Yokoyama, K., et al (2006), ‘Phylogenetic relationship of psychoactive fungi based on rRNA gene for a large subunit and their identification using the TaqMan assay (II)’, Forensic Science International, Volume 163, Nos 1–2, pp. 51–58. McCambridge, J., Winstock, A., Hunt, N., and Mitcheson, L.

(2007), ‘5-year trends in use of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs among UK dance drug users’, European Addiction Research, Volume 13, No 1, pp. 57–64. O'Brien, C. P. (1996), 'Drug addiction and drug abuse', in Goodman and Guilman's The pharmacological basis of therapeutics, Ninth edition, Joel J. Hardman and Lee Limbird, Editors–in–chief, pp. 557–577. Peroutka, P. S. (1994), ‘5-Hydroxytryptamine receptor interactions of d-lysergic acid diethylamine’ in 50 years of LSD: Current status and perspectives of hallucinogens, A. Pletscher and D. Ladewig, eds., Parthenon Publishing, New York, pp. 19–26. Pechnick, R. N. and Ungerleider, J. T. (2005), ‘Hallucinogens’, in Substance abuse: a comprehensive textbook, Fourth edition, Lowinson, J. H., Ruiz, P., Millman, R. B.

and Langrod, J. G., Editors, pp. 313–323. Renfroe, C. L. and Messinger, T. A. (1985), ‘Street drug analysis: an eleven year perspective on illicit drug alteration’, Seminars in Adolescent Medicine, Volume 1, No 4, pp. 247–257. Repke, D. B., Leslie, D. T., and Guzman, G. (1977), ‘Baeocystin in psilocybe, conocybe and panaeolus’, Lloydia, Volume 40, No 6, pp. 566–578. Schneider, S. M. (2001), ‘Mushrooms’ in Clinical Toxicology, M. D. Ford et al., eds., W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp. 899–908. Titeler, M., Lyon, R. A., and Glennon, R. A.

(1988), ‘Radioligand binding evidence implicates the brain 5-HT2 receptor as a site of action for LSD and phenylisopropylamine hallucinogens’, Psychopharmacology (Berl), Volume 94, No 2, pp. 213–216. Vollenweider, F. X., Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen, M. F., Babler, A., Vogel, H., and Hell, D. (1998), ‘Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action’, Neuroreport, Volume 9, No 17, pp. 3897–3902. Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence, (2004) WHO, Geneva, pp. 104–105. Further reading Furst, P.T. (1992) ‘The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Drugs: Mushrooms, Psychedelic Fungi’, Snyder, S.H. (Ed.). Chelsea House Publishers ISBN: 087754767X Gahlinger, Paul M.

(2004), ‘Illegal drugs: a complete guide to their history, chemistry, use and abuse’, Plume/Penguin, ISBN: 0452285054 Hillebrand, J., Olszewski, D., and Sedefov, R. (2006), Hallucinogenic mushrooms: an emerging trend case study, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon. Rätsch, C. (2005), ‘Encyclopedia of psychoactive plants ethnopharmacology and it’s applications’, Park Street Press, ISBN: 0892819782 Rudgley, R. (2000), ‘the Encyclopaedia of psychoactive substances’, Solomon H. Snyder (Ed.), Thomas Dunne Books, ISBN: 0312263171 Letcher, A. (2007), ‘Shroom: A cultural history of the magic mushroom’, HarperCollins, ISBN: 0060828285 Shroomery - Psilocybin awareness Psilocybin awareness A document describing various aspects of magic mushrooms.

Saved from url . Every two years the Student Drug Use Survey, sponsored by the Addiction Research Foundation of Ontario, conducts surveys of students enrolled in grades seven through thirteen to obtain statistics on the prevalence of drug use. In the previous years the prevalence of drug use increased for all drugs; however, the surveys from 1995 to 1997 showed only one significant increase-the use of the hallucinogen psilocybin (Adlaf 1998). According to the survey there was an approximate 10.1 percent increase in the use of psilocybin while the trend for all other drugs was a significant drop (Adlaf 1998). Educators or administrators, who are developing drug education, prevention or intervention programs for youth, should incorporate information on hallucinogenic drugs. Because of the increased popularity of psilocybin among recreational drug users, knowledge and understanding of this hallucinogen is critical. The chemical psilocybin occurs naturally in many mushrooms but it is best known from Psilocybe mushrooms commonly called "magic" or sacred mushrooms.

In this paper, I will present a historical, clinical and psychological analysis of psilocybin by presenting recent research, information, and reports concerning the study of this hallucinogen. History: Psilocybe mushrooms or hallucinogenic mushrooms have probably existed longer than humanity. Throughout history, ancient pictures of mushroom-like humans have been prevalently reported. In Central and Southern America, use of psilocybian mushrooms was a common religious practice until the arrival of Spaniards who spread the Catholic faith with sword and fire and forbade the use. For Indians the mushroom is known as a sacred mushroom and historically, it is considered a religious path to the spirit world (Wasson 1980). Mushroom art and sculptures that depicted motifs under the cap of a mushroom were found even from an earlier era of 1000-500 BC. The purpose of these sculptures and artifacts was not certain, but it is speculated that the stones had religious meaning (Allegro 1970). The Codex Vienna Mixtec manuscript that dated back to thirteen century depicted the ritual use of the sacred mushrooms by the Mixtec Gods.

The God known as Seven Flowers was the Mixtec God for hallucinatory plants, especially the secret mushroom, and he was depicted carrying a pair of mushrooms in his hands (Wasson 1898). In addition, the Aztecs believed that they were capable of moving back and forth between the earthly and supernatural realms (Schwartz 1988). This travel between realms was often associated with hallucinatory trances guided by their god for the entheogens-the Prince of Flowers. The Aztecs called this ritual "the flowery dream;" this was induced by sacred mushrooms (WWW 1). The appeal of mushrooms in the "modern world" originated when Gordon Wasson came to the Mazatec village of Huatla de Jimenez, and experienced a session of "velada" held by curandera Maria Sabina. Velada included a religious ritual under a heavy influence of Psilocybe mushrooms (Wasson 1898). Information about the mushrooms spread and experimentation began. In 1958 the active ingredients of the mushroom, Psilocybin and psilocin, were found and their analogues were synthesized by Dr.

Albert Hoffman, who also discovered lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) (Schwartz 1988). Experimentation with the mushrooms historically increased, leading to their significant influence in the part of the "60's psychedelic movement" (WWW 1). And even these days, psilocybin mushrooms are one of the most common hallucinogenic substances for recreational use (Adlaf 1998). Biochemistry Hallucinogenic mushrooms grow naturally in fields and in cow pastures mainly in northwest and southeast of the United States. The most common psilocybin mushroom in the United States is Psilocybe cubenis (Schwartz 1988). The primary active ingredients of Psilocybe mushrooms are psilocybin and psilocin. Individual mushrooms contain approximately up to two percent of the psychoactive ingredient psilocybin, while psilocin is only found in trace amounts (Pedersen-Bjergaard 1998).

Between 4 to 10 mgs of psilocybin is considered to be an average content for psilocybin per grams of mushroom, and that is also the usual dose ingested (Schwartz 1988). The primary difference between psilocybin and psilocin is that psilocin is unstable, and it breaks down when the mushroom is dried (Pedersen-Bjergaard 1998). Psilocybin is highly stable, and it has been reported that psilocybin can last for an extremely long amount time and was even detected in a hundred fifteen year old mushroom sample (WWW 1). Both of the two compounds are equally psychoactive, since one molecule of psilocybin (O-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-N) can be broken down into one molecule of psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine). The breakdown occurs when the mushroom is orally ingested.

In the digestive track, psilocybin dephosphorylates to psilocin; the dephosphorlytaion process is accomplished by a readily present digestive track enzyme, alkaline phosphatase (Vollenweider 1998). Psilocybin and psilocin belong to the tryptamine (indoleamine) family of psychedelics. They occur naturally in many mushrooms. The species of Psilocybe mushrooms have high a capacity to transform fed tryptamine into a psychoactive ingredient psilocybin by a methylation and hydroxylation reaction. Studies of psilocybin biosynthesis in mushrooms show that the amino acid tryptophan and tryptamine are precursors to the indole alkaloids (Gartz 1989). Although psilocybin can also be chemically synthesized, it is very difficult and expensive. (Cuomo 1994). Psilocybin and psilocin are closely related to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Psilocin, especially, is structurally related to a neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) (Vollenweider 1998).

The structural resemblance to serotonin also parallels with psilocybin's activity. The primary effect of psilocybin seems to be the inhibition of the neurotransmitter serotonin, because the indole binds to 5-HT receptors. More specifically, the effect of psilocybin is to act as an agonist to the 5-HT2 receptor. The potency of the hallucinogens in humans is related to the binding affinity for the 5-HT2 receptor in animals. In addition, animal studies have demonstrated that the action of the hallucinogenic drug can be blocked by 5-HT2 antagonists, thus supporting psilocybin as a 5-HT analog (Vollenweider 1998). Although animal studies conclusively prove the involvement of 5-HT2 receptor systems in hallucinogenic drug action, animal hallucinogenic drug action might not be reliable when applied to the human model. For instance, many scientists question if psilocybin has an effect on the dopamine receptors in humans because of psychotic-like symptoms of the drug.

Psychosis is correlated with over-stimulation of the dopamine pathways in the central nervous system, thus leading to the hypothesis that the dopamine system is not modulated through interactions of serotonin and dopamine in humans (Vollenweider 1998). In order to prove lack of involvement of the dopamine system in humans for the psilocybin mechanism, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zurich, Switzerland, conducted psychological research on human subjects. They investigated the current animal hypothesis of the psilocybin mechanism to test weather 5-HT2 and/or dopamine receptors are effected through psilocybin. Their results support that the effects induced by psilocybin results from the activation of a 5-HT2 subtype of serotonin receptor in human subjects as well as in animals. The conclusions were drawn from the study of influence to pretreatment with 5-HT2 antagonist (ketanserin), dopamine receptor D2 antagonist (haloperidol) and mixed 5-HT2/D2 antagonists (risperidone) on psychological effects of psilocybin on healthy human subjects (Vollenweider 1998).

The study concluded that "psilocybin-induced psychosis could be completely prevented by either the atypical neuroleptic and mixed 5-HT2/D2 antagonist risperidone or by the 5-HT2 antagonist ketanserin, but not by the typical neuroleptic and D2 antagonist haloperdol" (Vollenweider 1998). This study added substantial evidence to the hypothesis of the 5-HT2 agonist is responsible for the psychological effects of psilocybin. The 5-HT2 post-synaptic agonist appears to mimics the effects to 5-HT and cause psychological changes in the central nervous system (Vollenweider 1998). The hallucinogenic psilocybin and psilocin found in mushrooms have low toxicity. Studies in mice showed that doses up to 200 mg of psilocybin/kg of body can injected without lethal effects. That implies that an average human with body weight of 65 kg can be injected 13 grams of the psychoactive mushroom ingredient without experiencing any lethal effects (WWW 1).

The most traditional measurement of toxicity of a drug is a therapeutic index that is a ratio of the lethal dose (LD50) to the effective dose (ED50) (Gable 1993). According to the Registry of Toxic Effects, the therapeutic index for psilocybin is 641. In comparison to other substances it is relative non-toxic. For example the therapeutic index for vitamin A is 9637, 4816 for LSD, 199 for aspirin and 21 for nicotine, thus psilocybin appears to have a relatively low toxicity (WWW 1). In addition, literature states that the oral intake of psilocybin appears to be the lowest risk out of all other drugs for both acute lethality and dependence (Gable 1993). Although much of the literature supports psilocybin as having relatively low toxicity, dependence and lethality, in the last two years, cases of serious physiological intoxication by natural hallucinogenic substances have surfaces around the world. A frequent use of hallucinogenic mushrooms have demonstrated to have effects not previously classified by the use of psilocybin.

Currently, clinical case and overdose studies of patients showed that psilocybin use results from arrhythmia and myocardial infarction. The indole concentrations of hallucinogenic mushrooms do not present risks of adverse central nervous system effects but also cardiac toxicity (Borowiak 1998). The myocardial infarction in the frequent users and in cases of sever intoxication suggest the possibility of cardiac damage related to psilocybin. According to recent studies, indole alkaloids are agonists at the 5-HT receptor in the central nervous system. However, peripherally they induce a sympathomimetic stimulation that leads to tachycardia and hypertension. In the past, the use of 5-HT agonists in migraine headaches was linked to myocardial infarction due to coronary vasoconstriction. In addition, serotonin receptor agonists can cause platelet hyperaggregation and occlusion of small coronary arteries. Because psilocybin is also an agonist of 5-HT receptors, it is conclusive from these observations that the use of this drug can lead to cardiac toxicity (Borowiak 1998).

Psychological effects: The historical mind-altering effects of psilocybin are described as a voyage to the spirit world. These hallucinogenic effects are similar to those of LSD; however, psilocybin is two hundred times less potent and also has a shorter duration time (Schwartz 1988). Common physiological reactions include muscular relaxation, coldness of the limbs and abdomen, and dilation of the pupils. A stronger dose includes vision and mental hallucinations and other sensory distortions. Use of the mushroom causes a feeling of disconnection from reality and an altered state of consciousness (Cumno 1994). As with all major hallucinogens, psilocybin can precipitate psychotic episodes and bring up previous mental illnesses. Therefor, individuals that are prompt to being stressed, depressed, or have schizophrenia in their history should not take mushrooms or other psychedelics. Mushrooms, similar to LSD, can significantly change a person's perception and cause a "bad trip" or an experience that can have a significant impact on someone's life. For this reason they are more then a purely recreational drug; they can be extremely psychologically impacting (Schwartz 1988; WWW 1).

The physiological and psychological effects of mushrooms are influenced by the dose and the individual's sensitivity to psilocybin. For some people, as small amount as 0.25 grams of Psilocybe mushroom can be enough for a full visionary experience, unpleasant stomach cramps or gas, and other effects usually present at high doses. In other users, the same amount might not cause any noticeable effects. Thus, it is very critical that a user understands his individual reaction, and to be safe during the first use. It is "recommended" to start with only a small amount of psilocybin. The minimal dose for any notable effect is often referred to as the threshold effect. This effect can be induced by amounts ranging from 0.25 grams to 0.75 grams of Psilocybe mushroom (Schwartz 1988; WWW 1). A more profound effect can be induced with an amount that ranges from 0.75 grams to 2.5 grams of mushroom. Similarly to a small dose, the feeling of reduced temperature, gas and/or stomach discomfort, nausea occurs, but they might be more profound.

However, this dose might induce powerful distortion of space, increased ability to visualize creatively, spontaneous detailed images, feelings of time distortion. These effects of psilocybin are often more pronounced in users who have used mushrooms before. Emotional sensitivity and an increased ability to focus on emotional problems can raise the probability of thinking or dwelling on a single feeling that usually has a negative content--a content that can lead to psychological crises come out (Schwartz 1988; WWW 1). At a dose ranging from 2.5 grams to 10 grams, all of the effects of the medium dose should be expected, usually with significantly more uncomfortable side effects. These side effects include pronounced nausea that can result in vomiting and significant mental discomfort associated with feelings of fear and often times accompanying a "what have I done to myself." These effects usually lessen as the experience becomes familiar to the person and knowledge about the characteristics and side effects of mushrooms becomes more apparent. The effects of high doses can lead to acute adverse effects and intoxication that might lead to extreme fears, panic and even intense psychosis. These psychological effects are almost indistinguishable from true schizophrenia.

After acute intoxication, the user is usually extremely exhausted and mentally depressed (Schwartz 1988). The behavioral effects induced by psilocybin are often complicated by the fact that users mix different substances. For example, the effects of psilocybin can be made stronger by taking them with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). The best known MAOIs are harmine and harmaline from the plant Peganum harmala. Combining MAOIs and other substances with tryptamines is an unsafe activity because it increases amounts of monoamides in the body (WWW 1). This might cause a hypertensive crisis that is due to elevated tyramines in the body. Clinical Implication: The field of psychedelic research extends beyond the investigation of biochemistry and recreational use. There have been great promises for medical use of psychedelics. Studies focused on the role of psychedelics in religious experience and behavior change. Psilocybin experiments were conducted in the early 1960's under the direction of Timothy Leary, Ph.D. Dr. Leary had obtained permission from the Massachusetts Department of Corrections to administer psilocybin to volunteers in Concord Prison (WWW 2).

The hope for the experiment was to test if psilocybin experiences can change the prisoner's cycle of antisocial behavior and reduce their recidivism. The action of psilocybin was used to help the prisoners recognize the impact of their past behavior. Such realization was hoped to connect them to their spirit and consciousness, leading to resistance of desire to commit future crimes. The final results showed that psilocybin experience alone were not sufficient to reduce recidivism. However, the failure of the research originated from the lack of group support meetings for the prisoners. However, similar studies disclosed that psilocybin could cause a behavioral change in people with strong religiously conviction. People who took psilocybin with a religious context experienced deeper spiritual connection (WWW 2). In conclusion, the prevalence of psilocybin throughout history and its current use has lead to intensive studies and research. The studies on human and animal models both demonstrated that psilocybin produces psychosis-like symptoms primarily through serotonin-2 receptor stimulation. Although many of the psilocybin effects are understood and well documented, we keep learning more about this substance as more data is collected through research of psilocybin users.

As the understanding continues, the field of psychedelic research will likely extend beyond its current use because of the great promise for medical use in the treatment of various psychological conditions. References Adlaf, Edward M. et al. Recent findings from Ontario Student Drug Use Survey. Canadian Medical Association 5. 451-455 (1998). Borowiak, Krzysztof S. et al. Psilocybin Mushroom Intoxication with Myocardial Infarction. Clinical Toxicology 36. 47-49 (1998). Vollenwieder, Franz X. et al. Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonis-2 agonist action. NeuroReport 9. 3897-3902 (1998). Pedersen-Bjergaard, Stig. et al. Strategies for capillary electrophoretic separation of indole alkaloids in Psilocybe semilanceata. Electrophoresis 19. 27-30 (1998). Cuomo, Micheal J. et al.

Increasing Use of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) and Other Hallucinogens on College Campus. College Health 42. 271-274 (1994). Gable, Robert S. Toward a Comparative Overview of Dependence Potential and Acute Toxicity of Psychoactive Substance Used Nonmedically. Drug Alcohol Abuse 19. 263-281 (1993). Gratz, Jochen. Extraction and analysis of indole derivatives from fungal biomass Basic Microbiology 29. 347-352 (1988). Schwartz, Richart H. and Smith, Deborah. Hallucinogenic Mushrooms. Clinical Pediatrics 27. 70-73 (1988). Wasson, Robert G. The Wondrous Mushroom. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (1898). Wasson, Robert G. Maria Sabina and her Mazetec Mushroom Velada. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (1974). Allegro, John M. The Sacred Mushroom & The Cross. National General Company (1970). WWW 1.

The Vault of Erowid: Sacred mushrooms. WWW 2. Psilocybin: Concord Prison Follow-up from the Newsletter of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies MAPS- Volume 6 Number 2 Winter 1995-96 Your Brain On Psilocybin Might Be Less Depressed : Shots - Health News : NPR Your Brain On Psilocybin Might Be Less Depressed This could be your forest on psilocybin. Baxterclaus/Flickr hide caption toggle caption Baxterclaus/Flickr Magic mushrooms are said to blow your mind, but the hallucinogenic chemical psilocybin, the active ingredient, actually reins in key parts of the brain, according to two new studies. The memorably vivid emotional experiences reported by mushroom users may flourish because the parts of the brain suppressed by psilocybin usually keep our world view tidy and rational. And since the brain area affected by psilocybin can also be out of whack in mental health problems such as depression, the researchers speculate that the drug may turn out to be useful in treating mental illness.

"The brain's doing a lot to keep our experiences of the world orderly and constrained," says Robin Carhart-Harris , a post-doc in neuroscience at Imperial College London, and lead author of the studies. The studies are among the first to use brain imaging to take a peek at the brain on psilocybin. "Depression can be described as a particularly restrictive state of mind," Carhart-Harris told Shots. "People are stuck on how terrible they are. This seems to suggest that people can have a lifting of that negative thinking under psychedelics." Article continues after sponsorship One of the studies asked 10 volunteers to recall particularly happy memories, like getting married or becoming a parent, both with and without psilocybin. The people found the memories much more vivid, visual, and happy while under the influence. That study will be published in the British Journal of Psychiatry on Thursday. In the second study, 30 volunteers lay in an MRI machine while tripping for science. The brain scans showed less activity in areas of the brain that may act as connectors, or hubs. One of those areas, the posterior cingulate cortex, is thought to figure in consciousness and ego. It's also hyperactive in people with depression.

The researchers hadn't expected to find less brain activity with psilocybin. The thought has always been that psychedelic flights of fancy are the result of an overactive brain. The results were published Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Serious research into psychedelic drugs was pretty much shut down after the excesses of the trip-happy 1960s. Harvard famously fired Timothy Leary in 1963 for experimenting far too enthusiastically with psilocybin and other mind-altering drugs. Psilocybin remains an illegal drug in the same category as heroin and LSD, which the Justice Department says has "no legitimate medical purpose." Still, several recent small studies have found improvements in people with depression or obsessive-compulsive disorder after taking other psychedelics. Another found less anxiety and improved mood in cancer patients who used psilocybin. Carhart-Harris says he was inspired to experiment with psilocybin by Roland Griffiths , a neuroscientist at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Last year Griffiths reported that when he tested high doses of psilocybin in 18 volunteers, 72 percent reported profoundly spiritual experiences, as well as improvements in mood and attitude that lasted more than a year.

But those trips weren't all good; 39 percent reported extreme anxiety or fear at some point in the five 8-hour sessions. People trained as monitors kept the study participants company in an effort to reduce the impact of those bad experiences. The next step is to see if psilocybin actually does alleviate symptoms of depression. Carhart-Harris hopes to start a pilot study asking that question by the end of the year. How To Grow Your Own Magic Mushrooms Psilocybin (Mushrooms) How To Grow Your Own Magic Mushrooms We have in front of us the Pysilocybe cubensis grow kit from Azarius. It’s a growing kit for magic mushrooms. Unfortunately not all kits come with a guide, but no worries that’s what we’re here for. Most grow kits are built the same way. So keep reading, stick with these steps, and a good harvest is almost guaranteed. Feel like going on a psychedelic trip? Europeans can order their magic mushroom growkit online and by doing so, support The Stoned Society. It’s really easy to grow magic mushrooms.

We’ll cover the process in 6 steps: Fill the kit with water, let the water absorb, remove the water Put the kit in the plastic bag and place it in a good spot Waiting Filling the kit with water Remember that the first thing you do when you need to touch your mushroom box is wash your hands. Always make sure that your hands are clean! Open one corner of the lid, now open your tap and let tepid water stream gently into the box. When the water starts overflowing, push the corner down again. Once you’ve filled the kit with water, put it in a dark spot for a minimum of 4 hours and a maximum of 12 hours. If you want you can improve the water absorption in the kit by poking holes in the substrate. Before filling the kit with water, take a clean fork and poke some holes in the substrate, 6 to 8 rows of holes will be enough and you only need to do this the first time. After you’ve waited for the water to absorb, open one corner of the lid again and let the excessive water stream out. Make sure all the water flows out of the kit or you risk contamination.

Place the kit in a good environment After you have removed the lid you can put the mushroom kit in the plastic bag that came along with it. These bags are designed for growing magic mushrooms and allow for enough CO2 to get in the bag via a membrane. If you decide use another bag, make sure you take into account that enough air can get into the box. Mushrooms grow best in a moist environment, so before placing the kit in the bag it’s smart to fill the bag with a little water. This will create the moist environment the magic mushrooms need. Some folks also like to spray their mushrooms with water, but that’s both time consuming and unnecessary. Don’t place the mushrooms in direct sunlight, daylight is fine but it’s best to place the kit somewhere in your room where there is not too much light. As for temperature, room temperature is fine. Waiting The first grow cycle takes a little longer than the later ones. It will take a week to 10 days extra. The mycelium in the kit needs to be ‘activated’ sort of speak. After these 10 days it will take another week to 10 days to get full grown mushrooms.

After the first harvest, the waiting time for each following batch will be between 7 to 10 days. Each batch will yield about 100 grams of mushroom and if you do everything properly there will be between 3 and 5 batches. Harvest The ideal time to harvest your mushrooms is when the hoods are just starting to open. Sometimes one or maybe two mushrooms are ahead of the rest, in this case you can remove these and let the rest grow a little while longer. Before harvesting, always make sure to wash your hands. You don’t want to risk contamination. When you are harvesting the mushrooms, it’s best to twist them and don’t pull them right out of the ground. Make sure you remove all the mushrooms, even the really tiny ones. After harvesting you can start the cycle over again. You can store the box for a few days after you’ve picked the mushrooms, but really only for a few days. Store it in a dark place with the lid on the kit. Make sure to clean the lid with water first. And again, wash your hands before handling the kit! Drying After the harvest you can choose to eat your mushrooms when they’re fresh. Fresh mushrooms are mostly a bit stronger than dried ones.

So technically you can get a more intense trip then when they’re still fresh, and they will taste better and are easier to chew. However, dried mushrooms are easier to eat fast or prepare in a tea or soup. You can most likely consume more of them so if you want an intense trip, these will probably treat you better then fresh ones. You can try them raw, or make a soup or tea You can only keep fresh mushrooms for a short time, about a week. Dried mushrooms however, you can keep for a year. If you dry them correctly they will also keep most of their potency. When you’ve dried your mushrooms, keep them in a paper bag and store them in a dark spot, like a drawer. Do not store the bag in the fridge! Drying magic mushrooms can be done in many ways. You can use a fan, put them in the oven (not recommended!), or create a natural dehydrating climate. You can also use light to dry your mushrooms but this may harm the potency. Whichever method you choose, always be careful not to make the environment too hot. When the temperature goes above 40 degrees Celsius, psilocybin and other active compounds will start breaking down.

You can best dry your magic mushrooms by creating a dry, warm climate. Place the mushrooms on a few tissues. It’s smart to use a (heating) fan, just make sure the temperature doesn’t go above 40 degrees Celsius. It can take up to a day or longer to dry you mushrooms. Make sure the mushrooms are completely dry, they should break if you try bending them. Further reads:

Question: Psilocybin (pronounced 'sillasybin') is the natural active ingredient of?
Answer: Magic Mushrooms