Egypt’s presidential history: Military’s tight grip on power | Al Jazeera America Egypt’s presidential history: Military’s tight grip on power by Ehab Zahriyeh @EhabZ January 29, 2014 3:49PM ET Abdel Fattah El Sisi’s candidacy follows the country’s tradition since 1952 Topics: A street vendor offers cards of Egypt’s army chief Gen. Abdel Fattah El Sisi during celebrations of the third anniversary of Egypt’s uprising, Jan. 25, 2014. Amr Abdallah Dalsh/Reuters Egypt's military remains the most powerful entity in the country despite secrecy surrounding its budget, its generals, and its businesses, which many believe make up more than a third of the country's economy. Consolidation of power and industry by the armed forces goes as far back as the country’s first presidency in 1952, and Egyptian law prevents any real oversight of the military. The revolution that forced King Farouk into exile that year placed the military in power on civilian rule — one leader after another — until the 2011 popular uprising that overthrew Hosni Mubarak.

With presidential elections approaching, the chief of the Egyptian armed forces, Abdel Fattah El Sisi — who removed Mohamed Morsi, the country’s first freely elected, nonmilitary president after one year — has announced his candidacy. The election of a military leader reverses efforts of the 2011 revolution, which among other demands, called for more oversight over the budgets and leaders of the armed forces. Here, a history of Egypt’s presidents: 1953: Muhammed Naguib AP Presidency: June 18, 1953 – Nov. 14, 1954 Muhammed Naguib’s military career began in 1918. Making his way up the ranks, Naguib was promoted to major-general in 1949 after serving in Palestine in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Naguib, along with a secret group of disgruntled officers (Free Officers Movement) led a coup d'état against King Farouk in 1952 and declared Egypt a republic for the first time.

When Naguib became president on June 18, 1953, he simultaneously held the title of prime minister and chairman of Revolution Command Council (RCC) — the newly formed political body deciding Egypt’s affairs. The RCC was mostly made up of military personnel. His presidency marked the start of military control over civilian affairs, which continues till today. Naguib eventually resigned as president one year later after losing a power struggle to a younger officer, Gamal Abdel Nasser. Naguib was immediately placed under house arrest by Nasser for 18 years. 1954: Gamal Abdel Nasser AP Presidency: Nov. 14, 1954 – Sept. 28, 1970 Gamal Abdel Nasser joined the military in 1938 and, like Muhammed Naguib, fought in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. As deputy commander, Nasser was famously known for his resilience in the war for securing the Palestinian village of al-Faluja while withstanding Israeli bombardment. He was highly critical of Egypt’s unpreparedness in battles with Israel.

After combat, Nasser became a founding member of the Free Officers Movement and helped seat Naguib as the country’s first president following the coup against King Farouk. Nasser then forced Naguib to resign and took over as the country’s leader on Nov. 14, 1954. Nasser won Egypt's first presidential elections in 1956 by 99.9 percent of the votes. He was the only candidate on the ballot. Nasser served 16 years as Egypt’s president until he died while in office on Sept. 28, 1970. In presidential elections in 1958 and 1965, Nasser — again running unopposed — won 100 percent of the votes cast. One month before he assumed office on Oct. 26, 1954, Nasser was giving a speech in Alexandria, celebrating British withdrawal from Egypt, when a member of the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to assassinate him. Nasser survived and swiftly banned the Brotherhood and imprisoned thousands of its members. The Brotherhood’s struggle with the nations' military leaders continues today. Nasser also eliminated Egypt's short-lived multi-party system as he consolidated power and marginalized the opposition.

Nasser’s pan-Arab push made him one of the most popular Arab leaders of modern times. His legacy includes nationalizing the British and French controlled Suez Canal on July 26, 1956; building close ties with the Soviet Union; creating the United Arab Republic, which united Egypt with Syria in 1958 until Syria seceeded in 1961; and the loss to Israel in 1967 which cost Egypt the Sinai and control over Gaza. 1970: Anwar Sadat Harry Koundakjian/AP Presidency: Oct. 15, 1970 – Oct. 6, 1981 Anwar Sadat joined the military in 1938 where he met Gamal Abdel Nasser and would become one of the founding members of the Free Officers Movement. Sadat, vice president at the time of Nasser’s death, assumed the role of the country's leader. Sadat ran in two presidential elections — unopposed — winning more than 90 percent of the vote in 1970 and 99.9 percent in 1976.

Sadat dedicated much of his presidency to a "corrective revolution" — reversing Nasser’s pan-Arabism; breaking ties with the Soviets; forging trust with the United States; and opening Egypt’s economy to private investment. Sadat reversed Nasser’s clampdown on Islamists by releasing them from prison. In return, they became a significant pillar in his power base. War and peace with Israel defined Sadat’s presidency. On Oct. 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria stunned Israel with surprise offensives to recapture land occupied during the 1967 war. A military standstill eventually ended with a cease-fire brokered by the United States, the Soviet Union and the U.N. Security Council. In 1977, Sadat became the first Arab leader to make an official visit to Israel where he addressed Knesset on his plan for peace. The next year, Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords at the White House, ahead of signing a peace treaty in 1979 that ended hostilities between the two nations and returned control of the Sinai to Egypt. A major element in the peace deal was a U.S.

promise to aid and modernize Egypt's military. Since 1979, Egypt has received more than $1 billion annually from the U.S., making its military one of the strongest in Africa and the Middle East, and untouchable within the country. The rest of the Arab world excoriated Sadat for making peace with Israel without solving the twin problems of the Palestinian conflict and Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights in Syria. Sadat’s defining moment eventually led to his death. On Oct. 6, 1981, soldiers loyal to Egypt’s Islamic Jihad, who were angry about the peace treaty with Israel, assassinated Sadat during an annual parade. Eleven others were killed in the assault including a Cuban ambassador and general from Oman. Vice President Hosni Mubarak succeeds Sadat as president. 1981: Hosni Mubarak AP2006 Presidency: Oct. 14, 1981 – Feb. 11, 2011 Like his predecessors, Hosni Mubarak’s path to the presidency began with a career in the military.

Mubarak, however, was the first Egyptian president who had not belonged to the Free Officers Movement that pushed King Farouk into exile. In 1950, Mubarak became a pilot officer in the air force and later received training in Russia. During his decades-long air force career, Mubarak served in many roles including lecturer, commander and chief of staff. In 1974, one year before becoming Anwar Sadat’s vice president, Mubarak was promoted to air marshal — one of the highest ranks in the force. After being injured in the attack that killed Sadat, Mubarak assumed the role as Egypt's president. For five elections and almost 30 years, Mubarak was untouchable as Egypt's ruler. A 1967 emergency law that suspended constitutional rights by prohbiting protests and non-government approved political parties remained in effect throughout Mubarak's presidency. It gave the country's police forces wide-ranging powers to detain individuals without a trial. Mubarak supressed the Muslim Brotherhood. Thousands of their members, especially top leaders, were imprisoned. While banned from politics, the Brotherhood, however, remained resilient by focusing efforts on social, civil and charity work.

Within Mubarak's reign, the military continued its consolidation of Egypt's industries ranging from real estate to agriculture, all while 40 percent of the population lived on less than $2 a day in 2011, according to the World Bank. Mubarak's presidency ended on Feb. 11, 2011, after 18 days of crippling protests by crowds demanding his resignation. Egypt's Supreme Council of Armed Forces became the caretaker of the country's civilian affairs until 2012 presidential elections, giving the military complete power over the country. 2012: Mohamed Morsi Mark Wilson/Getty Images Presidency: June 30, 2012 – July 3, 2013 Mohamed Morsi, a member of the Muslim Brotherhood, was the first freely-elected president and the only one without a military background. Following the 2011 revolutionary movement that toppled Hosni Mubarak, Morsi faced off against Ahmed Shafik. Morsi won by 52 percent, but his victory was short-lived.

On the first anniversary of Morsi's presidency, millions of Egyptians took to the streets — angry over the government's Islamist policies — calling for Morsi to resign. Millions of others rallied in support of the president, but the Supreme Council of Armed Forces acted swiftly, removing Morsi on July, 3 2013 from his post and detaining him on charges of killing opponents protesting outside his palace. After just one year of civilian rule, the military is back in full control of the country. Share This: Egypt profile - Timeline - BBC News Egypt profile - Timeline A chronology of key events: circa 7000 BC - Settlement of Nile Valley begins. circa 3000 BC - Kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt unite. Successive dynasties witness flourishing trade, prosperity and the development of great cultural traditions. Writing, including hieroglyphics, is used as an instrument of state. Construction of the pyramids - around 2,500 BC - is a formidable engineering achievement. Image copyright AFP 669 BC - Assyrians from Mesopotamia conquer and rule Egypt. 525 BC - Persian conquest.

332 BC - Alexander the Great, of ancient Macedonia, conquers Egypt, founds Alexandria. A Macedonian dynasty rules until 31 BC. 31 BC - Egypt comes under Roman rule; Queen Cleopatra commits suicide after Octavian's army defeats her forces. 33 AD - Christianity comes to Egypt, and by 4th century has largely displaced Egyptian religion. 642 - Arab conquest of Egypt. Famous boy king 969 - Cairo established as capital. 1250-1517 - Mameluke (slave soldier) rule, characterised by great prosperity and well-ordered civic institutions. 1517 - Egypt absorbed into the Turkish Ottoman empire. 1798 - Napoleon Bonaparte's forces invade but are repelled by the British and the Turks in 1801. 1805 - Ottoman Albanian commander Muhammad Ali establishes dynasty that rules until 1952, although nominally part of the Ottoman Empire. 1859-69 - Suez Canal built, but it and other infrastructure projects near-bankrupt Egypt and lead to gradual British takeover. 1882 - British troops defeat Egyptian army and take control of country.

1914 - Egypt formally becomes a British protectorate. Independence restored 1922 - Fuad I becomes King and Egypt gains independence, although British influence remains significant until mid-1950s. Nasser Image copyright AFP How Suez made Nasser an Arab icon 1928 - Muslim Brotherhood founded by Hassan al-Banna, who was killed in 1949. Campaigns to reorient Egypt and whole Muslim Middle East away from Western influence. 1948 - Egypt, Iraq, Jordan and Syria attack the new state of Israel. Egyptian army's poor performance increases unpopularity of King Farouk. 1949 - Committee of the Free Officers' Movement formed to overthrow corrupt monarchy. 1952 January - At least 20 people are killed in anti-British riots in Cairo. 1952 July - Coup by the Free Officers' Movement. Farouk abdicates in favour of his infant son Ahmed Fuad II. Rise of Nasser 1953 June - Coup leader Muhammad Najib becomes president as Egypt is declared a republic.

Suez intervention 1956: Egypt seizes Suez Canal 1954 - Fellow coup leader Gamal Abdel Nasser becomes prime minister and in 1956 president, ruling unchallenged until his death in 1970. 1954 - Evacuation Treaty signed. British forces, who began a gradual withdrawal under 1936 treaty finally leave Egypt.1955 - Prime Minister Nasser reorients Egypt away from West towards neutrality, buys arms from Communist Czechoslovakia to re-equip army after Western powers refuse to do so on terms acceptable to Egypt. 1956 January - Egypt and Britain relinquish control over Sudan, established at end of 19th century. 1956 July - President Nasser nationalises the Suez Canal to fund the Aswan High Dam, after Britain and US withdraw financing. 1956 October-November - Invasion of Egypt by Britain, France and Israel over nationalisation of Suez Canal fails through US opposition, greatly enhancing President Nasser's standing at home and abroad.

1958 - President Nasser steps up campaign to promote pan-Arab unity, most visible signs of which were brief United Arab Republic unitary state including Syria (1958-61). He also supports friendly elements in Lebanese and North Yemen conflicts to little avail. 1961-66 - President Nasser adopts socialist policies, including nationalisation of industry and an ambitious welfare programme, combined with repression of Muslim Brotherhood and leftist opponents, in an unsuccessful attempt to boost the economy and the popularity of his government. 1967 May - Egypt expels UN buffer forces from Sinai and closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli ships, then sign defence pact with Jordan. Israel interprets this as preparation for war. 1967 June - Israeli pre-emptive attack defeats Egypt, Jordan and Syria, leaving it in control of Sinai up to the Suez Canal and Egyptian-occupied Gaza.Emergency Law largely suspends civil rights. Remains in force with brief break in early 1980s until 2012.

Sadat presidency 1970 September - Nasser dies, having never recovered his leading role among Arab states after the 1967 defeat, and is succeeded by Vice-President, Anwar al-Sadat. Sadat Film on Sadat gets mixed reactions 1971 - The Aswan High Dam is completed, with Soviet funding, and has a huge impact on irrigation, agriculture and industry in Egypt. 1972 - President Sadat expels Soviet advisers and reorients Egypt towards the West, while launching an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to open the economy to market forces and foreign investment. 1973 October - Egypt and Syria go to war with Israel to reclaim land lost in 1967. Egypt begins negotiations for the return of Sinai after the war. 1975 June - The Suez Canal is re-opened for first time since 1967 war. 1977 January - "Bread riots" in major cities against end to subsidies on basic foodstuffs under agreement with World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

1977 October - President Sadat visits Israel, beginning process that leads to 1979 peace treaty, return of occupied Sinai Peninsula, and Egypt's suspension from Arab League until 1989. Egypt becomes major beneficiary of US financial aid. 1981 October - President Sadat assassinated by Islamist extremists month after clampdown on private press and opposition groups in wake of anti-government riots. Succeeded by Vice-President Hosni Mubarak. Image copyright AFP Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood 2005 May - Referendum backs constitutional amendment allowing multiple candidates at presidential elections, after months of opposition protests. 2005 July - Scores of people are killed in bomb attacks in the Red Sea resort of Sharm al-Sheikh as Islamists resume terror attacks. 2005 December - Parliamentary polls end with clashes between police and supporters of the opposition Muslim Brotherhood, who win record 20% of seats by standing as independents. 2006 April - Bomb attacks in the Red Sea resort of Dahab kill more than 20 people.

2006 November - Egypt is one of at least six Arab countries developing domestic nuclear programmes to diversify energy sources, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports. Lawless peninsula Fighting extremism in Egypt's Sinai 2008 April - Military courts sentence 25 leading Muslim Brotherhood members to jail terms in crackdown targeting the organisation's funding. More than 800 arrested over a month. Brotherhood boycotted municipal elections after only 20 candidates allowed to stand. 2009 February - Leading opposition figure Ayman Nour freed after serving three years of five-year sentence on forgery charges that he said were politically motivated. 2009 August - Twenty-six members of an alleged cell of the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah go on trial in Cairo on charges of plotting attacks in Egypt and helping to send weapons to Hamas in Gaza. Image copyright AFP 2011 November - Violence in Cairo's Tahrir square as security forces clash with protesters accusing the military of trying to keep their grip on power. 2011 December - National unity government headed by new Prime Minister Kamal al-Ganzouri takes office. 2012 January - Islamist parties emerge as victors of drawn-out parliamentary elections.

2012 May - Military leaders announce the end of the state of emergency in place since Anwar al-Sadat's assassination in 1981. Morsi presidency 2012 June - Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohammed Morsi narrowly wins presidential election. Court sentences ex-President Mubarak to life in prison for complicity in the killing of protesters during the 2011 uprising. 2012 August - New prime minister Hisham Qandil appoints a cabinet dominated by figures from the outgoing government, technocrats and Islamists, but excluding secular and liberal forces. Islamist fighters attack an army outpost in Sinai, killing 16 soldiers, and mount a brief incursion into Israel, beginning new insurgency. Image copyright AFP Short-lived presidency President Morsi dismisses Defence Minister Tantawi and Chief of Staff Sami Annan and strips military of say in legislation and drafting the new constitution. Tension over new constitution 2012 November - President Morsi issues a decree stripping the judiciary of the right to challenge his decisions, but rescinds it in the face of popular protests.

2012 December - Islamist-dominated constituent assembly approves draft constitution that boosts the role of Islam and restricts freedom of speech and assembly. Public approve it in a referendum, prompting extensive protest by secular opposition leaders, Christians and women's groups. Government paralysis weakens the currency and delays a $4.8bn (£3bn) IMF loan. 2013 January - More than 50 people are killed during days of violent street protests. Army chief Abdul Fattah al-Sisi warns that political strife is pushing the state to the brink of collapse. 2013 June - President Morsi appoints Islamist allies as regional leaders in 13 of Egypt's 27 governorships, including member of a former Islamist armed group linked to a massacre of tourists in Luxor in 1997. Protests force Luxor governor out. Islamists ousted 2013 July - Army overthrows President Morsi amid mass demonstrations calling on him to quit. 2013 August - Hundreds killed as security forces storm pro-Morsi protest camps in Cairo. Some 40 Coptic churches are destroyed in wave of attacks.

2013 October - US suspends large part of $1.3bn (£810m) in aid. Copts 2013 December - Government declares Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group after a bomb blast in Mansoura kills 12. 2014 January - New constitution bans parties based on religion. 2014 May - Former army chief Abdul Fattah al-Sisi wins presidential election. 2014 June - International outcry as three al-Jazeera journalists are jailed after being found guilty of spreading false news and supporting the banned Muslim Brotherhood. They are freed in February 2015. Islamic State attacks 2014 November - Sinai-based armed group Ansar Beit al-Maqdis pledges allegiance to extreme Islamic State movement, which controls parts of Syria and Iraq. Renames itself Sinai Province. 2015 February - Egyptian aircraft bomb Islamic State positions in eastern Libya after extremist group released video apparently showing killing of 21 Egyptian Coptic Christians. Egypt seeks UN mandate to sanction international intervention in Libya. 2015 May - Ousted President Morsi sentenced to death over 2011 mass breakout of Muslim Brotherhood prisoners, along with more than 100 others.

He was sentenced to 20 years in prison in April over arrest and torture of protesters during his 2012-2013 rule. 2015 June - Prosecutor-General Hisham Barakat and three members of the public killed in suspected Islamist car bombing in Cairo. 2015 July - Islamic State launches wave of attacks in North Sinai. 2015 October - Islamic State claims responsibility for destruction of Russian airliner in Sinai, in which all crew and 224 tourist passengers were killed. 2016 January - Islamic State carries out attack at Giza tourist site and is suspected of attack on tourists in Hurghada. 2016 April - Egypt announces that it will hand over to Saudi Arabia two strategic Red Sea islands, sparking public outrage and unrest. 2016 May - EgyptAir flight from Paris to Cairo crashes into the Mediterranean Sea. 2016 November - IMF approves a three-year $12bn loan to Egypt designed to healp the country out of its deep economic crisis. 2016 November - Egypt's appeals court overturns the death sentence of former president Mohamed Morsi and orders a retrial in connection with a mass prison break in 2011.

Egypt: History History History The Ancient Empire of the Nile The valley of the "long river between the deserts," with the annual floods, deposits of life-giving silt, and year-long growing season, was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations built by humankind. The antiquity of this civilization is almost staggering, and whereas the history of other lands is measured in centuries, that of ancient Egypt is measured in millennia. Much is known of the period even before the actual historic records began. Those records are abundant and, because of Egypt's dry climate, have been well preserved. Inscriptions have unlocked a wealth of information; for example, the existing fragments of the Palermo stone are engraved with the records of the kings of the first five dynasties. The great papyrus dumps offer an enormous amount of information, especially on the later periods of ancient Egyptian history. Among the many problems encountered in Egyptology, one of the most controversial is that of dating events. The following dates have a margin of plus or minus 100 years for the time prior to 3000 B.C. Fairly precise dates are possible beginning with the Persian conquest (525 B.C.) of Egypt.

The division of Egyptian history into 30 dynasties up to the time of Alexander the Great (a system worked out by Manetho) is a convenient frame upon which to hang the succession of the kings and a record of events. In the table entitled Dynasties of Ancient Egypt , the numbers of the dynasties are given in Roman numerals, and the numeral is followed by the dates of the dynasty and a notation of famous monarchs of the era (each of whom has a separate article in the encyclopedia). Since there are many gaps and periods without well-known rulers (occasionally without known rulers at all), those are given simply with dates or are combined with better-recorded periods. The Old and Middle Kingdoms A high culture developed early, and the Old Kingdom is notable for artistic and intellectual achievements (see Egyptian architecture ; Egyptian art ; Egyptian religion ). From the beginning there was a concept of the divinity or quasi-divinity of the king (pharaoh), which lasted from the time that Egypt was first united (c.3200 B.C.) under one ruler until the ultimate fall of Egypt to the Romans.

According to tradition, it was Menes (or Narmer) who as king of Upper Egypt conquered the rival kingdom of Lower Egypt in the Nile delta, thus forming the single kingdom of Egypt. In the unified and centralized state created by Menes, the memory of the two ancient kingdoms was preserved in formalities of administration. Trade flourished, and the kings of the I dynasty appear to have sent trading expeditions under military escort to Sinai to obtain copper. Indications show that under the II dynasty, trade existed with areas as far north as the Black Sea. The III dynasty was one of the landmarks of Egyptian history, the time during which sun-worship, a new form of religion that later became the religion of the upper classes, was introduced. At the same time mummification and the building of stone monuments began. The kings of the IV dynasty (which may be said to begin the Old Kingdom proper) were the builders of the great pyramids at Giza. The great pyramid of Khufu is a monument not only to the king but also to the unified organization of ancient Egyptian society. The V to the VII dynasties are remarkable for their records of trading expeditions with armed escorts.

Although Egypt flourished culturally and commercially during this period, it started to become less centralized and weaker politically. The priests of the sun-god at Heliopolis gained increasing power; the office of provincial rulers became hereditary, and their local influence was thereafter always a threat to the state. In the 23d cent. B.C. the Old Kingdom, after a long and flourishing existence, fell apart. The local rulers became dominant, and the records, kept by the central government, tended to disappear. Some order was restored by the IX dynasty, but it was not until 2134 B.C. that power was again centralized, this time at Thebes . That city was to be the capital for most of the next millennium. The Middle Kingdom, founded at the end of the XI dynasty, reached its zenith under the XII. The Pharaoh, however, was not then an absolute monarch but rather a feudal lord, and his vassals held their land in their own power. The XII dynasty advanced the border up the Nile to the Second Cataract. Order was preserved, the draining of El Faiyum was begun (adding a new and fertile province), a uniform system of writing was adopted, and civilization reached a new peak.

After 214 years the XII dynasty came to an end in 1786 B.C. In the dimly known period that followed, Egypt passed for more than a century under the Hyksos (the so-called shepherd kings), who were apparently Semites from Syria. They were expelled from Egypt by Amasis I (Ahmose I), founder of the XVIII dynasty, and the New Kingdom was established. The New Kingdom The XVIII dynasty is the most important and the best-recorded period in Egyptian history. The local governors generally opposed both the Hyksos and the new dynasty; those who survived were now made mere administrators, their lands passing to the crown. Ancient Egypt reached its height. Its boundaries were extended into Asia, with a foreign province reaching the Euphrates (see Thutmose I ). Letters known as the Tell el Amarna tablets are dated to this dynasty and furnish the details of the reigns of Amenhotep III and his son, Ikhnaton . As Ikhnaton neglected his rule in the pursuit of religion, letters from local rulers became increasingly urgent in begging help, especially against the Hittites .

Of the rulers following Ikhnaton in this dynasty, Tutankhamen is important for his law code and his enforcement of those laws through the courts. Architecture was at its zenith with the enormous and impressive buildings at and around Thebes. Egyptian civilization seems to have worn out rapidly after conflicts with the Hittites under the XIX dynasty and with sea raiders under the XX dynasty. With a succession of weak kings, the Theban priesthood practically ruled the country and continued to maintain a sort of theocracy for 450 years. In the delta the Libyan element had been growing, and with the disappearance of the weak XXI dynasty, which had governed from Tanis, a Libyan dynasty came to power. This was succeeded by the alien rule of Nubians, black Africans who advanced from the south to the delta under Piankhi and later conquered the land. The rising power of Assyria threatened Egypt by absorbing the petty states of Syria and Palestine, and Assyrian kings had reached the borders of Egypt several times before Esar-Haddon actually invaded (673 B.C.) the land of the Nile.

Assyrian rule was, however, short-lived; by 650 B.C., under Psamtik , Egypt was once more independent and orderly. Greek traders became important, and their city of Naucratis, founded by Amasis II , thrived. Attempts to reestablish Egyptian power in Asia were turned back (605 B.C.) by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar , and Egypt fell easy prey (525 B.C.) to the armies of Cambyses of Persia. Despite occasional troubles, the Persians maintained their hegemony until 405 B.C. New dynasties were then established, but they did not regain the old splendor. The Persians again became dominant in 341 B.C. Egypt, rich and ill-defended, fell to Alexander the Great without resistance in 332 B.C. When Alexander's brief empire faded, Egypt in the wars of his successors (the Diadochi) fell to his general Ptolemy, who became king as Ptolemy I . All the succeeding kings of the dynasty were also named Ptolemy. The great city of Alexandria became the intellectual center and fountainhead of the Hellenistic world.

The Ptolemies maintained a formidable empire for more than two centuries and exercised great power in the E Mediterranean. The Jewish population was large—perhaps as much as a seventh of the total population—and even the Palestinian Jews looked to the Alexandrian Jews for guidance. The rising power of Rome soon overshadowed Egypt, but it was not until Ptolemy XII sought Roman aid through Pompey to regain his throne that Rome actually obtained (58 B.C.) a foothold in Egypt itself. Cleopatra , the daughter of Ptolemy XII, tried to win back power for Egypt, especially through Julius Caesar and Marc Antony . Octavian (later Emperor Augustus ) actually annexed Egypt to Rome, putting to death Cleopatra's son, Ptolemy XV, who was the last of the Ptolemies. Egypt became a granary for Rome; the emperors from Augustus to Hadrian raised the irrigation system to great efficiency, and Trajan reopened the ancient Nile–Red Sea canal. In the 2d cent. A.D., strife between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria brought massacres. Christianity was welcomed in Egypt, and several of the most celebrated Doctors of the Church, notably St.

Athanasius , St. Cyril of Alexandria, and Origen , were Egyptians. Egypt gave rise to the Arian and Nestorian heresies, and Gnosticism flourished there for a time. The patriarch of Alexandria was probably the most important figure in Egypt. After St. Cyril, Monophysitism became the national faith; out of this arose the Coptic Church. The hostility of the people to the Orthodox Byzantine emperors and officials probably helped Khosru II of Persia to gain Egypt in 616. It was recovered (c.628) by Heraclius I, but the Persian invasion proved to be only a forerunner of the more serious Arabian invasion. Islamic Egypt The Arab conquest of Egypt (639–42), only some 20 years after the rise of Islam, made the country an integral part of the Muslim world. Until the 19th cent., Egyptian history was intimately involved with the general political development of Islam , whether unified or divided into warring states. Under the Umayyad caliphate many of the people continued their adherence to Coptic Christianity despite the special tax exacted from infidels.

Eventually, the settling of colonists from Arabia and the increased conversion of peoples to Islam reduced the Christian population to a small minority. The Greek and Coptic languages went out of use, and Arabic became the predominant language. The Abbasid caliphate (founded c.750) at first held Egypt under complete subjection, but the unwieldiness of its vast domain encouraged provincial governors to revolt and to assert their own rule. In the 10th cent., Egypt fell to the Fatimid claimants to the caliphate, who invaded from the west. The Fatimids founded (969) Cairo as their capital, and with the establishment (972) there of the Mosque of Al-Azhar as a great (and still active) Muslim university, they further emphasized the change of Egypt from an outpost of Islam to one of its centers. The strain of the Crusades and internal political disorder led to the fall of the Fatimids and to the founding by Saladin of the Ayyubid dynasty.

The strategic position of Egypt made it a logical target of the Crusaders, who twice (1219–21, 1249–50) held Damietta, then the chief Mediterranean port, but could advance no farther. The later Ayyubid rulers came excessively under the control of their slave soldiers and advisers, the Mamluks , who in 1250 seized the country. Until 1517, when Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, the Mamluks maintained their turbulent rule, with frequent revolts and extremely short tenures for most of the sultans. Nevertheless, they built many great architectural monuments. Their importance by no means disappeared with the establishment of Ottoman power, for the Egyptian pasha (governor) was compelled to consult the Mamluk beys (princes), who continued in control of the provinces. Ottoman control had become almost nominal by the administration (1768–73) of Ali Bey, who termed himself sultan. The Ottoman Turks, however, continually attempted to assert power over the unruly beys.

On the pretext of establishing order there, Napoleon Bonaparte ( Napoleon I ) undertook the French occupation of Egypt (1798–1801); yet his real object was to cut off British trade lines and, eventually, to detach India from the British Empire. All his efforts were bent to establishing French power in the region. The Ottoman Turks, however, ultimately joined the British in forcing out the French. The French withdrawal was followed by the rise of Muhammad Ali , a former commander, who was appointed (1805) Egyptian pasha by the Ottoman emperor. He permanently destroyed (1811) the Mamluks' power by massacring their leaders. Using Europe as a model, Muhammad Ali laid the foundations of the modern Egyptian state. He introduced political, social, and educational reforms and developed an effective bureaucracy; he also undertook massive economic development by expanding and modernizing agriculture and by starting large-scale industry. Under his rule the empire eventually extended from Sudan in the south to Arabia in the east and Syria in the northeast. Abbas I (reigned 1848–54), Muhammad Ali's successor, undid some of his reforms and was followed by Muhammad Said Pasha.

European Domination In 1854, Said granted Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession for the construction of the Suez Canal, a project that put Egypt into deep financial debt and robbed it of its thriving transit-trade on the Alexandria-Cairo railroad. In addition, the strategic nature of the canal, which opened in 1867, shifted Great Britain's focus in the Middle East from Constantinople to Cairo and opened the door to British intervention in Egyptian affairs. Said was followed by Khedive (viceroy) Ismail Pasha , whose rule was characterized by accelerated economic development, Westernization, and the establishment of Egyptian autonomy. The cost of Said's reforms, of the construction of the Suez Canal, and of his conquests in Africa, however, put Egypt deep into debt and forced Ismail to sell (1875) his Suez Canal shares to the British. Egypt's financial problems led to further subordination of the country to great-power interests. Ismail was forced to accept the establishment of a French-British Debt Commission.

In 1879, Ismail was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son Tewfik Pasha , who was confronted with financial and political chaos; his situation was complicated by the outbreak of a nationalist and military revolt (1881–82) under Arabi Pasha. The British reacted to the revolt with a naval bombardment of Alexandria in July, 1882, and by landing British troops, who defeated Arabi Pasha at the battle of Tell el Kabir and went on to occupy Cairo. The British consolidated their control during the period (1883–1907) when Lord Cromer was consul general and de facto ruler. By 1904 the governments of France, Austria, and Italy agreed not to obstruct Britain in its intention to stay in Egypt indefinitely. During World War I, after Turkey joined the Central Powers, Great Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate and deposed Abbas II , the allegedly pro-German khedive, substituting Husein Kamil (1914–17), a member of his family.

After the war Egyptian nationalists of the Wafd party, led by Zaghlul Pasha , were especially vigorous in their demands for freedom. Independence Under the rule of Ahmad Fuad (who later became Fuad I ), a treaty providing for Egypt's independence was concluded (1922). It went into effect in 1923 following the proclamation of a constitution that made Egypt a kingdom under Fuad and established a parliament. Great Britain, however, retained the right to station troops in Egypt and refused to consider Egyptian claims to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see Sudan ). The British protectorate was maintained until the promulgation of a new treaty in 1936, which made the two countries allies and promised the eventual withdrawal of British troops. Fuad was succeeded by his son Farouk . In 1937 a further step toward sovereignty was accomplished by an agreement (which went into effect in 1949) to end extraterritoriality in Egypt. In the postindependence years, Egypt's internal political life was largely a struggle for power between the Wafd party and the throne.

The constitution was suspended in 1930, and Egypt was under a virtual royal dictatorship until the Wafdists forced the readoption of the constitution in 1935. During World War II, Egypt remained officially neutral. However, Egyptian facilities were put at the disposal of the British and several battles were fought on Egyptian soil (for details of the military engagements, see North Africa, campaigns in ). After the war, demands were made for a revision of the treaty of 1936. Repeated talks failed because of Egyptian insistence that Great Britain allow incorporation of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan into Egypt. An Egyptian appeal (1947) on this subject to the Security Council of the United Nations was also in vain. Egypt actively opposed the UN partition of Palestine in 1948 and, joining its forces with the other members of the Arab League , sent troops into the S Negev. Israeli forces, however, repelled the Egyptians in bitter fighting (see Arab-Israeli Wars ). In domestic politics, the Wafd acquired a majority in 1950 and formed a one-party cabinet. The struggle between King Farouk and the Wafdist government intensified, and several political uprisings led to violence.

On July 23, 1952, the military, headed by Gen. Muhammad Naguib, took power by coup. Farouk abdicated in favor of his infant son, Ahmad Fuad II, but in 1953 the monarchy was abolished and a republic was declared. Naguib assumed the presidency, but, in his attempts to move toward a parliamentary republic, he met with opposition from other members of the Revolutionary Command Committee (RCC). Increasing difficulties led to the extension of martial law. Col. Gamal Abdal Nasser emerged as a rival to Naguib, and in Feb., 1954, Naguib resigned. Egypt under Nasser Nasser took full power in Nov., 1954. Under the new constitution, he was elected president for a six-year term. The long-standing dispute over Sudan was ended on Jan. 1, 1956, when Sudan announced its independence, recognized by both Egypt and Great Britain. British troops, by previous agreement (July, 1954), completed their evacuation of the Suez Canal Zone in June, 1956.

Tension increased in July, 1956, when, after the United States and Great Britain withdrew their pledges of financial aid for the building of the Aswan High Dam, the Soviet Union stepped in to finance the dam. Nasser then nationalized the Suez Canal and expelled British oil and embassy officials from Egypt. On Oct. 29, Israel, barred from the canal and antagonized by continued guerrilla attacks from Gaza, invaded Gaza and the Sinai peninsula in joint arrangement with Britain and France, who attacked Egypt by air on Oct. 31. Within a week Great Britain, France, and Israel yielded to international political pressure, especially that of the United States, and a cease-fire was pronounced. A UN emergency force then occupied the Canal Zone in Dec., 1956. Israeli troops evacuated Egyptian territory in the spring of 1957. In Feb., 1958, Syria and Egypt merged as the United Arab Republic . They were joined by Yemen in March, creating the United Arab States. The union was soon torn by personal and political differences, and a Syrian revolt (1961) led to its virtual dissolution. Egypt embarked on a program of industrialization, chiefly through Soviet technical and economic aid.

Both industry and agriculture were almost completely nationalized by 1962. In the early 1960s, Nasser strove to make Egypt the undisputed leader of a united Arab world; his chief and most effective rallying cry for Arab unity remained his denunciation of Israel and his call for that country's extinction. From 1962 to 1967, Egyptian forces provided the chief strength of the republican government in Yemen , where the royalists were backed by Saudi Arabia. Heavy losses finally moved Egypt to withdraw, and the republicans ultimately gained control. Egyptian military might continued to increase with the acquisition of powerful modern weapons, many of which were supplied by the USSR. In 1965 and 1966 two anti-Nasser plots were discovered and crushed. Nasser assumed near absolute control in 1967 by taking over the premiership and the leadership of the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), the country's sole political party. In the spring of 1967, Egyptian troops were ordered to positions on the Israeli border, and Nasser demanded that the UN peacekeeping force stationed on the Egyptian side of the border since 1956 be withdrawn.

Following the UN evacuation, Arab troops massed on the frontier, and Nasser announced (May 22) that the Gulf of Aqaba was closed to Israeli shipping. Other Arab states rallied to Egypt's support. On June 5, Israel launched air and ground attacks against Arab positions and after six days achieved a rapid and decisive victory despite the Arab superiority in numbers and armaments. When the UN cease-fire went into effect, Israel held the Sinai peninsula, Gaza, and the east bank of the Suez Canal. After the war, Egypt received a massive infusion of Soviet military and economic aid in a program designed to rebuild its armed forces and economy, both shattered by the war. Egypt's postwar policy was based on two principles: no direct negotiations with Israel and the implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 242, which, in part, called for the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from occupied territories. After Nasser's sudden death in Sept., 1970, Vice President Anwar al- Sadat succeeded him as president. An abortive coup took place in May, 1971, but Sadat emerged in control.

A new constitution was ratified in Sept., 1971, when the country changed its name to the Arab Republic of Egypt. Sadat modified somewhat Nasser's hard line toward Israel but continued to demand Israeli withdrawal from the occupied territories and threatened to renew the war in order to regain the lands. In 1972, Sadat ousted all Soviet military personnel stationed in Egypt and placed Soviet bases and equipment under Egyptian control, thus reversing a 20-year trend of increasing dependence on the USSR. Unrest in 1973 led to the forced resignation of the governmental cabinet and to Sadat's assumption of the premiership. The 1973 War Another war with Israel broke out on Oct. 6, 1973, when Egyptian forces attacked Israel on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. Israeli forces were caught off guard as Egyptian units progressed into the Sinai, and fighting broke out between Israel and Syria on the Golan Heights. The fighting escalated both on the ground and in the air.

After Israel had stabilized the Syrian front, its troops crossed the Suez Canal and toward the end of the war were in control of some 475 sq mi (1,230 sq km) on the west bank of the canal between Ismailia and Adabiya, surrounding the city of Suez and trapping Egypt's Third Army on the east side of the canal. Sadat called for a cease-fire coupled with the withdrawal of Israel from territories it had occupied since 1967. At the same time, Arab countries, by reducing—and later stopping—oil exports to selected countries supporting Israel, put pressure on the United States to get Israel to pull back from the occupied lands. On Oct. 22 the United States and the USSR submitted a joint resolution to the UN Security Council calling for an immediate cease-fire and the beginning of peace negotiations. The Security Council voted to establish a UN emergency force made up of troops from the smaller nations to supervise the cease-fire. Through the mediation efforts of U.S. Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger , Egypt and Israel agreed to face-to-face negotiations on implementing the cease-fire. On Nov. 9, Israel accepted a proposal, worked out by Kissinger and Sadat.

Peace and Internal Unrest A result of the intense U.S. effort to secure a settlement was the resumption of diplomatic relations between the United States and Egypt, which had been severed since the 1967 war. This marked the beginning of closer relations with the West. After regaining both banks of the Suez Canal as a result of the postwar agreement, Egypt, with U.S. assistance, began to clear the canal of mines and sunken ships left from the 1967 war. In 1974, following a visit to Egypt by U.S. President Richard Nixon, a treaty was signed providing U.S. aid to Egypt of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes. In 1977, Sadat surprised the world with his visit to Jerusalem and plans for peace with Israel. On Mar. 26, 1979, Egypt signed a formal peace treaty with Israel in Washington, D.C. By 1982, Israel had withdrawn from nearly all the Sinai. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League as a result of the peace treaty. A boycott by Arab countries was imposed on Egypt, and Libya, which had cut ties with Egypt in 1977, provoked border clashes.

Domestic unrest between Muslims and Christians in 1981 led to a crackdown by the government. Tensions heightened, and Sadat was assassinated on Oct. 6, 1981, by Muslim extemists. He was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak , who faced growing economic problems as well as continued opposition from militant Muslim fundamentalists. A state of emergency, imposed after Sadat's murder, was ultimately extended by Egypt's parliament throughout Mubarak's presidency, finally lapsing in mid-2012. President Mubarak continued amicable relations with Israel and the United States and remained active in the Middle East peace process. In 1989, Israel returned the last portion of the Sinai that it held, the Taba Strip, to Egypt. Relations with the rest of the Arab world improved, and Egypt was readmitted into the Arab League in 1989. In return for Egypt's anti-Iraq stance and its sending of troops in the Persian Gulf War (1991), the United States dismissed $7 billion in Egyptian debt. Participation in the war streng Sections in this article:

Question: Of the 5 Presidents of Egypt since it was declared a republic in 1953 who has served the longest?
Answer: Hosni Mubarak