Archipelago Landforms Around South America | USA Today Archipelago Landforms Around South America The rocky beaches of the Falkland Islands are penguin breeding grounds. (Photo: Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images ) How to Take a Boat From San Francisco to South America Archipelagos are chains of related islands, but the origins and landforms of archipelagos are diverse. Archipelago landforms around South America include the submerged southern tip of the Andes mountain range at Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, the drifting continental fragment of the Falkland Islands, a volcanic arc where two tectonic plates meet at the South Sandwich Islands, and the tips of a giant volcanic seamount reaching above sea level at the Fernando de Noronha islands. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego The Andes Mountains run generally north-to-south along the full length of Chile and gradually decline in height before they sink into the Strait of Magellan in a series of fjords and islands. The Argentinean section is wide pampas land named Patagonia.

The more rugged Chilean coast called Tierra del Fuego was deeply cut by Ice Age glaciers and then separated from the continent when rising sea levels flooded this region of Chile's Valle Central, or central valley. As the Andes disappear into the sea, their peaks continue to rise above sea level, including Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, which reaches an elevation of 6,500 feet. Falkland Islands or Islas Malvinas The Falkland Islands, a British territory that in Spanish is called Islas Malvinas, are a granite terrain, a drifting fragment of continental land, now located 300 miles northeast of Patagonia. Africa, Antarctica and South America were once joined as part of the Gondwana supercontinent, and when Gondwana broke apart, the Falklands were carried southwest along with Antactica. The Falklands include flat plains, but their exceptional rock glacier landforms, or "rivers of rock," occur in the mountains, where boulders were deposited out of ice or frozen ground in lines measuring from one yard to hundreds of yards wide and up to 2.5 miles long.

South Sandwich Islands The South Sandwich Islands are an uninhabited volcanic arc 1,500 miles east of Patagonia, where the South American tectonic plate is being subducted under the South Sandwich Plate. As the subducted plate reaches the Earth's interior, its rocks melt, expand, and then rise to the surface as volcanoes. The South Sandwich Plate is young, only five million years old, so 60 percent of the islands are lava flows and the remainder is tephra, a rock formed from materials forcefully ejected from the volcanoes. Glaciers cover 80 percent of the island chain's total 1,570 square miles. Fernando de Noronha The 21 uninhabited islands of the Fernando de Noronha archipelago are part of one large volcano cone 215 miles off the east coast of Brazil. The largest island is 6.9 square miles of sandy beaches and cliffs atop a mountain that rises 12,000 feet from the seabed to the ocean surface.

Wave action has carved bays and inlets into the volcanic tuff, a lightweight rock formed from layers of volcanic ash, and in areas of more resistance phonolite, or fine-grained volcanic rock, headlands jut outward into the sea. The south coast experiences strong wave action, while on the north, beach landforms include sand, gravel and boulders, and some tombolos, or dunes. References Tierra del Fuego | archipelago, South America | Britannica.com Tierra del Fuego Argentina Tierra del Fuego, archipelago, at the southern extremity of South America . In shape the main island , separated from the mainland by the Strait of Magellan , is a triangle with its base on Beagle Channel . The total area is 28,473 square miles (73,746 square km), about two-thirds of which is Chilean and one-third Argentine. The boundary, agreed upon in 1881, follows the meridian 68°36′38″ W, from Cabo (cape) Espíritu Santo on the Atlantic, and the east–west Beagle Channel.

Lennox, Picton, Nueva, and several small islands at the mouth of the channel are disputed between the two republics. Sea lions near Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Heretiq The physical features of Tierra del Fuego are varied. Most of the northern portion of the main island , consisting of glacial topography , mainly lakes and moraines, is under 600 feet (180 metres) in height, and the Atlantic and Strait of Magellan coasts are low-lying. In contrast, the southern and western parts of the main island and the archipelago are a prolongation of the Andes, with peaks exceeding 7,000 feet, notably Monte Sarmiento (7,550 feet [2,300 metres]) and Monte Darwin (7,999 feet [2,438 metres]), and mountain glaciers.

The climate of Tierra del Fuego is monotonously cool in summer and cold in winter, with great contrast in annual rainfall, from 180 inches (4,600 mm) at Bahía Félix on Isla Desolación, Chile , to 20 inches at Río Grande , Arg. In the exposed southern and western areas, vegetation is limited to mosses and stunted trees. The central part of the main island has deciduous beech forests, and the northern plains have a tussock grass cover. The archipelago was discovered by the navigator Ferdinand Magellan in 1520, when he sailed through the strait named after him and called the region Tierra del Fuego (Land of Fire). Various navigators traversed the area, but no systematic exploration was attempted until the British Admiralty undertook a thorough survey of the entire archipelago between 1826 and 1836.

For 350 years after Magellan’s voyage, the region was left in the undisputed occupation of its indigenous peoples, the Ona , Yahgan , and Alacaluf Indians, but after 1880 colonization by Chilean and Argentine nationals was sparked by the introduction of sheep farming and the discovery of gold. The discovery of petroleum at Manantiales in 1945 converted the northern part of Tierra del Fuego into Chile’s only oil field. Pipelines have been laid to the Strait of Magellan for export of the oil to middle Chile, drilling platforms have been built in the Strait of Magellan, and a small refinery meets local needs. There is some lumbering in the forested areas of the Beagle Channel and the Strait of Magellan; fish and crayfish canning at Ushuaia , Arg., and Porvenir, Chile; and fur hunting for nutria and seal. A meat refrigeration plant is located at Río Grande, but most surplus sheep are processed on the mainland.

Similar Topics Tierra del Fuego - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) When the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed around the tip of South America in 1520, he observed many fires built by Indians along the coast. He called the land Tierra del Fuego, or "land of fire." Today the name refers to the entire group of islands south of the Strait of Magellan. The total land area of these islands is 28,473 square miles (73,745 square kilometers). About two thirds of the island group belongs to Chile and the rest to Argentina. The population of the whole island group in the early 1990s was more than 65,000. Article History South America: Physical Geography - National Geographic Society South America: Physical Geography South America is a continent of extremes. It is home to the world's largest river (the Amazon) as well as the world's driest place (the Atacama Desert).

Map by the National Geographic Society Largest Urban Area Sao Paulo, Brazil (20.4 million people) Highest Elevation Aconcagua, Argentina (6,901 meters/22,641 feet) Largest Watershed Amazon River (7 million square kilometers/2.72 million square miles) Population Density 57 people per square kilometer Most Renewable Electricity Produced Paraguay (99.9%, hydropower) South America, the fourth-largest continent , extends from the Gulf of Darién in the northwest to the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego in the south. South America’s physical geography , environment and resource s, and human geography can be considered separately. South America can be divided into three physical region s: mountain s and highlands, river basin s, and coastal plain s. Mountains and coastal plains generally run in a north-south direction, while highlands and river basins generally run in an east-west direction. South America’s extreme geographic variation contributes to the continent’s large number of biomes. A biome is a community of animals and plants that spreads over an area with a relatively uniform climate .

Within a few hundred kilometers, South America’s coastal plains’ dry desert biome rises to the rugged alpine biome of the Andes mountains. One of the continent’s river basins (the Amazon) is defined by dense , tropical rain forest , while the other (Paraná) is made up of vast grassland s. With an unparalleled number of plant and animal species, South America’s rich biodiversity is unique among the world’s continents. Mountains & Highlands South America’s primary mountain system, the Andes, is also the world’s longest. The range covers about 8,850 kilometers (5,500 miles). Situated on the far western edge of the continent, the Andes stretch from the southern tip to the northernmost coast of South America. There are hundreds of peaks more than 4,500 meters (15,000 feet) tall, many of which are volcanic. The highest peak in the Andes, Aconcagua, stands at 6,962 meters (22,841 feet) and straddles the Argentina-Chile border . Aconcagua is the tallest mountain outside Asia. High plateau s are also a feature of the Andes.

The altiplano of Peru and Bolivia, for example, has an elevation of about 3,700 meters (12,300 feet). The Patagonia region of Argentina and Chile consists of lower-elevation plateaus and rugged glacier s. Most plants in the alpine biome are small, and their leaves are stiff and strong to protect them from frost and drought. The largest herb in the world, Puya raimondii, is known as the Queen of the Andes. A Puya raimondii can live for 100 years and can grow to more than 9 meters (30 feet) tall. The leaves of this endangered species all grow from one woody stem , allowing moisture to run down the leaves to the base of the plant. Outside the Andes, South America has two principal highland areas: the Brazilian Highlands and the Guiana Highlands. Located south of the Amazon River in Brazil, the Brazilian Highlands are made up of low mountains and plateaus that rise to an average elevation of 1,006 meters (3,300 feet). The Guiana Highlands are located between the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers.

The heavily forested plateau of the Guiana Highlands covers southern Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, northern Brazil, and a portion of southeastern Colombia. River Basins South America has three important river basins: the Amazon, Orinoco, and Paraguay/Paraná. The Amazon River basin has an area of almost 7 million square kilometers (2.7 million square miles), making it the largest watershed in the world. The basin, which covers most of northern South America, is fed by tributaries from the glaciers of the Andes. Every second, the Amazon River empties 209,000 cubic meters (7,381,000 cubic feet) of freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon River is the life force of the equally vast Amazon rain forest, which makes up about half of the rain forest of the entire planet. This tropical biome has as many as 100 different tree species on a single acre, including the rubber tree, silk cotton tree, and Brazil nut tree. Other important plant species include palms, ferns, and ropelike vines known as lianas that network throughout the rain forest’s dense canopy .

The diversity of animal life in the Amazon rain forest is un surpass ed in the rest of the world. The rain forest is perfectly suited for arboreal , or tree-living, animals. More than 2 million species of insects are native to the region, including hundreds of spiders and butterflies. Primate s are abundant—howler monkeys, spider monkeys, and capuchin monkeys—along with sloths, snakes, and iguanas. Thousands of native birds include brightly colored macaws, parrots, toucans, and parakeets. The Orinoco River flows north of the Amazon. The Orinoco flows in a giant arc for more than 2,736 kilometers (1,700 miles), originating in the Guiana Highlands of northern Brazil and discharging in the Atlantic Ocean in Venezuela. The Orinoco River basin covers an area of about 948,000 square kilometers (366,000 square miles) and encompasses approximately 80 percent of Venezuela and 25 percent of Colombia. A vast savanna or grassland region, known as the Llanos, is the primary biome of the Orinoco River basin.

The Llanos is primarily made up of grasses. Swamp grasses, sedge s, and bunchgrass are found in wet, low-lying areas. Carpet grass is found in the higher and drier elevations. Like most grassland biomes, the Llanos is the perfect habitat for many bird species, including the scarlet ibis, bellbird, and umbrellabird. Important river species include the piranha, electric eel, and the Orinoco crocodile, which can reach a length of more than 6 meters (20 feet). The Paraguay/Paraná River basin covers almost 2.8 million square kilometers (1,081,000 square miles), which is much of southeastern Brazil and Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. The Paraná River includes Iguazu Falls, a massive series of waterfalls that extend for 2.7 kilometers (1.7 miles). Along with the Uruguay River, the Paraná River empties into the Rio de la Plata estuary between Argentina and Uruguay. The Rio de la Plata is the most populated region of both countries.

The capital cities of Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Montevideo, Uruguay, practically face each other across the estuary. The Paraguay/Paraná River basin supplies water to the plain s biome, or Pampas, of South America. The Pampas have rich, fertile soil and predictable rainfall patterns. They are the most important grazing and crop land areas on the continent. Coastal Plains A coastal plain is an area of low, flat land next to a seacoast. South American coastal plains are found on the northeastern coast of Brazil, on the Atlantic Ocean, and the western, Pacific coast of Peru and Chile. The coastal plains of northeastern Brazil are extremely dry. The Brazilian Highlands act as a wedge that pushes moist sea winds away from the coastal plains. The western coastal plains are also extremely dry. They are trapped between the cold Peru Current to the west and the Andes Mountains to the east. The Peru Current brings cold water to the Pacific coast of Peru and Chile. This cold surface water results in thermal inversion : cold air at sea level and stable, warmer air higher up. Thermal inversion produces a thick layer of cloud s at low altitudes. These low-lying clouds blanket much of the Pacific coast of South America.

They do not allow precipitation to form. The Atacama Desert is part of the western coastal plain. The Atacama is considered the driest region in the world. The average rainfall is about 1 millimeter (0.04 inches) a year, and some parts of the Atacama have never had rain in recorded history. Very few plants grow in this desert. Even bacteria , insects, and fungi are scarce. Larger animal species are also rare, and include the grey fox, a type of deer called the huemul , and the viscacha—the largest member of the chinchilla family. Ocean birds, such as penguins, cormorants, and pelicans, are found on the desert coast. While Atacama lacks flora and fauna , it is a rich source of copper and a chief source of revenue for the Chilean economy . Term having to do with mountains. Altiplano high plateau in the Andes Mountains of South America. arboreal having to do with trees. arc part of the outline of a circle. archipelago (singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found in every ecosystem on Earth.

basin biome Noun area of the planet which can be classified according to the plant and animal life in it. canopy Noun one of the top layers of a forest, formed by the thick leaves of very tall trees. capital rodent native to South America. climate chemical element with the symbol Cu. crop having parts or molecules that are packed closely together. desert Noun system of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. endangered species conditions that surround and influence an organism or community. estuary animals associated with an area or time period. fertile able to produce crops or sustain agriculture. flora plants associated with an area or time period. freshwater water that is not salty. frost fungi Plural Noun (singular: fungus) organisms that survive by decomposing and absorbing nutrients in organic material such as soil or dead organisms. glacier ecosystem with large, flat areas of grasses. gulf type of seasonal plant often used as a medicine or seasoning. huemul deer native to South America. Also called the South Andean deer. human geography the study of the way human communities and systems interact with their environment. mountain landmass that forms as tectonic plates interact with each other.

Pampas flat grasslands of South America. Patagonia large plateau in southern South America, stretching from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. physical geography study of the natural features and processes of the Earth. plain type of mammal, including humans, apes, and monkeys. rain forest region Noun any area on Earth with one or more common characteristics. Regions are the basic units of geography. available supply of materials, goods, or services. Resources can be natural or human. revenue income, or money earned before production costs are subtracted. rugged having an irregular or jagged surface. savanna type of tropical grassland with scattered trees. sedge grass-like plant native to wetlands. soil top layer of the Earth's surface where plants can grow. stem main stalk of a plant. surpass to go beyond a set limit. swamp climate pattern where the air is warmer at higher elevations. tributary tropical Adjective existing in the tropics, the latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the south.

unique South American nomad | South American people | Britannica.com South American people South American nomad, indigenous inhabitants of South America living as nomadic hunters , gatherers, and fishers. Distribution of aboriginal South American and circum-Caribbean cultural groups. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. In the past, South American nomads could be found from Cape Horn to the Orinoco River in northern South America. The most variable groups were found in the southern half of the continent, occupying a variety of habitats and exploiting differing resources. With the technology known to them, food production was low, the population sparse, the social organization simple. Constant movement within prescribed territories prevented the establishment of large permanent villages or the accumulation of material wealth. Traditional culture patterns Types of South American nomads Shellfish gatherers In the south the Chono , Alacaluf , and Yámana Indians occupied the whole Chilean archipelago southward to Cape Horn . This is a rugged terrain of islands and fjords with heavy rainfall, an average winter temperature of 32° F (0° C), and an average summer temperature of 50° F (10° C).

The dense forests make land travel extremely difficult and horticulture impracticable. The area is poor in game, fish, and edible plants. The archipelagic tribes thus depended on shellfish and seals or whales that had been stranded on the beaches. Travel was almost entirely by canoe. Hunters and gatherers of the steppes and plains The large area of the steppes and plains extends from Tierra del Fuego , in the south, through Patagonia , to the Pampas of central and northern Argentina and western Uruguay . The Ona occupied the islands of Tierra del Fuego . The brush-covered, semi-arid Patagonian plateau was the home of the Tehuelche , while the Puelche and Querandí inhabited the flat grassy Pampas. The Charrúa lived in the grasslands north of the Río de la Plata . The prehistoric inhabitants of this region practiced no agriculture and had no domesticated animals, with the possible exception of the dog. Throughout the region the tribal groups depended on hunting guanaco, rhea (the South American ostrich), and smaller animals and on gathering some roots and herbs. The population was one of the sparsest in South America.

Hunters, gatherers, and fishermen of the Gran Chaco Similar Topics Jívaro The Gran Chaco extends northward from the grasslands of the Pampas to Paraguay and Mato Grosso do Sul in Brazil . It is an arid region covered with drought-resisting vegetation. The area is drained by the Paraguay River and its western tributaries, such as the Pilcomayo, Bermejo, and Salado rivers, that originate in the Andean foothills. During the summer months the Chaco experiences the highest temperatures in South America. The people of the Gran Chaco subsisted largely on plants, which those who had access to the rivers supplemented with fish at certain times of the year. The plant foods were supplied by such pod-bearing thorny bushes as the algarrobo and by many local trees. Some wild rice was also available. Honey and larvae also were eaten. In the southeastern part, guanaco and rhea were hunted. On the whole, however, the people depended primarily on plant foods, in contrast to the nomads to the south, who were essentially hunters. The prehistoric nomadic peoples of the Chaco travelled on foot or, in some cases, in canoes.

The horse was introduced into the Chaco after the Spanish conquest, and its adoption by some tribes had far-reaching consequences in the area. It is convenient to separate the Chaco tribes of historic times into foot Indians and horsemen. Among the foot Indians were such groupings as the Zamuco , of the northeast, and the Wichí , of the central Chaco. Each such grouping consisted of a number of tribes. The mounted bands, who spoke Guaycuruan , consisted of such groups as the Abipón , Mocoví, and Caduveo (Mbayá, or Guaycurú). Forest hunters and gatherers South America: Fact or Fiction? North of the Chaco the country merges gradually into the tropical forest zone, particularly in the western section of Bolivia. In Brazil the forest zone consists of columns of forests on both banks of the major rivers. There are also island forests—large patches of forest standing on a plain or plateau, evidently supplied by springs that flow the year round. Typical nomadic tribes in this area were the Sirionó of eastern Bolivia and the Nambikwara ( Nambicuara ) of Mato Grosso , Brazil, and the Guayakí of eastern Paraguay.

Aquatic nomads Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent In the marshes of the upper Paraguay River in Brazil, the Guató Indians lived most of their lives in canoes, fishing and hunting cayman and other aquatic animals. They built temporary shelters on small islands that stood slightly above flood level. There are also other aquatic nomads in northern South America and in the Caribbean. Economic system Because they were nomads, the hunters and gatherers had very little in the way of such material goods as weapons, textiles, clothing, and ornaments. Their technical processes were very simple and appear to have been invented long ago. Shelter was provided by caves if available. In the colder climate of the south, the archipelagic tribes of Chile and the nomads of the Chaco made domed huts of bent poles covered with bark, skins, or brush. When the people moved on they left the frame for others to use, taking only the skin coverings with them. The Patagonians made a skin-covered hut known as the toldo. The Yámana used a conical tepee-like shelter or a double lean-to.

The Nambikwara used a lean-to in the dry season or camped under trees, sleeping on fire-warmed ground. During the rainy season a larger double lean-to was used. There were no permanent settlements, although people sometimes gathered together to perform ceremonies and to feast when food was plentiful. The forest hunters, such as the Sirionó and Nambikwara, wore no clothing . The southern nomads wore skin robes and crude moccasins. There was no sewn clothing. Earplugs, nose plugs, and lip plugs were widely used, except by the archipelagic people. Featherwork, armbands and leg bands, necklaces, and body painting were common in many areas. Some of these ornaments were used to distinguish bands or lineages and other groupings, but they were not used as status symbols. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Finger weaving of yarn spun from native cotton and palm frond fibres was practiced in the Chaco and among the Sirionó and Guató. The heddle loom, a later development, was known among the Sirionó, Nambikwara, and Chono.

Long strips of fabric were woven for making armbands and leg bands and other decorations. Netting was used for making fishnets and bags for the transportation of goods, particularly in the Chaco. Pottery was known to some of the nomads but was little used because pots were difficult to transport. Coiled basketry was widely used. In the Chaco, twilled baskets made from palm fronds were used at campsites and abandoned when the people moved on. The Patagonian and Pampean hunters used containers made of skins. Two methods of making fire were widespread. The first involved a spark with flint on iron pyrite. A later technique involved twirling a hardwood pointed stick in a socket in softer wood: dried pith was then placed around the drill and the pith ignited by gentle blowing on the spark. Meat and fish were cooked by being placed directly on coals or put into earth ovens, lined with heated stones and covered with earth and coals. The Chono boiled food by placing heated stones in tightly woven baskets. The hunters and fishers used no salt, but the Chaco tribes, who depended primarily on plants for food, traded for salt with the highland people.

Some of the forest nomads used ashes in place of salt. Bows and arrows were used by all the nomads. Among the Patagonian and Pampean hunters , however, there is archaeological evidence to suggest that the bow and arrow was preceded by the bola . Before the introduction of the horse, guanaco and rhea were hunted by stalking, the hunter throwing the bolas around the neck or legs of the game. Bolas were made by attaching stone weights to two or three short cords that, in turn, were fastened to a longer lasso. With the coming of the horse after the Spanish conquest, the bolas became very important, for from horseback they could be easily swung to ensnare guanaco, rhea, wild cattle, and other large game. Among the Patagonians, Pampeans, and inhabitants of parts of the Chaco, it became the principal hunting device. Spears and the atlatl , or spear thrower, were used to some extent.

Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies Among the forest nomads, such as the Sirionó and Nambikwara, the principal weapon for hunting and fishing was the longbow , which was six feet in length. The barbed arrows were from five to eight feet long. Because they had no canoes, both shot fish from the banks of a stream. Among the archipelagic tribes of southern Chile it was predominantly the women who gathered shellfish on the beaches at low tide and who, from bark canoes, dived with a shell blade and a basket held in their teeth. The shellfish gatherers were careful not to exhaust the supply in one area. These people also always carried a fire on a clay platform in their canoes, both for warmth and for roasting shellfish over the coals. The men hunted roosting cormorants, penguins, steamer ducks, petrels, and other marine birds at night with torches and killed them with clubs. Ducks and geese were lured by decoys, then captured with pole snares. Seals and sea lions were harpooned in the water or clubbed on shore.

Porpoises and sick whales were harpooned. Whale hunting was a cooperative enterprise involving many men, who risked their lives in flimsy bark canoes. Fish were sometimes found in shallows or in pools at low tide and, with the help of dogs, were driven into nets. Because the Indians had no knowledge of food preservation, they had to be constantly on the move to provide for their food supply. Social organization The typical organization among nomadic hunters, gatherers, and fishers was the band , which, depending on the resources, could be large or very small. Low productivity and the lack of developed transportation prevented the accumulation of a surplus to maintain permanent communities . There were no social or occupational specialists; every family produced its own equipment. Despite these general similarities there was wide diversity in social structure depending on the methods of obtaining food. Trending Topics Opium Wars The Chono, Alacaluf, and Yámana of the Chilean archipelago were dispersed in elementary family units of father, mother, and children with perhaps an elder or two. These small family bands, if they can be so called, moved from one beach to another.

There were no permanent territorial claims to shellfish beds, although individual families repelled others while they were using a particular shellfish bed. Sometimes close relatives or friends would move together briefly, and at times a number of families would gather together to feast on a stranded whale or join in hunting seals or sea lions. The family was also the economic unit among the Guató and, during the dry season, among the Nambikwara. This, of course, does not mean that the people did not visit relatives when circumstances permitted or when certain religious and ceremonial activities demanded. Multifamily bands The hunting of guanaco and rhea among the eastern Yámana and Ona and among the Patagonian and Pampean tribes was more productive when carried out cooperatively by a number of families banded together. Such bands consisted of 40 to 100 persons and had defined hunting territories, which the men defended against trespass. Chieftainship does not appear to have been hereditary but was ceded to a leader able in settling both internal disputes and conflicts between bands. Composite bands With the introduction of horses and cattle, a great change took place in the band organization.

Horses permitted greater mobility, new techniques of hunting, and much larger bands. The former foot hunters joined into bands ranging from 500 to 1,000 persons. They roamed over ill-defined areas hunting wild cattle and raiding Spanish settlements and other Indians without horses. Each of these bands consisted of a number of lineages under a leader of proven ability; a strong leader might attract a huge following, including members drawn away from other bands. Warfare between bands increased because of uncertainties over rights to territory. The southern hunters of Patagonia and the Pampas were patrilineal (descent was reckoned in the male line) and patrilocal (a wife resided with her husband’s lineage and band). Forest nomads, such as the Guayakí and Sirionó, on the other hand, were matrilineal and matrilocal —that is, an individual traced his ancestry through his mother’s lineage, and a man went to live with his wife’s band. Matrilineal descent and matrilocal residence were associated with the importance of women gathering food.

Although little is known about the social structure of the Chaco tribes in aboriginal times, there appears to have been a contrast between the peoples of the dry western area and the wetter eastern area. Because the people in the west depended on water holes, they were forced to shift camp frequently as holes dried up. The groups nevertheless seem to have claimed territorial rights to gathering, fishing, and hunting areas. With the arrival of the Spaniards and an increase in warfare, the authority of the chiefs was strengthened, although chieftainship was rarely hereditary. In the eastern Chaco, on the other hand, the presence of fish runs in the larger rivers and the practice of fairly productive cultivation permitted the settlements to be larger and less mobile. After acquiring the horse from the Spanish, however, the Caduveo and other Guaycuruan-speaking peoples gave up what little horticulture they practiced and became predatory nomads raiding Spanish settlements, taking cattle, and capturing slaves from more sedentary tribes. Other Chaco tribes, such as the Abipón, Mocoví, Toba, and Lengua , also became horsemen and raiders.

These tribes continued to move their camps in search of pasture for their herds of horses and cattle. Incipient class differences based on war honours and wealth appeared. The Caduveo were outstanding raiders in the Chaco. Although roaming over great areas, the warrior bands always returned to their base settlements, where they had permanent houses and kept their slaves and livestock. The Caduveo also exhibited the clearest form of social stratification, which, although pre-Spanish, crystallized with the coming of the horse and the intensification of warfare. Caduveo society became stratified into nobles, warriors, serfs, and slaves. The nobles were divided into those who inherited their titles and those upon whom titles were bestowed for lifetime only. The warrior class was basically hereditary, but other men demonstrating greatness in war could become members, thereby establishing new hereditary lines. The serfs , who served only the members of the noble class, were from subjugated peoples. The lower class was made up of captured and purchased slaves , who included not only Indians from neighbouring tribes but also mestizos from the Spanish settlements. Slaves could gain their freedom by marrying into the warrior class.

Family and kinship Marriage among most nomadic tribes was consensual , similar to common-law marriage. It was easily entered into and easily dissolved, although there were strong forces supporting its continuance, especially whenever women played an important role as food gatherers. Noble classes, where they existed, as among the Caduveo, were practically endogamous ; virtually all men, that is, married within their own class. Marriage among the shellfish gatherers of the Chilean archipelago, on the other hand, was a stronger institution. Marital fidelity was demanded. The family formed a strong autonomous unit that performed nearly all cultural activities on its own and cooperated with other families only briefly during sea hunts and initiation ceremonies. Marriage between known relatives was forbidden, but in practice this meant merely that first cousins and closer kin could not marry. A widow, however, could marry the brother of her deceased husband; and a widower could marry the sister of his deceased wife; these practices of levirate and sororate helped to maintain family alliances, when almost everything else tended to draw families apart. The larger nomadic bands in South America practiced band exogamy; that is, a person in one band could marry only someone in another band.

These marriages were not made at random, however, for (as among the Nambikwara) cross-cousin marriage was preferred; in a matrilineal society a man married his mother’s brother’s daughter; in a patrilineal society he married his father’s sister’s daughter. Rites of passage Birth ceremonies were simple family affairs. After the birth, both parents fasted for a few days and observed food taboos. Couvade was practiced; that is, the father stayed in the hut several days, mimicking labour, while relatives and friends provided essential needs. Among the Sirionó a child was born openly in the communal house; and after birth the parents walked in the forest scattering ashes as a purification rite and then lit a new fire that signified new life. Before the age of puberty, boys and girls learned by imitating older children and adults. Among the shellfish gatherers, children by the age of four began to gather shellfish and spear sea urchins close to shore, returning to camp to roast them and eat them. From an early age children thus took care of their food needs as far as shellfish were concerned. Boys and girls were separated after the age of seven.

The boys played with bows and arrows. The girls learned to swim and dive. Males did not learn to swim or dive, since diving for shellfish was considered women’s work. Corporal punishment was rare, but children were lectured by elders on manners and morals . Socialization was formalized especially in the initiation rite, which marked the passage from youth to adulthood for both sexes. There was usually no fixed date, the time depending upon the number of neophytes and the opportunity to amass a supply of food for the feast. The initiation ceremonies began with the men preparing sealing clubs and shellfish poles in a special hut in which they painted their faces and participated in singing, dancing, and mummery. The men then went out to hunt seals on the coastal rookeries, and the women went for shellfish. The men then built a large hut, where they sang, danced, and instructed the young men in proper vocational and moral behaviour. Later, women joined in the ceremony instructing girls in the proper behaviour for women. Then followed a mock battle between the sexes. After a feast, the assembly disbanded.

Among the Patagonian and Pampean tribes, a special hut known as the pretty house was erected for initiation ceremonies (as well as for some other rites, such as first menses). Medicine men bled themselves and smeared the novices with blood. There was dancing by the men and singing by the women. Horses were killed and roasted, and horsemeat was passed out to the guests. In the Chaco there was considerable variation in the details of the initiation rites, but the underlying purpose of education and socialization was the same as among the shellfish gatherers and the Patagonian and Pampean guanaco hunters. Boys went through several rites, and when blood was drawn from their genitals they were considered mature warriors. On the Bermejo and Pilcomayo rivers, girls’ puberty rites were attended with singing and dancing designed to protect the girls from evil spirits. A girl was kept in isolation and observed a special diet. After the rites pubescent girls were allowed sexual liberty and often took the initiative in love affairs. Among none of the nomadic peoples did marriages involve any special ceremonies; gifts, though, were exchanged between the bride’s and the groom’s parents. Death rites were more complex.

Mourners painted their faces black, beat on the outside of the dead person’s hut, fasted, and lamented. They also directed their anger at the supreme deity. In the Chilean archipelago, the dead person and his effects were either buried or cremated. Among the Patagonian and Pampean tribes, the corpse was left on a hilltop or placed in a cave; some belongings were placed near the body. Religion Among the Yámana shellfish gatherers there was a belief in a supreme being who was not a creator but a ruler. He was one who gave life and who gave humans animal and plant foods. People prayed to this being for success in fishing and hunting. Among the Patagonian and Pampean tribes there was a belief in a supreme being who, after creating the world, did not enter further into human affairs. There was a belief in good and evil bush spirits . The Chaco groups did not believe in a supreme being. Although celestial bodies sometimes were thought to affect human beings, these bodies themselves were not objects of worship. The Chaco people had great fear of the ghosts of the dead and disposed of the corpse as quickly as possible.

The body was buried in a cemetery, and food offerings were made. The house and property of the deceased were burned. Among such forest nomads as the Sirionó and Nambikwara, rituals and ceremonies were much less developed than in the Chaco. This no doubt was due to the incessant search for food and the inability to accumulate surpluses for large-scale feasts. Although the Sirionó did not believe in a supreme being, they did consider the Moon to be a culture hero who gave them maize and manioc and other features of their culture. They also feared the ghosts of the dead and bush spirits. Shamans , who acted as healers, priests, and psychopomps and were thought to receive their curative powers through the ghosts of dead shamans and special guardian spirits, were important among all tribal groups. Among the Chaco groups, shamanism was very highly developed, both for curing illnesses and in working for the general welfare of the tribe. Sickness was caused, it was thought, by one of two means: mysterious foreign objects would magically penetrate the body, causing disease, or a person’s soul would leave the body, leaving him ill.

In the former instance, the shaman would suck out the foreign object; in the latter, he would go out at night and bring the wandering soul back. Modern developments The existing nomadic hunters and gatherers are marginal survivors who retain many archaic culture traits and share very few of the more recent inventions. In areas where they have not had contact with European culture or where they have withdrawn into refuge areas, they have maintained much of their original culture. In areas of contact, some have become rudimentary agriculturalists, building permanent houses, making pottery, and weaving. In the late 20th century, the conversion of the nomadic habitat into large-scale agricultural projects seemed to be bringing many of these tribal peoples to the verge of extinction. South American nomadic Indians - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Nomadic Indians traditionally inhabited much of southern South America and a few isolated places in the north. In American Indian studies, these peoples are typically grouped together because of the similarities in their lifestyles. The culture area in which they lived is known as the Marginal Regions because it encompasses parts of South America where the land is "marginal," or not good for farming. The Marginal Regions were remote from the centers of great cultural development.

The inhabitants were hunters, gatherers, and fishers who moved from place to place to take advantage of the scarce natural resources available to them. Article Contributors

Question: The most southern part of the South American continent is on which Chilean archipelago?
Answer: Tierra del Fuego