With the sole assistance, after volume VI., Or - страница 30 With the sole assistance, after volume VI., Or With the sole assistance, after volume VI., Or страница 1 ... 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 PLENARY (Liter plenariue): The term applied in the early Middle Ages to a missal containing all the liturgy appertaining to the mesa, thus combi­ning what was usually scattered through the sacrar mentary, gradual, and lectionary. Though such plenaries existed in the ninth century, the extant manuscript copies are not older than the eleventh. Later in the Middle Ages the plenaries were trans­lated into German with various additions explana­tory of the mass. The name was likewise applied to lectionaries containing the epistles and Gospels for Sundays and feasts, with glosses or poatila on the Gospels; and the plenariea came to be called simply Gospel books or postils. With the Reforma­tion the plenary vanished, none being known to have been issued after 1521. (P.

Dx>;ws.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Alaog, in Fresburper Disceaan Archiv, viii (1874), 255 sqq.; M. F. A. G. Campbell, Annalea de la typographic nkerlandaiae au 16. ai4cle, The Hague 1874; F. Folk, Die Druclckunat im Dienate der Kirche, pp. 29 eqq., Cologne, 1879; R. Cruel, Geachichte der deutachen Predigt im Mittelalter, pp. 533 sqq., Detmar, 1879. PLITT, GUSTAV LEOPOLD: German Lutheran; b. at Genin, near Lubeck, Mar. 27, 1838; d. at Erlangen Sept. 10, 1880. He studied.

theology at the universities of Erlangen (1854 58, 1857 58) and Berlin (1858 57), and early in 1861 became privat docent at the former institution, lecturing chiefly on church history and especially on the Ref­ormation period and the life of Luther, and also on exegesis. At the same time he developed his liter­ary activity, publishing Melanchthons Loci com­munes in ihrer Urgestalt (Erlangen, 1864) and soon after his main work, Einleititng in die Augustana (2 vols., 18678). In 1867 Plitt was appointed associate professor. Besides continuing his work as an author, evidenced in his Avs Schelling's Leben, in Briefer (3 vole., Leipsic, 1869 70) and Kurze Gesehichte der lutherischen Mission, in Vortragen (Erlangen, 1871), he took an active part as preacher at the university and in influencing practical church life.

In 1867 he became the head of the Bavarian 93 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA plessure Verein f i1r Judenminsion, and was equally energetic in behalf of home missions and philanthropic enter­ prises, being also one of the founders of the institu­ tion of army deacons in the Franco Prussian war. In 1875 he was advanced to a full professorship, and in the same year published his Grundriss der Symbdik fiir Vorlesuagen (Erlangen, 1875), which had been preceded by Die Apologie der Avgusfana, geschichtlich erkldtrt (1873). Meanwhile he had con­ tinued his studies on the period of the Reformation, and contemplated combining them into a biography of Luther which should appeal to the cultured pub­ lic as well as to scholars. This work, begun by him, was completed after his death by his friend E. F. Petersen of Liibeck, appearing under the title, Martin Lathers Leben and Wirken (Leipsie, 1883).

In 1877 he became associated with Johann Jakob Herzog (q.v.) in the preparation of the second edi­ tion of the Realeneykloptidie fiir protestaatische The­ oZogie and Kirche, a task for which wide theological knowledge, unwearying energy, and breadth of view rendered him peculiarly adapted. He had been able, however, to help to finish only half the work when he died. (F. FxANst.) PLOCgHOY, PIETER CORNELISZ: " The father of modern socialism "; born at Zierikzee (35 m. n.w. of Antwerp) about 1600; d. in German­ town, Pa., about 1674. Becoming interested in plans for the realization of the Christian ideal through the beat social and industrial methods, he crossed to England and had two interviews with Cromwell, who was greatly interested in his project. On the decease of the protector, Sept. 3, 1658, Plockhoy discussed his scheme with parliament, but owing to the breakdown of government in England was not able to secure cooperation.

He printed in English at London in 1659 a pamphlet of fourteen pages, with an advertisement or an invitation of the same bulk, setting forth A Way Propounded to make the Poor in these dad other Nations happy by bring­ ing together a fit, suitable and well qualified People into one Household Government or little Common­ wealth, wherein Everyone may keep his own Property and be employed in some Work or other, as he shall see fit, without being oppressed." He proposed to assemble in a common lot and housing four aorta of people: husbandmen, handi­ craftsmen, mariners, and masters of arts and sci­ ences, who were to be industrial, yet cultivated and of good character, that is, " only rational and im­ partial persona." "All intractable persons, such as those in communion with the Roman see, usuri­ ous Jews, English stiff necked Quakers; Puritans; fool hardy believers in the Millennium; and obsti­ nate modern pretenders to revelation," were to be excluded. Those not of the elect or limited num­ ber could join the community as servants or assist­ ants.

Two houses were deemed necessary, one for the living occupants and one for a warehouse, fac­ tory, and shops. Aenta were to be cheap and there was to be no overcharging. In the living house, the sexes were to sit on opposite aides of the table, and dwell in mutual courtesy, using no titles. They were to acknowledge none but Christ as head and master. A president was to be elected annually to be the executive, but he was to have no salary or remuneration. In the large hall at the religious and devotional exercises, which included singing and Bible reading, each was to take turns in speak­ing, and each was to make his discourses short. Then the business of the court began. No clergy­man or capitalist was allowed. One hundred fam­ilies were to be associated, so that, for example, in­stead of the work of one hundred women toiling as in separate families, only twenty five could do the housework, while seventy five were set free for other productive labors. In like manner, instead of 100 fires, four or five furnaces could heat the whole habitation.

Each was to work six hours a day for the benefit of the colony, the rest of the time could be devoted to private interests. The profits were to be divided equally among all over twenty years and to others in proportion. I After the fall of the Netherlands West India Com­pany the city of Amsterdam financed Plockhoy's project after a contract of 117 articles had been I made, giving 100 guilders to each colonist twenty­ four years old and free from debt. Colonists were to be ready by Sept. 15, 1682. The settlement was made on Hoorn Kill on the Delaware River, near Swannendaal (New Castle). It seems to have flour­ ished until 1864, at the conquest of New Netherland by the English.

Then Sir Robert Carr seized and plundered the Delaware settlements, sold the Dutch soldiers as slaves in Virginia, stripped the colonists bare, and took " what belonged to the Quaking Society of Plockhoy, to a very nails." It is not known what became of his colonists, but ten years later Plockhoy, now blind and his wife lead­ ing him, came into Germantown, Pa., where the couple were given a house during the ten years of his remaining life. Some of Plockhoy's ideas, once novel, are now commonplace. His pamphlet in Dutch, Kort ere klaer ontwerp . . . door sea Vdck­ Planting . . . aan de Zuytrevier in Nieuw Neder­ land (16 pages, Amsterdam, 1662), is described and discussed by E. B. O'Callaghan, History of New Netherlands or, New York under the Dutch, ii. 461­ 469, New York, 1848; J. R. Brodhead, Hist. of the Stale of New York, i. 69799, ib. 1853; G. M.

Asher, Bibliographical and Historical Essay on the Dutch Books and Pamphlets Relating to New Netherlands, pp. 205 208, 2 parts, Amsterdam, 1854 67; W. E. Griffin, The Story of New Netherland, pp. 131, 138, Boston, 1909. W. E. Gxtl7ra. PLOTINUS. See NEOPLATONIHM, Ix. PLUMER, WILLIAM SWAft: Presbyterian; b. at Greersburg (now Darlington), Beaver Co., Pa., July 26, 1802; d. at Baltimore, Md., Oct. 22, 1880. He was educated at Washington College, Lexing­ton, Va., where he graduated in 1825; and at Prince­ton Theological Seminary in 1826; and was or­dained in 1827. After working in various fields he was pastor at Petersburg. Va.

(1831 34), Richmond (1835 46), Baltimore (1847 54), and at Allegheny, Pa. (1855­1862), where he served at the same time as pro­fessor of didactic and pastoral theology in the West­ern Theological Seminary. He supplied the pulpit of Arch Street Church, Philadelphia (1862 65); Plummer THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 94 was pastor at Pottsville, Pa. (1865 66); and pro­fessor in the theological seminary at Columbia, S. C. (1867 80). He possessed a singular impressivenesa in the pulpit and a gift for teaching. His writings are practical and didactic and of an ultra Calvinis­tic cast. He founded The Watchman of the South in 1837 and was sole editor, 1837 X15.

Some of his works are The Bible True and Infidelity Wicked (New York, 1848); The Saint and the Sinner (Phila­delphia, 1851); The Grace of Christ (1853); The Law of God as Contained in the Ten Commandments (1864); Sermons for the People (1871); and Com­mentaries on Romans (1870), and on Hebrews (1872). PLUMMER, ALFRED: Church of England; b. at Hew6rth (near Gateshead, opposite Newcastle­on Tyne), Durhamahire, Feb. 17, 1841. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1863; M.A., 1866), and was ordered deacon in 1866, but has never been ordained to the priesthood.

He was fellow of Trinity College (1865 75), and was tutor and dean of the same college (1867 74); he was master of University College, Durham (1874 1902), where he was junior proctor of the University of Durham (1875 77), senior proctor (1877 93), and subwarden (1896 1902). He was one of the last pupils of J. J. I. von Dollinger, and translated that theologian's Fables respecting the Popes of the Mid­dle Ages (London, 1871); Prophecies and the Pro­phetic Spirit in the Christian Era (1873); and Hip­polytus and Callistus: or, The Church of Rome in the first Half of the third Century (Edinburgh, 1876).

He has prepared Peter and Jude for The New Testa­ment Commentary for English Readers (London, 1879); the Johannine Gospel and Epistles for The Cambridge Bible for Schools (Cambridge, 2 vols., 1880, 1882) and for The Cambridge Greek Testa­ment (2 vols., 1882, 1886), and 11 Corinthians for the same series (2 vols., 1903); The Pastoral Epis­tles, James, and Jude for The Expositor's Bible (2 vols., London, 1888, 1890); Luke for The Inter­national Commentary (Edinburgh, 1896); and an in­dependent commentary on Matthew (1909). He has also written the historical introduction to Joshua, Nehemiah, and the Johannine Epistles in The Pul­pit Commentary (2 vols., London, 1881, 1889), and is the author of The Church of the Early Fathers (London, 1887); English Church History from the Death of Henry Y11.

to the Death of William 111. (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1904 07); and The Church of England in the Eighteenth Century (1910). PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES: Church of England; b. at London Aug. 6, 1821; d. at Wells Feb. 1, 1891. He was scholar of University Col­lege, Oxford (B.A., 1844; M.A., 1847); and fellow of Brasenose College (1844 47); assistant preacher at Lincoln's Inn (1851 58); select preacher at Ox­ford (1851 53, 1864 66, 1872 73); chaplain of King's College, London (1847 68); professor of pastoral theology there (1853 63); dean of Queen's Col­lege, London (1855 75) ; prebendary of Portpool, in St.

Paul's Cathedral (1863 81); professor of exegesis in King's College, London (1863 81); ex­amining chaplain to the bishop of Gloucester and Bristol (1865 67); Boyle lecturer (1866 67); rec tor for of Pluckley, Kent (1869 73); Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford (1872 74); examiner in school of theology at Oxford (1872 73); vicar of Bickley, Kent (1873 81); principal of Queen's Col­ lege, London (1875 77); and examining chaplain to the late archbishop of Canterbury (1879 82). On Dec. 21, 1881, he was installed dean of Wells. He was a member of the Old Testament company of revisers, 1870 74, and is known also as a hymnist.

For The Bible (" Speaker's ") Com­ mentary he wrote the comments on The Book of Proverbs (1873); for C. J. Ellicott's New Testa­ ment Commentary for English Readers, those on the first three Gospels, the Acts, and II Corinthians (1877); for the Old Testament Commentary by the same general editor, those on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Lamentations (1882 84); for The Cambridge Bible, those on Ecclesiastes, James, Peter, and Jude; and for Philip Schaff's Popular Commentary on the New Testament, those on I Timothy and II Timothy (1883). He edited The Bible Educator (4 vols., London and New York, 1874). He likewise pub­ lished The Calling of a Medical Student, four ser­ mons (1849); The Study of Theology and the Minis­ try of Souls (1853); King's College Sermons (1859); Sophocles (a translation; 1865); Xschylus (a trans­ lation; 1868); St.

Paul in Asia Minor and the Syrian Antioch (1877); The Epistles to the Seven Churches (1877); Biblical Studies (1870; 4th ed., 1884); Introduction to the New Testament (1883); Things New and Old (1884); Theology and Life, ser­ mons (1866); Spirits in Prison, and other Studies on Life after Death (1884) ; Life and Letters of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells (2 vols., 1888); Lazo­ rus and Other Poems (1864); Master and Scholar (poems; 1866); Christ and Christendom (Boyle Lectures; 1867; new ed., 1899); The Commedia and Canzoniere of Dante Alighieri (new transla­ tion, with notes, life, and portraits, 2 vols., 1887); and Wells Cathedral and its Deans (1888).

The two hymns by him which are most widely known are " Rejoice, ye pure in heart," and " Thine arm, O Lord, in days of old." BIBmodRAPHY: Julian, Hymnology, p. 897; S. W. Dufeld, English Hymns, pp. 208 209, New York, 1886; DNB, xlv. 437 438. PLUNKET, WILLIAM CONYNGHAM: Church of Ireland archbishop; b. at Dublin, Ireland, Aug. 26, 1828; d. there Apr. 1, 1897. Graduated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1853; M.A., 1864); was ordained deacon (1857), and priest (1858); was rector of Kilmoylan and Cummer, Tuam (1858 64); chaplain and private secretary to the bishop of Tuam, and treasurer of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin (1864 67); precentor of St.

Patrick's (1869­1877); consecrated lord bishop of Meath (1876); and translated to the joint archbishopric of Dublin, Glendalough, and Kildare, in 1884. He was a leader of the Evangelical party in the Irish Church stren­uously opposed its disestablishment prior to 1868; fostered a sympathy for struggling Protestant com­munities, and took an active part in the Protestant movements in Spain and Italy; reorganized what is now the Church of Ireland Training College (Kil­dare Place); and for his activity in educational matters was nominated in 1895 a member of the 95 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA PlummerPlymouth Brethren board of national education. In 1871 he succeeded his father in the peerage. BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. D. How, William Conynpham Plunkd, a Memoir, London, 1900; DNB, Supplement, iii. 27rr277.

PLURALITIES: A term in canon law for the holding, by a clergyman, of two or more livings at the same time. The canon law forbids it; but Ro­man Catholic bishops granted dispensations to com­mit the offense until by the general council of 1273 the right was taken from them. The popes still exercise this right. In England the power to grant dispensations to hold two benefices with the care of souls is vested in the monarch and in the arch­bishop of Canterbury. The benefices thus held must not be farther apart than three miles, and the an­nual value of one of them must be under a hundred pounds. PLUTARCH OF ATHENS. See NEOPLATONIBM, III., § 3. PLUVIAL. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL. PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. 1. History. Foundation; Record till 1845 (§ 1). The Newton Episode ($ 2). Defection of Cronin and Kelly (§ 3). Further Divisions (§ 4). Present Status (§ 5). 11. Doctrines. I.

History: The Plymouth Brethren, called by others Darbyites or Exclusive Brethren, and by themselves " Brethren," are to be distinguished from Bible Christians and Disciples of Christ (qq.v.). They took their origin in Ireland about 1828 after a movement under the leadership of John Walker which was a revolt against ministerial i. Founds ordination, and in England the origin tion; Rec is connected with the interest in proph­ ord till ecy stimulated by Edward Irving 1845. (q.v.). Conferences like those under the Irving movement were held from 1828 at Powerscourt Mansion, County Wicklow, Ireland, at which John Nelson Darby (q.v.) was a prominent figure. Prior to this, from 1826 private meetings had been held on Sundays under the leadership of Edward Cronin, who had been a Ro­ man Catholic and later a Congregationalist, for " breaking bread," at which Anthony Norris Groves, John Vesey Parnell (second Lord Congleton), and John Gifford Bellett, a friend of Darby, were attend­ ants.

In 1827 John Darby resigned his charge and in 1828 adopted the non conformist attitude of the men named above, prompted by the Erastianism of a petition of Archbishop Magee to the House of Commons, and issued a paper on The Nature and Unity of the Church of Christ (in vol. i. of his Col­ lected Writings, London, 1867). This served to swell the ranks of the Brethren, so that in 1830 a public " assembly " was started in Aungier Street, Dublin, which emphasized " the coming of the Lord as the present hope of the Church and the presence of the Holy Ghost as that which brought into unity" and "the heavenly character of the Church," and used as the golden text Matt. xviii. 20. Through Francis William Newman (q.v.), Darby had become acquainted with Benjamin Wills Newton (a lay fellow of Exeter College) and George Vicesimus Wigram at Oxford.

He also visited Plymouth (whence the name for the Brethren), where Robert Hawker had been active in Evangelical ministry, and held meetings there, the outcome of which was the first English gathering of the Brethren (1831). The basis of communion was the acceptance of " all that are on the foundation " and rejection of " all error by the Word of God and the help of his ever present Spirit," recognizing that "degeneracy claimed service, and not departure." Before the appearance of Darby's Liberty of Preaching and Teaching (1834), the Brethren had taken their stand upon 4 free ministry, while other weighty papers by Darby and Newton appeared in the new magazine, The Christian Witness, edited by J. L. Harris. Re­cruits of note were Henry Craik and Georg (Fried­rich) Miiller (q.v.), coming from the Baptist denom­ination.

The latter had been in the service of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, but became convinced that assemblies should consist only of the converted and joined the Brethren, beginning pastoral work at Bristol in 1832 on the lines of their policy, and developing the other activities for which he became famous. Other noted converts to the denomination were Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (q.v.) and Robert Chapman. Darby continued his work in London, then went to the continent, where in French Switzerland he pro­moted the movement by personal and literary ac­tivities, opposing a regular ministry as ignoring the privilege of every believer to direct access to God While there he became aware of a tendency toward isolation manifesting itself in Newton, shown in his revival of restricted ministry together with doc­trinal divergencies, e.g., Newton's adherence to the Reformation teaching of justification, inclusion of the Old Testament saints in the apocalyptic Church, and belief that the second advent would not pre­cede the " great tribulation," to which the Church would be subject. Failing to secure satisfaction from Newton and his adherents, in 1845 Darby started a separate assembly. Newton remained at Plymouth for two years.

The dispute so far had concerned the special " tes­timony " of Brethren as such. According to notes of a lecture by Newton acquired by Harris in 1847, Newton's position as to our Lord's s. The person was unsound: Christ by his in­Newton carnation and as a descendant of Adam Episode. entered upon a relation of distance from God, and as an Israelite incurred from birth the condemnation attaching to the broken law. Tregelles shows that the personal Sin­lesaness was maintained through the seal at Cbrist's baptism, although lifelong suffering was entailed by his relationship. Newton withdrew the first part of his statement, but did not satisfy Darby, and a definite alienation separated the two men. New­ton severed his connection with the Brethren, but continued till his death (1898) to write on prophet­ical subjects. Tregelles is reported by Scrivener to have died in the communion of the Church of Eng­land.

In 1848 the Bristol company did not refuse fellowship to the adherents of Newton, and one of Plymouth Brethren THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 96 their number, George Alexander, seceded on the ground that " blasphemers were sheltered," taking occasion for this action in a paper intended to ap­ply to the special circumstances but construed as a statement of a general policy. After debate and several assemblies, it was decided that no one up­holding Newton's views should be received into communion, and several to whom this applied with­drew, though it appeared that they were afterward readmitted. Darby insisted upon the fundamental of " separation from evil " as " God's principle of unity "; the result was a breach between him and the Bristol company, his followers insisting upon his statement as the watchword, while the opponents' formula was " the blood of the Lamb is the union of saints." Wigram charged Craik with statements concerning Christ's physical ailments which sa­vored of Newtonianism; but Darby sent a farewell message to Craik on his deathbed (1866), which did not, however, heal the breach.

A new magazine, The Present Testimony, edited by Wigram, became the organ of the exclusives, followed in 1856 by the monthly Bible Treasury, for which William Kelly (q.v.) was responsible, and to this also Darby contributed papers on the sufferings of Christ, in which he argued that Christ endured certain non­atoning sufferings, in addition to those borne vicari­ously in death, due to his voluntary position in Israel (John xi. 51), in fulfilment of prediction of his npation in the sorrows of the godly remnant ei last days. This had no affiliation with the Newtonian doctrine, which affected the whole life .of Christ; but some of his followers, unable to dis­ tinguish between Darby's position and Newton's, withdrew from fellowship with him. Darby offered to abstain from ministry, but was counseled not to do so by his prominent supporters. Meanwhile he had worked on German soil, where he had met Tholuck, and had visited the United States, Canada, and other British colonies lecturing and writing.

In 1879 a gathering at Ryde, Isle of Wight, failed to deal with depravity in the midst, and Darby's old Dublin associate Cronin, desiring to end the scandal, founded a new " assembly " in the place. Darby regarded this as a breach of 3. Defection unity, and called upon Cronin's home of Cronin congregation at Kensington, London, and Kelly. to discipline the offender, and to "judge" his "indiscretion." Cronin was defended by use of Darby's avowal that the old assembly was " rotten " and that for thirty years he himself had avoided it. A crusade was never­ theless directed against Cronin by the leaders at Park Street, Islington, and additional matters con­ nected with baptism entered into the controversy. Finally, although Darby had asked only for a stern rebuke, Cronin's stubbornness widened the breach and he was excommunicated. About the same time there was disruption at Ramsgate, Kent, one of the rival parties at which supported Cronin while the other strongly condemned him, the assemblies at Blackheath, where Kelly resided, and at Islington also taking opposite sides.

The result was a split in 1881 at Park Street like that which had occurred in the Bethesda affair. Each side charged the other with " independency," and Darby described the sit uation as a struggle between intelligence and the Spirit, by "intelligence " referring to Kelly's en­deavor to give intellectual expression to the policy hitherto pursued and thereby to maintain the " unity of London." The man who had so long led meditated withdrawing altogether from the Brethren, feeling that the encroachments of the world had marred " the testimony "; but his faith reasserted itself. Darby's survival of this poignant situation can be counted only by months, as he died the next year. He was little disposed to learn from others, and claimed to have " the mind of the Spirit." He united Roman Catholic with Evangel­ical ideas, though his own apprehension of Scrip­ture dominated his mind. He regarded himself as the beginning of the Plymouth Brethren, which was true at least so far as the English branch was con­cerned.

Where he was iconoclastic, it was not, as he expressed it, " with an Edomitic attack but with Jeremianic sorrow." The year 1885 was notable for concurrent divi­sions among Darby's last associates on both aides of the Atlantic. In the United Staten Frederick Will­iam Grant, of Plainfield, N. J., alienated rivals in the Islington party by his candidly independent attitude toward some of their cherished doctrines. He was an ex clergyman of Canadian Further origin, a man of much erudition, and Divisions. highly esteemed in his section. He held that the saints of the old dispen­sation possessed eternal life, and agreed with the interpretation of Rom. vii. which holds that the apostle there describes the moral condition of be­lievers even after receiving the seal of the Spirit. The English leaders detached their adherents from fellowship with him. At Reading, England, Clarence Esme Stuart, an accomplished Biblical scholar who had sided with Darby in 1881, came into collision with James Butler Stoney, an unbalanced teacher who was no longer held by the restraint imposed by Darby's presence.

Stuart's primal offense was that at Reading he had not adopted the hymn book last revised by Darby; second, that he unduly dis­tinguished between the standing and state (or condi­tion) of believers, holding that the Pauline expression " in Christ " sets forth condition alone, and that in this are to be sought such distinctions as obtain fundamentally between believers of the different dispensations. With these doctrinal issues was combined a social breach between him and a local female ally of the Stoney school. Upon this last matter the Reading assembly refused to give judg­ment, though with some dissent against the order of procedure, supported by the Stoney faction domi­nant in London, which separated from Reading and carried many assemblies with them. Those in Great Britain who disowned the interference of the London adherents continued to recognize the Grant contingent in America. Stuart gave color to the new departure by shortly afterward emphasizing his view of atonement, according to which Christ, as high priest only after death, made propitiation by blood not on the cross but in heaven, in the inter­val between death and resurrection.

This view was not unknown in theology (e.g., Professor George Smeaton), but was regarded by Stuart's critics as a 97 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Plymouth Brethren novel inference from Darby's teaching. The year 1890 witnessed a further division among the " ex­clusives " of the party formed in 1885. Frederick Edward Raven of Greenwich became prominent through teaching doctrines which were reprobated by the old Darbyites. He questioned the claim of believers in general to have had eternal life imparted to them, in doing so seeming, as an Apollinarian, to impair the glory of Christ's person. He held also that Scripture is not as such the word of God but the record of it, to which resort is to be had for con­firmation of oral ministry. Reconciliation he re­garded, with Calvin, as a continuous process which believers undergo. In the division which ensued a majority of Stoney's associates and a small band in the United States stood with Raven, but the con­tinent of Europe was lost to them.

From 1881 to his death in 1906 Kelly continued to be revered as a sound teacher of the first order, possessed of great capacity as a leader and controversialist. He was unremitting in his ministry and in writing, defend­ing the truth as he conceived it against all innova­tion, in particular against the higher criticism. With him passed away the last survivor of the golden age of the Brethren. This community has, then, resolved itself into the following sectional fellowships. (1) Brethren fully recognizing the existing congregation at Bethesda (Bristol) and regarding, with Westcott, 5. Present the primitive unity of the Church as Status. that of a federation; adhering to Bap­ tist views; open in communion; and existing in Great Britain and the colonies, Europe, North and South America, India, and China. It has the largest following. (2) Those who fol­ lowed Darby more or less closely, in five branches. (a) Brethren chiefly in France, Switzerland, and Germany, with a remnant in England and the United States, committed to Darby's ecclesiastical position as defined since 1881.

(b) Associates of Kelly, adhering to Darby's doctrinal views, with the exception of pedobaptism, and to the system prevalent in 1848 81; mainly in England. (c) As­ sociates of Stuart and Grant, loath to abandon anti Bethesda discipline, but standing for elasticity in doctrine. (d) Associates of Raven, opposed to Bethesda, favoring expansion of doctrine of their own type, but including some independent of this; in Great Britain, the colonies, and the United States. These have since 1908 composed two sections, sep­ arated from one another by disciplinary policy and views of evangelization and redemption. On the other hand, there has been for several years a movement, originating i" America, for abatement of the alienation between the various types of bodies. Some adherents of Grant have lowered the barriers between themselves and " open " Brethren, while not giving themselves this name; and since 1906 a corresponding movement has gathered force in Great Britain.

These " eclectics " repudiate the distinction between " ° open " and " close," and seek, by a blend­ ing of the Pauline and Johannine aspects of the Church, to revive the unity first realized at Dublin untrammeled by formal federation of either open or close types, which is favored by neither element. A hopeful feature of the situation is the absence of IX 7 a pronounced leadership. No denominational sta­tistics exist for Great Britain. In the United States there are over 300 assemblies with about 7,000 com­municants. The denomination has drawn its mem­bership from all ranks of society the nobility, the army and navy, the judiciary, and scholars in vari­ous spheres. It has had notable Evangelists like Charles Stanley and Denham Smith; missionaries like Baedeker and Arnot have propagated its teach­ings in the world field; while C. H. Mackintosh is the writer whose works are. most widely used. II. Doctrines: A full epitome of the doctrine developed among the Brethren could be obtained only from the writings of Darby, who was the chief teacher.

So large was his authority in his denomi­nation that for most Athanasius, Augustine, Luther, and Calvin were mere ciphers. On the Godhead and the person of Christ the teaching is that com­mon to Catholic Christianity. On human nature it is held that Adam was first sinless, not virtuous or holy; the fall spelled unqualified ruin. The atone­ment has two sides: Godward it is propitiation; manward, substitution; the purchase of all, the re­demption of the believer, and Christ's death under wrath. Predestination is held as the election of individuals, the assured acceptance of believers, to­gether with denial of free will and reprobation. Justification implies the righteousness of God (not of Christ specifically) displayed in the resurrection of the Savior, with dissociation of his life from the process. Sanctification is positive and practical; in the latter aspect it involves self judgment and confession to God, insuring a sense of forgiveness through Christ's priesthood, which preserves from sin, as his advocacy restores. Cleansing by his blood is once for all, cleansing by the Word con­tinues.

Not the law, but the Second Man's risen life is the believer's rule. The Church was prim­itively one visible, closely organized community. The " assembly," in view of grace, is the body of Christ; in view of government is the house of God; one is the product of the Spirit, the other is the product of man, marked by failure and ruin. Na­tional churches are too broad, non conformity is too narrow. Darby denies what has been suggested by critics that the " gathering " is held to be coex­tensive with " the Church of God on earth "; he also repudiates the further assertion that for eight­een centuries there has been no church. The or­dinances are (1) baptism, which is required for fel­lowship. Among the exclusives mutual toleration is practised by baptists and pedobaptists. Darby's view was based on the recognition of privileged position (outward as distinct from inward, essential baptism). Other pedobaptists practise household baptism. (2) The Lord's Supper is observed weekly in the forenoon, at which leavened bread and fer­mented wine are taken by the members seated. The institution is commemorative only.

Partici­pation in this is jealously guarded; in theory it is the privilege of all believers, but in practise the the­ory is overborne by the notion of full fellowship. The special means of grace are the Holy Scriptures according, to the canon of the Reformers. The book is infallible; consequently the idea is condemned that the Church and the Bible stand or fall to Plymouth Brethren

Question: George Wigram, Benjamin Wills Newton and John Nelson Darby were three of the founders of which religious sect founded in south-west England in 1831?
Answer: Plymouth Brethren