The Roman Tortoise The Tortoise (Testudo) One of the Romans most famous formations was the Tortoise (testudo). Testudo is the Latin word for "tortoise". It was used to protect the soldiers from The soldiers in front and sides interlocked their shields. The soldiers in the back lines placed their shields over their heads to form a protective "shell" over top of the men. The Testudo was a very strong, tight formation. It was usually used to approach fortifications. The soldiers could march up to a fort in the Testudo formation and not one of them would get hurt. The shields fitted so closely together that they formed one unbroken surface without any gaps between them. It has been said that it was so strong a formation that men could walk upon them, and even horses and chariots be driven over them. The Wedge The wedge was used to 'crack open' enemy lines. Legionaries formed up in a triangle, the front 'tip' being one man and charged towards enemy lines with their gladius out. The short legionary gladius was useful, held low and used as a thrusting weapon, it was easier and more effective than longer swords.

Military Tactics of the Roman Army Military Tactics of the Roman Army ▼ Primary Sources ▼ Military Tactics of the Roman Army In the early days of the Roman Republic , military tactics were influenced by the methods used by the successful Greek Army . The combat formation used by the Greeks and Romans was called the phalanx. This involved the soldiers standing side by side in ranks. Just before contact with the enemy, the soldiers moved in very close together so that each man's shield helped to protect the man on his left. With only about three feet between the rows of soldiers, the Romans would move towards the enemy. The phalanx was a very difficult barrier to break through. If a man in the front was killed, he was replaced by the man behind. The shields would not only be used to protect the soldiers, but to push the enemy soldiers to the ground or to make them break ranks. The phalanx formation was used for hundreds of years. However it proved inadequate against lightly-armed, fast-moving cavalry. The Roman Army therefore introduced a new system that involved the infantry being organised into four groups: velites, hastati, principes and triarii. The velites were young and inexperienced soldiers .

They were at the front and their main task was to make the early attacks on the enemy. When they were recalled, the velites passed through the open ranks and went to the back. The front rank was now made up of the hastati. When they were about 35 metres from the enemy they threw their javelins (pill). Drawing their swords, they now charged the enemy. Behind them, the rest of the Roman Army threw their javelins over the heads of the advancing hastati. If the charge proved unsuccessful, the hastati withdrew and re-formed behind the rest of the army. It was now the turn of the principes to attack. The principes were the best soldiers that the Roman army had available. The enemy, exhausted by the previous attacks, now had to face fresh and experienced soldiers and, it was usually at this point that they broke formation and ran away. However, if the principes were unsuccessful, the last group, the triarii, would be brought forward. A modern reconstruction of Roman soldiers in the testudo (tortoise) formation. When the enemy retreated, the Roman cavalry would be called into action.

Up until this point the main function of the cavalry was to make sure the infantry were not outflanked by the enemy. When the enemy fled from the battlefield, the cavalry hunted them down. The Romans were never very good on horseback and the cavalry was often made up of meroenaries from Gaul and Africa . The Romans always gave careful consideration to where battles should be fought. They preferred to be in a higher position than the enemy. If the enemy relied heavily on their cavalry, the Romans tried to arrange it that the battle took place on rough ground. The Roman commanders also liked to ensure that the sun and the wind were behind their soldiers. The Romans were extremely good at siege tactics. Roman engineers developed several different devices that could throw stones and javelins long distances. The most important of these were the catapulta, ballista and onager. If the enemy refused to surrender, the Romans also had a wide variety of weapons to break through the walls of a town. Working parties would be sent in to fill in the defensive ditches that usually surrounded the walls. The men used mantlets (wooden sheds, about 5 metres long and 3 metres wide, mounted on wheels) to protect them while doing this work.

To draw the fire away from these men, large timber towers on wheels were pushed towards the walls, from which archers would fire on the enemy soldiers. Once the ditch had been filled in, the Romans would use a ram to try and break down the wall. This weapon was a large wooden beam with a heavy iron head. The end of the beam, which was in the shape of a ram's head, would be constantly hammered against the wall until a hole appeared. Then the Romans would use another beam, this time with a iron hook at the end, to drag out the stones from the breached wall. The soldiers would now attempt to get through the wall. To protect themselves against attack from above, the men sometimes advanced in a tightly formed group with their heads covered by their shields. Understandably, this method of attack became known as the tortoise. Siege towers would also be used to get men inside the walls. These towers would have fixed bridges at the top to enable the men to climb onto the walls. The Romans also had a type of crane that could swing small groups of men over enemy defences.

Kiev Riot Police Use Roman Tactics - Business Insider print Riot police and a blockade of military cars, mini-vans and buses greeted the rioters in Kiev, Jan. 22. A loudspeaker blared, "Dear citizens, your actions are illegal and are against the state." REUTERS/Maks Levin Things got pretty hairy in Kiev , Ukraine, in the last week due in large part to the government banning protests. via Wikimedia Commons This formation is called the "Testudo," or tortoise in Latin. The tactic springs from ancient Greek warfare which relied on the Phalanx formation to slowly chew up the enemy. Romans later adopted and modified the phalanx, which remained relevant for about 2000 years. In the case of riot police, it's more about area denial and protecting police officers than killing an enemy. Protesters, on the other hand, have actually gone so far as to build a a trebuchet. (Small as it may be.) The weapon appeared during the Middle Ages and is the precursor to long-range artillery. It uses a counterweight to sling much heavier objects much longer distances than a traditional catapult or, perhaps more importantly, than what a human could throw.

Pro-European integration protesters build a catapult to throw stones during clashes with police in Kiev January 20, 2014. Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich named a top aide to organize peace talks with the opposition after violent clashes between police and protesters in Kiev, but the opposition warned him on Monday not to play for time. REUTERS Testudo The Tortoise The 'testudo' The tortoise formation was one of the prime examples of Roman ingenuity at warfare. When deployed in such a way, the legionaries became virtually invulnerable to arrows or objects dropped from defensive walls. Roman Army Tactics Roman Tactics Information about tactics can be derived from accounts of battles, but the very military manuals known to have existed and to have been used extensively by commanders, have not survived. Perhaps the greatest loss is the book of Sextus Julius Frontinus. But parts of his work were incorporated in the records of the historian Vegetius. The importance of the choice of ground is pointed out. There is an advantage of height over the enemy and if you are pitting infantry against cavalry, the rougher the ground the better. The sun should be behind you to dazzle the enemy.

If there is strong wind it should blow away from you, giving advantage to your missiles and blinding the enemy with dust. In the battle line, each man should have three feet of space, while the distance between the ranks is given as six feet. Thus 10'000 men can be placed in a rectangle about 1'500 yards by twelve yards, and it was advised not to extend the line beyond that. The normal arrangement was to place the infantry in the centre and the cavalry on the wings. The function of the latter was to prevent the centre from being outflanked and once the battle turned and the enemy started to retreat the cavalry moved forward and cut them down. - Horsemen were always a secondary force in ancient warfare, the main fighting being done by the infantry. It was recommended that if your cavalry was weak it was to be stiffened with lightly armed foot soldiers. Vegetius also stresses the need for adequate reserves. These could prevent an enemy from trying to envelope one's own forces, or could fend off enemy cavalry attacking the rear of the infantry. Alternatively, they could themselves move to the sides and perform an enveloping manoeuver against an opponent.

The position to be taken up by the commander was normally on the right wing. The tortoise was a essentially defensive formation by which the legionaries would hold their shields overhead, except for the front rows, thereby creating a kind of shell-like armour shielding them against missiles from the front or above. The Tortoise The wedge was commonly used by attacking legionaries, - legionaries formed up in a triangle, the front 'tip' being one man and pointing toward the enemy, - this enabled small groups to be thrust well into the enemy and, when these formations expanded, the enemy troops were pushed into restricted positions, making hand-to-hand fighting difficult. This is where the short legionary gladius was useful, held low and used as a thrusting weapon, while the longer Celtic and Germanic swords became impossible to wield. The Wedge The saw was opposite tactic to the wedge. This was a detached unit, immediately behind the font line, capable of fast sideways movement down the length of the line to block any holes which might appear to develop a thrust where there might be a sign of weakness.

In the case of two Roman armies fighting each other in a civil war, one might say that the 'saw' inevitably was the response to a 'wedge' by the other side. The skirmishing formation was a widely spaced line up of troops, as opposed to the tighter packed battle ranks so typical of legionary tactics. It allowed for greater mobility and would have found many uses in the tactical handbooks of Roman generals. Skirmishing Formation The order to repel cavalry brought about a the following formation. The first rank would form a firm wall with their shields, only their pila protruding, forming a vicious line of glistening spearheads ahead of the wall of shields. A horse, however well trained, could hardly be brought to break through such a barrier. The second rank of the infantry would then use its spears to drive off any attackers whose horses came to a halt. This formation would no doubt prove very effective, particularly against ill-disciplined enemy cavalry. Repel Cavalry The orb is a defensive postition in the shape of a circle taken by a unit in desperate straits.

It allows for a reasonably effective defence even if parts of an army have been divided in battle and would have required a very high level discipline by the individual soldiers. The Orb Here are seven specific instructions by Vegetius regarding the layout before battle: 1 On level ground the force is drawn up with a centre, two wings and reserves in the rear. The wings and reserves must be strong enough to prevent any enveloping or outflanking manoeuvre. 2 An oblique battle line with the left wing held back in a defensive position while the right advances to turn the opponent's left flank. Opposition to this move is to strengthen your left wing with cavalry and reserves, but if both sides are successful the battle front would tend to move in an anti-clockwise direction, the effect of which would vary with the nature of the ground. With this in mind it is as well to attempt to stabilize the left wing with the protection of rough or impenetrable ground, while the right wing should have unimpeded movement. 3 The same as No 2 except that the left wing is now made the stronger and attempts a turning movement and is to be tried only when it is known that the enemy's right wing is weak.

4 Here both wings are advanced together, leaving the centre behind. This may take the enemy by surprise and leave his centre exposed and demoralized. If, however, the wings are held, it could be a very hazardous manoeuvre, since your army is now split into three separate formations and a skillful enemy could turn this to advantage. 5 The same tactic as No 4, but the centre is screened by light infantry or archers who can keep the enemy centre distracted while the wings engage. 6 This is a variation of No 2 whereby the centre and left wing are kept back while the right wing attempts a turning movement. If it is successful, the left wing, reinforced with reserves, could advance and hop to complete the enveloping movement which should compress the centre. 7 This is the use of suitable ground on either flank to protect it, as suggested in No 2 All these tactics have the same purpose , that of breaking the enemy battle line. If a flank can be turned, the the strong centre has to fight on two fronts or is forced to fight in a restricted space. Once an advantage like this has been gained it is very difficult to correct the situation.

Even in the highly trained Roman Army it would have been difficult to change tactics during the course of the battle and the only units which can be successfully deployed are those in the reserves or that part of the line not yet engaged. Thus the most important decision a general had to make concerned the disposition of the troops. If a weakness could be detected in the enemy line, it was exploited by using a stranger force to oppose it. Likewise, it was necessary to disguise one's battle line - even troops were disguised to delude the enemy. Often the very size of the army was skillfully hidden, troops packing tightly together to make it appear small, or spreading out to appear large. There were also many examples of surprise tactics made by detaching a small unit which suddenly emerged from a hidden place with much dust and noise to make the enemy believe that reinforcements had arrived. Vegetius (Frontinus) is full of the oddest stratagems to mislead the enemy or demoralize his troops. Once the enemy cracked, however, they were not to be surrounded, but an easy escape route left open.

The reasons for this were that trapped soldiers would fight to the death but if they could get away, they would, and were exposed to the cavalry waiting on the flanks. This important section of Vegetius closes with the tactics to be used in the case of a withdrawal in the face of the enemy. This highly difficult operation requires great skill and judgement. Both your own men and those of the enemy need to be deceived. It is suggested that your troops be informed that their retirement is to draw the enemy into a trap and the movement can be screened from the enemy with the use of cavalry across the front. Then the units are drawn off in a regular manner, but these tactics can only be employed if the troops have not yet been engaged. During a retreat units are detached and left behind to ambush the enemy if there is a hasty or incautious advance, and in this way tables can often be turned. On a wider front, the Romans used tactics of denying their opponents the means of sustained warfare. For this they employed the tactic of vastatio. It was in effect the systematic revaging of an enemy's territory. Crops were destroyed or carried off for Roman use, animals were taken away or simply slaughtered, people were massacred or enslaved.

The enemy's lands were decimated, denying his army any form of support. Sometiems these tactics were also used to conduct punitive raids on barbarian tribes which had performed raids across the border. The reasons for these tactics were simple. In the case of punitive raids they spread terror among the neighbouring tribes and acted as a deterrent to them. In the case of all-out war or the quashing rebels in occupied territories these harsh tactics denied any enemy force the support they needed to sustain a lengthy struggle. Byzantine Tactics By the time of the so-called Byzantine era (the surviving eastern Roman empire) true power on the battle field had long since passed into the hands of the cavalry. If there was any infantry, it was made up of archers, whose bows had longer range than the smaller bows of the horsemen. Handbooks were published, most famously by the general and later emperor Maurice (the strategicon), the emperor Leo VI (the tactica) and Nicephorus Phocas (the updated tactica). As with the old Roman legion, the infantry still fought at the centre, with the cavalry at the wings. But often now the lines of the infantry stood further back than the cavalry wings, creating a 'refused' centre.

Any enemy who would try and attack the infantry would have to pass between the two wings of the cavalry. In hilly ground or in narrow valleys where the cavalry could not be used, the infantry itself had its lighter archers at the wings, whereas its heavier fighters (scutati) were placed at the centre. The wings were positioned slightly forward, creating a kind of crescent-shaped line. In case of an attack on the centre of the infantry the wings of archers would send a storm of arrows upon the attacker. Though in case the infantry wings themselves were attacked they could retire behing the heavier scutati. Often though infantry was not part of the conflict at all, with commanders relying entirely on their cavalry to win the day. It is in the tactics described for these occasions that the sophistication of Byzantine warfare becomes apparent. The manuals indicate that a cavalry force fought in a formation looking much like this. Wing - An example based on a force of 20 small warbands (bandae), or 4600 cavalrymen. Though in greater or lesser numbers, and with infantry or not, it is likely the Byzantine army would fight in similar array. The main force would be the Fighting Line (ca.

1500 men) and the Supporting Line (ca. 1300 men). The Supporting Line might have gaps in it to allow the Fighting Line to widthdraw through if necessary. The Wings (2 x 400 men), also called the liers-in-wait tried to get behind or into the flank of the enemy in a sweeping move around the forces, far out of sight. The Flanks (2 x 200 men) either side of the main Fighting Line were meant to prevent the enemy's wings or flanks from circling one's own force. Often the right Flank was also used to attack the side of the opponent's main body. Striking from the right it drove into the left of the opponent which was harder to defend as most warriors would bear their weapons with their right arm. At the back of the force a Third Line or Reserve (ca. 500 men) would be posted out to the sides, ready either to help defend the Flanks, to help steady any forces of the Fighting Line driven back through the Supporting Line, or to intervene in any flanking assaults on the enemy.

This leaves the general's own escort which would most likely lie to rear of the force and would consist of about 100 men. The Byzantine art of war was highly developed and eventually even contained specially developed tactics for specific opponents. Leo VI's manual, the famous tactica, provides precise instructions for dealing with various foes. The Franks and the Lombards were defined as knightly heavy cavalry which, in a direct charge, could devastate an opponent and so it was advised to avoid a pitched battle against them. However, they fought with no discipline and little to no battle order at all and generally had few, if any, of their horsemen performing any reconnaissance ahead of the army. They also failed to fortify their camps at night. The Byzantine general would hence best fight such an opponent in a series of ambushes and night attacks. If it came to battle he would pretend to flee, drawing the knights to charge his retreating army - only to run into an ambush. The Magyars and Patzinaks, referred to as the Turks by the Byzantines, fought as bands of light horsemen, armed with bow, javelin and scimitar.

They were accomplished in performing ambushes and used many horsemen to scout ahead of the army. In battle they advanced in small scattered bands which would harass the frontline of the army, charging only if they discovered a weak point. The general was advised to deploy his infantry archers in the front line. Their larger bows had greater range than that of the horsemen and could so keep them at a distance. Once the Turks, harassed by the arrows of the Byzantine archers would try and close into range of their own bows, the Byzantine heavy cavalry was to ride them down. The Slavonic Tribes, such as the Servians, Slovenes and Croatians still fought as foot soldiers. However, the craggy and mountainous terrain of the Balkans lent itself very well to ambushes by archers and spearmen from above, when an army would be hemmed in in a steep valley. Invasion into their territories was hence discouraged, though if necessary, it was recommended that extensive scouting was undertaken in order to avoid ambushes. However, when hunting down Slavonic raiding parties or meeting an army in open field, it was pointed out that the tribesmen fought with little or no protective armour, except for round shields.

Hence their infantry could easily be overpowered by a charge of the heavy cavalry. The Saracens were judged as the most dangerous of all foes by Leo VI. Had they in earlier centuries been powered only by religious fanaticism, then by the time of Leo VI's reign (AD 886-912) they had adopted some of the weaponry and tactics of the Byzantine army. After earlier defeats beyond the mountain passes of the Taurus, the Saracens concentrated on raiding and plundering expeditions instead of seeking permanent conquest. Having forced their way through a pass, their horsemen would charge into the lands at an incredible speed. Byzantine tactics were to immediately collect a force of cavalry from the nearest themes and to trail the invading Saracen army. Such a force might have been too small to seriously challenge the invaders, but it deterred small detachments of plunderers from breaking away from the main army. Meanwhile the main Byzantine army was to be gathered from all around Asia Minor (Turkey) and to meet the invasion force on the battlefield.

The Saracen infantry was deemed by Leo VI to be little more than an disorganized rabble, except for the occasional Ethiopian archers who though were only lightly armed and hence could not match the Byzantine infantry. If the Saracen cavalry was judged to be a fine force it could not match the discipline and organisation of the Byzantines. Also the Byzantine combination of horse archer and heavy cavalry proved a deadly mix to the light Saracen cavalry. Should however, the Saracen force only be caught up with by the time it was retreating homewards laden with plunder, then the emperor Nicephorus Phocas advised in his military manual that the army's infantry should set upon them at night from three sides, leaving open only the road back to their land. It was deemed most likely that the startled Saracens would leap to their horses and take homeward rather than defend their plunder. Another tactic was to cut off their retreat across the passes. Byzantine infantry would reinforce the garrisons in the fortresses guarding the passes and the cavalry would pursue the invader driving them up into the valley. Like this the enemy could be helplessly pressed into a narrow valley with little to no room to manoeuver.

Here they would be easy prey to the Byzantine archers. A third tactic was to launch counter attack across the border into Saracen territory. An invading Saracen force would often turn around to defend its own borders if message of an attack reached it. Roman Soldier Facts & Worksheets | Kids Study Resource Worksheets / Social Studies / World History /Roman Soldier Facts & Worksheets Roman Soldier Facts & Worksheets Download This Worksheet This download is exclusively for KidsKonnect Premium members! To download this worksheet, click the button below to signup (it only takes a minute) and you'll be brought right back to this page to start the download! This worksheet has a free sample available. Download the sample here » Download This Sample This sample is exclusively for KidsKonnect Basic members! To download this worksheet, click the button below to signup for free (it only takes a minute) and you'll be brought right back to this page to start the download! Already a member? Log in to download. Roman soldiers were the very disciplined, well-trained soldiers of the Roman Army. The Roman Army had as many as 28,000 – 179,200 soldiers and most of those were legionaries.

See the fact file below for more information and facts about Roman soldiers. Only men could become Roman soldiers. Women were not allowed to join. In order to become a Roman soldier the men needed to over the age of 20 so that they could join one of the Roman Army legions. The main Roman soldiers were called legionaries and they had to be Roman citizens to join. This didn’t mean they had to live in Rome though – many soldiers joined from across the Roman Empire including Africa, Britain, France, Germany, Spain, the Balkans and the Middle East. Other soldiers were allowed to join the Roman Army and were known as the auxilia. Auxilia soldiers were non-citizens who mainly came from the provinces. They were paid less than the legionaries and didn’t usually wear armour but they were given Roman citizenship at the end of their service – which was a minimum of 25 years in the army. Legionaries also had to serve in the Roman Army for 25 years and they were given a pension of the gift of land to farm once they completed their service. Old soldiers often settled down in old age together in a military town or colonia.

During their time in the army, Roman soldiers were not allowed to get married until they completed their service. The legionaries were separated into centuries – units made up of 80 Roman soldiers and 20 other men who remained in the camp to cook and do other chores. Roman Soldier Training Roman soldiers training at Birdoswald Fort, Hadrian’s Wall. The Roman Army were incredibly well trained and organized, performing drills every single day. Tactically, they were also very precise and the organization, leadership and logistics were also practiced often. Roman soldiers needed to be physically fit and strong above all else, and they needed to be able to take instructions and follow them without hesitation or question. Roman soldiers were expected to be able to march about 36km (24 miles) a day, wearing full armor and carrying their weapons and equipment. They need to be able to complete this march in around 5 hours. Soldiers also trained to swim, fight, build bridges, set up camp and cope with any injuries together as a unit. Roman soldiers would practice hand-to-hand combat with wooden swords, spears and shields. These were deliberately much heavier than the weapons and equipment used in real battle to train them to fight through tiredness.

Roman soldiers are famous for their discipline in battle and the ability to take orders. They would train in formations and lines that they also used in battle. An organized army is often the most successful. One of the most famous Roman formations was the testudo – which is Latin for “tortoise”. This formation protected the soldiers from attack by interlocking their shields at the front and sides. Soldiers in the back line placed shields over their heads to form a protective shell over the top – protecting them from enemy archers. Some Roman soldiers received specific training for a certain discipline. Some trained to become expert archers, some trained to use onagers – which were giant catapults, some used large crossbows known as ballistas, and the army also had cavalry units called Equites. These were men rich enough to have horses and more expensive weapons to train with. Roman Weapons, Armour and Equipment Reenactment of a Roman legion attack with gladius swords and scutum shields. Wikimedia: Roman legion at attack Roman soldiers wore helmets and body protection in battle and in the early to mid-Republican era the legionaries usually brought their own equipment.

The Hastati were the first line of Roman soldiers and they wore breastplates called cuirass and occassionally chainmail, which they called lorica hamata. The second line of soldiers, called principes, were often richer and always wore chainmail, although they also wore cheaper breastplates as well. Both the Hastati and principes used a gladius sword in close combat battle. The sword was short, around 2 feet in length, and was useful for stabbing enemies. Roman soldiers also carried two pila. These were short spears which could be thrown like a javelin. The third line of soldiers were called the Triarii, and they had a two meter long spear – known as a hasta. All legionaries had a large rectangular shield, the scutum, which had rounded corners to fit around the body of the soldier. They were also wide enough to be butted-up against the shield of other soldiers for protection when fighting in formation. Roman Solider Worksheets This bundle includes 10 ready-to-use Roman Solider worksheets that are perfect for students to learn about the Roman Army which had as many as 28,000 – 179,200 soldiers and most of those were legionaries.

Throughout the extensive worksheet pack there are multiple lesson resources and quizzes for students to practice their knowledge which can be used within the classroom or homeschooling environment. Roman Solider Prompt Included Roman Soldier worksheets: Roman Soldier Labelling Students are tasked with coloring and labelling the Roman Soldier’s armour and weapons utilising the words provided. Roman Soldier Word Search: Students will tackle this Roman Soldier quiz in the form of a word search which students will complete using the knowledge gained from previous activities and quizzes. Fill in the Blanks Fill in the blanks task to identify the words associated with Roman soldiers. Roman Soldier Crossword Puzzle Crossword filler task focusing on Roman Solider terms. Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension task where students are challenged to read a paragraph on Roman soldiers and answer a number of challenging questions. Roman Soldier Match Write a sentence about the Roman solider based on each letter of the word Soldier. Roman Soldier Anagram Anagram task. Unscrambled the letters to form the correct word referred by the statement. Write your answer on the space provided Roman Soldier Prompt Journal writing task where students have to imagine they are a Roman Soldier. After completing these worksheets students will be able to: Have a clear understanding about the history of the Roman army.

Complete a number of quiz and fill in the blank activities to test their knowledge of the subject. Understand why the Roman army and in particular Roman solider’s were such a force. Understand facts and fiction based upon studies. Read a passage of text and answer questions based on the source material. Key reading comprehension task. Create a journal entry and role play as if a Roman soldier. Multiple core literacy skills are worked on and are the foundation of this study worksheet pack. Complete a number of ELA exercises tied to the topic of history and in particular Roman Soldiers. Use With Any Curriculum These worksheets have been specifically designed for use with any international curriculum. You can use these worksheets as-is, or edit them using Google Slides to make them more specific to your own student ability levels and curriculum standards. Related Resources Roman Military Roman Military The Roman military was the most successful and powerful in history, dominating the Western world for over a thousand years. The size, strength and organization of their infantry force wouldn’t be equaled again for another thousand years. The Romans believed themselves to be descendents of Mars, literally the sons of the war god. They were a proud and uncompromising people who above all else excelled at the art of warfare.

The core of Rome’s military strength lay in the professionalism of their heavy infantry. A force that was organized and reorganized as it evolved and adapted to survive the assaults of its mortal enemies, and conquer the Western world. What had started as a regional force of citizen soldier farmers evolved into a massive full time professional army, the world’s first. They became the supreme predator of their day, unmatched in battle and relentless in conquest. From their unremarkable origins the brutal Roman military conquered the Mediterranean world from Mesopotamia to Scotland until finally being absorbed and defeated by waves of barbarian invasions and internal decay. They were, perhaps, victims of their own success, having grown to large. It was a remarkable run though, spanning from their founding traditionally placed at 753BC until the last western Roman emperor was deposed in 486AD. Their success was made possible through both ruthless military might and a focused, determined population. Julius Caesar (100– 44 BC) Roman Military Leader Maximum extent of the ancient Roman Empire under Trajan in AD 117 The Ancient Military of Rome Birth and Organization of the Roman MIlitary Roman society was geared towards supporting their military before anything else.

Women were encouraged to have many children to support the man power needs of the state. Their leaders were men with military experience and expected to command the legions in times of war. Both the populace and military seemed to have a relentless drive, never yielding to defeat, even after suffering catastrophic losses. The citizens and army soldiered on through dark times that would have caused their contemporary states to sue for peace. Nobody in Rome ever spoke about ending a war in any other way then victory and their will was reflected in an almost mechanically efficient army. The attack of a Roman legion certainly seems like an emotionless killing machine to many historians, but the reality is they were as emotionally charged as the barbarian warriors that battled, just more disciplined. Besides discipline, the Romans were also ahead of their enemies in organization. Roman generals paid close attention to camp layouts, soldier’s equipment and most crucially, logistics. Often it was a the details that gave the Romans the edge, the depth of a ditch dug around a camp or having a warm breakfast before a battle were all considerations made by Roman commanders. The Roman military was reorganized periodically throughout it’s existents in an effort to stay one step ahead of its opponents, but just as often for getting caught up a step.

Regardless, they adapted to new threats quickly, becoming proficient enough in areas were they lacked to wear down their enemies. The Romans were originally a tribal group of three tribes. Little is know about this early period, all records were destroyed by a Celtic invasion in 483 BC. These early Romans would have probably fought as skirmishing light infantry armed with javelins, slings and possibly some bows. During the 7th century BC they came to be dominated by the Etruscans, their more advanced northern neighbors. Etruscan kings would rule Rome for 200 years as military dictators. Around 510 BC the Romans expelled the kings and set up a new republic government. They copied the Etruscans hoplite tactics, who had learned them from the Greeks and organized annual armies of citizen soldiers. Men were required to equip themselves and were organized by how much equipment they could afford. Rome’s nobles became cavalry and their poorest became skirmishers. The majority of Romans were formed into spear, shield and possibly helmet equipped infantry units, depending on what they could afford. This was the birth of the legions, farmer soldiers fighting for their families and territory.

Duty was mandatory, something the honor driven early Romans didn’t need to be told though. In 483 BC, a Gaelic warlord and chieftain named Brennus invaded the newly formed republic. The entire Roman army was wiped out and the city sacked. The Etruscans had left Rome with poor defenses and the surviving citizens barricaded themselves on the Capitoline Hill. Tradition says the decimated and humiliated Romans were forced to pay Brennus and his Celtic warriors 1,000 pounds of gold to leave the city. However, the counterweights Brennus used on the scales were heavier then 1,000 pounds causing the Romans to complain. To this Brennus replied, "vae victis" meaning "woe to the vanquished", and threw his sword on top of the weights increasing the injustice. The insulted Romans had no recourse, and were forced to provide even more gold. The humiliated Romans had been taught a lesson they would never forget. The memory of this event fueled their militarism as they vowed to never let it happen again at any cost. Rome would become a hardened society, brutality and violence would become a hallmark of their uncompromising military.

They also learned practical military information from their run in with the celtic Gauls. The Gauls used more advanced iron-working techniques and specialized in close-quarter combat. The Gauls employed heavy long sword and full body shields. These shields could be used to form what the Romans called a “tortoise” when employed in close formation and provided an excellent defense. The differences were noted and the roman military was revamped. Another lesson learned was that Rome’s defenses where highly insufficient. The Roman’s constructed a formidable defensive wall and would be known throughout their history for their fortifications and engineering. Another bitter lesson surrounded their loss of their leaders and aristocratic sons at the hands of the Gauls. The top of Roman society were the best equipped warriors and formed the first rank of their hoplite (shield wall and spear) formations. They moved to a three lined strategy with their fist class soldiers forming the last battle line, the Triarii. The early Romans were served well using citizens, mostly farmers, as hoplite soldiers and they gained supremacy over the neighboring farming regions, the Latins, who also used hoplite tactics. However, when they came into conflict with the hill tribes on their Southwest border they quickly learned the limitations of shield wall formations.

In a grueling fifty year long conflict, fought over three wars the Romans sought to bring the herdsmen to heal. The herdsmen warriors that dominated the central hills and mountains of Italy were the formidable Samnites who had spilled out of the mountain valleys and defeated the coastal Greek settlements along the shin of Italy. The Samnite Wars (340 BC -290 BC) pitted two different styles of warfare against each other. The confederation of hill tribes where more lightly armored, having perhaps only a small shield. Their main weapons were javelins, each soldier launching them from a loose formation. The Romans were using a phalanx tactic, where forces of spearmen lock shields to form a wall. The left of each shield protecting the soldier on the left, and the spears of the first two to three rows stick out. A phalanx presented a formidable wall of spear tips towards the front but was vulnerable from the sides and rear. Further more, if the units cohesion broke down and gaps formed in the line the vulnerable flanks of soldiers would be exposed. The Samnites exploited both of these weaknesses in the rugged hill country of Samnium dealing the Romans some stinging defeats.

However the Romans tenacity showed through, they dumped the phalanx formation that had made them a regional power and switched to the formation of the Samnites. The new system, called the maniple system arrayed the legionnaires in a checker board fashion. Squares of about 120 men formed the basic unit, a maniple. Skirmishers could then fall back through the gaps in the checker board formation. The first two rows of maniples would form a single line when confronting enemy heavy infantry. The Roman army was organized so that three of these battle lines could be formed to face the enemy. The front two maniple rows, the first battle line, were made of raw recruits called hastati, who would absorb charges and battle the enemy until exhausted. They then could retire through the gaps in the maniples behind them. The next two rows of maniples, the principes, would then face the enemy fresh for the battle, these were the experienced warriors and they were expected to finish off their tired and battered opponents. However, if this line fails the final two rows of maniples, the Triarii, would then form the final line of defense.

These would be the battle hardened veterans, and their deployment meant the situation had become desperate. Another advantage the maniple system offered was its flexibility. A single maniple could be pealed off an army to cover a flank or take a ridge. It also was much easier to maintain on rough ground. The Roman weapons also changed, arming the first Hastati and Principes with short thrusting swords and only the Triarii with spears. Legionaries were also given two javelins, called pila, another adaptation from the Samnites. Faced with the larger population of Rome and no military advantage, the lands of Samnium where colonized and their military ground down. The Samnites lost their freedom, forced under direct roman rule. After securing victory the Romans consolidated their hold over Italy bringing them into conflict with Pyrrhus of Epirus and Macedonia, a leading general in the Hellenistic (Greek) world. The Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) was a complex struggle for control of Italy and Sicily involving the western Greek cities, Pyrrhus, Italian peoples (Etruscans and Samnites), Carthaginians and the Romans.

The phalanx formation used by Phyrus was developed by Phillip of Macedonia and used by Alexander the Great to conquer the known world. Spear lengths had been doubled presenting an almost impenetrable wall of spear heads. Although their shields had to be reduced to allow hoplites to use two hands to hold the longer spears this formation had become dominate in the Hellenistic world. Pyrrhus also brought war elephants to Italy, something the Romans had never faced. In several bloody battles Pyrrhus scored narrow victories against the roman legions but the heavy losses caused him to with draw from Italy. After one such bloody battle Pyrrhus is said to have stated, "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined." The Romans learned to defeat the elephants by using their pila. Once the elephants had been hit by the projectiles they would become enraged and uncontrollable. This made them just as likely to trample their own troops as the enemies in their rampage. More importantly though, the Romans had faced the Macedonian phalanx and fought it to a draw, showing they could go toe to toe with the worlds best heavy infantry.

Although their casualties were high the Romans were able to consolidate their control over Italy. Roman Military Dominance Quickly on the heals of the Romans victory they found themselves contending with the other power in the Western Mediterranean, the Carthaginians, in The First Punic War (264 to 241 BC). The Roman navy was traditionally considered less important, although ships were vital for the transportation of supplies and troops they had not developed an offensive naval capability. When Rome and Carthage contested Sicily they were forced too. The Romans copied a beached Carthaginian bireme warship and constructed large fleets. Eventually, after a few hard lessons and typical Roman perseverance they were able to compete with the powerful Carthaginian Navy and win the war. After the war First Punic War a massive Gallic invasion poured into Italy (c. 225 BC). The Gauls were a Celtic people who used tactics the Romans called barbaric. They charged at the enemy in mass hoping the ferocity of their assault would break their opponents. Their warrior culture stressed individual bravery, making them tough but disorganized opponents. However, after they defeated two Roman armies they headed straight for Rome itself.

Rome led the Italians under them in their mutual defense of Italy, crucially cementing their allegiance to Rome after the common threat was defeated. The Latin cities of Rome provided their own heavy infantry legions to the Roman armies, although slightly inferior to the Roman legionaries. Also, the Romans used auxiliary troops, non-Romans who filled roles that the heavy infantry focused Roman military could not fill effectively, such as archers, light skirmishers and cavalry. In the Second Punic War (218 BC to 201 BC) the strength of the Italians union became critical. Rome and Carthage grappled again, this time for all of the Western Mediterranean. Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general had crossed into Italy over the Alps. After crushing the Romans in multiple battles and inflicting devastating amounts of casualties he began a strategy of attempting to coax the Italian allies to turn on Rome. For 17 years he ravaged Italy before being recalled to the defense of the city of Carthage. Hannibal’s success was in that he used the Romans strength against them. He continual out thought the Romans who always confidently marched into battles.

The Romans, certain of their superiority in head to head battles were easily led into his carefully planned traps. It took the annihilation of three Roman armies, over 100 thousand of Rome’s sons and much of the Roman leadership before the new strategies were tried. First Fabious earned his moniker of Fabious the Delayer by avoiding pitched battles with Hannibal until it was in a spot of his choosing. Later Scipio Africanus was able to beat Hannibal at his own game, turning some Carthaginian allies against them. Scipio defeated Hannibal and rome learned a valuable lesson about strategy, improving their Generals cunning. Scipio also introduced a deadly new short sword that he had come across in the Spanish theatre of the war, the gladius. Crafted by Celtic, Iberian and Celtiberian tribes these swords were the best in the world and would become the main weapon of the legions. Rome also took away the much greater prize, control of the Western Mediterranean. The Roman military that came out of the war would take over the entire Mediterranean world over the next two hundred years. First they proved they could defeat the Macedonian Phalanx by conquering Macedonia itself.

Then the remaining Hellenistic kingdoms fell one after another. The only real threat to Rome emerged in the old nightmare of massive barbarian invasions. Around 113 BC, two tribes, the Cimbri and the Teutons who were of either Celtic or Germanic origins, invaded Rome and destroyed two Roman armies. Marius, Rome’s leading general, was granted authority to reorganize the army to face this dire threat. He dropped the land requirements for army recruits. This meant that the state would provide the arms and equipment, since the landless classes couldn’t afford the expense. The early legions originated from the citizen army of the Republic and consisted of farmer soldiers who were expected to own land. These land requirements had been dropping since the Punic Wars as fewer citizens owned land. The Romans own success was to blame, slaves taken in their victorious war against Carthage, Celtic tribes and in other conflicts were pouring into Rome by the hundreds of thousands and being used as agricultural workers. Large landowners used them on their lands and the new lands conquered by the Romans, which happened to go to the large landowners as well.

The unemployed Roman farm laborers and sons of sold out farmers were recruited as the aristocracy decided to let the newly formed unemployed masses shoulder the military grunt work. Marius turned the army into a professionally structured organization. Although the legions were still largely filled by citizens, the citizens now would serve continuously for twenty years before being discharged and awarded a plot of land. Once Marius had standardized the Roman Legions arms and equipment he then standardized the battle lines, doing away with the old structure of the newest recruits attacking first only to be rescued by the drama of the veterans coming in to save the day. After Marius all maniples would be standardized. Veterans and new recruits would be mixed together as well as Romans and other Italians. Roman armies had always been followed by supply trains, wagons that trailed for miles behind the army. Lately however the army followers had swelled to ridiculous proportions, slowing the army down. Marius had his soldiers carry most of their own supplies, around 70 pounds worth of arms, equipment and supplies. The legionaries were derisively referred to as Marius’ Mules. Marius also marched his new army around Italy, building their endurance and strength for their coming showdown with the vast barbarian invaders.

When the Cimbri and the Teutons invaded again, Marius and his legions were ready. The endurance of the Roman soldiers in battle was unmatched anywhere in the world. Marius also rotated the battle lines more frequently, putting fresh troops into the battle, not waiting for a battle line to be beaten before sending another in. Like a hockey couch, Marius rotated his lines, putting continual pressure on the enemies. After the barbarians initial wild, powerful charge was absorbed the legions could get down to the business of wearing them down. The Cimbri and Teutons were defeated and slaughtered. This was the form of the Roman armies of Caesar, Augustus and Emperor Titus. They conquered their old enemy, the Gauls in France and the Celts of Britain. In the East they took over the old Hellenistic Kingdoms, Syria, Egypt and Judea. When the ambitions of Rome’s great generals turned the Legions against each other in the civil wars that ended the republic and started the empire, it was in this form the legions battled. They where the supreme fighting force for 300 years after the reforms of Marius.

Eventually barbarian nations, such as the Goths, learned new mounted tactics from the nomadic steppe tribes. The many barbarian tribes that surrounded the Empire had been in close contact with Rome on every level of society for centuries, and had also learned much of Rome and its military. The legions, after losing several battles at the hands of cavalry heavy barbarian armies reformed itself one last time. Late Imperial Roman Armies The late imperial army, with so much territory to cover, began to focus on speed and cavalry. Mounted troops and archers took on greater importance. The heavy infantry obsessed Romans of the Republic and early empire would have shuddered, but times had changed. Roman infantry was once again armed with spears, a good defense against cavalry. They were also less armored and infantry began carrying an oval shield. Speed was now more highly valued then the brute force of the Marian legions. Physical fitness, aggressiveness and professionalism also declined as the legions were posted on garrison duties, protecting the multitude of fortifications strung across the imperial frontiers. Military expenditures had soared, up 40% in the later Empire, even though the heavy infantry was scaled back.

The new cavalry units, forerunners to the medieval nights, where expensive, budget busters. Since the early Republic the Romans used auxiliary troops, non-Romans who served with the legions in roles that the heavy infantry centric Roman military could not fill effectively. Light skirmish troops and heavy cavalry are two good examples. During the Empire these auxiliary troops steadily increased in numbers. By the late Empire they, along with foreign mercenaries, had became the core of Roman armies. Tribes such as the Goths became relied upon heavily and often needed to be bribed. After several bloody disputes with their mercenaries over pay Roman territory was invaded by the Huns, hordes of nomadic horse archers. This was followed by attacks by other barbarian groups such as the Lombards, Franks and Vandals. Even their old allies the Goths got in on the action. In the 5th century the last Roman Emperor of the Western Empire was deposed and Western Europe entered into the Dark Ages (although it wasn’t that dark of a time for the emerging barbarian nations). The empire created by the sword, perished by the sword. In the East the Roman Empire continued on for another thousand years as the Byzantine Empire.

The Byzantine armies continued to develop the late roman military model. They made excellent use of cavalry, particularly mounted archers and were at times able to recover portions of the old Western Empire. The Byzantines remained a power until the fall of Constantinople, their great capitol city in 1453. What had been an unremarkable small town of cattle rustlers and farmers had used its stubborn and brutal military to create the greatest empire in western history. Many of their institutions, laws and customs continue as a foundation for modern society

Question: What is the Roman military formation called the Testudo named after?
Answer: Tortoise