Reforms Brought by Lord Cornwallis Reforms Brought by Lord Cornwallis Article shared by : In 1786 Lord Cornwallis succeeded Sirjoha Macpherson as the governor-general of India. He was the first governor-general of India who had to work under the Pitt’s India Act. He was a nobleman of high rank and aristocratic disposition. In India he attained success by following the policy of Warren Hastings. He reformed and reorganized the administration of the company. ADVERTISEMENTS: Administrative Reforms: The servants of the company were corrupt, incompetent and irresponsible persons. Cornwallis realized that the low salaries of the company’s servants encouraged them to indulge in various kinds of private trade to augment their income. So Cornwallis decided to raise the salaries of the servants of the company. Image Source: seaofliberty.org/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/image/cornwallis-1781.jpg The employees of the company were prohibited to carry on private trade. He had a low opinion about the character, ability and integrity of the Indian people. So he sought to reserve all higher posts for the Europeans. He also introduced some reforms in police department.

The districts were divided into small thanas and an Inspector was appointed in each thana. A superior officer with the designation of superintendent of police was appointed in each district to supervise the work of the Inspectors. He raised the salaries of all police officers. He separated the judiciary from executive as a result equal justice could be dispensed to all the people. Judicial Reforms: ADVERTISEMENTS: Cornwallis introduced some significant reforms in the sphere of judicial administration and tried to complete the unfinished work of Warren Hastings. During his period number of revenue districts was reduced from 35 to 23 in the Presidency of Bengal. The collector was the head of the district. In 1787 district courts were presided over by the collector. The collectors were vested with magisterial powers and empowered to administer criminal justice. In 1790-92 further changes were made in the administration of criminal justice. The Faujdari Adalats of the districts were abolished and in their place four circuit courts were established at Dacca, Patna, Calcutta and Murshidabad.

These courts were presided over by two covenanted servants of the company who decided the cases with the help of Qazis and Muftis. The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was again shifted from Murshidabad to Calcutta. The Muhammadan Judge of this Adalat was removed and in his place the Governor General and Council presided over the Sadar Nizamat Adalat. By 1793 the judicial reforms of Cornwallis took the final shape and were embodied in the famous Cornwallis Code. Separation of powers was the basis of the new reforms. The collector was deprived of all his judicial and magisterial powers. The judges tried all civil cases in the districts. The collector was required to look after the administration and to realise the revenue of the district. Under the subordination of the District Judge Civil and criminal courts of Lower grade were established in which the Munsif and Sadar Amin tried the minor cases of the people. Appeals could be made to district court against the decisions of the Lower Courts. ADVERTISEMENTS: Commercial Reforms: Cornwallis took some steps for the improvement of trade and commerce.

Since the establishment of Board of Trade at Calcutta, the company had procured goods through European and Indian contractors. These contractors often supplied goods at high prices and of low quality. Cornwallis stopped the practice of procuring supplies through contracts and started the practice of procuring supplies through Commercial Residents and agents. These Commercial Residents fixed the prices of goods with the manufacturers and also made advances to them. Cornwallis reduced the members of the Board of Trade from eleven to five and placed it under the control of the Calcutta Council. He also issued instructions that the merchants would not be oppressed. Lord Cornwallis as Governor-General (1786-93) The Age of George III I am happy that you are using this web site and hope that you found it useful. Unfortunately, the cost of making this material freely available is increasing, so if you have found the site useful and would like to contribute towards its continuation, I would greatly appreciate it. Click the button to go to Paypal and make a donation. British India Lord Cornwallis as Governor-General (1786-93) The first Governor-General under the new Act was Lord Cornwallis (the same Cornwallis who had surrendered at Yorktown in 1781).

He held office between 1786 and 1793 representing the British government and answerable to the Board of Control. He was able to defy the mercenary interests of the East India Company when they conflicted with state policy. Cornwallis suspended the whole Board of Revenue for irregularities and enforced the new rules against private trade. He insisted on the company providing generous salaries in its place. He then reorganised the whole administration. From then on, a Company servant could join either the commercial or political branch of the East India Company, but not both. As a merchant, a man could still trade on his own account; as an official he had to be content with a large salary. This was the beginning of the Civil Service as known in the nineteenth century and the beginning of the end of the company's commercial activities. Cornwallis' next major measure was the Europeanisation of the services. All high Indian officials were dismissed and all posts worth more than £500 a year were reserved for Europeans. He also settled the revenue and land system of Bengal by giving the tax-farmers ten-year contracts. A third major reform was in the legal sphere.

North 's Regulating Act had introduced a Supreme Court which administered British law (to the confusion of Indian litigants who did not understand British law). Cornwallis took over criminal administration from the Indians and pruned the Muslim criminal code of some of its less humane features. The consequence was that the Indian legal code became one of the most enlightened in the world and was much more humane than the English system. These major reforms lasted, with all their implications, into the twentieth century. Cornwallis created a Europeanised state within the framework of the Indian tradition. The administration had little in common with British institutions; the checks and balances of eighteenth-century Britain were abandoned and the Governor-General became virtually an absolute ruler. The alien British control of India merely replaced alien Indian control. For example, in the period of the Mogul empire, 70% of the higher officers were foreign and only half the remainder were Hindu. In both régimes, the language of officialdom was foreign (Persian then English). To contemporaries, British rule was no revolutionary change. It was Cornwallis who had to deal with Warren Hastings . After the India Act of 1784, Hastings was in an impossible position.

He was expected to use the administrative machinery of a commercial company to serve the political purposes of Britain, the East India Company and the welfare of the Indian population. He did this to the best of his ability and, while the British army in America and Europe was being beaten, India was kept safe for the government through the efforts of Hastings. However, he had made an enemy of Philip Francis and from Britain came only condemnation of Indian government. Pitt's India Act was virtually a condemnation of the old order within which Hastings had done his best. In January 1785 Hastings resigned and sailed for home. On his arrival he found that he was the "universal scapegoat" for all the troubles in government. As a result of the work of Edmund Burke and Philip Francis, Hastings was impeached and tried before the House of Lords. The trial lasted from 1788 to 1795 and Hastings was found innocent of all the charges brought against him. Cornwallis resigned as Governor-General in 1793 because the officers of the Bengal army were obstructive and Cornwallis failed to find the full support from London which he demanded.

After 1793 the Company's charter was renewed every twenty years, allowing parliament further opportunity to investigate and reconsider affairs in India, a power which was intended to, and did, limit the Company's plans. Lord Cornwallis, Indian Governor General Home > Reference > History of India > Indian Governor- Generals > Lord Cornwallis Lord Cornwallis, Indian Governor General Lord Cornwallis was the first Governor-General for India under the Pitt`s India Act and undertook various Judicial Reforms to remove corruption from British administration. Subscribe to Free E-Magazine on Reference More on Lord Cornwallis, Indian Governor General (3) • Cornwallis Code of 1793 Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the Governor-General of India in the year 1786 and he also became commander in chief for Bengal under the Pitt's India Act. An aristocrat by birth, Lord Cornwallis was delegated with the work of reorganising the administrative system of India. The British administration in India was facing land revenue problems, judicial corruption and the commercial departments lay disorganised. Lord Cornwallis was entrusted with task of analysing these hindrances and figure out a probable solution.

He also led the British forces in the 3rd Anglo- Mysore War and defeated the great Tipu Sultan , ruler of Mysore . In the year 1786, Lord Cornwallis became a Knight Companion of The Most Noble Order of the Garter. Early Life of Lord Cornwallis Lord Cornwallis was born on December 31st, in the year 1738, to the parents Elizabeth Townshend and Charles Cornwallis, 5th Baron Cornwallis, who later became 1st Earl Cornwallis. He was born in Grosvenor Square, London, England, although his family house was in Kent. Cornwallis studied in Eton College and Clare College, Cambridge. Lord Cornwallis later became the 2nd Earl Cornwallis in the year 1762, succeeding his father.in the year 1757, he joined the British Army and in 1766 he promoted to the position of Colonel. He also led the British army in the American War of Independence in 1776. Lord Cornwallis was married to the regimental colonel's daughter, Jemima Tullekin Jones in 1768.

Judicial Reforms of Lord Cornwallis In order to straighten the judicial problems Lord Cornwallis introduced the judicial reforms in India. These included the concentration of power in the able hands of the Collector. The new Governor-General was answerable only to the Board of Control that appointed him. Hence, he was able to resist the petty interest of the East India Company when they came in conflict with the state policies. During his office (1786-1793), Lord Cornwallis suspended the Board of Revenue and enforced new regulations for trading. He was the first person to put everything under the Company's rule. Hence the entire administration was reorganised. As far as his judicial reforms were concerned, Cornwallis came forward with the Cornwallis Code of 1793. After taking care of the judicial administration he concentrated upon the revenue reforms. In this context one cannot possibly miss out the Permanent Settlement of Bengal in 1793. He introduced ten year contracts to the Zamindars in Bengal. Besides these Lord Cornwallis was also responsible for the making the high posts in the Government administration available only to the British officials. In fact all the Indian officials were dismissed and these posts were reserved only for the Europeans.

There was rampant corruption in the Commercial Department. To fight this evil, Cornwallis reduced the strength of the Board of Trade and eventually Commercial Residents were set up to procure supplies. Tribulations like bribery, corruption and the problems of private trade were suppressed. Apart from taking care of the administration Lord Cornwallis was also on military enterprise. He had to face huge resistance from Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore during 1782 to 1799. Lord Cornwallis led the British army to the Third Mysore War in the year 1790-1792. The war ended with Tipu Sultan's surrender of half of his kingdom to the British. Lord Cornwallis succeeded Warren Hastings in India. Although, not as brilliant as him, Cornwallis was successful in evoking devotion to duty, perseverance and modesty. Cornwallis was lucky to have able assistants like John shore, James Grant, George Barlow and others. As far as his administrative reforms were concerned, his achievements were so impressive that these were often termed as perfect. Lord Cornwallis tried to solve the problem is India by through his various reforms and measures. He was responsible for introducing British principles and planting British institutions in India.

In 1793 Lord Cornwallis returned to England to receive the title of the marques and was granted a seat in the Privy Council. He was later also given a place in the Cabinet. Lord Cornwallis died on October 5th, 1805. (Last Updated on : 27/01/2012) Recently Updated Articles in History of India • Roshanara Bagh Roshanara Bagh in Delhi is the birth place of Indian Cricket Council which is globally known as The Board of Control for Cricket in India, one of the main body to guide and foster the India Cricket after Independence of India in 1947. • Pari Mahal is known as the house of fairies, built by the Mughals at the top of Zabarwan Mountain Range. • Architecture of Shalimar Gardens deals with the Persian concept of designing which are similar to the Mughal Gardens of Delhi. • Archeological Site in Kumrahar The Archeological Site in Kumrahar refers to the ancient remains of the city called Pataliputra. In the year 1989, the Government had buried the entire site with soil.

There is a museum at the site at present, which is a home to a small replica of the original excavation. • Cornwallis in India | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Portrait of Cornwallis by Thomas Gainsborough Lord Charles Cornwallis was a British army officer, civil administrator, and diplomat. His early career was primarily military in nature, including a series of well-known campaigns during the War of American Independence from 1776 to 1781 that culminated in his surrender at Yorktown . [2] Following his return to England in 1782 he was prevented by his parole from further participation in the war, and financial demands eventually caused him to seek a position of greater pay than the half-pay that military officers received when not in service. [3] India in the 1780s For more details on this topic, see Colonial India and Company rule in India . The area encompassed by modern India was significantly fractured following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th century.

[4] European colonial outposts, from countries including Denmark, Portugal, France, and the Dutch Republic , dotted both the Coromandel (east) and Malabar (west) coasts of the subcontinent, although many of these had been established with the formal permission of a local ruler (which was sometimes secured by force of arms). The Kingdom of Travancore dominated the southern tip, the Kingdom of Mysore held sway over the center of the peninsula, and the Maratha Empire, a confederation of loosely allied principalities, dominated the northern reaches from Calcutta to Bombay. [5] Although there were significant British presences at Bombay and Madras, each governed by a separate presidency, the Bengal region, including Calcutta, had come under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1757, with authority to levy taxes, and its presidency dominated the others. Its civil head, the Governor-General of Fort William , ranked ahead of those of Madras and Bombay . [6] [7] British colonial administration was dominated in the 1760s and 1770s by Warren Hastings , the first man to hold the title of Governor-General.

[7] The military arm of the East India Company was directed during the Seven Years' War and the Second Anglo-Mysore War by General Eyre Coote , who died in 1783 during the later stages of the war with Mysore. [8] Company policy, as implemented by Hastings, had involved the company in intrigues and shifting alliances involving France, Mysore, the Marathas, and factions within those and other local territories. [9] Appointment Edit Cornwallis was first considered for a posting to India during the ministry of the Earl of Shelburne in the spring of 1782. Shelburne asked Cornwallis if he wanted to go to India as governor general, an idea Cornwallis viewed with favor, as it provided employment without risking his parole status. [10] However, Shelburne was a weak leader, and was turned out of power in early 1783, replaced by a coalition government dominated by men Cornwallis (and King George ) disliked, Charles James Fox and Lord North .

Cornwallis, who normally avoided politics (in spite of holding a seat in the House of Lords), became more vocal in opposition to the Fox-North ministry, hoping his support would be repaid by the next government. [11] "Much against my will, and with grief of heart, I have been obliged to say yes, and to exchange a life of ease and content, to encounter all the plagues and miseries of command an public station." [12] With the ascendancy of William Pitt the Younger to power in December 1783, doors to new positions were opened to the earl. Pitt first offered him the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland, which he politely refused. He also made it clear that, were he posted to India, he would want the supreme military command in addition to civil control. [13] When informed that Pitt was agreeable to this demand, he went through a period of soul-searching, torn between the conflicting demands of family and country. This, however, was not the only troubling issue. When Parliament took up consideration of assignments in India in August 1784, it was only prepared to offer one of the two posts, which he again refused to consider.

[14] Passed over for other military postings, Pitt placated him with the post of Constable of the Tower . [15] After refusing another inadequate entreaty from Pitt to take a post in India in February 1785, Cornwallis's demand for both posts were finally met a year later, on 23 February 1786. [12] Departing London in May, he arrived at Madras on 22 August 1786, after "a most prosperous and expeditious passage", and at Calcutta on 12 September. [16] Although he was accorded a welcome suitable to his rank, the acting governor-general, John Macpherson , was unhappy at being replaced. He attempted to reserve for his own use the Government House , which was normally reserved for the governor-general. Cornwallis, after having his oaths of office administered, immediately announced his intention to occupy the residence. [17] Administrative reforms Edit Cornwallis was charged by the directors of the British East India Company to overhaul and reform its administration in India.

The company had historically paid its functionaries (revenue collectors, traders, and administrators) in India relatively little, but allowed them to engage in trade for themselves, including the use of company shipping for the purpose. As long as the company was profitable, this open door to corruption and graft at the company's expense was overlooked. However, the rise of manufacturing in Britain led to a collapse of prices for textiles and other goods from India, and the company's involvement in wars on the subcontinent had also been expensive. By the time Cornwallis arrived the company was losing money. Its employees, however, continued to profit personally, without caring whether or not the company made money. [18] Cornwallis sought to change this practice, first by refusing to engage in such dealing himself, and second, by securing pay increases for the company's functionaries while denying them their personal trading privileges. [19] Another area of reform that Cornwallis implemented was the reduction of nepotism and political favoritism as means for advancement and positions within the company. Seeking instead to advance the company's interests, he sought out and promoted individuals on the basis of merit , even refusing requests by the Prince of Wales to assist individuals in the latter's good graces.

[20] Judicial reforms Edit Prior to the earl's arrival, judicial and police powers in territories controlled by the company were a confusion of differing standards that were also either inconsistently or arbitrarily applied. [21] Part of Cornwallis's work was the introduction of criminal and judicial regulations that to a significant degree still underpin the Indian judicial system. Indian cities, much like British cities of the time, were poorly policed, and crime was widespread. [22] Different penal and civil codes were applied to Hindus and Muslims, and the codification of these codes in different languages meant that it was virtually impossible for justice to be properly and consistently applied. [23] Much of the criminal justice system in Bengal remained in the hands of the nawab, the nominal local ruler of the company's territory. Furthermore, individuals with powerful political connections in their community often were able to act with impunity, since no one suffering at their hands was likely to press charges for fear of retribution. Hastings had several times made changes to policing and the administration of justice, but none of these had had a significant impact on the problem.

[24] William Jones , engraving after a portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds Cornwallis received critical assistance from others in his effort to introduce legal reforms. William Jones , an expert on languages, translated existing Hindu and Muslim penal codes into English so that they could be evaluated and applied by English-speaking judges. [25] Cornwallis began in 1787 by giving limited criminal judicial powers to the company's revenue collectors, who already also served as civil magistrates. He also required them to report regularly on detention times and sentences given. [26] In 1790 the company took over the administration of justice from the nawab, and Cornwallis introduced a system of circuit courts with a superior court that met in Calcutta and had the power of review over circuit court decisions. [27] [28] Judges were drawn from the company's European employees. These reforms also included changes to the penal codes to begin harmonizing the different codes then in use. By the time of his departure in 1793 his work on the penal code, known in India as the Cornwallis Code , was substantially complete.

[29] One consequence of the Cornwallis Code was that it, in effect, institutionalized racism in the legal system. Cornwallis, in a manner not uncommon at the time, believed that well-bred gentlemen of European extraction were superior to others, including those that were the product of mixed relationships in India. Of the latter, he wrote "as on account of their colour & extraction they are considered in this country as inferior to Europeans, I am of opinion that those of them who possess the best abilities could not command that authority and respect which is necessary in the due discharge of the duty of an officer." [30] In 1791 he issued an order that "No person, the son of a Native Indian, shall henceforward be appointed by this Court to Employment in the Civil, Military, or Marine Service of the Company." [30] Cornwallis's biographers, the Wickwires, also observe that this institutionalization of the British as an elite class simply added another layer on top of the complex status hierarchy of caste and religion that existed in India at the time. [31] Cornwallis could not have formalized these policies without the (tacit or explicit) agreement of the company's directors and employees.

[32] Cornwallis's attituted toward the lower classes did, however, include a benevolent and somewhat paternalistic desire to improve their condition. He introduced legislation to protect native weavers who were sometimes forced into working at starvation wages by unscrupulous company employees, outlawed child slavery, and established in 1791 a Sanskrit college for Hindus that is now the Government Sanskrit College in Benares . [33] He also established a mint in Calcutta that, in addition to benefiting the poor by providing a reliable standard currency, was a forerunner India's modern currency. [34] The Permanent Settlement Edit The Company's acquisition of the territories of Bengal in the 1760s led to its decisions to collect taxes as high as 89% of land produce in the area as a means of reducing investment capital directed toward India. [35] A variety of taxation schemes were implemented in the following years, none of which produced satisfactory results, and many of which left too much power over the natives in the hands of the tax collectors, or zamindars .

The company's directors gave Cornwallis the task of coming up with a taxation scheme that would meet the company's objectives without being an undue burden on the working men of its territories. [36] John Shore , portrait by George Richmond John Shore (who went on to succeed Cornwallis as Governor-General) and Charles Grant , [37] two men he came to trust implicitly, were the most important contributors to what is now called the Permanent Settlement . The essence of the arrangement they came up with in the summer of 1789 was that the zamindars would effectively become hereditary landholders, paying the company tax based on the value of the land. Shore and Cornwallis disagreed on the term of the scheme, with Shore arguing for a ten-year time limit on the arrangement, while Cornwallis argued for a truly permanent scheme. [38] Cornwallis prevailed, noting that many of the company's English revenue collectors, as well as others knowledgeable of company finance and taxation, supported permanency. In 1790 the proposal was sent to London, where the company directors approved the plan in 1792. Cornwallis began implementing the regulations in 1793.

[39] Critics of the Permanent Settlement objected to its permanency, claimed that the company was forgoing revenue, and that Cornwallis and others advocating it misunderstood the historic nature of the zamindars. The Wickwires note that Cornwallis relied extensively on advice not only from John Shore, who had extensive experience in India prior to Cornwallis's arrival, but also from the revenue collectors in the various districts, who were almost uniformly in favor of a permanent settlement with the zamindars. [40] He was also clear on the need to protect the ryots (land tenants) from the excesses of the zamindars, writing, "It is immaterial to government what individual possessed the land, provided he cultivates it, protects the ryots, and pays the public revenue." [41] Penang and Nepal Fort Cornwallis , Penang Cornwallis's predecessor, John Macpherson, had authorized negotiations with the sultan of Kedah for the establishment of a company trading post on the island of Penang.

Captain Francis Light , a trader familiar with the East Indies, negotiated an agreement in which the sultan, who was surrounded by powerful adversaries, received a share of the trade profits and a defensive military alliance in exchange for Penang. Captain Light made representations to the sultan that the company had agreed to these terms, and occupied the island in August 1786. Cornwallis, concerned that the military aspects of the agreement might draw the company into conflicts with the sultan's adversaries or the Dutch, withheld approval of the agreement and requested the company's directors to decide the issue. When the company refused the military alliance, the sultan began blockading the island, renamed Prince of Wales Island by Light, and started in 1790 to accumulate troops with the view toward forcibly evicting the British. [42] Cornwallis's brother William , then with the Royal Navy in the area, sailed from Penang to pick up troops in India for its defence. Captain Light, however, routed the sultan's forces in April 1791 before those reinforcements arrived. [43] An agreement was then signed in which the company paid the sultan an annual stipend for the use of Penang.

The fort that Captain Light constructed to protect Penang's principal town, George Town , became known as Fort Cornwallis in the earl's honour. [42] In 1792, King Rana Bahadur Shah of Nepal , with whom the company had established trade relations, requested military assistance. Shah had been expanding his territory militarily by taking over smaller adjacent principalities, but a 1791 invasion of Tibet was met with a stiff Chinese response. Cornwallis declined the king's request, sending instead Colonel William Kirkpatrick to mediate the dispute. Kirkpatrick was the first Englishman to see Nepal; by the time he reached Kathmandu in 1793, the parties had already resolved their dispute. [44] [45] War with Mysore Main article: Third Anglo-Mysore War Immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, ending the Second Anglo-Mysore War , Tipu Sultan , the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, restated his hatred for the British, declaring that he would seek to renew conflict with them.

Cornwallis, upon his arrival in India, took steps to modify or abrogate agreements with the Maratha Empire and with the Nizam of Hyderabad (both of whom had territories on Mysore's northern border) that he saw as problematic with respect to the provisions of the 1784 treaty. [46] He did assure them that if France became involved in conflict against their territories that the company would assist them. Pursuant to this policy, he refused to send company troops to assist the Marathas and the Nizam in their war with Mysore to recover previously lost territories. [47] Early campaigns Tipu Sultan Tensions between Tipu and the Nizam and the British were raised when, in 1788, the East India Company gained control over the Circar of Guntur , the southernmost of the Northern Circars , pursuant to an earlier agreement with the Nizam. In exchange, the company agreed to station some of its troops with the Hyderabadi army. [48] By 1789, tensions between Tipu and his neighbors and vassals to Mysore's west, including the Kingdom of Travancore , also rose noticeably.

Travancore, listed in the 1784 treaty as a British ally, acquired from the Dutch East India Company two forts located within the territory of Cochin , a Mysorean vassal state. The Dutch had never paid tribute to anyone for these forts since gaining control of them, but the fact that they were within Cochin's bounds was sufficient for Tipu to dispute Travancore's claim. He began massing troops at Coimbatore and making threatening gestures toward Dharma Raja of Travancore . British authorities in Madras warned Tipu that acts of aggression against Travancore would be met with a British response, and Cornwallis began urging John Hollond , the governor of Madras, to begin military preparations. On December 29, 1789, Tipu attacked Travancore's defenses . [49] Hollond, however, was not a military man, and rather than acting with vigor, he temporized and attempted negotiation with Tipu. [49] He was replaced in early 1790 by General William Medows , to whom Cornwallis gave the authority for a military campaign against Mysore.

[49] Cornwallis began negotiating with the Marathas and the Nizam for their support, since the British forces in India were significantly lacking in cavalry, one of Tipu's strengths. [50] The Marathas and the Nizam both had significant cavalry forces, and they were interested in recovering territories lost to Mysore in earlier conflicts. However, they were too weak to attack Mysore individually, and did not trust each other, so they preferred to wait until it was clear the British were committed to act against Mysore. [51] Medows' campaign in 1790 was a limited success. He occupied the Coimbatore district against minimal opposition, but a forceful counterattack by Tipu reduced the British holdings to Coimbatore itself and a few other outposts. Tipu had also descended to the coastal plain, where he plowed through the Carnatic and even met with the French at Pondicherry in a fruitless attempt to draw them into the conflict. [52] By September 1790 the British allies were taking the field, but still did not want to face Tipu's strong force without significant British support.

Consequently, Cornwallis decided to personally take control of the main British force from Medows. In early February 1791 he began a campaign that was squarely targeted at Mysore's capital, Seringapatam . [53] First campaign against Seringapatam Edit One of the largest issues confronting Cornwallis in managing the army was its diversity. In addition to British Army and East India Company European forces, there were German troops from Hanover, and a large number of native sepoys from a diversity of cultural backgrounds, speaking different languages and having varied religious and dietary requirements. [54] In order to meet the needs of this patchwork of forces, the army was followed by a number of camp followers that was unusually large by comparison to typical European or North American armies, further increasing the need for reliable supply. The army he took over from General Medows had 15,000 troops and 60,000 camp followers. [55] He permitted the artist Robert Home to accompany the army on its campaign; the resulting artwork is one of the legacies of the campaign.

[56] Cornwallis was sensitive to the fact that Tipu was likely to deny the invading army access to local forage and provisions, and made arrangements for a large supply of provisions, and arranged for the use of elephants to assist in the movement of the army's siege equipment. [57] He also encouraged the Marathas and the Nizam to step up their advances to join his army as quickly as possible, so that he could take advantage of their cavalry. [54] The Death of Colonel Moorhouse at the Storming of the Pettah Gate of Bangalore, by Robert Home , 1793 Cornwallis departed Velhout, near Madras, on 5 February, reaching Vellore on 11 February. After several days of rest, the army set out with the apparent intention of crossing the Eastern Ghats directly west of Vellore. However, this was a feint, and Cornwallis turned the army north, and instead crossed the mountains at Muglee. [58] Tipu, who had taken steps to defend the more southerly passes, had not defended this one, and the army met no resistance.

In fact, it met no significant resistance until it neared Bangalore, one of the strongest fortresses in eastern Mysore. [59] On 5 March, Colonel John Floyd , leader of the British cavalry, was lured into a trap set by Tipu that cost the army 70 men and 250 valuable horses. [60] Cornwallis brushed off the loss, and proceeded to besiege Bangalore . On 7 March the city's walls were breached, and the city was stormed through the opening, sending its defenders scurrying. Cornwallis gained control of the whole city except its fortress, which was stormed on the night of 21 March after its walls were breached. [61] Tipu, from his camps outside the city, offered only weak resistance, ineffectually attempting to impede the siege works and assist the besieged fortress during the final assault. [62] After securing Bangalore, Cornwallis began to move against Tipu, who retreated toward Seringapatam . The lack of cavalry, however, hampered the British effort, so Cornwallis ordered the army north to make junction with the nizam's troops.

When they finally met about 60 miles (97 km) from Bangalore, Cornwallis described Teige Wunt 's cavalry as "extremely defective in almost every point of military discipline", and their presence in the army ultimately presented more difficulties than assistance. [63] Instead of acting as flanking companies and foraging on their own, they preferred to remain with the main army and consume its provisions. [64] This forced Cornwallis to alter the army's route again to join with a supply train carrying additional provisions. The army returned to Bangalore on 28 April, and then set out for Seringapatam. [65] The march was significantly slowed by early monsoon rains that turned the march into a muddy mess. In spite of appeals by Cornwallis to Teige Wunt, the nizam's men continued to consume provisions, and the army's provisions began to run short. Tipu retreated before the army, employing scorched earth tactics to deny his enemy provisions. [66] Baggage was left behind as draft animals died, and the army, including its officers, were on half rations.

[67] The rains flooded the Kaveri River, which was difficult to cross even under favorable conditions, and which separated the army from a British force under Robert Abercromby that was waiting on the far side of Seringapatam for Cornwallis's arrival. [68] Political cartoon by James Gillray , making fun of Lord Cornwallis after his 1791 retreat from Seringapatam On 13 May, near the village of Arakere , about 10 miles (16 km) below Seringapatam, Tipu decided to offer battle from a position on nearby heights. In the ensuing battle , complicated by the rains, Cornwallis prevailed, routing Tipu's forces, which retreated into Seringapatam. [69] Following the battle, Cornwallis made the difficult decision to retreat, as the army's supply situation had become so desperate that a siege would have been impossible, even if he could have joined with Abercromby's troops. [70] A hoped-for junction with Marathan troops also seemed unlikely, as Tipu had successfully prevented communication and intelligence of their position from reaching Cornwallis, and the most recent reports placed them some distance off.

After ordering Abercromby to retreat on 21 May, Cornwallis ordered his siege train destroyed, and began to retreat toward Bangalore on 26 May. That very day, he was met by an advance company of the Marathan army. The next day that army, totalling some 40,000 cavalry, joined with his. [70] The Marathan army was well-provisioned, so they were able to relieve some of the British army's stresses, although the prices they charged for their provisions were exorbitant. The combined army reached Bangalore on 11 July. [71] Tipu took advantage of the retreat to make a concerted attack on Coimbatore, which fell after a lengthy siege in November. [72] Second campaign against Seringapatam Edit The armies of Purseram Bhow and Teige Wunt then left the grand army to pursue territorial gains in Mysore's northern territories. [73] Whereas the earl's younger brother, Commodore William Cornwallis , was engaged in the naval Battle of Tellicherry , Cornwallis spent the remainder of 1791 securing his supply lines to Madras, and clearing the way to Seringapatam .

[74] To this end he laid siege to Nundydroog in November and Savendroog in December, both of which fell after unexpectedly modest efforts. [75] He also ordered a massive supply operation to ensure that adequate supplies and pay for his army and those of the allies would be available. Spies were sent to infiltrate Tipu's camps, and he began to receive more reliable reports of the latter's troop strengths and disposition. [76] The relations between Cornwallis and the allies were difficult. The Mahrattan military leaders, Purseram Bhow and Hurry Punt, had to be bribed to stay with the army, and Cornwallis reported the Hyderabadi forces to be more of a hindrance than a help; one British observer wrote that they were a "disorderly rabble" and "not very creditable to the state of military discipline at Hyderabad." [77] On 25 January, Cornwallis moved from Savendroog toward Seringapatam, while Abercromby again advanced from the Malabar coast. Although Tipu's men harassed the column, they did not impede its progress, and it reached the Mysorean capital on 5 February.

[78] Cornwallis established a chain of outposts to protect the supply line from Bangalore, and planned an attack for that night, even though Abercromby had not yet arrived. [79] Cornwallis responded with a night-time attack to dislodge Tipu from his lines. After a somewhat confused battle, Tipu's forces were flanked, he retreated into the city, and Cornwallis began siege operations . [80] On 12 February Abercromby arrived with the Bombay army, and the noose began to tighten around Tipu. By 23 February, Tipu began making overtures for peace talks, and hostilities were suspended the next day when he agreed to preliminary terms. [81] Among the preliminary terms that Cornwallis insisted on was the Tipu surrender two of his sons as hostages as a guarantee for his execution of the agreed terms. On 26 February his two young sons were formally delivered to Cornwallis amid great ceremony and gun salutes by both sides.

[82] Cornwallis, who was not interested in significantly extending the company's territory, or in turning most of Mysore over to the Mahrattas and Hyderabad, negotiated a division of one half of Mysorean territory, to be divided by the allies, in which the company's acquisition would improve its defenses. He later wrote, "If we had taken Seringapatam and killed Tippoo, [...] we must either have given that capital to the Marattas (a dangerous boon) or have set up some miserable pageant of our own, to be supported by the Company's troops and treasures, and to be plundered by its servants." [83] The territories taken deprived Mysore of much of its coastline; Mysore was also obligated to pay some of the allied war costs. On 18 March 1792 Tipu agreed to the terms and signed the Treaty of Seringapatam , ending hostilities. [84] 1794 Map showing "The Territories ceded by Tipu Sultan to the Different Powers" Departure Edit The difficulties of the military campaigns took a great physical toll on Cornwallis, and he sought to return to England.

John Shore, his replacement, did not arrive until March 1793, and Cornwallis remained until August to assist in the transition. [85] He also oversaw the capture of the French outpost at Pondicherry following the arrival of news that war had again broken out in Europe. [86] On 14 August 1793, without ceremony, he quietly sailed from Calcutta for Madras, and on 10 October he finally sailed for England on board the Swallow. [85] After India See also: Cornwallis in Ireland Scholar P.J. Marshall explains that the British public were able to follow the Third Mysore War in newspapers "in much greater detail than would have been the case for any previous war in India." [87] Thus, when Cornwallis returned victorious from India, he was celebrated well beyond Parliamentary and Company circles. He was raised to Marquess , but was also celebrated publicly through commissioned portraits and statues; published books, songs and poems; and even purchasable medallions and tea trays. [88] This was the first time a military victory in India at the expense of a non-European enemy garnered such public praise.

While there would be many more bumps along the way, such widespread enthusiasm marked a turning point towards British acceptance of an overseas empire of conquest . [89] Cornwallis was immediately asked to return to India. One reform that Cornwallis had been unable to achieve was the harmonization of pay and rank between the military forces of the company and those of the Crown. Company officers of a given rank were generally paid better than those of a comparable rank in the Crown forces, and proposals to merge their pay scales were met with resistance that bordered on mutiny. The company directors asked Cornwallis to deal with this; he refused. [45] After serving for several years as the Master of the Ordnance, he was asked by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger to serve as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland as well as its Commander-in-Chief after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 broke out. [90] While the rebellion was mostly put down before his arrival, he oversaw the mopping of the remaining pockets of rebellion, and successfully defeated a French invasion intended to foment further rebellious activity.

[91] He then worked to secure the passage by the Irish Parliament of the 1800 Act of Union , which joined the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . [92] He resigned his posts when the king refused to support Catholic emancipation , which he viewed as a key element for securing an enduring peace in Ireland. [93] He was then engaged by the king in diplomatic efforts in Europe. Cornwallis led the British diplomatic team whose negotiations with Napoleon resulted in the 1802 Treaty of Amiens , with Cornwallis signing the treaty on behalf of King George. [94] Return to India Edit In the years since he left India, the company's reach and control over the country had increased significantly, mainly under the governorship of Lord Mornington . Wellesley had decisively defeated Tipu in 1799, and gained control, direct and indirect, over most of southern India. [95] In 1803 the company came into conflict with the Marathas, and Mornington began extending the company's reach further into the northern territories.

[96] His liberal spending and aggressive methods for dealing with the Marathas were not appreciated by the company's directors, and following military setbacks in 1804 and allegations of improprieties, the directors decided to replace him. [97] On 7 January 1805 Cornwallis was again appointed to the positions of Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of India; he described that after a difficult passage, he reached Madras on 19 July, and on 30 July he resumed his duties. William Hickey wrote that Cornwallis had become "a wreck of what he had been when formerly in Bengal", and another aide noted that "his constitution was less equal to contend against the effects of this climate". [98] In spite of declining health and mental faculties, Cornwallis began a trip by boat to visit army outposts northwest of Calcutta. On the journey he wrote to General Gerard Lake , then commanding the forces in the war with the Marathas, insisting that peace be made. [99] However, he never received Lake's answer.

When Cornwallis reached Ghazipur on 27 September, he was too ill to proceed further, and he died there a week later, on 5 October 1805. [100] Legacy Edit “ This monument, erected by the British inhabitants of Calcutta, attests their sense of those virtues which will live in the remembrance of grateful millions, long after it shall have mouldered into dust. ” —Inscription on Cornwallis mausoleum, Ghazipur [101] Biographers Franklin and Mary Wickwire note that Cornwallis's attitudes towards governance presaged the idea of responsible government that took hold in the United Kingdom in the 19th century. Later British administrators and the Indian Civil Service adopted his ideas of service by example, and service for the overall benefit of the population. [102] Historian Marguerite Wilbur called the era of Cornwallis and Mornington the Golden Age of British rule in India. [103] Cornwallis's grave at Ghazipur is marked by a mausoleum whose construction was begun in 1809.

Memorials were also erected in his honour in Bombay, Madras, and in Saint Paul's Cathedral in London. [104] In Calcutta, when Mornington greatly expanded the government facilities, the Town Hall included a statuary hall. In 1803, a sculpture begun by John Bacon and finished by his son John Bacon, Jr. was erected there in Cornwallis's honour. The sculpture now stands in the Victoria Memorial . [105] Notes

Question: Who preceded General Cornwallis as Governor-General of India?
Answer: WARREN HASTINGS