,text,id,label
0,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",0,0
1,"This was done by MERT optimization ( Och , 2003 ) towards post-edits under the TER target metric .",1,1
2,"She evaluates 3,000 German verbs with a token frequency between 10 and 2,000 against the Duden ( Dudenredaktion 2001 ) .",2,0
3,The following four components have been identified as the key elements of a question related to patient care ( Richardson et al. 1995 ) :,3,0
4,"Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) report on manually analyzing an open-class vocabulary of 35,000 head words for predicate subcategorization information and comparing the results against the subcategorization details in COMLEX .",4,2
5,This is roughly an 11 % relative reduction in error rate over Charniak ( 2000 ) and Bods PCFG-reduction reported in Table 1 .,5,2
6,"Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .",6,0
7,"We use the agreement checker code developed by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) and evaluate our baseline ( MaltParser using only CORE12 ) , best performing model ( Easy-First Parser using CORE12 + DET+LMM+PERSON+FN * NGR g + p ) , and the gold reference .",7,1
8,"The diagnoser , based on Dzikovska et al. ( 2008b ) , outputs a diagnosis which consists of lists of correct , contradictory and non-mentioned objects and relations from the student 's answer .",8,3
9,The formalization of DLRs provided by Meurers ( 1995 ) defines a formal lexical rule specification language and provides a semantics for that language in two steps : A rewrite system enriches the lexical rule specification into a fully explicit description of the kind shown in Figure 1 .,9,0
10,"Similar to our previous work ( Chan and Ng , 2005b ) , we used the supervised WSD approach described in ( Lee and Ng , 2002 ) for our experiments , using the naive Bayes algorithm as our classifier .",10,1
11,"Similar to ( Li et al. , 2013a ) , our summarization system is , which consists of three key components : an initial sentence pre-selection module to select some important sentence candidates ; the above compression model to generate n-best compressions for each sentence ; and then an ILP summarization method to select the best summary sentences from the multiple compressed sentences .",11,2
12,"The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) .",12,0
13,"transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 .",13,1
14,"But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .",14,4
15,each relevant document is retrieved ( Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto 1999 ) .,15,1
16,McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .,16,0
17,"This recognizer incrementally outputs word hypotheses as soon as they are found in the best-scored path in the forward search ( Hirasawa et al. , 1998 ) using the ISTAR ( Incremental Structure Transmitter And Receiver ) protocol , which conveys word graph information as well as word hypotheses .",17,0
18,"The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .",18,0
19,"We posit that this would not have a significant effect on the results , in particular for MML-based classification techniques , such as Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) .",19,0
20,"Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) showed how the perceptron algorithm can be used to efficiently compute the best parse with DOP1 's subtrees , reporting a 5.1 % relative reduction in error rate over the model in Collins ( 1999 ) on the WSJ .",20,0
21,"Tateisi et al. also translated LTAG into HPSG ( Tateisi et al. , 1998 ) .",21,2
22,"The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and",22,1
23,"The LM uses the monolingual data and is trained as a five-gram9 using the SRILM-Toolkit ( Stolcke , 2002 ) .",23,1
24,"There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .",24,0
25,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",25,2
26,"Secondly , the cooperative principle of Grice ( 1975 , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he should appeal only to the most direct knowledge of the reader .",26,4
27,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",27,0
28,"In this paper , inspired by KNN-SVM ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ) , we propose a local training method , which trains sentence-wise weights instead of a single weight , to address the above two problems .",28,4
29,"1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) .",29,2
30,"Samuelsson and Voutilainen ( 1997 ) report excellent part-of-speech tagging results using a handcrafted approach that is close to OT .3 More speculatively , imagine an OT grammar for stylistic revision of parsed sentences .",30,0
31,"Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .",31,0
32,"While many linguistic theories state subcategorization requirements in terms of phrase structure ( CFG categories ) , Dalrymple ( 2001 ) questions the viability and universality of such an approach because of the variety of ways in which grammatical functions may be realized at the language-specific constituent structure level .",32,0
33,"We are going to make such a comparison with the theories proposed by J. Hobbs ( 1979 , 1982 ) that represent a more computationally oriented approach to coherence , and those of T.A. van Dijk and W. Kintch ( 1983 ) , who are more interested in addressing psychological and cognitive aspects of discourse coherence .",33,2
34,"11 From ( Zollmann and Vogel , 2011 ) , we find that the performance of SAMT system is similar with the method of labeling SCFG rules with POS tags .",34,4
35,In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .,35,0
36,Gurevych ( 2006 ) observed that some annotators were not familiar with the exact definition of semantic relatedness .,36,4
37,"All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .",37,0
38,"Although originally developed as a tool to assist in query formulation , Booth ( 2000 ) pointed out that PICO frames can be employed to structure IR results for improving precision .",38,0
39,"There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .",39,0
40,"in history-based models ( Black et al. , 1993 ) , the probability estimate for each derivation decision di is conditioned on the previous derivation decisions d1 , ... , d , _ 1 , which is called the derivation history at step i .",40,1
41,The reader is referred to Meurers and Minnen ( 1996 ) for a more detailed discussion of our use of constraint propagation .32 We illustrate the result of constraint propagation with our example grammar .,41,0
42,"Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) .",42,0
43,"Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .",43,0
44,"We can define PCAT using a probabilistic grammar ( Garrette et al. , 2014 ) .",44,0
45,"It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) .",45,0
46,"The first is the one used in the chunking competition in CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",46,1
47,"There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ -",47,0
48,"For example , Gay et al. ( 2005 ) experimented with abstracts and full article texts in the task of automatically generating index term recommendations and discovered that using full article texts yields at most a 7.4 % improvement in F-score .",48,0
49,"The ten most specific nouns have been produced by comparing our corpus of computing to the French corpus Le Monde , composed of newspaper articles ( Lemay et al. , 2004 ) .",49,1
50,"Secondly , we need to investigate techniques for identifying identical documents , virtually identical documents and highly repetitive documents , such as those pioneered by Fletcher ( 2004b ) and shingling techniques described by Chakrabarti ( 2002 ) .",50,5
51,"Following the work of Stymne and Cancedda ( 2011 ) , we implement a linear-chain CRF merging system using the following features : stemmed ( separated ) surface form , part-of-speech14 and frequencies from the training corpus for bigrams/merging of word and word +1 , word as true prefix , word +1 as true suffix , plus frequency comparisons of these .",51,1
52,Manning ( 1993 ) attempts to improve on the approach of Brent ( 1993 ) by passing raw text through a stochastic tagger and a finite-state parser ( which includes a set of simple rules for subcategorization frame recognition ) in order to extract verbs and the constituents with which they co-occur .,52,0
53,"From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .",53,0
54,"Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .",54,0
55,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",55,0
56,"Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .",56,4
57,"They are widely used in MT as a way to figure out how to translate input in one language into output in another language ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) .",57,0
58,"Further details about the properties of entropy can be found in textbooks on information theory ( e.g. , Cover and Thomas 1991 ) .",58,0
59,"Dale and Reiter ( 1995 ) , for example , discussed the transcripts of a dialogue between people who assemble a piece of garden furniture ( originally recorded by Candy Sidner ) .",59,0
60,"Here , PV ( A ) represents an ascent direction chosen as follows : For inequality constraints , it is the projected gradient ( Bertsekas 1999 ) ; for equality constraints with slack , we use conjugate gradient ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) , noting that when A = 0 , the objective is not differentiable .",60,1
61,"Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .",61,4
62,"This idea was inspired by Delisle et al. ( 1993 ) , who used a list of arguments surrounding the main verb together with the verb 's subcategorization information and previously processed examples to analyse semantic roles ( case relations ) .",62,4
63,", `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin .",63,2
64,"While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .",64,0
65,"A parsing experiment shows that an efficient HPSG parser with the obtained grammar achieved a significant speed-up against an existing LTAG parser ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) .",65,2
66,"Features were discovered from the actual sentence plan trees that the SPG generated through the feature derivation process described below , in a manner similar to that used by Collins ( 2000 ) .",66,2
67,"Such questions are typically answered by designing appropriate priming experiments ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ) or other lexical decision tasks .",67,0
68,"The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .",68,2
69,Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .,69,0
70,"The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .",70,0
71,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",71,0
72,"Viewed in this way , gradable adjectives are an extreme example of the `` efficiency of language '' ( Barwise and Perry 1983 ) : Far from meaning something concrete like `` larger than 8 cm '' -- a concept that would have very limited applicability -- or even something more general like `` larger than the average N , '' a word like large is applicable across a wide range of different situations .",72,2
73,"However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .",73,0
74,"It is defined on different kinds of textual units , e.g. documents , parts of a document ( e.g. words and their surrounding context ) , words or concepts ( Lebart and Rajman , 2000 ) .2 Linguistic distance between words is inverse to their semantic similarity or relatedness .",74,0
75,"However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data Consortium , 2003 ) .",75,0
76,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",76,0
77,"Och and Ney ( 2002 ) introduced the log-linear model for statistical machine translation ( SMT ) , in which translation is considered as the following optimization problem :",77,0
78,"Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .",78,0
79,"For compound splitting , we follow Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) , using linguistic knowledge encoded in a rule-based morphological analyser and then selecting the best analysis based on the geometric mean of word part frequencies .",79,1
80,"Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) showed that the use of a POS factor only results in negligible BLEU improvements , but we need access to the POS in our inflection prediction models .",80,0
81,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",81,0
82,"We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) .",82,1
83,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",83,0
84,"It compares favorably to other stemming or root extraction algorithms ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ; Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ; and Houmame , 1999 ) , with a performance of over 97 % for extracting the correct root in web documents , and it addresses the challenge of the Arabic broken plural and hollow verbs .",84,4
85,"We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) and ( Chelba and Jelinek , 1998 ) .",85,5
86,"Clearly , what it takes for the adjective to be applicable has not been cast in stone , but is open to fiat : the speaker may decide that 8 cm is enough , or the speaker may set the standards higher ( cfXXX , Kennedy 1999 ) .",86,0
87,"Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .",87,4
88,"The PERSIVAL project , the most comprehensive study of such techniques applied on medical texts to date , leverages patient records to generate personalized summaries in response to physicians ' queries ( McKeown , Elhadad , and Hatzivassiloglou 2003 ; Elhadad et al. 2005 ) .",88,2
89,See Lopez and Resnik ( 2006 ) for further discussion .,89,0
90,"We gather similar words using Lin ( 1998a ) , mining similar verbs from a comparable-sized parsed corpus , and collecting similar nouns from a broader 10 GB corpus of English text .4 We also use Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) 's approach to obtaining web-counts .",90,1
91,"Thus , for example , it can acquire a `` script '' such as the one for going to a restaurant as defined in Schank and Abelson ( 1977 ) .",91,0
92,"ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .",92,0
93,There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in Biermann et al. ( 1984 ) and the PROLOG synthesis method of Shapiro ( 1982 ) .,93,2
94,"The system uses a domain-specific content planner to produce input to the surface realizer based on the strategy decision , and a FUF/SURGE ( Elhadad and Robin , 1992 ) generation system to produce the appropriate text .",94,1
95,"However , each of these fields requires further decoding and restructuring to provide client programs with easy access to the information they require ( see Calzolari ( 1984 ) for further discussion ) .",95,0
96,"Our results also confirm the insights gained by Blitzer et al. ( 2007 ) , who observed that in crossdomain polarity analysis adding more training data is not always beneficial .",96,2
97,"We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( Lessig , 2004 ) .",97,1
98,"It compares favorably to other stemming or root extraction algorithms ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ; Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ; and Houmame , 1999 ) , with a performance of over 97 % for extracting the correct root in web documents , and it addresses the challenge of the Arabic broken plural and hollow verbs .",98,4
99,"In a similar vein , Steyvers ( 2010 ) showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task .",99,0
100,"As ( Daelemans et al. , 1999 ) show , lexical information improves on NP and VP chunking as well .",100,5
101,"But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .",101,0
102,"In multi-party discussion people usually mention each other 's name for the purpose of disentanglement ( Elsner and Charniak , 2008 ) .",102,0
103,"Fortunately , indirect associations are usually not difficult to identify , because they tend to be weaker than the direct associations on which they are based ( Melamed , 1996c ) .",103,0
104,"The work of Sarkar ( 2001 ) and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing .",104,0
105,"TNT refers to the HPSG parser ( Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) , C++ implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs filtering with a compiled CFG ( phase 1 ) and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .",105,2
106,"1 ° The body of a plan can be an action or sequence of actions , a goal or sequence 9 Moore and Paris also note that `` a generation system must maintain the kinds of information outlined by Grosz and Sidner '' ( Moore and Paris 1989 , 203 ) .",106,0
107,"Surveys and articles on the topic include Lamarche and Retord ( 1996 ) , de Groote and Retord ( 1996 ) , and Morrill ( 1999 ) .",107,0
108,"Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums .",108,2
109,"The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ) .",109,2
110,"Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .",110,0
111,"Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .",111,0
112,"In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .",112,0
113,"Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .",113,0
114,"This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) .",114,2
115,"27 Briscoe and Copestake ( 1996 ) argue that semi-productivity of lexical rules , which can be understood as a generalization of exceptions to lexical rules , can be integrated with our approach by assigning probabilities to the automaton associated with a particular lexical entry .",115,0
116,"Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( Ward and Litman , 2006 ) .",116,5
117,"These automatic transformations are based on linguistic rules ( Bohmova , 2001 ) .",117,1
118,"• Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .",118,2
119,"In comparison , the tag set of the Buckwalter Morphological Analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) used in the PATB has a core POS set of 44 tags ( CORE44 ) before morphological extension .8 Cross-linguistically , a core set containing around 12 tags is often",119,2
120,"• use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , • use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , • a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , • a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , • implementation of new types of paraphrasing , • checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and • examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns .",120,5
121,"Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) present detailed studies on the task of named entity recognition , which discusses and compares different methods on multiple aspects including chunk representation , inference method , utility of non-local features , and integration of external knowledge .",121,0
122,"mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance .",122,0
123,"Cases like this would be covered if the decision-theoretic property of Pareto optimality ( e.g. , Feldman 1980 ) was used as the sole criterion : Formally , an object r E C has a Pareto-optimal combination of Values V iff there is no other x E C such that",123,0
124,A formula for the test set perplexity ( Lee 1989 ) is :13,124,0
125,"This method follows a traditional Information Retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a query is represented by the content terms it contains , and the system retrieves from the corpus a set of documents that best match this query .",125,1
126,Table 1 gives the interpretations of eight adjective-noun combinations discussed in Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and Vendler ( 1968 ) .,126,1
127,"The Penn Treebank results reported here for the Markov model approach are at least equivalent to those reported for the Maximum Entropy approach in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) .",127,2
128,"Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) , by comparison , employ 163 distinct predefined frames .",128,0
129,"Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) .",129,5
130,"fθ on demand ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ) can pay off here , since only part of fθ may be needed subsequently . )",130,0
131,"An approach ( also based on regulation of the succession of rule application ) to the associated problem of spurious ambiguity is given in Hepple and Morrill ( 1989 ) but again , to our knowledge , there is no predictive relation between incremental combinatory processing and the kind of processing phenomena cited in the introduction .",131,0
132,This equivalence is doing essentially the same job as Pereira 's pronoun abstraction schema in Pereira ( 1990 ) .,132,2
133,"Finally , we experiment with a method for combining phrase tables proposed in ( Nakov and Ng , 2009 ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) .",133,1
134,"Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .",134,2
135,"For the cases where retrieval took place , we used F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) to determine the similarity between the response from the top-ranked document and the real response ( the formulas for F-score and its contributing factors , recall and precision , appear in Section 4.2 ) .",135,1
136,"These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) .",136,2
137,"This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) .",137,0
138,"The list , a synthesis of a number of relation lists cited in the literature , has been designed to be general , domainindependent ( Barker et al. , 1997a ) .",138,4
139,"Unlike our approach , those of Xia ( 1999 ) and Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2004 ) include a substantial initial correction and clean-up of the Penn-II trees .",139,2
140,"2The algorithm was implemented by the the authors , following the description in Hepple ( 2000 ) .",140,1
141,"Our motivation for generation of material for language education exists in work such as Sumita et al. ( 2005 ) and Mostow and Jang ( 2012 ) , which deal with automatic generation of classic fill in the blank questions .",141,4
142,"In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .",142,0
143,"Many researchers use the GIZA + + software package ( Och and Ney 2003 ) as a black box , selecting IBM Model 4 as a compromise between alignment quality and efficiency .",143,0
144,"Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .",144,0
145,"Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .",145,0
146,"One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) .",146,0
147,"Models of translational equivalence that are ignorant of indirect associations have `` a tendency ... to be confused by collocates '' ( Dagan et al. , 1993 ) .",147,0
148,"Note that although our feature set was drawn primarily from our prior uncertainty detection experiments ( Forbes-Riley and Litman , 2011a ; Drummond and Litman , 2011 ) , we have also experimented with other features , including state-of-theart acoustic-prosodic features used in the last Interspeech Challenges ( Schuller et al. , 2010 ; Schuller et al. , 2009b ) and made freely available in the openSMILE Toolkit ( Florian et al. , 2010 ) .",148,3
149,"For this mention-pair coreference model φ ( u , v ) , we use the same set of features used in Bengtson and Roth ( 2008 ) .",149,1
150,"Compared to the reranking technique in Collins ( 2000 ) , who obtained an LP of 89.9 % and an LR of 89.6 % , our results show a 9 % relative error rate reduction .",150,2
151,"The paper compares and contrasts the training time needed and performance achieved by our modified learner with two other systems : a standard transformation-based learner , and the ICA system ( Hepple , 2000 ) .",151,2
152,"There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .",152,0
153,"It projects a functional head , voice ( Kratzer , 1994 ) , whose specifier is the external argument .",153,0
154,"Finite state transducers , which can be learned from bilingual corpora , have been proposed for automatic translation ( Amengual et al. , 2000 ) , as have been bilingual stochastic grammars ( Wu , 1996 ) .",154,0
155,"This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B ¨ ohmov ´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( Dˇzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively .",155,2
156,"3 The degree of precision of the measurement ( James et al. 1996 , Section 1.5 ) determines which objects can be described by the GRE algorithm , since it determines which objects count as having the same size .",156,0
157,"There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) .",157,0
158,"Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .",158,0
159,"SWIZZLE is a multilingual enhancement of COCKTAIL ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) , a coreference resolution system that operates on a mixture of heuristics that combine semantic and textual cohesive information ' .",159,3
160,"( Davis and Ogden , 1997 ; Ballesteros and Croft , 1997 ; Hull and ( 3refenstette , 1996 ) .",160,2
161,"de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .",161,0
162,"Fung and McKeown ( 1997 ) attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora .",162,0
163,"The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .",163,2
164,"Each component will return a confidence measure of the reliability of its prediction , c.f. ( Elworthy , 1998 ) .",164,4
165,"In fact , most of the features3 implemented in existing coreference resolution systems rely solely on mention heads ( Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) .",165,0
166,"The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .",166,2
167,"In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .",167,0
168,"This conception of lexical rules thus can be understood as underlying the computational approach that treats lexical rules as unary phrase structure rules as , for example , adopted in the LKB system ( Copestake 1992 ) .",168,0
169,"Typical letter-to-sound rule sets are those described by Ainsworth ( 1973 ) , McIlroy ( 1973 ) , Elovitz et al. ( 1976 ) , Hurmicutt ( 1976 ) , and Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) .",169,0
170,"Venables and Ripley ( 1994 ) describe an efficient algorithm ( of linear complexity in the number of training sentences ) for computing the LDA transform matrix , which entails computing the withinand between-covariance matrices of the classes , and using Singular Value Decomposition ( SVD ) to compute the eigenvectors of the new space .",170,1
171,"For better comparison with work of others , we adopt the suggestion made by Green and Manning ( 2010 ) to evaluate the parsing quality on sentences up to 70 tokens long .",171,1
172,"Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .",172,0
173,"Differently , Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) designed a sampler to infer an STSG by fixing the tree structure and exploring the space of alignment .",173,4
174,"They use a Bag of Visual Words ( BoVW ) model ( Lowe , 2004 ) to create a bimodal vocabulary describing documents .",174,0
175,W. Labov ( 1973 ) discussed sentences of the form * This is a chair but you can sit on it .,175,0
176,"This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) .",176,0
177,"The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .",177,2
178,"Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .",178,0
179,"In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .",179,0
180,"More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature",180,0
181,"In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .",181,0
182,"Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .",182,0
183,The third version ( VOYAGER ) serves as an interface both with a recognizer and with a functioning database back-end ( Zue et al. 1990 ) .,183,1
184,"We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( Hall , 2007 ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper .",184,1
185,"As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .",185,0
186,"For example , McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) describe a machine learning approach to automatically label sentences as belonging to introduction , methods , results , or conclusion using structured abstracts as training data ( see also Lin et al. 2006 ) .",186,0
187,"• Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( Nivre and Nilsson , 2005 ) .",187,1
188,Klein and Manning ( 2002 ) 's CCM is an unlabeled bracketing model that generates the span of part-of-speech tags that make up each constituent and the pair of tags surrounding each constituent span ( as well as the spans and contexts of each non-constituent ) .,188,0
189,"This process produces a hierarchical clustering of the word types in the corpus , and these clusterings have been found useful in many applications ( Ratinov and Roth , 2009 ; Koo et al. , 2008 ; Miller et al. , 2004 ) .",189,4
190,"Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) .",190,0
191,"Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) .",191,0
192,1 The representation in Mohri and Pereira ( 1998 ) is even more compact than ours for grammars that are not self-embedding .,192,2
193,29 This improvement of the covariation encoding can also be viewed as an instance of the program transformation technique referred to as deletion of clauses with a finitely failed body ( Pettorossi and Proietti 1994 ) .,193,2
194,"The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) .",194,3
195,"Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .",195,2
196,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",196,0
197,"In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",197,0
198,"Here 11 is an optimization precision , oc is a step size chosen with the strong Wolfe 's rule ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) .",198,1
199,"See ( Gomez , 1998 ) for a discussion .",199,0
200,"Figure 2 ( a ) shows the frame-based semantic representation for the utterance `` What time is Analyze This playing 2 See ( Nakatani and Chu-Carroll , 2000 ) for how MIMIC 's dialoguelevel knowledge is used to override default prosodic assignments for concept-to-speech generation .",200,0
201,"For Berkeley system , we use the reported results from Durrett and Klein ( 2014 ) .",201,2
202,"Instead , we will adopt the nomenclature of the Automatic Content Extraction program ( NIST , 2004 ) : we will call the instances of textual references to objects/abstractions mentions , which can be either named ( e.g. John Mayor ) , nominal ( the president ) or pronominal ( she , it ) .",202,1
203,"Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) .",203,5
204,"In the areas of Natural Language Processing ( NLP ) and computational linguistics , proposals have been made for using the computational Grid for data-intensive NLP and text-mining for eScience ( Carroll et al. , 2005 ; Hughes et al , 2004 ) .",204,0
205,Ingria ( 1984 ) comprehensively compares different approaches to complementation within grammatical theory providing a touchstone against which the LDOCE scheme can be evaluated .,205,2
206,"To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) , Xue ( 2008 ) .",206,2
207,"The obtained SCFG is further used in a phrase-based and hierarchical phrase-based system ( Chiang , 2007 ) .",207,2
208,32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation .,208,0
209,"Blunsom et al. ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) utilized Bayesian methods to learn synchronous context free grammars ( SCFG ) from a parallel corpus .",209,2
210,"Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .",210,0
211,"In addition to the model based upon a dictionary of stems and words , we also experimented with models based upon character n-grams , similar to those used for Chinese segmentation ( Sproat et al. , 1996 ) .",211,2
212,"Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .",212,0
213,"Due to using a global model like CRFs , our previous work in ( Zhao et al. , 2006 ; Zhao and Kit , 2008c ) reported the best results over the evaluated corpora of Bakeoff-2 until now7 .",213,2
214,"As already mentioned in the literature , see for example ( Lapata and Lascarides , 2003 ) , knowledge about implicit predicates could be potentially useful for a variety of NLP tasks such as language generation , information extraction , question answering or machine translation .",214,0
215,We use the Columbia Arabic Treebank ( CATiB ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .,215,1
216,"This problem may be similar to the situation in which current formal grammars allow nonsensical but parsable collections of words ( e.g. , `` colorless green ideas ... '' ) , while before the advent of Chomskyan formalisms , a sentence was defined as the smallest meaningful collection of words ; Fowler ( 1965 , p. 546 ) gives 10 definitions of a sentence .",216,0
217,"Another technique for making better use of unlabeled data is cotraining ( Blum and Mitchell 1998 ) , in which two sufficiently different learners help each other learn by labeling training data for one another .",217,0
218,"For example , modeling CASE in Czech improves Czech parsing ( Collins et al. 1999 ) : CASE is relevant , not redundant , and can be predicted with sufficient accuracy .",218,4
219,"Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .",219,0
220,"Following our previous work ( Karamanis and Manurung 2002 ; Althaus , Karamanis , and Koller 2004 ) , the input to information ordering is an unordered set of informationbearing items represented as CF lists .",220,3
221,"There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .",221,0
222,"This situation suggests a response-automation approach that follows the document retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a new request is matched with existing response documents ( e-mails ) .",222,0
223,"All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .",223,0
224,"This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) .",224,2
225,"We have noted that many of these desiderata make complex question answering quite similar to multi-document summarization ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005b ) , but these features are also beyond the capabilities of current summarization systems .",225,2
226,"Perlmutter and Soames , 1979:472 ) , but these are the only ones which are explicit in the LDOCE coding system .",226,0
227,"This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .",227,0
228,"These constructs correspond as directly as possible to properties of the linguistic structure that express them and are , to as small an extent as possible , dependent on the requirements of contextual resolution ( unlike , say , the metavariables of standard QLFs [ Alshawi and Crouch 1992 ] , or the labels of UDRS [ Reyle 1996 ] , which are motivated entirely by the mechanisms that operate on them after grammatical processing ) .",228,0
229,"Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .",229,0
230,"Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .",230,0
231,"An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) .",231,0
232,"Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .",232,0
233,"The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .",233,2
234,"Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection .",234,0
235,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",235,0
236,Berstel and Reutenauer ( 1988 ) give a sufficiently general finite-state framework to allow this : weights may fall in any set K ( instead of R ) .,236,1
237,"FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism .",237,0
238,"There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; Pirkola , 1998 ; Hull 1997 ) .",238,2
239,"12 In order to focus on the computational aspects of the covariation approach , in this paper we will not go into a discussion of the full lexical rule specification language introduced in Meurers ( 1995 ) .",239,0
240,"Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .",240,4
241,"This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .",241,2
242,"We performed translation experiments with an implementation of the IBM-4 translation model ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) .",242,1
243,"In this paper , a flexible annotation schema called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) ( Boitet & Zaharin , 1988 ) will be introduced to capture a natural language text , its corresponding abstract linguistic representation and the mapping ( correspondence ) between these two .",243,0
244,"For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) .",244,0
245,"For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around .",245,1
246,"More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) .",246,0
247,Tbahriti et al. ( 2006 ) have demonstrated that differential weighting of automatically labeled sections can lead to improved retrieval performance .,247,0
248,"The one-sided t-test ( Hull , 1993 ) at significance level 0.05 indicated that the improvement on Trec5C is not statistically significant .",248,1
249,"mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance .",249,0
250,It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .,250,0
251,"The framework was originally developed for the realization of deep-syntactic structures in NLG ( Lavoie and Rambow , 1997 ) .",251,0
252,"These features are very much desired in the design of an annotation scheme , in particular for the treatment of linguistic phenomena , which are non-standard , e.g. crossed dependencies ( Tang & Zaharin , 1995 ) .",252,0
253,"Few approaches to parsing have tried to handle disfluent utterances ( notable exceptions are Core & Schubert , 1999 ; Hindle , 1983 ; Nakatani & Hirschberg , 1994 ; Shriberg , Bear , & Dowding , 1992 ) .",253,0
254,5 The open source Moses ( Hoang et al. 2007 ) toolkit from www.statmt.org/moses/ .,254,1
255,"There have been several efforts aimed at developing a domain-independent method for generating responses from a frame representation of user requests ( Bobrow et al. , 1977 ; Chu-Carroll , 1999 ) .",255,5
256,"The maximum entropy approach ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) presents a powerful framework for the combination of several knowledge sources .",256,1
257,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",257,1
258,We then use the program Snob ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) to cluster these experiences .,258,1
259,"However , studies have shown that existing systems for searching MEDLINE ( such as PubMed , the search service provided by the National Library of Medicine ) are often inadequate and unable to supply clinically relevant answers in a timely manner ( Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Chambliss and Conley 1996 ) .",259,0
260,"Our implementation of the NP-based QA system uses the Empire noun phrase finder , which is described in detail in Cardie and Pierce ( 1998 ) .",260,1
261,"For all the experiments reported in this article , we used the training portion of PATB Part 3 v3 .1 ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , converted to the CATiB Treebank format , as mentioned in Section 2.5 .",261,1
262,"In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( Galley et al. , 2004 ; Misra and Walker , 2013 ) .",262,4
263,"All communicative head gestures in the videos were found and annotated with ANVIL using a subset of the attributes defined in the MUMIN annotation scheme ( Allwood et al. , 2007 ) .",263,1
264,"Specifically , we examine the strength of association between the verb and the noun constituent of a combination ( the target expression or its lexical variants ) as an indirect cue to its idiomaticity , an approach inspired by Lin ( 1999 ) .",264,4
265,"The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .",265,2
266,"More recently , an alignment selection approach was proposed in ( Huang , 2009 ) , which computes confidence scores for each link and prunes the links from multiple sets of alignments using a hand-picked threshold .",266,2
267,Lin ( 1998 ) for example discusses a method where a syntactic parse of the text is performed and the context of a word is modeled using dependency triples .,267,0
268,"A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .",268,0
269,"The strategies employed when MIMIC has only dialogue initiative are similar to the mixed initiative dialogue strategies employed by many existing spoken dialogue systems ( e.g. , ( Bennacef et at. , 1996 ; Stent et al. , 1999 ) ) .",269,2
270,"7A11 our results are computed with the evalb program following the now-standard criteria in ( Collins , 1999 ) .",270,1
271,"We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .",271,2
272,"results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En → Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) .",272,1
273,"The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) .",273,1
274,"Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .",274,0
275,"For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .",275,5
276,"Word alignments are used primarily for extracting minimal translation units for machine translation ( MT ) ( e.g. , phrases [ Koehn , Och , and Marcu 2003 ] and rules [ Galley et al. 2004 ; Chiang et al. 2005 ] ) as well as for",276,0
277,"Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .",277,0
278,"We have also applied our more general unification grammar acquisition methodology to the TIGER Treebank ( Brants et al. 2002 ) and Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue , Chiou , and Palmer 2002 ) , extracting wide-coverage , probabilistic LFG grammar",278,1
279,"We use the structures previously used by Nguyen et al. ( 2009 ) , and propose one new structure .",279,1
280,"Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .",280,2
281,"A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .",281,0
282,"Towards this aim , a flexible annotation structure called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) was introduced in Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) to record the string of terms , its associated representation structure and the mapping between the two , which is expressed by the sub-correspondences recorded as part of a SSTC .",282,0
283,We have built an experimental text-to-speech system that uses our analysis of prosody to generate phrase boundaries for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .,283,1
284,"In this paper , I present a computational implementation of Distributed Morphology ( Halle and Marantz , 1993 ) , a non-lexicalist linguistic theory that erases the distinction between syntactic derivation and morphological derivation .",284,1
285,"Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .",285,2
286,Subsequent processing by the natural language and response generation components was done automatically by the computer ( Zue et al. 1989 ) .,286,1
287,"This is implemented as a cascade of simple strategies , which were briefly described in Mikheev ( 1999 ) .",287,1
288,"But , obviously , there are other possibilities -- for instance , the discourse representation structures ( DRS 's ) of Kamp ( 1981 ) , which have been used to translate a subset of English into logical formulas , to model text ( identified with a list of sentences ) , to analyze a fragment of English , and to deal with anaphora .",288,2
289,"Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training .",289,5
290,"Intermedia is no more developed and nobody of us had the opportunity to try it ( Landow , 1994 ) .",290,0
291,"Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( Choueka , 1990 ; J ¨ appinen and Niemist ¨ o , 1988 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved .",291,0
292,"ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .",292,0
293,"Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .",293,0
294,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",294,0
295,"We also made use of the person-name/instance pairs automatically extracted by Fleischman et al. ( 2003 ) .2 This data provides counts for pairs such as `` Edwin Moses , hurdler '' and `` William Farley , industrialist . ''",295,1
296,Al-Adhaileh and Tang ( 2001 ) presented an approach for constructing a BKB based on the S-SSTC .,296,0
297,"However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .",297,0
298,"Also , advanced methods often require many training iterations , for example active learning ( Dagan and Engelson ,1995 ) and co-training ( Blum and Mitchell , 1998 ) .",298,0
299,"Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks .",299,3
300,"It can be shown ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) that the use of this model with maximum likelihood parameter estimation is justified on information-theoretic grounds when q represents some prior knowledge about the true distribution and when the expected values of f in the training corpus are identical to their true expected values .3 There is no requirement that the components of f represent disjoint or statistically independent events .",300,4
301,"Shortly after the publication of The Sound Pattern of English ( Chomsky and Halle 1968 ) , Kornai points out , `` Johnson ( 1970 ) demonstrated that the context-sensitive machinery of SPE ... [ could ] be replaced by a much simpler one , based on finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) ; the same conclusion was reached independently by Kaplan and Kay , whose work remained an underground classic until it was finally published in Kaplan and Kay ( 1994 ) . ''",301,0
302,"18 In this article , we use a newer version of the corpus by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) than the one we used in Marton , Habash , and Rambow ( 2011 ) .",302,1
303,Atallah et al. ( 2001b ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) attained the embedding capacity of 0.5 bits per sentence with the syntactic transformation method .,303,0
304,"Another possibility that often works better is to use Minimum Bayes-Risk ( MBR ) decoding ( Kumar and Byrne 2002 ; Liang , Taskar , and Klein 2006 ; Ganchev , and Taskar 2007 ) .",304,1
305,The subcategorization requirements expressed by semantic forms are enforced at f-structure level through completeness and coherence well-formedness conditions on f-structure ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ) : An f-structure is locally complete iff it contains all the governable grammatical functions that its predicate governs .,305,0
306,"This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .",306,0
307,"Following the example of Landow ( 1994 ) , we will call the autonomous units of a hypertext lexias ( from ` lexicon ' ) , a word coined by Roland Barthes ( 1970 ) .",307,1
308,( Chomsky 1977 ) .,308,0
309,"We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( Pang et al. , 2002 ; Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) .",309,1
310,"Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic .",310,0
311,"Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) .",311,0
312,Petrov et al. ( 2010 ) observed that dependency parsers tend to do quite poorly when parsing questions due to their limited exposure to them in the news corpora from the PennTreebank .,312,2
313,"Lin ( 1998a ) 's similar word list for eat misses these but includes sleep ( ranked 6 ) and sit ( ranked 14 ) , because these have similar subjects to eat .",313,0
314,"• Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) • Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) • Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) • Localization ( Sch ¨ aler 1996 )",314,0
315,"For example , a ` web page ' is more similar to an infinite canvas than a written page ( McCloud , 2001 ) .",315,0
316,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",316,1
317,"2This view of typed feature structures differs from the perspective on typed feature structures as modeling partial information as in ( Carpenter , 1992 ) .",317,0
318,This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions .,318,2
319,"This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B ¨ ohmov ´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( Dˇzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively .",319,2
320,"LTAG ( Schabes et al. , 1988 ) is a grammar formalism that provides syntactic analyses for a sentence by composing elementary trees with two opera -",320,0
321,"Translations have been generated by the CrowdFlower3 channel to Amazon Mechanical Turk4 ( MTurk ) , adopting the methodology proposed by ( Negri and Mehdad , 2010 ) .",321,1
322,"This work is a continuation of that initiated in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) , which reports an overall NB classification correctness of 75.6 % , in cross validation experiments , on a data set that consists of 100 documents for each of 12 categories ( the data set is collected from different Arabic portals ) .",322,3
323,"Our previous work ( Zhai et al. , 2012 ) designed an EMbased method to construct unsupervised trees for tree-based translation models .",323,2
324,"Then , we binarize the English parse trees using the head binarization approach ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) and use the resulting binary parse trees to build another s2t system .",324,1
325,"This is the strongest version of the sorites paradox ( e.g. , Hyde 2002 ) .",325,0
326,"We used a standard implementation of IBM Model 4 ( Och and Ney 2003 ) and because changing the existing code is not trivial , we could not use the same stopping criterion to avoid overfitting and we are not able to produce precision/recall curves .",326,1
327,"Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( Dagan and Glickman , 2004 ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T .",327,0
328,"Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( Kate and Mooney , 2007 ) .",328,0
329,"For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .",329,5
330,"Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .",330,0
331,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",331,1
332,"Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too .",332,0
333,"Since mid-2002 , the Library has been employing software that automatically suggests MeSH headings based on content ( Aronson et al. 2004 ) .",333,0
334,"Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) .",334,0
335,"Also , the Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) approach will be undefined if the pair is unobserved on the web .",335,1
336,"The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) .",336,2
337,"We measure this association using pointwise Mutual Information ( MI ) ( Church and Hanks , 1990 ) .",337,1
338,"Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) .",338,0
339,"There are two corpora normally used for evaluation in a number of text-processing tasks : the Brown corpus ( Francis and Kucera 1982 ) and the Wall Street Journal ( WSJ ) corpus , both part of the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Marcinkiewicz , and Santorini 1993 ) .",339,1
340,or quotation of messages in emails or postings ( see Mullen and Malouf ( 2006 ) but cfXXX Agrawal et al. ( 2003 ) ) .,340,0
341,Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) extend LDA to allow for the inference of document and topic distributions in a multimodal corpus .,341,0
342,"SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .",342,1
343,"The search algorithm is the standard Viterbi search ( Viterbi 1967 ) , except that the match involves a network-to-network alignment problem rather than sequence-to-sequence .",343,1
344,"Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) .",344,0
345,7 We employed the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin 2001 ) .,345,1
346,"coreference performance on perfect mentions ( e.g. , Incorporate the two knowledge sources in a Luo et al. ( 2004 ) ) ; and for those that do report percoreference resolver .",346,2
347,"According to Hobbs ( 1979 , p. 67 ) , these two sentences are incoherent .",347,2
348,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",348,0
349,Another dialogue acquisition system has been developed by Ho ( 1984 ) .,349,2
350,Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .,350,0
351,1Our rules are similar to those from Xu et al. ( 2009 ) .,351,2
352,"In psycholinguistics , relatedness of words can also be determined through association tests ( Schulte im Walde and Melinger , 2005 ) .",352,0
353,"In this article , we use an in-house system which provides functional gender , number , and rationality features ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .",353,1
354,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",354,0
355,"The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",355,0
356,Several authors in communication studies have pointed out that head movements are relevant to feedback phenomena ( see McClave ( 2000 ) for an overview ) .,356,0
357,"Our method resorts to some translation examples , which is similar as example-based translation or translation memory ( Watanabe and Sumita , 2003 ; He et al. , 2010 ; Ma et al. , 2011 ) .",357,2
358,"Baseline Systems We choose three publicly available state-of-the-art end-to-end coreference systems as our baselines : Stanford system ( Lee et al. , 2011 ) , Berkeley system ( Durrett and Klein , 2014 ) and HOTCoref system ( Bj ¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) .",358,2
359,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",359,2
360,"As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .",360,0
361,"Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .",361,0
362,"From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .",362,0
363,"There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .",363,0
364,This revalidates the observation of Nguyen et al. ( 2009 ) that phrase structure representations and dependency representations add complimentary value to the learning task .,364,2
365,The parsing algorithm used for all languages is the deterministic algorithm first proposed for unlabeled dependency parsing by Nivre ( 2003 ) and extended to labeled dependency parsing by Nivre et al. ( 2004 ) .,365,1
366,The semantic categories of verbs and other words are extracted from the Semantic Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese ( Wang et al. 2003 ) .,366,1
367,"Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( Schabes and Waters 1993 ; Hwa 1998 ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) .",367,1
368,"6 The Partial-VP Topicalization Lexical Rule proposed by Hinrichs and Nakazawa ( 1994 , 10 ) is a linguistic example .",368,0
369,"We measure the inter annotator agreement using the Fleiss Kappa ( Fleiss et al. , 1981 ) measure ( x ) where the agreement lies around 0.79 .",369,1
370,The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by Pereira et al. ( 1993 ) and Rooth et al. ( 1999 ) .,370,2
371,"Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .",371,0
372,"It is not aimed at handling dependencies , which require heavy use of lexical information ( Hindle and Rooth , 1993 , for PP attachment ) .",372,2
373,"This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks .",373,0
374,"I A more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found in ( Minnen , 1998 ) .",374,0
375,Our experimental design with professional bilingual translators follows our previous work Green et al. ( 2013a ) comparing scratch translation to post-edit .,375,3
376,Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .,376,0
377,"Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .",377,0
378,"Previously , a user study ( Lin et al. 2003 ) has shown that people are reluctant to type full natural language questions , even after being told that they were using a questionanswering system and that typing complete questions would result in better performance .",378,2
379,"We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( Beun and Cremers 1998 , Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .",379,0
380,"In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) .",380,1
381,"The third approach to cross-lingual retrieval is to map queries and documents to some intermediate representation , e.g latent semantic indexing ( LSI ) ( Littman et al , 1998 ) , or the General Vector space model ( GVSM ) , ( Carbonell et al , 1997 ) .",381,2
382,"Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI .",382,0
383,"The keypoints are clustered into 5,000 visual codewords ( centroids ) using k-means clustering ( Sculley , 2010 ) , and images are then quantized over the 5,000 codewords .",383,1
384,Another approach for partial parsing was presented by Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) .,384,0
385,"In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , Tetreault ( 2001 ) ) .",385,0
386,"The application of domain models and deep semantic knowledge to question answering has been explored by a variety of researchers ( e.g. , Jacquemart and Zweigenbaum 2003 , Rinaldi et al. 2004 ) , and was also the focus of recent workshops on question answering in restricted domains at ACL 2004 and AAAI 2005 .",386,0
387,"This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .",387,2
388,"Cases of intracategorial synonymy are relatively straigthtforward as several electronic synonym dictionnaries for french are available ( Ploux , 1997 ) .",388,0
389,"The feature of head word trigger which we apply to the log-linear model is motivated by the trigger-based approach ( Hasan and Ney , 2009 ) .",389,4
390,"Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .",390,0
391,"based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) .",391,1
392,"No attempt has been made to map any closed class entries from LDOCE , as a 3,000 word lexicon containing most closed class items has been developed independently by one of the groups collaborating with us to develop the general purpose morphological and syntactic analyser ( see the Introduction and Russell et al. , 1986 ) .",392,0
393,In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .,393,0
394,"Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .",394,0
395,"We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .",395,2
396,"Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .",396,0
397,"In future work we plan to experiment with richer representations , e.g. including long-range n-grams ( Rosenfeld , 1996 ) , class n-grams ( Brown et al. , 1992 ) , grammatical features ( Amaya and Benedy , 2001 ) , etc ' .",397,5
398,"Furthermore , we demonstrate that our results carry over successfully to another parser , the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) ( Section 6 ) .",398,1
399,"For instance , relating `` they '' to `` apples '' in the sentence ( cfXXX Haugeland 1985 p. 195 ; Zadrozny 1987a ) : We bought the boys apples because they were so cheap",399,0
400,"We follow our previous work ( Dickinson et al. , 2010 ) in our feature choices , using a fiveword window that includes the target stem and two words on either side for context ( see also Tetreault and Chodorow , 2008 ) .",400,3
401,"Adjectives , more than other categories , are a striking example of regular polysemy since they are able to take on different meanings depending on their context , viz. , the noun or noun class they modify ( see Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and the references therein ) .",401,0
402,"According to Dalrymple ( 2001 ) , LFG assumes the following universally available inventory of grammatical functions : SUBJ ( ect ) , OBJ ( ect ) , OBJe , COMP , XCOMP , OBL ( ique ) e , ADJ ( unct ) , XADJ .",402,0
403,"But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .",403,4
404,4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gerdemann 1995 ) .,404,0
405,"Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .",405,2
406,"There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) .",406,0
407,"For instance , implementing an efficient version of the MXPOST POS tagger ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) will simply involve composing and configuring the appropriate text file reading component , with the sequential tagging component , the collection of feature extraction components and the maximum entropy model component .",407,5
408,"cue word and name the first ( or several ) associated words that come to mind ( e.g. , Nelson et al. ( 2004 ) ) , and feature norms , where subjects are given a cue word and asked to describe typical properties of the cue concept ( e.g. , McRae et al. ( 2005 ) ) .",408,0
409,Hirschberg and Litman ( 1987 ) and Litman and Hirschberg ( 1990 ) also examine the relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing .,409,0
410,Sarkar and Zeman ( 2000 ) evaluate 914 Czech verbs against a custom-made gold standard and record a token recall of 88 % .,410,2
411,We use two measures from Information Retrieval to determine the quality of an automatically generated response : precision and F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) .,411,1
412,"The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) .",412,2
413,Xue and Palmer ( 2004 ) did very encouraging work on the feature calibration of semantic role labeling .,413,0
414,"This approach , which uses words that appear in the context of terms to formulate hypotheses on their semantic relatedness ( Habert et al. , 1996 , for example ) , does not specify the relationship itself .",414,0
415,"And ( Glickman and Dagan , 2003 ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts .",415,0
416,"Not having to represent the frame explicitly not only enables the linguist to express only the relevant things , but also allows a more compact representation of lexical rules where explicit framing would require the rules to be split up ( Meurers 1994 ) .",416,0
417,"There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .",417,0
418,"Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G ¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .",418,0
419,"To sum up , this work has been carried out to automatically classify Arabic documents using the NB algorithm , with the use of a different data set , a different number of categories , and a different root extraction algorithm from those used in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) .",419,2
420,"Our work builds on earlier research on learning to identify dialogues in which the user experienced poor speech recognizer performance ( Litman et al. , 1999 ) .",420,3
421,CCGBank ( Hockenmaier and Steedman 2007 ) is used to train the model .,421,1
422,"More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .",422,0
423,"Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .",423,0
424,"To address this issue , we use a version of the PATB3 training and dev sets manually annotated with functional gender , number , and rationality ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2011 ) .18 This is the first resource providing all three features ( ElixirFm only provides functional number , and to some extent functional gender ) .",424,1
425,"One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) .",425,0
426,"Narrative writings or essays are creative works and they generally treat ownership as authorship , even for the most enthusiastic fellows of free culture ( Stallman , 2001 ) .",426,0
427,"McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) .",427,0
428,"According to current tagger comparisons ( van Halteren et al. , 1998 ; Zavrel and Daelemans , 1999 ) , and according to a comparsion of the results presented here with those in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) , the Maximum Entropy framework seems to be the only other approach yielding comparable results to the one presented here .",428,2
429,"Similar findings have been proposed by Pandharipande ( 1993 ) that points out V1 and V2 are paired on the basis of their semantic compatibility , which is subject to syntactic constraints .",429,0
430,The first lexical substitution method was proposed by Chapman and Davida ( 1997 ) .,430,0
431,"This can be a hazardous affair , since vague expressions tend to be interpreted in different ways by different people ( Toogood 1980 ) , sometimes in stark contrast with the intention of the speaker/writer ( Berry , Knapp , and Raynor 2002 ) .",431,0
432,"We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .",432,2
433,"Hermann and Deutsch ( 1976 ; also reported in Levelt 1989 ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking .",433,0
434,"Nevertheless , recent results show that knowledge-poor methods perform with amazing accuracy ( cfXXX ( Mitkov , 1998 ) , ( Kennedy and Boguraev , 1996 ) ( Kameyama , 1997 ) ) .",434,0
435,"Notice that it is not possible to use corpus annotation to determine the likelihood of a given property to be chosen , unless we know in advance all of the properties that can be attributed to a given object , as in the case of Jordan 's work on the COCONUT domain ( Jordan , 2000 ) .",435,0
436,"Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .",436,0
437,Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) .,437,0
438,"Tetreault 's contribution features comparative evaluation involving the author 's own centering-based pronoun resolution algorithm called the Left-Right Centering algorithm ( LRC ) as well as three other pronoun resolution methods : Hobbs 's naive algorithm ( Hobbs 1978 ) , BFP ( Brennan , Friedman , and Pollard 1987 ) , and Strube 's 5list approach ( Strube 1998 ) .",438,0
439,"Lapalme and Kosseim ( 2003 ) investigated three approaches to the automatic generation of response e-mails : text classification , case-based reasoning , and question answering .",439,2
440,"This contrasts with one of the traditional approaches ( e.g. , Dorr 1994 ; Watanabe 1995 ) to posing the translation problem , i.e. , the approach in which translation problems are seen in terms of bridging the gap between the most natural monolingual representations underlying the sentences of each language .",440,2
441,"In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( Kay et al. , 1994 ) .",441,0
442,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",442,0
443,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",443,0
444,"While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .",444,0
445,"It helps them build complex knowledge bases by combining components : events , entities and modifiers ( Clark and Porter , 1997 ) .",445,0
446,"Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .",446,0
447,"Word frequency counts in internet search engines are inconsistent and unreliable ( Veronis , 2005 ) .",447,0
448,"Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .",448,0
449,"It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) .",449,0
450,"Actually , if we use LSH technique ( Andoni and Indyk , 2008 ) in retrieval process , the local method can be easily scaled to a larger training data .",450,5
451,"Many lexicons , both automatically acquired and manually created , are more fine grained in their approaches to subcategorized clausal arguments , differentiating , for example , between a that-clause and a to + infinitive clause ( Ushioda et al. 1993 ) .",451,0
452,"Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) .",452,0
453,"Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 .",453,1
454,"Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts .",454,0
455,"The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .",455,4
456,"Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .",456,0
457,"These types of features result in an improvement in both the mention detection and coreference resolution performance , as shown through experiments on the ACE 2004 Arabic data .",457,1
458,"The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",458,0
459,"But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .",459,0
460,"The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .",460,4
461,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",461,0
462,"14We parse each sentence with the Collins parser ( Collins , 1999 ) .",462,1
463,"Encouraged by the success of chunk-based verb reordering lattices on ArabicEnglish ( Bisazza and Federico , 2010 ) , we tried to adapt the same approach to the German-English language pair .",463,4
464,"We followed the same experimental procedure as discussed in ( Taft , 2004 ) for English polymorphemic words .",464,1
465,"In our experiments , we employed the well-known classifier SVM `` ght to obtain individual-document classification scores , treating Y as the positive class and using plain unigrams as features .5 Following standard practice in sentiment analysis ( Pang et al. , 2002 ) , the input to SVM `` ght consisted of normalized presence-of-feature ( rather than frequency-of-feature ) vectors .",465,1
466,"The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .",466,2
467,"To address this problem , we are currently working on developing a metagrammar in the sense of ( Candito , 1999 ) .",467,5
468,"Sentences like 12 , from Chomsky ( 1965 ) , are frequently cited .",468,0
469,"After the PropBank ( Xue and Palmer 2003 ) was built , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) have produced more complete and systematic research on Chinese SRL .",469,0
470,"In order to estimate the parameters of our model , we develop a blocked sampler based on that of Johnson et al. ( 2007 ) to sample parse trees for sentences in the raw training corpus according to their posterior probabilities .",470,1
471,The extraction procedure utilizes a head percolation table as introduced by Magerman ( 1995 ) in combination with a variation of Collins 's ( 1997 ) approach to the differentiation between complement and adjunct .,471,0
472,Many other such cases are described in Danlos 's book ( Danlos 1987 ) .,472,0
473,"• Before indexing the text , we process it with Textract ( Byrd and Ravin , 1998 ; Wacholder et al. , 1997 ) , which performs lemmatization , and discovers proper names and technical terms .",473,1
474,"Therefore , we repeated the experiments with POS tags predicted by the MADA toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) 15 ( see Table 2 , 14 Some parsers predict POS tags internally , instead of receiving them as input , but this is not the case in this article .",474,1
475,"Experiments on Chinese SRL ( Xue and Palmer 2005 , Xue 2008 ) reassured these findings .",475,4
476,"An example of this is the estimation of maximum entropy models , from simple iterative estimation algorithms used by Ratnaparkhi ( 1998 ) that converge very slowly , to complex techniques from the optimisation literature that converge much more rapidly ( Malouf , 2002 ) .",476,0
477,"According to Budanitsky and Hirst ( 2006 ) , there are three prevalent approaches for evaluating SR measures : mathematical analysis , applicationspecific evaluation and comparison with human judgments .",477,0
478,"The choice of learning algorithm for each classifier is motivated by earlier findings showing that discriminative classifiers outperform other machine-learning methods on error correction tasks ( Rozovskaya and Roth , 2011 ) .",478,4
479,"A good study comparing document categorization algorithms can be found in ( Yang and Liu , 1999 ) .",479,0
480,"For HMMs ( footnote 11 ) , Ti is the familiar trellis , and we would like this computation of ti to reduce to the forwardbackward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) .",480,0
481,"We follow Stymne and Cancedda ( 2011 ) , for compound merging .",481,1
482,Semantic filters can also be used to prevent multiple versions of the same case frame ( Fillmore 1968 ) showing up as complements .,482,1
483,The terms have been identified as the most specific to our corpus by a program developed by Drouin ( 2003 ) and called TER1vloSTAT .,483,1
484,"For statistical significance , we use McNemar 's test on non-gold LAS , as implemented by Nilsson and Nivre ( 2008 ) .",484,1
485,"The availability of toolkits for this weighted case ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ; van Noord and Gerdemann , 2001 ) promises to unify much of statistical NLP .",485,0
486,"tionally reconstructed by Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) and Crouch and Putman ( 1994 ) , the context-independent meaning of a sentence is given by one or more QLFs that are built directly from syntactic and semantic rules .",486,2
487,"We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) .",487,1
488,Bojar and Kos ( 2010 ) improved on this by marking prepositions with the case they mark ( one of the most important markups in our system ) .,488,2
489,But typical OT grammars offer much richer finite-state models of left context ( Eisner 1997a ) than provided by the traditional HMM finite-state topologies .,489,0
490,"Other tools have been designed around particular techniques , such as finite state machines ( Karttunen et al. , 1997 ; Mohri et al. , 1998 ) .",490,0
491,This contrasts with the findings described in Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) where significant improvements could be achieved by increasing the number of source languages .,491,2
492,"The function selects the Value that removes most distractors , but in case of a tie , the least specific contestant is chosen , as long as it is not less specific than the basic-level Value ( i.e. , the most commonly occurring and psychologically most fundamental level , Rosch 1978 ) .",492,0
493,Budanitsky and Hirst ( 2006 ) pointed out that distribution plots of judgments for the word pairs used by Rubenstein and Goodenough display an empty horizontal band that could be used to separate related and unrelated pairs .,493,2
494,"In fact , Reiter has even argued in favor of this approach , claiming that the interactions are sufficiently minor to be ignored ( or at least handled on an ad hoc basis ) ( Reiter 1994 ) .",494,0
495,"The method is called targeted self-training as it is similar in vein to self-training ( McClosky et al. , 2006 ) , with the exception that the new parse data is targeted to produce accurate word reorderings .",495,2
496,"In our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) , we started an initial investigation on conversation entailment .",496,3
497,Bashir ( 1993 ) tried to construct a semantic analysis based on `` prepared '' and `` unprepared mind '' .,497,0
498,"It is also possible to focus on non-compositional compounds , a key point in bilingual applications ( Su et al. , 1994 ; Melamed , 1997 ; Lin , 99 ) .",498,0
499,"This is mainly due to the fact that Arabic is a non-concatenative language ( Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ) , and that the stem/infix obtained by suppression of infix and prefix add-ons is not the same for words derived from the same origin called the root .",499,0
500,"ear regression adapted for classification ( Ting and Witten 1999 ) , which can be described by the following equation :",500,1
501,"For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance .",501,0
502,"Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet .",502,3
503,"( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .",503,2
504,"5 Significant bigrams are obtained using the n-gram statistics package NSP ( Banerjee and Pedersen 2003 ) , which offers statistical tests to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis regarding a bigram ( that it is not a collocation ) .",504,1
505,"Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .",505,0
506,"2The WePS-1 corpus includes data from the Web03 testbed ( Mann , 2006 ) which follows similar annotation guidelines , although the number of document per ambiguous name is more variable .",506,1
507,"The local training method ( Bottou and Vapnik , 1992 ) is widely employed in computer vision ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ; Cheng et al. , 2010 ) .",507,0
508,"Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .",508,0
509,"Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .",509,0
510,The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by Niu and Hirst ( 2004 ) .,510,2
511,The standard approach is to train two models independently and then intersect their predictions ( Och and Ney 2003 ) .,511,2
512,"We use the same method as Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) for generating our multimodal corpora : for each word token in the text corpus , a feature is selected stochastically from the word 's feature distribution , creating a word-feature pair .",512,1
513,MI was also recently used for inference-rule SPs by Pantel et al. ( 2007 ) .,513,0
514,"Based on this advise ( Moore and Quirk , 2007 ) exclude the latent segmentation variables and opt for a heuristic training procedure .",514,2
515,"For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers .",515,0
516,"The forward and backward probabilities , p0j and pkn , can be computed using single-source algebraic path for the simpler semiring ( R , + , x , ∗ ) -- or equivalently , by solving a sparse linear system of equations over R , a much-studied problem at O ( n ) space , O ( nm ) time , and faster approximations ( Greenbaum , 1997 ) .",516,0
517,"4To prove ( 1 ) ⇒ ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch ¨ utzenberger construction ( Berstel and Reutenauer , 1988 ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp .",517,1
518,"Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts .",518,0
519,"Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .",519,2
520,"Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .",520,0
521,The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate .,521,2
522,"The extracted frames are noisy as a result of parser errors and so are filtered using the binomial hypothesis theory ( BHT ) , following Brent ( 1993 ) .",522,0
523,"This method allows the efficient retrieval of arbitrary length n-grams ( Nagao and Mori , 94 ; Haruno et al. , 96 ; Ikehaxa et al. , 96 ; Shimohata et al. , 1997 ; Russell , 1998 ) .",523,0
524,"The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .",524,2
525,"Our most accurate product model achieves an F score of 92.5 without the use of discriminative reranking and comes close to the best known numbers on this test set ( Zhang et al. , 2009 ) .",525,2
526,"To demonstrate that this is possible we have implemented a system which constructs dictionary entries for the PATR-II system ( Shieber , 1984 and references therein ) .",526,1
527,"Other works ( Kasper et al. , 1995 ; Becker and Lopez , 2000 ) convert HPSG grammars into LTAG grammars .",527,2
528,The work of Hearst ( 1996 ) demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision .,528,0
529,"Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( Rote , 1985 ) .",529,5
530,"2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) .",530,2
531,"Krahmer and Theune ( 2002 ) have argued that Dale and Reiter 's ( 1995 ) dichotomy between salient and nonsalient objects ( where the objects in the domain are the salient ones ) should be replaced by an account that takes degrees of salience into account : No object can be too unsalient to be referred to , as long as the right properties are available .",531,0
532,The acquisition of dialogue as implemented in VNLCE is reminiscent of the program synthesis methodology developed by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) where program flowcharts were constructed from traces of their behaviors .,532,2
533,"Character classes , such as punctuation , are defined according to the Unicode Standard ( Aliprand et al. , 2004 ) .",533,1
534,"Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .",534,0
535,"Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by Crothers ( 1979 ) strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph .",535,4
536,"In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .",536,0
537,"The exact form of M ( Si ) need not be discussed at this point ; it could be a conceptual dependence graph ( Schank and Abelson 1977 ) , a deep parse of Si , or some other representation .",537,0
538,"Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .",538,0
539,"Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .",539,0
540,This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in Gurevych ( 2006 ) .,540,0
541,"More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .",541,0
542,"Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .",542,0
543,"Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .",543,0
544,It is known that certain cue words and phrases ( Hirschberg and Litman 1993 ) can serve as explicit indicators of discourse structure .,544,4
545,"The last point may be seen better if we look at some differences between our system and KRYPTON , which also distinguishes between an object theory and background knowledge ( cfXXX Brachman et al. 1985 ) .",545,2
546,"One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) .",546,0
547,"Though we could have used a further downstream measure like BLEU , METEOR has also been shown to directly correlate with translation quality ( Banerjee and Lavie , 2005 ) and is simpler to measure .",547,4
548,"For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; Kübler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers",548,1
549,"We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) .",549,1
550,"In our previous work ( Salloum and Habash , 2011 ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only .",550,2
551,"It has already been used to implement a framework for teaching NLP ( Loper and Bird , 2002 ) .",551,3
552,"Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .",552,0
553,"Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .",553,0
554,"Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .",554,2
555,"On the other side , wikis started as collective works where each entry is not owned by a single author e.g. Wikipedia ( 2005 ) .",555,0
556,"To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by Smrž ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .",556,2
557,Jiang et al. ( 2005 ) has built a semantic role classifier exploiting the interdependence of semantic roles .,557,1
558,"Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) .",558,0
559,"8 It is based on the dataset of Pang and Lee ( 2004 ) ,9 which consists of 1000 positive and 1000 negative movie reviews , tokenized and divided into 10 folds ( F0 -- F9 ) .",559,3
560,"In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .",560,3
561,The UMLS -- the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) has been developed and maintained by National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) [ 17 ] .,561,0
562,"The data used in the experiment was selected from the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal , and is the same used by Brill and Wu ( 1998 ) .",562,1
563,As shown in Meurers ( 1994 ) this is a well-motivated convention since it avoids splitting up lexical rules to transfer the specifications that must be preserved for different lexical entries .,563,4
564,The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like .,564,0
565,"Proceedings of EACL '99 example , the ALE parser ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom-up or topdown .",565,0
566,"Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we represent use the ACE training data for acquiring our SC clasSCA as a binary value that indicates whether the insifier ; instead , we use the BBN Entity Type Corpus duced SCs of the two NPs involved are the same or ( Weischedel and Brunstein , 2005 ) , which consists of not .",566,1
567,"Following Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) , we also compare the performance of our system with a system using features based on the Brown clusters of the word types in a document .",567,1
568,"Church and Hanks ( 1990 ) use mutual information to identify collocations , a method they claim is reasonably effective for words with a frequency of not less than five .",568,0
569,We do this with a first-order HMM part-ofspeech tagger ( Merialdo [ 13 ] ) .,569,1
570,"Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( Lari and Young 1990 ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) .",570,1
571,"As shown in ( Minnen , 1996 ) • The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 .",571,0
572,"According to Hinds ( 1979 ) , paragraphs are made up of segments , which in turn are made up of sentences or clauses , which in turn are made up of phrases .",572,0
573,"Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .",573,2
574,"This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( Hasan and Ng , 2013a ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ) .",574,3
575,"Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .",575,0
576,"This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( Mittal et al. 1998 ) .",576,0
577,"This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) .",577,0
578,"Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .",578,2
579,They can also shift the dialogue 2The notion of the initiative in this paper is different from that of the dialogue initiative of Chu-Carroll ( 2000 ) .,579,2
580,"The Google n-gram data was collected by Google Research for statistical language modelling , and has been used for many tasks such as lexical disambiguation ( Bergsma et al. , 2009 ) , and contains English n-grams and their observed frequency counts , for counts of at least 40 .",580,0
581,"Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) .",581,0
582,"To represent the semantics of predicative units , we use FrameNet inventory of frames and frame elements ( C.Johnson et al. , 2002 ) .",582,1
583,"Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose .",583,0
584,"These two sets of data were used for automatic dialogue act classification , which was run in the Weka system ( Witten and Frank , 2005 ) .",584,1
585,"• The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( Rabiner , 1989 ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set .",585,1
586,"Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .",586,0
587,"( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term .",587,0
588,"Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .",588,0
589,"To quantify the relative strengths of these transitive inferences , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) propose to assign a weight to each link .",589,0
590,"While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .",590,0
591,"Lisp is not particularly well suited for interfacing to complex , structured objects , and it was not our intention to embark on a major effort involving the development of a formal model of a dictionary ( of the style described in , eg. , Tompa 1986 ) ; on the other hand a method of access was clearly required , which was flexible enough to support a range of applications intending to make use of the LDOCE tape .",591,0
592,"We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .",592,1
593,"• Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) • Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) • Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) • Localization ( Sch ¨ aler 1996 )",593,0
594,"Details of the top performing heuristics of COCKTAIL were reported in ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) .",594,0
595,"Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .",595,0
596,"In addition , Moulin et al. ( 1985 ) note that our Object Raising rule would assign mean to this category incorrectly .",596,2
597,"The parallel corpus is word-aligned using GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) .",597,1
598,"tions for the remaining 20 % of the instances ; and ( 3 ) train an SVM classifier ( using the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) ) on these 20 % of the instances , where each instance , i , is represented by a set of 31 binary features .",598,1
599,Our algorithm is similar to the approach taken by Pereira and Schabes ( 1992 ) for inducing PCFG parsers .,599,2
600,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",600,0
601,This experiment was again replicated by Resnik ( 1995 ) with 10 subjects .,601,0
602,Children use vague adjectives among their first dozens of words ( Peccei 1994 ) and understand some of their intricacies as early as their 24th month ( Ebeling and Gelman 1994 ) .,602,0
603,"Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) .",603,2
604,"This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks .",604,0
605,"( 4 ) NE : We use BBN 's IdentiFinder ( Bikel et al. , 1999 ) , a MUC-style NE recognizer to determine the NE type of NPZ .",605,1
606,Yi et al. ( 2007 ) has made the first attempt working on the single semantic role level to make further improvement .,606,2
607,"In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .",607,0
608,"raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) .",608,3
609,Williams and Koehn ( 2011 ) used unification in an SMT system to model some of the,609,2
610,"Following Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) and Barzilay and Lee ( 2004 ) , we employed Hidden Markov Models to model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts .",610,1
611,"The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm ¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .",611,0
612,"Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .",612,0
613,"Previous work has argued that initiative affects the degree of control an agent has in the dialogue interaction ( Whittaker and Stenton , 1988 ; Walker and Whittaker , 1990 ; Chu-Carroll and Brown , 1998 ) .",613,0
614,"Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI .",614,0
615,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",615,2
616,"It allows the construction of a non-TAL ( Shieber , 1994 ) , ( Harbusch & Poller , 2000 ) .",616,0
617,"In addition , the advantages of using linguistically annotated data over raw data are well documented ( Mair , 2005 ; Granger and Rayson , 1998 ) .",617,0
618,"In particular , the `` Semantic Information Retrieval '' project ( SIR Project , 2006 ) systematically investigates the use of lexical-semantic relations between words or concepts for improving the performance of information retrieval systems .",618,4
619,"Our re-ranking approach , like the approach to parse re-ranking of Collins ( 2000 ) , employs a simpler model -- a local semantic role labeling algorithm -- as a first pass to generate a set of n likely complete assignments of labels to all parse tree nodes .",619,2
620,"For instance , the Alembic workbench ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) contains a sentence-splitting module that employs over 100 regular-expression rules written in Flex .",620,0
621,"In contrast , a single statistical model allows one to maintain a single table ( Langkilde , 2000 ) .",621,0
622,Our experiments are based on the multimodal extension of Latent Dirichlet Allocation developed by Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) .,622,1
623,"First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( Grishman , 1995 ; Appelt et al. , 1993 ) .",623,0
624,Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) adopted a Bayesian method to infer an STSG by exploring the space of alignments based on parse trees .,624,2
625,"In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",625,0
626,"In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) .",626,0
627,"We carried out two parallel experiments with two parsers available for Czech , parser I ( Hajie et al. , 1998 ) and parser II ( Charniak , 1999 ) .",627,1
628,"Part of speech taggers typically require input in the format of a single sentence per line ( for example Brill 's tagger ( Brill , 1992 ) ) and parsers generally aim to produce a tree spanning each sentence .",628,0
629,"The elimination of redundant nondeterminism is based on Unfold/Fold transformation techniques ( Tamaki and Sato 1984 ) .29 The unfolding transformation is also referred to as partial execution , for example , by Pereira and Shieber ( 1987 ) .",629,1
630,"Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .",630,4
631,This seems to provide additional evidence of Bruni et al. ( 2012b ) 's suggestion that something like a distributional hypothesis of images is plausible .,631,2
632,"For instance , GATE currently provides a POS tagger , named entity recogniser and gazetteer and ontology editors ( Cunningham et al. , 2002 ) .",632,0
633,Latent variables we wish to consider are an increased number of word classes ; more flexible regions -- see Petrov et al. ( 2007 ) on learning a state transition diagram for acoustic regions in phone recognition -- and phonological features and syllable boundaries .,633,0
634,"Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .",634,1
635,"Using the implicit modeling of argument consistency , we follow the same approach as in our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) and trained a logistic regression model to predict verb alignment based on the features in Table 1 .",635,3
636,"Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( Kaplan and Bresnan , 1982 ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( Shieber , 1984 ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language .",636,0
637,"We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .",637,1
638,"It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) .",638,0
639,This deficiency is rectified in the verb classification system employed by Jackendoff and Grimshaw ( 1985 ) in the Brandeis verb catalogue .,639,2
640,"Previous work has argued that initiative affects the degree of control an agent has in the dialogue interaction ( Whittaker and Stenton , 1988 ; Walker and Whittaker , 1990 ; Chu-Carroll and Brown , 1998 ) .",640,0
641,"1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) .",641,2
642,"It is frequently used in tasks like scene identification , and Deselaers and Ferrari ( 2011 ) shows that distance in GIST space correlates well with semantic distance in WordNet .",642,4
643,"Because each rule r consists of a target tree fragment frag and a source string str in the model , we follow Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) and decompose the prior probability P0 ( r | N ) into two factors as follows :",643,1
644,"To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by Smrž ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .",644,2
645,"In our prior work ( Xiong and Litman , 2011 ) , we examined whether techniques used for predicting the helpfulness of product reviews ( Kim et al. , 2006 ) could be tailored to our peer-review domain , where the definition of helpfulness is largely influenced by the educational context of peer review .",645,3
646,"Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit",646,0
647,Bruni et al. ( 2012a ) show how a BoVW model may be easily combined with a distributional vector space model of language using only vector concatenation .,647,0
648,"The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( Buckwalter 2004 ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .",648,1
649,"The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .",649,0
650,"Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 .",650,1
651,On the WSJ corpus our system performed slightly better than the combination of the Alembic and SATZ systems described in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) ( 0.44 % vs. 0.5 % error rate ) .,651,2
652,"Sanderson , 1994 studied the issue of disambiguation for mono-lingual M.",652,0
653,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",653,0
654,"To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by Smrž ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .",654,2
655,"Although in this paper we take modus ponens as the main rule of inference , in general one can consider deductive closures with respect to weaker , nonstandard logics , ( cfXXX Levesque 1984 ; Frisch 1987 ; Patel-Schneider 1985 ) .",655,2
656,Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .,656,2
657,Berger et al. 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ; Soricut and Brill 2006 ) .,657,2
658,"We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( Beun and Cremers 1998 , Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .",658,0
659,"A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .",659,0
660,"From the Meaning-Text Theory ( MTT ) 1 point of view , Natural Language ( NL ) is considered as a correspondence between meanings and texts ( Kahane , 2001 ) .",660,0
661,"This means that natural language expressions such as `` A is B , '' `` A is the same as B , '' etc. are not directly represented by logical equality ; similarly , `` not '' is often not treated as logical negation ; cfXXX Hintikka ( 1985 ) .",661,2
662,"The full-listing model claims that polymorphic words are represented as a whole in the human mental lexicon ( Bradley , 1980 ; Butterworth , 1983 ) .",662,0
663,"As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .",663,0
664,"However , learning-based resolvers have not been able to benefit from having an SC agreement feature , presumably because the method used to compute the SC of an NP is too simplistic : while the SC of a proper name is computed fairly accurately using a named entity ( NE ) recognizer , many resolvers simply assign to a common noun the first ( i.e. , most frequent ) WordNet sense as its SC ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , Markert and Nissim ( 2005 ) ) .",664,0
665,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",665,0
666,"The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .",666,0
667,"Many statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2001 ) are based on a history-based probability model ( Black et al. , 1993 ) , where the probability of each decision in a parse is conditioned on the previous decisions in the parse .",667,0
668,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",668,0
669,"For instance , ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) acquire two-argument templates ( inference rules ) from corpora using an extended version of the distributional analysis in which paths in dependency trees that have similar arguments are taken to be close in meaning .",669,0
670,"Per-state joint normalization ( Eisner , 2001b , § 8.2 ) is similar but drops the dependence on a .",670,2
671,"Other studies on the value of disambiguation for cross-lingual IR include Hiemstra and de Jong , 1999 ; Hull , 1997 .",671,0
672,"We have not yet made use of TINA 'S probabilities in adjusting the recognizer scores on the fly , but we have been able to incorporate linguistic scores to resort N-best outputs , giving a significant improvement in performance ( Goodine et al. 1991 ) .",672,1
673,"These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 .",673,4
674,"Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .",674,0
675,"More recently , ( Sebastiani , 2002 ) has performed a good survey of document categorization ; recent works can also be found in ( Joachims , 2002 ) , ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ) , and ( Lewis et al. , 2004 ) .",675,0
676,"McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) .",676,0
677,"It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) .",677,0
678,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",678,2
679,"It has been more difficult showing that agreement morphology helps parsing , however , with negative results for dependency parsing in several languages ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; Nivre 2009 ) .",679,4
680,"Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .",680,0
681,"This idea was proposed by Krauwer and des Tombe ( 1981 ) , Langendoen and Langsam ( 1987 ) , and Pulman ( 1986 ) , and was rediscovered by Black ( 1989 ) and recently by Johnson ( 1998 ) .",681,0
682,"A nonprobabilistic approach for DA labeling proposed by Samuel , Carberry , and Vijay-Shanker ( 1998 ) is transformation-based learning ( Brill 1993 ) .",682,2
683,"However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .",683,0
684,"Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .",684,0
685,The algorithm we implemented is inspired by the work of Yarowsky ( 1995 ) on word sense disambiguation .,685,4
686,"Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .",686,0
687,"EM maximizes G ( 0 ) via block-coordinate ascent on a lower bound F ( q , 0 ) using an auxiliary distribution over the latent variables q ( z | x , y ) ( Neal and Hinton 1998 ) :",687,1
688,"It has been argued that generating such modifiers is not a trivial decision because it interferes with the planning of both local and global coherence ( in the sense of ( Grosz and Sidner , 1986 ) ) ( Cheng and Mellish , 2000a ) .",688,0
689,• Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) .,689,2
690,"A stops B from doing something ; A disagreees with B on something , 8 % and 12 % ) Note that in our original work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) , only development data were used to show some initial observations .",690,2
691,"We evaluated on the English CCGBank ( Hockenmaier and Steedman , 2007 ) , which is a transformation of the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) ; the CTBCCG ( Tse and Curran , 2010 ) transformation of the Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue et al. , 2005 ) ; and the CCG-TUT corpus ( Bos et al. , 2009 ) , built from the TUT corpus of Italian text ( Bosco et al. , 2000 ) .",691,1
692,"The EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) can maximize these functions .",692,1
693,"Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .",693,0
694,"For these or for a specific domain , basic synonymic dictionaries can be complemented using learning methods based on distributional similarity ( Pereira et al. , 1993 ; Lin , 1998 ) .",694,5
695,"For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .",695,5
696,"The coreference system system is similar to the Bell tree algorithm as described by ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .",696,2
697,"Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .",697,0
698,"The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .",698,0
699,"We experiment with four learners commonly employed in language learning : Decision List ( DL ) : We use the DL learner as described in Collins and Singer ( 1999 ) , motivated by its success in the related tasks of word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky , 1995 ) and NE classification ( Collins and Singer , 1999 ) .",699,1
700,"transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 .",700,1
701,"Using the basic solution proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as a term of comparison , we experiment with different sources of multilingual lexical knowledge to address the following questions : ( 1 ) What is the potential of the existing multilingual lexical resources to approach CLTE ?",701,2
702,"Acoustic models for HTK is trained with the continuous speech database of the Acoustical Society of Japan ( Kobayashi et al. , 1992 ) .",702,1
703,"Automatic text categorization has been used in search engines , digital library systems , and document management systems ( Yang , 1999 ) .",703,0
704,"For our Text modality , we use deWaC , a large German web corpus created by the WaCKy group ( Baroni et al. , 2009 ) containing approximately 1.7 B word tokens .",704,1
705,"Unless very high rates of misspellings are to be expected ( this explains the favorable results for trigram indexing in ( Franz et al. , 2000 ) ) one can not really recommend this method .",705,2
706,"For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( Flickinger et al. , 1987 ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which includes some 9500 test items for English , French and German , each of them being annotated with syntactic and application related information ( Oepen and Flickinger , 1998 ) .",706,2
707,"Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) .",707,0
708,A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) .,708,2
709,"Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .",709,2
710,"With the use of computers in storing the explosive amount of biological information , natural language processing ( NLP ) approaches have been explored to make the task of managing information recorded in free text more feasible [ 1 , 2 ] .",710,0
711,"A formula q5 of L ( =-RRB- , the language with equality , is weakly R + M-abductible from an object theory T , denoted by T I-R + m 0 , iff there exists a partial theory T e PT ( T ) and a preferred model M E PM ( T ) such that M = 0 , i.e. 0 is true in at least one preferred model of the partial theory T. Note : The notions of strong provability and strong R + M-abduction can be introduced by replacing `` there exists '' by `` all '' in the above definitions ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987b ) .",711,2
712,The first version ( TIMIT ) was developed for the 450 phonetically rich sentences of the TIMIT database ( Lamel et al. 1986 ) .,712,1
713,A third problem arises with the approach to the semantics of QLFs that this notion of the relationship between QLF and RQLF encourages one to adopt : it is that taken by Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) .,713,2
714,"In ( Lin , 2004 ) , I present evidence from Mandarin Chinese that this analysis is on the right track .",714,3
715,"Interaction between components is coordinated by the dialogue manager which uses the informationstate approach ( Larsson and Traum , 2000 ) .",715,1
716,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",716,1
717,"There are many more distinctions which are conveyed by the conjunction of grammar codes and word qualifiers ( see Michiels , 1982 , for further details ) .",717,0
718,"The most common way is to divide each half of the bitext into an equal number of segments and to align the segments so that each pair of segments Si and Ti are translations of each other ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Melamed , 1996a ) .",718,0
719,"Leech et al. , 1983 ) .",719,5
720,"Langendoen ( 1975 ) proposes readjustment rules similar to those of Chomsky and Halle , but he claims that the readjustment of structure is part of the grammar , not part of the performance model .",720,0
721,"financial news , we created a probabilistic CzechEnglish dictionary by running GIZA + + training ( translation models 1-4 , see Och and Ney ( 2000 ) ) on the training part of the English-Czech WSJ parallel corpus extended by the parallel corpus of entry/translation pairs from the manual dictionary .",721,1
722,"In the field of machine learning research , incremental training has been employed in the work ( Cauwenberghs and Poggio , 2001 ; Shilton et al. , 2005 ) , but there is little work for tuning parameters of statistical machine translation .",722,0
723,A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) .,723,2
724,"In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) .",724,1
725,"We report performance in terms of two metrics : ( 1 ) the Fmeasure score as computed by the commonly-used MUC scorer ( Vilain et al. , 1995 ) , and ( 2 ) the accuracy on the anaphoric references , computed as the fraction of anaphoric references correctly resolved .",725,1
726,"A study of the query log of the AllTheWeb and Altavista search sites gives an idea of the relevance of the people search task : 11-17 % of the queries were composed of a person name with additional terms and 4 % were identified as person names ( Spink et al. , 2004 ) .",726,0
727,"This was done because purely unsupervised techniques ( e.g. , Baum-Welch [ Baum and Petrie 1966 ] or Brill 's [ Brill 1995b ] ) enable regularities to be induced for word classes which contain many entries , exploiting the fact that individual words that belong to a POS class occur in different ambiguity patterns .",727,2
728,"Future research should apply the work of Blunsom et al. ( 2008 ) and Blunsom and Osborne ( 2008 ) , who marginalize over derivations to find the most probable translation rather than the most probable derivation , to these multi-nonterminal grammars .",728,5
729,"In informal experiments described elsewhere ( Melamed 1995 ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 .",729,0
730,"porating these two KSs into our resolver : they can Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we select as the aneach be represented as a constraint or as a feature , tecedent of each NP , NPS , the closest preceding NP and they can be applied to the resolver in isolation that is classified as coreferent with NPS .",730,4
731,"Using the section labels , the HMM was trained using the HTK toolkit ( Young et al. , 2002 ) , which efficiently performs the forward-backward algorithm and BaumWelch estimation .",731,1
732,"In this paper , we use TF-IDF ( a kind of augmented DF ) as a feature selection criterion , in order to ensure results are comparable with those in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) .",732,2
733,"A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .",733,0
734,"There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .",734,0
735,"In the disambiguation of capitalized words , the most widespread method is POS tagging , which achieves about a 3 % error rate on the Brown corpus and a 5 % error rate on the WSJ corpus , as reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) .",735,2
736,"The problem with this approach is that any threshold is , to some extent , arbitrary , and there is evidence to suggest that , for some tasks , low counts are important ( Collins and Brooks , 1995 ) .",736,4
737,Zollmann and Vogel ( 2011 ) further labeled the SCFG rules with POS tags and unsupervised word classes .,737,2
738,"Steganography is concerned with hiding information in some cover medium , by manipulating properties of the medium in such a way that the hidden information is not easily detectable by an observer ( Fridrich , 2009 ) .",738,0
739,"We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( Mohri and Sproat , 1996 ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( Sproat and Riley , 1996 ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below .",739,0
740,"Word pairs containing polysemous words are expanded to concept pairs using GermaNet ( Kunze , 2004 ) , the German equivalent to WordNet , as a sense inventory for each word .",740,1
741,"Using the initial target U-trees , source sentences and word alignment , we extract minimal GHKM translation rules7 in terms of frontier nodes ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) .",741,1
742,"For example , while it is difficult to induce a grammar with raw text alone , the task is tractable when the syntactic analysis for each sentence is provided as a part of the training data ( Pereira and Schabes 1992 ) .",742,0
743,"Our results are lower than those of full parsers , e.g. , Collins ( 1997 ) as might be expected since much less structural data , and no lexical data are being used .",743,2
744,"Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .",744,2
745,"Hermann and Deutsch ( 1976 ; also reported in Levelt 1989 ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking .",745,0
746,The result holds for both the MaltParser ( Nivre 2008 ) and the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) .,746,1
747,"This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( Hughes and Walkerdine , 2005 ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( Walkerdine and Rayson , 2004 ) .",747,0
748,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",748,1
749,"We then use Illinois Chunker ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ) 6 to extract more noun phrases from the text and employ Collins head rules ( Collins , 1999 ) to identify their heads .",749,1
750,Butt ( 1993 ) argues CV formations in Hindi and Urdu are either morphological or syntactical and their formation take place at the argument structure .,750,0
751,"feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artstein and Poesio ( 2008 ) , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( Fleiss , 1971 ) .",751,0
752,"Collins 1996 , Charniak 1997 , Collins 1999 and Charniak 2000 ) .",752,2
753,"Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; Calcagno 1995 ; Calcagno and Pollard 1995 ) and the .",753,0
754,"We run TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1994 ) for tokenization , and used the Giza + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) to align the tokenized corpora at the word level .",754,1
755,"Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .",755,0
756,"We then go on to compare the current approach with that of some other theories with similar aims : the `` standard '' version of quasi-logical form implemented in the Core Language Engine , as rationally reconstructed by Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) and Crouch and Pulman ( 1994 ) ; underspecified Discourse Representation Theory ( Reyle 1993 ) ; and the `` glue language '' approach of Dalrymple et al. ( 1996 ) .",756,2
757,"Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .",757,0
758,"Using WordNet , annotating the sem feature of an adjective involves first choosing the correct sense for the adjective 2Some descriptions of int modifiers can be found in ( Cheng and Mellish , 2000b ) .",758,0
759,"One common approach is using Machine Translation ( MT ) to translate the queries to the language of the documents or translate documents to the language of the queries ( Gey et al , 1999 ; Oard , 1998 ) .",759,2
760,"Adding selectional restrictions ( semantic feature information , Hobbs 1977 ) does not solve the problem , because isolated features offer only part of the background knowledge necessary for reference disambiguation .",760,0
761,"Software engineering research on Generative Programming ( Czarnecki and Eisenecker , 2000 ) attempts to solve these problems by focusing on the development of configurable elementary components and knowledge to combine these components into complete systems .",761,0
762,Both use the evaluation software and triple encoding presented in Crouch et al. ( 2002 ) .,762,1
763,"In this Section , we will describe some example cases , which are drawn from the problem of using synchronous formalisms to define translations between languages ( e.g. Shieber ( 1994 ) cases ) .",763,0
764,"Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .",764,0
765,"Most coreference resolution work simply mentions it in passing as a module in the pipelined system ( Chang et al. , 2013 ; Durrett and Klein , 2013 ; Lee et al. , 2011 ; Bj ¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) .",765,0
766,"Because the judges do not evaluate the same cases , we could not employ standard inter-annotator agreement measures ( Carletta 1996 ) .",766,1
767,Related are also the studies by Rieks op den Akker and Schulz ( 2008 ) and Murray and Renals ( 2008 ) : both achieve promising results in the automatic segmentation of dialogue acts using the annotations in a large multimodal corpus .,767,0
768,"Due to advances in statistical syntactic parsing techniques ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 2001 ) , attention has recently shifted towards the harder question of analyzing the meaning of natural language sentences .",768,0
769,The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like .,769,0
770,"Because it is also consistent , it will be chosen as a best interpretation of S , ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) .",770,0
771,"For our experiments we used the standard division of the WSJ ( Marcus et al. 1993 ) , with sections 2 through 21 for training ( approx .",771,1
772,"With respect to this , we apply the different priming and other lexical decision experiments , described in literature ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Bentin , S. and Feldman , 1990 ) specifically for derivationally suffixed polymorphemic words and compound verbs of Bangla .",772,1
773,"From this description , it should be clear that TM systems do not translate : Indeed , some researchers consider them to be little more than a search-and-replace engine , albeit a rather sophisticated one ( Macklovitch and Russell 2000 ) .",773,0
774,"Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .",774,0
775,"Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .",775,0
776,"There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; Pirkola , 1998 ; Hull 1997 ) .",776,2
777,"This evaluation set-up is an improvement versus the one we previously reported ( Gerber and Chai 2010 ) , in which fixed partitions were used for training , development , and testing .",777,3
778,Saggion ( 2008 ) compared the performace of NEs versus BoW features .,778,0
779,The right-side context of a non-terminal category -- the probability of generating a category to the right of the current constituent 's category -- corresponds directly to the category transitions used for the HMM supertagger of Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) .,779,2
780,"The starting point for the approach followed here was a dissatisfaction with certain aspects of the theory of quasi-logical form as described in Alshawi ( 1990 , 1992 ) , and implemented in SRI 's Core Language Engine ( CLE ) .",780,2
781,"However , the method we are currently using in the ATIS domain ( Seneff et al. 1991 ) represents our most promising approach to this problem .",781,5
782,"Three UniRef tables UniRef100 , UniRef90 and UniRef50 ) are available for download : UniRef100 combines identical sequences and sub-fragments into a single UniRef entry ; and UniRef90 and UniRef50 are built by clustering UniRef100 sequences into clusters based on the CD-HIT algorithm [ 16 ] such that each cluster is composed of sequences that have at least 90 % or 50 % sequence similarity , respectively , to the representative sequence .",782,1
783,"Collins 1996 , Charniak 1997 , Collins 1999 and Charniak 2000 ) .",783,2
784,"To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .",784,0
785,The computational treatment of lexical rules as covariation in lexical entries was implemented in Prolog by the authors in cooperation with Dieter Martini for the ConTroll system ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gotz and Meurers 1997a ) .,785,1
786,"Arabic has two kinds of plurals : broken plurals and sound plurals ( Wightwick and Gaafar , 1998 ; Chen and Gey , 2002 ) .",786,0
787,"Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .",787,2
788,"To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) , Xue ( 2008 ) .",788,2
789,"But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .",789,0
790,"Our plan is to implement a windowed or moving-average version of BLEU as in ( Chiang et al. , 2008 ) .",790,5
791,"As Church ( 1988 ) rightly pointed out , however , `` Proper nouns and capitalized words are particularly problematic : some capitalized words are proper nouns and some are not .",791,2
792,"The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .",792,0
793,"For instance , part of the ACE Phase 2 also adopted a corpus-based approach to SC deterevaluation involves classifying an NP as PERSON , mination that is investigated as part of the mention ORGANIZATION , GPE ( a geographical-political redetection ( MD ) task ( e.g. , Florian et al. ( 2006 ) ) .",793,2
794,"In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .",794,0
795,"Based on this assumption , the problem of identifying mention heads is a sequential phrase identification problem , and we choose to employ the BILOU-representation as it has advantages over traditional BIO-representation , as shown , e.g. in Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) .",795,4
796,"TF is given by TFD , t , and it denotes frequency of term t in document D. IDF is given by IDFt = log ( N/dft ) , where N is the number of documents in the collection , and dft is the number of documents containing the term t. ( Salton and Yang , 1973 ) proposed the combination of TF and IDF as weighting schemes , and it has been shown that their product gave better performance .",796,4
797,"An HPSG grammar consists of lexical entries and ID grammar rules , each of which is described with typed feature structures ( Carpenter , 1992 ) .",797,0
798,"More recently , Burke , Cahill , et al. ( 2004a ) carried out an evaluation of the automatic annotation algorithm against the publicly available PARC 700 Dependency Bank ( King et al. 2003 ) , a set of 700 randomly selected sentences from Section 23 which have been parsed , converted to dependency format , and manually corrected and extended by human validators .",798,0
799,"In our work , we gather sets of sentences , and assume ( but do not employ ) existing approaches for their organization ( Goldstein et al. 2000 ; Barzilay , Elhadad , and McKeown 2001 ; Barzilay and McKeown 2005 ) .",799,0
800,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",800,0
801,"This was done because purely unsupervised techniques ( e.g. , Baum-Welch [ Baum and Petrie 1966 ] or Brill 's [ Brill 1995b ] ) enable regularities to be induced for word classes which contain many entries , exploiting the fact that individual words that belong to a POS class occur in different ambiguity patterns .",801,2
802,"Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; Calcagno 1995 ; Calcagno and Pollard 1995 ) and the .",802,0
803,"In terms of treebank data , the primary training corpus is the Penn Wall Street Journal Treebank ( PTB ) ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) .",803,1
804,"The extraction of each PICO element relies to a different extent on an annotated corpus of MEDLINE abstracts , created through an effort led by the first author at the National Library of Medicine ( Demner-Fushman et al. 2006 ) .",804,1
805,"Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic .",805,0
806,"Usually , the classes are from WordNet ( Miller et al. , 1990 ) , although they can also be inferred from clustering ( Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .",806,0
807,"The account sketched in Section 4 was superimposed on an incremental GRE algorithm , partly because incrementality is well established in this area ( Appelt 1985 ; Dale and Reiter 1995 ) .",807,0
808,"In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .",808,0
809,"Now for some important remarks on efficiency : • Computing ti is an instance of the well-known algebraic path problem ( Lehmann , 1977 ; Tar an , 1981a ) .",809,0
810,Johns and Jones ( 2012 ) take an entirely different approach by showing that one can successfully infer held out feature norms from weighted mixtures based on textual similarity .,810,0
811,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",811,0
812,"Previous work in sentence planning in the natural language generation ( NLG ) community uses hand-written rules to approximate the distribution of linguistic phenomena in a corpus ( see ( Shaw , 1998 ) for a recent example with further references ) .",812,0
813,"We assume that every determiner has its own equivalence , which resolves it as a quantifier : sometimes this can be quite a complicated matter , as with any ( Alshawi 1990 ) , which will resolve in different ways depending on its linguistic context , but here we avoid this complexity ' 6 Separate equivalences might also make it easier to encode determiner-specific preferences , such as that of each for wide scope .",813,0
814,"Following Pinkal ( 1979 ) , such expressions will be called vague descriptions even though , as we shall see , the vagueness of the adjective does not extend to the description as a whole .",814,1
815,"Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .",815,0
816,"The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ) .",816,2
817,"Following Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) , we measure association norm prediction as an average of percentile ranks .",817,1
818,"There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .",818,0
819,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",819,1
820,Liu et al. ( 2012 ) re-trained the linguistic parsers bilingually based on word alignment .,820,2
821,"de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .",821,0
822,"Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( Rambow & Satta , 1996 ) , such as the relation between syntax and semantic .",822,0
823,"From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .",823,0
824,"The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( Buckwalter 2004 ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .",824,1
825,"A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( Sedivy et al. 1999 ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known .",825,2
826,"In this paper , we evaluated the role of low-level image features , SURF and GIST , for their compatibility with the multimodal Latent Dirichlet Allocation model of Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) .",826,1
827,"Figure 2 illustrates a DSyntS from a meteorological application , MeteoCogent ( Kittredge and Lavoie , 1998 ) , represented using the standard graphical notation and also the RealPro ASCII notation used internally in the framework ( Lavoie and Rambow , 1997 ) .",827,3
828,"And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) .",828,0
829,Boutsis and Piperidis ( 1998 ) use a tagged parallel corpus to extract translationally equivalent English-Greek clauses on the basis of word occurrence and co-occurrence probabilities .,829,0
830,"The key linguistic knowledge sources that we use are morphological analysis and generation of German based on SMOR , a morphological analyzer/generator of German ( Schmid et al. , 2004 ) and the BitPar parser , which is a state-of-the-art parser of German ( Schmid , 2004 ) .",830,1
831,"A common computational treatment of lexical rules adopted , for example , in the ALE system ( Carpenter and Penn 1994 ) consists of computing the transitive closure of the base lexical entries under lexical rule application at compile-time .",831,2
832,Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) ;,832,1
833,"Authors may choose this right with the No-Deriv option of the Creative Commons licences ( Lessig , 2004 ) .",833,0
834,"Mathematical analysis can assess a measure with respect to some formal properties , e.g. whether a measure is a metric ( Lin , 1998 ) .4 However , mathematical analysis can not tell us whether a measure closely resembles human judgments or whether it performs best when used in a certain application .",834,0
835,"The same annotation scheme as in our previous work on anger detection has been applied , see e.g. ( Schmitt et al. , 2009 ) .",835,3
836,"We also compute GIST vectors ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ) for every image using LearGIST ( Douze et al. , 2009 ) .",836,1
837,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",837,0
838,"The analysis of the data we have collected indicates that student satisfaction may be affected if the system rephrases student answers using different words ( for example , using better terminology ) but does n't explicitly explain the reason why different terminology is needed ( Dzikovska et al. , 2010 ) .",838,5
839,"A logic that provides the formal architecture required by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) was defined by King ( 1989 , 1994 ) .",839,0
840,"fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; Swales , 1990 ; Or˘asan , 2001 ) .",840,0
841,Collins et al. ( 1999 ) report that an optimal tag set for parsing Czech consists of a basic POS tag plus a CASE feature ( when applicable ) .,841,0
842,"The elimination of redundant nondeterminism is based on Unfold/Fold transformation techniques ( Tamaki and Sato 1984 ) .29 The unfolding transformation is also referred to as partial execution , for example , by Pereira and Shieber ( 1987 ) .",842,0
843,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",843,0
844,"9 We do not relate to specific results in their study because it has been brought to our attention that Hohensee and Bender ( 2012 ) are in the process of rechecking their code for errors , and rerunning their experiments ( personal communication ) .",844,2
845,"Inspired by ( Klein and Manning , 2003 ) , we split one phrase type into several subsymbols , which contain category information of current constituent 's parent .",845,4
846,"The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .",846,0
847,"Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( Schabes and Waters 1993 ; Hwa 1998 ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) .",847,1
848,"Most of the early work on automatic f-structure annotation ( e.g. , van Genabith , Way , and Sadler 1999 ; Frank 2000 ; Sadler , van Genabith , and Way 2000 ) was applied only to small data sets ( fewer than 200 sentences ) and was largely proof of concept .",848,0
849,"We prepare the training data by splitting compounds in two steps , following the technique of Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) .",849,1
850,Recent work by Korhonen ( 2002 ) on the filtering phase of this approach uses linguistic verb classes ( based on Levin [ 1993 ] ) for obtaining more accurate back-off estimates for hypothesis selection .,850,0
851,"Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .",851,2
852,"Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .",852,0
853,"Default parameters were used , although experimentation with different parameter settings is an important direction for future work ( Daelemans and Hoste , 2002 ; Munson et al. , 2005 ) .",853,5
854,"The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( Bos , 1995 ; Copestake et al. , 1999 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) .",854,2
855,"For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels .",855,0
856,"As a logical postulate it is not very radical ; it is possible within a finitary framework to develop that part of mathematics that is used or has potential applications in natural science , such as mathematical analysis ( cfXXX Mycielski 1981 ) .",856,0
857,"In a similar vain to Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) and Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , the method extends an existing flat shallow-parsing method to handle composite structures .",857,5
858,"An interesting aspect of our generative approach is that we model HMM outputs as Gaussian vectors ( log probabilities of observing entire sentences based on our language models ) , as opposed to sequences of terms , as done in ( Barzilay and Lee , 2004 ) .",858,2
859,"• language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) • monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) • grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) • insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) • machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )",859,0
860,"In Charniak ( 1996 ) and Krotov et al. ( 1998 ) , it was observed that treebank grammars ( CFGs extracted from treebanks ) are very large and grow with the size of the treebank .",860,0
861,"We apply our system to the latest version of the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar .",861,1
862,"Furthermore , the need to answer questions related to patient care at the point of service has been well studied and documented ( Covell , Uman , and Manning 1985 ; Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Ely et al. 1999 , 2005 ) .",862,0
863,"Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .",863,0
864,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",864,0
865,"Worst case , calculating the set corresponding with such a property , of the form size ( x ) = maxm , for example , involves sorting the distractors as to their size , which may amount to O ( n2d ) or O ( nd log nd ) calculations ( depending on the sorting algorithm : cfXXX [ Aho et al. 1983 ] Chapter 8 ) .",865,0
866,"• language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) • monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) • grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) • insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) • machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )",866,0
867,"Virpioja et al. ( 2007 ) , Badr et al. ( 2008 ) , Luong et al. ( 2010 ) , Clifton and Sarkar ( 2011 ) , and others are primarily concerned with using morpheme segmentation in SMT , which is a useful approach for dealing with issues of word-formation .",867,2
868,"While corpus driven efforts along the PARSEVAL lines ( Black et al. , 1991 ) are good at giving some measure of a grammar coverage , they are not suitable for finer grained analysis and in particular , for progress evaluation , regression testing and comparative report generation .",868,0
869,"Before using the DCA method , we applied a Russian morphological processor ( Mikheev and Liubushkina 1995 ) to convert each word in the text to its main form : nominative case singular for nouns and adjectives , infinitive for verbs , etc. .",869,1
870,The result holds for both the MaltParser ( Nivre 2008 ) and the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) .,870,1
871,"Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .",871,0
872,"The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( Bos , 1995 ; Copestake et al. , 1999 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) .",872,2
873,"In simple terms , P2P is a technology that takes advantage of the resources and services available at the edge of the Internet ( Shirky , 2001 ) .",873,0
874,A common way to combine different models consists of selecting the model that is most confident regarding its decision ( Burke 2002 ) .,874,2
875,Common sense ( as well as the Gricean maxims ; Grice 1975 ) suggests that vague descriptions are preferred by speakers over quantitative ones whenever the additional information provided by a quantitative description is irrelevant to the purpose of the communication .,875,0
876,A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) .,876,2
877,For automatically extracting these surface level mappings we will draw on the approach to learning paraphrases from a corpus that is described in Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) .,877,5
878,"This description can then be given the standard set-theoretical interpretation of King ( 1989 , 1994 ) . '",878,0
879,"Griffiths et al. ( 2007 ) helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms .",879,0
880,"A more flexible approach is used by Reiter and Sripada ( 2002 ) , where users can specify boundary values for attributes like rainfall , specifying , for example , rain counts as moderate above 7 mm/h , as heavy above 20 mm/h , and so on .",880,0
881,"Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( Collins , 2000 ) .",881,0
882,"The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) .",882,1
883,"In practice , perceptron-type algorithms are often applied in a batch learning scenario , i.e. , the algorithm is applied for K epochs to a training sample of size T and then used for prediction on an unseen test set ( Freund and Schapire , 1999 ; Collins , 2002 ) .",883,2
884,"Table 2 shows the results on identifying all phrases -- chunking in CoNLL2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) terminology .",884,1
885,"Unfortunately , as shown in ( Okanohara and Tsujii , 2007 ) , with the represetation of sentences that we use , linear classifiers can not discriminate real sentences from sentences sampled from a trigram , which is the model we use as a baseline , so here we resort to a non-linear large-margin classifier ( see section 3 for details ) .",885,4
886,"Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , Demner-Fushman and Lin ( 2006 ) .",886,0
887,"Pierce and Cardie ( 2001 ) have shown , in the context of base noun identification , that combining sample selection and cotraining can be an effective learning framework for large-scale training .",887,0
888,"• The regular TBL , as described in section 2 ; • An improved version of TBL , which makes extensive use of indexes to speed up the rules ' update ; • The FastTBL algorithm ; • The ICA algorithm ( Hepple , 2000 ) .",888,2
889,"For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels .",889,0
890,This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions .,890,2
891,"Unless it is desired to intentionally filter these out as being outside of the new domain , one can insert some arbitrarily small probability for these arcs , using , for example , an N-gram back-off model ( Katz 1987 ) .",891,0
892,"feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artstein and Poesio ( 2008 ) , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( Fleiss , 1971 ) .",892,0
893,"To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .",893,0
894,"Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ; Tzoukermann et al. , 1997 ) .",894,0
895,"The XTAG group ( Doran et al. , 2000 ) at the University of Pennsylvania is also developing Korean , Chinese , and Hindi grammars .",895,0
896,"HOLMES is given the following set of six domainindependent rules , which are similar to the upward monotone rules introduced by ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) .",896,2
897,"The lexicon is used to mediate and map between a language-independent domain model and a language-dependent ontology widely used in NLG , the Upper Model ( Bateman 1990 ) .",897,0
898,"ImageNet is a large-scale and widely used image database , built on top of WordNet , which maps words into groups of images , called synsets ( Deng et al. , 2009 ) .",898,1
899,"based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) .",899,1
900,"Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ;",900,2
901,"The retrieval process relies on the vector space model ( Salton , 1989 ) , with the cosine measure expressing the similarity between a query and a document .",901,1
902,"For right-branching structures , the leftcorner ancestor is the parent , conditioning on which has been found to be beneficial ( Johnson , 1998 ) , as has conditioning on the left-corner child ( Roark and Johnson , 1999 ) .",902,0
903,"A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) .",903,0
904,"A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) .",904,0
905,This is similar to `` one sense per collocation '' idea of Yarowsky ( 1993 ) .,905,2
906,"Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .",906,0
907,"This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( Hughes and Walkerdine , 2005 ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( Walkerdine and Rayson , 2004 ) .",907,0
908,"be found in figure 2 , which is similar with that in Moschitti et al. ( 2005 ) .",908,2
909,It is inspired by the system described in Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) .,909,4
910,"• A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .",910,2
911,"Although a number of methods for query-dependent text summarization are beginning to be developed and evaluated in a variety of realistic settings ( Mani et al. , 1999 ) , we again propose the use of vector space methods from IR , which can be easily extended to the summarization task ( Salton et al. , 1994 ) :",911,2
912,Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .,912,2
913,"When we run our classifiers on resource-tight environments such as cell-phones , we can use a random feature mixing technique ( Ganchev and Dredze , 2008 ) or a memory-efficient trie implementation based on a succinct data structure ( Jacobson , 1989 ; Delpratt et al. , 2006 ) to reduce required memory usage .",913,5
914,"These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) .",914,2
915,"A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .",915,0
916,"Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) .",916,0
917,"This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) .",917,2
918,"A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) .",918,0
919,11 Manandhar ( 1995 ) proposes to unify these two steps by including an update operator in the,919,0
920,"For instance , when building translation units in EBMT approaches ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki , 2001 ) , ( AlAdhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) , ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Sadler & Vendelmans , 1990 ) , etc. , where S-SSTC can be used to represent the entries of the BKB or when S-SSTC used as an annotation schema to find the translation correspondences ( lexical and structural correspondences ) for transferrules ' extraction from parallel parsed corpus ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. ,",920,0
921,"Silberer and Lapata ( 2012 ) introduce a new method of multimodal integration based on Canonical Correlation Analysis , and performs a systematic comparison between their CCA-based model and others on association norm prediction , held out feature prediction , and word similarity .",921,0
922,"More details on how the structural divergences described in ( Don , 1994 ) can be accounted for using our formalism can be found in ( Nasr et al. , 1998 ) .",922,0
923,"At present , the system takes into consideration the number of incorrect answers received in response to the current question and the number of uninterpretable answers .1 In addition to a remediation policy , the tutorial planner implements an error recovery policy ( Dzikovska et al. , 2009 ) .",923,1
924,"More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature",924,0
925,"We found the same number using our previous approach ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) , which is roughly equivalent to our core module .",925,3
926,Similar things hold for multifaceted properties like intelligence ( Kamp 1975 ) .,926,0
927,"We have shown elsewhere ( Jensen and Binot 1988 ; Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) that natural language programs , such as on-line grammars and dictionaries , can be used as referential levels for commonsense reasoning -- for example , to disambiguate PP attachment .",927,3
928,"( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .",928,2
929,"There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .",929,0
930,Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) reported an intra-subject correlation of r = .85 for 15 subjects judging the similarity of a subset ( 36 ) of the original 65 word pairs .,930,2
931,"Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) .",931,0
932,"More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch ¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch ¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .",932,0
933,"With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .",933,0
934,"For some adjectives , including the ones that Bierwisch ( 1989 ) called evaluative ( as opposed to dimensional ) , this is clearly inadequate .",934,0
935,"WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( Dohsaka et al. , 2000 ) .",935,3
936,"The more conservative approach is to try to integrate existing statistical disambiguation schemes for QLFs , either individually or in a `` packed '' structure ( Alshawi and Carter 1994 ) , with the resolution process as described here .",936,5
937,"They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .",937,4
938,"While many approaches have addressed this problem , our work is most closely related to that of ( Raina et al. , 2005 ; MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ; Tatu and Moldovan , 2006 ; Braz et al. , 2005 ) , which convert the inputs into logical forms and then attempt to ` prove ' H from T plus a set of axioms .",938,2
939,"While this is simply irrelevant for general-purpose morphological analyzers , dealing with such phenomena is crucial for any attempt to cope adequately with medical free-texts in an IR setting ( Wolff , 1984 ) .",939,0
940,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",940,0
941,"In English , where the base form is morphologically simpler than the other two , this rule could be argued to follow from Gricean principles ( Grice 1975 ) .",941,0
942,"More generally , distributional clustering techniques ( Sch ¨ utze , 1992 ; Pereira et al. , 1993 ) could be applied to extract semantic classes from the corpus itself .",942,5
943,"The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",943,0
944,Somers ( 1998 ) replicates the work of Fung and McKeown with different language pairs using the simpler metric of Levenshtein distance .,944,0
945,"• Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .",945,2
946,"Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) as discussed in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997a ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) .",946,0
947,In Marom and Zukerman ( 2007a ) we identified several systems that resemble ours in that they provide answers to queries .,947,0
948,"The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .",948,2
949,"A variety of such lists for many languages are already available ( e.g. , Burnage 1990 ) .",949,0
950,"In principle , this might be done by providing the generator with vague input -- in which case no special algorithms are needed -- but suitably contextualized vague input is often not available ( Mellish 2000 ) .",950,4
951,"Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .",951,0
952,"We induced a two-class word-to-word model of translational equivalence from 13 million words of the Canadian Hansards , aligned using the method in ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) .",952,1
953,"Tenny ( 1987 ) observes that accomplishments differ from achievements only in terms of event duration , which is often a question of granularity .",953,0
954,"[ The current system should be distinguished from an earlier voice system ( VNLC , Biermann et al. 1985 ) , which had no expectation and which handled discrete speech where a 300 millisecond pause must follow each word . ]",954,2
955,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",955,0
956,"He was a grammarian who analysed Sanskrit ( Misra , 1966 ) .",956,0
957,"After much exploration , Demner-Fushman et al. ( 2006 ) discovered that it was not practical to annotate PICO entities at the phrase level due to significant unresolvable disagreement and interannotator reliability issues .",957,0
958,"The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : Charniak and McDermott ( 1985 ) call it abductive unification/matching , Hobbs ( 1978 , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature .",958,0
959,"The OntoNotes-5 .0 dataset , which is released for the CoNLL-2012 Shared Task ( Pradhan et al. , 2012 ) , contains 3,145 annotated documents .",959,1
960,"and Yang et al. ( 2003 ) , as described below .",960,2
961,"We collect substring rationales for a sentiment classification task ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ) and use them to obtain significant accuracy improvements for each annotator .",961,1
962,"We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words .",962,1
963,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",963,0
964,"More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) .",964,0
965,The expectation parser uses an ATN-like representation for its grammar ( Woods 1970 ) .,965,1
966,"• Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .",966,2
967,The error rate on sentence boundaries in the Brown corpus was not significantly worse than the lowest quoted before ( Riley 1989 : 0.28 % vs. 0.20 % error rate ) .,967,2
968,"We follow our previous work ( Hou et al. , 2013b ) and restrict bridging to non-coreferential cases .",968,3
969,"In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) .",969,1
970,"This is in line with our previous findings from ( Prabhakaran et al. , 2014 ) that candidates with higher power attempt to shift topics less often than others when responding to moderators .",970,2
971,"As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .",971,2
972,"It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) .",972,0
973,"It provides a fine grained NE recognition covering 100 different NE types ( Sekine , 2008 ) .",973,1
974,"Only a few such corpora exist , including the Hansard English-French corpus and the HKUST EnglishChinese corpus ( Wu , 1994 ) .",974,0
975,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",975,0
976,"In FAQs , Berger and Mittal ( 2000 ) employed a sentence retrieval approach based on a language model where the entire response to an FAQ is considered a sentence , and the questions and answers are embedded in an FAQ document .",976,0
977,"The statistical significance test is performed by the re-sampling approach ( Koehn , 2004 ) .",977,1
978,"With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .",978,0
979,"Although evaluated on different data sets , this result is consistent with results from previous work ( Gatt and Belz , 2008 ; Gatt et al. , 2009 ) .",979,2
980,"We used the revised experimental setup ( Gurevych , 2005 ) , based on discrete relatedness scores and presentation of word pairs in isolation , that is scalable to the higher number of pairs .",980,1
981,"Robinson , 1982 ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand .",981,2
982,"Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) .3 ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) propose a compilation of lexical rules into TIT definite clauses",982,0
983,"In the United States , for example , governmental bodies are providing and soliciting political documents via the Internet , with lofty goals in mind : electronic rulemaking ( eRulemaking ) initiatives involving the `` electronic collection , distribution , synthesis , and analysis of public commentary in the regulatory rulemaking process '' , may `` [ alter ] the citizen-government relationship '' ( Shulman and Schlosberg , 2002 ) .",983,0
984,"This will become even more interesting when mappings of our synonym identifiers to a large medical thesaurus ( MeSH , ( NLM , 2001 ) ) are incorporated into our system .",984,5
985,"( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .",985,2
986,"raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) .",986,3
987,"Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .",987,0
988,In some systems such dependencies are learned from labeled examples ( Bikel et al. 1997 ) .,988,0
989,"CD for this type of descriptions along the lines of Section 4 is not difficult once relational descriptions are integrated with a standard GRE algorithm ( Krahmer and Theune 2002 , Section 8.6.2 ) : Suppose an initial description is generated describing the set of all those dogs that are in sheds over a given size ( say , size 5 ) ; if this description happens to distinguish an individual dog then this legitimizes the use of the noun phrase the dog in the large shed .",989,0
990,"Michiels proposed rules for doing this for infinitive complement codes ; however there seems to be no principled reason not to extend this approach to computing the underlying relations in other types of VP as well as in cases of NP , AP and PP predication ( see Williams ( 1980 ) , for further discussion ) .",990,0
991,"While wikis have spread from a detailed design ( Cunningham and Leuf , 2001 ) , unfortunately blogs have not been designed under a model .",991,0
992,"In our experiment , we annotated a high number of pairs similar in size to the test sets by Finkelstein ( 2002 ) and Gurevych ( 2006 ) .",992,2
993,"notation of Montague ( 1970 ) is more sophisticated , and may be considered another possibility .",993,2
994,"The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .",994,0
995,"Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .",995,0
996,"Vybornova and Macq ( 2007 ) aimed to embed information by exploiting the linguistic phenomenon of presupposition , with the idea that some presuppositional information can be removed without changing the meaning of a sentence .",996,0
997,"We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) .",997,1
998,"Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , Demner-Fushman and Lin ( 2006 ) .",998,5
999,"Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .",999,0
1000,"Some previous works ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ; Zhao et al. , 2009 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) indicate , as main limitations of the mentioned resources , their limited coverage , their low precision , and the fact that they are mostly suitable to capture relations mainly between single words .",1000,0
1001,"Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( Voorhees 2003 ) .",1001,0
1002,Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) ;,1002,1
1003,"Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .",1003,5
1004,"In addition , there has been much work on the application of linguistic and semantic knowledge to information retrieval ; see Lin and Demner-Fushman ( 2006a ) for a brief overview .",1004,0
1005,"However , Dunning ( 1993 ) claims that the log-likelihood chisquared statistic ( G2 ) is more appropriate for corpus-based NLP .",1005,4
1006,"In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) .",1006,1
1007,This alignment is done on the basis of both length ( Gale and Church [ 7 ] ) and a notion of cognateness ( Simard [ 16 ] ) .,1007,1
1008,"Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .",1008,3
1009,A more detailed discussion of the various available Arabic tag sets can be found in Habash ( 2010 ) .,1009,0
1010,"The high Dirichlet priors are chosen to prevent sparsity in topic distributions , while the other parameters are selected as the best from Hoffman et al. ( 2010 ) .",1010,1
1011,"The resulting speech understanding system is called the Voice Natural Language Computer with Expectation ( VNLCE , Fink 1983 ) .",1011,0
1012,"In our previous papers ( Zhang and Clark 2011 ; Zhang , Blackwood , and Clark 2012 ) , we applied a set of beams to this structure , which makes it similar to the data structure used for phrase-based MT decoding ( Koehn 2010 ) .",1012,2
1013,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",1013,2
1014,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",1014,0
1015,"In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .",1015,0
1016,"A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) .",1016,0
1017,( Michiels ( 1982 ) contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . ),1017,0
1018,"Juola ( 1994 , 1997 ) assumes that words ending in - ed are verbs .",1018,2
1019,"For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) .",1019,1
1020,"We would also provide a user facility for choosing the right licence for every lexia , following the model of Creative Commons licences ( Lessig , 2004 ) .",1020,1
1021,"The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm ¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .",1021,0
1022,"There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .",1022,0
1023,"We have yet to import such a constraint into our model , but we plan to do so in the near future using the weighted majority algorithm ( Littlestone and Warmuth 1992 ) .",1023,5
1024,"Generally speaking , we find that the personal public diary metaphor behind blogs ( McNeill , 2005 ) may bring to an unsatisfactory representation of the context .",1024,0
1025,Most probabilistic translation model reestimation algorithms published to date are variations on the theme proposed by Brown et al. ( 1993b ) .,1025,0
1026,"A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .",1026,0
1027,"The significance testing is performed by paired bootstrap re-sampling ( Koehn , 2004 ) .",1027,1
1028,"The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) .",1028,1
1029,"IGEN uses standard chart generation techniques ( Kay , 1996 ) in its base generator to efficiently produce generation candidates .",1029,0
1030,"Position , subcat frame , phrase type , first word , last word , subcat frame + , predicate , path , head word and its POS , predicate + head word , predicate + phrase type , path to BA and BEI , verb class 3 , verb class + head word , verb class + phrase type , from Xue ( 2008 ) .",1030,1
1031,"The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency .",1031,0
1032,"A number of studies ( e.g. , Hildebrandt , Katz , and Lin 2004 ) have pointed out shortcomings of the original nugget scoring model , although a number of these issues have been recently addressed ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005a , 2006b ) .",1032,0
1033,Nasr ( 1997 ) reported that the translation lexicon that our model induced from this tiny bitext accounted for 30 % of the word types with precision between 84 % and 90 % .,1033,0
1034,Kinyon and Prolo ( 2002 ) describe a simple tool which uses fine-grained rules to identify the arguments of verb occurrences in the Penn-II Treebank .,1034,0
1035,"The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output .",1035,2
1036,Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area .,1036,0
1037,"The principle of maximum entropy states that when one searches among probability distributions that model the observed data ( evidence ) , the preferred one is the one that maximizes the entropy ( a measure of the uncertainty of the model ) ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .",1037,0
1038,"In the context of word alignment , Deng and Byrne ( 2005 ) use a state-duration HMM in order to model word-to-phrase translations .",1038,0
1039,"With respect to the focus on function words , our reordering model is closely related to the UALIGN system ( Hermjakob , 2009 ) .",1039,2
1040,"We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( Matsuzaki et al. , 2005 ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) .",1040,5
1041,"Selectional Preferences have also been a recent focus of researchers investigating the learning of paraphrases and inference rules ( Pantel et al. , 2007 ; Roberto et al. , 2007 ) .",1041,0
1042,"Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .",1042,0
1043,"Something like this approach is in fact used in some systems ( e.g. , Elhadad and Robin 1992 ; PenMan 1989 ; Hovy 1988a ) .",1043,0
1044,"The emphasis on narrativity takes into account the use of blogs as public diaries on the web , that is still the main current interpretation of this literary genre , or metagenre ( McNeill , 2005 ) .",1044,0
1045,"For example , it would be helpful to consider strong correspondence between certain English and Chinese words , as in ( Wu , 1994 ) .",1045,5
1046,"The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and",1046,1
1047,"We take some core ideas from our previous work on mining script information ( Regneri et al. , 2010 ) .",1047,3
1048,"While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .",1048,0
1049,"Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .",1049,0
1050,"• A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .",1050,2
1051,"Our work on the prosodic phrase status of clause final prepositional phrases , which we discuss below , suggests the existence of a discourse-neutral phrasing that depends on syntactic constituency mediated by string adjacency and length of a potential prosodic phrase .3 Such phrasing provides us with a typical phrasing pattern analogous to the typical phrasal stress patterns examined in Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) , which `` are often overwhelmed by the chiaroscuro of highlight and background in discourse , but retain the status of null-hypothesis patterns that emerge when Computational Linguistics Volume 16 , Number 3 , September 1990 157 J. Bachenko and E. Fitzpatrick Discourse-Neutral Prosodic Phrasing in English there is no good reason to take some other option '' ( p. 251 ) .",1051,2
1052,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",1052,0
1053,"When objects are compared in terms of several dimensions , these dimensions can be weighed in different ways ( e.g. , Rasmusen 1989 ) .",1053,0
1054,"Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .",1054,0
1055,"While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .",1055,0
1056,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",1056,1
1057,"The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) .",1057,0
1058,"The features can be easily obtained by modifying the TAT extraction algorithm described in ( Liu et al. , 2006 ) .",1058,3
1059,"Marinov and Hemming ( 2004 ) present preliminary work on the automatic extraction of subcategorization frames for Bulgarian from the BulTreeBank ( Simov , Popova , and Osenova 2002 ) .",1059,0
1060,"The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",1060,0
1061,"ASARES is based on a Machine Learning technique , Inductive Logic Programming ( ILP ) ( Muggleton and De-Raedt , 1994 ) , which infers general morpho-syntactic patterns from a set of examples ( this set is noted E + hereafter ) and counter-examples ( E − ) of the elements one",1061,0
1062,Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms .,1062,0
1063,"Expanding on a suggestion of Michiels ( 1982 ) , we classify verbs as Subject Equi , Object Equi , Subject Raising or Object Raising for each sense which has a predicate complement code associated with it .",1063,3
1064,"This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .",1064,2
1065,"For more information on CATiB , see Habash and Roth ( 2009 ) and Habash , Faraj , and Roth ( 2009 ) .",1065,0
1066,"With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) .",1066,0
1067,"Experiments ( Section 5 ) show that forestbased extraction improves BLEU score by over 1 point on a state-of-the-art tree-to-string system ( Liu et al. , 2006 ; Mi et al. , 2008 ) , which is also 0.5 points better than ( and twice as fast as ) extracting on 30-best parses .",1067,3
1068,"Our approach to extract and classify social events builds on our previous work ( Agarwal and Rambow , 2010 ) , which in turn builds on work from the relation extraction community ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) .",1068,3
1069,"Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit",1069,0
1070,"For example , speech repairs , particle omission , and fillers can be dealt with in the framework of unification grammar ( Nakano et al. , 1994 ; Nakano and Shimazu , 1999 ) .",1070,5
1071,Levenberg et al. ( 2012 ) employed a Bayesian method to learn discontinuous SCFG rules .,1071,2
1072,Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) .,1072,1
1073,We use the same splits as Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) .,1073,1
1074,"These results are slightly worse than those obtained in previous studies using the same annotation scheme ( Jokinen et al. , 2008 ) , but are still sat -",1074,2
1075,"In Chomsky and Halle ( 1968 ) , this flattening process is not part of the grammar .",1075,0
1076,"MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) .",1076,0
1077,"There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .",1077,0
1078,"He lists , classifies , and discusses various types of inference , by which he means , generally , `` the linguistic-logical notions of consequent and presupposition '' Crothers ( 1979:112 ) have collected convincing evidence of the existence of language chunks -- real structures , not just orthographic conventions -- that are smaller than a discourse , larger than a sentence , generally composed of sentences , and recursive in nature ( like sentences ) .",1078,0
1079,"For this research , we used a coreference resolution system ( ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) ) that implements different sets of heuristics corresponding to various forms of coreference .",1079,1
1080,"The work that is most similar to ours is that of Chang et al. ( 2007 ) , who introduced the Constraint Driven Learning algorithm ( CODL ) .",1080,2
1081,"For example , in ordinary HMM training , xi = E * and represents a completely hidden state sequence ( cfXXX Ristad ( 1998 ) , who allows any regular set ) , while yi is a single string representing a completely observed emission sequence .11 What to optimize ?",1081,0
1082,Fraser ( 2009 ) tried to solve the inflection prediction problem by simply building an SMT system for translating from stems to inflected forms .,1082,2
1083,"As shown in ( Okanohara and Tsujii , 2007 ) , using this representation , a linear classifier can not distinguish sentences sampled from a trigram and real sentences .",1083,4
1084,"Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .",1084,0
1085,"This framework , where the `` semantic load '' is spread more evenly throughout the lexicon to lexical categories not typically thought to bear semantic content , is essentially the model advocated by Pustejovsky ( 1991a ) , among many others .",1085,0
1086,Xia ( 1999 ) also presents a similar method for the extraction of a TAG from the Penn Treebank .,1086,0
1087,"To a first approximation , a CURRENT-FOCUS reaches only nodes that are c-commanded ( Chomsky 1977 ) by its generator .",1087,0
1088,"A previous work along this line is Sproat et al. ( 1996 ) , which is based on weighted finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) .",1088,2
1089,"Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .",1089,0
1090,Berger et al ( 1996 ) describe an efficient algorithm for accomplishing this in which approximations to Pst ( TIS ) are computed in parallel for all ( new ) features ft by holding all weights in the existing model fixed and optimizing only over a8t .,1090,0
1091,"As suggested in Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) this can be done by looking up the ranks of each of the four given words ( i.e. the words occurring in a particular word equation ) within the association vector of a translation candidate , and by multiplying these ranks .",1091,4
1092,32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation .,1092,0
1093,This article represents an extension of our previous work on unsupervised event coreference resolution ( Bejan et al. 2009 ; Bejan and Harabagiu 2010 ) .,1093,3
1094,"These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .",1094,0
1095,"See , among others , ( Ramakrishnan et al. 1992 ) .",1095,0
1096,"In Table 2 , lem refers to the LTAG parser ( Sarkar et al. , 2000 ) , ANSI C implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs the head corner parsing ( van Noord , 1994 ) without features ( phase 1 ) , and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .",1096,2
1097,Burkett and Klein ( 2008 ) and Burkett et al. ( 2010 ) focused on joint parsing and alignment .,1097,2
1098,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",1098,0
1099,"For example , when books should n't be copied by hand any longer , authors took the advantage and start writing original books and evaluation -- i.e. literary criticism -- unlike in the previous times ( Eisenstein , 1983 ) .",1099,0
1100,"Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks .",1100,0
1101,"Since the language generation module works in parallel with the language understanding module , utterance generation is possible even while the system is listening to user utterances and that utterance understanding is possible even while it is speaking ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) .",1101,0
1102,"This idea was expanded to include nouns and their modifiers through verb nominalizations ( Chomsky , 1970 ; Quirk et al. , 1985 ) .",1102,0
1103,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",1103,0
1104,"Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( Collins , 2000 ) .",1104,0
1105,"9 We only use the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) here to reduce the complexity of the sampler .",1105,1
1106,"FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism .",1106,0
1107,"In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) .",1107,1
1108,"Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .",1108,0
1109,"Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .",1109,0
1110,"results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En → Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) .",1110,1
1111,"A statistical technique which has recently become popular for NLP is Maximum Entropy/Minimum Divergence ( MEMD ) modeling ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .",1111,1
1112,"Our baseline coreference system uses the C4 .5 decision tree learner ( Quinlan , 1993 ) to acquire a classifier on the training texts for determining whether two NPs are coreferent .",1112,1
1113,"This alignment is obtained by following the same set of rules learned from the development dataset as in ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) .",1113,1
1114,"Developed Systems Our developed system is built on the work by Chang et al. ( 2013 ) , using Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) as our mention-pair coreference model in the joint framework10 .",1114,1
1115,"The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus .",1115,2
1116,"Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .",1116,0
1117,"These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .",1117,0
1118,"The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .",1118,2
1119,Bolter ( 1991 ) was the first scholar who stressed the impact of the digital revolution to the medium of writing .,1119,0
1120,"A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( Sedivy et al. 1999 ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known .",1120,0
1121,"Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( Rambow & Satta , 1996 ) .",1121,0
1122,"In our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) , we applied this method to a small subset of WordNet nouns and showed potential applicability .",1122,3
1123,"Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .",1123,0
1124,"the mention sub-type , which is a sub-category of the mention type ( ACE , 2004 ) ( e.g. OrgGovernmental , FacilityPath , etc. ) .",1124,1
1125,"For more details on the proprieties of SSTC , see Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .",1125,0
1126,"This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J ¨ appinen and Niemist ¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc ¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) .",1126,0
1127,"Specifically , we used Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) for Doc-Pred , and SVMs ( Vapnik 1998 ) for Sent-Pred .11 Additionally , we used unigrams for clustering documents and sentences , and unigrams and bigrams for predicting document clusters and sentence clusters ( Sections 3.1.2 and 3.2.2 ) .",1127,1
1128,"To prepare SMT outputs for post-editing , the creators of the corpus used their own WMT10 system ( Potet et al. , 2010 ) , based on the Moses phrase-based decoder ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) with dense features .",1128,1
1129,"To model o ( Li , S → T ) , o ( Ri , S → T ) , i.e. the reordering of the neighboring phrases of a function word , we employ the orientation model introduced by Setiawan et al. ( 2007 ) .",1129,1
1130,"The syntactic structures of the input data are produced by a parser with good coverage and detailed syntactic information , DIPETT ( Delisle and Szpakowicz , 1995 ) .",1130,1
1131,"In particular , ( Gross , 1989 ) lists the converses of some 3 500 predicative nouns .",1131,5
1132,"This is similar to the `` deletion '' strategy employed by Zettlemoyer and Collins ( 2007 ) , but we do it directly in the grammar .",1132,2
1133,"Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) .",1133,2
1134,"Many NLP applications require knowledge about semantic relatedness rather than just similarity ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) .",1134,0
1135,"Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .",1135,0
1136,It has been shown ( Roland and Jurafsky 1998 ) that the subcategorization tendencies of verbs vary across linguistic domains .,1136,4
1137,"In the system , we extract both the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) , and the rules of SPMT Model 1 ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) with phrases up to length L = 5 on the source side .",1137,1
1138,"Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .",1138,0
1139,"One of the better-known approaches is described in Grefenstette and Tapanainen ( 1994 ) , which suggested that abbreviations first be extracted from a corpus using abbreviation-guessing heuristics akin to those described in Section 6 and then reused in further processing .",1139,0
1140,"Unlike the models proposed by Brown et al. ( 1993b ) , this model is symmetric , because both word bags are generated together from a joint probability distribution .",1140,2
1141,"We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words .",1141,1
1142,"( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .",1142,0
1143,"Our work extends directions taken in systems such as Ariane ( Vauquois and Boitet , 1985 ) , FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) , and LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) .",1143,3
1144,"Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .",1144,0
1145,"Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .",1145,0
1146,Association Norms ( AN ) is a collection of association norms collected by Schulte im Walde et al. ( 2012 ) .,1146,1
1147,"Stanford University is developing the English Resource Grammar , an HPSG grammar for English , as a part of the Linguistic Grammars Online ( LinGO ) project ( Flickinger , 2000 ) .",1147,0
1148,"The changes made were inspired by those described in Stetina and Nagao ( 1997 , page 75 ) .",1148,4
1149,"The grammar code system used in LDOCE is based quite closely on the descriptive grammatical framework of Quirk et al. ( 1972 , 1985 ) .",1149,3
1150,"Our task was made possible by the fact that while far from being a database in the accepted sense of the word , the LDOCE typesetting tape is the only truly computerised dictionary of English ( Michiels , 1983 ) .",1150,0
1151,A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) .,1151,0
1152,"Using the GHKM algorithm ( Galley et al. 2004 ) , we can get two different STSG derivations from the two U-trees based on the fixed word alignment .",1152,1
1153,"The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) .",1153,0
1154,"Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .",1154,0
1155,"Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .",1155,0
1156,Our HDP extension is also inspired from the Bayesian model proposed by Haghighi and Klein ( 2007 ) .,1156,4
1157,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",1157,0
1158,"As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .",1158,2
1159,"To combine the phrasal matching scores obtained at each n-gram level , and optimize their relative weights , we trained a Support Vector Machine classifier , SVMlight ( Joachims , 1999 ) , using each score as a feature .",1159,1
1160,"Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .",1160,0
1161,"For an overview of systems designed to answer open-domain factoid questions , the TREC QA track overview papers are a good place to start ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ) .",1161,0
1162,"Another interesting extension is to broaden the definition of a `` word '' to include multi-word lexical units ( Smadja , 1992 ) .",1162,5
1163,"For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers .",1163,0
1164,"From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .",1164,0
1165,"This approach has occasionally been taken , as in Kantrowitz and Bates ( 1992 ) and Danlos ( 1987 ) and , at least implicitly , in Paris and Scott ( 1994 ) and Delin et al. ( 1994 ) ; however , under this approach , all of the flexibility and simplicity of modular design is lost .",1165,0
1166,"Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .",1166,0
1167,"In this paper , we use the Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) described in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) in our experiments .",1167,1
1168,"We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) .",1168,1
1169,"Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) .",1169,0
1170,"An alternative representation based on Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) is presented in Selkirk ( 1984 ) , which contends that prosody , including prosodic phrasing , is more properly represented as a grid instead of a tree .",1170,2
1171,"For the joint segmentation and POS-tagging task , we present a novel solution using the framework in this article , and show that it gives comparable accuracies to our previous work ( Zhang and Clark 2008a ) , while being more than an order of magnitude faster .",1171,2
1172,"According to the data available from 1990 U.S. Census Bureau , only 90,000 different names are shared by 100 million people ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ) .",1172,0
1173,"Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) .",1173,0
1174,"• History-based feature models for predicting the next parser action ( Black et al. , 1992 ) .",1174,1
1175,"For each co-occurring pair of word types u and v , these likelihoods are initially set proportional to their co-occurrence frequency ( „ , v ) and inversely proportional to their marginal frequencies n ( u ) and n ( v ) 1 , following ( Dunning , 1993 ) 2 .",1175,1
1176,"However , rather than output this wrong translation directly , we use a post hoc validation and ( if required ) correction process based on Grefenstette ( 1999 ) .",1176,1
1177,"Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .",1177,0
1178,The powerful mechanism of lexical rules ( Carpenter 1991 ) has been used in many natural language processing systems .,1178,0
1179,"The version proposed here combines a basic insight from Lewin ( 1990 ) with higher-order unification to give an analysis that has a strong resemblance to that proposed in Pereira ( 1990 , 1991 ) , with some differences that are commented on below .",1179,2
1180,Liang et al. ( 2006 ) presented a perceptron-based algorithm for learning the phrase-translation parameters in a statistical machine translation system .,1180,2
1181,"NLG has to do more than select a distinguishing description ( i.e. , one that unambiguously denotes its referent ; Dale 1989 ) : The selected expression should also be felicitous .",1181,0
1182,"Juola ( 1994 , 1997 ) conducts some small experiments using his METLA system to show the viability of this approach for English − > French and English − > Urdu .",1182,0
1183,"This idea of preserving properties can be considered an instance of the well-known frame problem in AT ( McCarthy and Hayes 1969 ) , and we will therefore refer to the specifications left implicit by the linguist as the frame specification , or simply frame , of a lexical rule .",1183,2
1184,"All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( Nivre et al. , 2006 ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1",1184,1
1185,"One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) .",1185,0
1186,"Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training .",1186,5
1187,"Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .",1187,0
1188,"Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) .",1188,0
1189,We chose to follow Ng and Low ( 2004 ) and split the sentences evenly to facilitate further comparison .,1189,1
1190,"That is , a document that contains terms al , a2 and a3 may be ranked higher than a document which contains terms al and b.f. However , the second document is more likely to be relevant since correct translations of the query terms are more likely to co-occur ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ) .",1190,0
1191,"The last years have seen considerable advances in the field of anaphora resolution , but a number of outstanding issues either remain unsolved or need more attention and , as a consequence , represent major challenges to the further development of the field ( Mitkov 2001a ) .",1191,5
1192,"Using an accumulator passing technique ( O'Keefe 1990 ) , we ensure that upon execution of a call to the interaction predicate q_1 a new lexical entry is derived as the result of successive application of a number of lexical rules .",1192,1
1193,"However , most strategies are based on `` internal '' or `` external methods '' ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) , i.e. methods that rely on the form of terms or on the information gathered from contexts .",1193,2
1194,"With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) .",1194,0
1195,"A substring in the sentence that corresponds to a node in the representation tree is denoted by assigning the interval of the substring to SNODE of 2 These definitions are based on the discussion in ( Tang , 1994 ) and Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .",1195,1
1196,"The Web People Search task , as defined in the first WePS evaluation campaign ( Artiles et al. , 2007 ) , consists of grouping search results for a given name according to the different people that share it .",1196,0
1197,"Although this is only true in cases where y occurs in an upward monotone context ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) , in practice genuine contradictions between y-values sharing a meronym relationship are extremely rare .",1197,4
1198,"We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .",1198,1
1199,Erk ( 2007 ) compared a number of techniques for creating similar-word sets and found that both the Jaccard coefficient and Lin ( 1998a ) 's information-theoretic metric work best .,1199,0
1200,"We previously showed that incorporating this intuition into a Bayesian prior can help train a CCG supertagger ( Garrette et al. , 2014 ) .",1200,3
1201,"4 To turn this likelihood into a certainty , one can add a test at the end of the algorithm , which adds a type-related property if none is present yet ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) .",1201,0
1202,"For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .",1202,0
1203,"Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) .",1203,0
1204,"It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) .",1204,2
1205,"The ConTroll grammar development system as described in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997b ) implements the above mentioned techniques for compiling an HPSG theory into typed feature grammars .",1205,0
1206,"After calculating the raw score of each sentence , we use a modified version of the Adaptive Greedy Algorithm by Filatova and Hatzivassiloglou ( 2004 ) to penalize redundant sentences in cohesive clusters .",1206,1
1207,"If each word 's translation is treated as a sense tag ( Resnik and Yarowsky 1997 ) , then `` translational '' collocations have the unique property that the collocate and the word sense are one and the same !",1207,1
1208,"The values of a vector correspond to the presence or absence of each ( lemmatized ) corpus word in the document in question ( after removing stop-words and words with very low frequency ) .4 The predictive model is a Decision Graph ( Oliver 1993 ) , which , like Snob , is based on the MML principle .",1208,1
1209,"Therefore , in order to be able to incorporate long-range dependencies in our models , we chose to adopt a re-ranking approach ( Collins 2000 ) , which selects from likely assignments generated by a model which makes stronger independence assumptions .",1209,1
1210,"However , it is possible to think about constraining linguistic or logical predicates by simulating physical experiences ( cfXXX Woods 1987 ) .",1210,0
1211,"One , the VOYAGER domain ( Zue et al. 1990 ) , answers questions about places of interest in an urban area , in our case , the vicinity of MIT and Harvard University .",1211,1
1212,"Our task is closer to the work of Teufel and Moens ( 2000 ) , who looked at the problem of intellectual attribution in scientific texts .",1212,2
1213,"In the seminal work by Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) , similarity judgments were obtained from 51 test subjects on 65 noun pairs written on paper cards .",1213,0
1214,"( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .",1214,2
1215,"Jackendoff ( 1983 , p. 14 ) writes `` it would be perverse not to take as a working assumption that language is a relatively efficient and accurate encoding of the information it conveys . ''",1215,2
1216,"See also ( Colmerauer , 1982 ; Naish , 1986 ) .",1216,0
1217,Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .,1217,0
1218,"We parsed the 3 GB AQUAINT corpus ( Voorhees , 2002 ) using Minipar ( Lin , 1998b ) , and collected verb-object and verb-subject frequencies , building an empirical MI model from this data .",1218,1
1219,"More specifically , we use LIBSVM ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) with a quadratic kernel K ( xZ , xj ) = ( - yxT xj + r ) 2 and the built-in one-versus-all strategy for multi-class classification .",1219,1
1220,"It is wasteful to compute ti as suggested earlier , by minimizing ( cxxi ) of o ( yixE ) , since then the real work is done by an c-closure step ( Mohri , 2002 ) that implements the all-pairs version of algebraic path , whereas all we need is the single-source version .",1220,0
1221,"positional features that have been employed by highwe can see , the baseline achieves an F-measure of performing resolvers such as Ng and Cardie ( 2002 ) 57.0 and a resolution accuracy of 48.4 .",1221,2
1222,"Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) .",1222,5
1223,"Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection .",1223,0
1224,"The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) .",1224,0
1225,It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .,1225,0
1226,"For example , the suite of LT tools ( Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Grover et al. , 2000 ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly .",1226,0
1227,"It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) .",1227,1
1228,"To retrieve translation examples for a test sentence , ( Watanabe and Sumita , 2003 ) defined a metric based on the combination of edit distance and TF-IDF ( Manning and Sch ¨ utze , 1999 ) as follows :",1228,1
1229,"By using the EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) , they can guarantee convergence towards the globally optimum parameter set .",1229,0
1230,"• use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , • use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , • a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , • a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , • implementation of new types of paraphrasing , • checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and • examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns .",1230,5
1231,"Previous work has developed various approaches for grounded semantics mainly for the reference resolution task , i.e. , identifying visual objects in the environment given language descriptions ( Dhande , 2003 ; Gorniak and Roy , 2004 ; Tenbrink and Moratz , 2003 ; Siebert and Schlangen , 2008 ; Liu et al. , 2012 ) .",1231,3
1232,"In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .",1232,0
1233,"To provide the required configurability in the static version of the code we will use policy templates ( Alexandrescu , 2001 ) , and for the dynamic version we will use configuration classes .",1233,1
1234,Lee et al. ( 2003 ) demonstrates a technique for segmenting Arabic text and uses it as a morphological processing step in machine translation .,1234,1
1235,"In informal experiments described elsewhere ( Melamed 1995 ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 .",1235,3
1236,"• language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) • monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) • grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) • insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) • machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )",1236,0
1237,A recent study by Katz-Brown et al. ( 2011 ) also investigates the task of training parsers to improve MT reordering .,1237,2
1238,"Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .",1238,0
1239,15 Hinrichs and Nakazawa ( 1996 ) show that the question of whether the application criterion of lexical rules should be a subsumption or a unification test is an important question deserving of more attention .,1239,0
1240,"Latent Dirichlet Allocation ( Blei et al. , 2003 ) , or LDA , is an unsupervised Bayesian probabilistic model of text documents .",1240,0
1241,"Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .",1241,5
1242,"Third , the paradigm of evidence-based medicine ( Sackett et al. 2000 ) provides a task-based model of the clinical information-seeking process .",1242,0
1243,Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) introduced factored SMT .,1243,2
1244,"Both systems are built around from the maximum-entropy technique ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .",1244,1
1245,"We chose the adjectives as follows : we first compiled a list of all the polysemous adjectives mentioned in the lexical semantics literature ( Vendler , 1968 ; Pustejovsky , 1995 ) .",1245,1
1246,"Most web-derived corpora have exploited raw text or HTML pages , so efforts have focussed on boilerplate removal and cleanup of these formats with tools like Hyppia-BTE , Tidy and Parcels3 ( Baroni and Sharoff , 2005 ) .",1246,0
1247,"Undesirable consequences of this fact have been termed `` label bias '' ( Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .",1247,0
1248,"For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around .",1248,1
1249,"Some researchers , however , including Goldberg and Elhadad ( 2010 ) , train on predicted feature values instead .",1249,2
1250,"Their computational significance arises from the issue of their storage in lexical resources like WordNet ( Fellbaum , 1998 ) and raises the questions like , how to store morphologically complex words , in a lexical resource like WordNet keeping in mind the storage and access efficiency .",1250,0
1251,"Fortunately , there exists a compact PCFG-reduction of DOP1 that generates the same trees with the same probabilities , as shown by Goodman ( 1996 , 2002 ) .",1251,0
1252,"Crystal ( 1969 ) claims that prosodic phrase boundaries will co-occur with grammatical functions such as subject , predicate , modifier , and adjunct .",1252,0
1253,"We rephrase the method of Grimley-Evans ( 1997 ) as follows : First , we construct the approximating finite automaton according to the unparameterized RTN method above .",1253,1
1254,"6The analysis is reminiscent of the treatment of coordination in the Collins parser ( Collins , 1999 ) .",1254,2
1255,"The work is carried out in order to assist terminographers in the enrichment of a dictionary on computing that includes collocational information ( L'Homme , 2004 ) .",1255,4
1256,"CornmandTalk ( Moore et al. , 1997 ) , Circuit Fix-It Shop ( Smith , 1997 ) and TRAINS-96 ( Traum and Allen , 1994 ; Traum and Andersen , 1999 ) are spoken language systems but they interface to simulation or help facilities rather than semi-autonomous agents .",1256,0
1257,"The annotation procedure is dependent on locating the head daughter , for which an amended version of Magerman ( 1994 ) is used .",1257,1
1258,Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .,1258,2
1259,"For instance , Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) recently wrote : `` To our knowledge , learning algorithms , although promising , have not ( yet ) reached the level of rule sets developed by humans '' ( p. 520 ) .",1259,0
1260,"Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of Avramidis and Koehn ( 2008 ) , Yeniterzi and Oflazer ( 2010 ) and others .",1260,2
1261,"We use an in-house statistical tagger ( based on ( Church , 1988 ) ) to tag the text in which the unknown word occurs .",1261,1
1262,"Based on a computational grammar that associates natural language expressions with both a syntactic and a semantic representation , a paraphrastic gram ` As we shall briefly discuss in section 4 , the grammar is developed with the help of a meta-grammar ( Candito , 1999 ) thus ensuring an additional level of abstraction .",1262,1
1263,"There are very few reported attempts at corpus-based automation of help-desk responses ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .",1263,2
1264,"Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .",1264,2
1265,"The disambiguation of person names in Web results is usually compared to two other Natural Language Processing tasks : Word Sense Disambiguation ( WSD ) ( Agirre and Edmonds , 2006 ) and Cross-document Coreference ( CDC ) ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ) .",1265,0
1266,"Our own work ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) extends the first idea to paraphrase fragment extraction on monolingual parallel and comparable corpora .",1266,3
1267,"They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .",1267,4
1268,"Current state-of-the-art statistical parsers ( Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ) are all trained on large annotated corpora such as the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Santorini , and Marcinkiewicz 1993 ) .",1268,0
1269,"Although the parser only derives projective graphs , the fact that graphs are labeled allows non-projective dependencies to be captured using the pseudoprojective approach of Nivre and Nilsson ( 2005 ) .",1269,0
1270,Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .,1270,2
1271,"The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) .",1271,0
1272,A detailed introduction to the SBD problem can be found in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) .,1272,0
1273,"Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .",1273,0
1274,"The BEETLE II system architecture is designed to overcome these limitations ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) .",1274,0
1275,"For the evaluation of the results we use the BLEU score ( Papineni et al. , 2001 ) .",1275,1
1276,"There are very few reported attempts at corpus-based automation of help-desk responses ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .",1276,2
1277,"For an introduction to maximum entropy modeling and training procedures , the reader is referred to the corresponding literature , for instance ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) or ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .",1277,0
1278,"This design idea was adopted from TANKA ( Barker et al. , 1997b ) .",1278,1
1279,"The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .",1279,2
1280,"In addition to its explanatory capacity , this symbolic acquisition technique has obtained good results for other acquisition tasks when compared to existing statistical techniques ( Bouillon et al. , 2002 ) .",1280,4
1281,"The context of a current token ti is clearly one of the most important features in predicting whether ti is a mention or not ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) .",1281,0
1282,"Features using the word context ( left and right tokens ) have been shown to be very helpful in coreference resolution ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .",1282,1
1283,"Here , the PET and GR kernel perform similar : this is different from the results of ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) where GR performed much worse than PET for ACE data .",1283,2
1284,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",1284,0
1285,"Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .",1285,0
1286,"This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage .",1286,2
1287,Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) .,1287,0
1288,"For example , Radzinsky ( 1991 ) proves that Chinese numerals such as wu zhao zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao wu zhao , for the number 5000000000000000005000000000000005000000000005000000005000 , are not context-free , which implies that Chinese is not a context-free language and thus might parse in exponential worst-case time .",1288,0
1289,Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) also note that the applicability of paraphrases is strongly influenced by context .,1289,0
1290,"Promising features for classification include part of speech , frequency of co-occurrence , relative word position , and translational entropy ( Melamed , 1997 ) .",1290,5
1291,"For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .",1291,0
1292,"like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) .",1292,0
1293,"In a final processing stage , we generalize over the marker lexicon following a process found in Block ( 2000 ) .",1293,1
1294,"One approach to this problem consists in defining , within the Cut-free atomic-id space , normal form derivations in which the succession of rule application is regulated ( Konig 1989 , Hepple 1990 , Hendriks 1993 ) .",1294,0
1295,"The SPR uses rules automatically learned from training data , using techniques similar to ( Collins , 2000 ; Freund et al. , 1998 ) .",1295,2
1296,McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .,1296,2
1297,"For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( Gross , 1975 ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions .",1297,5
1298,"These operations are not domain-specific and are similar to those of previous aggregation components ( Rambow and Korelsky ,1992 ; Shaw , 1998 ; Danlos , 2000 ) , although the various MERGE operations are , to our knowledge , novel in this form .",1298,0
1299,"Following construction of the marker lexicon , the ( source , target ) chunks are generalized further using a methodology based on Block ( 2000 ) to permit a limited form of insertion in the translation process .",1299,1
1300,"ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .",1300,0
1301,"The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .",1301,0
1302,"Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( Kaplan and Bresnan , 1982 ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( Shieber , 1984 ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language .",1302,0
1303,"The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) .",1303,0
1304,"Lebart and Rajman ( 2000 ) argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task .",1304,0
1305,"The first direct application of parse forest in translation is our previous work ( Mi et al. , 2008 ) which translates a packed forest from a parser ; it is also the base system in our experiments ( see below ) .",1305,3
1306,4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gerdemann 1995 ) .,1306,0
1307,"In their Gaijin system , Veale and Way ( 1997 ) give a result of 63 % accurate translations obtained for English − > German on a test set of 791 sentences from CorelDRAW manuals .",1307,2
1308,"This method can be generalized , inspired by Stolcke and Segal ( 1994 ) , who derive N-gram probabilities from stochastic context-free grammars .",1308,0
1309,"The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .",1309,2
1310,"The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) .",1310,0
1311,"The paraphrase dictionary that we use was generated for us by Chris Callison-Burch , using the technique described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , which exploits a parallel corpus and methods developed for statistical machine translation .",1311,1
1312,"To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .",1312,0
1313,"This approach has now gained wide usage , as exemplified by the work of Collins ( 1996 , 1999 ) , Charniak ( 1996 , 1997 ) , Johnson ( 1998 ) , Chiang ( 2000 ) , and many others .",1313,4
1314,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",1314,0
1315,"Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( Keller et al. , 2002 ) .",1315,0
1316,"As such it resembles the parser of the grammar development system Attribute Language Engine ( ALE ) of ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) .",1316,2
1317,"de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .",1317,0
1318,"Research that is more similar in goal to that outlined in this paper is Vosse ( Vosse , 1992 ) .",1318,2
1319,Mani and MacMillan ( 1995 ) pointed out that little attention had been paid in the named-entity recognition field to the discourse properties of proper names .,1319,1
1320,Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) .,1320,1
1321,"While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( Church and Hanks 1990 ) :",1321,1
1322,"Following Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition .",1322,1
1323,"From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .",1323,0
1324,"The Gsearch system ( Corley et al. , 2001 ) also selects sentences by syntactic criteria from large on-line text collections .",1324,0
1325,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",1325,0
1326,"See also the work of Byrd and Chodorow ( 1985 ) , which considers computer-based pronunciation by analogy but does not mention the possible application to text-to-speech synthesis .",1326,0
1327,"The resulting list of POS-tagged lemmas is weighted using the SMART ` ltc ' 8 tf.idf-weighting scheme ( Salton , 1989 ) .",1327,1
1328,"The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency .",1328,0
1329,"Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .",1329,0
1330,"Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .",1330,2
1331,"• cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , • multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , • computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , Nerbonne et al. 1997 ) , • certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , • concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( e.g. , Catizone , Russell , and Warwick 1989 ; Gale and Church 1991 ) ,",1331,0
1332,"One would think that the type information ti , which is more specific than that 16 A linguistic example based on the signature given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) would be a lexical rule deriving predicative signs from nonpredicative ones , i.e. , changing the PRD value of substantive signs from -- to - F , much like the lexical rule for NPs given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , p. 360 , fn .",1332,0
1333,"• language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) • monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) • grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) • insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) • machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )",1333,0
1334,"Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .",1334,0
1335,"As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) .",1335,0
1336,An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) .,1336,0
1337,"Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .",1337,5
1338,"Crothers ( 1979 , p. 112 ) , for example , bemoans the fact that his `` theory lacks a world knowledge component , a mental ` encyclopedia , ' which could be invoked to generate inferences ... '' .",1338,0
1339,"However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( Marcus et al. 1994 ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences .",1339,0
1340,"The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .",1340,2
1341,"It also shows the structural identity to bilingual grammars as used in ( Wu , 1996 ) .",1341,1
1342,"Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations .",1342,0
1343,"100000 word stems of German ( Neumann et al. , 1997 ) .",1343,1
1344,"The computational treatment of lexical rules proposed can be seen as an extension to the principled method discussed by Gotz and Meurers ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997b ) for encoding the main building block of HPSG grammars -- the implicative constraints -- as a logic program .",1344,3
1345,"Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , Collins ( 2002 ) , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability .",1345,0
1346,"The goal of the JAVOX toolkit is to speech-enable traditional desktop applications -- this is similar to the goals of the MELISSA project ( Schmidt et al. , 1998 ) .",1346,2
1347,The simplest strategy for ordering adjectives is what Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) call the direct evidence method .,1347,0
1348,"The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .",1348,0
1349,"Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .",1349,0
1350,"`` petty conversational implicature '' ( Hobbs 1979 ) , or the metarules of Section 5.2 ?",1350,0
1351,"Unlike other POS taggers , this POS tagger ( Mikheev 2000 ) was also trained to disambiguate sentence boundaries .",1351,1
1352,"On the other hand , experiments indicate that mental representation and processing of morphologically complex words are not quite language independent ( Taft , 2004 ) .",1352,0
1353,"ASARES has been previously applied to the acquisition of word pairs sharing semantic relations defined in the Generative Lexicon framework ( Pustejovsky , 1995 ) and called qualia relations ( Bouillon et al. , 2001 ) .",1353,0
1354,"People are much more likely to consult such evaluative statements than the actual text of a bill or law under discussion , given the dense nature of legislative language and the fact that ( U.S. ) bills often reach several hundred pages in length ( Smith et al. , 2005 ) .",1354,0
1355,"For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( Flickinger et al. , 1987 ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which includes some 9500 test items for English , French and German , each of them being annotated with syntactic and application related information ( Oepen and Flickinger , 1998 ) .",1355,0
1356,"Its significance is reflected both in the growing interest in annotation software for word sense tagging ( Edmonds and Kilgarriff , 2002 ) and in the long-standing use of part-of-speech taggers , parsers and morphological analysers for data from English and many other languages .",1356,0
1357,"Each of these Values has equal status , so the notion of a basic-level Value can not play a role ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) .",1357,0
1358,"Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) .",1358,0
1359,"Accuracy is not the best measure to assess segmentation quality , therefore we also conducted experiments using the WindowDiff measure as proposed by Pevzner and Hearst ( 2002 ) .",1359,1
1360,"The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .",1360,2
1361,"Optimizing for dependency arc length is particularly important as parsers tend to do worse on longer dependencies ( McDonald and Nivre , 2007 ) and these dependencies are typically the most meaningful for downstream tasks , e.g. , main verb dependencies for tasks",1361,4
1362,"Whereas Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) dealt only with an English corpus , the current work shows that this methodology is applicable to a wide range of languages and corpora .",1362,2
1363,"We also experiment with a CCG parser ( Clark and Curran , 2007 ) , requiring that the contexts surrounding the original phrase and paraphrase are assigned",1363,1
1364,"Their kernel is also very time consuming and in their more general sparse setting it requires O ( mn3 ) time and O ( mn2 ) space , where m and n are the number of nodes of the two trees ( m > = n ) ( Zelenko et al. , 2003 ) .",1364,5
1365,"Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .",1365,1
1366,"ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .",1366,0
1367,"include decision tree learning and Bayesian learning , nearest neighbor learning , and artificial neural networks , early such works may be found in ( Lewis and Ringnette , 1994 ) , ( Creecy and Masand , 1992 ) and ( Wiene and Pedersen , 1995 ) , respectively .",1367,0
1368,"In other words AJAX is a web development technique for creating interactive web applications using a combination of XHTML and CSS , Document Object Model ( or DOM ) , the XMLHTTPRequest object ( Wikipedia , 2005 ) .",1368,0
1369,"For these or for a specific domain , basic synonymic dictionaries can be complemented using learning methods based on distributional similarity ( Pereira et al. , 1993 ; Lin , 1998 ) .",1369,5
1370,"converted to numerical features using the standard technique of binarization , and we split values of the FEATS field into its atomic components .4 For some languages , we divide the training data into smaller sets , based on some feature s ( normally the CPOS or POS of the next input token ) , which may reduce training times without a significant loss in accuracy ( Yamada and Matsumoto , 2003 ) .",1370,0
1371,"• language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) • monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) • grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) • insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) • machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )",1371,0
1372,"Linguistic preprocessing of text documents is carried out by re-using smes , an information extraction core system for real-world German text processing ( Neumann et al. , 1997 ) .",1372,1
1373,"Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .",1373,5
1374,"For English − > Urdu , Juola ( 1997 , page 213 ) notes that `` the system learned the original training corpus ... perfectly and could reproduce it without errors '' ; that is , it scored 100 % accuracy when tested against the training corpus .",1374,0
1375,"Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of Avramidis and Koehn ( 2008 ) , Yeniterzi and Oflazer ( 2010 ) and others .",1375,2
1376,"Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .",1376,0
1377,See Nederhof ( 1998 ) for a variant of this approximation that constructs finite transducers rather than finite automata .,1377,0
1378,"Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .",1378,0
1379,"These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .",1379,0
1380,"The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) .",1380,1
1381,"Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) .",1381,2
1382,"Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .",1382,0
1383,"One approach to partial parsing was presented by Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , who extended a shallow-parsing technique to partial parsing .",1383,0
1384,"Soricut and Brill ( 2006 ) compared a predictive approach ( statistical translation ) , a retrieval approach based on a language-model , and a hybrid approach which combines statistical chunking and traditional retrieval .",1384,2
1385,"Indeed , such rich semantic links can be used to extend indices or reformulate queries ( similar to the work by Voorhees ( 1994 ) with WoRDNET relations ) .",1385,2
1386,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",1386,0
1387,"Despite these arguments , most applied NLG systems use a pipelined architecture ; indeed , a pipeline was used in every one of the systems surveyed by Reiter ( 1994 ) and Paiva ( 1998 ) .",1387,0
1388,"Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G ¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .",1388,0
1389,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",1389,0
1390,"In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) .",1390,0
1391,"Following Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2002 ) , Xia ( 1999 ) , and Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) , we extract a reference lexicon from Sections 02 -- 21 of the WSJ .",1391,1
1392,"The only disambiguation metric that we used in our previous work ( Marcu , 1997b ) was the shape-based metric , according to which the `` best '' trees are those that are skewed to the right .",1392,3
1393,"The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) .",1393,0
1394,"Every arc always has a definite direction , i.e. arcs are arrows ( Novak , 1998 ) .",1394,0
1395,"In the first experiment , we use an induction algorithm ( Hwa 2001a ) based on the expectation-maximization ( EM ) principle that induces parsers for PLTIGs .",1395,1
1396,"To create the baseline system , we use the opensource Joshua 4.0 system ( Ganitkevitch et al. , 2012 ) to build a hierarchical phrase-based ( HPB ) system , and a syntax-augmented MT ( SAMT ) 11 system ( Zollmann and Venugopal , 2006 ) respectively .",1396,1
1397,"6 For Sent-Pred we also experimented with grammatical and sentence-based syntactic features , such as number of syntactic phrases , grammatical mood , and grammatical person ( Marom and Zukerman 2006 ) , but the simple binary bag-of-lemmas representation yielded similar results .",1397,1
1398,"At present , the system uses a heuristic matching algorithm to classify relations into the appropriate category , though in the future we may consider a classifier similar to Nielsen et al. ( 2008 ) .",1398,5
1399,"It is interesting to compare this analysis with that described in Dalrymple , Shieber , and Pereira ( 1991 ) and Pereira ( 1990 , 1991 ) .",1399,2
1400,The importance of including nonheadwords has become uncontroversial ( e.g. Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ; Goodman 1998 ) .,1400,0
1401,"Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) .",1401,0
1402,"The example used to illustrate the power of ATNs ( Woods 1986 ) , `` John was believed to have been shot , '' also parses correctly , because the [ object ] node following the verb `` believed '' acts as both an absorber and a ( re ) generator .",1402,2
1403,"Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .",1403,4
1404,"LiLFeS is one of the fastest inference engines for processing feature structure logic , and efficient HPSG parsers have already been built on this system ( Nishida et al. , 1999 ; Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) .",1404,0
1405,"As in ( Lee et al. , 2003 ) , we used unsupervised training data which is automatically segmented to discover previously unseen stems .",1405,1
1406,"To address this limitation , our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) has initiated an investigation on the problem of conversation entailment .",1406,3
1407,"∗ A brief version of this work , with some additional material , first appeared as ( Eisner , 2001a ) .",1407,3
1408,"They also proposed two major categories of meta-learning approaches for recommender systems , merging and ensemble , each subdivided into the more specific subclasses suggested by Burke ( 2002 ) as follows .",1408,0
1409,"Here , I adopt the model proposed by Marantz ( 1997 ) and decompose lexical verbs into verbalizing heads and verbal roots .",1409,1
1410,This heuristic is called soft union ( DeNero and Klein 2007 ) .,1410,1
1411,"This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) .",1411,0
1412,"Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .",1412,4
1413,"The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .",1413,0
1414,"This semantics was constructed ( Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) as a formal framework for default and commonsense reasoning .",1414,1
1415,"There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .",1415,0
1416,"Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .",1416,2
1417,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",1417,0
1418,"Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .",1418,0
1419,"R98 ( , , , , „ ) uses a variant of Kozima 's semantic similarity measure ( Kozima , 1993 ) to compute block similarity .",1419,3
1420,"Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .",1420,0
1421,"We used a publicly available tagger ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) to tag the words and then used these in the input to the system .",1421,1
1422,"Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .",1422,0
1423,"Multilingual lexical databases aligned with the English WordNet ( e.g. MultiWordNet ( Pianta et al. , 2002 ) ) have been created for several languages , with different degrees of coverage .",1423,0
1424,"An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) .",1424,0
1425,"For future work , we might investigate how machine learning algorithms , which are specifically designed for the problem of domain adaptation ( Blitzer et al. , 2007 ; Jiang and Zhai , 2007 ) , perform in comparison to our approach .",1425,5
1426,"But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .",1426,4
1427,"That is , if the current hypothesis is unable to label a candidate or is uncertain about it , then the candidate might be a good training example ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) .",1427,0
1428,"Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .",1428,0
1429,"For instance , the derived morphological forms are believed to be represented as a whole , whereas the representation of the inflected forms follows the morphemic model ( Caramazza et al. , 1988 ) .",1429,0
1430,"We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) and ( Chelba and Jelinek , 1998 ) .",1430,5
1431,"Another paper ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) describes the detailed analysis on the factor of the difference of parsing performance .",1431,0
1432,"The original and the obtained grammar generated exactly the same number of derivation trees in the parsing experiment with 457 sentences from the ATIS corpus ( Marcus et al. , 1994 ) 6 ( the average length is 6.32 words ) .",1432,1
1433,"The use of running tallies and percentages is based on the assumption that these features are likely to produce generalized predictors ( Litman et al. , 1999 ) .",1433,4
1434,"The Longman lexicographers have developed a grammar coding system capable of representing in compact form a nontrivial amount of information , usually to be found only in large descriptive grammars of English ( such as Quirk et al. , 1985 ) .",1434,0
1435,"19 The paper by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2012 ) presents additional , more sophisticated models that we do not use in this article .",1435,2
1436,"Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ; Tzoukermann et al. , 1997 ) .",1436,0
1437,"Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .",1437,2
1438,"( Details of how the average-expert model performs can be found in our prior work ( Xiong and Litman , 2011 ) . )",1438,3
1439,"Self-training should also benefit other discriminatively trained parsers with latent annotations ( Petrov and Klein , 2008 ) , although training would be much slower compared to using generative models , as in our case .",1439,5
1440,"We introduce here a clearly defined and replicable split of the ACE 2004 data , so that future investigations can accurately and correctly compare against the results presented here .",1440,1
1441,"In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .",1441,0
1442,Brent ( 1993 ) relies on morphosyntactic cues in the untagged Brown corpus as indicators of six predefined subcategorization frames .,1442,0
1443,"To build the above s2t system , we first use the parse tree , which is generated by parsing the English side of the bilingual data with the Berkeley parser ( Petrov et al. , 2006 ) .",1443,1
1444,"One obvious approach to this problem is to employ parser reranking ( Collins , 2000 ) .",1444,0
1445,"Ideally , to distinguish between raising and equi verbs , a number of syntactic criteria should be employed ( Perlmutter and Soames , 1979:460 ff . )",1445,5
1446,"The table also presents the closest comparable experimental results reported by McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) .1 McKnight and Srinivasan ( henceforth , M&S ) created a test collection consisting of 37,151 RCTs from approximately 12 million MEDLINE abstracts dated between 1976 and 2001 .",1446,2
1447,"How this mismatched perceptual basis affects referential communication in situated dialogue was investigated in our previous work ( Liu et al. , 2012 ) .",1447,3
1448,"Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks .",1448,0
1449,"A cooccurrence based stemmer ( Xu and Croft , 1998 ) was used to stem Spanish words .",1449,1
1450,The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate .,1450,2
1451,"In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ;",1451,2
1452,"Although a grid may be more descriptively suitable for some aspects of prosody ( for example , Sproat and Liberman ( 1987 ) use the grid representation for their implementation of stress assignment in compound nominals ) , we are not aware of any evidence for or against a grid representation of discourseneutral phrasing .",1452,2
1453,"The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) .",1453,2
1454,"Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too .",1454,0
1455,"linguistic in nature , rather than dealing with superficial properties of the text , e.g. the amount of white space between words ( Por et al. , 2008 ) .",1455,2
1456,The second version ( RM ) concerns the Resource Management task ( Pallett 1989 ) that has been popular within the DARPA community in recent years .,1456,1
1457,"Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums .",1457,2
1458,The studies presented by Goldwater and Griffiths ( 2007 ) and Johnson ( 2007 ) differed in the number of states that they used .,1458,2
1459,"A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) .",1459,0
1460,"We would like to use features that look at wide context on the input side , which is inexpensive ( Jiampojamarn et al. , 2007 ) .",1460,5
1461,"Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .",1461,0
1462,"Experiments on Chinese SRL ( Xue and Palmer 2005 , Xue 2008 ) reassured these findings .",1462,0
1463,"This is then generalized , following a methodology based on Block ( 2000 ) , to generate the `` generalized marker lexicon . ''",1463,1
1464,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",1464,2
1465,"Our proposed method is based on the automatically acquired paraphrase dictionary described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , in which the application of paraphrases from the dictionary encodes secret bits .",1465,1
1466,"For example , frequent words are translated less consistently than rare words ( Melamed , 1997 ) .",1466,0
1467,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",1467,0
1468,"These knowledge sources were effectively used to build a state-of-the-art WSD program in one of our prior work ( Lee and Ng , 2002 ) .",1468,3
1469,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",1469,0
1470,"Due to advances in statistical syntactic parsing techniques ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 2001 ) , attention has recently shifted towards the harder question of analyzing the meaning of natural language sentences .",1470,0
1471,"This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage .",1471,2
1472,"category relationships from the weak supervision : the tag dictionary and raw corpus ( Garrette and Baldridge , 2012 ; Garrette et al. , 2015 ) .4 This procedure attempts to automatically estimate the frequency of each word/tag combination by dividing the number of raw-corpus occurrences of each word in the dictionary evenly across all of its associated tags .",1472,1
1473,"WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( Dohsaka et al. , 2000 ) .",1473,3
1474,Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .,1474,0
1475,Sarkar and Zeman ( 2000 ) present an approach to learn previously unknown frames for Czech from the Prague Dependency Bank ( Hajic,1475,0
1476,"A companion paper describes the evaluation process and results in further detail ( Chu-Carroll and Nickerson , 2000 ) .",1476,3
1477,"SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .",1477,1
1478,"Hence , enumerating morphological variants in a semi-automatically generated lexicon , such as proposed for French ( Zweigenbaum et al. , 2001 ) , turns out to be infeasible , at least for German and related languages .",1478,0
1479,"It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) .",1479,2
1480,"They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .",1480,4
1481,"The results , which partly confirm those obtained on a smaller dataset in Paggio and Navarretta ( 2010 ) , must be seen in light of the fact that our gesture annotation scheme comprises more fine-grained categories than most of the studies mentioned earlier for both head movements and face expressions .",1481,2
1482,"We employ the idea of ultraconservative update ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ; Crammer et al. , 2006 ) to propose two incremental methods for local training in Algorithm 2 as follows .",1482,1
1483,"It has also been shown to be useful in joint inference of text with visual attributes obtained using visual classifiers ( Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",1483,0
1484,Gurevych ( 2006 ) reported a correlation of r = .69 .,1484,2
1485,"A more subtle example is weighted FSAs that approximate PCFGs ( Nederhof , 2000 ; Mohri and Nederhof , 2001 ) , or to extend the idea , weighted FSTs that approximate joint or conditional synchronous PCFGs built for translation .",1485,0
1486,"As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .",1486,2
1487,"WIT features an incremental understanding method ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) that makes it possible to build a robust and real-time system .",1487,1
1488,"This choice is inspired by recent work on learning syntactic categories ( Yatbaz et al. , 2012 ) , which successfully utilized such language models to represent word window contexts of target words .",1488,4
1489,"As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .",1489,0
1490,"Other studies which view lR as a query generation process include Maron and Kuhns , 1960 ; Hiemstra and Kraaij , 1999 ; Ponte and Croft , 1998 ; Miller et al , 1999 .",1490,2
1491,"In Section 5 , we discuss the difficulties associated with such user studies , and describe a human-based evaluation we conducted for a small subset of the responses generated by our system ( Marom and Zukerman 2007b ) .",1491,1
1492,Hook ( 1981 ) considers the second verb V2 as an aspectual complex comparable to the auxiliaries .,1492,0
1493,"2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) .",1493,2
1494,"In this situation , Brown et al. ( 1993b , 293 ) recommend `` evaluating the expectations using only a single , probable alignment . ''",1494,4
1495,"The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .",1495,0
1496,"• Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) • Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) • Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) • Localization ( Sch ¨ aler 1996 )",1496,0
1497,"Following our previous work on stance classification ( Hasan and Ng , 2013c ) , we employ three types of features computed based on the frame-semantic parse of each sentence in a post obtained from SEMAFOR ( Das et al. , 2010 ) .",1497,3
1498,"However , the literature on Linguistic Steganography , in which linguistic properties of a text are modified to hide information , is small compared with other media ( Bergmair , 2007 ) .",1498,0
1499,"This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J ¨ appinen and Niemist ¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc ¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) .",1499,0
1500,"We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( Mohri and Sproat , 1996 ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( Sproat and Riley , 1996 ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below .",1500,0
1501,We use the Clark and Curran ( 2007 ) CCG parser to analyse the sentence before and after paraphrasing .,1501,1
1502,"For example , consider a relational description ( cfXXX , Dale and Haddock 1991 ) involving a gradable adjective , as in the dog in the large shed .",1502,0
1503,"Previous versions of our work , as described in Bachenko et al. ( 1986 ) also assume that phrasing is dependent on predicate-argument structure .",1503,3
1504,"like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) .",1504,0
1505,"The inclusion of the coreference task in the Sixth and Seventh Message Understanding Conferences ( MUC-6 and MUC-7 ) gave a considerable impetus to the development of coreference resolution algorithms and systems , such as those described in Baldwin et al. ( 1995 ) , Gaizauskas and Humphreys ( 1996 ) , and Kameyama ( 1997 ) .",1505,0
1506,Lee et al. ( 2012 ) model entity coreference and event coreference jointly ; Durrett and Klein ( 2014 ) consider joint coreference and entity-linking .,1506,0
1507,"However , learning-based resolvers have not been able to benefit from having an SC agreement feature , presumably because the method used to compute the SC of an NP is too simplistic : while the SC of a proper name is computed fairly accurately using a named entity ( NE ) recognizer , many resolvers simply assign to a common noun the first ( i.e. , most frequent ) WordNet sense as its SC ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , Markert and Nissim ( 2005 ) ) .",1507,0
1508,"This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) .",1508,2
1509,"The final machine is a trigram language model , specifically a Kneser-Ney ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) based backoff language model .",1509,1
1510,Hovy has described another text planner that builds similar plans ( Hovy 1988b ) .,1510,0
1511,"In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .",1511,0
1512,"transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 .",1512,1
1513,"Just as easily , we can model link types that coincide with entries in an on-line bilingual dictionary separately from those that do not ( cfXXX Brown et al. 1993 ) .",1513,1
1514,"As an alternative , we rely on PubMed to retrieve an initial set of hits that we then postprocess in greater detail -- this is the standard pipeline architecture commonly employed in other question-answering systems ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ; Hirschman and Gaizauskas 2001 ) .",1514,2
1515,"( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .",1515,2
1516,"We also compare the results with the output generated by the statistical translation system GIZA + + / ISI ReWrite Decoder ( AlOnaizan et al. , 1999 ; Och and Ney , 2000 ; Germann et al. , 2001 ) , trained on the same parallel corpus .",1516,2
1517,"Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .",1517,0
1518,"Since we are not generating from the model , this does not introduce difficulties ( Klein and Manning , 2002 ) .",1518,4
1519,"The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) .",1519,0
1520,"As they are required to enable test subjects to distinguish between senses , we use artificial glosses composed from synonyms and hypernyms as a surrogate , e.g. for brother : `` brother , male sibling '' vs. `` brother , comrade , friend '' ( Gurevych , 2005 ) .",1520,1
1521,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",1521,0
1522,"Dalrymple ( 2001 ) argues that there are cases , albeit exceptional ones , in which constraints on syntactic category are an issue in subcategorization .",1522,4
1523,"Corpus frequency : ( Vosse , 1992 ) differentiates between misspellings and neologisms ( new words ) in terms of their frequency .",1523,1
1524,"We use an in-house developed hierarchical phrase-based translation ( Chiang , 2005 ) as our baseline system , and we denote it as In-Hiero .",1524,1
1525,"The types of sentences accepted are essentially those accepted by the original NLC grammar , imperative sentences with nested noun groups and conjunctions ( Ballard 1979 ) .",1525,0
1526,The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by Pereira et al. ( 1993 ) and Rooth et al. ( 1999 ) .,1526,2
1527,"One of the proposed methods to extract paraphrases relies on a pivot-based approach using phrase alignments in a bilingual parallel corpus ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ) .",1527,0
1528,"The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) .",1528,0
1529,Turney ( 2001 ) extracts word co-occurrence probabilities from unlabelled text collected from a web crawler .,1529,0
1530,"Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .",1530,0
1531,"Due to this inherent ambiguity , manual annotations usually distinguish between sure correspondences for unambiguous translations , and possible , for ambiguous translations ( Och and Ney 2003 ) .",1531,0
1532,"Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .",1532,0
1533,"The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output .",1533,1
1534,"only the available five relative scopings of the quantifiers are produced ( Hobbs and Shieber 1987 , 47 ) , but without the need for a free variable constraint -- the HOU algorithm will not produce any solutions in which a previously bound variable becomes free ; • the equivalences are reversible , and thus the above sentences cart be generated from scoped logical forms ; • partial scopings are permitted ( see Reyle [ 19961 ) • scoping can be freely interleaved with other types of reference resolution ; • unscoped or partially scoped forms are available for inference or for generation at every stage .",1534,0
1535,"In the transducers produced by the training method described in this paper , the source and target positions are in the set -LCB- -1 , 0,1 -RCB- , though we have also used handcoded transducers ( Alshawi and Xia 1997 ) and automatically trained transducers ( Alshawi and Douglas 2000 ) with a larger range of positions .",1535,1
1536,"Similar approaches are being explored for parsing ( Steedman , Hwa , et al. 2003 ; Hwa et al. 2003 ) .",1536,0
1537,"In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .",1537,0
1538,"would be chunked as follows ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) : [ NP He ] [ VP reckons ] [ NP the current account deficit ] [ VP will narrow ] [ PP",1538,0
1539,"The flexible architecture we have presented enables interesting future research : ( i ) a straightforward improvement is the use of lexical similarity to reduce data sparseness , e.g. ( Basili et al. , 2005 ; Basili et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ) .",1539,0
1540,"5An alternative strategy to step ( 4 ) is to perform a database lookup based on the ambiguous query and summarize the results ( Litman et al. , 1998 ) , which we leave for future work .",1540,5
1541,"Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .",1541,0
1542,"Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) as discussed in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997a ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) .",1542,3
1543,It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .,1543,0
1544,"A more subtle example is weighted FSAs that approximate PCFGs ( Nederhof , 2000 ; Mohri and Nederhof , 2001 ) , or to extend the idea , weighted FSTs that approximate joint or conditional synchronous PCFGs built for translation .",1544,0
1545,"ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .",1545,0
1546,The Ruby on Rails ( 2006 ) framework permits us to quickly develop web applications without rewriting common functions and classes .,1546,1
1547,We further add rules for combining with punctuation to the left and right and allow for the merge rule X → X X of Clark and Curran ( 2007 ) .,1547,1
1548,"Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) .",1548,0
1549,Moschitti et al. ( 2005 ) has made some preliminary attempt on the idea of hierarchical semantic,1549,0
1550,Morris and Hirst ( 2004 ) pointed out that many relations between words in a text are non-classical ( i.e. other than typical taxonomic relations like synonymy or hypernymy ) and therefore not covered by semantic similarity .,1550,0
1551,"Some of the intuitions we associate with this notion have been very well expressed by Turner ( 1987 , pp. 7-8 ) : ... Semantics is constrained by our models of ourselves and our worlds .",1551,0
1552,"In 2009 , the second WePS campaign showed similar trends regarding the use of NE features ( Artiles et al. , 2009 ) .",1552,0
1553,The head words can be automatically extracted using a heuristic table lookup in the manner described by Magerman ( 1994 ) .,1553,1
1554,Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( Reiter 1994 ) .,1554,0
1555,"For example , the suite of LT tools ( Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Grover et al. , 2000 ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly .",1555,0
1556,"Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .",1556,0
1557,"Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) .",1557,5
1558,"The RenTAL system is implemented in LiLFeS ( Makino et al. , 1998 ) 2 .",1558,1
1559,"In the future , we hope to evaluate the automatic annotations and extracted lexicon against Propbank ( Kingsbury and Palmer 2002 ) .",1559,5
1560,"Each set of translations is stored separately , and for each set the `` marker hypothesis '' ( Green 1979 ) is used to segment the phrasal lexicon into a `` marker lexicon . ''",1560,1
1561,"One way to increase the precision of the mapping process is to impose some linguistic constraints on the sequences such as simple noun-phrase contraints ( Gaussier , 1995 ; Kupiec , 1993 ; hua Chen and Chen , 94 ; Fung , 1995 ; Evans and Zhai , 1996 ) .",1561,1
1562,"Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) .",1562,2
1563,"`` Coherence , '' as outlined above , can be understood as a declarative ( or static ) version of marker passing ( Hirst 1987 ; Charniak 1983 ) , with one difference : the activation spreads to theories that share a predicate , not through the IS-A hierarchy , and is limited to elementary facts about predicates appearing in the text .",1563,2
1564,"Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .",1564,0
1565,"First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( Grishman , 1995 ; Appelt et al. , 1993 ) .",1565,0
1566,"In addition , a fully flexible access system allows the retrieval of dictionary entries on the basis of constraints specifying any combination of phonetic , lexical , syntactic , and semantic information ( Boguraev et al. , 1987 ) .",1566,0
1567,"Clarkson and Robinson ( 1997 ) developed a way of incorporating standard n-grams into the cache model , using mixtures of language models and also exponentially decaying the weight for the cache prediction depending on the recency of the word 's last",1567,3
1568,Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .,1568,2
1569,"Machine learning methods should be interchangeable : Transformation-based learning ( TBL ) ( Brill , 1993 ) and Memory-based learning ( MBL ) ( Daelemans et al. , 2002 ) have been applied to many different problems , so a single interchangeable component should be used to represent each method .",1569,4
1570,"Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .",1570,0
1571,We tested the classification of verbs into semantic types using a verb list of 139 pre-classified items drawn from the lists published in Rosenbaum ( 1967 ) and Stockwell et al. ( 1973 ) .,1571,1
1572,"The combination of likelihood and prior modeling , HMMs , and Viterbi decoding is fundamentally the same as the standard probabilistic approaches to speech recognition ( Bahl , Jelinek , and Mercer 1983 ) and tagging ( Church 1988 ) .",1572,2
1573,"Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( Dagan and Glickman , 2004 ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T .",1573,0
1574,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",1574,0
1575,"Other solutions such as complete caching of the corpora are not typically adopted due to legal concerns over copyright and redistribution of web data , issues considered at length by Fletcher ( 2004a ) .",1575,0
1576,"This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) .",1576,0
1577,"A very similar formulation , for another grammar transformation , is given in Nederhof ( 1998 ) .",1577,2
1578,"We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair .",1578,1
1579,"Other attempts to address efficiency include the fast Transformation Based Learning ( TBL ) Toolkit ( Ngai and Florian , 2001 ) which dramatically speeds up training TBL systems , and the translation of TBL rules into finite state machines for very fast tagging ( Roche and Schabes , 1997 ) .",1579,0
1580,"Consequently , fusion has been applied to a wide variety of pattern recognition and decision theoretic problems -- using a plethora of theories , techniques , and tools -- including some applications in computational linguistics ( e.g. , Brill and Wu 1998 ; van Halteren , Zavrel , and Daelemans 1998 ) and speech technology ( e.g. , Bowles and Damper 1989 ; Romary and Pierre11989 ) .",1580,0
1581,"This observation has led some researchers , e.g. , Cooper and Paccia-Cooper ( 1980 ) , to claim a direct mapping between the syntactic phrase and the prosodic phrase .",1581,0
1582,"These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 .",1582,4
1583,"In our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) , conversation entailment is formulated as the following : given a conversation segment D which is represented by a set of clauses D = d1 ∧ ... ∧ dm , and a hypothesis H represented by another set of clauses H = h1 ∧ ... ∧ hn , the prediction on whether D entails H is determined by the product of probabilities that each hypothesis clause hj is entailed from all the conversation segment clauses d1 ... dm as follows .",1583,3
1584,"Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .",1584,0
1585,"In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( Galley et al. , 2004 ; Misra and Walker , 2013 ) .",1585,4
1586,Berger et al. ( 2000 ) compared two retrieval approaches ( TF.IDF and query expansion ) and two predictive approaches ( statistical translation and latent variable models ) .,1586,0
1587,"Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) .",1587,0
1588,"The dialogue state is represented by a cumulative answer analysis which tracks , over multiple turns , the correct , incorrect , and not-yet-mentioned parts 1Other factors such as student confidence could be considered as well ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) .",1588,5
1589,"As noted above , it is well documented ( Roland and Jurafsky 1998 ) that subcategorization frames ( and their frequencies ) vary across domains .",1589,4
1590,Chen and Vijay-Shanker ( 2000 ) explore a number of related approaches to the extraction of a lexicalized TAG from the Penn-II Treebank with the aim of constructing a statistical model for parsing .,1590,0
1591,"At the same time , we believe our method has advantages over the approach developed initially at IBM ( Brown et al. 1990 ; Brown et al. 1993 ) for training translation systems automatically .",1591,2
1592,"Building on the work of Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) in the same domain , we present a generative approach that attempts to directly model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts using Hidden Markov Models ( HMMs ) ; cfXXX ( Barzilay and Lee , 2004 ) .",1592,0
1593,"The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .",1593,0
1594,"As an alternative , we rely on PubMed to retrieve an initial set of hits that we then postprocess in greater detail -- this is the standard pipeline architecture commonly employed in other question-answering systems ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ; Hirschman and Gaizauskas 2001 ) .",1594,2
1595,"The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm ¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .",1595,0
1596,"Although in this paper we take modus ponens as the main rule of inference , in general one can consider deductive closures with respect to weaker , nonstandard logics , ( cfXXX Levesque 1984 ; Frisch 1987 ; Patel-Schneider 1985 ) .",1596,2
1597,"As Alshawi ( 1987 ) points out , given that no situations were envisaged where the information from the tape would be altered once installed in secondary storage , this simple and convenComputational Linguistics , Volume 13 , Numbers 3-4 , July-December 1987 205 Bran Boguraev and Ted Briscoe Large Lexicons for Natural Language Processing tional access strategy is perfectly adequate .",1597,0
1598,"Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too .",1598,0
1599,"This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .",1599,0
1600,"This is because the binary structure has been verified to be very effective for tree-based translation ( Wang et al. , 2007 ; Zhang et al. , 2011a ) .",1600,4
1601,"There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .",1601,0
1602,"measure the standard intrinsic parser metrics unlabeled attachment score ( UAS ) and labeled attachment score ( LAS ) ( Buchholz and Marsi , 2006 ) .",1602,1
1603,"The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .",1603,0
1604,"Accordingly , we convert examples such as ( 27 ) into their generalized equivalents , as in ( 28 ) : ( 28 ) <DET> good man : bon homme That is , where Block ( 2000 ) substitutes variables for various words in his templates , we replace certain lexical items with their marker tag .",1604,2
1605,How it is done is beyond the scope of this paper but is explained in detail in Fink ( 1983 ) .,1605,0
1606,"These tools use a highly optimised GIS implementation and provide sophisticated Gaussian smoothing ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) .",1606,1
1607,"Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .",1607,0
1608,"The inference rules that were necessary to convert one list of properties into another do not sit comfortably within the received NLG pipeline model ( e.g. , Reiter and Dale 2000 ) .",1608,0
1609,Niyogi ( 2001 ) has developed an agenda-driven chart parser for the feature-driven formalism described above ; please refer to his paper for a description of the parsing algorithm .,1609,3
1610,An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) .,1610,0
1611,"In addition to a referring function , noun phrases ( NP ) can also serve communicative goals such as providing new information about the referent and expressing the speaker 's emotional attitude towards the referent ( Appelt , 1985 ; Jordan , 2000 ) .",1611,0
1612,"Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .",1612,0
1613,There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in Biermann et al. ( 1984 ) and the PROLOG synthesis method of Shapiro ( 1982 ) .,1613,2
1614,"Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .",1614,0
1615,"The list of semantic relations with which we work is based on extensive literature study ( Barker et al. , 1997a ) .",1615,1
1616,"The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .",1616,0
1617,"In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .",1617,0
1618,"This paper presents experiments with generative content models for analyzing the discourse structure of medical abstracts , which has been confirmed to follow the four-section pattern discussed above ( Salanger-Meyer , 1990 ) .",1618,0
1619,"Following Lekakos and Giaglis ( 2007 ) , one approach for achieving this objective consists of applying supervised learning , where a winning method is selected for each case in the training set , all the training cases are labeled accordingly , and then the system is trained to predict a winner for unseen cases .",1619,2
1620,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",1620,0
1621,"Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .",1621,0
1622,"11 Nivre ( 2008 ) reports that non-projective and pseudo-projective algorithms outperform the `` eager '' projective algorithm in MaltParser , but our training data did not contain any non-projective dependencies .",1622,2
1623,"In particular , boosting ( Schapire , 1999 ; Abney et al. , 1999 ) offers the possibility of achieving high accuracy from a collection of classifiers which individually perform quite poorly .",1623,5
1624,For MT the most commonly used heuristic is called grow diagonal final ( Och and Ney 2003 ) .,1624,2
1625,"ECM-F is an entity-constrained mention Fmeasure ( cfXXX ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) for how ECM-F is computed ) , and ACE-Value is the official ACE evaluation metric .",1625,1
1626,"In order to obtain semantic representations of each word , we apply our previous strategy ( Schone and Jurafsky ( 2000 ) ) .",1626,3
1627,"Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) annotated a larger set of word pairs ( 353 ) , too .",1627,0
1628,"A more flexible approach is used by Reiter and Sripada ( 2002 ) , where users can specify boundary values for attributes like rainfall , specifying , for example , rain counts as moderate above 7 mm/h , as heavy above 20 mm/h , and so on .",1628,0
1629,"Furthermore , a number of performance features , largely based on the PARADISE dialogue evaluation scheme ( Walker et al. , 1997 ) , were automatically logged , derived , or manually annotated .",1629,1
1630,Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) propose to generalize the direct evidence method so that it can apply to unseen pairs of adjectives by computing the transitive closure of the ordering relation .,1630,0
1631,"We evaluated our translations with IBM 's BLEU evaluation metric ( Papineni et al. , 2001 ) , using the same evaluation method and reference retranslations that were used for evaluation at HLT Workshop 2002 at CLSP ( Haji 6 et al. , 2002 ) .",1631,1
1632,"Other attempts to address efficiency include the fast Transformation Based Learning ( TBL ) Toolkit ( Ngai and Florian , 2001 ) which dramatically speeds up training TBL systems , and the translation of TBL rules into finite state machines for very fast tagging ( Roche and Schabes , 1997 ) .",1632,0
1633,"PR is closely related to the work of Mann and McCallum ( 2007 , 2008 ) , who concurrently developed the idea of using penalties based on posterior expectations of features to guide semi-supervised learning .",1633,0
1634,"The best results on most of our data were obtained using Hidden Naive Bayes ( HNB ) ( Zhang et al. , 2005 ) .",1634,1
1635,"de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .",1635,0
1636,"A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .",1636,0
1637,"ASARES has been previously applied to the acquisition of word pairs sharing semantic relations defined in the Generative Lexicon framework ( Pustejovsky , 1995 ) and called qualia relations ( Bouillon et al. , 2001 ) .",1637,0
1638,"mlSystem ruleFeats + atomFeats We augment mlSystem ruleFeats with more features from our previous work ( Markert et al. , 2012 ; Hou et al. , 2013a ; Hou et al. , 2013b ) on bridging anaphora recognition and antecedent selection .",1638,3
1639,The description of the EAGLE workbench for linguistic engineering ( Baldwin et al. 1997 ) mentions a case normalization module that uses a heuristic in which a capitalized word in an ambiguous position should be rewritten without capitalization if it is found lower-cased in the same document .,1639,2
1640,"An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site .",1640,0
1641,"Until now , translation models have been evaluated either subjectively ( e.g. White and O'Connell 1993 ) or using relative metrics , such as perplexity with respect to other models ( Brown et al. 1993b ) .",1641,2
1642,"The three preprocessing steps ( tokenization , POS-tagging , lemmatization ) are performed using TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1995 ) .",1642,1
1643,"Many statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2001 ) are based on a history-based probability model ( Black et al. , 1993 ) , where the probability of each decision in a parse is conditioned on the previous decisions in the parse .",1643,0
1644,"In informal experiments described elsewhere ( Melamed 1995 ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 .",1644,0
1645,"For right-branching structures , the leftcorner ancestor is the parent , conditioning on which has been found to be beneficial ( Johnson , 1998 ) , as has conditioning on the left-corner child ( Roark and Johnson , 1999 ) .",1645,0
1646,"This strategy is certainly the right one to start out with , since anaphora is always the more typical direction of reference in English prose ( Halliday and Hasan 1976 , p. 329 ) .",1646,4
1647,"This indicates that parse trees are usually not the optimal choice for training tree-based translation models ( Wang et al. , 2010 ) .",1647,0
1648,"In Charniak ( 1996 ) and Krotov et al. ( 1998 ) , it was observed that treebank grammars ( CFGs extracted from treebanks ) are very large and grow with the size of the treebank .",1648,0
1649,"For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance .",1649,0
1650,"ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .",1650,0
1651,"Manning ( 1993 ) argues that , aside from missing domain-specific complementation trends , dictionaries produced by hand will tend to lag behind real language use because of their static nature .",1651,4
1652,"Finally , the Natural Language Toolkit ( NLTK ) is a package of NLP components implemented in Python ( Loper and Bird , 2002 ) .",1652,0
1653,"Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) .",1653,0
1654,Burkett and Klein ( 2008 ) and Burkett et al. ( 2010 ) focused on joint parsing and alignment .,1654,2
1655,"But the general outlines are reasonably clear , and we can adapt some of the UDRS ( Reyle 1995 ) work to our own framework .",1655,1
1656,"KUbler , McDonald , and Nivre ( 2009 ) describe a `` typical '' MaltParser model configuration of attributes and features .13 Starting with it , in a series of initial controlled experiments , we settled on using buf [ 0-1 ] + stk [ 0-1 ] for word-forms , and buf [ 0-3 ] + stk [ 0-2 ] for POS tags .",1656,1
1657,"For this evaluation , we randomly selected 50 abstracts with disorders indexed as the main topic from abstracts retrieved using PubMed on the five clinical questions described in Sneiderman et al. ( 2005 ) .",1657,1
1658,"The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) .",1658,0
1659,"This approach is taken in computational syntactic grammars ( e.g. Jensen 1986 ) ; the number of unlikely parses is severely reduced whenever possible , but no attempt is made to define only the so-called grammatical strings of a language .",1659,0
1660,"Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) .",1660,0
1661,"For example , the interaction of lexical rules is explored at run-time , even though the possible interaction can be determined at compile-time given the information available in the lexical rules and the base lexical entries .2 Based on the research results reported in Meurers and Minnen ( 1995 , 1996 ) , we propose a new computational treatment of lexical rules that overcomes these shortcomings and results in a more efficient processing of lexical rules as used in HPSG .",1661,4
1662,"`` Coherence , '' as outlined above , can be understood as a declarative ( or static ) version of marker passing ( Hirst 1987 ; Charniak 1983 ) , with one difference : the activation spreads to theories that share a predicate , not through the IS-A hierarchy , and is limited to elementary facts about predicates appearing in the text .",1662,2
1663,"On small data sets all of the Bayesian estimators strongly outperform EM ( and , to a lesser extent , VB ) with respect to all of our evaluation measures , confirming the results reported in Goldwater and Griffiths ( 2007 ) .",1663,2
1664,"In addition , the advantages of using linguistically annotated data over raw data are well documented ( Mair , 2005 ; Granger and Rayson , 1998 ) .",1664,0
1665,"For the A * algorithm ( Hart et al. 1968 ) as applied to speech recognition , the actual path score is typically augmented with an estimated score for the unseen portion .",1665,1
1666,Robust natural language understanding in Atlas-Andes is provided by Rosé 's CARMEL system ( Rosé 2000 ) ; it uses the spelling correction algorithm devised by Elmi and Evens ( 1998 ) .,1666,1
1667,"The framework represents a generalization of several predecessor NLG systems based on Meaning-Text Theory : FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) , and JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) .",1667,3
1668,"Nevertheless , Juola ( 1998 , page 23 ) observes that `` a slightly more general mapping , where two adjacent terminal symbols can be merged into a single lexical item ( for example , a word and its case-marking ) , can capture this sort of result quite handily . ''",1668,0
1669,"Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G ¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .",1669,0
1670,"( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .",1670,2
1671,Burkett and Klein ( 2012 ) utilized a transformation-based method to learn a sequence of monolingual tree transformations for translation .,1671,2
1672,"Baseline language model : For P0 we used a trigram with modified kneser-ney smoothing [ Chen and Goodman , 1998 ] , which is still considered one of the best smoothing methods for n-gram language models .",1672,1
1673,"Therefore , we preprocess Ontonote-5 .0 to derive mention heads using Collins head rules ( Collins , 1999 ) with gold constituency parsing information and gold named entity information .",1673,1
1674,"Our most accurate single grammar achieves an F score of 91.6 on the WSJ test set , rivaling discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ) and products of latent variable grammars ( Petrov , 2010 ) , despite being a single generative PCFG .",1674,2
1675,"We have presented an ensemble approach to word sense disambiguation ( Pedersen , 2000 ) where multiple Naive Bayesian classifiers , each based on co -- occurrence features from varying sized windows of context , is shown to perform well on the widely studied nouns interest and line .",1675,0
1676,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",1676,0
1677,"We shall see this in the next example : two sentences , regarded as a fragment of paragraph , are a variation on a theme by Hobbs ( 1979 ) .",1677,3
1678,"Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .",1678,0
1679,"The recognizer for these systems is the SUMMIT system ( Zue et al. 1989 ) , which uses a segmental-based framework and includes an auditory model in the front-end processing .",1679,1
1680,"Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .",1680,2
1681,"To sample from our proposal distribution , we use a blocked Gibbs sampler based on the one proposed by Goodman ( 1998 ) and used by Johnson et al. ( 2007 ) that samples entire parse trees .",1681,1
1682,"Semantic construction proceeds from the derived tree ( Gardent and Kallmeyer , 2003 ) rather than -- as is more common in TAG -- from the derivation tree .",1682,0
1683,"It allows the construction of a non-TAL ( Shieber , 1994 ) , ( Harbusch & Poller , 2000 ) .",1683,0
1684,"Following previous work ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) and Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) ) , we generate training instances as follows : a positive instance is created for each anaphoric NP , NPj , and its closest antecedent , NPi ; and a negative instance is created for NPj paired with each of the intervening NPs , NPi +1 , NPi +2 , ... , NPj_1 .",1684,1
1685,"TF-IDF ( term frequency-inverse document frequency ) is one of the widely used feature selection techniques in information retrieval ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ) .",1685,0
1686,"The gap mechanism resembles the Hold register idea of ATNs ( Woods 1970 ) and the treatment of bounded domination metavariables in lexical functional grammars ( LFGs ) ( Bresnan 1982 , p. 235 ff . )",1686,2
1687,"To solve these scaling issues , we implement Online Variational Bayesian Inference ( Hoffman et al. , 2010 ; Hoffman et al. , 2012 ) for our models .",1687,1