鲁凯语文法

鲁凯语文法(Rukai grammar)为基于鲁凯语之文法。在文法的分类上台湾南岛语言并不同于一般的分析语或其它综合语里的动词、名词、形容词、介词和副词等之基本词类分类。比如台湾南岛语里普遍没有副词，而副词的概念一般以动词方式呈现、可称之为“副动词”，类之于俄语里的副动词。对于数、格(附着)及时态改变时语词的变化。鲁凯语只有代词本身会依格位之不同而进行变格运作。谓语本身不会依人称、数、性之变化而进行变位运作；而是基于已然语气及非已然语气、以主事(AF)及非主事(NAF)的观点结合时体气语词(TAM/TMA/动貌词)，再配合谓语的时态、体、式进行形态变化来运作。

基本的文法分类是将鲁凯语词类之词缀、字词结构及分类法，对比分析语等之词类分类法加以条析判别。

## 词汇与构词

### 构词方法

基本上万山鲁凯语音节采用一种基本的(C)V 构词，通常词构有2到4个音节(Zeitoun 2007)。有4种构词程序。

- 加词缀(affixation)
- 语根修饰(stem modification)
- 重复词(reduplication/RED)
- 复合词(compounding)

下列重复范式是产生在雾台鲁凯语里：

重复名词语根

- N + RED '大量'
- N(数词、或时段) + RED '延长一阵子...'

重复动词语根

- V + RED '继续，继续做，重复做'
- V + RED '未来式'
- V (静态词) + RED '强烈，比较大'

在雾台鲁凯语里，附着式的语根重复能够被用来产生若干基本的名词及动词，比如：'打雷'、'山'，以及 '刮擦'。

### 词缀

下列为万山鲁凯语的词缀来自齐莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)。

- a- 'when'
- a- (action/state nominalization)
- a- 'plural'
- -a 'beyond (in time or space)'
- -a 'irrealis'
- -a 'imperative'
- -ae (state nominalization)
- a- ... -ae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative)
- amo- 'will'
- -ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone)
- -a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests)
- apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs)
- apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to'
- apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs)
- apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)'
- -ci 'snivel'
- dh- 'invisible'
- i- 'at'
- -i 'irrealis'
- -i- ... -e (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns)
- -ka 'predicative negation'
- ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually'
- ka- ... -ae 'genuine, real, original'
- kala- ... -ae 'temporal nominalization'
- kapa ~ kama- 'continuously'
- kapa ... -nga 'all, every'
- ki- 'modal negation'
- ki- ... -ae 'whose'
- k-a- ... -ae 'more and more'
- la- 'plural'
- la-ma'a- 'reciprocal'
- -lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns)
- m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or Ø in its non-finite form)
- ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form)
- ma- ... -le (forms 'tens')
- ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant)
- maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa)
- maa- ... -e (~ paa- ... -e; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown))
- maaraka- 'each/both'
- maatali- ... -le/-lo '(a number of) floors'
- maka- 'finish'
- maka- ... -le/-lo (~ paka- ... -le/-lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years'
- maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above')
- makini- ... -(a)e (~ pakini- ... -(a)e) 'all'
- mali- (~ pali) 'along'
- ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split'
- m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs)
- m-o- (~ o-) 'toward'
- mo- 'anti-causative'
- m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform'
- mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise'
- n- 'visible'
- -na 'still'
- naa- 'continuously'
- -nae 'place where'
- -nae 'time when'
- -nga 'already'
- -nga 'superlative'
- ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)'
- ni- ... -a 'concessive'
- o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
- o- ... -e 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns)
- o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs)
- o-ka'a- ... -le/-lo (~ ko'a- ... -le/-lo) 'a number of )recipients'
- om- (~ m- / ~ Ø) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
- o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up'
- o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of'
- o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years'
- taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement'
- o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede'
- o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early'
- pa- 'causative'
- pa- 'every N-times'
- paori 'stick to, think about'
- pa'a- ... -ae '(what is) left'
- pe- 'forbiddance (?)'
- pi- 'local causative'
- po- 'causative of movement'
- po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns)
- saka- 'external'
- samori- 'keep on ... -ing' (attaches only to the root kane 'to eat')
- sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to'
- so- 'tribute'
- ta- (subjective nominalization)
- ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms)
- ta- ... -(a)e 'place where'
- ta- ... -ae 'time when'
- ta- ... -n-ae (forms derived locative nominal)
- taka- 'a number of persons'
- tako- 'while'
- tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ove'eke)
- tali- 'belong to'
- ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)'
- ta'a- ... -le/-lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals)
- to- 'do, make, produce, build'
- toka- ... -(a)e 'use ... for, by ... -ing'
- to'a- 'use ... to, for'
- 'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer'
- 'a- ... -e 'have a lot of'
- 'aa- 'turn into'
- 'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form))
- 'ako- (doublet form: 'ako- ... -ae) 'speak (out)'
- 'ako- 'barely, a little'
- 'ako- ... -le 'say a number of times'
- 'ako- ... -nga 'more'
- 'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< 'aliki '(come) from')
- 'ano- 'walk, ride, take'
- 'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots)
- 'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots)
- 'ano- ... -ae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate'
- 'ao- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times')
- 'apaka- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + paka- ... -le/-lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years)
- 'api- 'like ... -ing'
- 'a-po- 'as a result of'
- 'apo- 'come out'
- 'asa- ... -ae 'what's the use of'
- 'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work')
- 'i- 'passive'
- 'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.'
- 'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns)
- 'ia- ... ae 'because of, out of'
- 'ini- 'movement toward'
- 'ini- 'cross'
- 'ini- 'consume'
- 'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive)
- 'ini- ... -ae 'pretend'
- 'ini- ... (-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from 'inilrao 'resemble')
- 'ira- 'for' (derived from 'iraki '(do) for')
- 'o- 'take off'
- 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals)
- 'o- ... -le/-lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.)
- 'o-tali 'unpack'

下列雾台鲁凯语词缀参考自(Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995)。

名词词缀

- ka- ... -anə + N 'something real or genuine
- ko- + Pronoun 'nominative'
- moasaka- + N (numeral) 'ordinal'
- sa- ... anə + V 'instrument, tool'
- sa- + N 'some body parts'
- ta- ... -anə + N 'location, time'
- ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...'

动词词缀

- -a- + V 'realis'
- -a + V 'imperative'
- ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest'
- ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action'
- ko- + N 'to remove, to peel'
- ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus'
- ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal'
- maa- + V 'stative'
- mo- + N 'to discharge, remove'
- mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative'
- ŋi- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner'
- ŋo- + N 'to ride'
- pa- + V 'causative'
- si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix'
- si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess'
- so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out'
- to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth'
- θi + N 'to release'
- w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'

### 词类类别

齐莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)将万山鲁凯语分为11类语词：

- 名词、动词、代名词 ｜、指示词、数词、副词 ｜、词组要素、句子要素、句子间要素 ｜、惊叹词、感叹词

#### 功能词

下列万山鲁凯语功能词来自齐莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)。

- la – 和、与
- mani – 然后、接着

## 基本句型及词序

不像大多数其它台湾南岛语言，鲁凯语为主宾格语言、而不是典型的焦点系统之作格语言形式 (Zeitoun 2007)。鲁凯语也是台湾南岛语里唯一“没有焦点系统”的语言。于语言的演进上、如果没有焦点(focus)则往往会往“主宾格语言(AS-O)”的方向发展，不过有时“对格语言”也会含有“部分作格性(A-SO)”的现象或则反之亦然。总结在

万山鲁凯语有两种句型(Zeitoun 2007)：

- 名词化
- 动词化

补语化采用4种策略(Zeitoun 2007)：

- 零策略(zero strategy，比如：并列补语)
- 动词连续化(verb serialization)
- 名物化(nominalization)
- 使役动词化(causativization)

限定受词在主动及被动句子里均可作主题。

## 格位标记、句法关系及代名词系统

### 代名词系统

鲁凯语代词有人称代词，指示代词等。且人称代词也兼具有格位标记之功能。台湾南岛语除邹语及巴宰语等之外，绝大多数无第3人称(单复数)主格附着格式。下列代名词表来自齐莎莉(Zeitoun 1997)。要注意的是万山鲁凯语经常使用附着式。

人称代名词形式｜主题格｜主格｜斜格｜属格

第1人称单数｜kunaku｜-(n)aku, naw-｜nakuanə｜-li

第2人称单数｜kusu｜-su｜musuanə｜-su

第3人称单数(视界)｜kuini｜inianə｜-ini

第3人称单数(非视界)｜kuiɖa

第1人称复数(包括式)｜kuta｜-ta｜mitaanə｜-ta

第1人称复数(排除式)｜kunai｜-nai｜naianə｜-nai

第2人称单数｜kunumi｜-numi, -nu｜numianə｜-numi

第3人称复数(视界)｜kuini｜inianə｜-ini

第3人称复数(非视界)｜kuiɖa

人称代名词形式｜主题格｜主格｜斜格｜属格

第1称单数｜i kɨkɨ｜ku-, kɨkɨ｜ŋkua｜-li

第2人称单数｜i musu｜su-, musu｜sua｜-su

第3人称单数(视界)｜i kini｜kini｜nia｜-ini

第3人称单数(非视界)｜i kiɖi｜kiɖi｜ɖia｜-ɖa

第1人称复数(包括式)｜i miti｜ta-, miti｜mitia｜-ta

第1人称复数(排除式)｜i knamɨ｜namɨ-, knamɨ｜nmaa｜-namɨ

第2人称复数｜i mumu｜mu-, mumu｜mua｜-mu

第3人称复数(视界)｜i kini｜kini｜nia｜-ini

第3人称复数(非视界)｜i kiɖi｜kiɖi｜ɖia｜-ɖa

人称代名词形式｜主题格｜主格｜斜格｜属格

第1人称单数｜iɭaə｜-ɭao, nao-｜-i-a-ə｜-li

第2人称单数｜imiaʔə｜-moʔo｜i-miaʔ-ə｜-ʔo

第3人称单数(视界)｜ana｜-i-n-ə｜-(n)i

第3人称单数(非视界)｜ðona｜-i-ð-ə｜-ða

第1人称复数(包括式)｜imitə, ita｜-mita, -ta｜-i-mit-ə｜-ta

第1人称复数(排除式)｜inamə｜-nai｜-i-nam-ə｜-nai

第2人称复数｜inomə｜-nomi｜-i-nom-ə｜-nomi

第3人称复数(视界)｜ana-lo｜-i-l-i-n-ə｜-l-i-ni

第3人称复数(非视界)｜ðona-lo｜-i-l-i-ð-ə｜-l-i-ða

## 动词

下列为万山鲁凯语的动词词缀来自齐莎莉(Zeitoun 2007)。

- 动态动词：o-；较稀少的表示为 om- and m-
- 静态动词：ma-
- 否定前缀：ki-
- 使役式：pa-
- ʔini-Ca- "(一个人)自身"
- mati- "好的…"
- k-in-a ... aə "…较多"
- ʔako- "勉强地，仅仅"
- ka- "事实上"
- mata ... aə "确切地"

## 参考文献

- 沈家煊,"名词和动词"(Of Noun and Verb),北京商务印书馆,2016年6月. ISBN 978-7-100-11363-2
- Elizabeth Zeitoun. 2007. A grammar of Mantauran (Rukai). Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series A4-2. xviii + 551 pp. ISBN 978-986-01-1219-1
- Elizabeth Zeitoun(齐莉莎),"万山鲁凯语语法",中央研究院语言学研究所,November 30/2007.ISBN 978-986-01-1219-1
- 齐莉莎(Elizabeth Zeitoun)/林惠娟,"不要忘记咱们万山的故事：过去的回忆",中央研究院语言学研究所,November 30/2007.ISBN 957-01-5587-6
- 齐莉莎,"鲁凯语万山方言名物化结构探究(Nominalization in Mantauran (Rukai))",中央研究院语言学研究所,(3:1附册期),2002-01.
- 帅德乐,"南岛语的“焦点屈折”是词汇衍生：名物化的证据(Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization)",中央研究院语言学研究所,(3:1附册期),pp.427-479,2002-01.