语言人类学

语言人类学（Linguistic Anthropology），人类学的分支，是一个跨学科的领域，研究语言如何影响人类社会。语言人类学起源于对濒危语言的纪录工作，并于20世纪发展至涵盖语言结构与使用的各个面向。

语言人类学研究语言如何形塑沟通、社会认同与团体、如何建构有规模的文化与意识形态并发展出一套共同的自然与社会现实。

## 历史发展

### 人类学式的语言学

最早的理论典范原本被称为语言学（linguistics），虽然当这门学科及相关的研究领域发展成熟之后，称为 “人类学式的语言学”（anthropological linguistics）。这个领域专门研究这个次学科所独有的一些主题：对于被视为注定要灭绝的语言所做的语言学记录（有一些北美原住民语言成为这个次学科学者所关注的焦点），例如：

- 语法描述。
- 类型学分类，以及
- 关于语言相对论的未决议题（关连到爱德华·萨丕尔与本杰明·李·沃夫，但实际上由法兰兹·鲍亚士所发展，在他之前，有一长串欧洲思想家，从詹巴蒂斯塔·维柯到约翰·戈特弗里德·赫尔德到威廉·冯·洪堡）。所谓的萨丕尔-沃夫假说可能是个不当的用词，这是就这个两位学者的科学取向，有别于科学上的实证论、以假说为取向的模型。无论如何，这个名词是Harry Hoijer（萨丕尔的学生）所创（Hoijer 1954; see also HIll and Mannheim 1992）。

### 语言人类学

在1960年代，戴尔·海姆斯主要负责发起第二种理论典范，将“语言人类学”（linguistic anthropology）这个名称固定下来，虽然他也创造了“言谈民族志”（ethnography of speaking，或“沟通民族志” ethnography of communication）这个术语，来描述他为这个学术领域所设想的架构。这包含了运用录音设备等新的科技发展。

海姆斯也引介了一种新的分析单位。有鉴于在第一种理论典范聚焦于表面上独特的“语言”（引号表示当代的语言人类学家将“一个语言”的概念视为一种理想建构，从而掩盖了这个语言内部的复杂性，以及“跨越”所谓的语言界线的复杂性）；第二种理论典范的分析单位是“言谈事件”（speech event）。（言谈事件是一个事件，由发生在这个事件之中的言谈所界定的，例如，一场晚宴并不是一个言谈事件，而是一个言谈情境，在这种情境下，言谈可能会发生，也可能不会发生。）有许多学者专注于在这些言谈事件中，参与者对他们的语言表现型态所提出的解释。

海姆斯也开创了语言人类学的一种研究方法，民族诗学。

海姆斯希望将语言人类学更密切联结到人类学这个母学科。语言人类学这个名称强调它的首要身份是人类学，并且是“人类学式的语言学”。如今这在大多数的大学是一门独立学科（而不是在法兰兹·鲍亚士和萨丕尔的时代）。然而，语言人类学这个理论典范，标志着它跟人类学的其他分支学科进一步的疏远。

### 透过语言学方法与资料所从事的人类学议题研究

在1980年代后期兴起的第三种理论典范，并不是继续追求来自一个让人类学感到陌生的学科（语言学）的各项议题，语言人类学家有系统地专注于自己母学科人类学所提出的各项议题，但运用了语言学的资料和方法。在这第三种理论典范的热门研究议题，包括社会身份认同的调查研究、普遍共同具有的意识形态，以及在个人和团体之间的互动中，论述的建构与运用方式。

## 研究兴趣领域

当代语言人类学研究延续了上述的三个理论典范。有几个领域关连到第三种典范，也就是对于人类学议题的研究，这是当代语言人类学家特别专注的领域。

### 身份认同

语言人类学的作品有许多从语言学角度探讨社会文化认同的议题。语言人类学家库利克（Don Kulick）在巴布亚新几内亚一个名为迦普恩（Gapun）的村落，依据对许多场景的分析，研究语言与认同的关系。库利克探讨了迦普恩的儿童如何使用两种语言──传统语言“塔伊阿普”（Taiap）只在自己村落使用，从而标示了一种根本赋予的（primordially）迦普恩人身份认同。另一种语言则是巴布亚皮钦语（在新几内亚盛行的官方语言）。（语言人类学家使用“标示”（indexical）这个字的意思是指标性。）

## 参阅

- 人类学
- 语言学
- 社会语言学
- 社会文化语言学
- 沟通
- 民族志
- 法兰兹·鲍亚士
- 认同
- 意识型态
- 指标性
- 符号学
- 本杰明·李·沃尔夫
- 语言接触

## 引用文献

- Bauman, Richard. 1977. Verbal Art as Performance. American Anthropologist 77:290-311.
- Duranti, Alessandro. 1992. Language and Bodies in Social Space: Samoan Greetings. American Anthropologist 94:657-691.
- Duranti, Alessandro. 2003. Language as Culture in U.S. Anthropology: Three Paradigms. Current Anthropology 44(3):323-348.
- Errington, J. Joseph. 1988. Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
- Hill, Jane, and Bruce Mannheim. 1992. "Language and Worldview." Annual Reviews in Anthropology 21:381-406.
- Hoijer, Harry. 1954. "The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis," in Language in culture: Conference on the interrelations of language and other aspects of culture. Edited by H. Hoijer, pp. 92–105. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Horwitz, Tony. 2006. Immigration—and the Curse of the Black Legend (Op-Ed). New York Times. Week in Review, July 9, 2006, p. 13.
- Hymes, Dell. 1981 1975 Breakthrough into Performance. In In Vain I Tried to Tell You: Essays in Native American Ethnopoetics. D. Hymes, ed. Pp. 79-141. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Kroskrity, Paul V. 1998. Arizona Tewa Kiva Speech as a Manifestation of Linguistic Ideology. In Language ideologies: Practice and theory. B.B. Schieffelin, K.A. Woolard, and P. Kroskrity, eds. Pp. 103-122. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Kulick, Don. 1992. Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinea Village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kulick, Don, and Charles H. Klein. 2003. Scandalous Acts: The Politics of Shame among Brazilian Travesti Prostitutes. In Recognition Struggles and Social Movements: Contested Identities, Agency and Power. B. Hobson, ed. Pp. 215-238. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Ochs, Elinor. 1988. Culture and language development: Language acquisition and language socialization in a Samoan village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Ochs, Elinor, and Bambi Schieffelin. 1984. Language Acquisition and Socialization: Three Developmental Stories and Their Implications. In Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion. R. Shweder and R.A. LeVine, eds. Pp. 276-320. New York: Cambridge University.
- Ochs, Elinor, and Carolyn Taylor. 2001. The “Father Knows Best” Dynamic in Dinnertime Narratives. In Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 431-449. Oxford. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
- Rumsey, Alan. 1990. Word, meaning, and linguistic ideology. American Anthropologist 92(2):346-361.
- Schieffelin, Bambi B. 1990. The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language Socialization of Kaluli Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Schieffelin, Bambi B. 1995. Creating evidence: Making sense of written words in Bosavi. Pragmatics 5(2):225-244.
- Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2000. Introducing Kaluli Literacy: A Chronology of Influences. In Regimes of Language. P. Kroskrity, ed. Pp. 293-327. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.
- Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2002. Marking time: The dichotomizing discourse of multiple temporalities. Current Anthropology 43(Supplement):S5-17.
- Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006. PLENARY ADDRESS: Found in translating: Reflexive language across time and texts in Bosavi, PNG. Twelve Annual Conference on Language, Interaction, and Culture, University of California, Los Angeles, 2006.
- Silverstein, Michael. 1976. Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description. In Meaning in Anthropology. K. Basso and H.A. Selby, eds. Pp. pp. 11-56. Albuquerque: School of American Research, University of New Mexico Press.
- Silverstein, Michael. 1979. Language Structure and Linguistic Ideology. In The Elements: A Parasession on Linguistic Units and Levels. R. Cline, W. Hanks, and C. Hofbauer, eds. Pp. pp. 193-247. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
- Silverstein, Michael. 1985. Language and the Culture of Gender: At the Intersection of Structure, Usage, and Ideology. In Semiotic Mediation: Sociocultural and Psychological Perspectives. E. Mertz and R. Parmentier, eds. Pp. 219-259. Orlando: Academic Press.
- Silverstein, Michael. 2004. "Cultural" Concepts and the Language-Culture Nexus. Current Anthropology 45(5):621-652.
- Wilce, James M. 2006. Magical Laments and Anthropological Reflections: The Production and Circulation of Anthropological Text as Ritual Activity. Current Anthropology. 47(6):891-914.
- Woolard, Kathryn A. 2004. Codeswitching. In Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 73-94. Malden: Blackwell.

## 进阶阅读

- Ahearn, Laura M. 2011. Living Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
- Baugh, J. & J. Sherzer. eds. 1984. Language in use. Prentice Hall.
- Blount, Ben G. ed. 1995. Language, Culture, and Society: A Book of Readings. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
- Bonvillain, Nancy. 1993. Language, culture, and communication: The meaning of messages. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Brenneis, Donald; and Ronald K. S. Macaulay. 1996. The matrix of language: Contemporary linguistic anthropology. Boulder: Westview.
- Duranti, Alessandro. 1997. Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Duranti, Alessandro. ed. 2001. Key terms in language and culture. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
- Duranti, Alessandro. ed. 2001. Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
- Duranti, Alessandro. ed. 2004. Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
- Duranti, Alessandro and Charles Goodwin. eds. 1992. Rethinking context: Language as an interactive phenomenon. Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language (No. 11). Cambridge: Cambridge University.
- Fitch, K. and G. Philipsen. 1995. Ethnography of speaking. In Handbook of pragmatics. J. Verschueren, J.-O. Östman, J. Blommaert, eds. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.
- Foley, W. A. 1997. Anthropological linguistics: an introduction. Blackwell.
- Frank, Francine and Frank Anshen. 1984. Language and the sexes. Albany: State U of NY Press.
- Giglioli, Pier Paolo. 1972. Language and social context: Selected readings. Middlesex: Penguin Books.
- Goffman, Erving 1981. Forms of talk. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Gumperz, John and Dell Hymes. eds. 1964. The ethnography of communication. American Anthropologist, 66 (6, Part 2), 1-186.
- Gumperz, John J. ed. 1982. Language and social identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Gumperz, John J. and Dell Hymes. eds. 1972. Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- Hanks, William F. 1996. Language and communicative practices. Critical essays in anthropology(No. 1). Boulder, CO: Westview.
- Harrison, K. David. 2007. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press.
- Hill, Jane H. 2001. Language, Race, and White Public Space. In Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 450-464. Malden: Blackwell.
- Morgan, M. ed. 1994. Language and the social construction of identity. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, UCLA.
- Newmeyer, F. J. ed. 1989. Language: The socio-cultural context. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Philipsen, G. 1992. Speaking culturally. Albany: State University of New York Press.
- Salzmann, Zdenek. 1998. Language, culture, & society (2nd ed.). Westview Press.
- Sanches, M. and B. G. Blount. eds. 1975. Sociocultural dimensions of language use. New York: Academic Press.
- Schiffman, H. 1996. Linguistic culture and language policy. Routledge.
- Silverstein, Michael. 1994. Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description. In Language, Culture, and Society: A Book of Readings. B.G. Blount, ed. Pp. 187-221. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
- Tedlock, Dennis and Bruce Mannheim. 1995. The dialogic emergence of culture. Champaign: University of Illinois.
- Whorf, Benjamin Lee. 1956. Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings. J. B. Carroll, ed. Cambridge: Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.