古英语

古英语（Ænglisc，Old English）或盎格鲁-撒克逊语（Anglo-Saxon）是指从449年到1066年间源于西北欧的日耳曼部落（盎格鲁-撒克逊人）入侵大不列颠岛并在现今英格兰和苏格兰低地东南部定居后所说的中世纪早期英语，属于西日耳曼语中的一种北海日耳曼语方言，和古弗里西语同属盎格鲁-弗里斯兰语组，并与古撒克逊语有密切关系，在诺曼人征服后受诺曼语（属罗曼语族）影响演化为中古英语。

古英语虽然曾因盎格鲁-撒克逊英格兰的基督教化而受到少许拉丁语的影响，但和近代英语与现代英语无论在读音、拼写、词汇和文法上都很不一样，基本上无法互通；而因为丹麦法区历史，古英语受维京人的古诺斯语（北日耳曼语）影响更大，文法反而和德语及冰岛语比较相近，形态变化很复杂。

## 文字字母

字母｜IPA 转述

a｜/ɑ/, /ɑː/

ā｜/ɑː/

æ｜/æ/, /æː/

ǣ｜/æː/

b｜/b/

v ( /f/ 的一个异音)

c｜/k/

/tʃ/

cg｜/ddʒ/ (其发音为 /jj/ 的初期形式)

/ɡɡ/ (偶尔)

d｜/d/

ð｜/θ/, 包括其异音 ð

e｜/e/, /eː/

ę

ē｜/eː/

ea｜/æɑ/, /æːɑ/

ēa｜/æːɑ/

eo｜/eo/, /eːo/

ēo｜/eːo/

f｜/f/，包括其异音 /v/ (同见 b).

g｜/ɡ/，包括其异音 /ɣ/；或 /j/，包括其异音/dʒ/，后来变为 n

h｜/h/，包括其异音/ç/, /x/

i｜/i/, /iː/

ī｜/iː/

ie｜/iy/, /iːy/

/e/, /eː/

īe｜/iːy/

io｜/iu/, /iːu/

k｜/k/

l｜/l/

m｜/m/

n｜/n/，包括其异音 /ŋ/ (以前为 /k/, /g/).

o｜/o/, /oː/

ō｜/oː/

oe｜/ø/, /øː/ （部分地区方言含有其音）.

ōe｜/øː/

p｜/p/

qu｜/kw/

r｜/r/

s｜/s/包括其异音 /z/.

sc｜/ʃ/，偶尔也/sk/.

t｜/t/

th｜/θ/，最早写为þ (同见 þ).

þ｜/θ/，包括其异音/ð/

u｜/u/，/uː/ 有时也用 /w/表示 (可见于下方的ƿ).

uu｜有时使用 /w/ (可见于下方的ƿ).

ū｜现代版本，用 /uː/ 以区别于 /u/

w｜/w/

ƿ｜/w/

x｜/ks/ （或xs ~ çs 存在不确定）

y｜/y/ 或 /yː/

ȳ｜/yː/

z｜/ts/

该个语言字母共有49个。

另外，双辅音在此阶段属于萌发期，双辅音 ðð或þþ、以及 在古英语中不能被发音。

## 代表时期

古英语可以分为：

史前古英语（450年－650年），在这段时期，因为缺乏相关文献，古英语只能构拟出来，是当时盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人在英格兰地区的语言。

早期古英语（650年－900年），在这段时期，开始出现最古老的英语文献。

后期古英语（900年－1066年），古英语的最后阶段，随着诺曼征服英格兰，过渡至中古英语。

## 音系

古英语的音位表重构如下：

双唇音｜唇齿音｜齿音｜齿龈音｜龈后音｜硬腭音｜软腭音｜声门音

鼻音｜m｜ ｜ ｜n｜ ｜ ｜(ŋ)

塞音｜p b｜ ｜ ｜t d｜ ｜ ｜k ɡ

塞擦音｜ ｜ ｜ ｜ ｜tʃ (dʒ)

擦音｜ ｜f (v)｜θ (ð)｜s (z)｜ʃ｜(ç)｜(x) (ɣ)｜h

近音｜ ｜ ｜ ｜r｜ ｜j｜w

边音｜ ｜ ｜ ｜l

括号中的是同位异音:

- dʒ 是 /j/ 的同位异音，出现于 /n/ 之后与长辅音中
- ŋ 是 /n/ 的同位异音，出现在 /k/ 和 /ɡ/ 之前
- v, ð, z 分别是 /f, θ, s/ 的同位异音，出现在元音或浊音之间
- ç, x 是 /h/ 的同位异音，分别出现于在前和后元音之后的音节韵尾
- ɣ 是 /ɡ/ 的同位异音，出现于元音之后和早期的词首辅音丛中

单元音｜短｜长

前｜后｜前｜后

闭｜i y｜u｜iː yː｜uː

中｜e (ø)｜o｜eː (øː)｜oː

开｜æ｜ɑ｜æː｜ɑː

前中圆唇元音 /ø(ː)/ 出现在某些方言中，但在信料最好的后期西撒克逊方言中未出现。

双元音｜短(单音重)｜长(双音重)

前音素闭｜iːy

二音素中｜eːo

二音素开｜æɑ｜æːɑ

## 文法

古英语的名词有数和格的分别。数分为单数、复数；格分为主格、所有格、第三格、受格。因此一个名词的变化数目，将数与格的变化相乘之后，共有8种变化形式。此外，名词还分三个性别：阳性、中性和阴性。这些性的区分并不是以自然性别来判断的。例如妇女（wifmann）就是阳性的。

形容词的形态变化分为强、弱两种，它的数和格也共有8种变化。

动词只有现在式和过去式两种时态变化。

## 文学

古英语重要的文学作品包括《贝奥武夫》（Beowulf）、《盎格鲁撒克逊编年史》（Anglo-Saxon Chronicle）等。

### 古英语文选

下文节选自《贝奥武夫》，约于公元900年

行｜原始｜直译

1｜Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum,｜What! We of Gar-Danes (lit. spear-danes) in yore-days,

2｜þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon,｜of people-kings, trim (glory) afrained (have learned of by asking),

3｜hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.｜how those athelings (princes) arm-strong feats framed (made/performed).

4｜Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum,｜Oft Scyld Scefing, from scathers (enemies) in threats (armed bands),

5｜monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah,｜from many magths (clans, groups of sons, cf. Irish cognate Mac-), mead-settles took,

6｜egsode eorl. Syððan ærest wearð｜awed earls (leaders of men). Sith (since) erst (first) he worth (came to be)

7｜feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad,｜fewshiped (helpless, in "fewship") founden, he in a state of loving care abode (lived),

8｜weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah,｜wex (waxed) under welkin (the clouds), in mind's-worth (honour) thrived,

9｜oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra｜oth that (until that) to him each of those who were by-sitting ("sitting" or dwelling roundabout)

10｜ofer hronrade hyran scolde,｜over whale-road (kenning for sea) hear (obedience) should (owed),

11｜gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning!｜gifts to yield. That was a good king!

现代英语意译:

“Listen! We have heard of the glory of the Spear-Danes, of the kings of the people, in days of yore, and how those princes did deeds of glory. Often Scyld Scefing deprived armed bands of foes, many clans of mead-benches, and terrified warriors. Since he first was found helpless (he experienced comfort for that), he grew under the heavens, thrived with honours, until each of the nearby peoples over the sea were obliged to pay him tribute. That was a good king!”

下文节选自《主祷文》（The Lord's Prayer）

行｜原始文本｜英文直译｜中文翻译

1｜Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,｜Father of ours, thou who art in heavens,｜我们在天上的父。

2｜Sī þīn nama ġehālgod.｜Be thy name hallowed.｜愿世人都尊你的名为圣。

3｜Tōbecume þīn rīċe,｜Come thy riche (kingdom),｜愿你的国降临。

4｜ġewurþe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.｜Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth as also in heaven.｜愿你的旨意行在地上，如同行在天上。

5｜Ūre ġedæġhwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tō dæġ,｜Our daily loaf do sell (give) to us today,｜我们日用的饮食。

6｜and forġyf ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġyfað ūrum gyltendum.｜And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilters ｜天天赐给我们。

7｜And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālȳs ūs of yfele.｜And do not lead thou us into temptation, but alese (release/deliver) us of (from) evil.｜免我们的债，如同我们免去人的债。

8｜Sōþlīċe.｜Soothly.｜愿此为真。

下文节选自《Charter of Cnut》

原始｜直译

¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice.｜¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede(people's)-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and lesser (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.

And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage.｜And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be a hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to the rights(laws) worldly.

¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde.｜¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) to sell(give).

¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum.｜¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that unfrith totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial contribution).

Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.｜Tho(then) a man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that to you most harm came of(from): and thatharm have I, mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.

## 基本资料

- 早期形式：古英语
- 说明：《贝奥武夫》首页，图中文字为“ofer hron rade”，意为“鲸路（海）之上”。此为古英语表达形式之一，称比喻复合辞。
- 原文名：Ænglisc、Anglisc、Englisc
- 地区：今英格兰（除西南端和西北端），苏格兰南部和东部、威尔士东部边缘。
- 年代：13世纪前发展为中古英语
- 管理机构：印欧语系
- 谱系学分类：印欧语系
- 谱系学分类：日耳曼语族
- 谱系学分类：西日耳曼语支
- 谱系学分类：盎格鲁-弗里西语组
- 谱系学分类：英语组
- 文字：盎格鲁-撒克逊卢恩字母、后拉丁字母（古英语拉丁字母）。
- iso2：ang
- iso3：ang
- iso6：ango
- glotto：olde1238
- 名称：Old English
- dia1：肯特方言 (古英语)
- dia2：麦西亚方言
- dia3：诺森布里亚语
- dia4：西撒克逊方言 (古英语)
- notice：IPA