自我組織

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自我組織（self-organization），在社會科學中也稱為自發秩序（spontaneous order），是指一種過程，這種過程中，最初的無序系統中各部分之間局部相互作用，形成了某種形式的整體秩序。當能量供給充足時，該過程無需任何外部主體控制即可自發進行。它通常由看似隨機的波動觸發，並經由正反饋放大。由此產生的組織是完全分散的，分布在系統的所有組成成分中。因此，這種組織往往是穩健的，能夠經受重大干擾並自我修復。混沌理論根據大量混亂的不可預測性中的可預測性孤島來討論自組織。

自組織發生在許多物理、化學、生物、機器人和認知系統中。自組織的例子有結晶、流體的熱對流、化學振盪器、動物集群、神經迴路和黑市。

## 概述

自組織可在非平衡過程的物理現象，以及化學反應中實現，在反應中通常稱作自組裝。這一概念在生物學中，從分子到生態系統水平也均有應用。許多其他學科的文獻也給出了自組織行為的案例，包括自然科學和社會科學（如經濟學或人類學）。元胞自動機等數學系統中也能觀察到自組織現象。自組織是湧現這一概念的一個例子。

自組織依賴於四個基本要素：

- 強動態非線性，通常（但未必）涉及正反饋和負反饋
- 開發與探索的平衡
- 組分之間的多重相互作用
- 能量的輸入（克服熵增的自然趨勢，或自由能的損失）

## 原理

控制論者威廉·羅斯·艾什比於1947年提出了自組織的最初的原理則。原理指出，任何確定性動力系統都會自發向平衡狀態演化，這種平衡狀態可以視為周圍狀態域中的吸引子。一旦到達那裡，系統接下來的發展就被限制在吸引子中。這種約束意味著其構成組件或子系統之間存在一種相互依賴或協調的形式。用艾什比的話來說，每個子系統都適應了所有其他子系統構成的環境。

控制論者海因茨·馮·福斯特於1960年提出了「從噪聲產生秩序」的原理。該原理指出，隨機干擾（「噪聲」）會促進自組織，使系統在其狀態空間中探索各種狀態。這增加了系統到達「強」或「深」吸引域的機會，然後從那裡迅速進入吸引子本身。生物物理學家亨利·阿特蘭提出「從噪聲產生複雜性」原理（le principe de complexité par le bruit），發展了這一概念，他首先是在1972年出版的L'organisation biologique et la théorie de l'information一書中，然後是在1979年出版的Entre le cristal et la fumée一書中提出了「從噪聲產生複雜性」。物理學家兼化學家伊利亞·普里高津提出了一個類似的原理，稱為「來自波動的秩序」或「來自混沌的秩序」。它被應用於問題求解和機器學習的模擬退火方法中。

## 參見

- 數學概念：分形 - 隨機圖 - 冪定律 - 六度分隔理論 - 細胞自動機
- 物理概念：熱力學 - 非平衡態熱力學 - 建構理論 - 統計力學 - 相變 - 耗散結構 - 湍流
- 化學概念：反應-擴散系統 - 自催化反應
- 生物概念：演化論 - 形態發生 - 內環境穩態 - 協同動力學
- 社會概念：參與組織
- 系統科學概念：控制論 - 自生系統論
- 複雜系統概念：呈展現象 - 演化計算 - 人工生命 - 自組化臨界 - 混沌的邊緣 - 自發秩序 - 介穩態
- 電腦科學概念：群體智能
- 哲學概念：組織形態學 - 互補對（complementary pairs）
- 自組織協同網路
- 群體築巢行為
- 無為而治

## 延伸閱讀

- W. Ross Ashby (1966), Design for a Brain, Chapman & Hall, 2nd edition.
- Per Bak (1996), How Nature Works: The Science of Self-Organized Criticality , Copernicus Books.
- Philip Ball (1999), The Self-Made Tapestry: Pattern Formation in Nature, Oxford University Press.
- Stafford Beer, Self-organization as autonomy: Brain of the Firm 2nd edition Wiley 1981 and Beyond Dispute Wiley 1994.
- Adrian Bejan (2000), Shape and Structure, from Engineering to Nature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 324 pp.
- Mark Buchanan (2002), Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Theory of Networks W. W. Norton & Company.
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- Falko Dressler (2007), Self-Organization in Sensor and Actor Networks , Wiley & Sons.
- Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster (1979), The Hypercycle: A principle of natural self-organization, Springer.
- Myrna Estep (2003), A Theory of Immediate Awareness: Self-Organization and Adaptation in Natural Intelligence, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
- Myrna L. Estep (2006), Self-Organizing Natural Intelligence: Issues of Knowing, Meaning, and Complexity, Springer-Verlag.
- J. Doyne Farmer et al. (editors) (1986), "Evolution, Games, and Learning: Models for Adaptation in Machines and Nature", in: Physica D, Vol 22.
- Carlos Gershenson and Francis Heylighen (2003). "When Can we Call a System Self-organizing?" In Banzhaf, W, T. Christaller, P. Dittrich, J. T. Kim, and J. Ziegler, Advances in Artificial Life, 7th European Conference, ECAL 2003, Dortmund, Germany, pp. 606–14. LNAI 2801. Springer.
- Hermann Haken (1983) Synergetics: An Introduction. Nonequilibrium Phase Transition and Self-Organization in Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, Third Revised and Enlarged Edition, Springer-Verlag.
- F.A. Hayek Law, Legislation and Liberty, RKP, UK.
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- Arthur Iberall (2016), Homeokinetics: The Basics, Strong Voices Publishing, Medfield, Massachusetts.
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- Alex Kentsis (2004), Self-organization of biological systems: Protein folding and supramolecular assembly , Ph.D. Thesis, New York University.
- E.V. Krishnamurthy (2009)", Multiset of Agents in a Network for Simulation of Complex Systems", in "Recent advances in Nonlinear Dynamics and synchronization, (NDS-1) – Theory and applications, Springer Verlag, New York,2009. Eds. K.Kyamakya, et al.
- Paul Krugman (1996), The Self-Organizing Economy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
- Elizabeth McMillan (2004) "Complexity, Organizations and Change".
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- Heinz Pagels (1988), The Dreams of Reason: The Computer and the Rise of the Sciences of Complexity, Simon & Schuster.
- Gordon Pask (1961), The cybernetics of evolutionary processes and of self organizing systems, 3rd. International Congress on Cybernetics, Namur, Association Internationale de Cybernetique.
- Christian Prehofer ea. (2005), "Self-Organization in Communication Networks: Principles and Design Paradigms", in: IEEE Communications Magazine, July 2005.
- Mitchell Resnick (1994), Turtles, Termites and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds, Complex Adaptive Systems series, MIT Press.
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- Louise B. Young (2002), The Unfinished Universe

## 外部連結

- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen
- PDF file on self-organized common law with references
- An entry on self-organization at the Principia Cybernetica site
- The Science of Self-organization and Adaptivity , a review paper by Francis Heylighen
- The Self-Organizing Systems (SOS) FAQ by Chris Lucas, from the USENET newsgroup `comp.theory.self-org.sys`
- David Griffeath, Primordial Soup Kitchen (graphics, papers)
- nlin.AO, nonlinear preprint archive , (electronic preprints in adaptation and self-organizing systems)
- Structure and Dynamics of Organic Nanostructures
- Metal organic coordination networks of oligopyridines and Cu on graphite
- in complex networks The Complex Systems Lab, Barcelona
- Computational Mechanics Group at the Santa Fe Institute
- "Organisation must grow" (1939) W. Ross Ashby journal p. 759, from The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive
- Cosma Shalizi's notebook on self-organization from 2003-06-20 , used under the GFDL with permission from author.
- Connectivism:SelfOrganization
- UCLA Human Complex Systems Program
- "Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications" 1993 Gordon Pask's theory of learning, evolution and self-organization (in draft).
- The Cybernetics Society
- Scott Camazine's webpage on self-organization in biological systems
- Mikhail Prokopenko's page on Information-driven Self-organisation (IDSO)
- Lakeside Labs Self-Organizing Networked Systems A platform for science and technology, Klagenfurt, Austria.
- Watch 32 discordant metronomes synch up all by themselves theatlantic.com