古英語

古英語（Ænglisc，Old English）或盎格魯-撒克遜語（Anglo-Saxon）是指從449年到1066年間源於西北歐的日耳曼部落（盎格魯-撒克遜人）入侵大不列顛島並在現今英格蘭和蘇格蘭低地東南部定居後所說的中世紀早期英語，屬於西日耳曼語中的一種北海日耳曼語方言，和古弗里西語同屬盎格魯-弗里斯蘭語組，並與古撒克遜語有密切關係，在諾曼人征服後受諾曼語（屬羅曼語族）影響演化為中古英語。

古英語雖然曾因盎格魯-撒克遜英格蘭的基督教化而受到少許拉丁語的影響，但和近代英語與現代英語無論在讀音、拼寫、詞彙和文法上都很不一樣，基本上無法互通；而因為丹麥法區歷史，古英語受維京人的古諾斯語（北日耳曼語）影響更大，文法反而和德語及冰島語比較相近，形態變化很複雜。

## 文字字母

字母｜IPA 轉述

a｜/ɑ/, /ɑː/

ā｜/ɑː/

æ｜/æ/, /æː/

ǣ｜/æː/

b｜/b/

v ( /f/ 的一個異音)

c｜/k/

/tʃ/

cg｜/ddʒ/ (其發音為 /jj/ 的初期形式)

/ɡɡ/ (偶爾)

d｜/d/

ð｜/θ/, 包括其異音 ð

e｜/e/, /eː/

ę

ē｜/eː/

ea｜/æɑ/, /æːɑ/

ēa｜/æːɑ/

eo｜/eo/, /eːo/

ēo｜/eːo/

f｜/f/，包括其異音 /v/ (同見 b).

g｜/ɡ/，包括其異音 /ɣ/；或 /j/，包括其異音/dʒ/，後來變為 n

h｜/h/，包括其異音/ç/, /x/

i｜/i/, /iː/

ī｜/iː/

ie｜/iy/, /iːy/

/e/, /eː/

īe｜/iːy/

io｜/iu/, /iːu/

k｜/k/

l｜/l/

m｜/m/

n｜/n/，包括其異音 /ŋ/ (以前為 /k/, /g/).

o｜/o/, /oː/

ō｜/oː/

oe｜/ø/, /øː/ （部分地區方言含有其音）.

ōe｜/øː/

p｜/p/

qu｜/kw/

r｜/r/

s｜/s/包括其異音 /z/.

sc｜/ʃ/，偶爾也/sk/.

t｜/t/

th｜/θ/，最早寫為þ (同見 þ).

þ｜/θ/，包括其異音/ð/

u｜/u/，/uː/ 有時也用 /w/表示 (可見於下方的ƿ).

uu｜有時使用 /w/ (可見於下方的ƿ).

ū｜現代版本，用 /uː/ 以區別於 /u/

w｜/w/

ƿ｜/w/

x｜/ks/ （或xs ~ çs 存在不確定）

y｜/y/ 或 /yː/

ȳ｜/yː/

z｜/ts/

該個語言字母共有49個。

另外，雙輔音在此階段屬於萌發期，雙輔音 ðð或þþ、以及 在古英語中不能被發音。

## 代表時期

古英語可以分為：

史前古英語（450年－650年），在這段時期，因為缺乏相關文獻，古英語只能構擬出來，是當時盎格魯人、撒克遜人和朱特人在英格蘭地區的語言。

早期古英語（650年－900年），在這段時期，開始出現最古老的英語文獻。

後期古英語（900年－1066年），古英語的最後階段，隨著諾曼征服英格蘭，過渡至中古英語。

## 音系

古英語的音位表重構如下：

雙唇音｜唇齒音｜齒音｜齒齦音｜齦後音｜硬齶音｜軟齶音｜聲門音

鼻音｜m｜ ｜ ｜n｜ ｜ ｜(ŋ)

塞音｜p b｜ ｜ ｜t d｜ ｜ ｜k ɡ

塞擦音｜ ｜ ｜ ｜ ｜tʃ (dʒ)

擦音｜ ｜f (v)｜θ (ð)｜s (z)｜ʃ｜(ç)｜(x) (ɣ)｜h

近音｜ ｜ ｜ ｜r｜ ｜j｜w

邊音｜ ｜ ｜ ｜l

括號中的是同位異音:

- dʒ 是 /j/ 的同位異音，出現於 /n/ 之後與長輔音中
- ŋ 是 /n/ 的同位異音，出現在 /k/ 和 /ɡ/ 之前
- v, ð, z 分別是 /f, θ, s/ 的同位異音，出現在元音或濁音之間
- ç, x 是 /h/ 的同位異音，分別出現於在前和後元音之後的音節韻尾
- ɣ 是 /ɡ/ 的同位異音，出現於元音之後和早期的詞首輔音叢中

單元音｜短｜長

前｜後｜前｜後

閉｜i y｜u｜iː yː｜uː

中｜e (ø)｜o｜eː (øː)｜oː

開｜æ｜ɑ｜æː｜ɑː

前中圓唇元音 /ø(ː)/ 出現在某些方言中，但在信料最好的後期西撒克遜方言中未出現。

雙元音｜短(單音重)｜長(雙音重)

前音素閉｜iːy

二音素中｜eːo

二音素開｜æɑ｜æːɑ

## 文法

古英語的名詞有數和格的分別。數分為單數、複數；格分為主格、所有格、第三格、受格。因此一個名詞的變化數目，將數與格的變化相乘之後，共有8種變化形式。此外，名詞還分三個性別：陽性、中性和陰性。這些性的區分並不是以自然性別來判斷的。例如婦女（wifmann）就是陽性的。

形容詞的形態變化分為強、弱兩種，它的數和格也共有8種變化。

動詞只有現在式和過去式兩種時態變化。

## 文學

古英語重要的文學作品包括《貝奧武夫》（Beowulf）、《盎格魯撒克遜編年史》（Anglo-Saxon Chronicle）等。

### 古英語文選

下文節選自《貝奧武夫》，約於公元900年

行｜原始｜直譯

1｜Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum,｜What! We of Gar-Danes (lit. spear-danes) in yore-days,

2｜þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon,｜of people-kings, trim (glory) afrained (have learned of by asking),

3｜hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.｜how those athelings (princes) arm-strong feats framed (made/performed).

4｜Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum,｜Oft Scyld Scefing, from scathers (enemies) in threats (armed bands),

5｜monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah,｜from many magths (clans, groups of sons, cf. Irish cognate Mac-), mead-settles took,

6｜egsode eorl. Syððan ærest wearð｜awed earls (leaders of men). Sith (since) erst (first) he worth (came to be)

7｜feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad,｜fewshiped (helpless, in "fewship") founden, he in a state of loving care abode (lived),

8｜weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah,｜wex (waxed) under welkin (the clouds), in mind's-worth (honour) thrived,

9｜oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra｜oth that (until that) to him each of those who were by-sitting ("sitting" or dwelling roundabout)

10｜ofer hronrade hyran scolde,｜over whale-road (kenning for sea) hear (obedience) should (owed),

11｜gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning!｜gifts to yield. That was a good king!

現代英語意譯:

「Listen! We have heard of the glory of the Spear-Danes, of the kings of the people, in days of yore, and how those princes did deeds of glory. Often Scyld Scefing deprived armed bands of foes, many clans of mead-benches, and terrified warriors. Since he first was found helpless (he experienced comfort for that), he grew under the heavens, thrived with honours, until each of the nearby peoples over the sea were obliged to pay him tribute. That was a good king!」

下文節選自《主禱文》（The Lord's Prayer）

行｜原始文本｜英文直譯｜中文翻譯

1｜Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,｜Father of ours, thou who art in heavens,｜我們在天上的父。

2｜Sī þīn nama ġehālgod.｜Be thy name hallowed.｜願世人都尊你的名為聖。

3｜Tōbecume þīn rīċe,｜Come thy riche (kingdom),｜願你的國降臨。

4｜ġewurþe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.｜Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth as also in heaven.｜願你的旨意行在地上，如同行在天上。

5｜Ūre ġedæġhwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tō dæġ,｜Our daily loaf do sell (give) to us today,｜我們日用的飲食。

6｜and forġyf ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġyfað ūrum gyltendum.｜And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilters ｜天天賜給我們。

7｜And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālȳs ūs of yfele.｜And do not lead thou us into temptation, but alese (release/deliver) us of (from) evil.｜免我們的債，如同我們免去人的債。

8｜Sōþlīċe.｜Soothly.｜願此為真。

下文節選自《Charter of Cnut》

原始｜直譯

¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice.｜¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede(people's)-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and lesser (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.

And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage.｜And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be a hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to the rights(laws) worldly.

¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde.｜¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) to sell(give).

¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum.｜¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that unfrith totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial contribution).

Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.｜Tho(then) a man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that to you most harm came of(from): and thatharm have I, mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.

## 基本資料

- 早期形式：古英語
- 說明：《貝奧武夫》首頁，圖中文字為「ofer hron rade」，意為「鯨路（海）之上」。此為古英語表達形式之一，稱比喻複合辭。
- 原文名：Ænglisc、Anglisc、Englisc
- 地區：今英格蘭（除西南端和西北端），蘇格蘭南部和東部、威爾斯東部邊緣。
- 年代：13世紀前發展為中古英語
- 管理機構：印歐語系
- 譜系學分類：印歐語系
- 譜系學分類：日耳曼語族
- 譜系學分類：西日耳曼語支
- 譜系學分類：盎格魯-弗里西語組
- 譜系學分類：英語組
- 文字：盎格魯-撒克遜盧恩字母、後拉丁字母（古英語拉丁字母）。
- iso2：ang
- iso3：ang
- iso6：ango
- glotto：olde1238
- 名稱：Old English
- dia1：肯特方言 (古英語)
- dia2：麥西亞方言
- dia3：諾森布里亞語
- dia4：西撒克遜方言 (古英語)
- notice：IPA