反猶太教，又反猶太教主義，是反對猶太教宗教思想的總稱，通常不包括學術。反猶太教的人通常源自不同信仰體系。與反猶主義不同，反猶主義更類似一種種族主義。 根據道格拉斯黑爾的說法，反猶太教分為三種型別： 先知式的反猶太教 對宗教信仰和宗教實踐的批評； 猶太 基督教反猶太教 相信耶穌是彌賽亞的猶太人； 外邦化反猶太教 強調新運動的外邦特徵，並聲稱上帝拒絕 舊 以色列。 AntiJudaism is the total or partial opposition to Judaism as a religionand the total or partial opposition to Jews as adherents of itby persons who accept a competing system of beliefs and practices and consider certain genuine Judaic beliefs and practices inferiorLangmuir 1971 383 cited by Abulafia 1998 part II 77 AntiJudaism as a rejection of a particular way of thinking about God is distinct from antisemitism which is more akin to a form of racism Scholars wishing to blur the line between theology and racism have since coined the term religious antisemitism Both the Christian doctrine of supersessionism and the Islamic doctrine of tahrif exemplify the formation of religious identity by appropriating and adapting Jewish texts while they define Judaism as a constitutive other and an essential enemy PreChristian Roman Empire In Ancient Rome religion was an integral part of the civil government Beginning with the Roman Senates declaration of the divinity of Julius Caesar on 1 January 42 BC some Emperors were proclaimed gods on Earth and demanded to be worshiped accordingly throughout the Roman Empire This created religious difficulties for those Jews monotheistic who adhere strictly to their customary law and worshipers of Mithras Sabazius and early ChristiansAndrew J SchoenfeldSons of Israel in Caesars Service Jewish Soldiers in the Roman Military Shofar Vol 24 No 3 Spring 2006 pp 115126 p117 As a larger corpus of Jewish inscriptions and artifacts from the ancient world has become available it has become clear that the observance of Judaism in the Roman world was far more variegated than previously supposed At the time of Jesus ministry the Jews of the Roman Empire were a respected and privileged minority whose influence was enhanced by a relatively high level of literacyWilson Stephen G Related Strangers Jews and Christians 1995 2021 which elaborated on Gager J The Origins of Antisemitism 1983 35112 The Jews were granted a number of concessions by the Romans the right to observe the Sabbath and to substitute prayers for the emperor in place of participation in the imperial cultBibliowicz Abel M JewishChristian Relations The First Centuries Mascarat 2019 Wilson Stephen G Related Strangers Jews and Christians 1995 2021 They had been exempted from military service on the Sabbath for exampleDora Askowith The Toleration of the Jews Under Julius Caesar and Augustus Part 1 Wipf and Stock Publishers 2014 pp201202Trotter 2019 p27Schoenfeld 2006 p115116 The participation of Jews in the Roman military is a topic that is underemphasized or frankly ignored by historians Julius Caesar who never forgot the debt he owed to Antipater the Idumaean for playing a decisive role in the Battle of Pelusium and thereby saving his life and careerLuciano CanforaJulius Caesar The Life and Times of the Peoples Dictator University of California Press 2007 pp 209217 209213 was supportive of Jews allowing them uniquely a right to assembly and to collect funds for JerusalemJonathan Trotter The Jerusalem Temple in Diaspora Jewish Practice and Thought during the Second Temple Period BRILL 2019 pp 2932 32 n55 His enmity toward Pompey who had conquered Jerusalem and defiled the Holy of Holies enhanced his status among them as he ordered the reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem after the destruction wrought by PompeyCanfora p 213 He may also have cultivated Jews as clients to buttress his position in the East against the latter At times he treated the high priest Hyrcanus II on equal terms by writing to him as Romes pontifex maximus Jews reacted to his assassination by mourning him publicly in Rome The crisis under Caligula 3741 has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and the Jews even though problems were already evident during the Census of Quirinius in 6 and under Sejanus before 31 After the JewishRoman wars 66135 Hadrian changed the name of Iudaea province to Syria Palaestina and Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina in an attempt to erase the historical ties of the Jewish people to the region After 70 Jews and Jewish proselytes were only allowed to practice their religion if they paid the Jewish tax and after 135 were barred from Jerusalem except for the day of Tisha BAv Frequent Jewish uprisings two major wars in 6673 and 133136 CE in addition to uprisings in Alexandria and Cyrene xenophobia and Jewish prerogatives and idiosyncrasies were at the root of antiJewish feelings in some segments of Roman society These confrontations did cause temporary erosions in the status of the Jews in the empire Reversals in the relationship were temporary and did not have permanent or sustained impact Flavius Clemens was put to death in 95 CE for living a Jewish life or drifting into Jewish ways an accusation also frequently made against Early ChristiansJudaism and Christianity in Firstcentury Rome Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 1998 p 225 No known Christians are recorded for having been put to death on these grounds however Giorgio JossaJews Or Christians The Followers of Jesus in Search of Their Own Identity Mohr Siebeck 2006 pp141143 and which may well have been related to the administration of the Jewish tax under Domitian The Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its state religion with the Edict of Thessalonica on 27 February 380 Christian antiJudaism Early Christianity and the Judaizers Christianity commenced as a sect within Judaism known as Jewish Christianity It was seen as such by the early Christians as well as Jews in general The wider Roman administration most likely would not have understood any distinction Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews before 96 CE when Christians successfully petitioned Nerva to exempt them from the Jewish tax the Fiscus Judaicus on the basis that they were not Jews From then on practising Jews paid the tax while Christians did notWylen Stephen M The Jews in the Time of Jesus An Introduction Paulist Press 1995 Pp 190192Dunn James DG Jews and Christians The Parting of the Ways AD 70 to 135 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 1999 Pp 3334Boatwright Mary Taliaferro Gargola Daniel J Talbert Richard John Alexander The Romans From Village to Empire Oxford University Press 2004 p 426 Christianity is based on Jewish monotheism scriptures generally the Greek Old Testament or Targum translations of the Hebrew Bible liturgy and morality The main distinction of the Early Christian community from its Jewish roots was the belief that Jesus was the longawaited Messiah as in the Confession of Peter but that in itself would not have severed the Jewish connection Another point of divergence was the questioning by Christians of the continuing applicability of the Law of Moses the Torah though the Apostolic Decree of the Apostolic Age of Christianity appears to parallel the Noahide Law of Judaism The two issues came to be linked in a theological discussion within the Christian community as to whether the coming of the Messiah First or Second Coming annulled either some Supersessionism or all Abrogation of Old Covenant laws of the Judaic laws in what came to be called a New Covenant The circumcision controversy was probably the second issue after the issue of Jesus as messiah during which the theological argument was conducted in terms of antiJudaism with those who argued for the view that biblical law continued to be applicable being labelled Judaizers or Pharisees eg The teachings of Paul d 67 CE whose letters comprise much of the New Testament demonstrate a long battle against Judaizing However James the Just who after Jesuss death was widely acknowledged as the leader of the Jerusalem Christians worshiped at the Second Temple in Jerusalem until his death in 62 thirty years after Jesus deathHopkins Keith A World Full of Gods Great Britain Weidenfeld Nicolson 1999 The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE would lead Christians to doubt the efficacy of the ancient law though Ebionism would linger on until the 5th century However Marcion of Sinope who advocated rejecting the entirety of Judaic influence on the Christian faith would be excommunicated by the Church in Rome in 144 CETertullian Adversus Marcionem AntiJudaic polemic AntiJudaic works of this period include De Adversus Iudeaos by Tertullian Octavius by Minucius Felix De Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate by Cyprian of Carthage and Instructiones Adversus Gentium Deos by Lactantius The traditional hypothesis holds that the antiJudaism of these early fathers of the Church were inherited from the Christian tradition of Biblical exegesis though a second hypothesis holds that early Christian antiJudaism was inherited from the pagan world Taylor has observed that theological Christian antiJudaism emerge d from the churchs efforts to resolve the contradictions inherent in its simultaneous appropriation and rejection of different elements of the Jewish tradition Modern scholars believe that Judaism may have been a missionary religion in the early centuries of the Christian or common era converting socalled proselytes and thus competition for the religious loyalties of gentiles drove antiJudaismM Simon Versus IsraelJews and Christians in the Roman Empire 1986 The debate and dialogue moved from polemic to bitter verbal and written attacks one against the other However since the last decades of the 20th century the view that a proselytizing struggle between turn of the era Judaism and early Christianity may have been the main generator of antiJewish attitudes among early gentile believers in Jesus is eroding Scholars have revisited the traditional claims about Jewish proselytizing and have largely concluded that active Jewish proselytizing was a later apologetic construct that does not reflect the reality of first century Judaism To Tarfon died 135 CE is attributed a statement about whether scrolls could be left to burn in a fire on the Sabbath A disputedDaniel Boyarin Border Lines The Partition of JudaeoChristianity 2006 pg 5758Kuhn 1960 and Maier 1962 cited by Paget in The Written Gospel 2005 pg 210Friedlander 1899 cited in Pearson in Gnosticism Judaism and Egyptian Christianity 1990 interpretation identifies these books with the Gospels see Gilyonim The Gospels must be burned for paganism is not as dangerous to the Jewish faith as Jewish Christian sects The anonymous Letter to Diognetus was the earliest apologetic work in the early Church to address Judaism Saint Justin Martyr died 165 CE wrote the apologetic Dialogue with Trypho a polemical debate giving the Christian assertions for the Messiahship of Jesus Philippe Bobichon Préceptes éternels et Loi mosaïque dans le Dialogue avec Tryphon de Justin Martyr Revue Biblique 32 2004 pp 238254 Philippe Bobichon Como se integra el tema de la filiación en la obra y en el pensamiento de Justino in P de Navascués Benlloch M Crespo Losada A Sáez Gutiérrez dir Filiación Cultura pagana religión de Israel orígenes del cristianismo vol III Madrid 2011 pp 337378 online article by making use of the Old Testament contrasted with counterarguments from a fictionalized version of Tarphon For centuries defenders of Christ and the enemies of the Jews employed no other method than these apologetics Apologetics were difficult as gentile converts could not be expected to understand Hebrew translations of the Septuagint into Greek prior to Aquila would serve as a flawed basis for such crosscultural arguments as demonstrated by Origens difficulties debating Rabbi Simlai Though Emperor Hadrian was an enemy of the synagogue the reign of Antonius began a period of Roman benevolence toward the Jewish faith Meanwhile imperial hostility toward Christianity continued to crystallize after Decius the empire was at war with it An unequal power relationship between Jews and Christians in the context of the GrecoRoman world generated antiJewish feelings among the early Christians Feelings of mutual hatred arose driven in part by Judaisms legality in the Roman Empire in Antioch where the rivalry was most bitter Jews most likely demanded the execution of Polycarp From Constantine to the 8th century When Constantine and Licinius were issuing the Edict of Milan the influence of Judaism was fading in the Land of Israel in favor of Christianity and seeing a rebirth outside the Roman Empire in Babylonia By the 3rd century the Judaizing heresies were nearly extinct in Christianity After his defeat of Licinius in 323 CE Constantine showed Christians marked political preference He repressed Jewish proselytism and forbade Jews from circumcising their slaves Jews were barred from Jerusalem except on the anniversary of the Second Temples destruction Tisha BAv and then only after paying a special tax probably the Fiscus Judaicus in silver He also promulgated a law which condemned to the stake Jews who persecuted their apostates by stoning Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire see Christendom No sooner was the Church armed than it forgot its most elementary principles and directed the secular arm against its enemies Animosity existed on both sides and in 351 the Jews of Palestine revolted against Constantines son in the Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus From the middle of the 5th century apologetics ceased with Cyril of Alexandria This form of antiJudaism had proven futile and often served to strengthen Jewish faith With Christianity ascendant in the Empire the Fathers the bishops and the priest who had to contend against the Jews treated them very badly Hosius in Spain Pope Sylvester I Eusebius of Caesaria call them a perverse dangerous and criminal sect While Gregory of Nyssa merely reproaches Jews as infidels other teachers are more vehement Saint Augustine labels the Talmudists as falsifiers Saint Ambrose recycled the earlier antiChristian trope and accuses Jews of despising Roman law Saint Jerome claims Jews were possessed by an impure spirit Saint Cyril of Jerusalem claimed the Jewish Patriarchs or Nasi were a low race All these theological and polemical attacks combined in Saint John Chrysostoms six sermons delivered at Antioch Chrysostom an archbishop of Constantinople died 407 CE is very negative in his treatment of Judaism though much more hyperbolic in expressionSaint John Chrysostom Eight Homilies Against the Jews While Saint Justins Dialogue is a philosophical treatise Saint Chrysostoms homilies Against the Jews are a more informal and rhetorically forceful set of sermons preached in church Delivered while Chrysostom was still a priest in Antioch his homilies deliver a scathing critique of Jewish religious and civil life warning Christians not to have any contact with Judaism or the synagogue and to keep away from the rival religions festivals There are legions of theologians historians and writers who write about the Jews the same as Chrysostom Epiphanius Diodorus of Tarsus Theodore of Mopsuestia Theodoret of Cyprus Cosmas Indicopleustes Athanasius the Sinaite among the Greeks Hilarius of Poitiers Prudentius Paulus Orosius Sulpicius Severus Gennadius Venantius Fortunatus Isidore of Seville among the Latins From the 4th to 7th centuries while the bishops opposed Judaism in writing the Empire enacted a variety of civil laws against Jews such as forbidding them from holding public office and an oppressive curial tax Laws were enacted to harass their free observance of religion Justinian went so far as to enact a law against Jewish daily prayers Both Christians and Jews engaged in recorded mob violence in the waning days of the Empire Through this period Jewish revolts continued During the ByzantineSasanian War of 602628 many Jews sided against the Byzantine Empire in the Jewish revolt against Heraclius which successfully assisted the invading Persian Sassanids in conquering all of Roman Egypt and Syria In reaction to this further antiJewish measures were enacted throughout the Byzantine realm and as far away as Merovingian FranceAbrahamson et al The Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614 compared with Islamic conquest of 638 Soon thereafter 634 the Muslim conquests began during which many Jews initially rose up again against their Byzantine rulersRosenwein Barbara H 2004 A Short History of the Middle Ages Ontario pp 7172 The pattern wherein Jews were relatively free under pagan rulers until the Christian conversion of the leadership as seen with Constantine would be repeated in the lands beyond the now collapsed Roman Empire Sigismund of Burgundy enacted laws against Jews after coming to the throne after his conversion in 514 likewise after the conversion of Reccared king of the Visigoths in 589 which would have lasting effect when codified by Reccesuinth in the Visigothic Code of Law This code inspired Jews to aid Tariq ibnZiyad a Muslim in his overthrow of Roderick and under the Moors also Muslims Jews regained their usurped religious freedoms After the 8th century Beginning with the 8th century legislation against heresies grew more severe The Church once confining itself to only the powers of canon law increasingly appealed to secular powers Heretics such as the Vaudois Albigenses Beghards Apostolic Brothers and Luciferians were thus treated with cruelty which culminated in the 13th century establishment of the Inquisition by Pope Innocent III Jews were not ignored by such legislation either as they allegedly instigated Christians to judaizations either directly or unconsciously by their existence They sent forth metaphysicians such as Amaury de Béne and David de Dinan the Pasagians followed Mosaic Law the Orleans heresy was a Jewish heresy the Albigens taught Jewish doctrine as superior to Christian the Dominicans preached against both the Hussites and their Jewish supporters and thus the imperial army sent to advance on Jan Ziska massacred Jews along the way In Spain where Castilian custom fueros had granted equal rights to Muslims Christians and Jews Gregory XI instituted the Spanish Inquisition to spy on Jews and Moors wherever by words or writings they urged the Catholics to embrace their faith Usury became a proximate cause of much antiJewish sentiment during the Middle Ages In Italy and later Poland and Germany John of Capistrano stirred up the poor against the usury of the Jews Bernardinus of Feltre aided by the practical notion of establishing montdepiétés called for the expulsion of Jews all over Italy and Tyrol and caused the massacre of the Jews at Trent Kings nobles and bishops discouraged this behavior protecting Jews from the monk Radulphe in Germany and countering the preachings of Bernardinus in Italy These reactions were from knowing the history of mobs incited against Jews continuing attacks against their rich coreligionists AntiJudaism was a dynamic in the early Spanish colonies in the Americas where Europeans used antiJudaic memes and forms of thinking against Native and African peoples in effect transferring antiJudaism onto other peoplesMcAlister Elizabeth The Jew in the Haitian Imagination A Popular History of AntiJudaism and ProtoRacism In Henry Goldschmidt and Elizabeth McAlister eds Race Nation and Religion in the Americas Berkeley University of California Press 2004 6182 The Church kept to its theological antiJudaism and favoring the mighty and rich was careful not to encourage the passions of the people But while it sometimes interfered on behalf of the Jews when they were the objects of mob fury it at the same time fueled the fury by combating Judaism In the Reformation Martin Luther has been accused of antisemitism primarily in relation to his statements about Jews in his book On the Jews and their Lies which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms excoriating them and providing detailed recommendation for a pogrom against them and their permanent oppression andor expulsion According to Paul Johnson it may be termed the first work of modern antiSemitism and a giant step forward on the road to the HolocaustJohnson Paul A History of the Jews 1987 p242 In contrast Roland Bainton noted church historian and Luther biographer wrote One could wish that Luther had died before ever this tract was written His position was entirely religious and in no respect racialBainton Roland Here I Stand Nashville Abingdon Press New American Library 1983 p 297 Peter Martyr Vermigli a shaper of Reformed Protestantism took pains to maintain the contradiction going back to Paul of Tarsus of Jews being both enemy and friend writing The Jews are not odious to God for the very reason they are Jews for how could this have happened since they were embellished with so many great gifts Contrasted with antisemitism The terms antiJudaism the Christian aversion toward the Jewish religion and antisemitism aversion toward the Jews as a racial or ethnic group are omnipresent in the controversies over the churches responsibility with regard to the extermination of the Jews and since 1945 most of the works on antiSemitism have contrasted this term with antiJudaismJeanne FavretSaada A fuzzy distinction AntiJudaism and antiSemitism An excerpt from Le Judaisme et ses Juifs Journal of Ethnographic Theory 2014 According to Jeanne FavretSaada the scientific analysis of the links and difference between both terms is made difficult for two reasons First is the definition some scholars argue that antiJudaic refers to Christian theology and to Christian theology only while others argue that the term applies also to the discriminatory policy of the churches Some authors also advance that eighteenthcentury catechisms were antisemitic and others argue that the term cannot be used before the date of its first appearance in 1879 The second difficulty is that these two concepts place themselves in different contexts the old and religious for the antiJudaism the new and political for antiSemitism As examples regarding the nuances put forward by scholars Leon Poliakov in The History of AntiSemitism 1991 describes a transition from antiJudaism to an atheist antiSemitism going in parallel with the transition from religion to science as if the former had vanished in the later and therefore differentiating both In The Aryan Myth 1995 he nevertheless writes that with the arrival of antiSemitism the ineradicable feelings and resentments of the Christian West were to be expressed thereafter in a new vocabulary According to Jeanne Fabret if there were fewer Christians going to church during the age of science religious representations kept shaping minds For Gavin Langmuir antiJudaism is concerned with exaggerated accusations against Jews which nonetheless contain a particle of truth or evidence whereas antisemitism reaches beyond unusual general inferences and is concerned with false suppositionsAbulafia 1998 part II 77 referring to Langmuir 1971 Thus Langmuir considers the labelling of Jews as Christkillers is antiJudaic accusations of wellpoisoning on the other hand he regards as antisemitic In his view antiJudaism and antisemitism have existed side by side from the 12th century onwards and have strengthened each other ever sinceAbulafia 1998 part II 77 citing Langmuir 1971 383389 The blood libel is another example of antisemitism though it is based in distorted notions of Judaism David Nirenberg in his 2013 book AntiJudaism The Western Tradition considers the allegation of Jewish impiety toward the gods and misanthropy a core element of antiJudaism in the version formulated by Manetho to reflect a pathology arising in ancient Egypt that came to underwrite Western civilization flowing thereafter from Nicene Christianity through Islam and the Crusades to Enlightenment Universalism to the present day defining it as a theoretical framework for making sense of the world in terms of Jews and Judaism In agreeing with Nirenbergs analysis and conclusion while recommending the book Paula Frederiksen presents his thesis with these quotes AntiJudaism should not be understood as some archaic or irrational closet in the vast edifices of Western thought Nirenberg observes in his introduction It was rather one of the basic tools with which that edifice was constructed And as he ominously concludes hundreds of pages later We live in an age in which millions of people are exposed daily to some variant of the argument that the challenges of the world they live in are best explained in terms of Israel She describes the formation of Early Christianity as warring sects of mostly expagan gentiles stating that the war was against heresy the target was other gentile Christians But the ammunition of choice was antiJudaism JeanPaul Sartres essay The AntiSemite and the Jew observes that if the Jew did not exist the antisemite would invent him AntiJudaism has been distinguished from antisemitism based upon racial or ethnic grounds racial antisemitism The dividing line is the possibility of effective conversion A Jew ceases to be a Jew upon baptism However with racial antisemitism the assimilated Jew is still a Jew even after baptism According to William Nichols f rom the Enlightenment onward it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable even before explicitly racist doctrines appear Similarly in Anna Bikonts investigation of the massacre of Jews in wartime Jedwabne Poland in The Crime and the Silence she recognizes the presence of antisemitism as a result of religious influence that is blurred with antiJudaism characteristics Bikonts explanation of life in Poland as a Jew post World War I reveals how it is often difficult to distinguish between antiJudaism and antisemitism during this time of growing antiJudaic ideology Poles and Jews lived separate lives and spoke different languages which prevented Jews from fully assimilating into Poland culture Jewish religious culture remained present and Jews social and cultural life ran on a separate track compared to Poles The ethnic differences were made more obvious through the obvious differences in culture which fuel antiJudaic acts Although Jews ran separate lives from Poles they coexisted for a long time Jews especially the young got along fine in Polish but at home they spoke Yiddish Socially Jews and Poles often participated in picnics festivities together but Jews were often met with an unfriendly response from Poles and in the latter half of the thirties they were simply through own of these organizations Bikont believes that negative views towards Jews were reinforced through religious organizations like the Catholic Church and National Party in northern Europe The lives of Catholics revolved around the parish and the world of churchgoers as well as events organized by the National Party which was blatant in its exclusion of Jews Bikont considers that the murderous actions towards Jews in Poland resulted fromteachings of contempt and hostility towards Jews feelings that were reinforced in the course of their upbringingThese events are classified as antisemitic because of the change from increase of hostility and exclusion The delusional perception of Jews escalated in 1933 when there was arevolution that swept up the whole town Shooting windows broken shutters closed women shrieking running home Bikont believes that these violent aggressions towards Jews are considered acts of antisemitism because they are performed as revolutionary acts that were a part of the National Partys agenda Much of the difference between defining antiJudaism from antisemitism relies on the source of influence for beliefs and actions against Jews Once Jews were viewed as the other from Poles the discrimination transformed from ideology of religion to race which are shown through acts of violence Islamic antiJudaism A prominent place in the Quranic polemic against the Jews is given to the conception of the religion of Abraham The Quran presents Muslims as neither Jews nor Christians but as followers of Abraham who was in a physical sense the father of both the Jews and the Arabs and lived before the revelation of the Torah In order to show that the religion which is practiced by the Jews is not the pure religion that was practiced by Abraham the Quran mentions the incident in which the Israelites worshipped the Golden calf in order to argue that Jews do not believe in a part of the revelation that was given to them and their practice of usury shows their worldliness and disobedience of God Furthermore the Quran claim they attribute to God what he has not revealed In his polemic against Judaism Ibn Hazm provided a polemical list of what he considered chronological and geographical inaccuracies and contradictions theological impossibilities anthropomorphic expressions stories of fornication and whoredom and the attributing of sins to prophets as well as lack of reliable transmission tawatur of the textEncyclopedia of Islam UzayrHava LazarusYafeh Tahrif Encyclopedia of Islam Between the 9th and 13th centuries Throughout the Islamic Golden Age the relatively tolerant societies of the various caliphates were still on occasion driven to enforce discriminatory laws against members of the Jewish faith Examples of these and more extreme persecutions occurred under the authority of multiple radical Muslim Movements such as that of the Fatimid Caliph AlHakim biAmr Allah in the 11th century the Almohad Caliphate in the 12th century and in the 1160s CE Shiite Abd alNabi ibn Mahdi who was an Imam of Yemen Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period Differentiation laws were enforced much more regularly following the decline of secular influence within Islamic society and external threats posed by nonMuslims Modernist and Enlightenment Antijudaism Karl Marx 1843 On The Jewish Question argued that Judaism is not only a religion but an attitude of alienation from the world resulting from money and private property and that this alienation is not exclusive to the Jews Rather than forcibly converting Jews to Christianity he proposed a program of antiCapitalism in order to liberate the world from Judaism thus defined By framing his revolutionary economic and political project as a liberation of the world from Judaism Marx expressed a messianic desire that was itself quite Christian according to David Nirenberg 參見 AntiSemitism AntiZionism Antireligion and antitheism Criticism of Christianity AntiCatholicism AntiMormonism AntiProtestantism Persecution of Christians Persecution of Christians by Christians Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Persecution of Jehovahs Witnesses Sectarian violence among Christians Criticism of Judaism Criticism of religion Islam and Judaism Islamophobia AntiShiism Jewish schisms Persecution of early Christians by the Jews Persecution of Jews 注釋 參考 參考書目 Langmuir Gavin 1971 AntiJudaism as the necessary preparation for antiSemitism Viator 2 p 383 Abulafia Anna Sapir ed1998 Christians and Jews in Dispute Disputational Literature and the Rise of AntiJudaism in the West c 10001150 Variorum Collected Studies Series Aldershot Hampshire Ashgate 外部連結 Was St John Chrysostom AntiSemitic The Gospel of John and Christian AntiJudaism The Spanish Inquisition Presentation with images and videos