密特拉教，又譯米特拉教，也被稱為密特拉密教、密特拉秘儀，是一支以波斯主神密特拉為信仰中心的希臘羅馬密教，大約 1 世紀至 4 世紀盛行於羅馬帝國境內。Lewis M Hopfe Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism in Lewis M Hopfe ed Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns 1994 pp 147158 p 156 Beyond these three Mithraea in Syria and Palestine there are only a handful of objects from Syria that may be identified with Mithraism Archaeological evidence of Mithraism in Syria is therefore in marked contrast to the abundance of Mithraea and materials that have been located in the rest of the Roman Empire Both the frequency and the quality of Mithraic materials is greater in the rest of the empire Even on the western frontier in Great Britain archaeology has produced rich Mithraic materials such as those found at Walbrook If one accepts Cumonts theory that Mithraism began in Iran moved west through Babylon to Asia Minor and then to Rome one would expect that the cult left its traces in those locations Instead archaeology indicates that Roman Mithraism had its epicenter in Rome Wherever its ultimate place of origin may have been the fully developed religion known as Mithraism seems to have begun in Rome and been carried to Syria by soldiers and merchants None of the Mithraic materials or temples in Roman Syria except the Commagene sculpture bears any date earlier than the late first or early second century footnote in cited text 30 Mithras identified with a Phrygian cap and the nimbus about his head is depicted in colossal statuary erected by King Antiochus I of Commagene 6934 BCE see Vermaseren CIMRM 15356 However there are no other literary or archaeological evidences to indicate that the religion of Mithras as it was known among the Romans in the second to fourth centuries AD was practiced in Commagene While little can be proved from silence it seems that the relative lack of archaeological evidence from Roman Syria would argue against the traditional theories for the origins of Mithraism 這支秘密宗教在中很受到歡迎，Geden A S 15 October 2004 Select Passages Illustrating Mithraism 1925 Kessinger Publishing pp 51 ISBN 9781417982295 Retrieved 28 March 2011 Porphyry moreover seems to be the only writer who makes reference to women initiates into the service and rites of Mithra and his allusion is perhaps due to a misunderstanding The participation of women in the ritual was not unknown in the Eastern cults but the predominant military influence in Mithraism seems to render it unlikely in this instance 並且相當可能僅有男性教徒。 密特拉斯的崇拜者有一套深奧難解的七等級與公共儀式的聖餐制度體系。密特拉教的入教者自稱 syndexioi（音譯：辛德希歐耶），意即 藉著握手而團結（united by the handshake）。M Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p 42 That the handshaken might make their vows joyfully forever 他們的集會在建於地下的神廟進行著，乃名為密特拉寺，也被翻譯作 太陽式洞、太陽洞；與其他希臘羅馬神廟有所不同，密特拉寺的建築刻意仿造密特拉斯宰殺牛的洞穴，Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p42 Because Mithras killed the bull in a cave his followers likewise performed the ritual reproduction of this saving act in a cave or rather in a shrine which reproduced that cave in a spelaeum cave 今日依然有許多座的密特拉寺被留存著。 許多的考古發現，包括集會地點、宗教遺跡和文物，貢獻了現代有對於密特拉教的認識。Beck Roger 17 February 2011 The Pagan Shadow of Christ BBCHistory Retrieved 4 June 2011 We know a good deal about them because archaeology has disinterred many meeting places together with numerous artifacts and representations of the cult myth mostly in the form of relief sculpture 密特拉斯的聖像場景顯示出祂從岩石中出生、宰殺公牛，以及與索爾神（太陽神）一起共享宴會等等的宗教形象。大約有 420 處場址已出土了與這項信仰有關的史料。發掘的文物專案當中約有 1000 個碑銘、700 個屠牛場景（屠牛像）的例證，還有大約 400 個（密特拉教）其他古蹟。Clauss Manfred The Roman Cult of Mithras The God and his Mysteries pp xxi ISBN 0415929776 0415929776 據估計在羅馬至少會有 680 座密特拉寺。Coarelli Beck Roger Haase Wolfgang 1984 Aufstieg und niedergang der römischen welt The Rise and Decline of the Roman World Walter de Gruyter pp 2026 ISBN 9783110102130 Retrieved 20 March 2011 A useful topographic survey with map by F Coarelli 1979 lists 40 actual or possible mithraea the latter inferred from findspots with the sensible proviso that a mithraeum will not necessarily correspond to every find Principally from comparisons of size and population with Ostia Coarelli calculates that there will have been in Romenot less than 680690mithraea in all 然而，並沒有來自這支宗教的書面記述或是神學理論留存下來；希臘文和拉丁文書籍中的碑文和節錄或是資訊傳遞的參考文獻中只有零散的紀載，使得出土文物的解讀仍然存在著問題和議論。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 3 ISBN 0195067886 However in the absence of any ancient explanations of its meaning Mithraic iconography has proven to be exceptionally difficult to decipher 古代羅馬人認為這支秘密宗教具有波斯人或是瑣羅亞斯德教徒的淵源。然而，自從 1970 年代初以來，佔有主導地位的學術研究單位已經注意到波斯人的密特拉崇拜儀式和羅馬人的密特拉密教之間的差異，因此被認為是一個不同於祆教的獨特宗教。密特拉神在波斯與希臘、羅馬之間信仰傳播階段的連續性被學者所討論著。Beck Roger 20020720 Mithraism Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition Retrieved 20110314 The term Mithraism is of course a modern coinage In antiquity the cult was known as the mysteries of Mithras alternatively as the mysteries of the Persians The Mithraists who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense thought of themselves as cultic Persians the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster who dedicated to Mithras the creator and father of all a cave in the mountains bordering Persia an idyllic setting abounding in flowers and springs of water Porphyry On the Cave of the Nymphs 6密特拉教有時被認為與早期基督教相匹敵，Hopfe Lewis M Richardson Henry Neil September 1994Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism In Lewis M Hopfe Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns pp 147 ISBN 9780931464737 Retrieved 19 March 2011Today more than four hundred locations of Mithraic worship have been identified in every area of the Roman Empire Mithraea have been found as far west as Britain and as far east as Dura Europas Between the second and fourth centuries CE Mithraism may have vied with Christianity for domination of the Roman world 也有不少相似之處，譬如解放者－救世主、神職人員的等級制度（主教、長老、執事）、宗教性聚餐（聖餐）以及善與惡間的艱苦搏鬥（屠殺公牛／受難）。 thumbright325px 密特拉斯屠牛像，請注意此宗教意涵乃是代表一種自我救贖和犧牲。現今珍藏於羅浮宮朗斯分館（LouvreLens）。 thumbright325px 從岩石出生的密特拉斯以及密特拉教的文物。戴克裡先浴場博物館（Diocletian Baths Museum）。 起源 請注意，為了防止翻譯過程中原意流失，以下各章節涉及到有關文獻引用將採取保留譯文與原文兩部分以供參照。 這支信仰神話的基本版本是由文獻史料來證實的，然而，最主要地，則是藉由在神廟之中的崇拜的偶像的描繪來做考証。不過後者難以做闡釋的。 密特拉教神話傳說可以肯定的版本是密特拉斯是從岩石之中出生的。Commodian Instructiones 113 The unconquered one was born from a rock if he is regarded as a god Also copious depictions in monuments 祂在祂自己的神廟之中的屠牛像上被描繪成獵捕和宰殺一頭公牛（參見以下屠牛場景章節）。然後祂與司掌太陽神的索爾會面，索爾向密特拉斯表示服從。然後兩尊神祇便握手，並且在公牛皮上用膳。對於與此有關的信仰知之甚少。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p xxi we possess virtually no theological statements either by Mithraists themselves or by other writers 由歐布洛斯（Euboulos）與帕拉斯（Pallas）對這支宗教所著作的古代史冊已經佚失了。Porphyry De Antro Nympharum tells us of both writers 在拉丁文的密特拉教的宗教遺跡之中神明的名號確定是被尊為 Mithras（密特拉斯，拉丁文原文中字尾有加 s），儘管 Mithra 這一字彙可能已被用於希臘文（Μίθρας）之中了。Richard L Gordon The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies 2 1978 p148174 p 160 The usual western nominative form of Mithras name in the mysteries ended in s as we can see from the one authentic dedication in the nominative recut over a dedication to Sarapis 463 Terme de Caracalla and from occasional grammatical errors such as deo inviato Metras 1443 But it is probable that Euboulus and Pallas at least used the name Mithra as an indeclinable ap Porphyry De abstinentia II56 and IV16 有些宗教遺跡則會顯示出額外的神話情節。在杜拉歐羅普斯的密特拉宗教繪畫中（《》〔Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae，縮寫為 CIMRM〕42 號），故事是開始於眾神之王朱庇特與巨人之間的戰鬥。接下來是一尊留著鬍鬚的神祇橫臥靠在一顆岩石上的神秘描繪，連同在上方有一棵樹的葉子。這尊神祇有時被認為是俄刻阿諾斯。接著就描繪正規的密特拉教神話了。同樣的情節也出現在來自於（Virunum）的 CIMRM 1430 號中的浮雕裡，以及在來自於德國的 CIMRM 1359 號中的浮雕裡做為一個序幕。 在敘利亞境內位於哈瓦蒂（Hawarte Hawarti or Huarte）密特拉寺內的宗教繪畫中，有出現更進一步的神話場景。密特拉斯被描繪為在祂的腳下束縛了一隻惡魔；而在另外一個場景之中，密特拉斯則被描繪為正打擊著由惡魔所操控的城市。這些場景似乎遵循著正規的神話故事。 名號 密特拉教 是一個現代（學術）規範下的一個專有名詞。羅馬時代的作家透過諸如 密特拉密教、密特拉斯的秘密宗教 或是 波斯人的秘密宗教 等敘述來提到祂。Origen Contra Celsus Book 6 Chapter 22 After this Celsus desiring to exhibit his learning in his treatise against us quotes also certain Persian mysteries where he saysThese things are obscurely hinted at in the accounts of the Persians and especially in the mysteries of Mithras which are celebrated among them Chapter 24 After the instance borrowed from the Mithraic mysteries Celsus declares that he who would investigate the Christian mysteries along with the aforesaid Persian will on comparing the two together and on unveiling the rites of the Christians see in this way the difference between them 現代資料有時將希臘羅馬（密特拉）宗教稱之為 羅馬密特拉教 或是 西方密特拉教 以區別來自於波斯人的密特拉崇拜。Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies Retrieved 20110328 The Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies EJMS is a revival of the Journal of Mithraic Studies edited by Dr Richard Gordon It is a place where researchers on Roman Mithraism can publish the product of their research and make it freely available for other interested peopleBeck Roger 20020720 Mithraism Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition Retrieved 20110328 For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity 詞源 密特拉斯乃古代波斯的真理與光明之神、太陽神、羅馬密特拉教的主神，在英文文獻中 Mithras 為拉丁文形式，等同於希臘文的 Μίθρας，Charlton T Lewis Charles Short A Latin Dictionary 後來轉入英文。）的名號是（密特拉）名號的另一種形式的寫法，這乃是（源自於）古波斯神祇的名號 Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 90 ISBN 0195067886 It is therefore highly likely that it was in the context of Mithridates alliance with the Cilician pirates that there arose the synchretistic link between Perseus and Mithra which led to the name Mithras a Greek form of the name Mithra being given to the god of the new cultBritannica Encyclopedia of World Religions Encyclopædia Britannica Inc 2006 p 509 ISBN 9781593394912 Mithra is the next most important deity and may even have occupied a position of near equality with Ahura Mazde He was associated with the Sun and in time the name Mithra became a common word forSun Mithra functioned preeminently in the ethical sphere he was the god of the covenant who oversaw all solemn agreements that people made among themselves In later times Mithra gave his name to Mithraism a mystery religion 自從的時期以來透過研究密特拉教的學者即是以這樣關係聯絡所做出的理解。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 8 ISBN 0195067886 Cumonts argument was straightforward and may be summarized succinctly the name of the god of the cult Mithras is the Latin and Greek form of the name of an ancient Iran god Mithra in addition the Romans believed that their cult was connected with Persia as the Romans called Iran therefore we may assume that Roman Mithraism is nothing other than the Iranian cult of Mithra transplanted into the Roman Empire 這名號的一個早期希臘文型態之例證是藉由西元前四世紀色諾芬的著作，即為《居魯士之教育》一書中所得知而來的，這是一部撰述著波斯君王居魯士大帝的傳記。Xenophon Cyropaedia 7553 Cited in Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott A GreekEnglish Lexicon 拉丁文或者是古典希臘文字形的確切型態是由於語法的變格過程而讓字彙呈現了變化。有考古學的證據表明著在拉丁民族的崇拜者中將神祇名號的主格型態寫為 Mithras。然而，在這波菲利希臘文字 De Abstinentia（為拉丁文寫法；希臘文：Περὶ ἀποχῆς ἐμψύχων；漢譯：《禁慾》）的著作之中，即有提到了現今已經失落的一段以歐布洛斯和帕拉斯為依據的密特拉密教佚史，這些的纂輯意味著這些作者將 Mithra 這個名號視為一個不變化的外來語詞彙。Gordon Richard L 1978 The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies II 148174 p 160 The usual western nominative form of Mithras name in the mysteries ended in s as we can see from the one authentic dedication in the nominative recut over a dedication to Sarapis 463 Terme de Caracalla and from occasional grammatical errors such as deo inviato Metras 1443 But it is probable that Euboulus and Pallas at least used the name Mithra as an indeclinable foreign word ap Porphyry De abstinentia II56 and IV16 在其他的語言中有關於密特拉神的名號還有包括著： 梵文中的密特拉，在《梨俱吠陀》之中是一個讚美的神的名號。Eg in Rig Veda 3 Hymn 59 Michael Speidel 1980 MithrasOrion Greek hero and Roman army god Brill pp 1 ISBN 9789004060555 Indias sacred literature refers to him since the hymns of the Rig Veda But it was in Iran where Mithras rose to the greatest prominence rebounding after the reforms of Zarathustra Mithras became one of the great gods of the Achaemenian emperors and to this very day he is worshipped in India and Iran by Parsees and ZarathustriansHopfe Lewis M Richardson Henry Neil September 1994 Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism In Lewis M Hopfe Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns pp 150 ISBN 9780931464737 Retrieved 19 March 2011 All theories of the origin of Mithraism acknowledge a connection however vague to the Mithra Mitra figure of ancient Aryan religion 在梵文之中，mitra 的意思是指 朋友 或者是 友誼。Turcan Robert 1996 The cults of the Roman Empire WileyBlackwell pp 196 ISBN 9780631200475 Retrieved 19 March 2011 The name Mithras comes from a root mei which implies the idea of exchange accompanied by an instrumental suffix It was therefore a means of exchange the contract which rules human relations and is the basis of social life In Sanskrit mitra means friend or friendship like mihr in Persian In Zend mithra means precisely the contract which eventually became deified following the same procedure as Venus the charm for the Romans We find him invoked with Varuna in an agreement concluded c 1380 BCE between the king of the Hittites Subbiluliuma and the king of Mitanni Mativaza It is the earliest evidence of Mithras in Asia Minor 梵文中對這尊神明的名號的寫法有兩種：Mitra 以及 Mitrah，這是一尊與伐樓拿有關的吠陀神明。 miitra 這詞彙的型態，在一份西臺和米坦尼王國之間的和平條約中有發現到，年代出於約西元前 1400 年左右。Thieme Paul 1960 The Aryan Gods of the Mitanni Treaties Journal of the American Oriental Society 804 pp 301317 伊朗文的 Mithra 以及梵文的 Mitra 被認為是來自印度 伊朗語的一個詞彙 密特拉 意思是契約。Schmidt HansPeter 2006 Mithra i Mithra in Old Indian and Mithra in Old Iranian Encyclopaedia Iranica New York iranicacom accessed April 2011 現代的歷史學者毋論關於這些名號是否指稱同一尊神明也有著概念上的分野。約翰R 亨尼爾斯（John R Hinnells）曾寫過 Mitra／Mithra／Mithras 作為在幾種不同宗教中崇拜的單一神明。Hinnells John R 1990 Introduction the questions asked and to be asked in Hinnells John R Studies in Mithraism Rome LErma di Bretschneider p 11 The god is unique in being worshipped in four distinct religions Hinduism as Mitra in Iranian Zoroastrianism and Manicheism as Mithra and in the Roman Empire as Mithras 另一方面，大衛烏蘭西（David Ulansey）認為屠牛的密特拉斯是一尊新的神明，祂在西元前一世紀開始被人們給崇拜著，並且向祂引用了一個古老的名號（來尊稱祂）。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 94 ISBN 0195067886 the intimate alliance between the pirates and Mithridates Eupator named after Mithra and mythically descended from Perseus led to the pirates adopting the name Mithras for the new god 瑪麗博伊斯（Mary Boyce），為一位古伊朗宗教的研究員，執筆寫道儘管羅馬帝國的密特拉教彷彿顯得比歷史學者以前所認為的伊朗（宗教）的內涵更少，不過仍然是 如同密特拉斯這名號獨自的彰顯著，這個內涵是有些重要的。（as the name Mithras alone shows this content was of some importance）。Boyce Mary Grenet Frantz 1975 Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule Part 1 Brill pp 468 469 ISBN 9004092714 Retrieved 20110316 The theory that the complex iconography of the characteristic monuments of which the oldest belong to the second century AC could be interpreted by direct reference to Iranian religion is now widely rejected and recent studies have tended greatly to reduce what appears to be the actual Iranian content of thisself consciously Persian religion at least in the form which it attained under the Roman empire Nevertheless as the name Mithras alone shows this content was of some importance and the Persian affiliation of the Mysteries is acknowledged in the earliest literary reference to them 證據和史料 密特拉教幾乎是完全從物質文物和獻納碑銘中所得知的。總共，已經揭露了 400 多個與密特拉教相關的考古發現點，連同約 1000 個獻納碑銘和 1150 件雕塑。 很少有當代的書面文字史料來源，並且大部分留存下來都是教外人士的觀點。提及密特拉教的資料可以在以下文獻中找到： 普魯塔克，《龐培的生平》（Life of Pompey）24； 波菲利，《在寧芙的洞穴》（On the Cave of the Nymphs）6、1516、1718、2425； 波菲利，《戒除葷食》（拉丁文：De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium；英文：On Abstinence from Animal Foods）416； 特土良（約西元 200 年），《在軍隊的花冠上》或者是《在士兵的花冠上》（On the Military Crown or On the Soldiers Crown）15； 奧利振（西元 240 年左右）《反駁克理索》（希臘文：Κατά Κέλσου；英文：Against Celsus）622。 有關密特拉教之所以缺乏優良的文字書面資料主要原因是由於其作為一支秘密宗教的地位，其中聖像以及儀式的意義也唯有入教者才能夠被準許知道的秘密。教內人士沒有去記錄他們宗教的詳細內容，而且教外人士是對他們也是並不太瞭解的。這顯然使得歷史學家難以理解，所以目前關於密特拉教有很多教義仍然是未知的。 宗教中的聖像 很多關於密特拉斯的信仰只有從浮雕和雕塑才能得知。並且已經有很多人努力的嘗試來解釋這種史料。 密特拉斯崇拜在羅馬帝國中的具體特點是神靈屠殺公牛的聖像。密特拉斯其他的聖像則被安座在羅馬神廟內，譬如密特拉斯與索爾（羅馬太陽神）一起的宴會，以及描繪著密特拉斯從岩石中誕生的聖像。但是屠殺公牛的聖像（屠牛像）總是在壁龕中央重要的位置。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 6 ISBN 0195067886 用於重建這個宗教聖像背後神學理論的文字來源是非常稀少罕見的。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p xxi we possess virtually no theological statements either by Mithraists themselves or by other writers（請參閱以下章節屠牛場景的解譯） 描繪神靈屠殺公牛聖像的做法似乎是明確地特定於羅馬密特拉教。根據大衛烏蘭西所述，這個 或許是最重要的例證 有關於伊朗和羅馬（宗教）傳統之間明顯的區別： 沒有證據顯示伊朗的神明密特拉與屠殺公牛有任何關係。。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 8 ISBN 0195067886 屠牛場景 140px 從上圖的細節可以看出，顯示狗和蛇正在喝著公牛的血液。（然而有其神秘的涵義在。） 在每一座密特拉寺裡面核心部分就是密特拉斯宰殺一頭聖牛雕像的表現方式，稱之為 屠牛像、屠牛神像 或者是香港人所稱的 劏牛像（英文文獻中的專有名詞為：Tauroctony）。David Ulansey The origins of the Mithraic mysteries p 6 Although the iconography of the cult varied a great deal from temple to temple there is one element of the cults iconography which was present in essentially the same form in every mithraeum and which moreover was clearly of the utmost importance to the cults ideology namely the socalled tauroctony or bullslaying scene in which the god Mithras accompanied by a series of other figures is depicted in the act of killing the bull 聖像的形式可能是以浮雕的方式呈現，或者是採用獨立式的雕塑，並且在側面的細節也許是存在或者是省略。這中心部分是密特拉斯穿著安納託利亞地區的服裝並且頭上戴著一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽；祂跪在一隻筋疲力盡的 Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 77 公牛身上，其中握住牠（公牛）的鼻孔是以祂的左手來行使的，並且祂右手拿著利器刺入公牛的頸部。當他這樣做時，祂轉過頭來朝向索爾神像看了一下。一隻狗和一條蛇的頭伸向牛的血液。一隻蠍子則箝住公牛的生殖器。一隻烏鴉正在周遭飛舞或是坐在公牛身上。從公牛的尾巴看到三支小麥穗露出，有些時候的聖像造型則是小麥穗從傷口露出來的。這頭公牛通常是白色的。神明以不自然的方式坐在公牛身上同時以祂的右腿壓制住公牛的蹄並且左腿彎曲以及靠在公牛的背部或腹部上面。Mazur Zeke Harmonious Opposition PART I Pythagorean Themes of Cosmogonic Mediation in the Roman Mysteries of Mithras PDF Retrieved 20110614 The gods right leg appearing on the left as one faces the tauroctony is nearly always straight as it pins the bulls hoof to the ground while his left leg which is usually resting on the back or flank of the bull is bent at the knee with his foot often partially obscured beneath the folds of his tunic Anyone familiar with the cults iconography will immediately recognize this awkward and possibly unnatural posture as a typical or even essential aspect of the tauroctony The remarkable consistency of this particular feature is underscored by comparison with the subtle variability of others 兩名火炬手各站於一側，穿著同密特拉斯一樣，考泰斯將祂的火炬向上者以及考託佩斯將祂的火炬向下者。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 9899 An image search for tauroctony will show many examples of the variationsNäsström BrittMarie The sacrifi ces of Mithras PDF Retrieved 20110404 He is wearing a Phrygian cap and a windfilled cloak and most remarkable of all his head is turned in the other direction as if he would not look at his own deed Still this sacrifice is a guarantee of salvation for the participants 有時候聖像的造型中考泰斯與考託佩斯是帶著牧羊人的曲柄杖來替代火炬。J R Hinnells The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates the Data Journal of Mithraic Studies 1 1976 pp 3667 See also William W Malandra Cautes and Cautopates Encyclopedia Iranica article 這項宗教儀式舉行的地點是在洞穴裡，密特拉斯帶著公牛進入洞穴內，在對牠獵殺之後，（密特拉斯）騎坐在牠背上並且壓制牠的力量。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 74 有些時候洞穴是由一個圓圈所圍繞著，黃道十二星座的影像則是呈現在圍繞洞穴的圓圈上面。在洞穴的外面，左上方，是司掌太陽的索爾，連同祂火焰般的頭冠，祂通常駕駛著一輛四馬雙輪戰車。一縷光線通常是射下來觸及到密特拉斯。位於右上方的神祇則是盧娜，與祂的盈月在一起，祂可能被描繪為駕駛著一輛（biga）。LEcole Initiative Alison Griffith 1996 Mithraism 在一些聖像的描繪中，中央的屠牛像是由左方、上方以及右方的一系列附屬場景所構成的整體造型，主旨在說明關於密特拉斯故事中的事件；密特拉斯從岩石出生、水的神蹟、公牛的狩獵與騎乘、密特拉斯跪著謁見索爾、密特拉斯與索爾握手並且與祂分享公牛被支解後的膳食，以及乘坐一輛戰車升向天空。在某些情況下，就像這種斯達科（stucco，或譯為：灰泥）聖像的例子則是位在（Santa Prisca 或者是聖普利斯卡〔St Prisca〕）密特拉寺裡，寺中聖像的神明展現出（heroically nude）。Bjørnebye Jonas 2007 The Mithraic icon in fourth century RomeThe composition of the Mithraic cult icon Hic locus est felix sanctus piusque benignus The cult of Mithras in fourth century RomeDissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor PhD The figure of Mithras himself is usually attired in an oriental costume of Phrygian cap tunica manicata a longsleeved tunic anaxyrides eastern style trousers and a cape though in some cases he is depicted heroically nude or even in a unique example from Ostia in what seems to be a Greek chiton Like the general trend in GraecoRoman art most if not all tauroctony scenes regardless of the medium they were executed in were painted and the different items of Mithras clothing was usually colored in either blue or red often as in the painting at Marino with most of the costume in red with only the inside of the cape being blue and starspeckled The bull was often white sometimes wearing the dorsuale the Roman sacrificial band in reds or browns while the torchbearers could be depicted in a variety of colors with reds and greens being the most common 其中一些浮雕被夠造成以便於祂們（聖像）能夠在一個軸上轉動。在後面則是另一個形象的描繪，那是更加精緻的宴會場景。這是標明著屠殺公牛場景是在（密特拉教的）宗教儀式第一部分之中被使用著，然後這（公牛屠殺場景浮雕）被轉動後，跟著這二幕場景是在（密特拉教的）宗教儀式第二部分之中被使用著。Klauck HansJosef McNeil Brian December 2003 The religious context of early Christianity a guide to GraecoRoman religions T T Clark Ltd pp 146 ISBN 9780567089434 Retrieved 4 September 2011 除了主要的崇拜聖像之外，許多的密特拉寺具有幾個附帶（secondary）的屠牛像，以及一些小型便於攜帶的版本，或許是意味著由私人所奉獻的，（這型別的聖像）也是有被發現到。Beck Roger 2006 The Religion of the Mithras cult in the Roman empire Great Britain Oxford University Press p 21 Often the mithraeum was embellished elsewhere with secondary exemplars of the tauroctony and there also seem to have been small portable versions perhaps for private devotion 相關神靈 密特拉斯通常會被描繪成身邊有兩尊較小的神靈，服裝穿著與密特拉斯相同，手持著火炬。這兩位火炬手在密特拉斯宗教遺跡上被命名為考泰斯與考託佩斯。 在一些浮雕雕塑之中還有發現到的是一尊神秘的獅頭形象的神像，祂或許可能被稱為（Arimanius）。 在密特拉教各種的宗教遺跡上有出現一名男性神祇留有絡腮鬍、斜倚著。這尊男神似乎就是俄刻阿諾斯，乃海洋的化身。 在某些宗教遺跡上可以遇見凱路斯這尊神祇的名號，例如 CIMRM 1127 號，其中考泰斯、考託佩斯、俄刻阿諾斯、凱路斯都有出現並被提到過的。密特拉密教的神靈凱路斯有時候被描繪成一隻老鷹俯越在被標有與行星或黃道十二星座符號在一起的天球上面。Doro Levi Aion in Hesperia 1944 p 302 在密特拉密教的宗教背景（神靈的前後關係）下，祂（凱路斯）與考泰斯相關聯的 MJ Vermaseren Mithraica I The Mithraeum at S Maria Capua Vetere Brill 1971 p 14 And so Oceanus could be connected with both Cautes Capua and Cautopates Heddernheim Cautopates was moreover related to Terra and Cautes to Caelus Jaime Alvar Romanising Oriental Gods Myth Salvation and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele Isis and Mithras translated by Richard Gordon Brill 2008 p 86 On an important monument from mithraeum III at HeddernheimFrankfurt Cautes is further associated with Caelus Heaven and Cautopates with Oceanus195 195 V 1127 Schwertheim 1974 81 no 61c This may however simply be because they are two sets of brothers 以及也許可能是 永恆凱路斯（Caelus Aeternus；漢譯：永恆的天空）。R Beck in response to IP Culianu LAscension de lÂme dans les mystères et hors des mystères in La Soteriologia dei culti orientali nell impero romano Brill 1982 p 302 My other point is just to bring in a Mithraic monument which has not so far figured in our conversations but which I believe is of great importance and that is the monument of Ottaviano Zeno recently edited by Professor Vermaseren Mithriaca IV Leiden 1978 Its upper register contains a row of seven altars with two Aiontypc figures both entwined with serpents one is winged the other not These two figures and their positions the one at the extreme left of the row order the other in the center allows one to speculate on the planetary order underlying these otherwise anonymous altars Professor Vermaseren produces to my mind a very plausible set of identifications seeing the Aion on the left as Saturn and the Aion in the center as a type of Jupiter or rather a Caelus aeternus in the position of Jupiter pp 5253 The question then arises what order of the planets is implied for the seven altars These are in fact more than one possible sequence and others of course if one identifies the Aions differently No reference is given for the claim 多羅李維（Doro Levi）聲稱阿胡拉馬茲達在拉丁語中被呼喚為 永恆凱路斯朱庇特（Caelus Aeternus Iupiter）。Levi Aion p 302 Thus AhuraMazda is invoked in Latin as Caelus aeternus Iupiter and other allegorical representations of the Mithriac Caelus occur in the form of an eagle leaning over the heavenly sphere adorned with the signs of the planets or with the zodiacal ring but no reference is given for the claim Salomon Reinach Orpheus A General History of Religions translated by Florence Simmonds London Heinemann 1909 p 68 also claims that AhuraMazda was referred to as Caelus by the Romans again without reference 有些密特拉寺的牆壁特徵是同俄刻阿諾斯與凱路斯一起的宇宙寓意之描繪。迪堡（Dieburg）的密特拉寺象徵著在法厄同－赫利俄多穆斯（PhaetonHeliodromus）之下同凱路斯、俄刻阿諾斯和特勒斯（羅馬神話中的大地女神）一起的三部分世界。Vermaseren Mithraica I p 14 宴會場景 在屠牛像之後的第二項最重要場景於密特拉密教藝術之中就是所謂的 宴會場景 了。Beck Roger In the Place of the Lion Mithras in the Tauroctony in Beck on Mithraism Collected works with new essays 2004 p 286 287 宴會場景的特徵是密特拉斯和索爾無敵者在被屠殺的公牛皮上進行著宴會。關於明確具體的宴會場景則是呈現在菲亞諾羅馬諾地區的浮雕上，其中一名火炬手將商神杖指向祭壇的基座，商神杖的頂端似乎湧現出火焰來。羅伯特圖爾坎（Robert Turcan）認為由於商神杖是屬於墨丘利（即希臘神話中的赫耳墨斯）所擁有的神器，並且在神話中墨丘利是被描述為一名（psychopomps，乃古希臘神話裡負責接引死者靈魂的神祇們，也就是冥府使者），在這個場景中火焰的引發是指著人類靈魂的調遣並且就這件事情表達了密特拉密教的教義。Beck Roger 2007 The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire London Oxford University Press ISBN 0199216134 p 2728 圖爾坎也將這個事件與屠牛像聯絡起來：被屠戮的公牛血液已經在祭壇基座的地面上濡濕，並且從血液中靈魂被商神杖的火焰給引了出來。 從岩石之中誕生像 密特拉斯被描繪為從岩石中出生。祂被顯示為從岩石中出來的那時刻，就已經呈現在祂年輕時期的樣貌，連同以一隻手持著匕首以及另一隻手持著火炬。祂是裸體的，與祂的雙腿一同呈現出佇立的姿態，並且在祂的頭上佩戴著一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽。Vermaseren M J The miraculous Birth of Mithras In László Gerevich Studia Archaeologica Brill pp 93109 Retrieved 4 October 2011 然而，（這樣從岩石出生的聖像之）形象有了變化。有時候他被顯示為如同一名兒童般地從岩石中出來，並且在某種情況下在祂一隻手上握有一個球狀物；有時會看到雷電。其中還有一些描述著火焰是從岩石再就是密特拉斯的帽子噴發出來的。有一座雕像的底座有穿孔以便能夠作為噴泉的功能，並且在另一個底座則有水神的面像。有些時候密特拉斯還擁有著其他的武器像是弓與箭，並且還有伴隨著動物們例如狗、蛇、海豚、老鷹、其他鳥類、獅子、鱷魚、螯龍蝦以及蝸牛在祂周圍。在一些的浮雕上，有一尊留有鬍鬚的神祇身分經鑑定為俄刻阿諾斯，祂乃是水神，並且有些地方則是為四風之神。在這些浮雕中，四大元素可能一起被召喚。有時候維多利亞（羅馬神話中的勝利女神）、盧娜、索爾以及薩圖恩也似乎擔任著一個（重要任務的）角色。特別是薩圖恩通常是被看到將匕首交付給予密特拉斯以便祂能夠行使祂的偉大的事蹟。 在有些的描述中，考泰斯與考託佩斯也是有在場的；有時候祂們被描繪為牧羊人。Vermaseren M J László Gerevich ed Studia Archaeologica Brill p 108 Retrieved 4 October 2011 在某些情況下，能被看到一 只 雙耳瓶，並且有幾個情況表現出了像（密特拉斯從）蛋出生或是（密特拉斯從）樹誕生這樣的變化。一些解釋表明著密特拉斯的誕生是以點燃的火炬或是蠟燭（在宗教儀式上）被讚頌的。Commodian Instructiones 113 The unconquered one was born from a rock if he is regarded as a god See also the image of Mithras petra genetrix Terme inset above 獅頭形象 thumbright 獅頭人身像的密特拉斯，出自於西頓密特拉寺。由弗拉維奧傑羅修斯（Flavius Gerontios）於西元 500 所奉獻的（CIMRM 78 號以及 79 號），現今珍藏在羅浮宮。 這支秘密宗教之中最具特色和人們對他們知之甚少、深奧難解的的特徵之一就是經常在密特拉密教神廟裡所發現到的裸體獅首人身像，經由現代學者以描述性的術語命名譬如 leontocephaline 或者是 leontocephalus，在漢譯之中都是 獅首、獅頭 的意思；有時候 leontocephaline 被引申為獅頭神。他被一條蛇給纏繞著（或者是被兩條蛇所纏繞，像是一柄商神杖），蛇的頭部通常靠在獅子的頭上。獅子的口往往是敞開的，給予人一種威攝的印象。祂常常被人描繪成有兩對翅膀、一雙鑰匙（有時是單支鑰匙），以及握在祂手中的權杖。有些時候這尊神像是站在一顆刻有對角線交叉（diagonal cross）的球狀物上。在這裡所示的神像中，兩對翅膀意味著四季的象徵，並且在祂的胸部上則刻有雷電（希臘神話：宙斯／羅馬神話：朱庇特的神器）。在神像的基座上是伏爾坎的錘子和夾鉗、雞，以及墨丘利的法杖（即是商神杖）。這相同的神像還有一種造型上的變化，然而是以人類的頭部形象而不是獅子面像（lionmask），也是有被發現到，但是很罕見。H von Gall The Lionheaded and the Humanheaded God in the Mithraic Mysteries in Jacques DuchesneGuillemin ed Études mithriaques 1978 p 511 Very characteristic of Roman Mithraic art is the type of a naked lionheaded youth He is entwined by a snake and the snakes head usually rests on the lions head The lions mouth of this demon is usually open giving a grim and infernal impression He is mostly represented with four wings and further attributes are two keys or one key and a scepter in each hand sometimes he is standing on a globe fig 1 It must be stressed that this mythological type is entirely restricted to Mithraic art Exact parallels are missing in contemporary Egypt and from the composite beings on Gnostic gems though in both of these cases animalheaded creatures are numerous There is a variant of the lionheaded Mithraic demon with an entirely human body which also has a human head This latter type is more scarcely represented though it must be supposed that some headless statues with a small neck and acccntuated shoulders may have belonged to the humanheaded type pl XXXCumont Franz The Mysteries of Mithras pp 105 雖然動物頭像的神祇在當時同時代的埃及和諾斯替神話的畫像表示法之中是很普遍的，但是與密特拉密教的獅頭神像完全相似的卻還沒有被發現到。這尊神像的名號已經從專門的碑銘上被解讀出來為，乃是阿里曼名稱的一種拉丁文形式 即為瑣羅亞斯德教萬神殿中的一名惡魔。阿里曼紐斯從碑銘上得知祂被認為在密特拉密教信仰之中顯然是一尊神明，舉例來說，在從《密特拉宗教聖蹟碑銘整合》（CIMRM ）所收錄的圖片中像是源自奧斯提亞的 222 號、源自羅馬的 369 號，以及源自匈牙利潘諾尼亞（Pannonia）的 1773 號和 1775 號。碑銘上提到 阿里曼紐斯 為 deus（德烏斯），等於英文裡 a god、中文裡 神明 的意思。Howard M Jackson The Meaning and Function of the Leontocephaline in Roman Mithraism in Numen Vol 32 Fasc 1 Jul 1985 pp 1745 Online here P18 On the provisos however that the statue represents a leontocephaline it does have the usual wings and keys that the crucial word is correctly restored and that the word identifies the statue itself the beings name was Arimanius nominally the equivalent of Ahriman the great Evil One of the Zoroastrian pantheon In support of this admittedly shaky identification of the leontocephaline there are the facts that Arimanius is known from inscriptions to have figured as a deus in the Mithraic cult CIMRM 369 an altar from Rome 1773 with fig 461 and 1775 both from Pannonia and to have been depicted by some kind of plastic image signum Arimanium CIMRM 222 from Ostia 有些學者將這獅頭人身的神像鑑定為（或譯為：埃安）、或者是、或者是克洛諾斯、或者是柯羅諾斯，而其他人則聲稱祂是瑣羅亞斯德教之中阿里曼（拉丁文形式的）譯名。R D Barnett 1975 John R Hinnells ed Mithraic studies proceedings of the first International congress of Mithraic studies Vol II Manchester University Press ND pp 467 According to some the lion man is Aion Zurvan or Kronos according to others Ahriman 也有人推測著這尊神像是諾斯替教的造物主（Demiurge），（上帝之獅〔Ariel〕）（Yaldabaoth 或者是 Ialdabaoth，也譯為亞爾達鮑思、伊達鮑斯）。David M Gwynn 2010 Religious diversity in late antiquity BRILL p 448 儘管獅頭神像的確切身分被學者們所討論著，在很大程度上認定著神明與時間和季節的變化有關。Roger Beck A reprinted article on the Ponza zodiac in Beck on Mithraism Ashgate 2004 p 194 original article page no 110 The other monuments in which a snake is associated with a zodiac are significantly all Mithraic and for the most part they are monuments of the lionheaded god There is no need for us to enter into the vexed question of who exactly this deity is It is sufficient for our purposes that from the iconography the god was concerned with time seasonal change and cosmic power Gordon 1975 222 a position that I believe few scholars would be inclined to deny Nor shall I be attempting to prove that proposition since my argument would then be circular The association of the lionheaded god with time is established largely through the iconography of snake and zodiac One cannot therefore argue that the snake and zodiac as found at Ponza are symbols of time because they are associated elsewhere with the lionheaded god Rather I wish only to demonstrate that accepting as a premise that the snake with the zodiac is a symbol of time and in particular of time as defined by the suns annual journey 一個例子是出自於西頓密特拉寺 CIMRM 78 號到 CIMRM 79 號。一位神秘主義術，D J 庫珀（D J Cooper），抱持著相反的推測論點認為獅頭神像並非神祇，而更準確地說是代表了在密特拉教之中的 精通 層次所達到的精神境界或是心靈狀態，即為獅子等級。 D Jason Cooper 1996 Mithras mysteries and initiation rediscovered York Beach ME Samuel Weiser Inc pp 4849 The statue is a representation of the Leo degree internalized 儀式和禮拜 根據所述，密特拉密教的新年以及密特拉斯的聖誕是在 12 月 25 日。Vermaseren M J The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Pricsa in Rome Brill pp 238 Retrieved 3 April 2011 One should bear in mind that the Mithraic New Year began on Natalis Invicti the birthday of their invincible god ie December 25th when the new light appears from the vault of heavenRoman Religion Encyclopædia Britannica Online Encyclopædia Britannica Retrieved 4 July 2011For a time coins and other monuments continued to link Christian doctrines with the worship of the Sun to which Constantine had been addicted previously But even when this phase came to an end Roman paganism continued to exert other permanent influences great and smallThe ecclesiastical calendar retains numerous remnants of preChristian festivalsnotably Christmas which blends elements including both the feast of the Saturnalia and the birthday of Mithra然而，羅傑貝克（Roger Beck）非常地不同意（M J 費爾馬歇仁的觀點）。Beck Roger 1987Merkelbachs Mithras Phoenix 41 3 296316 doi1023071088197 p 299 n 12 曼弗雷德克勞斯（Manfred Clauss）陳述說：密特拉密教沒有祂自己的公眾儀式。無敵者生日的節慶，於 12 月 25 日舉行，乃是一般普遍性的太陽節日，並且決不是特定於密特拉斯的密教（之節日）。Clauss Manfred Mithras Kult und Mysterien München Beck 1990 p 70 密特拉密教之新的教徒被要求發起一項保守秘密與奉獻（dedication）的誓言，Sodalitas Graeciae Nova RomaReligion from the PapyriMithraism NovaRoma 20090311 Retrieved 20130907 並且有些等級儀式是涉及到教義問答書（catechism）的背誦，在其中入教者會被詢問到有關於起蒙入會象徵意義的一系列問題，並且（入教者）必須回答明確的答案。有一項這樣的教義問答書的例證，顯然地是關於獅子等級（Leo grade），被發現在一份殘缺不全的埃及莎草紙（PBerolinensis 21196）上， William M Brashear A Mithraic Catechism from Egypt 並寫道： （可以說）幾乎沒有密特拉密教的經典或者是高度秘密儀式的第一手記述儲存下來；而關於前述的誓言和教義問答書則是例外，以及被稱為（Mithras Liturgy，或翻譯為：密特拉斯禮拜儀式）的文獻（也是如此），（這份文獻）乃是源自西元四世紀的埃及，其作為密特拉密教文獻的地位已受到了包括弗朗茨庫蒙在內的學者所質疑。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 105 ISBN 0195067886 The original editor of the text Albrecht Dieterich claimed that it recorded an authentic Mithraic ritual but this claim was rejected by Cumont who felt that the references to Mithras in the text were merely the result of an extravagant syncretism evident in magical traditions Until recently most scholars followed Cumont in refusing to see any authentic Mithraic doctrine in the Mithras LiturgyMeyer Marvin W 1976 The Mithras Liturgy 密特拉寺的牆壁通常是有粉刷的，並且在這裡往往擁有廣泛地的宗教圖畫知識庫儲存著；還有這些，即連同著密特拉密教紀念碑上的碑銘一起，（因而）形成了密特拉密教文獻的主要來源。Francis ED 1971 Hinnells John R ed Mithraic graffiti from DuraEuropos in Mithraic Studies vol 2 Manchester University Press pp 424445 儘管如此，由眾多密特拉寺的考古學（研究）清楚地表明著大多數的儀式是與筵席有關 因為食用餐具和食物殘渣幾乎總是會被發現到。這些往往包括著動物的骨頭再來就是非常大量的水果殘留物。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p115 尤其是大量櫻桃核的存在會傾向於證實著仲夏（6 月底、7 月初）作為一個特別與密特拉密教慶祝活動相關的季節。這《教徒名籍》（album），以刻著青銅名牌的形式，紀錄了正是發生在西元 184 年 6 月 26 日的密特拉密教紀念節慶的歡宴。貝克認為在這個日期的宗教慶典表明著夏至被賦予了特殊重要性；但是一年的這個時段和在仲夏時太陽極大的古老認識（觀點）正好相符合，同時也注意到像是利塔節（為凱爾特人的古夏至節）、（St Johns Eve），以及（Jāņi，為拉脫維亞人慶祝夏至的節日）等具有同一原因的宗教象徵性節慶。 thumb250px 躺臥餐桌的歷史仿製品。 為了他們的盛宴，密特拉密教的入教者會倚靠在沿著密特拉寺長邊所安排的石製條凳上 通常可能會有 15 到 30 個食客的飯廳，但是很少會多於 40 多人。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p43 相對應著（這樣型別的）飯廳，或者是（triclinium，複數型態為：triclinia），在羅馬帝國境內幾乎任何神廟或宗教聖所的管轄區域被建築在地面上，而且這樣的廳室常常用在羅馬人他們會社（clubs），或者是（collegium，複數型態為：collegia）的定期宴席。正如同僚團體對於有資格加入他們會社而言，密特拉密教宴席對於密特拉教徒而言或許也是執行著相似的作用；事實上，由於羅馬同僚團體的資格往往（嚴格地）只限於特定的家族、地方或傳統行業，而密特拉教可能有部分社交聚會是作為提供著非嚴格限定會員條件的會社。Burkert Walter 1987 Ancient Mystery Cults Harvard University Press p 41 ISBN 0674033876 然而，密特拉寺的（寺院）規模不一定就能夠代表教眾人數的多寡。Bjørnebye Jonas 2007 Hic locus est felix sanctus piusque benignus The cult of Mithras in fourth century RomeDissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor PhD pp 12 36 The discovery of a large quantity of tableware as well as animal remains in a pit outside the newly excavated mithraeum at Tienen Belgium has also attracted new attention to the topic of Mithraic processions and largescale feasts begging a reexamination of the secrecy of the cult and its visibility in local societyprovides evidence for largescale semipublic feasts outside of the mithraeum itself suggesting that each mithraeum might have had a far larger following than its relative size would imply 每一座密特拉寺在最深處的盡頭會有幾個祭壇，是位在屠牛像的聖像下方，並且還通常包含相當數量的附屬祭壇，兩者都在密特拉寺的主室（chamber）以及位於前室（the antechamber）或者是前廳（narthex）。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 49 這些祭壇，其皆為標準的羅馬樣式，每個祭壇會帶有從特定的入教者中所獻納的題詞，特定的入教者向密特拉斯獻納祭壇 履行他的誓言（in fulfillment of his vow），乃因獲得恩惠而向神明致謝。燃燒過的動物內臟殘留物通常被發現在主要的祭壇上表明著祭品的定期使用。然而，密特拉寺通常顯示出沒有提供關於動物犧牲祭品的屠宰儀式（在羅馬宗教中的一項高度專業化功能），並可以依此推測著密特拉寺會為了他們與民間信仰的專業（victimarius）Price S Kearns E Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion p568 合作而去提供這項服務地安排。每日對著太陽致以祈禱三次，並且星期日是特別神聖的一天。Antonía Tripolitis 2002 Religions of the HellenisticRoman age Wm B Eerdmans Publishing pp 55 ISBN 9780802849137 密特拉教是否具有整體性與內部一貫的教義（對外人而言）是無法確定的。Beck Roger 2007 The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire London Oxford University Press ISBN 0199216134 Nevertheless the fact that Porphyry andor his sources would have had no scruples about adapting or even inventing Mithraic data to suit their arguments does not necessarily mean that they actually did so It is far more likely that Mithraic doctrine in the weak sense of the term really was what the philosophers said it was there are no insuperable discrepancies between Mithraic practice and theory as attested in Porphyry and Mithraic practice and theory as archaeology has allowed us to recover them Even if there were major discrepancies they would matter only in the context of the old model of an internally consistent and monolithic Mithraic doctrine p87 其可能因地方的差異而有所不同的變化。Beck on Mithraism op cit p 16 然而，在（從肖像學而言）聖像場景方面就相對地比較一致了。（密特拉教）其沒有最主要顯著的聖所或者是禮拜的中心；還有，雖然每一座密特拉寺都有（屬於）祂們自己的官員和負責人員，但卻沒有中央的監督管理機構。在有些密特拉寺之中，比如位在杜拉歐羅普斯的那座（密特拉寺），壁畫描繪了攜帶捲軸的先知，Hinnells John R ed 1971 Mithraic Studies vol 2 Manchester University Press plate 25 但是既沒有提到過密特拉密教聖人的名稱是已知的，也沒有任何參考文獻提供任何（有關於）密特拉密教經典或教導的頭銜。眾所周知的是入教者可以將他們的等級從這一座密特拉寺轉移到另一座密特拉寺。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p139 密特拉寺 現代文獻中 Mithraeum（密特拉寺） 是一個現代新造的字彙，用以稱呼密特拉信仰的神廟。古代的密特拉教徒將他們的神聖建築稱為 speleum 或者是 antrum（洞穴）、crypta（地下過道或者是走廊〔underground hallway or corridor〕）、fanum（神聖或聖地〔sacred or holy place〕），乃至 templum（神廟或者是神聖場所）。Bjørnebye Jonas 2007 The mithraea as buildings Hic locus est felix sanctus piusque benignus The cult of Mithras in fourth century RomeDissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor PhD The extant mithraea present us with actual physical remains of the architectural structures of the sacred spaces of the Mithraic cult While the Mithraists themselves never used the word mithraeum as far as we know but preferred words like speleum or antrum cave crypta underground hallway or corridor fanum sacred or holy place or even templum a temple or a sacred space the word mithraeum is the common appellation in Mithraic scholarship and is used throughout this study 從比較具體的研究資料指出，在義大利境內的碑銘顯示出密特拉寺常常被稱為 spelaeum；而在義大利境外則被稱之為 templum。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p22 The cult spread from Italy then In view of the sheer amount of evidence found there we can probably point specifically to the area of Rome and Ostia The cult in Rome retained some peculiarities well after the first century AD though we have no firmly datable monuments from the early period Among these idiosyncrasies we can list the term spelaeum ritual cave for the mithraeum which was not replaced by the word templum as quickly as in the provinces 現存的密特拉寺遺跡向我們展現了密特拉信仰的神聖空間的實體建築結構，通常位在羅馬帝國境內；儘管分佈上的不均勻，以相當多的數量是發現在羅馬、奧斯提亞、努米底亞、達爾馬提亞、不列顛尼亞以及沿著萊茵河／多瑙河邊界；而在希臘、埃及，以及敘利亞則不太常見。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras pages 26 and 27 密特拉斯寺凹陷於地下、沒有窗戶，可以說非常獨特。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p43 The architecture of mithraea is quite special and its characteristic configuration makes it easy to identify such temples in excavations 室內的格局包含了一個中央過道，連同室內墻邊兩側都有凸起的的一排長椅（podium）。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p46 The cultroom itself crypta was constructed according to a traditional scheme whose design remained virtually constant from Britain to the Black Sea Its characteristic feature was a central aisle fig 7 D flanked on each side by raised podia E for the initiates 入口處常常會有一個或者是前室，通常還會有用於準備或儲存食物的附屬廳室。密特拉寺往往是小規模的，外形不是特別的顯眼，並且是廉價地建造；這支信仰教派通常比較喜歡創造一個新的中心，而不是擴大現有的中心。在城市裡，密特拉寺可能是由一座公寓住宅大樓的地下室改造而成；在別的地方，他們可能是用挖掘的方法並將上方做成圓拱形的，或者是從天然洞穴來進行改造；由於無法負擔做拱頂的石材開銷，促使他們改採以板條和石膏做摹擬。密特拉寺之所以要如此建造，可以從波菲利的文獻中找到說明，他摘引了失落的歐布洛斯手冊 Porphyry De antro nympharum c 6 陳述著密特拉斯是在一個岩石的洞穴裡被供俸著，一些學者推論密特拉寺象徵著密特拉斯宰殺公牛的洞穴。密特拉寺通常座落在靠近泉水或溪流之處；似乎一些密特拉密教的儀式需要用到淡水，並且水池通常被合併到建築結構的格局中。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p73 the importance of water for all manner of ritual purposes is revealed by the waterbasins and cisterns by the representations of Oceanus and also by the evident desire to locate temples in the vicinity of a river or a spring Waterbasins were clearly part of the basic equipment of all mithraea 根據沃爾特布林克特（Walter Burkert）所述，密特拉密教儀式的秘密性質意味著密特拉教只能在密特拉寺內實行。Burkert Walter 1987 Ancient Mystery Cults Harvard University Press p 10 ISBN 0674033876 然而位在蒂嫩（Tienen）的一些新發現顯示出大規模筵席的證據，意味著密特拉教可能不像一般認為的那樣具有隱密性。 在其建築的基本形式中，密特拉寺與來自其他信仰的神廟以及神龕而言可是完全不同的。在羅馬宗教範圍內的標準規範模式中，這神廟建築的功能是作為神明的宅舍（此乃傳承自古希臘人對於神廟建築的觀念），其用意是透過開啟的門和柱狀門廊能夠來觀察，在一個開放式的庭院中的祭壇上提供著供奉祭品的擺設；可能不僅能合宜地提供給崇拜的入教者，而且還可以提供給叩裡朵雷斯（拉丁文：colitores，英譯為：ordinary worshippers，漢譯為：普通訊徒）或者是未入教的朝拜者使用。Price S Kearns E Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion p 493 密特拉寺則正好與此是相反的。Price S Kearns E Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion p 355 啟蒙儀式的等級 在《蘇達辭書》密特拉斯 的條目下，它陳述著 沒有人是被準許加入他們（密特拉斯的秘密宗教）的，直到他將歷經幾次分等級的考驗而應該顯示出自己的聖潔和堅定。。Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p 102 The Suda reference given is 3 394 M 1045 Adler 聖額我略納齊安則指的是 在密特拉斯秘密宗教內的考驗（tests in the mysteries of Mithras）。Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p 102 The Gregory reference given is to Oratio 470 進入密特拉教有七個啟蒙的等級，其由聖傑羅姆所列出的。Jerome Letters 107 ch 2 To Laeta 曼弗雷德克勞斯指出等級的數目，有七個位階，必須聯絡到行星。在費利奇西穆斯（Felicissimus）的奧斯提亞密特拉寺中之的馬賽克即有描繪出這些等級，與其象徵符號一起其（符號象徵）若非等級之象徵就是僅乃行星的符號。這等級在旁邊還有一份碑銘是他們表彰每個等級成為不同行星神祇所庇佑的狀況。MClauss The Roman cult of Mithras p132133 按重要性的升序排列，這（七階）啟蒙的等級為：MClauss The Roman cult of Mithras p133138 等級（包含意譯、音譯兩部分） 象徵符號 行星／守護神 渡鴉，有些中文譯為大烏鴉；或音譯科拉斯（Corax）、寇魯斯（Corux）或者是庫爾維克斯（Corvex） （即英文中的 raven 或者是 crow） （beaker），商神杖。 水星／墨丘利 新郎；或音譯紐帕斯或者是寧福斯（Nymphus）、寧福布斯（Nymphobus）（即英文中的 Bridegroom） 燈，手搖鈴，，或者是（diadem）。 金星／維納斯 ；或音譯邁爾斯（Miles）（即英文中的 soldier） ，，槍矛，鼓，，。 火星／馬爾斯 ；或音譯裡歐或者是里奧（Leo）（即英文中的 lion） （batillum or vatillum），（sistrum），月桂花環，。 木星／朱庇特 或者是帕撒斯（Perses）（波斯人）詳見表下的解說。 （akinakes or acinaces），弗裡吉亞無邊便帽，鐮刀，鐮刀狀的月亮與星星，機弦。 月亮／盧娜 赫利俄多穆斯或者是海路德米斯（Heliodromus）（〔sunrunner or suncourier〕或者是太陽 旅行從僕） 火炬，太陽神的聖像，赫利俄斯的，寬鬆長袍。 太陽／索爾 教父；或音譯佩特（英譯為：father，即父親之意） （patera），主教冠，，石榴石或者是紅寶石戒指，（chasuble）或者是披肩，鑲有金屬線的精美長袍寶石飾物。 土星／薩圖恩 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 在希臘神話之中，珀耳塞斯是衣索比亞女王安朵美達與希臘英雄玻耳修斯的兒子，並且也天帝是宙斯之孫子。珀耳塞斯亦被認為是波斯人的先祖。David Sacks Oswyn Murray Lisa R Brody 2005 Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world Infobase Publishing pp 256 at the bottom left portion 他與海洋寧芙珀耳塞（Perse）一起被留在科塞亞（Cossaea）。而關於波斯人起源的說法方面，藉由類似於聲音的相似性，珀耳塞斯乃被視為與帕薩爾加德部落的阿契美尼斯是同屬一個人的。另外，阿契美尼斯是阿契美尼德王朝的同名祖先，他在西元前 705 年和西元前 675 年統治了伊朗南部。 請：在上表中，連結到宗教頭銜或者是隨身攜帶物僅僅是，因為作為一支口耳相傳的秘密宗教信仰，鮮少可靠的歷史參考文獻有留存下來。然而，類似的當代文物已經確定了，並且那是位在奧斯提亞安提卡所座落的費利奇西穆斯密特拉寺之中，一項西元二世紀的馬賽克描繪了幾個密特拉密教的器具和符號。 影像：4th panel Mitreo di Felicissimus Ostia Antica 20060908jpg 鏟子，鐵搖子，閃電。 影像：5th panel Mitreo di Felicissimus Ostia Antica 20060908jpg 劍，盈月，星星，鐮刀。 影像：6th panel Mitreo di Felicissimus Ostia Antica 20060908jpg 火炬，頭冠，鞭子。 影像：7th panel Mitreo di Felicissimus Ostia Antica 20060908jpg 圓盤飾，棍子，弗裡吉亞無邊便帽，鐮刀。 在別處，像是位在杜拉歐羅普斯（的密特拉寺）一樣，密特拉密教的題字儲存了已紀錄的教徒名單，其中一座密特拉寺的入教者是以他們的密特拉密教等級命名的。而位在維魯努姆，這教徒名單或者是《奉聖教徒名籍》（album sacratorum）被保留為銘刻的牌匾，隨著入教的新教徒而逐年更新。透過前後參照交叉引用這些名單，其可以從這一座密特拉寺到另一座密特拉寺來追蹤到某些入教者；並且也還能推測性地去鑒定與密特拉密教入教者一起在其他當代名單上的人士，像是兵役名冊、有關非密特拉的宗教聖所皈依者的名單。祭壇和其他崇拜物品的奉獻碑銘中也發現了入教者的名稱。克勞斯在 1990 年總體的評論著，密特拉密教（的教徒）名稱的刻寫於西元 250 年以前只有約 14 確認出入教者的等級並因此質疑了傳統觀點即所有的入教者都屬於七個等級之一。Clauss Manfred 1990 Die sieben Grade des MithrasKultes ZPE 82 183194 克勞斯認為這些等級代表了不同階級的祭司，sacerdotes。理查德戈登（Richard Gordon）則堅持以前默克爾巴赫（Merkelbach）及其他人的理論，特別注意到像杜拉（Dura）這樣子的例證，那裡所有的名字都是與密特拉密教等級相關聯的。有些學者主張這種做法可能會隨著時間的推移而不同，或者是從這一座密特拉寺到另一座密特拉寺有所差異。 這最高等級 教父 是很大程度上在獻辭和碑銘最常發現的並且對於密特拉寺而言擁有幾個具備這個等級的男子其似乎沒有那麼的異乎尋常。這 pater patrum（英譯：father of fathers；漢譯：父親的父親，引申為教父之父）是經常找到的型別，其似乎表明了 教父 具有主要的地位。有幾個人的例子可以說明，通常那些社會地位較高的人，進入密特拉寺（入教）具有 教父 地位特別是羅馬（帝國）在四世紀異教復興的期間。已經有人提出著（這樣的說法是）有些密特拉寺可能會頒發榮譽 教父 地位給予有同情心、和藹的高貴的人。 當這入教者進入每一個等級的地位時似乎會被要求去接受著特定具體的嚴峻磨難或者是考驗，Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 103 其包括涉及曝露於熾熱、酷寒或者是具威脅性的險境。一處磨難坑（ordeal pit），可以追溯到西元三世紀初期，這已經在的密特拉寺獲得了確認。關於（羅馬）皇帝康茂德的殘酷壓迫之記錄是描述到他自己的滑稽行徑在於他透過以殺人形式頒布了密特拉密教啟蒙考驗的法令。到了西元三世紀後期，這所頒布艱苦考驗的法令似乎在嚴酷之中呈現緩和、減弱的趨勢，因為磨難坑被填平了。 被準許接納而進入教團是連同了與 教父 一起握手（的象徵性儀式），就像密特拉斯和索爾握手一樣。這入教者乃因而被稱之為辛德希歐耶（syndexioi，那些由握手團結的人）。該宗教術語被用於普洛菲璨西烏斯（Proficentius）的碑銘以及被費爾米庫斯馬特爾努斯在他所撰寫的《錯誤的世俗宗教》（ De errore profanarum religionum）一書中受到嘲諷，M Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p 105 the followers of Mithras were the initiates of the theft of the bull united by the handshake of the illustrious father Err prof relig 52 那是一部西元四世紀基督教責難異教的著作。在古代伊朗，握著右手是締結條約的傳統方式或者表示著雙方之間的一些莊嚴諒解。Burkert Walter 1987 Ancient mystery cults Harvard University Press pp 16 ISBN 9780674033870 Retrieved 4 November 2011 Taking the right hand is the old Iranian form of a promise of allegiance 儀式的重新制定 在密特拉密教場景之中最為顯赫的神靈行為，索爾以及密特拉斯，由在這信仰的等級制度中的兩名最高階長官在儀式裡所仿傚，此即教父和赫利多俄穆斯（Heliodromus）。Beck on Mithraism pp 288289 入教者舉行了聖禮餐宴，重現了密特拉斯與索爾的宴會。 於美茵茨境內發現到一 只 杯子上的浮雕，Beck Roger 2000 Ritual Myth Doctrine and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras New Evidence from a Cult Vessel The Journal of Roman Studies 90 90 145180 JSTOR 300205 doi102307300205 似乎描繪出密特拉密教啟蒙（儀式）。在這一 只 杯子上，入教者 被描繪成被引導到一個位置，在這個位置上，教父 將會打扮成密特拉斯以拉弓的姿勢坐著。伴隨入教者的是一位秘法家（mystagogue，神秘教義的解釋者、引人入秘教者），他向入教者解釋象徵符號和神學。儀式被認為重新制定成為了所謂水的神蹟，在這神蹟方面是密特拉斯發射出一道閃電打入岩石中，並於此刻由這岩石便因而噴出水來了。 羅傑貝克假設了第三個（宗教）遊行的密特拉密教儀式，這是基於美茵茨的杯子以及波菲利（兩方的史料）。這個所謂太陽的信使之遊行的特徵是以 赫利多俄穆斯（Heliodromus）作重要角色，由兩位代表分別代表考泰斯與考託佩斯的人士護送著（見下文）以及（遊行隊伍）前面是以一位士兵（Miles）等級的入教者為先導帶領根據太陽執行測量的歷程所制定（enactment）出圍繞著密特拉寺的宗教儀式，其儀式之意旨是想要表示著宇宙。Martin Luther H 2004 Ritual Competence and Mithraic Ritual in Wilson Brian C 2004 Religion as a human capacity a festschrift in honor of E Thomas Lawson BRILL p 257 因此，有些人認為大多數密特拉密教儀式涉及到由入教者所重新設定在密特拉斯（神話）故事之中的一段情節，Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p62101 而這神話故事其主要內容是：一、從岩石中出生；二、以箭矢射向岩石而從中噴出水來；三、公牛的屠宰；四、索爾向密特拉斯的服從；五、密特拉斯與索爾在公牛（皮）上舉行宴飲；六、密特拉斯駕著一輛戰車升向天空（heaven）。這個神話故事的一項顯著特徵（並且其定期描繪儲存下來的浮花雕飾設定）是女性人物完全不在。Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p33 神職人員 密特拉密教似乎沒有專業的神職人員。在宗教文物遺跡上也沒有發現這樣職位的特殊宗教術語。只有啟蒙等級的名稱以及正規標準長老會（collegium，例如：sacerdos〔祭司〕、antistes〔大祭司〕、hieroceryx〔英譯為：sacred herald；漢譯為：神聖使者〕）的名稱才有被確認及證實。並且也沒有發現到關於 profeta（先知）、pastophorus（主祭）、gallus（原文為 雄雞 之意，代表警醒、悔改、革新的意涵，有光明戰勝了黑暗寓意）或者是 fanaticus（全心全意投入宗教者、或是神職人員） 宗教名詞的提及與引用。 有幾個碑銘提到了 教父（最高等級的入教者）或者是 sacerdos（祭司）又或者是 antistes（大祭司）作為負責人，並且似乎入教者的團體是集體地聖職者制度（sacrati）。波菲利（《戒除葷食》，416）陳述道密特拉密教的祭司被稱之為 渡鴨（ravens），但是這可能與該入教者等級的名稱產生混淆了。眾所周知的，其他秘密崇拜信仰教派也以自己的投票表決方式推選出了他們的 祭司（priests），並且在一段有限的時期內任職服務，加上還有人也提議道密特拉密教的團體也是這樣執行的。AD Nock The Genius of Mithraism Journal of Roman Studies 271 1937 pp109110 在庫蒙的理論架構內認為這密特拉密教即是 羅馬化的拜火教，在他的杜拉檔案論文之中庫蒙聲稱 Cumont1975p203 著當時密特拉密教的祭司在別處被稱為 sacerdos（祭司）或者是 antistes（大祭司）位於杜拉一位密特拉密教的神職人員被人尊稱為 magus（法師，這一字彙的涵義為何除了作為 方士（sorceror） 這個詞之外被希臘人與羅馬人用來稱呼瑣羅亞斯德教的祭司，可以說是古波斯僧侶的一個尊敬稱謂，希臘文為：μαγος、μαγουσαιοι，在英文之中還可以寫作：Magusaeans 或者是 Magians）。RL Gordon Who worshipped Mithras Journal of Roman Archaeology 7 1994 p461 Cumonts story relied on the existence of a coherent priesthood of magi who were supposed to have transmitted authentic Iranian teaching to the west in late 1st c 但是還沒有證據能夠證明這一點。雖然 magus（法師）這個字彙確實出現了一次 Gordon 1994n16 only one acclamation graffito containing the word（CIMRM 61 號；AE 1940228，發現於 1934 年）且是位在杜拉密特拉寺的三個字的牆面宗教刻字之中，然而並沒有跡象來表明其文字的意義。AD Nock The Genius of Mithraism Journal of Roman Studies 271 1937 pp109110 MClauss The Roman cult of Mithras 2000 p139 There are no priests in the west who called themselves magi RL Gordon Who worshipped Mithras Journal of Roman Archaeology 7 1994 p461 cf Beck Mithraism since Franz Cumont ANRW II174 1984 p20182019 教徒的資格 僅有男性的名字出現在現存刻寫的教籍名單內。歷史學家包括了庫蒙和理查德戈登所推論這個信仰只有男性才能入教。Cumont Franz 1903 The Mysteries of Mithras p 173 Retrieved 6 July 2011 Whilst the majority of the Oriental cults accorded to women a considerable role in their churches and sometimes even a preponderating one finding in them ardent supporters of the faith Mithra forbade their participation in his Mysteries and so deprived himself of the incalculable assistance of these propagandists The rude discipline of the order did not permit them to take the degrees in the sacred cohorts and as among the Mazdeans of the Orient they occupied only a secondary place in the society of the faithful Among the hundreds of inscriptions that have come down to us not one mentions either a priestess a woman initiate or even a donatressRichard Gordon 2005 Mithraism In Lindsay Jones Encyclopedia Of Religion 9 Second ed Thomas Gale Macmillan Reference USA p 6090 Moreover not a single woman is listed the repeated attempts to show that women might belong to the cult are wishful thinking Piccottini 1994 古代的學者波菲利有提到在密特拉密教儀式中的女性入教者。然而，二十世紀初的歷史學家 AS 格頓（AS Geden）寫道這可能是誤解所致。根據格頓所述，當時於東方的（宗教）信仰裡婦女在儀式之中的參與並不陌生，在這種情況下於密特拉教之中軍隊的主要影響力（因為當時從軍者都是男性的緣故）使其不太可能會有女性教徒出現。（而關於密特拉教中的女性）這一點最近由大衛喬納森（David Jonathan）提議著 婦女至少在（羅馬）帝國的一些地方參與了密特拉密教團體。。David Jonathan 2000 The Exclusion of Women in the Mithraic Mysteries Ancient or Modern Numen 47 2 121141 doi101163156852700511469 at p 121 士兵們在密特拉教徒之中有很強的代表性，而且還有商賈、海關（customs）官員和小官僚。身份高貴的教徒尟少，四世紀中葉的『異教復興』有來自於貴族或者是元老院的家族的入教者，但是自由民和奴隸仍舊佔有相當大的人數。Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p39 倫理道德 克勞斯認為藉由波菲利的說法，（其觀點為）開始加入獅子等級的人們（教徒）他們必須保持雙手的純潔（因為雙手）從一切事物那所帶來著痛苦和傷害並且（雙手）是受到汙染的，這意味著對教眾的成員作出了道德的要求。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras pp144145 Justins charge does at least make clear that Mithraic commandments did exist（有關於密特拉教的道德規範也可以）在背教者尤利安的著作《凱撒》（Caesares）一書之中有提到了一段話是 密特拉斯的誡命（找到線索）。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p144 referencing Caesares 336C in the translation of WC Wright Hermes addresses Julian As for you I have granted you to know Mithras the Father Keep his commandments thus securing for yourself an anchorcable and safe mooring all through your life and when you must leave the world having every confidence that the god who guides you will be kindly disposed 特土良，在他的專著《在軍隊的花冠上》之中記載道密特拉教徒於軍隊中正式免除了出於祝賀的冠冕這是在基於密特拉啟蒙儀式上包括了拒絕遞上花冠，因為 他們唯一的花冠是密特拉斯。Tertullian De Corona Militis 153 歷史與發展 在亞歷山大大帝征服後的幾個世紀裡，地中海世界的戲劇性統一為新宗教的成長創造了非常肥沃的土壤。例如，基督教是在這段時間內出現的創新宗教教派之一。然而，基督教的發展階段有許多競爭的對手，以及在這其中最引人注目的之一是古羅馬密特拉教的 秘密宗教 了。 在古代，書面記錄提到了 the mysteries of Mithras（密特拉斯的秘密宗教），以及對於這支宗教的信徒，是作為 the mysteries of the Persians（波斯人的秘密宗教）。Roger Beck Mithraism article in Encyclopaedia Iranica website 2002 但是與波斯是否真的有任何連結的關係學術界則是有很大的爭議了，還有關於這宗教的起源是相當朦朧不明的。請參閱以下有關於起源可能性的詳細議論。直到西元一世紀之前密特拉斯的秘密宗教是尚未盛行傳佈的。Clauss Manfred 2000 Gordon Richard trans ed The Roman cult of Mithras Edinburgh University Press ISBN 074861396X 獨特的地下神廟或密特拉寺在西元一世紀的最後一刻卻突然出現在考古學當中。Beck Roger 1998 The Mysteries of Mithras A New Account of their Genesis Journal of Roman Studies 1998 115128 p 118 在西元二世紀與西元三世紀期間，考古學上包括了許多大型的密特拉寺，其中有些在此期間有進行重建和擴大。當密特拉斯的信仰告終時，對這支秘密宗教很難再追溯到他們的足跡了。貝克陳述著 在這〔四〕世紀較早時期這支宗教如同（羅馬）帝國自始至終一樣的消亡了。（Quite early in the fourth century the religion was as good as dead throughout the empire）。Roger Beck Merkelbachs Mithras in Phoenix 41 1987 p 299 On JSTOR 所以出自於西元四世紀關於密特拉教的碑銘就相當的稀少了。克勞斯則說明碑銘顯示出由異教元老們列在碑銘上將密特拉斯（的秘密宗教）列為在羅馬的信仰之一作為在上層集團掌權人物之中 異教復興 的一部分。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p 2930 Mithras also found a place in the pagan revival that occurred particularly in the western empire in the latter half of the fourth century AD For a brief period especially in Rome the cult enjoyed along with others a last efflorescence for which we have evidence from among the highest circles of the senatorial order One of these senators was Rufius Caeionius Sabinus who in 377 dedicated an altar to a long list of gods including Mithras 在西元五世紀時已經沒有可以顯示這支信仰仍然存在的證據了。雖說這是由弗朗茨庫蒙所提出的一個假設性參考。 前身 根據考古學家馬騰費爾馬歇仁（Maarten Vermaseren）所述，出自於西元前一世紀科馬基尼王國的證據表明了 對密特拉斯的敬仰（reverence paid to Mithras） 但是並沒有提到 秘密宗教（the mysteries）。Vermaseren M J 1963 Mithras the Secret God London Chatto and Windus p 29 Other early evidence of the first decades BCE refers only to the reverence paid to Mithras without mentioning the mysteries examples which may be quoted are the tomb inscriptions of King Antiochus I of Commagene at Nemrud Dagh and of his father Mithridates at Arsameia on the Orontes Both the kings had erected on vast terraces a number of colossal statues seated on thrones to the honor of their ancestral gods At Nemrud we find in their midst King Antiochus 6934 BCE and in the inscription Mithras is mentioned 在由安條克一世（西元前 69 年～西元前 34 年）國王位於內姆魯特山所建造的巨大雕像中，密特拉斯顯示出沒有蓄鬍、戴著一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽 Vermaseren M J 1956 Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae The Hague Martinus Nijhoff CIMRM 29 Head of a beardless Mithras in Phrygian cap point of which is missing（或者類似的頭飾，波斯冠狀頭飾〔Persian tiara〕）、穿著（帕提亞）服飾，以及最初是坐在寶座上且位在其他神靈與國王本人的旁邊。Vermaseren M J 1956 Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae The Hague Martinus Nijhoff CIMRM 28 The gods are represented in a sitting position on a throne and are ApolloMithras see below TycheCommagene ZeusAhuraMazda Antiochus himself and finally AresArtagnes 在寶座的背面有一段希臘文碑銘，其中包括了阿波羅密特拉斯赫利俄斯（Apollo Mithras Helios）的名號在屬格之中（希臘文原文：Ἀπόλλωνος Μίθρου Ἡλίου）。Vermaseren M J 1956 Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae The Hague Martinus Nijhoff CIMRM 32 verse 55 費爾馬歇仁還記述了有關於在西元前三世紀法尤姆的密特拉斯信仰。R D Barnett 1975 John R Hinnells ed Mithraic studies proceedings of the first International congress of Mithraic studies Vol II Manchester University Press ND pp 467 According to Vermaseren there was a Mithras cult in the Fayum in the third century BC and according to Pettazzoni the figure of Aion has its iconographic origin in EgyptR D 巴尼特（R D Barnett）則認為出自於大約西元前 1450 年的米坦尼國王薩烏什塔塔之皇家玉璽上就有描繪出密特拉斯屠牛像（tauroctonous）的圖案了。R D Barnett 1975 John R Hinnells ed Mithraic studies proceedings of the first International congress of Mithraic studies Vol II Manchester University Press ND pp 467468 I see these figures or some of them in the impression of the remarkable royal seal of King Saussatar of Mitanni circa 1450 BCE greatgreatgrandfather of Kurtiwaza the only royal Mitannian seal that we possess Mithratauroctonos characteristically kneeling on the bull to despatch it We can even see also the dog and snake below him are twin figures one marked by a star each fighting lions below a winged disc between lions and ravens stands a winged humanheaded lion 興起 這支秘密宗教的起源和傳播在學者們之間進行了激烈的辯論並且對這些問題的看法有根本上的差異。Beck Roger On Becoming a Mithraist New Evidence for the Propagation of the Mysteries In Leif E Vaage et al Religious Rivalries in the Early Roman Empire and the Rise of Christianity p 182 The origins and spread of the Mysteries are matters of perennial debate among scholars of the cult 根據克勞斯所述密特拉斯的秘密宗教一直到西元一世紀以前尚未發展傳播。而根據烏蘭西所述，密特拉密教其地址最早的證據是出現在西元前一世紀中期：歷史學家普魯塔克的說法是在西元前 67 年（位於小亞細亞東南沿海的一個羅馬行省）的海盜所執行的密特拉斯之 秘密儀式。Ulansey David The Cosmic Mysteries of Mithras Retrieved 20110320 Our earliest evidence for the Mithraic mysteries places their appearance in the middle of the 1st Century BCE the historian Plutarch says that in 67 BCE a large band of pirates based in Cilicia a province on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor were practicingsecret rites of Mithras The earliest physical remains of the cult date from around the end of the 1st Century CE and Mithraism reached its height of popularity in the third century 然而，若是根據丹尼爾斯（Daniels）的說法，這些（的說法）是否與秘密宗教的起源有關還不清楚。CMDaniels The role of the Roman army in the spread and practice of Mithraism in John R Hinnells ed Mithraic Studies Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies Manchester University Press 1975 vol 2 p 250 Traditionally there are two geographical regions where Mithraism first struck root in the Roman empire Italy and the Danube Italy I propose to omit as the subject needs considerable discussion and the introduction of the cult there as witnessed by its early dedicators seems not to have been military Before we turn to the Danube however there is one early event rather than geographical location which should perhaps be mentioned briefly in passing This is the supposed arrival of the cult in Italy as a result of Pompey the Greats defeat of the Cilician pirates who practiced strange sacrifices of their own and celebrated certain secret rites amongst which those of Mithra continue to the present time having been first instituted by them Suffice it to say that there is neither archaeological nor allied evidence for the arrival of Mithraism in the West at that time nor is there any ancient literary reference either contemporary or later If anything Plutarchs mention carefully omits making the point that the cult was introduced into Italy at that time or by the pirates 這獨特的地下神廟或者是密特拉寺在西元前一世紀最後一刻突然出現在考古學之中。 考古證據 與密特拉密教相關的碑銘和宗教遺跡皆由馬騰J 費爾馬歇仁在兩卷著作中編目，此即《》（或者是原文的縮寫為）。Vermaseren M J 1960 1956 Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae 2 vols The Hague Martinus Nijhoff 593 號顯示出的密特拉斯屠戮公牛被認為這是最早的宗教遺跡，而且是在羅馬境內發現到的。沒有註明日期，但是碑銘告訴了我們這確定是由阿爾息穆斯（Alcimus）所奉獻出來的，他是提貝裡烏斯克勞狄烏斯李維亞努斯（Tiberius Claudius Livianus or T Claudius Livianus）的管家。費爾馬歇仁和戈登相信著這位 李維亞努斯 就是一位已被確認的 李維亞努斯 他是在西元 101 年羅馬禁衛軍的指揮官，而這一點大概會可以找出最早的年代為西元 98 年～西元 99 年。Gordon Richard L 1978 The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies II 148174 Online here 2 thumb 出自於阿爾巴尤利亞（Alba Iulia）在今天的羅馬尼亞境內的奉獻祭壇，奉獻給 Invicto Mythrae（無敵者密特拉）以履行誓言。 出自於在羅馬境內的第十五區埃斯奎利諾（義大利文：Esquilino；英文：Esquiline）上聖瑪策林及聖伯多祿堂附近的一座祭壇或者是一大塊直邊的堅硬物體被（羅馬）帝國一位其名為 T 弗拉菲烏斯許癸努斯（T Flavius Hyginus）的自由民給刻寫成了雙語的碑文，年代大約在西元 80 年～西元 100 年之間。其（祭壇）乃是奉獻給予索爾無敵者密特拉斯（Sol Invictus Mithras）。Gordon Richard L 1978 The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies II 148174 Online here 4 CIMRM 362 a b el l VI 732 Moretti lGUR I 179 Soli Invicto Mithrae T Flavius Aug lib Hyginus Ephebianus d d but the Greek title is justHliwi Mithrai The nameFlavius for an imperial freedman dates it between 70136 CE The Greek section refers to a pater of the cult named Lollius Rufus evidence of the existence of the rank system at this early date 2268 號是一座損壞的基座或者是祭壇，其出自於下默西亞境內的（Novae）／斯泰倫（Steklen），年代鑑定為西元 100 年，該祭壇有發現到考泰斯與考託佩斯（的浮雕）。 其他早期的考古學（史料）還包括了出自於西元 100 年～西元 150 年之間從維諾西亞（Venosia）而來由名為薩格里斯（Sagaris）的倡導者（actor）所刻寫的希臘文碑銘；在西頓境內艾克門（Echmoun）的神廟之中發現了一座紀念石碑（cippus，古希臘羅馬之紀念碑石）並且由 M 杜南德（M Dunand）所公佈出來。石碑刻有一段希臘文碑文，上面說這石碑是 由狄奧多圖斯（Theodotus）獻給了聖神阿斯克勒庇俄斯（Asclepios or Asclepius），密特拉斯在 251 年的ἱερεύς（英譯：priest；漢譯：祭司）。石碑上刻寫的時間 251 年乃是使用著西頓當地的時代紀年，相當於西元 140 年～西元 141 年。Israel Roll The mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient the problem of origin in Journal of Mithraic Studies Volume II No 1 pages 5368 Reference given is Dunand M Le temple dEchmoun a Sidon Essai de chronologie Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 26 1973 appeared in 1975 p725 plate XIII left Also mentioned by Roger Beck Mithraism since Franz Cumont ANRW II p2013 A cippus from Sidon DUNAND 1973 attests a ἱερεύς of Mithras in AD 140141 也有列在《希臘銘文補編》（Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum）之中；SEG 55 1661 Dedication to Theos Hagios Asklepios 141 AD From area of Bostan esSheikh 3 km north of Sidon 還有最早的軍方碑銘，是由 C 薩奇狄烏斯巴巴魯斯（C Sacidius Barbarus）所刻寫的，乃為第十五阿波里納利斯軍團的百夫長，（該碑銘是）出自於多瑙河畔的（Carnuntum），年代大概在西元 114 年之前。Gordon Richard L 1978 The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies II 148174 p 150 根據 C M 丹尼爾斯（CMDaniels）所述，出自於多瑙河地區卡農頓碑銘是最早的密特拉密教題獻，該處是同義大利一起成為密特拉教最早紮下（傳教）根基的兩個地區之一。C M Daniels The Roman army and the spread of Mithraism in John R Hinnels Mithraic Studies Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies vol 2 1975 Manchester University Press pp 249274 The considerable movement of civil servants and military throughout the empire was of great importance to Mithraism and even with the very fragmentary and inadequate evidence that we have it is clear that the movement of troops was a major factor in the spread of the cult Traditionally there are two geographical regions where Mithraism first struck root Italy and the Danube Italy I propose to omit as the subject needs considerable discussion and the introduction of the cult there as witnessed by its early dedicators seems not to have been military Before we turn to the Danube however there is one early event rather than geographical location which should perhaps be mentioned briefly in passing This is the supposed arrival of the cult in Italy as a result of Pompey the Greats defeat of Cilician pirates who practiced strange sacrifices of their own and celebrated certain secret rites amongst which those of Mithras continue to the present time have been first instituted by them ref Plutarch Pompey 2425 Suffice it to say that there is neither archaeological nor allied evidence for the arrival of Mithraism in the west at that time nor is there any ancient literary reference either contemporary or later If anything Plutarchs mention carefully omits making the point that the cult was introduced into Italy at that time or by the pirates Turning to the Danube the earliest dedication from that region is an altar to Mitrhe sic set up by C Sacidus Barbarus a centurion of XV Appolinaris stationed at the time at Carnuntum in Pannonia DeutschAltenburg Austria The movements of this legion are particularly informativeThe article then goes on to say that XV Appolinaris was originally based at Carnuntum but between 6271 CE transferred to the east first in the Armenian campaign and then to put down the Jewish uprising Then 7186 back in Carnuntum then 86105 intermittently in the Dacian wars then 105114 back in Carnuntum and finally moved to Cappadocia in 114 在羅馬以外最早能確定年代的密特拉寺可追溯到西元 148 年。C M DanielsThe Roman army and the spread of Mithraismin John R Hinnels Mithraic Studies Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies vol 2 1975 Manchester University Press p 263 The first dateable Mithraeum outside italy is from Böckingen on the Neckar where a centurion of the legion VIII Augustus dedicated two altars one to Mithras and the other dated 148 to Apollo 位在凱撒利亞馬力提馬的密特拉寺是在巴勒斯坦境內唯一可以被推斷年代的一座（密特拉寺）。Lewis M HopfeArchaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism in Lewis M Hopfe ed Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns 1994 pp 147158 p 153At present this is the only Mithraeum known in Roman Palestinep 154It is difficult to assign an exact date to the founding of the Caesarea Maritima Mithraeum No dedicatory plaques have been discovered that might aid in the dating The lamps found with the taurectone medallion are from the end of the first century to the late 3rd century CE Other pottery and coins from the vault are also from this era Therefore it is speculated that this Mithraeum developed toward the end of the 1st century and remained active until the late 3rd Century This matches the dates assigned to the DuraEuropos and the Sidon Mithraea 禮拜遺址 根據羅傑貝克所述，經過證實在最早階段（大約西元 80 年～西元 120 年）的羅馬崇拜地點如下：Beck on Mithraism pp 3435 Online here 5 從陶器上來確定時代的密特拉寺： 奈達／赫登海姆第三密特拉寺（NidaHeddernheim III，上日耳曼尼亞） 莫根提亞肯（上日耳曼尼亞） 潘斯艾尼（Pons Aeni，諾裡庫姆） 凱撒利亞馬力提馬（猶太） 由獻辭來確定時代的位址： 奈達／赫登海姆第一密特拉寺（NidaHeddernheim I，上日耳曼尼亞）（ 1091 號－1092 號、1098 號） 卡農頓第三密特拉寺（Carnuntum III，上潘諾尼亞）（ 1718 號） （下默西亞）（ 2268 號－2269 號）Richard Gordon The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies 2 1978 p148174 Online here p 153 伊斯克爾（Oescus，下默西亞）（ 2250 號） 羅馬（ 362 號、593 號－594 號） 由文獻參考來確定時代的位址： 羅馬（斯塔提烏斯〔Statius〕的《底比斯戰紀》〔Thebaid〕，171920） 刻赤的陶飾板 在克里米亞境內的刻赤附近已經挖掘出了由一尊神祇在公牛上拿著刀（屠牛像）的五個小型陶飾板，由貝斯寇（Beskow）與克勞斯所鑑定的年代是到西元前一世紀的下半葉，Beskow Per The routes of early Mithraism in Études mithriaques Jacques DuchesneGuillemin ed p 14 Another possible piece of evidence is offered by five terracotta plaques with a tauroctone found in Crimea and taken into the records of Mithraic monuments by Cumont and Vermaseren If they are Mithraic they are certainly the oldest known representations of Mithras tauroctone the somewhat varying dates given by Russian archaeologists will set the beginning of the 1st century CE as a terminus ad quem which is also said to have been confirmed by the stratigraphic conditions Note 20 gives the publication as W Blawatsky G Kolchelenko Le culte de Mithra sur la cote spetentrionale de la Mer Noire Leiden 1966 p 14f 以及由貝克所鑑定的年代則是由西元前 50 年～西元 50 年之間。這些可能是最早的密特拉教屠牛像，假如其被公認為是一尊密特拉斯的描繪的話（這一點就成立了）。 the area the Crimea is of interest mainly because of the terracotta plaques from Kerch five of which two are in as numbers 11 and 12 These show a bullkilling figure and their probable date second half of 1st Century BCE to first half of 1st century AD would make them the earliest tauroctonies if it is Mithras that they portray Their iconography is significantly different from that of the standard tauroctony eg in the Attislike exposure of the gods genitals Roger Beck Mithraism since Franz Cumont Aufsteig und Niedergang der romischen Welt II 174 1984 p 2019 3 這尊屠戮公牛的神祇頭戴一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽，但是由貝克和貝斯寇所描述的是除了這一點（弗裡吉亞無邊便帽）相同之外，在其他方面並不像是標準的屠牛像的宗教造型。關於這些（出土的）文物無法與密特拉密教相連線的另一項原因是在於最初這些陶飾板是被發現在一位女性的墳塚之中的。Beskow Per The routes of early Mithraism in Études mithriaques Ed Jacques DuchesneGuillemin p 15 The plaques are typical Bosporan terracottas At the same time it must be admitted that the plaques have some strange features which make it debatable if this is really Mithra s Most striking is the fact that his genitals are visible as they are in the iconography of Attis which is accentuated by a high anaxyrides Instead of the tunic and flowing cloak he wears a kind of jacket buttoned over the breast with only one button perhaps the attempt of a not so skillful artist to depict a cloak The bull is small and has a hump and the tauroctone does not plunge his knife into the flank of the bull but holds it lifted The nudity gives it the character of a fertility god and if we want to connect it directly with the Mithraic mysteries it is indeed embarrassing that the first one of these plaques was found in a womans tomb Clauss p 156 He is grasping one of the bulls horns with his left hand and wrenching back its head the right arm is raised to deliver the deathblow So far this god must be Mithras But in sharp contrast with the usual representations of Mithras he is dressed in a jacketlike garment fastened at the chest with a brooch which leaves his genitals exposed the iconography typical of Attis 古典文獻 根據博伊斯（Boyce）所述，最早的文獻參考引用到這支秘密宗教是由拉丁詩人斯塔提烏斯（的著作），西元 80 年左右，以及普魯塔克（約西元 100 年）。Boyce Mary Grenet Frantz 1975 Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule Part 1 Brill pp 468 469 ISBN 9004092714 Retrieved 20110316 the Persian affiliation of the Mysteries is acknowledged in the earliest literary reference to them This is by the Latin poet Statius who writing about 80 CE described Mithras as one whotwists the unruly horns beneath the rocks of a Persian cave Only a little later c 100 CE Plutarch attributed an Anatolian origin to the Mysteries for according to him the Cilician pirates whom Pompey defeated in 67 BCEcelebrated certain secret rites amongst which those of Mithras continue to the present time having been first instituted by them 斯塔提烏斯 這《》（約西元 80 年 Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 29 ISBN 0195067886 ）是一部由斯塔提烏斯所著的敘事詩，密特拉斯聖像在洞穴中，（祂的姿勢）用手捉住牛角進行摔跤。Statius Thebaid 1719 to 720 JHMozeys translation at Classical EText Latin text at The Latin Library 背景是向神明福玻斯的禱告。The prayer begins at Statius Thebaid 1696 JHMozeys translation at Classical EText Latin text at The Latin Library 這洞穴被描述為 persei，在這種情況下 persei 通常會被翻譯成 Persian（波斯人、波斯的）；然而，根據翻譯者 J H 莫茲利（JH Mozley）所述這字彙它字面的意思是 Persean（珀耳塞斯的），指的即是（Perses），乃為玻耳修斯和安朵美達的兒子，根據希臘傳說所記載這位珀耳塞斯正是波斯人的祖先。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 27 to 29 ISBN 0195067886 普魯塔克 希臘傳記作家普魯塔克（西元 46 年～西元 127 年）述說著 秘密宗教儀式 密特拉斯的（secret mysteries of Mithras） 被奇裡乞亞的海盜所執行著，這（奇裡乞亞）是位於安納託利亞的東南沿海的羅馬行省，他們是活躍於西元前一世紀，這是他當天在羅馬執行的密特拉密教儀式的起源，其表述的全文如下：他們還有提供奇特的祭品；我的意思是那些是奧林帕斯的；並且他們主持慶祝一些秘密宗教儀式， 在這之中密特拉斯的那些持續到這一日，最初是由他們所創制的。Life of Pompey 24 referring to events c 68 BCE 他提到了海盜是在米特拉達梯戰爭（羅馬共和國和本都國王米特拉達梯六世之間的戰爭）的期間特別地活躍在這之中他們是支援著米特拉達梯六世國王的。米特拉達梯和海盜之間的聯盟也由古代歷史學家阿庇安所提到過。App Mith 1492 cited in Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 89 ISBN 0195067886 在維吉爾作於西元四世紀且由塞爾維烏斯所註釋的評論上述說著龐培在南義大利境內的卡拉布裡亞安頓了一些海盜。ED Francis Plutarchs Mithraic pirates an appendix to the article by Franz Cummont The Dura Mithraeum in John R Hinnells Mithraic Studies Proceedings of the first international congress Vol 1 pp 207210 Manchester University Press 1975 The reference to Servius is in a lengthy footnote to page 208 Google books link 來源和參考資料還可以在這裡 找到。不過這一點是否與這支秘密宗教的起源有關就不清楚了。CMDaniels The role of the Roman army in the spread and practice of Mithraism in John R Hinnells ed Mithraic Studies proceedings of the first International congress of Mithraic Studies Manchester University Press 1975 vol 2 p 250 Traditionally there are two geographical regions where Mithraism first struck root in the Roman empire Italy and the Danube Italy I propose to omit as the subject needs considerable discussion and the introduction of the cult there as witnessed by its early dedicators seems not to have been military Before we turn to the Danube however there is one early event rather than geographical location which should perhaps be mentioned briefly in passing This is the supposed arrival of the cult in Italy as a result of Pompey the Greats defeat of the Cilician pirates who practicedstrange sacrifices of their own and celebrated certain secret rites amongst which those of Mithra continue to the present time having been first instituted by them Suffice it to say that there is neither archaeological nor allied evidence for the arrival of Mithraism in the West at that time nor is there any ancient literary reference either contemporary or later If anything Plutarchs mention carefully omits making the point that the cult was introduced into Italy at that time or by the pirates 卡西烏斯 歷史學家狄奧卡西烏斯（西元二至三世紀）講述了向羅馬所進行的國事訪問期間對於密特拉斯的名號是怎樣被稱誦的，這是在尼祿皇帝在位的時期的歷史事件。（梯利達特斯為帕提亞國王沃諾奈斯二世之子，並且他的加冕禮是由尼祿在西元 66 年所執行的，同時確認了帕提亞和羅馬之間戰爭的結束。）狄奧卡西烏斯對於梯利達特斯是這麼寫道的，因為他即將獲得了他的冠冕，告訴著羅馬皇帝他（尼祿）要尊敬他（梯利達特斯）如同密特拉斯。Dio Cassius 6352 羅傑貝克認為這件插曲很可能是有助於密特拉教在羅馬境內的出現而成為一個受歡迎的宗教。Beck Roger 20020720 Mithraism Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition Retrieved 20110515 In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record Nevertheless it could have been a spur to Mithraisms emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal 波菲利 哲學家波菲利（西元三世紀～西元四世紀）在他的作品 De antro nympharum（英譯：The Cave of the Nymphs、On the Cave of the Nymphs；漢譯：《寧芙的洞穴》、《在寧芙的洞穴》）提供了（關於）這支秘密宗教起源的描述。Porphyry De antro nympharum On the Cave of the Nymphs 2 For as Eubulus says Zoroaster was the first who consecrated in the neighboring mountains of Persia a spontaneously produced cave florid and having fountains in honor of Mithra the maker and father of all things 12 a cave according to Zoroaster bearing a resemblance of the world which was fabricated by Mithra But the things contained in the cavern being arranged according to commensurate intervals were symbols of the mundane elements and climates 援引引用歐布洛斯（的史冊）作為他的資料來源，波菲利寫道密特拉斯的原始神廟是一個天然的洞穴，其處擁有噴泉，這洞穴是瑣羅亞斯德在波斯山脈中發現的。對於瑣羅亞斯德來說，這個洞穴是整個世界的形象，所以他奉獻這洞穴給了密特拉斯，世界的創造者。因此密特拉斯的神話說道他們的信仰是由瑣羅亞斯德創立的。Porphyry De antro nympharum On the Cave of the Nymphs 6 For according to Eubulus Zoroaster first of all among the neighboring mountains of Persia consecrated a natural cave florid and watered with fountains in honor of Mithras the father of all things a cave in the opinion of Zoroaster bearing a resemblance of the world fabricated by Mithras But the things contained in the cavern being disposed by certain intervals according to symmetry and order were symbols of the elements and climates of the world 之後在同樣的作品之中，波菲利將密特拉斯和公牛與與行星和星座（starsigns）聯絡了起來：密特拉斯祂自己是與黃道十二星座中的牡羊座以及行星中的火星聯絡在一起，而公牛則是與金星聯絡在一起的。Porphyry De antro nympharum On the Cave of the Nymphs 11 Hence a place near to the equinoctial circle was assigned to Mithra as an appropriate seat And on this account he bears the sword of Aries which is a martial sign He is likewise carried in the Bull which is the sign of Venus For Mithra as well as the Bull is the Demiurgus and lord of generation 波菲利寫作之時正好接近了這支信仰的消亡，而且現代學者羅伯特圖爾坎則對於波菲利關於密特拉教說法是正確的觀點提出了質疑。他（波菲利）的情況是對於描述有關密特拉教徒所相信為何是有很大差距的，他們僅僅是由新柏拉圖主義者在四世紀後期為了適應他們的思想去理解這支秘密宗教時加進他們的觀念之陳述。Turcan Robert Mithras Platonicus Leiden 1975 via Beck R Merkelbachs Mithras pp 301302 然而，默克爾巴赫和貝克則認為波菲利的著作 實際上徹底的帶有這支秘密宗教教義的色彩。Beck R Merkelbachs Mithras p 308 n 37 貝克認為古典學者忽略了波菲利的證據並且對波菲利的觀點採取了不必要地懷疑。Roger Beck Luther H Martin Harvey Whitehouse 2004 Theorizing religions past archaeology history and cognition Rowman Altamira pp 101 ISBN 9780759106215 Retrieved 28 March 2011 根據貝克所述，波菲利的《在寧芙的洞穴》來自古代唯一明確的書面紀錄這部著作告訴我們密特拉密教的意旨以及意旨的實現。Beck Roger 2006 The Religion of the Mithras cult in the Roman empire Great Britain Oxford University Press p 17 De antro 6 is actually the sole explicit testimony from antiquity as to the intent of Mithraisms mysteries and the means by which that intent was realized Porphyry moreover was an intelligent and wellplaced theoretician of contemporary religion with access to predecessors studies now lost 大衛烏蘭西發覺到波菲利是一位很重要（的人士）證實 星體概念在密特拉教之中擔任了重要的作用。。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 18 ISBN 0195067886 密特拉斯聖儀 在古代晚期，密特拉斯（Μίθρας ）的希臘名號被發現在稱為 的文字中，屬於《巴黎偉大巫術紙草文稿》（ Paris Great Magical Papyrus；Paris Bibliothèque Nationale Suppl gr 574）的一部分；在這份文稿之中密特拉斯被賦予了 偉大神明（the great god） 的稱號，並且被視為與太陽神赫利俄斯是等同的。Meyer Marvin 2006 The Mithras Liturgy In AJ Levine Dale C Allison Jr and John Dominic Crossan The historical Jesus in context New Jersey Princeton University Press p 180 ISBN 0691009910 The reference is at line 482 of the Great Magical Papyrus of Paris The Mithras Liturgy comprises lines 475834 of the Papyrus 請參閱在阿爾布雷希特迪特里克（Albrecht Dieterich）以德語翻譯的希臘文字，Eine Mithrasliturgie 2nd edition pp 12。學者們之間有著不同的觀點就是關於這份文字是否即為密特拉教這樣的一個（宗教）表現方式。則表明說這（文字）不是；The Mithras Liturgy Text Translation and Commentary p 12 Tubingen Mohr Siebeck 2003（Marvin Meyer）卻認為這（文字）是；Meyer Marvin 2006 The Mithras Liturgy In A J Levine Dale C Allison Jr and John Dominic Crossan The historical Jesus in context New Jersey Princeton University Press pp 180182 ISBN 0691009910 而漢斯迪特爾貝茨則將其視為希臘、埃及，以及密特拉密教傳統的綜合。The Mithras Liturgy Text Translation and Commentary Tubingen Mohr Siebeck 2003Richard Gordon Probably Not Mithras in The Classical Review Vol 55 No 1 March 2005 pp 99100 現代議論 如同古代其他的 秘密信仰（厄琉息斯秘儀、奧菲斯教）般，密特拉密教維持著將其信仰的嚴格保密，也唯有他們的入教者才能夠揭示。結果是，這支信仰的教義從未被寫下來。然而，密特拉教徒將他們的神廟密特拉寺用神秘的聖像來填滿，這些豐富的宗教史料已經由考古學家所發掘出來了。到目前為止，所有試圖解譯該聖像的嘗試已經證明是無效的。不過大多數專家都對密特拉斯聖像以某種方式來源於伊朗古代的宗教信仰這樣一個模糊的假設感到滿意了。 現代對於密特拉教的學術研究之中，在這種具有開創性的工作裡面，學者大衛烏蘭西則提供了截然不同的理論。他認為密特拉密教的聖像實際上是一種天文學密碼（astronomical code），而且那是這支信仰對於令人吃驚的科學發現之宗教回應。隨著他調查的進行，烏蘭西一步一步地識破了隱藏在密特拉密教聖像背後的奧秘。直到最後他能夠揭示這支信仰的中心秘密：一個由宇宙最終性質的古老視野組成的秘密。 不過，以下章節將會從這項學術研究的先驅弗朗茨庫蒙論起。 庫蒙假設 有關於密特拉斯的學術研究是從這位學者開始的，他在 1894 年～1900 年間以法語出版了兩卷原始資料文字和宗教遺跡影像的彙編文集，法文原書名稱為：Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra（英譯書名為：Texts and Illustrated Monuments Relating to the Mysteries of Mithra；漢譯書名：《與密特拉的秘密宗教有關的文字和宗教遺跡插圖》）。Cumont Franz 18941900 Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra Brussels H Lamertin 這部作品的部分英文翻譯於 1903 年的時候出版，其書名題為：The Mysteries of Mithra；漢譯為：《密特拉的秘密宗教》。Cumont Franz 1903 The Mysteries of Mithra Translated by Thomas J McCormack Chicago Open Court Accessible online at Internet Sacred Text Archive The Mysteries of Mithra Index accessed 13 February 2011 庫蒙的假設，正如作者在他的專書前 32 頁中總結的那樣，那是一支羅馬宗教乃為 拜火教的羅馬形式，Beck R 1987 Merkelbachs Mithras in Phoenix 413 p 298 是屬於波斯的國教，傳播路徑是從東方到西方的。他確認了古代雅利安的的神靈而祂這尊出現在波斯文獻中與（出現在）吠陀讚美詩中的印度神明密多羅即是密特拉斯。Hopfe Lewis M Richardson Henry Neil September 1994 Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism In Lewis M Hopfe Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns pp 148 ISBN 9780931464737 Retrieved 19 March 2011 Franz Cumont one of the greatest students of Mithraism theorized that the roots of the Roman mystery religion were in ancient Iran He identified the ancient Aryan deity who appears in Persian literature as Mithras with the Hindu god Mitra of the Vedic hymns 根據庫蒙所述，神明來到了羅馬 伴隨著拜火教萬神殿的大量繼承。。Cumont Franz 1903 The Mysteries of Mithra p 107 accessed 13 February 2011 庫蒙認為著雖然傳統 在西方經歷了一些修改 其所遭受的改變在很大程度上是表面的。Cumont Franz 1903 The Mysteries of Mithra p 104 accessed 13 February 2011 庫蒙評估 庫蒙的理論是開始在 1971 年所舉行的第一屆國際密特拉密教學術研究大會上受到由約翰R 亨尼爾斯以及 RL 戈登的嚴厲批評。Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP p 10 ISBN 0195067886 In the course of the First International Congress two scholar in particular presented devastating critiques of Cumonts Iranian hypothesis One John Hinnells was the organizer of the conference Of more importance in the long run however was the even more radical paper presented by RLGordon 約翰亨尼爾斯不願意完全否認伊朗起源的想法，John R Hinnells Reflections on the bullslaying scene in Mithraic studies vol 2 pp 303304 Nevertheless we would not be justified in swinging to the opposite extreme from Cumont and Campbell and denying all connection between Mithraism and Iran 而寫道：我們現在必須得出結論是他的重建根本不會成立。其沒有從伊朗的資料上獲得支援並且實際上與作為祂們（密特拉教）現存文字中代表的傳統思想相牴觸。最重要，這是一個不符合實際羅馬肖像學的理論重建。John R Hinnells Reflections on the bullslaying scene in Mithraic studies vol 2 pp 303304 Since Cumonts reconstruction of the theology underlying the reliefs in terms of the Zoroastrian myth of creation depends upon the symbolic expression of the conflict of good and evil we must now conclude that his reconstruction simply will not stand It receives no support from the Iranian material and is in fact in conflict with the ideas of that tradition as they are represented in the extant texts Above all it is a theoretical reconstruction which does not accord with the actual Roman iconography What then do the reliefs depict And how can we proceed in any study of Mithraism I would accept with R Gordon that Mithraic scholars must in future start with the Roman evidence not by outlining Zoroastrian myths and then making the Roman iconography fit that scheme Unless we discover Euboulus history of Mithraism we are never likely to have conclusive proof for any theory Perhaps all that can be hoped for is a theory which is in accordance with the evidence and commends itself by mere plausibility 他商議了關於庫蒙的屠牛場景之重建並表示道 以庫蒙所提出關於密特拉斯的描繪不僅僅是由於在伊朗文字上的沒有根據而是竟然與已知的伊朗神學有嚴重的衝突。John R Hinnells Reflections on the bullslaying scene in Mithraic studies vol 2 p 292 Indeed one can go further and say that the portrayal of Mithras given by Cumont is not merely unsupported by Iranian texts but is actually in serious conflict with known Iranian theology Cumont reconstructs a primordial life of the god on earth but such a concept is unthinkable in terms of known specifically Zoroastrian Iranian thought where the gods never and apparently never could live on earth To interpret Roman Mithraism in terms of Zoroastrian thought and to argue for an earthly life of the god is to combine irreconcilables If it is believed that Mithras had a primordial life on earth then the concept of the god has changed so fundamentally that the Iranian background has become virtually irrelevant 由 RL 戈登的另一篇論文則是認為庫蒙透過強行資料來符合他預先確定的瑣羅亞斯德教的起源模式，因而嚴重扭曲了可以得到的證據。戈登這麼認為著波斯起源的理論是全然地無效的並且密特拉密教的起源在西方是一個完全新的建立。RLGordon Franz Cumont and the doctrines of Mithraism in John R Hinnells ed Mithraic studies vol 1 p 215 f 路德H 馬丁（Luther H Martin）也表達了類似的觀點：除了神明祂自己的名號以外，換句話說，密特拉教似乎已經在很大的程度上得到了發展，因此，從羅馬文化的背景下可以得到最好的理解。Martin Luther H 2004 Foreword in Beck Roger B 2004 Beck on Mithraism Collected Works With New Essays Aldershot Ashgate ISBN 0754640817 p xiv 不過，根據霍普費（Hopfe）所述，所有密特拉教起源的理論都承認了一種聯絡，可是卻模糊的，聯絡到古代雅利安宗教的密特拉／密多羅神祇。 在第二屆國際密特拉密教學術研究大會報告，該會於 1975 年召開，烏戈比安奇（Ugo Bianchi）說道雖然他歡迎 歷史上傾向於質疑東方與西方之間密特拉教的聯絡，但是 不應該意味著抹殺掉羅馬人自己所清楚的是什麼，就是密特拉斯是一尊波斯的（更廣泛的觀點是：一尊印度 伊朗的）神明。Bianchi Ugo The Second International Congress of Mithraic Studies Tehran September 1975 PDF Retrieved 20110320 I welcome the present tendency to question in historical terms the relations between Eastern and Western Mithraism which should not mean obliterating what was clear to the Romans themselves that Mithras was a Persian in wider perspective an IndoIranian god 博伊斯陳述道 尚未舉出令人滿意的證據來表明著，在瑣羅亞斯德之前，在伊朗民族之間存在著至高無上神明的概念，或者是在他們密特拉之間或者是其他任何的神靈若不是在他們的古代（期間）就是在他們的瑣羅亞斯德教萬神殿之外曾經擁有了他或她自己（至高無上神明）的獨立信仰。Boyce Mary 2001 Mithra the King and Varuna the Master Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80 Trier WWT pp 243n18 不過，她還表示道儘管最近的研究盡量減少了波斯宗教不自然的伊朗面貌 至少是在羅馬帝國統治下所獲得的形式，而密特拉斯的名號就足以表明了 就這個面貌而言是非常重要的。她亦有說道 在最早的文獻參考中已承認了這秘密宗教的波斯聯絡關係。。 貝克則告訴著我們說自從 1970 年代以來學者們普遍擯拒了庫蒙（的理論），但補充的說最近關於瑣羅亞斯德教徒在西元前期間是怎麼樣的理論現在使得庫蒙的東－西傳遞的一些新形式成為了可能。Beck Roger B 2004 Beck on Mithraism Collected Works With New Essays Aldershot Ashgate ISBN 0754640817 p 28 Since the 1970s scholars of western Mithraism have generally agreed that Cumonts master narrative of eastwest transfer is unsustainable although he adds that recent trends in the scholarship on Iranian religion by modifying the picture of that religion prior to the birth of the western mysteries now render a revized Cumontian scenario of eastwest transfer and continuities now viable 他如此說道： 他還如此地說道 舊有的庫蒙式模型有關形成是在，以及擴散是從，這安納託利亞 即決不是絕對地－也不應該是如此。Beck Roger On Becoming a Mithraist New Evidence for the Propagation of the Mysteries In Leif E Vaage et al Religious Rivalries in the Early Roman Empire and the Rise of Christianity p 182 The old Cumontian model of formation in and diffusion from Anatolia see Cumont 1956a 1132 cf pp 3384 on propagation in the West is by no means dead nor should it be On the role of the army in the spread of Mithraism see Daniels 1975 現今學說 thumb300px 描繪著屠牛像的淺浮雕。密特拉斯被描繪為當祂屠戮公牛時，祂的眼神也同時注視著索爾無敵者。索爾以及盧娜出現在浮雕頂部的左右兩側。 貝克推論說這支信仰是創設於羅馬的，其由具有希臘和東方宗教學問的單一創始人（所成立新興的羅馬信仰），但也聯想到某些概念習慣於採取了可能是（波斯）已經透過了希臘化的王國（傳入歐洲的路徑）。他評述說 密特拉斯－此外，被視為與希臘太陽神赫利俄斯等同的密特拉斯 是位在內姆魯特地帶於融合了希臘－亞美尼亞（Armenian）－伊朗之間皇家信仰的（合一）神明，乃是由科馬基尼王國的安條克一世於西元前一世紀中葉所創立的。Beck Roger 2002 Mithraism Encyclopædia Iranica Costa Mesa Mazda Pub Retrieved 20071028 Mithras moreover a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios was one of the deities of the syncretic GraecoIranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I qv king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene qv in the mid 1st century BCE 在提出理論的同時，貝克亦言之他的方案很有可能被認為是庫蒙式（理論）的兩種途徑。首先，因為它再次注意到了安納託利亞和安納託利亞民族（這項因素），並且更重要的是，因為它回到了庫蒙首先使用的方法論。Beck Roger The mysteries of Mithras A new account of their genesis PDF Retrieved 20110323 It may properly be called a Cumontian scenario for two reasons First because it looks again to Anatolia and Anatolians Secondly and more importantly because it hews to the methodological line first set by Cumont 默克爾巴赫提議道祂（密特拉斯）的秘密宗教實質上是由特定的人士或者是人群所創造的 Beck R 2002 Discontinuitys weaker form of argument postulates reinvention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire or certain sections thereof but reinvention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE Merkelbach 1984 pp 7577 expanding on a suggestion of M P Nilsson proposes such a founder from eastern Anatolia working in court circles in Rome So does Beck 1998 with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene see above Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario 並且在特定的地方建立，即羅馬市，由來自（羅馬帝國的）東部行省或者是國家邊界的人（法師、賢者、波斯僧侶），他詳細瞭解有關伊朗神話的內容，也因此他便編製成他的新興啟蒙等級制；但在那方面而言他一定是希臘人或者是懂得希臘語文的人因為他將希臘柏拉圖主義的要素與之結合地融入其中了。這個神話，他是這麼認為的，大概是建立在帝國官僚體系的環境下，以及其成員身上所制定出來的。Reinhold Merkelbach Mithras Konigstein 1984 ch 7577 克勞斯傾向於同意（這項說法）。貝克稱這個為 最有可能的情景 並且表示說 直到現在，密特拉教一般都被視為彷彿是以某種方式從伊朗的初期形式演變成了如同託普西般的－一旦這觀點被明確地說明後這即是一個最不可信的情景。。Beck R Merkelbachs Mithras pp 304 306 考古學家劉易斯M 霍普費（Lewis M Hopfe）指出了羅馬帝國的敘利亞行省僅僅只有三座的密特拉寺而已，與相距更遠地西方而言情況則是相反的。他寫道：考古學表明著羅馬密特拉教派在羅馬有其中心 這被稱之為密特拉教的完全發達宗教似乎已經在羅馬境內開創並且被士兵和商人帶到了敘利亞去。。 從現代其他學者所持有的不同觀點來看，烏蘭西主張著密特拉秘密宗教開始於希臘羅馬世界作為宗教對於由希臘天文學家喜帕恰斯的晝夜平分點的歲差之天文現象所發現的反映－那樣的一個發現是相當於發現整個宇宙以前所未有的方式在移動著。這個新的宇宙運動，他提出了，是被密特拉教的創始人給看出來了作為表明存在著一尊能夠去轉移這宇宙範圍以及從而治理著天地萬物的新興且強而有力的神明。Ulansey D The origins of the Mithraic mysteries p 77f 然而，阿德里安大衛休比瓦爾或簡稱 A D H 比瓦爾（Adrian David Hugh Bivar or A D H Bivar）、L A 坎貝爾（L A Campbell）以及 G 維登格倫（G Widengren）則不同地認為著羅馬密特拉教意味了某種形式的伊朗密特拉崇拜之延續。Beck Roger 20020720 Mithraism Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition Retrieved 20110516 The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities three argue for continuity in the strongest terms ADH Bivar 1998 and earlier studies mentioned there argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithraworship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe LA Campbell 1968 argues in the Cumontian tradition extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism A continuity as thoroughgoing though not quite so systematic ideologically was proposed in several studies by G Widengren 1965 pp 222232 1966 1980 根據安東尼婭的黎波里（Antonia Tripolitis）所述，羅馬密特拉教起源於吠陀時代的印度並且這教派在其遇到向西方傳佈的旅程中這教派便蒐羅許多文化的特徵了。Antonía Tripolitis 2002 Religions of the HellenisticRoman age Wm B Eerdmans Publishing pp 3 ISBN 9780802849137 It originated in Vedic India migrated to Persia by way of Babylon and then westward through the Hellenized East and finally across the length and breadth of the HellenisticRoman world On its westward journey it incorporated many of the features of the cultures in which it found itself 邁克爾斯佩德爾（Michael Speidel），他是主修軍事史的，將密特拉斯與太陽神的英雄歐里昂聯絡在一起。Michael P Speidel MithrasOrion Greek Hero and Roman Army God Brill Academic Publishers August 1997 ISBN 9004060553 晚期歷史 在羅馬帝國境內這支秘密宗教最初的重要發展似乎發生得很快，在安敦寧畢尤君主執政的晚期以及在馬可奧裡略的統治保護之下。到了此時這支秘密宗教所有的關鍵要素都已經到位了。Gordon Richard L 1978 The date and significance of CIMRM 593 British Museum Townley Collection Journal of Mithraic Studies II 148174 pp 150151 The first important expansion of the mysteries in the Empire seems to have occurred relatively rapidly late in the reign of Antoninus Pius and under Marcus Aurelius 9 By that date it is clear the mysteries were fully institutionalized and capable of relatively stereotyped selfreproduction through the medium of an agreed and highly complex symbolic system reduced in iconography and architecture to a readable set ofsigns Yet we have good reason to believe that the establishment of at least some of those signs is to be dated at least as early as the Flavian period or in the very earliest years of the second century Beyond that we cannot go thumb 索爾無敵者，出自於（義大利文：Museo archeologico；英文：Archaeological Museum of Milan）。 密特拉教在西元二世紀與西元三世紀的期間達到了其受歡迎程度的最高點，當索爾無敵者的崇拜被納入了國家－發起的信仰之同一個時期中該教派即以 驚人 的速度在傳播著。Beck R Merkelbachs Mithras p299 Clauss R The Roman cult of Mithras p 25 the astonishing spread of the cult in the later 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD This extraordinary expansion documented by the archaeological monuments 在這個期間肯定的是帕拉斯有專門為密特拉斯寫了一本專著，而稍後的歐布洛斯便寫了一部《密特拉斯的歷史》（History of Mithras），雖然這兩件作品現在都佚失了。Clauss R The Roman cult of Mithras p 25 referring to Porphyry De Abstinentia 256 and 4163 for Pallas and De antro nympharum 6 for Euboulus and his history 根據四世紀的《羅馬帝王紀》所載，（羅馬）皇帝康茂德加入了祂（密特拉斯）的秘密宗教 Loeb D Magie 1932 Scriptores Historiae Augustae Commodus pp IX6 Sacra Mithriaca homicidio vero polluit cum illic aliquid ad speciem timoris vel dici vel fingi soleat He desecrated the rites of Mithras with actual murder although it was customary in them merely to say or pretend something that would produce an impression of terror 但這支教派從未成為國家信仰之一。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 24 The cult of Mithras never became one of those supported by the state with public funds and was never admitted to the official list of festivals celebrated by the state and army at any rate as far as the latter is known to us from the the religious calendar of the units at DuraEuropos in Coele Syria where there was a Mithraeum the same is true of all the other mystery cults too He adds that at the individual level various individuals did hold roles both in the state cults and the priesthood of Mithras 歷史學家雅各布伯克哈特寫道： 結束 當密特拉斯的信仰走向結束時其就很難以再追訴到底了。貝克表示說 在〔第四〕世紀的很早期遍及整個帝國這宗教就像死了一樣。。Beck R Merkelbachs Mithras p 299 出自於西元四世紀的碑銘是很少的。克勞斯表示說碑銘顯示出密特拉斯由羅馬元老們列在碑銘上作為信仰之一他們（羅馬元老們）沒有轉變為基督教，（乃是以）作為在上層集團之中 異教復興（pagan revival）（身分）的一部分。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras pp 2930 Mithras also found a place in the pagan revival that occurred particularly in the western empire in the latter half of the 4th century CE For a brief period especially in Rome the cult enjoyed along with others a last efflorescence for which we have evidence from among the highest circles of the senatorial order One of these senators was Rufius Caeionius Sabinus who in 377 dedicated an altar to a long list of gods that includes Mithras 烏蘭西認為著 密特拉教的衰落伴隨著隨著基督教權力的上升，直到五世紀初，當基督教成為強大到足以藉由迫使宗教對手像是密特拉教令其滅絕時。。Ulansey David The Cosmic Mysteries of Mithras Retrieved 20110320 Mithraism declined with the rise to power of Christianity until the beginning of the fifth century when Christianity became strong enough to exterminate by force rival religions such as Mithraism 根據邁克爾施派德爾（Michael Speidel）所述，基督徒與這個忌憚的敵人一起激烈的爭奪並在西元四世紀期間壓制了祂。一些密特拉密教聖所被摧毀加上宗教不再是個人選擇的事項了。Michael Speidel 1980 MithrasOrion Greek hero and Roman army god Brill pp 1 ISBN 9789004060555 Retrieved 27 March 2011 As a mystery religion it engulfed the Roman empire during the first four centuries of our era Mithraic sanctuaries are found from Roman Arabia to Britain from the Danube to the Sahara wherever the Roman soldier went Christian apologetics fiercely fought the cult they feared and during the late 4th century CE as a victim of the JudaeoChristian spirit of intolerance Roman Mithraism was suppressed its sanctuaries destroyed together with the last vestiges of religious freedom in the empire 根據路德H 馬丁所述，在西元四世紀的最後十年期間羅馬密特拉教走向結束是隨同基督教皇帝狄奧多西的反異教法令頒布（而畫上了句點）。Martin Luther H Beck Roger December 30 2004 Foreword Beck on Mithraism Collected Works With New Essays Ashgate Publishing pp xiii ISBN 9780754640813 However the cult was vigorously opposed by Christian polemicists especially by Justin and Tertullian because of perceived similarities between it and early Christianity And with the antipagan decrees of the Christian emperor Theodosius during the final decade of the fourth century Mithraism disappeared from the history of religions as a viable religious practice 另外，基督教對於西洋文明的道德價值觀之建立以及傳統禮節之規範是有其偉大的貢獻存在；而密特拉教雖屬秘密宗教，本質上與基督教同樣是以救贖人類為宗旨的，兩個宗教之間各有屬於自己的特色在當時的西方都是優秀傑出的宗教。 在教堂的底下已發現的一些密特拉寺的座落處，舉例來說即密特拉寺以及聖克萊門特（San Clemente）密特拉寺，教堂在地基上方的規劃某種程度上被製造成基督教統治著密特拉教的象徵。Vermaseren M J The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Pricsa in Rome Brill p 115 Retrieved 3 April 2011 The groundplan shows clearly that the presbytery of the Church lies over the anteRoom V of the Mithraeum and that the apse covers the first part of the main hall W including the niches of Cautes and Cautopates One cannot fail to see the symbolism of this arrangement which expresses in concrete terms that Christ keeps Mithrasunder The same also applies at S Clemente 根據馬克漢弗萊斯（Mark Humphries）所述，在某些地區刻意的隱藏了密特拉密教崇拜的物品意味著正在對基督徒的攻擊採取預防措施。然而，在好比萊茵河邊界這樣的地區，純粹的宗教考慮不能解釋密特拉教的結束，而蠻族的入侵也可能發揮了作用。humphries mark 10 December 2008 Susan Ashbrook Harvey David G Hunter ed The Oxford handbook of early Christian studies Oxford University Press pp 95 ISBN 9780199271566 Retrieved 3 April 2011 In some instances the deliberate concealment of Mithraic cult objects could suggest precautions were being taken against Christian attacks but elsewhere such as along the Rhine frontier coin sequences suggest that Mithraic shrines were abandoned in the context of upheavals resulting from barbarian invasions and that purely religious considerations cannot explain the end of Mithraism in that region Sauer 1996 實際上沒有證據來表明密特拉斯的信仰延續到了西元五世紀。尤其是，在比利時高盧境內位於龐斯薩拉米（Pons Sarravi，今日名之薩爾堡〔Sarrebourg Saarburg〕）的密特拉寺已經回收了大量由信徒們存放奉獻的硬幣，那一系列的硬幣是從加里恩努斯（Gallienus，253～268）到狄奧多西一世（379 年～395 年）在位期間所施行的。當密特拉寺被摧毀時這些硬幣散落在地板上，因為基督徒無疑地看待這硬幣是汙染的，並因此為密特拉寺的活動提供可靠的日期。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras pp3132 在西元五世紀中任何一座密特拉寺持續的運作是不能表明的。所有密特拉寺的一系列硬幣最後在西元四世紀末結束（施行了）。這支信仰是早於伊西斯崇拜而消亡的。伊西斯在中世紀期間仍然被當時的人們記得為的神靈，但是密特拉斯在古代晚期已經被人們所遺忘了。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p171 弗朗茨庫蒙在他的書中陳述著密特拉教可能倖存在今日瑞士阿爾卑斯山脈一些偏遠的州以及今日法國的孚日省（Vosges，因孚日山脈而得名）境內而直到西元五世紀。Cumont Franz 1903 McCormack Thomas J trans ed The Mysteries of Mithra Chicago Open Court ISBN 0486203239 pp 206 A few clandestine conventicles may with stubborn persistence have been held in the subterranean retreats of the palaces The cult of the Persian god possibly existed as late as the fifth century in certain remote cantons of the Alps and the Vosges For example devotion to the Mithraic rites long persisted in the tribe of the Anauni masters of a flourishing valley of which a narrow defile closed the mouth This is unreferenced but the French text in Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra tom 1 p 348 has a footnote 《》（John the Lord Chamberlain），歷史推理長篇小說系列描繪了一個仍然活躍於查士丁尼宮庭的密特拉教徒團體，但是卻沒有歷史證據表明關於這支宗教教派的晚期倖存教徒。 屠牛意義 根據庫蒙所述，屠牛像的雕塑是一種希臘羅馬的有關於瑣羅亞斯德教對宇宙起源事件之闡釋的表示法，此事件即是描述於西元九世紀在瑣羅亞斯德教的經文《》（Bundahis、Bundahishn）之中的內容。在這個經文之中邪靈阿里曼（不是密特拉）誅戮原始生物（Gavaevodata），這原始生物被表示為牛。The Greater Bundahishn IV1920 19 He let loose Greed Needfulness Pestilence Disease Hunger Illness Vice and Lethargy on the body of Gav and Gayomard 20 Before his coming to the Gav Ohrmazd gave the healing Cannabis which is what one calls banj to the Gav to eat and rubbed it before her eyes so that her discomfort owing to smiting sin and injury might decrease she immediately became feeble and ill her milk dried up and she passed away 庫蒙的想法是誅戮了牛，在這一個神話版本之中密特拉斯是應該存在的，而不是阿里曼。但根據亨尼爾斯所述，沒有這樣已知的神話變體，而且這僅僅只是個推測：沒有已知的伊朗經文之中〔若非瑣羅亞斯德教的或者是其他教派的〕記載著密特拉屠殺公牛。。Hinnels John R Reflections on the bullslaying scene Mithraic Studies Proceedings of the First International Conference on Mithraic Studies Manchester UP pp II290312 p 291 大衛烏蘭西從密特拉寺本身發現到了天文學的證據。Ulansey David 1989 The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries Oxford University Press ISBN 0195054024 1991 revised edition 他提醒著我們柏拉圖主義的作家波菲利在西元三世紀時寫道像洞穴般的神廟密特拉寺描繪了 一個世界的形像 Porphyry De Antro nympharum 10 Since however a cavern is an image and symbol of the world 而且瑣羅亞斯德奉獻了一個類似於密特拉斯所製造的世界之洞穴。凱撒利亞馬力提馬密特拉寺的天花板保留了藍色顏料痕跡，這可能意味著天花板被畫成描繪著天空和星星。Lewis M Hopfe Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism in Lewis M Hopfe ed Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns 1994 pp147158 p154 貝克已經提供了以下關於屠牛像的天體解析：Beck Roger Astral Symbolism in the Tauroctony A statistical demonstration of the Extreme Improbability of Unintended Coincidence in the Selection of Elements in the Composition in Beck on Mithraism collected works with new essays 2004 p257 屠牛像的構成部分 天體對應 公牛 金牛座。 索爾 太陽。 盧娜 月亮。 狗 小犬座、大犬座。 蛇 長蛇座、巨蛇座、天龍座。 渡鴉 烏鴉座。 蠍子 天蠍座。 小麥穗（在公牛的尾巴上） 角宿一。 考泰斯與考託佩斯雙胞胎 雙子座。 獅子 獅子座。 （Krater or Crater） 巨爵座。 洞穴 宇宙。 有關於密特拉斯屠牛像（Tauroctonous Mithras，以下簡稱 TM）其本身已經被學者們提出了幾個天體的特性。貝克將這些天體特性總結於下表之中。Beck Roger The Rise and Fall of Astral Identifications of the Tauroctonous Mithras in Beck on Mithraism collected works with new essays 2004 p236 學者 判定 包薩尼，A（Bausani A，1979 年） TM 是與獅子座相關聯，因為這屠牛像是一種古老獅子－公牛（獅子座－金牛座）爭鬥主題的型別。 貝克，R L（Beck R L，1994 年） TM 太陽進入獅子座。 因斯勒爾，S（Insler S，1978 年） 屠殺公牛 金牛座的偕日設定。 雅各布斯，B（Jacobs B1999 年） 屠殺公牛 金牛座的偕日設定。 諾斯，J D（North J D，1990 年） TM 參宿四（獵戶座 α）設定，祂的刀 三角座設定，祂的披風 五車二（御夫座 α）設定。 羅格斯，A J（Rutgers A J，1970 年） TM 太陽，公牛 月亮。 桑德林，KG（Sandelin KG，1988 年） TM 御夫座 施派德爾，M P（Speidel M P，1980 年） TM 獵戶座（太陽神阿波羅的英雄歐里昂）。 烏蘭西，D（Ulansey D，1989 年） TM 玻耳修斯。 魏斯，M（Weiss M，1994 年、1998 年） TM 夜空。 烏蘭西已經提出了密特拉斯似乎是來源於英仙座星群的說法，祂的方位恰恰好是位於夜空的金牛座之上。他（烏蘭西）看到了這兩尊神話人物之間（神祇密特拉斯與英雄玻耳修斯）在肖像學以及神話學對比之下的相似之處：兩位皆為年輕的英雄，攜帶一把匕首，並且佩戴著一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽。他還談到了玻耳修斯誅殺戈耳工以及屠牛像形像的相似性，兩位神話人物正好都有與地下洞穴相關聯（的神話背景）並且隨著進一步的證據顯示出兩者皆與波斯有聯絡。Ulansey D The origins of the Mithraic mysteries p2539 邁克施派德爾將密特拉斯與獵戶座星群聯絡在一起乃是因為臨近金牛座的關係，而且這尊神話人物描述的一致性質為擁有寬闊的肩膀、衣服的下襬是漏斗狀的，以及在腰部上用腰帶繫緊，從而呈現了星座的形態。 貝克指責了施派德爾與烏蘭西採取關於一種字面的製圖邏輯，將他們的理論描述為一種 使人迷惑的 的論點其乃是 誘騙他們落入一個虛假的線索。Beck Roger In the place of the lion Mithras in the tauroctony in Beck on Mithraism collected works with new essays 2004 p 270276 他是認為著這屠牛像作為一種星宿圖表的字面解讀引起了兩個主要問題：它是很難去找到關於密特拉斯祂本身相對應的星座（儘管由施派德爾和烏蘭西所下足了功夫與努力）而且，不同於星宿圖表，屠牛像的每個特徵可能不僅僅是一個單一的對應角色。而不是將密特拉斯視為星座，貝克是認為著密特拉斯是在天體舞臺上的主要旅者（由場景的其他符號意味著），無敵的太陽移動透過星座。不過話又說回來，邁耶認為著這密特拉斯聖儀反映了密特拉教的世界還有也許可以證實對於烏蘭西的密特拉斯學說是被認為應該對關於歲差負責任。Meyer Marvin 2006 The Mithras Liturgy In AJ Levine Dale C Allison Jr and John Dominic Crossan The historical Jesus in context New Jersey Princeton University Press pp 179180 ISBN 0691009910 The Mithras Liturgy reflects the world of Mithraism but precisely how it relates to other expressions of the mysteries of Mithras is unclear With the leg of the bull interpreted astronomically the Mithraic god or Mithras turns the sphere of heaven around and if the text suggests that Mithrasmoves heaven and turns it back antistrephousaMithras may be responsible for the astronomical precession of the equinoxes the progressive change in the earths orientation in space caused by a wobble in the earths rotation so Ulansey 最新文物 1996 年～1997 年在敘利亞境內的哈瓦蒂發現了一座密特拉寺，是位在荒廢的教堂下方，當教堂地板的一部分崩塌時而讓這座密特拉寺顯露出來。該房間是由燦爛精彩的畫作賦予了特色。這座密特拉寺在羅馬帝國任何地方似乎呈現出在使用上是年代最晚的廟堂之一。這座神廟的一個好奇的特點是在 12 月 25 日。一道光線照射在裡面，落在應該是站立姿態的崇拜神像壁龕上。由 M 加夫利科夫斯基（M Gawlikowski）的挖掘報告是所有關於這些說法的來源。 該地的座標：35 25 05N，36 23 53 E／35418 N，36398 E。感謝由約翰W 勃蘭特（John W Brandt）提供此座標。 發現 哈瓦蒂村位於阿帕梅亞以北 15 公里處。一座重要的教堂複合體在 1970 年代被挖掘出來。這教堂由阿帕梅亞大主教聖弗蒂烏斯建造於西元 480 年代並且鋪上鑲嵌藝術。這教堂是一座早期教會的重建，也是與鑲嵌藝術一起重建的，是建造於西元四世紀末。而這鑲嵌藝術現已被遷移到博物館之中珍藏。在 1996 年～1997 年的冬季期間，教堂地板的一部分崩塌，露出一間房間，這間房間被盜賊所挖掘，他們拆除了一幅畫。他們還發現到了一個有繪畫的天花板，但是這個天花板被證明是不可能被拆除走的。敘利亞當局迅速逮捕了盜賊，並且這幅畫現在被珍藏在大馬士革的博物館裡面。一位荷蘭考古學家於 1997 年 9 月拜訪了該地並且拍攝了他能看到的內容。1998 年 8 月由 M 加夫利科夫斯基（M Gawlikowski）領導的波蘭考古學家團隊被指派開始挖掘工作。他們發現這幅畫是在該年的 9 月在東部牆垣上所看到的。1997 年經由曝光與掠奪而已經消失不見了。敘利亞當局決定就地的保留現場並且使公眾可以方便拜訪該處。這個考慮是要保證進一步的工作（考古以及史學）活動期。PAM 10 p1979 規模與年代 這座密特拉寺的主室寬 480 米，為東西兩側。其西牆長 645 米，以及東牆 720 米，為南北兩側縱深。這東牆是天然洞穴的原始巖牆。 沒有左邊的長椅。右邊的長椅的走向是朝著房間的南邊進而沿著南邊的角落走。 在北牆中間有一個壁龕，寬 3838 米並且高出在房間的地板上。這一定包含了屠牛像的浮雕，屠牛像尚未被發現但可能是在未被挖掘的地區。講臺是設立在屠牛像之前，並且後來在講臺的右手邊被加了一個小臺座，伴隨著兩個臺階通向它。在講臺前方，而且朝向右邊，設立著一座祭壇，其被發現時已經橫躺地倒在地上了。 中央的居室面積（floorspace）稍微凹進。下面似乎有一個凹陷的空間，還有一個小開口通向裡面，大概是排水渠。在房間內部建造了 8 層大石塊的牆壁，以支援其上方的教堂，此牆高出約 35 米。這道牆已被挖土機所拆除了。PAM 1011 牆壁和壁龕都汙損了，還有畫作也是同樣的情況。在某幾處發現高達六層的畫作。最後兩層繪畫越過講臺和臺座，並且年代是可以確定的，藉由在講臺前面替代的臺階，年代不會早於約西元 360 年。 在使用的最後階段，整個北面、西面與東面牆壁都有被上以繪畫，以及壁龕前面的建築結構也有。在地板上發現了兩層小洞穴。 在下層小洞穴發現了戴克裡先的硬幣，可能顯示了密特拉寺的建立日期。在上層小洞穴也發現了一些硬幣，年代全部都是西元四世紀的，還有年代最晚之一的阿卡狄奧斯（西元 383 年以前）。屬於同期的燈具和陶器也有被發現到。從這可以推斷著這座密特拉寺直到西元四世紀的最後幾年，當這廟堂被圮毀還有建立在其上的教堂之前，仍然還在使用之中的。由於可確定最晚年代的密特拉密教宗教遺跡是出自於西元 387 年的羅馬碑銘，還有西頓的文物可能是西元 389 年，這表明著哈瓦蒂密特拉寺是已知道年代使用最晚的一座密特拉寺。PAM 10 在地板上都有發現了各種各樣的石祭壇，都被推倒了。在西牆中間有一扇門可即進入前廳。 而前廳的入口處則是位於前廳的南邊。 聖顏的光 主室西牆有一道水平的縫隙，是向前廳的方向看去。實驗顯示著光透過這道縫隙的出處照射到壁龕上，而且特別的是整個 12 月直到 1 月 6 日光會照耀在密特拉斯聖像的聖顏上（如果正常比例的屠牛像浮雕存在於此壁龕的話）。在 Archeowiesci （波蘭語）有通俗的解釋。 繪畫 主廳和前廳兩處在人們可以看到的所有牆壁之上都被豐富地畫上宗教繪畫。 主室 包含人物的繪畫帶是 110 釐米高，在其上方到天花板有一個寬的紅色帶。在這下方則是幾何圖案的護牆板牆裙（dado），這也涵蓋了講臺。 於壁龕右側的場景描繪，從這一側的最左邊開始略述： 一、宙斯與巨人族之間的戰鬥。這尊神的繪畫儲存比較不完整，但仍可看到但穿戴著披風和靴子。兩隻怪物在祂的兩側，裸體的，人類雙腿的末端被蛇盤曲在其上。畫像的頭已經不見了。 二、一尊勝利的宙斯被顯示在洞穴的東北角，於宙斯與巨人族之間的戰鬥的右邊，坐在寶座裡面一個圓形的花圈上。 三、在東側的牆上，其接下來，是密特拉斯被描繪為一位從岩石中誕生的年輕人，祂被一條龐大的蛇給圍繞盤曲著。祂被描繪為裸體但是祂的手上握著一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽。 四、一位裸體男孩在柏樹之中，又伴隨著一頂弗裡吉亞無邊便帽。 五、一尊巨大身材且衣冠楚楚的太陽神，連同舉起了雙手。 六、更進一步地沿著東側牆壁，這些畫作幾乎完全消失了。一個碎片可能意味著正是由密特拉斯所攜帶的公牛畫像上面掉下來的。 加夫利科夫斯基提出著這樣的看法是這一系列可能是有意為了將密特拉斯同其他的神明也就是說，阿波羅、阿提斯（Attis）以及索爾來做出辨認。 於壁龕左側的場景描繪，從這一側的最右邊開始略述： 一、一道有拱門的城牆。在牆的頂部，有一排猙獰醜惡和可怕嚇人的頭顱，帶有毛茸茸的頭髮以及被磨碎的牙齒。每一個都被一條黃色長線所打傷，顯然是一縷光的射線。其中一個頭顱業已掉落到了門外的地面上了。 二、一名穿戴富裕的男子貼近的站在一隻巨馬旁邊，在此人腳上伴隨一隻用鐵練鎖住的惡魔。 三、另一位人物（畫像已模糊了）。 在房間的西南角是一個狩獵場景。 在南邊的牆壁是儲存不良壁畫的碎片，顯示出一匹馬向右移動還有三組波斯髮型，也許表示著在一條路線上前進的騎士。 這些人物的眼睛已經被刮傷了，大概是由建造教堂的石匠所造成的。 天花板畫是對稱的並且有一個精巧的框架。裡面是一籃的葡萄在兩側有兩隻鳥（可能是孔雀？）和兩碟盤子。在早期的繪畫層上應該會有一幅密特拉斯的聖像，因為在連同祂大希臘字母名號一起的石膏碎片被重新找回了。 在惡魔的描繪下面沒有長椅的設定。在右邊的長椅有被找到。最後的儀式還有剩下一些膳食殘餘，由雞肉和豬肉所構成的。幾盞燈具和燈具碎片，材質是以陶器和玻璃製成，年代約為西元四世紀到西元五世紀，也有被發現到。 前廳 在北邊的牆壁上是兩隻獅子的場景，彼此對峙的，撕裂了黑色人類形像。獅子身體儲存不完整。相對的人的下半身儲存得更好，穿著一條短裙，有紅色、有綠色。第三位黑人的嘴巴上顯示出流淌著血液，但他的裙子沒有儲存下來。 在東邊的牆壁上，門口的北邊，有更進一步的壁畫。右邊畫有一隻巨大的白馬，牠的其中一隻前腿抬起，蹄的部分隱藏著一座四腳架或祭壇，一條蛇圍繞盤曲起來。在馬前面有佇立著一名雄偉的男性人物從他的腰部的繪畫還有保留下來。他穿著紅色長袍到達膝蓋，在前面的裝飾在兩排垂直的珍珠之間帶有鑲邊的寶石。長袍越過了他的褲子，這條長袍穿過他的褲子，其中每條腿也是同樣地編織著兩排垂直的珍珠之間帶有鑲邊的寶石。然而，這幅壁畫最引人注目的特點是，那個可憐的同伴被英雄人般的物用鏈子鎖在一起了。鏈子是兩條的，長度是從騎士的手到達黑人的每個手腕，這黑人從背面來看他完全是赤身裸體的，採蹲伏的姿勢。這位人物繪畫整體儲存完好，所以非常清楚的是其形象除了正常的身體之外他有兩個明顯不同的頭，轉向相對的側面並且在頸部戴著金屬項圈。 隆吉努斯祭壇 與密特拉寺相關聯的物品被重新找回的很少。只有其中的幾個奉獻祭壇有被刻寫上文字存在著，顯然地年代是在西元二世紀期間。祭壇上具有一個馬庫斯隆吉努斯（Marcus Longinus）的名字，乃是以希臘文所刻寫的。 還有神像的腳可能屬於獅頭神靈的。 其他的神明 這支密特拉斯的信仰教派在羅馬帝國境內的宗教之中具有融合性質的一部分。幾乎所有的密特拉寺都包含著專門獻給其他信仰的神明之神像，並且在其他的聖所之中找到專門獻給密特拉斯的碑銘這也是很常見到的情形，尤其是在朱庇特多立克努斯的那些聖所更是如此。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p158 There are many examples illustrating the readiness of Mithraists to worship other divinities The range of GraecoRoman divinities to whom votives were offered in mithraea is quite considerable Of all these deities I would just like to stress the significance of Mercury for many Mithraic congregations 密特拉教對於羅馬的其他傳統宗教而言並不是非傳統的，而是宗教習俗的許多形式之一，還有也能夠發現到許多密特拉密教的入教者參與了羅馬活動，並且他們（密特拉密教的入教者）還可以作其他秘密宗教信仰崇拜的入教者。Burkert Walter 1987 Ancient Mystery Cults Harvard University Press p 49 ISBN 0674033876 法涅斯 密特拉斯有時候會以類似於奧菲斯教的神靈法涅斯的方式來描繪。 在奧菲斯教之中，這尊神靈法涅斯關於這個的細節，連同古代史料，可以在 Theoi 這裡 的網站找到。在最初一開始就從（WorldEgg or Cosmic egg）或者是奧菲斯蛋中誕生出來，因而創造出了宇宙天地。有證據表明著關於這項奧菲斯教的教義有時影響了密特拉斯的崇拜。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 70 有一些文獻證據連線了密特拉斯和法涅斯，或者是祂們神格的互換。一份出現在柴樂諾波以及士麥那（位於土耳其西部港市伊茲密爾）的席恩（Theon）有關於宇宙創造八元素的目錄之中；大多數元素都是一樣的，但是在柴樂諾波手中的那份目錄第七個元素是密特拉斯，在席恩手中的那一份則是為法涅斯。M Clauss p70 n84 Zenobius Proverbia 578 in Corpus paroemiographorum Graecorum vol 1 p151 Theon of Smyrna gives the same list but substitutes Phanes See Albert de Jong Traditions of the Magi Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin literature p309 on this and more info on the Zenobius passage here and the Theon passage here 這兩份目錄是從羅馬的希臘碑銘所顯示出來的是能夠被確認的史料，即 CIMRM 475 號，這碑銘乃是由一位 教父 與祭司奉獻給予宙斯－赫利俄斯－密特拉斯－法涅斯（ZeusHeliosMithrasPhanes）。Von Gall p523 gives this as CIMRM 475Ulansey David The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries pp1201 Excerpts here The identification between Mithras and Phanes indicated by CIMRM 860 is also explicitly attested by an inscription found in Rome dedicated to ZeusHeliosMithrasPhanes and another inscription dedicated to HeliosMithrasPhanes CIMRM 860 號，出自於維科維恩／波柯維西恩（Vercovium Borcovecium，）在哈德良長城上的浮雕顯示出一尊神靈手握匕首與火焰並且從宇宙蛋之中誕生，都是同樣表現為黃道環（在周圍）的形狀。Clauss M The Roman cult of Mithras p 70 photo p71 CIMRM 860 is now at the Museum of Antiquities University of Newcastle upon Tyne Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU 這件宗教歷史文物是在豪塞斯特茲的密特拉密教洞穴中所發現到的，在兩座奉獻予密特拉斯的祭壇之間，並且在主要信仰浮雕的前方。John Bell A catalogue of the Roman altars and inscribed and sculptured stones in the collection of the society of antiquaries NewcastleuponTyne in The Gentlemans Magazine vol 166 1839 p183 f p184 52 A sculptured bust of Mithras between the two hemispheres surrounded by the twelve signs of the Zodiac it was also found in the Mithraic Cave at Housesteads between nos 51 and 53 Presented by the same ie by George Gibson esq Other entries indicate that all the material was found in 1822 CIMRM 985 號，是一件類似的浮雕，於 1928 年被發現在特里爾的密特拉寺裡面，一樣是在兩座祭壇之間，一座是屬於密特拉斯的以及另一座是屬於索爾的，並且又可能有主要信仰的浮雕在其後方。這浮雕描繪了密特拉斯從岩石內的一輪黃道帶中之宇宙誕生。密特拉斯一隻手正在握著世界之球，另一隻手則伸出來摸觸著黃道帶。Vivienne J Walters The cult of Mithras in the Roman provinces of Gaul p108110 item 39 with bibliography A stone relief from Trier Augusta Treverorum now in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier Inventory no ST9981 See plate XVIII Google books preview here At Housesteads which has produced perhaps the closest parallel for the Trier relief there was a cult relief behind the egg birth and flanking altars On p25 the author suggests that the same may have been true here at Trier 這些與在義大利摩德納境內埃斯泰畫廊（the Galleria Estense，或譯為：埃斯特美術館）裡的浮雕有相似之處，最初是來自於穆蒂納（Mutina，現名摩德納）或者是羅馬，在許多相同的背景下這浮雕所顯示的神祇是法涅斯而不是密特拉斯。Hubertus von Gall The LionHeaded and the HumanHeaded God in the Mithraic Mysteries in Jacques DuchesneGuillemin ed Études Mithriaques p511526 p522 Google Books preview here CIMRM 6956 fig 197 Von Gall states that some scholars believe that the Housesteads relief is in fact a Phanes sculpture which has been reused by the Mithras cult 這顯示了法涅斯源自於一顆蛋（宇宙蛋、世界蛋）連同在祂的雙腳附近有火焰噴發而出，在法涅斯的外圍被黃道十二星座所環繞著，影像與位在紐卡斯爾的相關影像是非常的相似。Vermaseren M The miraculous birth of Mithras p287 n10 The relief is in the Estense Museum in Modena Italy See also F Cumont Mithra et lOrphisme RHR CIX 1934 63 ff M P Nilsson The Syncretistic Relief at Modena Symb Osi XXIV 1945 1 ff 烏蘭西已經解說了在密特拉斯、法涅斯、，以及獅首神祂們之間的各種相似之處，其中還包括了摩德納的浮雕、原來的奧菲斯教，進入到了密特拉斯的入教者手中，這是根據著一份上面已有刮傷的碑銘之記述。Ulansey David The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries p120 索爾、赫利俄斯、索爾無敵者 密特拉斯在碑銘之中素來被描繪成 sol invictus（索爾無敵者）（無敵的太陽）。Clauss p146 Roman Mithras is the invincible sungod Sol Invictus This is the burden repeated a hundred times over of the votive inscriptions from the second to the fourth centuries AD whether in the form Sol Invictus Mithras or Deus Sol Invictus Mithras or Deus Sol Mithras or Sol Mithras There do not seem to be any significant regional or temporal variations among such formulae In the very earliest epigraphic evidence for the Roman cult of Mithras the god is already invoked as Sol Invictus Mithras These facts are confirmed by the numerous votive offerings to Sol Deus Sol Sol Invictus and Deus Invictus Sol which were put up in mithraea Clauss p79 Victory is what characterises the god his one unvarying epithet is Invictus 但是索爾和密特拉斯是不同的神靈。Clauss p147 On the other hand however Mithras and Sol are two separate deities as can amply be demonstrated p148 Mithras is Sol and at the same time Sol is Mithras companion Paradoxical relationships of this kind are to be found between many deities in antiquity People in the ancient world did not feel bound by fixed credos and confessions which had to be consistent to the last detail in the area of religion a truly blessed anarchy held swayinvictus（無敵者）這個詞的模糊曖昧之處意味著祂被用來當作許多神靈的頭銜。Erika Manders Coining Images of Power Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage AD 193284 Brill 2012 p130 Sol however did not have the exclusive right to appear as pacator orbis and invictus on thirdcentury coins Jupiter Aurelian Probus and Numerian appear as pacator orbis too while apart from Sol other gods Jupiter Hercules and Mars received the epithet invictus References are given to coin types 密特拉教從來沒有成為國家性的信仰，然而，也不像羅馬官方晚期的索爾無敵者信仰。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p234 The cult of Mithras never became one of those supported by the state with public funds and was never admitted to the official list of festivals celebrated by the state and the army at any rate in so far as the latter is known to us from the Feriale Duranum the religious calendar of the units at DuraEuropos in Coele Syria the same is true of all other mystery cults too This of course does not exclude the possibility that the emperors and their circle may have felt a more than casual personal sympathy for the cult but they certainly tolerated perhaps even encouraged their subjects adherence 儘管密特拉斯祂自己被人們稱呼為索爾無敵者，無敵的太陽，不過祂和索爾還是有以作為獨立的身份出現在幾個場景之中，以關於宴會場景而言正是最突出的例子。於其他場景的特點則是密特拉斯攀登到索爾的戰車後方上、神靈們握著手以及兩尊神明在一座祭壇上連帶著一大塊肉在考託佩斯使用商神杖噴出火舌或者是爆出火花的上方。 一個特殊的場景顯示出索爾在密特拉斯的面前屈膝，密特拉斯握著一個物體，祂手中的東西，被解讀為若不是波斯帽就是公牛的腰腿。Roger Beck In the Place of the Lion Mithras in the Tauroctony in Beck on Mithraism collected works with new essays 2004 p 286287 朱庇特多立克努斯 朱庇特多立克努斯，乃為羅馬秘密宗教信仰的神明，起初是赫梯－胡裡安（HittiteHurrian）當地的豐饒之神，以及位在多立克（Doliche）城（就是現代在土耳其境內東南方的大加濟安泰普市內〔Şehitkamil〕區的一個村莊〔Dülük〕）的雷霆崇拜。後來這尊神靈被賦予了閃米特族的性格，但是，在阿契美尼德王朝的統治（西元前六世紀到西元前四世紀）之下，祂被認為與波斯主神阿胡拉馬茲達等同，從而成為宇宙之神。透過了希臘人的影響後，祂為宙斯奧羅馬斯德斯（Zeus Oromasdes）；並且在這稱號之下，祂是與波斯的另一尊神靈密特拉的信仰密切相關。朱庇特多立克努斯及其配偶的崇拜逐漸向西被帶進了羅馬以及其他軍事中心，後來在西元二世紀與西元三世紀期間，這支教派變得非常受歡迎。在羅馬秘密宗教之中，祂不僅被公認為是天上神明，而且被認為是具備著控制軍事成功和安全的職掌。祂通常的宗教形象表現是站在一頭公牛之上並且攜帶祂的特殊武器，及雙斧與閃電。 而密特拉斯與朱庇特多立克努斯的信仰的關係，可以從考古學上位於卡農頓的密特拉寺所擁有的建築構造看來像是與當代的神廟有密切相連。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p44 One could also include Jupiter Dolichenus here not only have votives to him been discovered in mithraea V 1208 but Mithraic inscriptions and cultreliefs have been found in dolichena V 70 p 157 V 468 70 1729 另外有兩座密特拉寺是被發現於科馬基尼王國本身的多立克城。該相關書面資料的出版者提出了追溯到西元一世紀的年代，但是一般來說追溯到西元二到三世紀的年代才是優先選用的歷史時期，並且這兩座（密特拉斯的）神廟是與萊茵河邊界的密特拉寺有關。相關詳細描述，請參見在 Doliche Mithraea 的文章。 與基督教 早期的基督教護教士指出了密特拉密教和基督教儀式之間的相似之處，但依然對密特拉教採取了非常消極的觀點：他們將密特拉密教儀式解讀為基督教儀式的邪惡副本。Hopfe Lewis M Richardson Henry Neil September 1994 Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism In Lewis M Hopfe Uncovering ancient stones essays in memory of H Neil Richardson Eisenbrauns pp 147 ISBN 9780931464737 Retrieved 19 March 2011 The Christians view of this rival religion is extremely negative because they regarded it as a demonic mockery of their own faithGordon Richard FAQ Retrieved 20110322 In general in studying Mithras and the other Grecooriental mystery cults it is good practice to steer clear of all information provided by Christian writers they are notsources they are violent apologists and one does best not to believe a word they say however tempting it is to supplement our ignorance with such stuff 譬如，特土良寫道作為密特拉密教啟蒙禮儀的序幕，這入教者及在禮儀結束之時便給予沐浴的儀式，會在額頭上獲得一個被承認的印記。他描述這些儀式為一種惡魔所假冒的基督徒之洗禮以及搽聖油（chrismation）。Louis Bouyer The Christian Mystery pp 70 Retrieved 28 May 2011 特土良與許多教父不同，他從來沒有被東方或西方普世的傳統教會認定為聖人，因為他對諸如聖子和聖靈到聖父的明確從屬關係等問題的教誨，Tuggy Dale Zalta Edward N ed 2016 History of Trinitarian Doctrines The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford University Retrieved 24 September 2016Le Saint W 2003 Tertullian The New Catholic Encyclopedia Thompson Gale 13 837 以及他譴責寡婦再婚和逃離迫害，與這些傳統的教義相牴觸。但是可以確定的一點是他因理論貢獻被譽為拉丁教父和西方基督教神學鼻祖之一。早期的基督教與密特拉斯的崇拜之間關聯的概念是基於西元二世紀的基督教作家殉教者遊斯丁的一份評註而來，他指責了密特拉斯的入教者冒充基督教聖餐儀式。Justin Martyr First Apology ch 66 For the apostles in the memoirs composed by them which are called Gospels have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them that Jesus took bread and when He had given thanks saidThis do ye in remembrance of Me this is My body and that after the same manner having taken the cup and given thanks He saidThis is My blood and gave it to them alone Which the wicked devils have imitated in the mysteries of Mithras commanding the same thing to be done For that bread and a cup of water are placed with certain incantations in the mystic rites of one who is being initiated you either know or can learn 殉教者遊斯丁還將密特拉密教啟蒙領聖禮與（基督教的）聖餐禮一起做了個比較：Fritz Graf Baptism and GraecoRoman Mystery Cults in Rituals of Purification Rituals of Initiation in Ablution Initiation and Baptism Late Antiquity Early Judaism and Early Christianity Walter deGruyter 2011 p105 基於此，歐內斯特勒南在 1882 年時提出了，在不同的情況下，密特拉教可能已經躍升到了現代基督教的重要地位。勒南對兩個對立的宗教信仰進行了生動描述因而寫道：如果基督教的發展被某些致命的弊病給抑制了，世界將會是密特拉密教的Renan E MarcAurele et la fin du monde antique Paris 1882 p 579 On peut dire que si le christianisme eût été arrêté dans sa croissance par quelque maladie mortelle le monde eût été mithriasteErnest Renan October 2004 The Hibbert Lectures 1880 Lectures on the Influence of the Institutions Thought and Culture of Rome on Christianity and the Development of the Catholic Church 1898 Kessinger Publishing pp 35 ISBN httpsenwikipediaorgwikiSpecialBookSources9781417982424 9781417982424 Retrieved 22 March 2011 I sometimes permit myself to say that if Christianity had not carried the day Mithraicism would have become the religion of the world It had its mysterious meetings its chapels which bore a strong resemblance to little churches It forged a very lasting bond of brotherhood between its initiates it had a Eucharist a Supper 不過在勒南執筆撰寫的時候，在庫蒙收集史料之前，很少有人知道關於密特拉斯（的崇拜）。Obviously but remarked also by E Yamauchi in various places He is quoted in Lee Strobel The Case for the Real Jesus Grand Rapids MI Zondervan 2007 p175 Needless to say continued Yamauchi Renans work published nearly 150 years ago has no value as a source He knew very little about Mithraism and besides we know a lot more about it today Yet this is a quote thats commonly used by people who dont understand the context Its simply farfetchedYamauchi delivered a paper at the IInd International Congress on Mithraic Studies in Tehran in 1975 E Yamauchi The Apocalypse of Adam Mithraism and PreChristian Gnosticism J DuchesneGuillemin ed Études Mithraiques Acta Iranica IV LeidenTeheranLiège 1978 pp 53763 In PreChristian Gnosticism the New Testament and Nag Hammadi in recent debate Themelios 101 September 1984 2227 online here Yamauchi refers to my attempt to date the ApocAd on the basis of the allusion to the wellknown Mithraic motif of the birth from a rock CG V 802425 in a paper which I presented at the IInd International Congress of Mithraic Studies at Teheran in 197590 On the basis of the epigraphic and iconographic evidence collected by M J Vermaseren I sought to demonstrate that this topos was not known before the second century AD and that the probable provenance for knowledge of such a motif for a Gnostic writer was Italy Edwin M Yamauchi Easter Myth Hallucination or History Christianity Today on March 15 1974 and March 29 1974 Online here 然而，這個理論從此就有所爭議了。（Leonard Boyle）他在 1987 年寫道：太多了 已經成了密特拉教對於基督教的威脅，Leonard Boyle A short guide to StClements Rome Rome Collegio San Clemente 1987 p71 指出了在整個羅馬市不過是有五十座已知的密特拉寺。J 阿爾瓦埃斯克拉（J Alvar Ezquerra）認為著由於這兩個宗教沒有同樣相似的宗旨，事實上兩個宗教團體的宗旨是不同的，於此密特拉教從來沒有接管羅馬世界的真正威脅。還有密特拉斯信仰沒有普及任務上的意圖，甚至在其受歡迎程度的高峰期也沒有過。J A Ezquerra translated by RGordon Romanising oriental Gods myth salvation and ethics in the cults of Cybele Isis and Mithras Brill 2008 pp202203 Many people have erroneously supposed that all religions have a sort of universalist tendency or ambition In the case of Mithraism such an ambition has often been taken for granted and linked to a no less questionable assumption that there was a rivalry between Mithras and Christ for imperial favour If Christianity had failed the Roman empire would never have become Mithraist Google books preview here 6 根據瑪麗博伊斯所述，對於位在西方的基督教而言密特拉教是個強而有力的敵人，雖說她對在東方持有懷疑態度。Boyce Mary 2001 1979 Zoroastrians their religious beliefs and practices Routledge p 99 ISBN 9780415239028 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Mithraism proselytized energetically to the west and for a time presented a formidable challenge to Christianity but it is not yet known how far or how effectively it penetrated eastward A Mithraeum has been uncovered at the Parthian fortresstown of DuraEuropos on the Euphrates but Zoroastrianism itself may well have been a barrier to its spread into Iran properVermaseren M J The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Pricsa in Rome Brill pp 9 Retrieved 4 September 2011 This Mithraeum was discovered in 1934 they found a sanctuary of one of the most formidable antagonists of ChristianityMithra Encyclopædia Britannica Online Encyclopædia Britannica Retrieved 20110409Mithra also spelled Mithras Sanskrit Mitra In the 3rd and 4th centuries AD the cult of Mithra carried and supported by the soldiers of the Roman Empire was the chief rival to the newly developing religion of Christianity菲利波誇雷利（Filippo Coarelli，在 1979 年的時候）已把四十個實際或可能的列成表並估計著羅馬將有 不少於 680～690 座（not less than 680690） 的密特拉寺。劉易斯M 霍普費宣告著多於 400 處的密特拉密教遺址已被發現。這些遺址遍佈了整個羅馬帝國地點從遠在位於東邊的杜拉歐羅普斯，以及直到西邊的英格蘭都有。他，連帶的，那麼說了密特拉教可能是基督教的對手。大衛烏蘭西認為勒南的言論 有些誇張，Ulansey David 1991 Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries New York Oxford UP pp 3 to 4 ISBN 0195067886 the study of Mithraism is also of great important for our understanding of what Arnold Toynbee has called the Crucible of Christianity the cultural matrix in which the Christian religion came to birth out of the civilization of the ancient Mediterranean For Mithraism was one of Christianitys major competitors in the Roman Empire No doubt Renans statement is somewhat exaggerated 除了將密特拉教視為 羅馬帝國境內基督教的主要競爭對手之一 之外。烏蘭西注意到了對於理解 基督教信仰到誕生其文化的基體（the cultural matrix out of which the Christian religion came to birth） 密特拉教的研究同樣是非常重要的。 沒有任何方向的證據來表明在密特拉斯的崇拜和早期基督教之間有直接的影響。Gary Lease Mithraism and Christianity in ANRW II p1328 To be specific it is clear that the few scattered remarks in Christian polemical literature against Mithraism together with the scanty archaeological remains of the Mithraic religion do not bear out a direct influence of one religion upon the other 更準確地說這樣的類似性既然會存在是歸因於兩者出現在共同的環境。 在西元二世紀的哲學家克理索（Celsus）提供了一些證據來證明瞭奧菲特諾斯替（Ophite gnostic）教義思想影響了密特拉斯的秘密宗教。Clauss M The Roman Cult of Mithras p17 referencing Origen Contra Celsum book 6 cc2224 where a ladder of seven steps is described similar to one used by the Ophites Clauss states that the borrowing was by the Mithraists but nothing in Contra Celsum seems to say so 共同概念 在較古老的學術文獻之中基督教與密特拉斯的崇拜之間出現了許多應該的相似之處。一般來說這些都是基於推測，或者是起於試圖透過觀察基督教思想而對密特拉斯的崇拜散發出了一些理解。 費爾馬歇仁在 1975 年時寫道相似之處來自於共同文化世界的存在。MJ Vermaseren Nuove indagini nellarea della basilica di S Prisca in Roma in Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome Antiquity ns 37 2 1975 pp 8796 Questi inni aprono ancora molte altre prospettive Così il collega Hans Dieter Betz professore allUniversità di Claremont in California ha pubblicato dopo the Excavations un articolo di grande valore intitolatoThe Mithras inscriptions of Santa Prisca and the New Testament24 Il Betz fa notare specialmente il parallelismo di centri pensieri cristiani con idee espresse in questi inni pagani derivati da una fonte comune ellenistica Oggi ognuno può affermare che proprio questo Umwelt ellenisticoromano è la causa fondamentale di queste concezioni simili nel cristianesimo e nel paganesimo concezioni poi elaborate in diversi modi con un suo valore proprio Per fortuna ognuno considera come completaménto sbagliato 25 una negazione di questo principio che quindi potrebbe condurre a risultati disastrosi per la scienza In queste stesse fonti ellenistiche sono da ritrovare diverse idee comune al cristianesimo ed alle religioni misteriosofiche come le ha chiamate mia volta Nicola Turchi26 These hymns are open to still other interpretations Thus my colleague Hans Dieter Betz professor of the university of Claremont in California has published about the excavations an article of great value entitled The Mithras inscriptions of Santra Prisca and the New Testament24 Betz notes specially the parallelism between central Christian thought and the ideas expressed in these pagan hymns derived from a common hellenistic origin Today everyone can say that precisely this HellenisticRoman Umwelt is the fundamental cause of those concepts which are similar between Christianity and paganism concepts that are then elaborated differently in various ways Thankfully everyone considers the denial of this as completely wrong 25 and which could lead to disastrous results for science In these same Hellenistic sources may be found various ideas common to Christianity and the mysteriosophical religions as my colleague Nicola Turchi has called them26 除了這個相同因素之外，而不是（直接的）在任何一個方向上有看到借用的跡象，曼弗雷德克勞斯也持相同的意見。M Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras In the chapter on Christianity TODO verbatim quote 一些極其猖獗的聲稱那密特拉斯有著 12 位門徒、是一名流浪的導師、死亡與再次昇天，等等。在密特拉斯與耶穌之下作為替代的被討論著。 在 12 月 25 日出生 庫蒙陳述到了密特拉斯的誕生日是在 12 月 25 日，在舉行太陽盛宴的基礎上於這個日子中還有密特拉斯（的聖誕可能會一起慶祝），當然了，也都包括。這個想法只是猜測，但已被廣泛接受。這裡 討論了弗朗茨庫蒙的說法。克勞斯重複了這一說法。Manfred Clauss The Roman cult of Mithras p66 Light comes from the firmament Mithras is the god of light the new light which bursts forth each morning from the vault of heaven behind the mountains and whose birthday is celebrated on 25 December A late antique Syriac commentator describes this festival and correctly observes that it later developed into the birthday of Christ It was in fact customary among the pagans to celebrate the festival of the Suns birthday on 25th December and to light bonfires in honor of the day They even used to invite the Christian population to these rites But when the teachers of the Church realized that Christians were allowing themselves to take part they decided to observe the Feast of the True Birth on the same day80 It may be that the Mithraists also celebrated the birthday of their god in public in a similar manner The note 80 reads Cited in CIL 1² 3389 Clauss is mistaken here however the text is 13th century by the scholiast to Dionysius bar Salibi and does not refer to Mithras 但貝克表示說事實並非如此。事實上他稱這個主張為 古老久遠的事實。他接著說道：事實上，唯一的證據就是在費羅卡魯的歷法上無敵者誕辰慶典的日期。無敵者當然就是索爾無敵者，（羅馬皇帝）奧勒良的太陽神。其非遵循著一尊不同的、早期的，以及非官方的太陽神，索爾無敵者密特拉斯，是必然的或者甚至是可能的，也是在那天出生的。Roger Beck Merkelbachs Mithras Phoenix 413 1987 p296316 p 299 n 12 但後來的克勞斯表示：密特拉密教沒有自己的公開儀式。natalis Invicti〔無敵的（太陽）誕生〕的節日，12 月 25 日舉行，是普遍性的太陽節日，並且絕非是特定於密特拉斯的秘密宗教。（the Mithraic Mysteries had no public ceremonies of its own The festival of natalis Invicti Birth of the Unconquerable Sun held on 25 December was a general festival of the Sun and by no means specific to the Mysteries of Mithras）。Clauss Manfred Mithras Kult und Mysterien München Beck 1990 p 70 erwähnenswert wäre dass das MithrasKult keine öffentlichen Zeremonien kannte Das Fest der natalis Invicti der 25 Dezember war ein allgemeines Sonnenfest und somit keineswegs auf die MithrasMysterien beschränkt Es gab also im MithrasKult nichts vergleichbares zu den großen Feiern und Festlichkeiten anderer Kulte 史蒂芬希曼斯（Steven Hijmans）已詳細地論述了是否普遍性的 natalis Invicti（無敵的（太陽）誕生） 的節日與聖誕節有關但是沒有說出密特拉斯作為一個可能來源的問題。Steven Hijmans Sol Invictus the Winter Solstice and the Origins of Christmas Mouseion 3 2003 p377398 救贖 於羅馬境內在聖塔普利斯卡密特拉寺牆上一段嚴重損壞的描繪文字（CIMRM 485 號，約西元 200 年）可能包含以下言辭：et nos servasti sanguine fuso（英譯為：and you have saved us in the shed blood；漢譯為：而且你救了我們 在流淌著血之中）。這個意思是不清楚的，雖然大概是提及密特拉斯屠殺了公牛，因為沒有其他來源言及到是密特拉密教救贖。servasti（救贖）已被視為確定的；但實際上只是一個推測，並且潘切裡（Pancieri），乃是考察這個專案最近來的考古學家，他陳述道這應該是錯的。Panciera Il materiale epigrafico dallo scavo del mitreo di S Stefano Rotondo in Mysteria Mithrae conference 1978 published 1979 p87126 Relevant portions online here 根據羅伯特圖爾坎所述，Turcan Robert Salut Mithriaque et soteriologie neoplatonicienne La soteriologiea dei culti orientali nellimpero romanoeds U Bianchi and M J Vermaseren Leiden 1982 pp 103105 密特拉密教救贖與個人靈魂的另一個世俗命運幾乎沒有（產生）關係，而是在人類參與了宇宙中善良創造反對邪惡力量著的鬥爭之瑣羅亞斯德教模式。Beck Roger Merkelbachs Mithras p3012 水的神蹟 在多瑙河地區的宗教遺跡描繪了密特拉斯在火炬手的面前向岩石上射出弓箭，顯然是要促進水噴將出來。Clauss M The Roman Cult of Mithras p712 The theme of the watermiracle is elaborated mainly in the RhineDanube area Mithras is usually represented sitting on a stone and aiming a flexed bow at a rockface in front of which there kneels a figure Another figure sometimes grasps Mithras knees in supplication or stands behind him with his hand on his shoulder The scene is particularly striking on the large altar from Poetovio I Mithras here is aiming his bow at a rockface from which water will shortly gush forth a person is standing in front of it ready to catch the water in his cupped hands We may note that the figures who are generally shown taking part in this scene with Mithras are clothed just like the god They must be the torchbearers present here just as they are at the rockbirth and the killing of the bull This scene can thus be connected with one of the lines in the mithraeum under S Prisca in Rome which is addressed to a spring enclosed in the rock You who have fed the twin brothers with nectar8 6 The spring is Mithras the twins to whom he has given heavenly nourishment are the torchbearers The Ptuj Poetiovo reference seems to be CIMRM 1584 克勞斯陳述道，在膳食儀式之後，這提供了 與基督教顯然是相似的。Clauss M The Roman Cult of Mithras p72 continues Apart from the cultmeal the watermiracle offers the clearest parallel with Christianity spreading through the Empire at the same period as the mysteries of Mithras The thinking that underlies these features of each cult is naturally rooted in the same traditions The watermiracle is one of the widespread myths that originate from regions plagued by drought and where the prosperity of humans and nature depends upon rain Each in his own manner Mithras and Christ embody water initially as a concrete necessity and then very soon as a symbol Christ is referred to in the New Testament as the water of life Many Christian sarcophagi depict the miracle of Moses striking the rock with his staff and causing water to flow Exodus 1736 as a symbol of immortality 十字架符號 有些學者表示說密特拉斯的入教者在前額上標有十字架的符號。這個想法被描述為（屬於）一個學術上的神話。Per Beskow Branding in the Mysteries of Mithras in Mysteria Mithrae ed Ugo Bianchi Leyden 1979 487501 He describes the entire idea as a scholarly myth See also FAQ by Dr Richard Gordon 這個想法的基礎是建立於特土良，他宣告說密拉斯的追隨者以非特定的方式在額頭上被標記。Tertullian De praescriptione haereticorum 40 if my memory still serves me Mithra there in the kingdom of Satan sets his marks on the foreheads of his soldiers celebrates also the oblation of bread and introduces an image of a resurrection and before a sword wreathes a crown 沒有跡象表明這是一個十字架，或者是一個烙印，或者是紋身，或者是任何一種永久性的標記。Per Beskow Branding in the Mysteries of Mithras in Mysteria Mithrae ed Ugo Bianchi Leyden 1979 487501 He describes the entire idea as a scholarly myth See also FAQ by Dr Richard Gordon Luc Renaud Les initiés aux mystères de Mithra étaientils marqués au front Pour une relecture de Tertullien De Praescr 40 4 in Bonnet C Ribichini S Steuernagel D ed Religioni in contatto nel Mediterraneo antico modalità di diffusione e processi di interferenza Actes de colloque Come mai 2006 Pisa Rome Fabrizio Serra Editore Mediterranea IV 2007 p 171180 German translation here 中世紀藝術 出自於十八世紀末的一些作家已經認為著在中世紀的基督教藝術中的某些元素反映出了在密特拉密教裡找到的形象。A Deman Mithras and Christ Some Iconographical Similarities in John R Hinnells Mithraic Studies vol 2 Manchester University Press 1971 pp 50717 p507 弗朗茨庫蒙是其中之一，儘管他是在孤立地（元素）狀況之下研究每一個主題而不是幾個元素的結合以及他們是否在基督教藝術之中以相同的方式來相結合。A Deman Mithras and Christ Some Iconographical Similarities in John R Hinnells Mithraic Studies vol 2 Manchester University Press 1971 pp 50717 p508 庫蒙說明瞭在教會勝過異教之後，藝術家們繼續採用著最初為密特拉斯設計的偶像形像以便來描繪著《聖經》中新的和陌生的故事。工作坊的束縛 意味著第一批基督教藝術品在很大程度上以異教藝術為基礎，以及 服裝和姿勢上的一些改變把異教的場景轉換成了基督教的畫面。Franz Cumont tr Thomas K McCormack The Mysteries of Mithras Dover Publications 1956 pp 2278 從此一系列的學者就密特拉密教的浮雕在中世紀羅馬式藝術之中作了可能相之處的討論。A Deman Mithras and Christ Some Iconographical Similarities in John R Hinnells Mithraic Studies vol 2 Manchester University Press 1971 pp 50717 p509 費爾馬歇仁表示說這種影響唯一確定的例子就是以利亞乘火馬駕駛的戰車上天空的形象。M J Vermaseren Mithras The Secret God Chatto Windus pp 1046 德曼（Deman）陳述道比較孤立的元素是沒有幫助的，而且應該研究結合（的元素）。他還指出了形象的相似性並不能告訴我們這樣是否意味著意識形態的影響，或者僅僅是工藝的傳統。然後他提供了一張對比密特拉密教影像的中世紀浮雕表單，但是謝絕從這張表單得出結論，因為這些將會是主觀的。A Deman Mithras and Christ Some Iconographical Similarities in John R Hinnells Mithraic Studies vol 2 Manchester University Press 1971 pp 50717 p510 遺跡 幾座儲存最完好的密特拉寺，這些密特拉寺尤其是在羅馬境內像是位在聖克萊門特宗座聖殿（，而且位在聖塔普利斯卡，是現今在基督教教堂下面被發現的密特拉寺。在一些情況下教堂最初是建於西元五世紀荒廢的、具崇高威望的建築物頂端，並且其中一些曾經在地下室裡含蓋著密特拉寺。Lucrezia Spera Characteristics of the Christianization of Space in Late Antique Rome New Considerations a Generation after Charles Pietris Roma Christiana in Cities and Gods religious space in transition ed Ted Kaizer c Peeters 2013 p121142 online here p128 In general there may be some basis for the idea that on the Aventine as on the Caelian the planning of the Church of Rome was inserted to some extent within empty spaces that began to appear in the urban network after the destabilising event of the sack of the City 有證據表明著奧斯提亞境內密特拉寺的密特拉斯公共浴場可能在西元四世紀中葉被轉換成教堂了。這年代是根據著建築技術，以及字母 Α（α，發音：alpha）和 Ω（ω，發音：omega）的存在來做追溯的。Milton Luiz Torres Christian Burial Practices at Ostia Antica Backgrounds and Contexts with a Case Study of the Pianabella Basilica Diss 2008 p72 There is also a mithraeum seemingly converted to Christian use at the Baths of Mithras Fig 6 在英國早期基督教教會的一項研究結論得出了那裡的證據顯示有傾向於避免將教堂定位在原先密特拉寺的遺址上。Ronald Hutton The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Islestheir nature and legacy Blackwell 1991 ISBN 0631189467 p260 在十一世紀初的英格蘭，於林肯境內的聖彼得在高斯（StPeteratGowts）教堂增建了一座塔樓，那裡有一個非常飽受風化的浮雕被併入石工工程裡，可能來自於羅馬林肯一座未知的密特拉寺。祂被認為是獅首神的浮雕，通常描繪成帶有著一雙鑰匙。有人認為著這種浮雕可能於十一世紀時被人們在其描繪聖彼得和他的兩把鑰匙的印像下重新的被使用著。David Stocker A Hitherto Unidentified Image of the Mithraic God Arimanius at Lincoln Britannia 29 1998 p359363 相關條目 密特拉 密特拉寺 密多羅 彌勒菩薩 摩尼教 聖斯德望圓形堂 希臘羅馬密教 註釋 參考文獻 延伸閱讀 Cumont Franz Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra pub avec une introduction critique 2 vols 18946 Vol 1 is an introduction Vol 2 is a collection of primary data online at Archiveorg here and still of some value Jitărel Alin 2005 Social Aspects of Mithraic Cult in Dacia Analele Banatului seria ArheologieIstorie The Annals of Banat in Romanian and English Timișoara Romania Editura Grafite Archived from PDF on 2 January 2010 Turcan Robert Mithra et le mithriacisme Paris 2000 Meyer Marvin The Ancient MysteriesA Sourcebook of Sacred Texts 1987 Ulansey David Mithras and the Hypercosmic Sun Ulansey David The Mithraic LionHeaded Figure and the Platonic WorldSoul Beck Roger The seat of Mithras at the equinoxes Porphyry De Antro Nympharum 241 Méndez Israel Campos In the Place of Mithras Leadership in the Mithraic Mysteries Méndez Israel Campos Elementos de continuidad entre el culto del dios Mithra en Oriente y Occidente Elements of continuity between the worship of the god Mithra in East and West Richard Gordon Attilio Mastrocinque et al in Jörg Rüpke A Companion to Roman Religion Mastrocinque Attilio Studi sul mitraismoil mitraismo e la magia Mastrocinque Attilio Des Mysteres de Mithra Aux Mysteres de Jesus Turcan Robert The Gods of Ancient Rome Religion in everyday life from archaic to imperial Turcan Robert Note sur la liturgie mithriaque Note on the Mithraic Liturgy The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British IslesTheir Nature and Legacy Gawlikowski Michal Hawarte Preliminary Report Gawlikowski Michal Hawarte Excavations 1999 Majcherek Grzegorz HawarteExcavation and restoration work in 2003 Moga Iulian Mithra în asia mică şi în regiunile limitrofe Mirajul originilor Mithra in Asia Minor and in regions close Sauer Eberhard The end of paganism in the northwestern provinces of the Roman EmpireThe example of the Mithras cult Walters Vivienne J The cult of Mithras in the Roman provinces of Gaul Brill Bianchi Ugo The history of religions Bivar A D H The personalities of Mithra in archaeology and literature Bivar A D H Mithraic symbols on a medallion of Buyid Iran Bromiley Geoffrey W revised edition edited by Kyle Melvin Grove The international standard Bible encyclopedia Etudes mithriaques actes du 2e congrès international Some portions are in English Harris J R Mithras at Hermopolis and Memphis in Donald M Bailey ed Archaeological Research in Roman Egypt 2004 Journal of Roman Archaeology Kaper Olaf E Mithras im ptolemäischen Ägypten in Peter C Bol Gabriele Kaminski and Caterina Maderna eds FremdheitEigenheit Ägypten Griechenland und Rom Austausch und Verständnis 2004 Prestel Lane Fox Robin Pagans and Christians Nicholson Oliver The end of Mithraism Antiquity Volume 69 Number 263 Page 358362 Roll Israel The mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orientthe problem of origin Mary Beard John A North S R F Price Religions of Rome A history Mary Beard John A North S R F Price Religions of Rome A Sourcebook Will Ernest Le relief cultuel grécoromain 1955 Nilsson Martin P Geschichte der griechischen Religion Volume 2 Marleen Martens Guy De Boe Roman Mithraism 2004 P Athanassiadi A contribution to Mithraic Theology The Emperor Julians Hymn to King Helios Gwynn David M Religious diversity in late antiquity ed Age of spirituality late antique and early Christian art third to seventh century no 173175 1979 Metropolitan Museum of Art New York ISBN 9780870991790 full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries 外部連結 Ostia Antica Mithraeum at the Baths of Mithras（YouTube 影片） Mithraeum 一個專門收集有關密特拉教的宗教遺址／遺跡和參考書目的網站。 Cumont The Mysteries Of Mithra Google Maps Map of the locations of Mithraea Archaeology magazine 美國考古學院的出版刊物。 A list of Mithraea Article on Franz Cumont Ostia Mithraea Literary sources A gallery of monuments and inscriptions Category 秘教 Category 羅馬帝國境內的基督教 Category 希臘羅馬密教 Category 羅馬帝國境內的宗教 Category 太陽神 Category 西洋古代宗教 Category 古代秘密宗教 Category 希臘化時代的宗教 Category 印歐神話 Category 伊朗本土宗教