瘤蜷（學名：），又名斜粒粒蜷，是錐蜷科粒蜷屬的一種有口蓋的淡水螺物種，屬於水生腹足綱軟體動物。原生於東南亞，本物種在墨西哥等地泛濫，成為了入侵物種。 亞種 本物種有兩個亞種： Tarebia granifera granifera Lamarck 1822 Tarebia granifera mauiensis Brot 1877Tarebia granifera mauiensis Brot 1877 EOL accessed 10 August 2010 形態描述 殼略厚，右旋，殼色為黃褐色到深褐色，殼上具顆粒狀突起，體螺層下半部為粗肋。殼有兩型：短胖型及細長型，縫合線相當明顯。 有關本物種的詳細解剖構造由於 1952 年發表 1952 A study of an intermediate snail host Thiara granifera of the Oriental lung fluke Paragonimus 102 71116，連同在生物學及方面的筆記；而 Malek 1962 亦為本物種提供了一份解剖指南 Malek E A 1962 Laboratory Guide and Notes for Medical Malacology 1154 Burgess Publishing Company Minneapolis。 The maximum height of adult shells of this species from South Africa is from 185 mm to 251 mm while in Puerto Rico they can reach up to 35 mm Two color forms of Tarebia granifera exist one has a pale brown and a dark see photo on the right and in the other the shell is entirely dark brown to almost black see photo on the left Intermediate forms exist 分佈 分佈於馬達加斯加、印度、馬來西亞、菲律賓、社會群島、琉球群島、夏威夷群島、臺灣島以及中國大陸的海南等地，常見於熱帶亞及熱帶地區的河流湖泊池塘，甚至在稻田間亦可見其蹤影。 Indigenous distribution The indigenous distribution of this species includes the general area of these countries southern 社會群島，Tarebia granifera Lamarck 1822 Last modified 3 August 2005 accessed 27 December 2007 Internet Archive TaiwanChen KJ 2003 A preliminary study on the reproductive ecology of the freshwater snail Tarebia granifera Lamarck 1822 Prosobranchia Thiaridae in Jinlun River South Eastern Taiwan MSc thesis National Sun Yat Sen University Taiwan 56 pp Ukong S Krailas D Dangprasert T Channgarm P 2007 Studies on the morphology of cercariae obtained from freshwater snails at Erawan waterfall Erawan national park Thailand The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 38 2 302312 PDF Nonidigenous distribution Tarebia granifera has become invasive on at least three continents North and South America and Africa Initial introductions were presumably via the aquarium trade Americas This species occurs in several southern states of the USA Chaniotis B N Butler J M Ferguson F F Jobin W R 1980 Bionomics of Tarebia granifera Gastropoda Thiaridae in Puerto Rico an Asian vector of Paragonimiasis westermani 16 8189 PDF Florida Texas and 愛達荷州美國地質調查局 2008 Tarebia granifera USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database Gainesville FL httpsnaserusgsgovqueriesFactSheetaspspeciesID1039 Revision Date 4 February 2009 Many Caribbean islands Gutierrez A Perera G Yong M Fernandez J A 1997 Relationships of the Prosobranch snails Pomacea paludosa Tarebia granifera and Melanoides tuberculata with the abiotic environment and freshwater snail diversity in the central region of Cuba Malacologial Review 30 3944 along with 尖膀胱螺 it is the most common freshwater snail in Cuba The Dominican RepublicVargas M Gomez J Perera G 1991 Geographic expansion of Marisa cornuarietis and Tarebia granifera in the Dominican Replublic J Med Appl Malacol 3 6972 聖露西亞 since 1991 Staňková H 6 December 2006 Sladkovodní plži překvapivě rychle kolonizují nové oblasti online Central America Mexico Africa The Tarebia granifera was reported from South Africa and Africa for the first time in 1999 in northern 誇祖魯 納塔爾省 though it was probably introduced sometime prior to 1996 In the 10 years since its discovery it has spread rapidly particularly northwards into 普馬蘭加省 province the 克留格爾國家公園 and 史瓦濟蘭 This spread will doubtless continue into northern South Africa Moçambique Zimbabwe and beyond It has not been possible to calculate the rate of dispersal Asia nonindigenous Ecology Habitat In the South Africa the snail has colonized different types of habitat from rivers lakes and irrigation canals to concrete lined reservoirs and ornamental ponds It reaches very high densities up to 21 000 m² and is likely to impact on the entire indigenous 底棲生物 of the natural waterbodies of the region more so than any other invasive freshwater invertebrate known from the South Africa The South African indigenous thiarids Thiara amarula 瘤擬黑螺，and are considered particularly vulnerable Most localities in South Africa 93 lie below an altitude of 300 m above sea level where an estimated area of 39 500 km2 has been colonized The only known localities outside this area are the Umsinduzi River in 彼得馬裡茨堡 and its confluence with the which lie closer to 500 m 1952 noted that on 關島 Island Tarebia granifera occurred in streams and rivers at 983 m altitude but that these watercourses were consistently above 24 C indicating that temperature may be an important determinant of distribution Tarebia granifera also occurs in several estuaries along the KwaZuluNatal coast Prominent among these is the dense population 6038 m2 found at a 鹽度 of 998 285 sea water in Catalina Bay Lake St Lucia 伊西曼格利索溼地公園，KwaZuluNatal These records show that Tarebia granifera is able to colonize 汽水 水域 and moderately saline habitats and reach high densities there From observations in 波多黎各 it was suggested that snails could survive temporarily saline conditions for several weeks by burying themselves in the emerging when fresh water returned In common with other Thiaridae Tarebia granifera is primarily a 海底生物界 species and in South Africa has been collected on a variety of substrata in both natural and artificial waterbodies eg sand mud rock concrete bridge foundations and the concrete walls and bottoms of reservoirs irrigation canals and ornamental ponds Many of these habitats were vegetated and the associated vegetation included many types of 水生植物 單子葉植物 eg 紙莎草，藨草屬 sp 香蒲屬 sp 蘆葦屬 sp and 雙子葉植物 eg 金魚藻，菹草，延藥睡蓮 Where densities are high Tarebia granifera may also occur on marginal trailing vegetation and the floating Common Water Hyacinth 鳳眼藍 as well It favours turbulent water and tolerates current speeds up to 12ms1 and possibly greater This habitat range is similar to that recorded for Tarebia granifera in Puerto Rico The major interest in Tarebia granifera outside Asia today is its invasive ability and its impact on indigenous 底棲生物 in colonized waterbodies The pollution tolerance value is 3 on scale 010 0 is the best water quality 10 is the worst water qualityYoung SS Yang HN Huang DJ Liu SM Huang YH Chiang CT Liu JW 2014 Using Benthic Macroinvertebrate and Fish Communities as Bioindicators of the Tanshui River Basin Around the Greater Taipei Area Multivariate Analysis of Spatial Variation Related to Levels of Water Pollution 國際環境研究與公共健康期刊 11 7 71167143 Typically half or more of these snails were buried in the 沉積物 s and were not visible from the surface This was also noticed in 水族箱 where they actively buried themselves in sand Exact proportion of population of Tarebia granifera that is buried at any time is not known There is also not known how long can snails remain buried Tarebia granifera will die at the temperature 7 C in aquaria but they do not live in water temperature under 10 C in the wild Dispersal It is probable that 擴散 生態學 of Tarebia granifera from one waterbody or river catchment to another occurs passively via birds notably 雁形目，which eat them and void them later perhaps in another habitat Evidence for this comes from the finding of many small Tarebia granifera 57 mm in height and still containing the soft parts in unidentified bird droppings from the bank of the Mhlali River South Africa Even though the shell of Tarebia granifera is thick most of these juveniles had been partially crushed with only a few still intact Both the intact and damaged specimens could have been alive when passed and perhaps survived had they been deposited in water None was large enough to have been reproductively mature see below and would have needed to survive in any new habitat for several months before reproducing Passive dispersal may also occur via weed on boats and boat trailers and via water pumped from one waterbody to another for industrial and irrigation purposes In the Nseleni River juvenile Tarebia granifera were commonly found with another invasive snail on floating clumps of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes which provide a vehicle for rapid downstream dispersal Once established in a particular waterbody Tarebia granifera is likely to disperse actively both up and downstream in the case of flowing systems as far as environmental factors like current speed and food availability will allow The snails tolerance of turbulent flowing water was demonstrated by Prentice 1983 who reported it migrating upstream on the Caribbean island of 聖露西亞 at a rate of 100 m month1 in streams discharging up to 50 ls1 In KwaZuluNatal it has been collected in water flowing at up to 12 ms1 which is likely to exceed the current speeds of at least the lower and middle reaches of many rivers and streams in South Africa making these watercourses open to colonization The sole of Tarebia granifera is proportionally small when compared to other thiarids and smaller snails with their higher coefficients were less able to grip the substratum in the face of moving water and so not did disperse as effectively as larger ones Density In Florida Tucker Abbott 1952 recorded a 人口密度 of Tarebia granifera 4444 m2 which falls within the range of with a Van Veen grab in a number of sites in northern KwaZuluNatal where was measured desnsities 8436 3202 m2 to 207644 138281 m2 The site with such high density was nonflowing devoid of rooted vegetation but it was shaded by trees 玉蕊 and by floating 鳳眼藍 This betweensite variability may be positively correlated to and food availability Despite the very high densities recorded in the Nseleni River indigenous invertebrates were still present in the sediments including bivalve Chambardia wahlbergi 搖蚊科 s 寡毛類 tubificids and burrowing 多毛綱 were also found but in very low numbers The low densities of Tarebia granifera reported for the Mhlatuze River South Africa may have been influenced by nearby activities or more likely high flows and mobile sediments but they nevertheless approach those recorded by Dudgeon 1980 Dudgeon D 1980 The effects of water level fluctuations on a gastropod community in the rocky marginal zone of Plover Cove reservoir Hong Kong International Journal of Ecological and Environmental Sciences 8 195204 for Tarebia granifera in its native 香港 18193 m2 Little is known of the long term population fluctuations of Tarebia granifera and findings seem to be contradictory Studies in Cuba Yong et al 1987 Ferrer López et al 1989 Fernández et al 1992 indicate that the snail lives for more than a year though maximum densities were recorded at different times of the year in different habitats Using a netting technique Yong et al 1987 and Ferrer López et al 1989 found highest densities in summer when temperatures reached their maximum whereas Fernández et al 1992 found highest densities in November late autumn when temperatures reached their minimum Fernández et al 1992 also suggested that Tarebia granifera density was positively correlated with 鈣質 concentrations and negatively with 銨 concentrations Recent surveys by Vázquez et al 2010 of 比那爾德里奧省，Cuba have reported population densities of Tarebia granifera of 85 individualsm2 well above those of its endemic relatives 5 individualsm2 Feeding habits Tarebia granifera feeds on algae 矽藻 and Life cycle Tarebia granifera is both 單性生殖 and 卵胎生，although males have been reported These are characteristics which are undoubtedly key to its success as an invader For example no males have been found amongst hundreds dissected from KwaZuluNatal it is probable that a few are present Males were found in most 67 populations examined in 波多黎各 but were generally uncommon at up to 227 of the population mean 46Chaniotis B N Butler J M Ferguson F F Jobin W R 1980 Presence of males in Puerto Rican Thiara Tarebia granifera Gastropoda Thiaridae a snail thought to be parthenogenetic 16 9597 PDF Live sperm were present in the testes of these males but the were apparently nonfunctional R Tucker Abbott 1952 failed to find sperm in the gonads of male Tarebia granifera from Florida Most Tarebia granifera are therefore 克隆 of the female parent 胚胎 s develop in a brood pouch This pouch is a compartmentalized structure lying immediately above the and develops only after the snail has reached maturity Its size expands as the number of embryos increases Tarebia granifera has 177 embryos in its brood pouch Tucker Abbott 1952 Chaniotis et al 1980 and WHO 1981 WHO 1981 Data sheet on the biological control agent Thiara granifera Lamarck 世界衛生組織，Geneva VBCBCDS8117 cite the same statistic that females can give birth to one juvenile every 12 hours Young snails emerge through a birth pore on the right side of the head The newborn shell is 12 mm in height with between 15 and 48 whorls The size of juveniles at birth is 0721 mm According to Chen 2003 these newborns have a high survival rate in the field Attainment of 性成熟 in Tarebia granifera is generally indicated by the size of the smallest snail observed to give birth rather than a histological assessment of the development of the gonad and associated reproductive structures Appleton Nadasan 2002 estimated onset of maturity at 1012 mm shell height but unpublished data suggest a height closer to 8 mm in line with other published studies Tucker Abbott 1952 estimated sexual maturity at between 55 and 80 mm at different stations over a short stretch of river in Florida Chaniotis et al 1980 gave a similar estimate of 6070 mm from a cohort of laboratorybred snails in Puerto Rico Appleton et al 2009 extrapolated data by Yong et al 1987Yong M Sanchez R Perera G Ferrer R Amador O 1987 Seasonal studies of two populations of Tarebia granifera Walkerana 2 159163 Ferrer López et al 1989 Ferrer López J R Perera de Puga G Yong Cong M 1989 Estudio de la morfometría de los 4 poblaciones de Tarebia granifera en condiciones de laboratorio 43 2630 and by Fernández et al1992 Fernández L D Casalis A E Masa A M Perez M V 1992 Estudio preliminar de la variación de Tarebia granifera Lamarck Río Hatibonico Camagüey 44 6670 and they resulted that sexual maturity is reached at an age of about five months Reported variation in maturation period varies from 97143 days 3248 months under the laboratory conditions to 612 months also from laboratory data It is difficult to relate shell size at the onset of maturity to age since the size structure of populations vary over time and from one locality to another Dissection of Tarebia granifera showed 囊胚 stage embryos in the brood pouches of snails as small as 8 mm shell height Small numbers of shelled embryos including s were found in snails of 1014 mm but became more plentiful in snails 14 mm and especially those 20 mm Importantly unshelled embryos blastula 原腸胚形成 and 擔輪幼蟲 stages were not found in snails 16 mm and the numbers of shelled embryos themselves decreased in the largest snails 24 mm This suggests that differentiation of 生殖細胞 in the ovary and their subsequent arrival in the brood pouch as blastulae is not a continuous process over a breeding season but occurs as one or more cohorts or pulses which stop before the birth rate of young snails reaches its maximum So it seems that while the first birth may occur in snails as small as 8 mm these are few and most juveniles are born to snails 14 mm The size of the shell of the parent at peak release of juveniles is 240 mm The of Tarebia granifera needs to be investigated in detail before its can be properly interpreted from quantitative sampling 寄生蟲 本物種在東南亞為多個吸蟲綱物種的第一中間宿主，當中有多個屬於斜睪目的異形吸蟲科的物種，有報告指對人類可進行機會性感染；另有一種名為（ Nishigori 1924）的棘帶吸蟲屬物種（也是異形吸蟲科的成員），也是重要的魚類鰓寄生蟲。 本物種也是雞嗜眼吸蟲（Philopthalmus gralli Mathis Ledger 1910，也是斜睪目，但屬於嗜眼吸蟲科）的中間宿主，2005 年時在非洲津巴布韋傳出有農場的鴕鳥被這種吸蟲感染，Tarebia granifera also serves as intermediate host for the philopthalmid eyefluke which has recently 2005 been reported affecting 鴕鳥科 es on farms in ZimbabweMukaratirwa S Hove T Cindzi Z M Maononga D B Taruvinga M Matenga E 2005 First report of an outbreak of the oriental eyefluke Philopthalmus gralli Mathis Ledger 1910 in commercially reared ostriches Struthio camelus in Zimbabwe Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 72 203206 The snail host implicated in this outbreak was Melanoides tuberculata but the rapid spread and high population densities achieved by Tarebia granifera which appears to be replacing Melanoides tuberculata in South Africa may exacerbate the problem in the future 長久以來，本物種一直都被認為是衛氏肺吸蟲（Paragonimus westermani Kerbert 1878，亦作衛氏並殖吸蟲）的中間宿主，但 1992 年時 Michelson 的研究證明這個假設錯了。 Other interspecific relationships Tarebia granifera have been associated with the disappearance of two indigenous benthic gastropod species from rivers in 波多黎各 and have displaced the vegetationassociated pulmonate from streams and ponds on several Caribbean islandsSamadi S Balzan C Delay B Pointier JP 1997 Local distribution and abundance of thiarid snails in recently colonized rivers from the Caribbean area Malacological Review 30 4552 Although the responsible mechanism is not understood this has led to suggestions that it could be useful as a 生物防治 agent in snail control operations within integrated 血吸蟲病 control programmes They probably also 競爭 生物學 for space and resources eg food with indigenous infaunal and epifaunal invertebrates especially where its densities are high Under such conditions it is likely to alter the structure and 生物多樣性 of the entire benthic communities of invaded habitats and perhaps the vegetationassociated communities as well Anecdotal reports and observations suggest that in 誇祖魯 納塔爾省 the indigenous thiarid 瘤擬黑螺 is becoming less common and pressure from the spread of Tarebia granifera particularly at high densities is a possible explanation Like Tarebia granifera Melanoides tuberculata is parthenogenetic and ovoviviparous grows to a similar size are similar in size at first birth and juvenile output Data from several habitats where the species occur show however that in all such situations Tarebia granifera becomes numerically dominant Tarebia granifera is likely to impact on another SouthAfrican indigenous thiarid the poorly known Thiara amarula in the saline St Lucia estuary system Studies on the ecological impact of Tarebia granifera are urgently needed Human importance In addition to its role as intermediate host for several economically important trematode species Tarebia granifera has colonized 水庫 s dams and ponds on the premises of three large industrial plants in northern KwaZuluNatal and been pumped out of at least one of them blocking 管路系統 s and damaging equipment This generally happens when snail densities are high and the damage is due to individuals being crushed so that pieces of shell and soft tissue are carried into machinery Details of the nature and extent of this damage and the costs incurred are not available There is no doubt that Tarebia granifera is able to pass unharmed through 泵，probably as juveniles 參考文獻 延伸閱讀 Butler J M Ferguson F F Palmer J R Jobin W R 1980 Displacement of a colony of Biomphalaria glabrata by an invading population of Tarebia granifera in a small stream in Puerto Rico 16 7379 PDF Chaniotis B N Butler J M Ferguson F F Jobin W R 1980 Thermal limits desiccation tolerance and humidity reactions of Thiara Tarebia granifera mauiensis Gastropoda Thiaridae host of the asiatic lung fluke disease 16 9193 PDF Ferguson et al 1958 Potential for Biological Control of Australorbis Glabratus the Intermediate Host of Puerto Rican Schistosomiasis 7 491493 Miranda N A F Perissinotto R 2012 Stable Isotope Evidence for Dietary Overlap between Alien and Native Gastropods in Coastal Lakes of Northern KwaZuluNatal South Africa PLoS ONE 7 2 e31897 doi101371journalpone0031897 外部連結 Category 錐蜷科 CategoryThiaridae CategoryGastropods described in 1822 CategoryFreshwater molluscs of Oceania