( 523 )

b. Denoting a state or quality independent of an action, as, быть вéсель, 'to be merry.' In this it has the form of the passive.

c. Denoting a capability of action or possession of a quality, as, крапивá жжётся, 'the nettle stings.' In this sense it has the form of the reflective.

48. Verbs undergo certain changes of structure and inflexions, to indicate:

1. The aspects.

2. The moods.

3. The tenses.

4. Gender, person and number.

49. There are three principal aspects:

(1) The imperfect aspect (несовершённый видъ).

Verbs of this aspect are subdivided into definite (опредѣлённые) and indefinite (несопредѣлённые). Lesson 52.

(2) The perfect aspect (совершённый видъ) is subdivided into:

a. Perfect inchoative (начинáтельный).

b. Perfect of duration (длительный).

c. Perfect of unity (однократный).

(3) The iterative (многократный).

For explanation of aspects, see Lesson 51.

For formation of aspects, see Lesson, 53, 54, and 55.

50. The moods (наклонёнія) are three, viz:

1. The infinitive (неопределное).

2. The indicative (изъявительное).

3. The imperative (повелительное).

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The subjective (сослагательное) is formed in Russian by adding the particle бы to the past tense.

The first two moods are found in all the three aspects, but the imperative is found in the imperfect and perfect aspects only.

51. There are three tenses (временá), viz :

1. The present (пастойщее).

2. The past (прошёдшее).

3. The future (бýдущее).

52. The tenses are only found in the indicative, and vary in number according to the voice and aspect.

(1) The active, reflective, common, reciprocal and neuter voices take all the three tenses in the imperfect aspect.

(2) The perfect aspect takes only the past and future.

(3) The iterative takes only the past.

(4) The passive voice having a double conjugation, takes double tenses, as shown in subsequent examples.

53. The persons (люпа) of the present and future tenses are distinguished by inflexions, and therefore may be used without their pronouns; but those of the past, which take only the terminations of gender, require the personal pronouns.

54. Verbs are either simple (простые) or compound (сюжные).

(1) The simple are those consisting of one word only, as :

дѣлать, ‘to do ;’ любить, ‘to love.’

(2) Compound verbs are formed by adding an auxiliary verb to the infinitive or to the participle passive, as :

Я сталъ страдать, ‘I begun to suffer ;’ онъ былъ убийтъ, ‘he was killed.’

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To these terminations the suffix ся is added for the re-
flective, reciprocal and common voices.

The auxiliaries, which are all of the neuter voice, are:
быть, бывать, 'to be,' and стать, 'to become.'

55. Participles in Russian, both active and passive, are adjectives formed from verbs, and have gender, number, and the present and past tenses.

(1) Active participles end :

a. in the present, шій, шая, шес, plur. шіе, шія.

b. in the past, шій, шая, wee, plur. mie, шія.

These participles take the suffix ся in reflective verbs,
as, одѣвáюшійся, 'dressing himself.'

(2) Passive participles end :

a. in the present,

{ Full, мый, мая, мое, plur. мые, мыя.
{ Apосор., мъ, ма, мо, plur. мы.

b. in the past,

{ Full, { вный, вная, вное, plur. вные, вныя.
{ тый, тая, тое, plur. тые, тыя.

{ Apосор., { нъ, на, по, plur. ны.
{ ть, та, то, plur. ты.

These participles do not take the suffix ся.

56. Apocopated passive participles, with the auxiliaries
быть, бывать, form the moods and tenses of the passive
voice.

57. Besides the participles, there are also gerunds (дѣ-
причáстie) or verbal adverbs (нарѣчия отлагóльныя) formed
from verbs. They are both active and passive.

(1) The active gerund has neither number nor gender,
but has inflexions for the present and past tenses, as :

Present, я, ая, учи: любя, 'in loving,' читая, 'while reading.'

Past, въ, ши: любивъ, 'after having loved;' читавши, 'after having read.'

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(2) The passive gerund is formed by adding бýдучи, бывъ (бывши), the present and past gerunds of the auxiliary быть, to the apocopated participle, and has both gender and number, as: бýдучи or бывъ пósлапъ, fem. пósлана, neut. пósлано; pl. пósлаи, 'being or having been sent.'

58. Verbs are either personal or impersonal.

(1) Personal are those which have all the persons and genders.

(2) Impersonal are those used in the third person only without a pronoun or agent expressed, and take in the past tense the neuter gender only. Lesson 49.

59. According to their conjugation, verbs are either regular (прáвильные) or irregular (непрáвильные).

(1) All regular verbs are divided into two conjugations, according to the inflexions of the indicative present.

a. Of the first are those whose second person sing. ends in ешь, and the third person plur. in ють or уть, as: читáешь, 'thou readest;' читáють, 'they read.'

b. Of the second are those whose second person sing. ends in пшь, and the third person plur. in ять or ать, as: говорйшь, 'thou speakest;' говорáть, 'they speak.'

(2) Regular verbs are also divided into ten classes in respect of the termination of the infinitive and first person of the indicative present, of which the first eight belong to the first, and the last two to the second conjugation. Lessons 32 to 35.

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III. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Sing. Я рѣшалъ бы, ла бы, ло бы,
I should or would decide
Ты рѣшалъ бы, ла бы, ло бы
Онъ рѣшалъ бы, онá рѣшáла
бы, опó рѣшало бы

Plur. Мы рѣшáлъ бы
Вы рѣшáлъ бы
Онý, онѣ рѣшáлъ бы.

я рѣшýлъ бы, ла бы, ло бы, I should
have decided
ты рѣшýлъ бы, ла бы, ло бы
онъ рѣшýлъ бы, онá рѣшýла бы, онó
рѣшýло бы
мы рѣшýлъ бы
вы рѣшýлъ бы
онý, онѣ рѣшýлъ бы.

IV. IMPERATIVE MOOD.

2nd pers. Рѣшáй, plur. рѣшáйте,
decide

3rd pers. Пусть рѣшáетъ, let him
decide, pl. пусть рѣ-
шáють.

рѣшý, pl. рѣшýте

пусть рѣшýть, pl. пусть рѣшátъ.

V. ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

a. *Present.*

Sing. Рѣшáюшй, шая, шее, he who
decides

Plur. Рѣшáюшъе, рѣшáюшъя.

Wanting.

b. *Past.*

Sing. Рѣшáвшй, шая, шее, he who
decided

Plur. Рѣшáвшъе, шія.

рѣшýвшй, шая, шее, he who has
decided

рѣшýвшъе, шія.

VI. PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

a. *Present.*

Sing. Рѣшáемъ, ма, мо, which is decided; *plur.* рѣшáемы.

b. *Past.*

Sing. Рѣшéпъ, há, нó, which was decided; *plur.* рѣшéны.

VII. GERUND.

a. *Present.*

Рѣшáя, in deciding

|

Wanting.

b. *Past.*

Рѣшáвъ, вшп, having decided.

|

рѣшýвъ, вшп, having decided.

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III. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Sing. Я кидался бы, лась бы, лось
бы

Ты кидался бы, лась бы, лось бы

Онъ кидался бы, онъ кидалась
бы, онъ кидалось бы

Plur. Мы кидались бы, вы кидались
бы, онъ онъ кидались бы.

я веселился бы, лась бы, лось бы

ты веселился бы, лась бы, лось бы
онъ веселился бы, онъ веселилась бы,

онъ веселилось бы мы веселились бы, вы веселились бы
онъ, онъ веселились бы.

IV. IMPERATIVE MOOD.

2nd pers. Кидайся, plur. кидайтесь.

3rd pers. Пусть кидается, plur.
пусть кидаются.

веселись, plur. веселитесь.

пусть веселиться, plur, пусть весе-
лятся.

V. ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

a. *Present.*

Sing. Кидáющйся, щаясь, шееся.

Plur. Кидáющіеся, щіяся.

весельшійся, щаяся, щееся.

весельшіеся, щіяся.

b. *Past.*

Sing. Кидáвшійся, вшаяся, вшеся.

Plur. Кидáвшіеся, вшіяся.

весельвшійся, вшаяся, вшеся.

весельвшіеся, вшіяся.

VI. PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

Wanting.

Wanting.

VII. GERUND.

a. *Present.*

Кидаясь or кидаяючсь.

веселісь.

b. *Past.*

Кидáвшься.

весельвшісь.

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68. Active and neuter derivative verbs are formed from substantives and adjectives by changing the termination of the primitive into ІТЬ, ЙТЬ, АТЬ, ЯТЬ, OR ОВАТЬ, ETC.

<table><tr><td>Соліть, to salt,</td><td>from соль, salt.</td></tr><tr><td>Шуміть, to make a noise,</td><td>шумъ, noise.</td></tr><tr><td>Защищать, to defend,</td><td>защіта, defence.</td></tr><tr><td>Мірить, to measure,</td><td>міра, measure.</td></tr><tr><td>Торговіть, to trade in,</td><td>торгъ, trade.</td></tr><tr><td>Красіть, to blush,</td><td>красный, red.</td></tr><tr><td>Бѣдіть, to whitewash,</td><td>бѣды, white.</td></tr><tr><td>Радовіть, to please,</td><td>радъ, glad.</td></tr></table>

69. Compound verbs may be formed by coupling a substantive, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb or a proposition with a verb, etc.

<table><tr><td>Путешествовать, to travel,</td><td>from путь, road, шествовать, to march.</td></tr><tr><td>Злоѣйствовать, to do evil,</td><td>злой, wicked, дѣйствовать, to act.</td></tr><tr><td>Единоборствовать, to combat singly,</td><td>едынъ, one, бороться, to wrestle.</td></tr><tr><td>Любопытствовать, to be curious,</td><td>любить, to love, пытать, to inquire.</td></tr><tr><td>Раззорить, to contradict one's self,</td><td>разно, differently, рѣть, to speak.</td></tr><tr><td>Противодѣйствовать, to counteract,</td><td>противъ, against, дѣйствовать, to act.</td></tr><tr><td>Находить, to find,</td><td>на, upon, ходить, to walk.</td></tr></table>

THE ADVERB.—(Hарѣчie.)

70. Adverbs, according to their meaning, are divided into:

(1) Adverbs of *quality* (Качественныя).

a. Manner, as: такъ, ‘thus,’ ‘so;’ иначе, ‘otherwise;’ хорошъ, well;’ нарочно, ‘intentionally;’ на угадъ, ‘at random.’

To this class belong all adverbs derived from adjectives.

b. Measure of time and space, as: скóро, ‘quickly;’ долго, ‘long time;’ часто, ‘often;’ близко, ‘near;’ далёко, ‘far.’

To these may be added the gerunds or verbal adverbs.

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(2) Adverbs of quantity (Количественные).

a. Measure, as : ми́го, ‘much ;’ máло, ‘a little.’

b. Number and order, as : однáжды, ‘once ;’ двáжды, ‘twice ;’ пятию, ‘fivefold ;’ десятью, ‘tenfold ;’ во пе́рвыхъ, ‘firstly ;’ во вторыхъ, ‘secondly ;’ на ко́пецъ, ‘lastly.’

(3) Adverbs of time (Врémенп).

a. Point of time, as : тепс́рь, ‘now ;’ вчерá, ‘yesterday ;’ зáвтра, ‘tomorrow ;’ се́гдня, ‘to-day ;’ ужé, ‘already,’ прé́жде, ‘before ;’ по́с.ІІ, ‘after.’

b. Duration and repetition, as : все́дá, ‘always ;’ никоѓдá, ‘never ;’ р́б́дко, ‘seldom ;’ опáть, ‘again ;’ ппоѓдá, ‘sometimes ;’ спóва, ‘anew ;’ во́общé, ‘generally.’

(4) Adverbs of place (Мѣста).

a. Rest, as : тамъ, ‘there ;’ здáсь, ‘here ;’ дóма, ‘at home ;’ гдá-то, ‘somewhere ;’ пигдá, ‘nowhere.’

b. Motion, as : отсю́да, ‘hence ;’ оттýда, ‘thence ;’ ся́дн, ‘from behind ;’ сю́да, ‘hither ;’ тудá, ‘thither ;’ домой, ‘homewards ;’ вперёдъ, ‘forwards.’

(5) Adverbs of interrogation (Вопросительные).

Рáзвѣ? неужéли? ужéли?

(6) Adverbs of mood (Пóдлинности).

a. Affirmation, as : истинно, ‘truly,’ въ сáмомъ дѣлѣ, ‘in fact ;’ дѣйствительно, ‘really ;’ да, ‘yes.’

b. Negation, as : не, ни, пěтъ, ‘not.’

c. Probability or doubt, as : авось, ‘perchance ;’ móжеть быть, ‘perhaps ;’ едва ли, ‘scarcely ;’ móжеть статься, ‘may be.’

(7) Adverbs of measure (Мѣры).

1st. Strengthening the affirmation.

a. Used with the positive degree, as : весьма, очень, ‘very ;’ отмѣнпо, ‘excellently ;’ смішкомъ, ‘too ;’ крӑйне, ‘extremely ;’ нарочито, ‘on purpose ;’ довольно, ‘sufficiently ;’ and the prefix пре, as : преми́го, ‘very much.’

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б. With the comparative, as : горáздо, ‘far, much ;’ несравнénно, не-
впрímѣръ, ‘incomparably ;’ вдбóе, ‘doubly.’

с. With the superlative ; the prefix нап, as : напōльшій, ‘the largest ;’
наплýчшій, ‘the best.’

2nd. Strengthening the *negation*, as :

ВОВСЕ, ‘at all ;’ совсѣмъ, ‘entirely ;’ НИИМАЛО, ‘not in the least ;’ НИИСКОЛЬ-
КО, НИЧУТЬ, ‘not at all.’

3rd. Modifying the *affirmation* or *negation*, as :

ЕДВА, ЧУТЬ, ‘hardly,’ ‘scarcely ;’ НЕВСКОЛЬКО, ‘somewhat ;’ ПЕМПОГО, ‘a little ;’
ОТЧÁСТІ, ‘partly ;’ ПОЧТЫ, ‘almost.’

71. Many substantives and adjectives are used ad-
verbially, as :

(1) Substantives in the instrumental and other cases, as : верхомъ,
‘on horseback ;’ даромъ, ‘gratis,’ ‘although ;’ шагомъ, ‘at a walking pace ;’
на показъ, ‘for show ;’ въ торопахъ, ‘in haste ;’ погодно, ‘yearly ;’ помѣ-
сячно, ‘monthly ;’ поочередно, ‘alternately.’

(2) Апопоспated qualifying adjectives in the neuter singular, as : хо-
рошó, ‘well ;’ дурпо, ‘badly.’

(3) Possessive and relative adjectives in the dative, with the prefix
по, as : по лěтнему, ‘summer like ;’ по звěрйному, ‘like beasts.’

Those ending in скiй, iīi, take the termination ски, ьи, as : поруcски,
‘in Russian ;’ подружески, ‘in a friendly manner ;’ порыйьи, ‘like a fish.

72. The pronouns стóлько, многó, málo, пѣсколько and сколько become adverbs when referring to a verb or an adjective, as : мишо трудиться, ‘to work much ;’ пѣсколько рóбокъ, ‘somewhat timid.’

73. Adverbs formed from verbs end in мя or ма, емъ, as :
дождь лѣ в мя льётъ, ‘it is a pouring rain ;’ живьёмъ, ‘alive.’
This last form is seldom used.

( 541 )

74. Adverbs formed from apocopated qualifying adjectives have:

(1) Degrees of Comparison, as:

Positive: —мин́ого, 'much'; хор́ошо, 'well.'

Comparative: —бóлѣе, 'more'; лýче, 'better.'

Superlative: —бóлѣе всегó, most; лýче всегó, 'best.'

To the comparative of adverbs the prefix по may be added, as, по́бóлѣе, 'a little more.'

The superlative in adverbs may be formed as in adjectives by adding the prefix нап to the comparative, as, нап́бóлѣе, 'most.'

(2) Augmentatives and Diminutives, as:

a. Augmentative, бълёхопько, 'thoroughly white;}' прегрóмко, 'very loud.'

b. Diminutive, бóловáто, 'whitish;}' немпóжко, 'rather a little. (Lesson 37.)

THE PREPOSITION.—(Предлóгъ.)

73. Prepositions are used in two ways:

(1) Separately, to indicate the relation in which objects stand to each other, as, на столѣ, 'on the table.'

(2) Conjointly with nouns, adjectives and verbs, i.e. as, prefixes: найтý, 'to find.'

74. The following is a complete list of primitive prepositions, classed according to their use, as:

(1) Used both conjointly and separately.

Безъ, without.

Въ, (во), in, into.

До, until, before.

За, behind, for.

Пъзъ (изъ), out of, from.

На, on, upon.

Надъ (надо), over, above.

О (объ, обо), about, against.

Отъ (ото), from.

По, after, according.

Подъ (подо), under.

Предъ (предо), before, in.

Передъ (передо), front of.

При, in the time of, near.

Съ (со), with, from.

У, at, near.

( 542 )

(2) Used separately only :

Иъ (ко), ‘towards, to,’ and the prepositional adverbs для, ‘for ;’ крōмѣ,
‘besides ;’ изъ за, ‘from behind ;’ изъ подъ, ‘from under.’

(3) Used as prefixes only :

Вз (воз, возв), ‘up ;’ вы, ‘out ;’ низъ (низо), ‘down ;’ па, пере, пра,
пре, разъ, (разо), розъ, су.

75. As prepositions, are also used—

a. The following adverbs, близъ, ‘near ;’ вдоль, ‘along ;’ вмѣсто,
‘instead ;’ внутрій, внутрь, ‘in, inwards ;’ впѣ, ‘out of ;’ вблизѣ, ‘beside,
near ;’ вопреки, ‘contrary to ;’ между, (между, промѣжъ), ‘between ;’ мимо,
‘by ;’ пасутропивъ, ‘opposite ;’ около, ‘about ;’ окрѣсть, ‘around ;’ по-
верхъ, ‘over ;’ подлѣ, ‘near ;’ позади, ‘behind ;’ подлѣ, ‘after ;’ среди
посреди, ‘amidst ;’ прѣжде, ‘before ;’ пропивъ (противу), ‘against ;’ ради,
‘for the sake of ;’ сверхъ, ‘besides ;’ сэди, ‘from behind ;’ сквозь,
‘through.’

b. The following adverbs formed from adjectives : относительно, ‘with
regard to ;’ касательно, ‘concerning ;’ сообразно, ‘in conformity with ;’
соотвѣтственно, ‘corresponding to ;’ соразмѣрно, ‘in proportion to.’

c. Some gerunds, as : исключая, ‘except ;’ не смотря на, ‘notwith-
standing.’

d. Substantives in different cases, as : посрѣдствомъ, ‘by means of ;’
по мѣрѣ, ‘in proportion to.’

THE CONJUNCTION.—(СОГОЗЬ).

76. Conjunctions are for the most part derivatives, and
are used to connect words and different parts of a sentence.

According to their signification they are divided into :

(1) *Copulative* (соединительные), as : и, ‘and ;’ да, ‘and, but, let ;’
же (жъ) ‘but, then ;’ также, ‘also ;’ ещё, ‘yet ;’ даже, ‘even ;’ то, ‘that ;’
отчáсти, чáстью, ‘partly.’

(2) *Distributire* (раздѣлительные), и.п., л.бо, ‘or ;’ пп., ‘nor.’

(3) *Interrogatire* (вопросительные), лп, и.п.

(4) *Relative* (изъясительные), что, ‘that ;’ бу̇дто, якобы, ‘as if ;’

( 543 )

МОЛЬ, де and дÉСКАТЬ, ‘quoth;’ то, ёто, вѣдь, used after nouns, pronouns and adverbs.

(5) *Comparative* (сравнительные), словно, бýдто бы, ‘as, as if;’ пÉЖЕЛИ, чѣмъ, ‘than;’ какъ, ‘as.’

(6) *Conditional* (условные), ежли, если, бýде, ‘if;’ когда, ‘when, if.’

(7) *Desiderative* (желательные), дабы, чтобы, ‘in order that;’ ежепбъ, еслнъ, ‘would it were;’ да, ‘may, let.’

(8) *Concessive* (уступительные), хотй, ‘although;’ пусть, пускай, ‘let;’ прáвда, ‘true;’ пожáлуй, ‘if you like.’

(9) *Adversative* (противительные), а, же, да, по, ‘but;’ однáко, ‘however;’ если же, ‘if then;’ такý, ‘for all that.’

(10) *Causative* (впословные), такъ, ‘thus;’ то, ‘then;’ и такъ, ‘and so;’ посемý, ‘hence;’ почему и, ‘wherefore;’ слѣдовательно, стáло быть, ‘consequently;’ потомъ, ‘therefore.’

77. Of the above, the following when repeated become correlatives :

п, йлп, пп, то, отчáсти, чáстью, пногдá, гдѣ.

78. The other correlatives are :

КАКЪ—ТАКЪ П, ‘AS—AS;’ ПЕ ТОЛЬКО—ПО П, ‘not only—but;’ ТОГДÁ—КОГДÁ, ‘then—WHEN;’ ТАШЬ—ГДѣ, ‘there—WHERE;’ ОТТУДА—ОТКУДА, ‘THENCE—WHENCE;’ ЧЪМЪ—ТЪМЪ, ‘THE (MORE)—THE (MORE);’ СКОЛЬКО—СТОЛЬКО, ‘AS—AS.’

79. There are also many other simple and compound conjunctions, as also conjunctional phrases formed from other parts of speech. The following may be taken as examples :

ТО ЕСТЬ, ‘THAT IS;’ А ЙМЕНПО, ‘namely;’ ПРИТОМЪ, ‘besides;’ ПОДОБНО КАКЪ, ‘AS;’ ПАКОНÉПЪ, ‘AT LAST;’ КАКЪ ПП, ‘HOWEVER;’ СКОЛЬ ПП, ‘HOWEVER MUCH;’ РАВНОМПРИО, ‘EQUALLY;’ КАКЪ-ТО, ‘SUCH AS;’ ETC.

THE INTERJECTION.—(Междомéтие.)

80. The principal interjections in Russian are the following, denoting :

*Surprise*: a! ахъ! ‘ah!’ ба! ‘oh! ой лп? ‘is it?’

( 545 )

84. Determinative words, either adjectives or pronouns, agree in gender, number and case with the word they qualify.

Мой хорóшая книга.

My good book.

85. But when the determinative word is a substantive, it agrees in case and may differ in number and gender.

Городъ Москвá общíрепъ.

The city of Moscow is large.

86. When the subject is followed by an attribute, the predicate, whether an adjective or a verb, agrees with the former and not with the latter in gender and number.

Рѣкá Дупáй судохóдна.

The river Danube is navigable.

Рѣкá Дупáй замёрзла.

The river Danube is frozen over.

87. The numerals два, трп, четъíре, полторá, полтретьá, etc., and the pronoun о́́́а, agree with their noun in number and case, except in the nom. and acc., when the noun takes the termination of the genit. sing.

Два столá, two tables; gen. двухъ столóвъ, etc.

О́́́а прíятеля, both friends; gen. обоихъ прíятелей, etc.

88. Other numerals, from five up to eighty, as also двóе, трóе, чéтеро, etc., agree in all cases except the nom. and acc., which require the noun in the genit. plur.

Пять столóвъ, five tables; dat. пяти столáмъ, etc.

Восьемьдесятъ городóвъ, eighty towns; dat. восьмидесяти городámъ, etc.

89. In compound sentences having two or more subjects and predicates, the rules of concord depend chiefly on the conjunctions uniting the subjects, as also on whether or not the latter are of the same gender and number (Lesson 32, Obs. 3 to 7.)

N N

( 546 )

90. With regard to compound numerals, the noun agrees with the last.

Двадцать одинъ столъ,
Пятьдесятъ два столá,

Twenty-one tables.
Fifty-two tables.

91. The relative pronoun который, какой, кто, что, agreeing in gender and number with the noun or pronoun in the principal clause, take the case governed by the verb or noun in the subordinate clause.

Человѣкъ, котóраго я люблю,

The man whom I love.

92. The gerund of the subordinate and the verb of the principal clause must express an action of the same agent.

Овй сúдя рабóтають,

They work sitting.

93. When an action indicated in the subordinate takes place at the same time as that of the principal clause, the gerund present is employed not only with verbs in the present, as,

Сúдя пoшý,

I write sitting.

but also with verbs in the past and future tenses, as:

Сúдя пoсáлъ,

I wrote sitting.

Сúдя бýду пoсáть,

I will write sitting.

94. When one action precedes another, then the preceding one is expressed by a gerund in the past tense, which likewise may agree not only with a verb in the past, as,

Одѣвшись, онъ вйшелъ,

After dressing, he went out;

but also with verbs in the present and future tenses, as:

Одѣвшись, я выхожу,

After dressing I go out.

Одѣвшись, я вйійду,

After dressing I will go out.

## 2. GOVERNMENT.—(Управление.)

95. This part of Syntax will be found fully treated of in

( 547 )

the Practical Part. For direct government, see Lesson 60;
and for government through prepositions, see Lessons 61,
62 and 63.

### III. ORTHOGRAPHY.—(Правописание.)

#### 1. USE OF LETTERS.

96. The proper and accidental sounds of each letter were
explained in the beginning of this work, and it will be re-
membered that some letters have more than one sound, and,
on the other hand, that there are some different ones which
represent the same sound. Hence it follows that it is im-
possible to write Russian correctly by the ear alone. In
cases of doubt, the proper letter may be ascertained
either by finding the radical form of the word, or by
going through its inflexions; but since this process entails
some trouble, and even then is not always successful, certain
rules are here given, in alphabetical order, for the con-
venience of reference.

A occurs in the genit. sing. of adject. and pronouns end-
ing in the nom. in ый, ой, as, добраго, святáго,
котóраго.

A is not written after hard vowels, except some foreign
words, thus—Гéнуя, and not Гéнуа.

Б (as also в, м, п, ф) when followed by ю take л, as,
люб-ю, лоб-л-ю, куп-л-ю, граф-л-ю.

Г. —After г, in inflexions, я, е, ы are changed into а, о, и,
thus—стрóгаго, лёгонькій, сапогý, and not стрóгяго,
лёгенькій, сапогьі.

( 548 )

Д.—The sound of д when given to the prefix от must never be written, as, отдѣлать,otrыв.

Е.—In the inflexions of true Russian words, e is changed into o before г, к, х, as, лёгонькій, макопькій, сýхонькій.

E is found in the apocopated termination of adjectives
ending in йный, льный, as, спокойный, вóльный;
apосор. спокó-ень, вóл-ень.

Е final accented after ж, ч, ш, щ is changed into ǒ, as, лицó, свѣжó, instead of лицé, свѣжé.

Ж.—After this letter, ы and о are changed into и and е,
as, лóжп, лóжею, instead of лóжы, лóжою.

З is preserved in the prefixes воз, низ, раз, из only
before с, п, ш, as, из-сушить, раз-парáпать, раз-
щипáть; but before all other consonants it is changed
into с, as, пс-чéзнуть, рас-хáживать, рас-пилить. In
the prefixes безъ and чрезъ, з is never changed into
с, as, безсмéртный, чрезмěрный.

З is written before мъ final of foreign words, as, ма-
терьялизмъ барбарйзмъ.

II is written :

a. Before consonants and at the end of words: идý,
идý.

б. Before vowels only in the inflexions of the numer.
пать, шесть, etc., in compound words, as, пат-
угóльный, семиаршýрпый, etc.

c. In the inflexion of the second person pres. indicat.
of verbs of second conjugation, as, смотрѣть, гово-
рить, second pers. смóтришь, говорíшь.

( 549 )

I is written before vowels: Іюль, люнія.

I must not be confounded with ы or о in the termination of the adjectives, numerals and pronouns: iї is written in the nom. sing. of adjective having the gen. in яго, and ый or ой of those having the gen. in аго.

К never precedes я, ю, ь, except in foreign words, as, кюмень, кяхта.

Н is doubled:

a. In words ending in нпкъ, ный, пій, if these latter are formed from words ending in н, as, пльнникъ, пльи-ный, осén-ній, derived from пльнъ, óсень.

b. In passive particip. and qualif. adjectives ending in ап-ный, ян-пый, ен-пый, as, желáный, деревянный, убíйственный.

II is prefixed to personal pronouns after prepositions, to distinguish them from the possessive, as: у него, 'he has;' у его брата, 'at his brother's.'

О is written in the nom. of masculine adjectives and pronouns having an accented termination, as, золотой, какой.

Оро is written in the gen. sing. of the pron. какой, такой.

С is doubled in nouns ending in ство, скій, if formed from words ending in с: искус-ство, Рус-скій.

Т is doubled when отъ is prefixed to a word beginning with т: оттогó, оттáять.

П.—After п, ы is written instead of п, as, цыплёнокъ, цырӳльникъ. Except foreign words, as, цитáта, медицина.

( 550 )

П must not be written instead of тс or дс if т or д be-
long to the root and с to the termination, thus—ара-
вйтскій, персйдскій, and not аравйцкій, персйцкій.

Ч is not followed by я, ю, ы, thus—чаять, чуткій, чинъ,
and not чаять, чюткій, чынъ.

ІІІ is not followed by я, ю, ы, which are changed into a,
y, и, thus—нізшая, нізшую, нізшіе, and not пізшая,
нізшюю, нізшые.

Ш is not followed by о, ы, я, ю, but by е, и, а, у, thus—
гүшею, гүщи, гүща, гүщу, and not гүшою, гүщи,
гүшая, гүшю.

This letter must not be written instead of жч, or сч if
ж, ч, с belong to the root or to the prefix, thus—
муж-чйпа, с-читать, счáстie, and not мущйна, щитáть,
щástie.

Ы.—This sound is sometimes confounded with ъи, and
some grammarians do not change ъи into ы when ъ
belongs to the prefix and и to the root, as, отьйгры-
вать, предъндýшій; others in the same instance use
ы, as, отьгрывать, предýшій. Ы, however, is begin-
ning to be generally adopted.

Ђ, Ь.—These two semivowels when final do not always
give a distinct hard or soft sound to the preceding
consonant, but are mute after ж, ч, ш, щ.

For the placing of ъ or Ь after ж, ч, ш, щ, the following
rules are to be observed :

Ђ is used :

a. In the nom. sing. of mascul. nouns and adjectives,

( 551 )

as, мужъ, мечъ, камышъ, плащъ, горйчъ, похōжъ,
as also in the nom. of the pron. нашъ and вашъ.

b. In the gen. plur. of nouns ending in e and a, as,
учйлишъ, тучъ, ложъ, пошъ, and in that of the
numerals тысячъ.

c. In the conjunction жъ contracted from же, as, тожъ,
тогдāжъ, from тōже, тогдāже.

d. In the prepositions межъ, промёжъ.

Б is written :

a. In the nom. of femin. nouns, as, почь, мышь, вещь.

b. In the second pers. sing. pres. indicat., as, дѣлаешь,
говорйшь.

c. In the second pers. of the imperative, as, плачь,
ѣшь, рѣжь.

d. In the infinitive of verbs ending in чь, as, жечь,
толочь.

e. In the terminations of the adverbs: лишь, прочь,
точь въ точь, and some others.

Ђ, pronounced like e, is used in the following roots and
terminations :

(1) Ђ is initial in only two words and their derivatives:
ѣхать, ‘to ride,’ and ѣсть, ‘to eat.’

Ђ occurs in the middle of the following and their
derivatives :

Бесѣда, conversation.
Бѣдный, pale.
Бѣгать, обѣжать, to run.
Бѣдá, woe, (обѣдный, poor; по-
обѣда, victory.)
Бѣлый, white.

Бѣсъ, demon.
Вѣдн, the name of the letter в.
Вѣдать, to know.
Вѣкъ, age.
Вѣна, Vienna.
Вѣпѣцъ, crown.

( 554 )

(4) In the instrumental sing. of the pronouns кто, что, тотъ, весь, as, кѣмъ, чѣмъ, тѣмъ, всѣмъ.

(5) In the nominat. plur. feminine of the numerals одинъ, два, and the pronouns она, оѣба, тотъ, вся, as, однѣ, двѣ, онѣ, оѣбѣ, тѣ, всѣ.

(6) In all cases plur. of the numeral feminine однѣ, and the pronouns оѣбѣ, тѣ, всѣ.

(7) In verbs of first conjugation of first class ending in ѣю, ѣть, the vowel ѣ is preserved in all aspects, tenses, moods and derivative words, as, владѣю, владѣть, perf. asp. овладѣть, nouns владѣніе, владѣтель, etc.

The verbs пѣть, сѣсть, and all verbs of the ninth class having ѣ before ть in the infinitive, take it both in the past tense and in the derivative words, as, пѣть, пѣтый, пѣніе, etc.

*Exceptions.*—The participle passive past of verbs of ninth class ending in дѣть, тѣть, in which д, т is changed into ж, ч, take e instead of ѣ, as, вертѣть, верченъ, сидѣть, сйженъ.

(8) Ё occurs in the termination of the following ad-verbs: вездѣ, виѣ, вóзлѣ, здѣсь, докóлѣ, досéлѣ, дотóлѣ, ийдѣ, крóмѣ, нýнѣ, откóлѣ, отсéлѣ, пóдлѣ, пóслѣ, páрзвѣ.

(9) Ё is also written in words having a doubtful sound similar to и, as in some proper names—Алексейи, Сергеї, and in the nouns грамотѣй and Апрѣль.

Э, V.—See Practical Part, pp. 14 and 16.

Ю if preceded by ч, ш is changed into у.

Я.—Occurs in the termination of foreign words ending