( 185 )

d. Substantives which are only used in the plural form their augmentatives in пши:

<table><tr><td>Часы, Cacn, a watch ;</td><td>augmentative, часы.</td></tr><tr><td>a sledge ;</td><td>augmentative, сапш.</td></tr></table>

ОBS. 1.—If the last consonant of the primitive be one of the gutturals г, к, or х, it must be changed into its corresponding consonant ж, ч, or ш, as :

<table><tr><td>Сапогъ, a boot ;</td><td>augmentative, сапожце.</td></tr><tr><td>Рукá, a hand ;</td><td>augmentative, ручша.</td></tr><tr><td>Брюхо, a belly ;</td><td>augmentative, брюшце.</td></tr></table>

II. DIMINUTIVES.—Умпъшъ, тельныя.

ОBS. 2.—Diminutive substantives, which represent the objects diminished in size, are generally of the same gender as their primitives.

The diminutive terminations are :

<table><tr><td></td><td>In the masculine,</td><td>пкъ, окъ, екъ, ецъ.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>In the neuter,</td><td>ко, цо, (це).</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>And in the feminine,</td><td>ка, нца.</td></tr><tr><td>Столикъ, a little table.</td><td></td><td>Ушко, a little ear.</td></tr><tr><td>Домикъ, a little house.</td><td></td><td>Словко, a little word.</td></tr><tr><td>Городикъ, a little town.</td><td></td><td>Зеркальце, a little mirror.</td></tr><tr><td>Копейка, a little horse.</td><td></td><td>Женка, a little wife.</td></tr><tr><td>Ручка, a little brook.</td><td></td><td>Постелька, a little bed.</td></tr><tr><td>Заводецъ, a little manufactory.</td><td></td><td>Рощца, a little grove.</td></tr></table>

ОBS. 3.—From the above diminutives other secondary or intensified diminutives are formed, ending in чекъ, чка, чко, plural чек, which represent the object as being still smaller. These secondary diminutive terminations take before them the euphonic o, or e, according to the termination of the first diminutives, as :

<table><tr><td>Столикъ, a little table ;</td><td>столичекъ, a very small table.</td></tr><tr><td>Трюбка, a little pipe ;</td><td>трюбочка, a very small pipe.</td></tr></table>

( 187 )

NOTE.—The diminutive termination ПКЪ is never accented, and therefore is easily distinguished from the radical accented termination ПКЪ, as in старíкъ, ‘an old man;’ парíкъ, ‘a wig,’ etc.

b. The terminations окъ, очекъ, are added to nouns ending in бъ, въ, мъ, пъ, пъ, съ, and also to those in бь, дь, and ть:

<table><tr><td>Пóгребъ, a cellar;</td><td>diminutive, погребóкъ, погребóчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Хътвъ, a sty;</td><td>diminutive, хътвóкъ, хътвóчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Умъ, intellect;</td><td>diminutive, умóкъ, умóчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Гóлубь, a pigeon,</td><td>diminutive, голуóкъ, голуóчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Груздь, a brown mushroom;</td><td>diminutive, груздóкъ, груздóчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Нóготь, a finger-nail;</td><td>diminutive, ноготóкъ, ноготóчекъ.</td></tr></table>

### OBS. 6.—The following are exceptions:

<table><tr><td>Хътбъ, bread;</td><td>diminutive, хътбíнкъ and хътбецъ.</td></tr><tr><td>РОВъ, a ditch;</td><td>diminutive, рóвникъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Гвоздь, a nail;</td><td>diminutive, гвóздникъ and гвóздóкъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Рукáвъ, a sleeve;</td><td>diminutive, рукавóкъ and рукáвчникъ.</td></tr></table>

c. Nouns ending in й or Ь, as also those ending in гъ, къ or хъ, form their diminutives in екъ (окъ), счекъ, changing the gutturals into their corresponding consonants:

<table><tr><td>Рай, a paradise;</td><td>diminutive, раёкъ, раёчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Пузырь, a bladder;</td><td>diminutive, пузырёкъ, пузырёчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Пирóгъ, a pie;</td><td>diminutive, пирóжёкъ, пирóжёчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Сукъ, a knot (of a tree);</td><td>diminutive, сучёкъ, сучёчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Пóрохъ, a powder;</td><td>diminutive, порошóкъ, порошóчекъ.</td></tr></table>

### OBS. 7.—The following form their diminutives irregularly:

<table><tr><td>Сарáй, a shed;</td><td>diminutive, сарáецъ and сарáйчникъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Покой, a room;</td><td>diminutive, покóецъ and покóйчникъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Камень, a stone;</td><td>diminutive, кáмышекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Кремень, a flint;</td><td>diminutive, кремешóкъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Ремénь, a strap;</td><td>diminutive, ремешóкъ and ремéшникъ.</td></tr></table>

( 188 )

d. Nouns ending in нъ, дъ, лъ or зъ, having the accent on the first syllable, change the final vowel into ецъ, чикъ:

<table><tr><td>Кафтӑпъ, a coat;</td><td>dim., кафтӑпецъ, and кафтӑнчикъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Завобдъ, a manufactory;</td><td>dim., завобецъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Камзољъ, under waistcoat;</td><td>dim., камзољецъ, and камзољичикъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Образъ, an image;</td><td>dim., образецъ, and обрӑзчикъ.</td></tr></table>

ОВЫ. 8.—Some monosyllabic words deviate from the above rule:

<table><tr><td>Блинъ, a pancake;</td><td>dim., блинбокъ, блинбочекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Кинъ, a stake;</td><td>dim., кинбокъ, кинбочекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Столъ, a table;</td><td>dim., столикъ, стобичекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Глазъ, the eye;</td><td>dim., глазокъ, глазочекъ, глазикъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Садъ, a garden;</td><td>dim., садикъ, садочекъ, садокъ.</td></tr></table>

e. The secondary diminutive termination of words in енокъ is еночекъ:

<table><tr><td>Мышь, a mouse;</td><td>dim., мышёнокъ, мышёпочекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Козёлъ, a goat;</td><td>dim., козлёнокъ, козлёночекъ.</td></tr></table>

† Червь, 'a worm,' forms an irregular diminutive, червякъ, червячекъ.

## B. NEUTER DIMINUTIVES ARE FORMED:

a. By changing the final o, or e, into цо, or це, ечко:

<table><tr><td>Дёрево, a tree;</td><td>dim., деревцо.</td></tr><tr><td>Слобо, a word;</td><td>dim., словцо, сювёчко.</td></tr></table>

ОВЫ. 9.—The following form their diminutive irregularly:

<table><tr><td>Бревнó, a beam;</td><td>dim., бревешко.</td></tr><tr><td>Зерпó, grain;</td><td>dim., зёрнышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Пятнó, a spot;</td><td>dim., пятнышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Судно, a vessel;</td><td>dim., суднышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Дно, a bottom;</td><td>dim., допнышко.</td></tr></table>

( 189 )

b. The terminations цо and це are also added to nouns
ending in ie or йе:

<table><tr><td>Ружьё, a gun;</td><td>dim., ружьецо.</td></tr><tr><td>Пмънье, an estate;</td><td>dim., пмъньпце.</td></tr></table>

c. By changing the termination ло, into льце:

<table><tr><td>Дѣло, an affair;</td><td>dim., дѣьце.</td></tr><tr><td>Зёркало, a mirror;</td><td>dim., зёркальце.</td></tr></table>

† Лпцё, ‘a face;’ and плечó, ‘a shoulder;’ take ко instead of цо; as, diminutive лічико, плéчико.

d. Nouns ending in о preceded by г, к, or х, form their diminutives in чко, шко, чечко:

<table><tr><td>Око, the eye;</td><td>dim., очкó.</td></tr><tr><td>Ухо, the ear;</td><td>dim., ушкó.</td></tr><tr><td>Яйцó, an egg;</td><td>dim., яйчко.</td></tr></table>

e. Nouns ending in po, take рецо:

<table><tr><td>Серебрó, silver;</td><td>dim., серебрецó.</td></tr></table>

ОBS. 10.—The following, in po and ло, form their diminutives irregularly:

<table><tr><td>Велрó, a pail;</td><td>dim., ведерцó, and ведёрко.</td></tr><tr><td>Ребрó, a rib;</td><td>dim., рёбрышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Перó, a pen;</td><td>dim., пёрышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Крылó, a wing;</td><td>dim., крыйышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Стеклó, glass;</td><td>dim., стёклышко.</td></tr><tr><td>Масло, oil;</td><td>dim., маслоце.</td></tr></table>

ОBS. 11.—Nouns in мя, form their diminutives in мечко:

<table><tr><td>Врémя, time;</td><td>dim., врémечко.</td></tr><tr><td>Сёмя, seed;</td><td>dim., сёмечко.</td></tr></table>

ОBS. 12.—Diminutives of nouns having two or more consonants before the final vowel take the euphonic e, or o:

<table><tr><td>Сердце, the heart;</td><td>dim., сердéчко.</td></tr><tr><td>Съдлó, a saddle;</td><td>dim., съдéльце.</td></tr><tr><td>Стеклó, glass;</td><td>dim., стекбюце.</td></tr></table>

( 190 )

## C. FEMININE DIMINUTIVES ARE FORMED AS FOLLOWS:

a. Nouns in a or ь, preceded by a consonant, except ж or ш, take ка, очка.

<table><tr><td>Головá, a head;</td><td>dim., головка, головочка.</td></tr><tr><td>Женá, a wife;</td><td>dim., женка, жёпочка.</td></tr><tr><td>Шлáпа, a hat;</td><td>dim., шлапка, шлапочка.</td></tr></table>

### OBS. 13.—The following are exceptions:

<table><tr><td>Водá, water;</td><td>dim., водица, водиčka.</td></tr><tr><td>Пыль, dust;</td><td>dim., пыльца and пылинка.</td></tr><tr><td>Вѣтвь, a branch;</td><td>dim., вѣтка, вѣточка.</td></tr></table>

b. Nouns in a, preceded by г, к, х, form their diminutives in жка, чка, шка, жечка, чечка, шечка; the last ц of the primitive changes into ч.

<table><tr><td>Кайга, a book;</td><td>dim., кнйжка, кнйжечка.</td></tr><tr><td>Рукá, a hand;</td><td>dim., рýчка, рýчечка.</td></tr><tr><td>Рубáха, a shirt;</td><td>dim., рубáшка, рубáшечка.</td></tr><tr><td>Птйца, a bird;</td><td>dim., птйчка, птйчечка.</td></tr></table>

c. Nouns in я, preceded by a consonant or a vowel, form their diminutive in ька or йка; those ending in ья, take ейка, all having for their secondary diminutives ечка:

<table><tr><td>Гиря, a weight;</td><td>dim., гирька, гиречка.</td></tr><tr><td>Змйá, a serpent;</td><td>dim., змййка, змйечка.</td></tr><tr><td>Скамьй, a bench;</td><td>dim., скамейка, скамеечка.</td></tr></table>

### OBS. 14.—Diminutives of feminine nouns ending in a, or ь, preceded by two consonants, take the euphonic e, or o:

<table><tr><td>Метлá, a besom;</td><td>dim., метелка, метелочка.</td></tr><tr><td>Пллá, a needle;</td><td>dim., пгблка, пгблочка.</td></tr><tr><td>Палка, a stick;</td><td>dim., пálочка.</td></tr><tr><td>Трость, a cane;</td><td>dim., тросточка.</td></tr></table>

( 191 )

d. Nouns in a or ь, preceded by ж, or ш, form their diminutives in пца, пчка:

<table><tr><td>Кожа,</td><td>a skin;</td><td>dim., кожица, кожичка.</td></tr><tr><td>Роща,</td><td>a grove;</td><td>dim., рощица, рощичка.</td></tr><tr><td>Вещь,</td><td>a thing;</td><td>dim., вещица, вещичка.</td></tr></table>

### OBS. 15.—Diminutive terminations are sometimes added to words, which by their nature cannot be diminished in size, as:

<table><tr><td>День,</td><td>a day;</td><td>dim., денёкъ, денёчекъ.</td></tr><tr><td>Водá,</td><td>water;</td><td>dim., водица, водичка.</td></tr><tr><td>Солнце,</td><td>the sun;</td><td>dim., солнышко.</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>To plough,</td></tr><tr><td>To sow,</td></tr><tr><td>For, to (in order to),</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Who is ploughing?</td></tr><tr><td>The peasants are ploughing.</td></tr><tr><td>Where did they plough yesterday?</td></tr><tr><td>They were not yesterday ploughing, but sowing.</td></tr><tr><td>What does he want the seed for?</td></tr><tr><td>He wants it for sowing (to sow).</td></tr><tr><td>Why art thou not ploughing?</td></tr><tr><td>I am not ploughing, because I am sowing.</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>I sow, я сѣю.</td></tr><tr><td>Thou sowest, ты сѣешь.</td></tr><tr><td>He sows, онъ сѣеть.</td></tr><tr><td>We sow, мы сѣсмь.</td></tr><tr><td>You sow, вы сѣете.</td></tr><tr><td>They sow, онъ сѣютъ.</td></tr><tr><td>I was sowing, я сѣлъ, etc.</td></tr><tr><td>I will sow, я бýду сѣять, etc.</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Пахать, I. 2.</td></tr><tr><td>Сѣять, I. 2.</td></tr><tr><td>Чтобы, чтобы.</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Кто пашешь?</td></tr><tr><td>Крестьяне пашуть.</td></tr><tr><td>Гдѣ онъ вчера пахали?</td></tr><tr><td>Вчерá онъ сѣали, а не пахали.</td></tr><tr><td>Для чего смѣ въжно сѣмь?</td></tr><tr><td>Емѣ это пужно чтобы сѣять.</td></tr><tr><td>Почемъ ты не пашешь?</td></tr><tr><td>Я не пашу, потому что сѣю.</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>I plough, я пашу.</td></tr><tr><td>Thou ploughest, ты пашешь.</td></tr><tr><td>He ploughs, онъ пашешь.</td></tr><tr><td>We plough, мы пашемь.</td></tr><tr><td>You plough, вы пашете.</td></tr><tr><td>They plough, онъ пашутъ.</td></tr><tr><td>I ploughed, я пахалъ, etc.</td></tr><tr><td>I will plough, я бýду пахать.</td></tr></table>

( 193 )

*little* man has a restive *little* horse.—Her father bought for his *little* son a pretty *little* saddle.—This *little* knife is on that *little* bench, which you see there in that *little* corner. These *little* birds have a few white *little* feathers on their black *little* wings.—Who has neither *little* book nor *little* pencils?—The *little* pupils have neither.—The *little* old woman gave to the *little* pigeons a few *little* grains.—I saw our prince's *little* garden and *little* grove.—We see the *little* windows of this low *little* house, and also we see the *little* nuts and fresh *little* branches of those *little* apple-trees in the rich neighbour's *little* garden.—From whose shoemaker did this *little* girl buy these *little* silk shoes?—From yours.—I saw on the *little* table two *little* pens and five *little* penknives. The *little* cook boiled three *little* eggs.—Whose *little* forest is this?—It is my *little* forest.—This *little* man has bought in the market a *little* hare, two *little* pigeons and a *little* goose. The *little* maid-servant wants to give some fresh hay to the *little* goat, the *little* lamb and to the *young* calf.—What money have you?—I have roubles and some shillings.—What cards have you in your hand?—I have only diamonds and spades, but this *little* man has only hearts and clubs.—Have you already paid for your *little* room?—Yes, I have already paid for it.—Does your sister's *little* horse gallop well?—Yes, he does gallop well, but he trots still better.—Do you want to buy this *little* house?—I wanted to buy it, but now I do not.

## EXERCISE LII.

Who wants to buy this *little* cock?—This kind *little* old man wants to buy it.—What for?—He wants to give it to this *little* girl.—Have these *little* peasants many *little* horses? They have only three *little* horses.—Have you been in that

0

( 194 )

little village?—I have not been, but my little wife was
there.—What did this little old woman buy at (въ) that
little shop?—She bought two little handkerchiefs and five
little ribbons.—Whose little ram is this?—It is the little
shepherd's little ram.—This little cat has pretty little paws.
This young little tree has no little knots.—Did the little
soldier buy the little gun from the little merchant?—No,
but he bought from him a little sabre and a few little straps.
The gardener gave some little grass to the little goat and
the little calf.—This little girl has pretty little hands and
little white shoulders.—This charming little child has got
two little needles and three little pencils.—The little servant
has got three little pails and five little besoms.—This boy's
little horse gallops well.—Did the peasants sow corn already?
No, they did not sow it yet; they did not yet plough.
Will your little peasants sow and plough?—Yes, they will
both sow and plough if they (will) have seed and two or
three little ploughs.—Where is the little child?—It is on
the little bench in the little garden.—Our little horses trot
very well.—It is the little merchant's little trotter.—Did
he buy this little trotter in the little market?—No, he
bought it at the fair from the little gentleman.—The little
merchant has some little business in the little town.

TWENTY-SEVENTH LESSON.

Двадцать Седьмой Урокъ.

Diminutives—continued.

OBS. 1.—To express some tender feeling toward a person
Russians have other terminations, quite different from the

( 197 )

nutives in кп, цы, or ца, having for the secondary dimi-
nutive очки, ечки, or ички:

a. Сапп, a sledge; diminutive, сапкки, сапочкки.

Въсъ, a pair of scales; diminutive, вѣскй, вѣсочкп.

b. Конький, skates; diminutive, конёчкп.

Пальцы, an embroidery frame; diminutive, пальечкп.

с. Ножницы, a pair of scissors; diminutive, пожничики.

Щипцы, pincers; diminutive, щипчики.

d. Перина, banisters; diminutive, периньцы, периночкп.

Ворота, a yard gate; diminutive, воротца, вороточки.

### OBS. 7.—Diminutives formed of nouns having two con-
sonants before the final vowel take the euphonic e:

Козлы, a coach-box; козельцы.

Буды, diamonds; бубицы.

Ясн, a manger; йсельцы.

### OBS. 8.—Diminutives of contempt in nouns used only in
the plural end in пушки or епки, as:

Часы, a watch; часышки.

Сапп, a sledge; сапшкки.

Сийки, cream; сливки.

Augmentatives and diminutive terms of endearment or contempt are seldom used, and then only in familiar discourse; but the diminutives proper, implying smallness merely, are employed extensively in Russian, even in formal styles of speaking and writing.

### OBS. 9.—‘To go,’ in the sense of being carried in a

( 200 )

I till, etc., я орію, ты орёшь, опь
орётъ.

I tilled, я орӑль, etc.

I will till, я бұлу орать, etc.

We till, etc., мы орёмъ, вы орёте,
они оруть.

We tilled, мы орӑп, etc.

We will till, мы бұдемъ орать, etc.

## EXERCISE LIII.

Did your dear mother receive the large eel that (котóрый) the fisherman sent her?—She has received it; it was a fine eel.—Is the paper in this *little* room good?—The paper in this *little* room is very good.—How many *little* handkerchiefs did you buy?—I bought two dozens and a half (with a half) of them.—Where are your *dear* brother and your dear sister going?—They are going to the *little* grove, but our *dear* mother is going to the little church. Whose *big* houses with *big* windows do you see there on, that little bank?—We see the great sovereign's castles. Do you not see our *beloved* aunt with her *dear* sister?—I see neither the one nor the other.—Whom do you see, my *dear* little heart?—I see here the *dear* grandfather, and there under the little tree, on the *tiny little* bench, a *miserable* *little* old man with his *miserable little* dog.—What sort of mirror has your *dear* brother got?—He has not got a very good one, he has got only a *miserable little* mirror.—Has this *big* peasant got a sledge?—He has got one big sledge, two *miserable little* sledges and three *wretched little* horses.—Have you enough cream, sir?— I have got only *miserable* cream, and not enough of it.—They see in that *little* room a poor little girl, who has neither *dear* father, *dear* mother, *dear* brother, nor *dear* sister.; she has not got even a single little friend —Do you see that *miserable little* merchant in that *miserable little* shop?—I saw him in the *little* market, where he had to buy some honey, wax, pepper,

( 201 )

vinegar, tea, sugar and tobacco.—Have you been a long
time in England?—Yes, I have been in England a very
long time.—Have you received your *little* sledge from the
maker?—Yes, I received it yesterday.—What has this
monk got in his hands?—He has got a *little* rosary.—Did
he buy it?—No, his friend the priest gave (подарить) it to
him.—This poor man has got a great deal of trouble and
very little money.—Where is his money?—The insurer has
got it.—Who is there in the vestibule?—There is no one
in the vestibule.—Is your friend hungry?—No, he has
just dined.

EXERCISE LIV.

When were your *dear* brother and *dear* sister at her
grandmother's?—They were at her *little house* the day before
yesterday.—Do they ride (in a vehicle) to her house often?
They do not ride, but go to her always on foot; they have
neither coach nor sledge.—With whom does your *dear* sister
go (in a carriage) so often?—She goes (in a carriage) at
one time with her mamma and at another with her papa.
Where are your *dear* father and your dear mother going?
They are going to Paris.—Do you like boiled ham?—No,
I never eat ham.—What are these boys eating?—They are
eating *little* pies with *little* apples.—Do you want to know
the news?—No, I know it already.—Give me a match, if
you please, I want to light my pipe.—Do you not want a
*little* cigar?—I have excellent ones here, on that *little* table,
which you see in that *little* corner.—No, thank you, I prefer
a pipe to a cigar.—Have you received a *little* letter from
your *dear* sister?—Yes, I received from her two *little* letters
the day before yesterday.—I see *little* stones on the *little*

( 202 )

bank of this *little* stream.—With whom is your *dear* uncle
riding?—He is riding with his charming daughter.—Dear
Mr. N., will you take some of this *little* white wine?—No,
thank you, I do not drink wine, I drink only English beer.
Give me a cup of tea with cream and two or three little
biscuits, I want to breakfast.—To whom did you say that
her *dear* sister is going to the village?—I said this only to
my *dear* aunt.—Who gave you this *little* gold watch, my
*dear* child?—Our *dear* aunt gave it to me.—Has the little
girl a pair of *little* scissors?—Yes, she has two pairs of *little*
scissors and four *little* penknives.—When will your peasants
plough, till and sow?—In the month of March they will
plough and till, and in April they will sow.—Do you see on
that *little* hillock a *little* white house with a *little* garden?
No, I see neither.—When did he buy that *miserable little*
house?—He has just bought it.

TWENTY-EIGHTH LESSON.

Двáдцать восьмой Урóкь.

Nouns signifying natives of different countries, towns
etc., such as ‘Englishman,’ ‘German,’ ‘Parisian,’ etc., are
formed by adding to the names of countries or places the
terminations ецъ, анипъ (янинъ) or итянипъ.

I. The termination ець, take—

a. Names of places ending in Ъ, Ы, (ль), й: Бермйнъ,
'Berlin; Бермйнепъ, 'a native of Berlin.'

Алжйръ, Algiers ; алжйрецъ.

Китáй, China; китáецъ.

Бреслáвль, Breslau; бреслáвецъ.

Рévéль, Réval ; pévелецъ.

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## 6. Names of places ending in ия, а, or я:

Австрія, Austria; австріець.

Баварія, Bavaria; баварець.

Голліапдія, Holland; голліапдець.

Прілапдія, Ireland; прілапдець.

Генуя, Genoa; генуезець.

Ямайка, Jamaica; ямáець.

Абиссінія, Abyssinia; абиссінець.

Испанія, Spain; испанець.

Норвегія, Norway; норвєжець.

Черногорія, Montenegro; черногорець.

Гавапа, Havannah; гаванець.

Корéп, Corea; кореець.

Женéва, Geneva; женéвець.

Швеціарія, Switzerland; швеїцарець.

### OBS. 1.—Some names in a, or ія, take анець or янець:

Африка, Africa; африкáнець.

Америка, America; америкáнець.

Птálія, Italy; итаміянець.

Спárта, Sparta; спартáнець.

Мексіка, Mexico; мексікáнець.

Кастилія, Castile; кастилянець.

## II. The following names of places in a, ъ, ія, take анинь or япинь, instead ofець:

Калуга, Kaluga; калужáпинь.

Ріга, Riga; ріжáпинь.

Смолéнскъ, Smolensk; смоляпинь.

Римъ, Rome; рымлянпинь.

Англия, England; англічáпинь.

Армéнія, Armenia; армянія.

Парыжъ, Paris; паржáннъ.

Кіевъ, Kief; кіевляннъ.

Егýпетъ, Egypt; егýптяннъ.

Дáнія, Denmark; датчаннъ.

## III. Some take итяпинь, as—

Арáвія, Arabia; аравитяпинь.

### OBS. 2.—The following Russian towns take, in the singular итинь, and in the plural итяпинь:

Москвá, Moscow; москвйтинъ, plural москвйтяне.

Псковъ, Psof; псковйтинъ, plural псковйтяне.

Тверь, Tver; тверйтинь, plural тверйтяне.

Костромá, Kostroma; костромйтинь, plural костромйтяне.

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THE ASPECTS OF VERBS.

The Russian verb, by a change in its termination, or by prefixing a preposition, acquires a new signification as the duration or accomplishment of action. These modifications, these variations in the meaning of the original verb, are called *Aspects*, *Видъ*.

There are three principal aspects of Russian verbs:

1. The ‘imperfect aspect,’ *пеокончательный видъ*, which denotes the action indeterminately with respect to its completion; that is, without intimating whether the action is being, has been, or will be begun or finished, as:

<table><tr><td>Я читáю,</td><td>I am reading.</td></tr><tr><td>Я читáлъ,</td><td>I was reading.</td></tr><tr><td>Я бýду читáть,</td><td>I shall read.</td></tr></table>

2. The ‘perfect aspect,’ *совершенный видъ*, which denotes that the action has been or will be accomplished thoroughly, as:

<table><tr><td>Я прочтáлъ,</td><td>I have read</td></tr><tr><td>Я прочтý,</td><td>I shall read</td></tr></table>

3. The ‘iterative aspect,’ *многокрátный видъ*, indicates that the action has been frequently repeated long ago, and at some indefinite time, as:

<table><tr><td>Я чýтывáлъ,</td><td>I used (in my life) to read.</td></tr></table>

ОBS. 4.—If the repeated action, although long passed, took place at a time which can be defined, the past tense of the imperfect aspect is used, instead of the iterative aspect, as:

<table><tr><td>Я читáлъ неоднокрátно,</td><td>I have read more than once.</td></tr></table>

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To read,

Читать.

To count, to consider,

Считать.

ОBS. 5.—All verbs to which a preposition is prefixed do not become verbs of perfect aspect; there are some which change only their meaning, remaining as before verbs of imperfect aspect, as :

Ходить, to walk; находить, to find.

Играть, to play; винigrать, to gain.

Быть, to be; прибыть, to arrive, etc.

ОBS. 6.—Concerning the verbs of imperfect aspect which have both the definite and the indefinite form, the following rule is to be observed: The prepositional verbs formed of the definite ones become verbs of perfect aspect, while those formed of the indefinite remain of imperfect aspect, as :

Идти, 'to go;}' def. imperf.; уйти, 'to go away,' perf. aspect.

Ходить, 'to walk;}' indef. imperf.; уходить, 'to go away,' imperf. aspect.

ОBS. 7.—There are only a few verbs, such as идти, ходить, 'to go;' вести, водить, 'to lead,' etc., with a distinct form for the definite and indefinite imperfect aspect; all other Russian verbs are of the indefinite imperfect aspect, expressing the definite meaning without undergoing any change, as :

Онъ читаетъ тепёрь.

He is reading now.

Онъ читаетъ всѣкія книги и хорōшія
и дурныя.

He reads all kinds of books, good
and bad.

Дѣлать, to do; perfect aspect, сдѣлать.

Читать, to read; perfect aspect, прочитать.

Рѣшать, to decide; perfect aspect, решить.

Повторить, to repeat; perfect aspect, повторить.

ОBS. 8.—Verbs of perfect aspect have no present tense; their past tense has the same inflexions as that of verbs of