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RICHARD N. GARDNER

Richard N. Gardner is Henry L. Moses Professor of Law and International Organization at Columbia University. He served from 1961 to mid-1965 as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs. He was a Senior Advisor to United States Ambassador to the United Nations Arthur J. Goldberg at the 1965 and 1966 sessions of the UN General Assembly and he continues to serve as a member of the Department of State's Advisory Committee on International Organization.

Born in New York City, July 9, 1927, Professor Gardner is a veteran of World War II. He graduated from Harvard College, where he majored in economics and received a B. A. degree magna cum laude in 1948. In 1951 he received an LL.B. from the Yale Law School, where he served as Note Editor of the Yale Law Journal. Professor Gardner was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1954 by Oxford University, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar. He is a member of Phi Beta Kappa.

In 1953-1954, Professor Gardner served as Teaching Fellow in International Legal Studies at Harvard Law School. He practiced law in New York City with the firm of Coudert Brothers from 1954 to 1957. In 1957 he joined the faculty of Columbia University as Associate Professor of Law, and he became a full professor in 1960. Professor Gardner left his post as Professor of Law at the Columbia School of Law to join the Kennedy Administration in April, 1961.

Professor Gardner received the Arthur S. Flemming Award for 1963 as one of the ten outstanding young men in the Federal Government. As Deputy Assistant Secretary for International Organization Affairs, he was concerned with the international organization aspects of numerous foreign policy problems, including disarmament, outer space, trade, and aid to less developed countries. He served as a member of the U. S. delegation to sessions of the UN General Assembly and also as a U. S. delegate to meetings of various UN Specialized Agencies including the International Labor Organization, the World Health Organization, and the Food and Agriculture Organization. He was vice-chairman of the U. S. delegation to the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1964.

Professor Gardner served as chairman of the Committee on Population at the White House Conference on International Cooperation called by President Johnson and held November 29 - December 1, 1965. In the summer of 1966 he made a lecture tour through Eastern Europe under the State Department's American specialist program.

Professor Gardner spent the academic year 1967-68 on sabbatical leave in Rome, lecturing and writing on world affairs. In the spring of 1968 he made a lecture tour through eight Asian countries.

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Professor Gardner is the author of four books. The first, *Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy*, a history of international economic cooperation during and after World War II, was first published by Oxford University Press in 1956; McGraw-Hill is publishing an expanded new edition in the spring of 1969. The second, *In Pursuit of World Order*, an analysis of U. S. policy in the UN and other international organizations, has been translated into eight languages and has just been published by Frederick A. Praeger in an up-to-date revised edition. The third, *Blueprint for Peace*, the book based on President Johnson's White House Conference on International Cooperation, was published by McGraw-Hill in the fall of 1966. It offers new proposals for cooperation in such areas as disarmament, peacekeeping, international trade, economic development, and human rights. The fourth, *The Global Partnership: International Agencies and Economic Development*, co-edited with Professor Max Millikan of M.I.T., was published by Praeger in the spring of 1968.

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# IN PURSUIT OF WORLD ORDER

**Hubert H. Humphrey:**

"This book calls our attention to the process of achieving peace—the practical politics of how to adjust the relations of states without war. It provides fresh insight into how the United Nations system is developing and on what lines it is evolving. Richard Gardner's common-sense approach, based on firsthand experience, makes his book of special value."

**Adlai E. Stevenson:**

"Richard Gardner charts bold new policies for the United States in strengthening the peacekeeping work of the United Nations and in the related areas of world law, outer space, trade and aid, human rights, and the population explosion. This is a lively and important book for everybody interested in the practical problems of peace in the nuclear age."

**Henry Cabot Lodge:**

"In Pursuit of World Order explains the true significance of the United Nations in a way which is both clear and up-to-date. This, alone, makes it extremely useful and important. It also offers proposals for the future which are interesting to think about and which deserve attention—whether one agrees with them all or not."

**Jacob K. Javits:**

"Richard Gardner has rendered a most commendable service to the nation and to mankind with his authoritative presentation of the effective way in which the United Nations and other international organizations have become indispensable for the realization of world peace and security and U.S. foreign policy objectives. He makes a particularly important contribution to a better understanding of the fundamental reasons why the United Nations should have our unqualified support as a vital instrument of U.S. foreign policy and as one of the strongest forces available for the maintenance of international peace and human rights."

FREDERICK A. PRAEGER, Publishers
New York • Washington • London

POLITICAL SCIENCE

PRAEGER UNIVERSITY SERIES

IN PURSUIT OF WORLD ORDER

U.S. Foreign Policy and International Organizations

With a Foreword by HARLAN CLEVELAND

"IN PURSUIT OF WORLD ORDER . . . is the best possible introduction to the multilateral processes by which the world is edging toward a larger measure of peace and decency."—ARTHUR M. SCHLESINGER, JR., in *The New Republic*

"Richard Gardner's book is a rather remarkable tour de force, in that it presents an informal and clear expression of the U.S. view of nearly every facet of the United Nations. While the author demonstrates an acute awareness of the complexities of international organization affairs, the book remains lucid and logical. In its entirety, it is thought-provoking."—*International Development Review*

"This is a good book by any standard. Its high intellectual and literary quality is the more remarkable since it was written by a Deputy Assistant Secretary of State while in office. Books by public officials tend to be bland, orthodox, and hence unenlightening. Mr. Gardner's book has none of these weaknesses. It is analytical, objective, and searching. Both the professional and the layman can learn a great deal from it."—HANS MORGENTHAU, in *The New York Review of Books*

"The author is endeavoring to dispel two conflicting myths: the idea that the U.N. is infringing on national sovereignty . . . and the idea that it has no future. . . . Mr. Gardner's qualifications for this assignment are impeccable. He obviously has command of his subject, familiarity with relevant documentary and secondary materials, and a perceptive grasp of the intricacies of the issues. He is able to communicate his ideas smoothly, lucidly, and readably."—*American Political Science Review*

"For the first time in nearly a decade, the interested layman can appraise the U.N. for what it really is. In this effort, Mr. Gardner's book will serve as a very valuable guide."—*New York Herald Tribune Book Week*

THE AUTHOR: Richard N. Gardner served as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs from 1961 until 1965. In this assignment, he was concerned with the broad range of U.S. foreign-policy interests in international organizations—from peacekeeping and disarmament to aid and trade—and served as a delegate to many U.N. meetings. Author of *Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy*, Mr. Gardner is presently Professor of Law and International Relations at Columbia University.

*A complete catalog of Praeger Paperbacks currently in print will be sent at your request.*

111 FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10003

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STERLING-DOLLAR DIPLOMACY

Anglo-American Collaboration in the
Reconstruction of Multilateral Trade

By Richard N. Gardner

Demy 8vo, 450 pp., 8 half-tone plates, text block

42s.net

In the Foreword Roy Harrod writes: 'This book casts fresh light on recent events.... It... should be read and pondered by everyone vitally concerned with the conduct of public affairs.'

Some extracts from British and U.S. reviews:

A '...fascinating account of the wartime and post-war economic negotiations between Britain and the United States.... It should be reassuring that Richard Gardner's book should be published at a moment when the words "free trade" and "common market" should once again have seized the headlines.'
The Listener

...runs through the whole period of economic post-war planning...with a wealth of new evidence and shrewd comment.'
From a leading article in the Manchester Guardian

...a book that can very well stand on its merits as a thorough, objective and clearly written piece of historical research.'
The Wall Street Journal

(continued)

'Written, as the author puts it, from a "mid-Atlantic" position, the book is as understanding of British difficulties as it is critical of American shortcomings.... What Mr. Gardner has to say is wise indeed and will be read attentively by all officials taking part in any future international economic negotiations.' The Spectator

...a revealing and stimulating work that should be required reading for legislators.... The reader.... has the tremendous advantage -- as well as the dramatic effect -- of watching each move from a contemporary viewpoint.' The New York Times

...cannot safely be neglected by any who are concerned with international public affairs.' Lord Beveridge in the Oxford Mail

'As a history and analysis of the intensive search for common economic policies that would suit British and American interests and at the same time accommodate the mutually-sought greater freedom in the world market as a whole, the book is excellent.' The New Republic (U.S.)

NOMINATION OF RICHARD N. GARDNER
FOR ARTHUR FLEMMING AWARD

Richard N. Gardner entered Federal employment on April 1, 1961 as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs, and has continued in that position to the present time.

The Bureau of International Organization Affairs, with approximately 160 employees, is one of the dozen major bureaus of which the Department of State is composed. It has responsibility for the development of U.S. policy in the United Nations and its family of Specialized and Affiliated Agencies, as well as in other of the 70 international organizations in which the U.S. is a member.

Responsibility for directing this complex operation is vested in the Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs aided by his two Deputies, one of them by tradition a career officer, the other by tradition appointed from outside the career service. In the latter assignment, Mr. Gardner has had to serve as the *alter ego* of the Assistant Secretary and to handle on his behalf many of the wide variety of problems with which the Bureau is concerned. He

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has had to serve as Acting Secretary in charge of the
Bureau for periods of up to one month.

Because of the peculiar pressures under which the
Bureau operates and the fact that the Assistant Secretary
and his two Deputies are often away from Washington
attending meetings of international organizations, Mr.
Gardner has had to be prepared to handle, and has actually
been involved in, practically every major problem with which
the Bureau has been concerned -- which means virtually every
major issue of U.S. foreign policy.

Under an informal division of labor which has existed
since he assumed his position, Mr. Gardner has been principally
concerned with the international organization aspects of
disarmament (including the development of peacekeeping
institutions); outer space (including legal, scientific,
meteorological and communications aspects); economic and
social questions (including the U.N. Development Decade,
U.N. technical assistance and pre-investment programs, the
14 U.N. Specialized and Affiliated Agencies, human rights,
population policy, etc.); and budgetary and financial questions
(the U.N. bond issue, methods of financing U.N. peacekeeping
operations, and the legal and political problems associated
with the refusal of the Soviet Bloc and other countries to
pay their U.N. assessments).

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The demands upon the Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs to deal with urgent U.N. problems such as the Congo operation, the Cuba crisis, colonial issues in the southern half of Africa, etc., have meant that for substantial periods of time Mr. Gardner has had to assume the major day-to-day burden of policy-making for the Bureau in many of the areas described above. For the most part, this responsibility has required him to remain in Washington supervising the work of different Bureau offices. During the annual sessions of the U.N. General Assembly, however, he has made frequent trips to New York to confer with Governor Stevenson and members of the U.N. He has also served as the principal State Department representative (which has meant serving as second-in-command) on large U.S. Delegations to major conferences of the Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Health Organization and the International Labor Organization in Rome and Geneva. He was a senior member of the U.S. Delegation headed by John J. McCloy which carried on negotiations with the Soviet Union on general and complete disarmament in Moscow and New York in the summer of 1961.

In addition to these tasks, Mr. Gardner has had heavy responsibilities in expounding U.S. policy in international organizations to the Congress and the American people. He

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has served frequently as the principal State Department witness testifying on the international organization sections of foreign aid and State Department appropriations legislation and on various special hearings on U.N. problems. He also carries a burden of speaking engagements second only to that of the Assistant Secretary and during the last year delivered over 50 speeches in various parts of the U.S. All of these were written by Mr. Gardner himself and several have been policy statements of major importance.

* * * *

While Mr. Gardner has made important contributions in several areas, his most distinctive achievement was probably in the conception and implementation of United Nations efforts at international cooperation in outer space.

When Mr. Gardner joined the Department of State in April 1961, U.N. efforts in this field were at a virtual standstill. The U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space had been unable to meet due to disagreements between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over composition and procedures. The U.N. had developed no principles of law for outer space and no programs for scientific cooperation, nor had institutions been developed to make possible the utilization of space satellites for meteorology and communications on a multilateral and worldwide basis. Moreover,

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there was widespread confusion over the compatibility of the U.S. military space program with a U.N. program of peaceful cooperation.

Today, some two and one-half years later, the situation has been entirely transformed. Many officials of the U.S. Government deserve credit for this fact, but I believe it is correct to say that Mr. Gardner played the decisive role in getting the U.N. program started and that he continues to play the decisive role in its detailed implementation. He has also been the principal expositor of the program in relations with the Congress and the public and has served as a participant in U.N. outer space meetings as Deputy U.S. Representative to the Outer Space Committee.

The following are the specific achievements in the field of outer space cooperation to which Mr. Gardner made a decisive contribution:

1. The U.S. initiated the program of outer space cooperation adopted by the 16th U.N. General Assembly in the Fall of 1961. This program evoked such widespread approval that the Soviet Union after initial hesitation abandoned the rigid positions which had obstructed the work of the Outer Space Committee and joined as a co-sponsor. General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI) now serves as the basic framework for continuing U.N. activity in space law, scientific cooperation,

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weather prediction and research, and satellite communica-
tions. Mr. Gardner had charge of the drafting of this Res-
olution and played a leading role in its negotiation with
other countries.

2. The U.S. has materially clarified and improved its position on the military uses of outer space. Mr. Gardner was personally responsible for the drafting of policy statements defending the legality and utility of space reconnaissance and proposing that weapons of mass destruction not be placed in outer space. He played a major role both in the U.S. Government and in negotiations with the Soviet Union in the achievement of the General Assembly resolution passed in October 1963 calling upon all states to refrain from placing such weapons in outer space.

3. General Assembly resolution 1721 (XVI) articulated legal principles of fundamental importance on which widespread confusion had hitherto existed, i.e., that international law, including the U.N. Charter, applies to outer space and that outer space and celestial bodies are free for use by all states and are not subject to national appropriation.

Mr. Gardner took the initiative in pressing for the adoption of these legal principles and helped develop the agreement just reached in the U.N. embodying further legal principles for outer space.

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4. The World Meteorological Organization, with the participation of the Soviet Union as well as other countries, has embarked on a "World Weather Watch" -- a global weather forecasting and research program using satellites and terrestrial stations. Mr. Gardner played the decisive role in resolving differences within the Government and the scientific community to clear the way for this program.

5. The International Telecommunication Union has reached agreement on the allocation of radio frequencies for outer space communications and on the regulation of the use of these frequencies. Moreover, the U.S. Government has established a Communications Satellite Corporation and has been conducting negotiations with other countries looking forward to a single global system for space communications. Mr. Gardner's consistent advocacy of a U.S. position in support of a single global system with broad international participation in ownership and management has made a vital contribution to the progress of these undertakings.

6. Following the launching of the U.N. Outer Space Program in December 1961, significant progress has been made in extending international cooperation in the scientific exploration of outer space. The U.N. itself has established an experimental facility in India in which all U.N. members can participate in space experiments. Agreements have been

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reached in bilateral negotiations with the Soviet Union for the mapping of the earth's magnetic field by means of satellites, for the coordinated launching of weather satellites, and for experiments in space communication. The breaking of the outer space deadlock in the U.N. provided a favorable setting for these negotiations and an opportunity to merge their results in a broad multilateral framework. Mr. Gardner has played an important role in relating this U.S.-Soviet cooperation to the U.N. program. Indeed, his proposals for further U.S.-Soviet space cooperation under U.N. auspices was one of the several suggestions put into the White House hopper prior to the President's decision to include in his speech to the 18th General Assembly an offer to cooperate with the Soviet Union and other countries in the manned exploration of the moon.

The program of outer space cooperation described above constitutes a major breakthrough in U.S. foreign policy. It has involved nothing less than the first (and most critical) stage in conceiving and developing new international institutions to harness and control for the benefit of mankind the opportunities and the perils of space technology.

Mr. Gardner brought to the Department of State and to his work on this subject a unique combination of skills

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and experience -- as a scholar in international law and
international economics, as a former practicing lawyer with
practical knowledge of private law problems, and as a former
consultant to the Rand Corporation on both communication
satellites and military problems. It is this unique back-
ground that enabled him to play his role in the conception
of the U.N. space program and to supervise the implementation
through work with as many as 20 interested U.S. Government
departments, ranging from the Air Force and the Weather Bureau
to the Federal Communication Commission and the Legal Adviser
of the Department of State.

* * * *

The outstanding performance generally evidenced by
Mr. Gardner has been in the imaginative conception and imple-
mentation of new programs of international cooperation through
the United Nations system. In addition to his role in outer
space, he has made other important contributions.

1. The Development of the Peacekeeping Machinery of the U.N.

As a member of the U.S. Delegation headed by John J.
McCloy, Mr. Gardner has special responsibility for the
drafting of the provisions concerning the establishment of
a U.N. Peace Force and measures of pacific settlement which
were embodied in the Joint Statement of Agreed Principles on
General and Complete Disarmament negotiated with the Soviet

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Union in the summer of 1961. He also played a major part
in the writing of the provisions on these subjects in the
U.S. treaty outline for general and complete disarmament
which has now been adopted by our Western allies in the
Geneva negotiations. He has been a principal spokesman for
the U.S. in the Committee of Jurists in which the Western
allies at Geneva have sought to develop further their thoughts
on the peacekeeping provisions.

But Mr. Gardner's work on peacekeeping has not been
confined to the long-term problem. He has made distinctive
contributions to the development of U.S. policy on ways
and means to strengthen the U.N.'s peacekeeping machinery
at the present time, even in advance of general and complete
disarmament. He helped revive State Department interest
in the use of rapporteurs to deal with controversies before
the U.N.; pushed new ideas for revitalizing the International
Law Commission and the International Court of Justice; and
played a decisive part in the conception and implementation
of the proposal for a United Nations Institute which will
make personnel available for U.N. peacekeeping actions.

2. The Development of U.S. Population Policy

By reason of his statement in December 1962 in the
U.N. General Assembly debate on the world population problem

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and his subsequent statements on the same subject, Mr. Gardner has become the principal U.S. Government spokesman on an issue of great economic and political significance. In a delicate situation with strong feelings aroused both for and against the use of U.S. foreign aid to support birth control programs in other countries, Mr. Gardner developed a politically viable formula which received commendation from all sides. Under this formula, the U.S. has offered to help other countries, upon request, to find sources of information and assistance on ways and means of dealing with their population problems. Thus, the U.S. will help bring together countries desiring assistance and countries and private institutions willing to grant it, but will not itself provide direct foreign aid funds for birth control materials regarded as impermissible by large segments of the U.S. population. At the same time, the U.S. position developed by Mr. Gardner has laid the basis for an expanded program of U.N. activities in the demographic field.

### 3. Human Rights

In a major policy shift in 1961, the U.S. Government announced that it would no longer refrain from ratifying U.N. conventions in the field of Human Rights. Mr. Gardner took responsibility for analyzing all the outstanding U.N. Human Rights conventions and proposed three for early ratification -- the U.N. Convention on Slavery, the U.N.

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Convention on Forced Labor and the U.N. Convention on the Political Rights of Women. His work within the Executive Branch and with key Senators was decisive in paving the way for the President's submission of these treaties to the Senate for advice and consent to ratification in July 1963. Mr. Gardner was also instrumental in developing new proposals to revitalize the work of the U.N. in the field of Human Rights -- proposals which were forecast in the President's speech to the United Nations in September 1963.

4. The Decade of Development

Mr. Gardner played a major part in the formulation of the U.S. initiative to establish the U.N. Decade of Development -- a comprehensive program to enlarge the work of the U.N. System in the field of development and focus it more efficiently on priority tasks. He served as principal spokesman for the U.S. Government in expounding the Development Decade idea in meetings of the FAO, WHO and ILO. He was the principal State Department negotiator in the establishment of the World Food Program -- a major element in the Development Decade -- and was U.S. spokesman on behalf of this

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program in the U.N. General Assembly.

In recent months, Mr. Gardner has been instrumental
in the conception of two additional elements in the Devel-
opment Decade which were included in the President's speech
to the General Assembly in September 1963 -- a U.N. program
in health cooperation under WHO and a U.N. program for
conservation of natural resources.