[LC]

AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES 337

tional life rarely affords us the luxury of clear either/or choices be-
tween considerations of power and support for democratic princi-
ples, and that we are obliged to express our preferences in the light
of particular circumstances, rather than as moral absolutes. This im-
plies the need to respond with discrimination to varying degrees of
repression in specific cases, and to acknowledge frankly when neces-
sity compels us to compromise, rather than to obscure or glorify con-
ditions that offend our sense of justice.⁵

VI

The four classes of illustrative problems discussed do not of course
exhaust the large array of questions raised by the relations between
democratic and authoritarian systems, but they suggest a few general
reflections.

First, our brief review of this aspect of the American experience
presents a record that has more than its share of fallibility and imper-
fections, but also one that draws strength from its ability to learn, to
expose and to correct its shortcomings. Learning to deal with the novel
challenges presented by modern totalitarianism has strained dem-
ocratic institutions and will continue to do so. But the lesson that
emerges most strongly from this experience is that for all their disad-
vantages and imperfections the attributes of democratic society are
also its greatest source of strength. We have learned that the moral
strivings of a democratic foreign policy cannot be regarded simply
as additives to a policy based upon naked power, but are the heart of
the matter, inextricably involved in the way power manifests itself
and is applied. The effectiveness of our power is not just a matter of
numbers; it depends no less upon the perception that we exercise
that power in a measured and responsible manner, consistent with
the aspirations of democratic societies.

Second, if security means that what we seek to protect is not only ter-
ritory but a system of values, then we need a broader and more enlight-
ened understanding of our real security interests than now prevails.
While a military equilibrium is clearly necessary, security also in-
volves forms of power which respond to human aspirations for im-
proved conditions of life, for equality of opportunity, and for justice
and freedom. It is not a question whether or not to act upon the na-
tional interest, but whether we perceive and define that national in-
terest in terms broad enough to respond to the actual determinants
of political behavior.

⁵ See William P. Bundy, "Dictatorships and American Foreign Policy," *Foreign Affairs*, October 1975, pp. 51-60.

[L]

338 FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Third, changes in military and industrial technology as well as in transportation and communication have radically altered both the substance and the process of international relations. The greatest source of danger to our security arises from our failure to comprehend the implications of these changes, and that as a consequence the present international order, to the extent one now exists, will dissolve into widespread anarchy and violence. It is therefore a central requirement that our actions serve to strengthen the international system, and that we seek as a long-term objective to draw the Soviet Union, China and other authoritarian regimes into constructive participation in that system, as they come to appreciate their self-interest in doing so.

This brings us to a final point: both compassion and realism should incline us to recognize that behind the monolithic stereotypes we have created of the Soviet Union and other authoritarian regimes exist a variety of political currents, reflecting human aspirations in all their diverse forms. We should not regard it as inconsistent with our most strenuous efforts to compete against expansionist tendencies on the part of these states that we should also open a dialogue with a variety of voices within these societies. At its best, such a discourse, eschewing polemics, can engage those philosophies which start from individual man at their center with those that proceed from a concern for the needs of society as a whole.

Convergence is not likely, for each society must evolve in terms of its own history; yet each society is evolving not only in response to the complexities of our age but also in response to our interactions with each other. For our part, we seek to meet the problems of mass society and the rational organization of our material resources while preserving humanistic respect for the individual and the spiritual realm which is his domain. We must remain firm in our faith that in time those who live in authoritarian societies will find their own way to express the aspiration for freedom that is in everyone.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS

GEORGE P. SHULTZ
Professor of Management and Public Policy

STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 94305

January 23, 1976

The Honorable Henry A. Kissinger
Secretary of State
Department of State
Washington, D. C. 20520

Dear Henry:

I was delighted to hear that you are coming to San Francisco
at last. The biggest ballroom was sold out practically over
night, and interesting groups are apparently being assembled
to talk with you before and after.

You really are only making two mistakes in this. One is to
stay so short a time in California and the other is to pick a
date when I will not be here. I will be on my way back from
Brazil--actually in New York--on the date of your appearance
here.

I have managed to get a ticket for O'Bie, and she will be in
your audience. If she can make her way through the Secret
Service, she will come and say hello.

Best regards.

GPS/z

2:DCG:ml

Secretary of the Treasury.
George P. Schultz,
The Honorable

Henry A. Kassinger

Warm regards,

great stride forward.
most sincere thanks to those who helped us take this
recognition for their contributions. Please extend my
I am sure that many others at Treasury deserve
ing the issues at hand.

the extreme seriousness with which we are contront-
success. Your very presence at the table symbolized
and the Conference itself was a major factor in our
Conference. Your participation in the preparations
important role you played in the Washington Energy
I cannot thank you enough for the enormously

Dear George:

February 19, 1974

Bechtel Corporation

Engineers - Constructors
Fifty Beale Street
San Francisco, CA 94105

George P. Shultz
Executive Vice President

August 23, 1974

Dear Henry:

It was a pleasure as always to see you on my recent visit to Washington, and I certainly will be anxious to do whatever I can to be helpful to you. My schedule will typically have me on the East Coast during the first week of each month, as I will normally attend the meeting of the Board of Directors of the Morgan Bank, which meets on the first Wednesday of each month. I would be glad to spend some time at the State Department either on the day before or the day after; for example, in September, on the 3rd or 5th. I will await some word from you or Bob Ingersoll, however, so that I am never on your hands with nothing much to be accomplished.

The trip that I mentioned to you is now set for late October and early November. I hope to be in Paris on October 26, Bonn the 28th, and Brussels the 29th. I don't know whether Helmut and Valery will be free on those days, but I have written to them in the hope that I will be able to have a visit. I plan to spend the first six days of November in Saudi Arabia. You suggested that it would be useful if I went to Cairo, and I could do that on November 7 and 8 but otherwise would not plan to go there on this trip.

August 23, 1974

Just for the record, let me state that the Bechtel Group of Companies undertake construction projects all over the world. For example, we are now in the early stages of an airport construction job in Riyadh, a planning effort for the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, and management of construction of the Sumed Pipeline. Naturally, I would lean over backward to avoid using my relationship with you in any commercial way; but, at the same time, it seemed to be well to be sure that you know that my company does do work in many countries. Of course, we believe that our work is constructive in more than the literal sense of that word.

O'Bie joins me in sending our warm regards to you and Nancy.

GPS/z