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## 5. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRESSURE

The moulding of Communists is in large part a transformation of the psyche, a sort of psychotherapy or psychosurgery. But an apparent contradiction exists. There is a highly successful psychological practice and no apparent psychological theory of Party training -- a "locked-door mystery." As usual in the locked-door mystery, however, the contradiction is more apparent than real. There is a definite set of presuppositions about the character of the human personality, derived deductively from Marxist-Leninist philosophy, which are implicitly held by Communists and on the basis of which Communist psychosurgical procedures are conducted. It is, one might say, an unconscious psychology, although certainly not a psychology of the unconscious.

Being entirely implicit, the principles of this Marxist-Leninist psychological theory can only be derived indirectly. Therefore I rely, on the one hand, on consideration of my own practice and the observed practice of others while I was a Communist, and, on the other hand, on the psychological implications of the metaphysical and epistemological principles of Marxism-Leninism.

To begin with, it should be stressed that the problems which have concerned men looking at man, from Augustine to Freud and Jung, simply do not exist for Marxist-Leninists. It is a

and Jung, simply do not exist for Market-Reninists. It is a
which have concerned men looking at man, from Augustine to Brand
To begin with, it should be stressed that the problems
Marxism-Reninism.

tions of the metaphysical and esoteric principles of
Communist, and, on the other hand, on the psychological implica-
practice and the observed practice of others while I was a
Therefore I rely, on the one hand, on consideration of my own
Reninist psychological theory can only be derived indirectly.
Being entirely implicit, the principles of this Marxist-
biology, although certainly not a psychology of the unconscious
causes are conducted. It is, one might say, an unconscious
unieta and on the basis of which Communist baychonsurgical pro-
Marxist-Reninist philosophy, which are implicitly held by Com-
character of the human personality, derived deductively from
than real. There is a definite set of prepositions apart the
locked-door mystery, however, the contradiction is more apparent
of party training -- a "locked-door mystery." As usual in the
tut baychological practice and no apparent baychological theory
But an apparent contradiction exists. There is a highly success-
tion of the bache, a sort of baychotherapy or baychonsurgery.
The moulding of Communists is in large part a transorma-

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRESSURE

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natural corollary of the idea of a limited universe that human
personality is considered in strictly limited terms. The idea
of the unconscious is "counter-revolutionary mysticism"; it is
as manifestly unreal as the idea of a soul. "Original sin" and
"anxiety" alike are concepts without content or meaning -- the
product of "idealist" obfuscation of the true nature of man.

This approach, fully consonant with and derivable from ideological
sources, is confirmed, as it were, by the developed
Communist's subjective experience. Fear, worry, jealousies, feelings of being underestimated -- such subjective problems enter
his mind and have to be dealt with in terms of Communist self-analysis. But that mode of self-awareness which the Christian,
the humanist, the analyst describe respectively as the sense of
original sin, the tragic sense, or "floating anxiety," is unknown
to him.

The only explanation of this phenomenon I have seen seems
to me untenable: that the Party, harnessing"aggression" and
providing it with suitable and accepted objects, externalizes
it and relieves inner tension. But the developed Communist is,
on the whole, remarkably free of aggressive attitudes towards
the symbols against which the Party mobilizes the masses
(including its own neophyte members). Indignation,moral or
otherwise, towards hostile symbols is almost entirely confined

otherwise, towards volatile symbols is almost entirely confined (including its own neophyte members). Indignation, moral or the symbols against which the party mobilizes the masses on the whole, remarkably free of aggressive attitudes towards it and relieves inner tension. But the developed Communist is, providing it with snottaple and accepted objects, externalizes to me intemable: that the party, harnessing "aggression", and The only explanation of this phenomenon I have seen seems to him.

original sin, the tragic sense, or "floating anxiety," is unknown the humanist, the analyst describe respectively as the sense of analysis. But that mode of self-awareness which the Christian, his mind and have to be dealt with in terms of Communist self-itude of being underestimated -- and subjective problems enter Communist's subjective experience. Bear, worry, jealousy, feel-sources, is atmosphere which is confirmed, as it were, by the developed This approach, fully consonant with and derivable from ideological product of "ideality," opacification of the true nature of man.

"Anxiety," like are concepts without content or meaning -- the as manifestly unreal as the idea of a soul. "Original sin," and of the unconscious is "counter-revolutionary mysticism": it is personality is considered in strictly limited terms. The idea natural corollary of the idea of a limited universe that human

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to agitational occasions, when the use of rhetoric perhaps
stirs up a certain amount of fervor in the speaker himself.
I am not maintaining that the indignation voiced by the Com-
munist agitator is insincere. Certainly he thoroughly believes
it and, under such circumstances, acts it. But in private con-
versation, in day-to-day life, the emotional attitude of the
developed Communist is highly sober.¹

In fact, if a developing Communist gives vent to such emo-
tions he will be -- reasonably gently -- rebuked: "What do you
expect from the class enemy?" The question is put in a matter-
of-fact, conversational tone. Energy is not to be frittered
away on emotionalities. Furthermore, the scientist, the military
officer -- and leader⁵ of the revolution must be both -- have to
keep their judgment free of such involvement. The Communist
must never be hastened, delayed, diverted, or provoked. All
his emotional energy, it is true, must be at the service of
his mission, but only indirectly, as a central powerhouse
activating his total life, not fed out to this or that symbol.
And no one emotion alone, but all of this power-house, is so
harnessed.

Some displacement of internal conflict obviously takes place.
But, if I were to hazard a choice of concepts to explain that dis-
placement, I would tend to think rather in terms of the approach
of Jung than in of Freud or Fromm. Communism has created an

ok thing that of friend or friend. Communists has created an
placement, I would tend to think rather in terms of the approach
But, if I were to hazard a choice of concepts to explain that di-
same displacement of internal conflict obviously takes place.

pernicious.

And no one emotion alone, but all of this power-house, is so
activating the total life, not fed out to this or that symbol.
the mission, put only indirectly, as a central powerhouse
the emotional energy, it is true, must be at the service of
must never be hampered, delayed, diverted, or provoked. All
keep their judgment free of such involvement. The Communist
officer -- and leader of the revolution must be both -- have to
leave on emotions. Furthermore, the scientist, the military
of fact, conversational tone. Energy is not to be trittered
expect from the class enemy?" The question is but in a matter-
tions he will be -- reasonably gently -- repulsed: "What do you
In fact, if a developing Communist gives vent to such emo-
developed Communist is highly sober."¹

versation, in daily-day life, the emotional attitude of the
it and, under such circumstances, acts it. But in private con-
mentist agitator is inane. Certainly he thoroughly believes
I am not maintaining that the indignation voiced by the Com-
act is up to a certain amount of fervor in the speaker himself.
to agitational occasions, when the use of rhetoric perhaps

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ideology, reinforced by and "explaining" a set of archetypal
images, which externalizes upon the material world -- success-
fully, if demoniacally -- not this or that conflict within the
personality, but the entire inner human drama. Externalized,
the contradictions are overcome, their fertility is destroyed,
and the open dimension of man is cut off. All psychic energy
is fixed upon a correlated set of ideas and images which can be
apprehended in action in a limited material world. This operation
stunts the person, placing him at the service of power, but it
does remove the ache.

Along some such lines, I think, the explanation of the
peculiar psychological anesthesia of the Communist must be sought.
But, whatever the explanation, the fact remains that in Party
theory the human personality is a phenomenon without mystery,
without lights and shades.

## The Theory of Personality -- A Dialectical Drama

The conceptual framework of this theory of personality is
neither empirical nor introspective in its origins; it is de-
rived strictly deductively from philosophical principles. Here
the underlying Hegelian dialectical drama survives with hardly
a change except the re-naming of the *dramatis personae*. The
words "alienation" and "realization" are rarely used in Communist
discussion, but in the more humdrum dress with which the Parties

disequilibrium, put in the morenumbrum dura with which the parties
words "alienation", and "realisation" are rarely used in Communist
a change except the re-naming of the dramatic persons.
The
the underlying Hegelian dialectical drama survives with hardly
rived strictly deductively from philosophical principles. Here
neither empirical nor introspective in its origin; it is des-

**The Theory of Personality -- A Dialectical Drama**

without lights and shades.

theory the human personality is a phenomenon without matter,
but, whatever the explanation, the fact remains that in party
bentolar baycological anæsthesia of the Communist must be sought.
Along some such lines, I think, the explanation of the
does remove the ache.

attnue the person, placing him at the service of power, put it
abrogated in action in a limited material world. This operation
is fixed upon a correlated set of ideas and images which can be
and the open dimension of man is cut off. All baleful energy
the contradictions are overcome, their fertility is destroyed,
personality, put the entire inner human drama. Externalized,
fully, it demoniacally -- not this or that conflict within the
images, which externalises upon the material world -- success-
ideology, reinforced by and "explaining", a set of archetypal

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have replaced the scintillating philosophical paradoxes of
Hegel and the young Marx, these concepts are the foundation of
Communist psychological practice.

Marxism, claiming to be scientific, cannot deny the bio-
logical antecedents of society. But all Communist affect flows
from the drama of the history of society; and in that drama, the
primaeval fact is parthenogenesis. Man qua man is neither the
result of a creative act of God nor of the process of evolution.
He comes into being as a result of his own act. "Men can be
distinguished from animals by consciousness, by religion, by
anything else you like. They themselves begin to distinguish
themselves from animals as soon as they begin to _produce_ their
means of subsistence."²

In the beginning is man, self-produced, integral -- materialist replica of the Absolute Idea. He produces to live, and his mode of producing is his life. At this point, although primitive and limited, man's consciousness clearly and truthfully reflects reality, as the circumstances of his existence are integral with his role as producer. But, negating itself, the very process of human production brings about division of labor and the class division of society. Man is split. Alienated from himself, he forgets the pristine glory of his role as producer. He sees himself as an individual with individual interests over against

himself as an individual with individual interests over against
 forgets the bristling glory of his role as producer. He sees
division of society. Man is split. Alienated from himself, he
of human production pringse about division of labor and the class
his role as producer. But, negotiating itself, the very process
reality, as the circumstance of his existence are integral with
and limited, man's conceptions clearly and truthfully reflects
mode of producing is his life. At this point, although primitive
ist replica of the Absolute Idee. He produces to live, and his
In the beginning is man, self-produced, integral -- material-

means of appearance."²
themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their
anything else you like. They themselves begin to distinguish
distinguish from animals by consciousness, by religion, by
He comes into being as a result of his own act. "Man can be
result of a creative act of God nor of the process of evolution,
brilliant fact is barthemogenesis. Man thus man is neither the
from the drama of the history of society; and in that drama, the
logical antecedents of society. But all Communist affect flows
Marxism, claiming to be scientific, cannot deny the bio-

Communist psychological practice.
Hegei and the young Marx, these concepts are the foundation of
have replaced the scintillating philosophical barometers of

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society -- and this whether he is a member of the oppressed or
oppressing class. Man, like the Absolute Idea, has become
estranged from himself.

Yet, as with the Absolute Idea, this alienation is a neces-
sary descent into the inferno of "otherness," the better in the
end to realize himself. After the varieties of class society
have run their course, and in doing so created greater possibili-
ties of productiveness (awareness), the negation is negated.
Unity is again achieved in modern Communism, the apotheosis of
primitive society, on the higher productive level created by
epochs of class society. In this new community, in this "real
community the individuals obtain their freedom in and through
their association."³ With the overcoming of class division, the
split in man is healed. No longer is he alienated from himself,
no longer does he exist in two capacities, as individual and as
a member of society, [Such a state of consciousness, in which
the individual thinks and acts in perfect unity with the com-
munity, would seem to differ little from the presumed conscious-
ness of an ant or a bee; but to one possessed by the Marxist
*mystique*, it takes on an aura of freedom, external and internal,
which is logically inexplicable. Under Communism, not only
does man pass "from pre-history into history"; he passes from
congenital sickness of soul to health.

91

does man base "from pre-history into history," he bases from
which is logically inexplicable. Under Communism, not only
mythique, it takes on an aim of freedom, external and internal,
ness of an ant or a pee; but to one possessed by the Marxist
unity, would seem to dilfer little from the dawned conscious-
the individual thinks and acts in perfect unity with the com-
s a member of society. Such a state of consciousness, in which
no longer does he exist in two capacities, as individual and as
split in man is sealed. No longer is he alienated from himself,
their association. With the overcoming of class division, the
community the individuals obtain their freedom in and through
epoche of class society. In this new community, in this "real
primitive society," on the higher productive level created by
unity is again achieved in modern Communism, the epoche of
ties of productivity (awareness), the negation is negated.
have run their course, and in doing so created greater possibil-
ity to realize himself. After the varieties of class society
sary descent into the inferno of "otherness," the better in the
Yet, as with the Absolute Ideas, this alienation is a neces-
extranged from himself.

obITUring class. Man, like the Absolute Ideas, has become
society -- and this whether he is a member of the oppressed or

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But in class society, where alienation still prevails, the personality of man is the product of tension between the class influences shaping him and his conscious understanding. Both arise from the operation of the mode of production; that they are separate and opposing is but the result of the alienation in human production itself. Yet they come into sharp conflict; and the degree to which their tension approaches unity or opposition depends upon the degree to which at a given time the forces of production and the relations of production are in consonance or conflict.

So far the underlying theory of personality. But not being explicitly stated, it is not generalized. Insofar as it is implicitly developed, it is for practical psychosurgical purposes, and therefore it is directed to the special circumstances of the Communist. Other men, in the past or now, may have found or may find ideologies which more or less objectively mask the contradiction and anaesthetize the radical neurosis of alienated man. The Communist, however, is a different kettle of fish.

Living in devout anticipation of the consummation of non-alienated Communist society, he partakes, in advance as it were, of its non-neurotic simplicity of personality. At least he does insofar as he is a Communist, insofar as he has overcome his

Insofar as he is a Communist, insofar as he has overcome his
its non-narcotic simplicity of personality. At least he does
acted Communist society, he parties, in advance as it were, of
living in devoted anticipation of the consummation of non-alien-
man. The Communist, however, is a different kettle of fish.
contradiction and anaesthetize the radical neurosis of alienated
or may find ideologies which more or less objectively mask the
the Communist. Other men, in the best or now, may have found
and therefore it is directed to the special circumstances of
blickeit developed, it is for practical bayoneturgical purposes,
simplicity stated, it is not generalized. Insofar as it is im-
so far the underlying theory of personality. But not being
or conflict.

of production and the relations of production are in consonance
with the degree to which their tension abates unity or abates
in human production itself. Yet they come into sharp conflict:
are separate and opposite, is put the result of the alienation
arise from the operation of the mode of production; that they
influence shaping him and his consatives understanding. Both
personality of man is the product of tension between the class
but in class society, where alienation still prevails, the

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original nature as a product of capitalist society. The "adjusted" Communist is he in whom the influence of class society has been eliminated by being brought under the control of a Marxist consciousness. All the "individualistic" traits which spoil his unique vocation as professional revolutionary, integrally unified with the Party, have been destroyed. The contradiction within him is overcome.

The Party being surrogate for the future society, the Communist has therefore the possibility of achieving the clarity of vision denied to other members of a class society. But he has not only the possibility, he has the duty to do so. In fact, achieving such a mode of being is synonymous with becoming a true Communist.⁴

To bring this about is the essence of the Party's practice in the moulding of the personality and is the rationale behind the complex of methods discussed above. The developing Communist, like all members of bourgeois society, is an open battleground between the alienated sides of his personality. Armed, however, with Marxism-Leninism, the prototype of the consciousness of a member of Communist society, he can, with the help of the Party, overcome this contradiction.

## Reductionism

To the Communist, difficulties within the personality are

To the Communist, difficulties within the personality are
reductionism

use of a member of Communist society, he can, with the help
however, with Marxism-Remunera, the prototype of the conceptions-
ground between the alienated sides of his personality. Armed,
at, like all members of a pugnose society, is an open battle-
the complex of methods discussed above. The developing Comm-
in the moulding of the personality and is the rationale behind
To bring this about is the essence of the Party's practice
a true Communist.

The Party being surrogate for the future society, the Com-
within him is overcome.

united with the Party, have been destroyed. The contradiction
aboard his unique vocation as professional revolutionary, integrally
Marxist consonantess. All the "individualistic" traits which
has been eliminated by being brought under the control of a
justed. Communist is he in whom the influence of class society
original nature as a product of capitalist society. The "ad-

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obviously but the reflection of the contradictions of external material reality. They can be resolved only on the basis of a theory and practice directed towards the transformation of that material reality. Any outlook that considers them to be innate contradictions within the individual is a perversion of truth -- "idealist," "mystical." For the Communist grants no independent existence to inner personal struggles. He sees them simply as distorted reflections of social reality.⁵ Psychiatric efforts to resolve contradictions in the individual are not founded upon the idea of *overcoming* social contradictions; therefore, by the simple logic of practical Marxism, they are concerned with the *preservation* of social contradictions. Therefore, like idealism, they are weapons of the ruling class. It is this -- and not primarily that the Party is afraid of betrayal of secrets -- which is the true explanation of the inveterate hostility of the Party to psychotherapeutic treatment of its members. Its own "therapy," which is vital to its growth and strength, is directed to the destruction of the contradictions within the individual by merging him in the potential commune, the Party; and deep psychology is a serious intrusion of the "alien ideology" of the class enemy.⁶

Nevertheless, there is a certain curious similarity in one respect between the Marxism and Freudianism: the "nothing but"

respect between the Marxism and Kantianism: the "nothing put" Nevertheless, there is a certain curious similarity in one "alien ideology" of the class enemy.

the party; and deep psychology is a serious intruder of the
within the individual by merging him in the potential commune,
strength, is directed to the destruction of the contradictions
members. Its own "theresy," which is vital to its growth and
liquidity of the party to psychotherapeutic treatment of its
of secrets -- which is the true explanation of the inveterate
its this -- and not primarily that the party is afraid of betrayal
fore, like idealism, they are weapons of the ruling class. It
concerned with the preservation of social contradictions. There-
wherefore, by the simple logic of practical Marxism, they are
are not founded upon the idea of overcoming social contradictions;
psychiatric efforts to resolve contradictions in the individual
demain simply as distorted reflections of social reality.⁵
independent existence to inner personal struggles. He sees
truth -- "idealist," "mystical," for the Communist grants no
innate contradictions within the individual is a perversion of
that material reality. Any outlook that considers them to be
a theory and practice directed towards the transformation of
material reality. They can be resolved only on the basis of
opinions put the reflection of the contradictions of external

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type of approach. Derived perhaps from their common ancestry in
the scientific spirit of the 19th century, with its denial of an
essential autonomous being to man, they both employ a somewhat
similar reductive technique. The most complex reaches of the
imaginative mind, the most delicate constructions of reason and
of spiritual insight, become, for the practical purposes of the
therapy, "nothing but" the play of the libido in *its* complicated
figures or the play of class interest in *its* complicated figures.

In the Communist methodology this reductionism is of vital
importance. The process of liquidating all unwanted traits, of
developing the single eye, would be impossible without it. With
it -- granted the acceptance of the fundamental philosophical
and political ideas of Marxism-Leninism -- anything can be done
that the Party deems necessary. Step by step, with equation
after equation, the interest of the class enemy is identified
with whatever idea, habit or mode of living is to be eliminated,
until the whole weight of a believed and accepted view of the
world, the very meaning of existence for the Communist, is
brought into the scales, directly weighed against that which is
to be eradicated.

Despite its derivation from the complex, almost mystical
Hegelo-Marxian doctrine of alienation, the operative Marxist
psychological theory is extraordinarily simple. Men are the
battleground between social forces and conscious understanding;
and all psychological phenomena can be reduced to the effect
of the one or the other. Either/or. Either you are with His-
tory and the proletariat or against them; and every act, every
tendency, every trait, must be adjudged by this criterion.

contingency, every craft, must be adjusted by due criterion.

or the play of class interest in its complicated figures.

**Therewith, "nothing put" the play of the lipid in its complicated
of spiritual insight, become, for the practical purposes of the
imagination mind, the most delicate constructions of reason and
alike, repressive technique.** The most complex reaches of the
essential autonomous being to man, they both employ a somewhat
the scientific spirit of the 16th century, with its denial of an
type of approach. Derived perhaps from their common source in

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## Communist Psychosurgery

This implicit psychological theory is worked out in practice in Communist training as a whole; and that practice is, I hope, documented by the whole of this study, by what has gone before as well as by what follows. Nevertheless, it may be worth while at this point giving some idea of how this psychological approach functions where the problems upon which the Party acts are primarily non-political, and therefore more or less parallel to psychological conflicts in ordinary life. Seen thus in its purest form -- although eccentric to its main and continuing function within the direct process of training -- the operation of the Marxist-Leninist psychological method may stand out more clearly, since it is less involved with a political atmosphere of which most readers can have had no direct experience.

Such Party operations upon "personal problems" differ from the constant daily pressure of formal and informal training procedures in their crisis quality. They occur when a mode of the personality which has effectually survived the process of training is suddenly brought into sharp opposition to the Party.

All the intervening layers which ordinarily mask such conflicts are stripped away. Either the interest⁵ of the Party for some reason demand that the issue be brought to a head before the normal process of development has "matured" the Communist through

normal process of development has "matured" the Communist through
reason demand that the issue be brought to a head before the
are stripped away. Either the interest of the party for some
VII the intervening layers which ordinarily mask such conflicts
ing it suddenly brought into sharp opposition to the party.

personality which has effectually survived the process of train-
curriculum in their crudest duality. They occur when a mode of the
the constant daily pressure of formal and informal training bro-
Such party operations upon "personal problems" differ from

atmosphere of which most readers can have had no direct experience.
stand out more clearly, since it is less involved with a political
the operation of the Marxist-Communist psychological method may
continuing function within the direct process of training --
to its main and less parallel to psychological conflicts in ordinary life.
Party acts are primarily non-political, and therefore more or
logical approach functions where the problems upon which the
worth while at this point giving some ideas of how this psycho-
before as well as by what follows. Nevertheless, it may be
nope, documented by the whole of this study, by what has gone
into Communist training as a whole; and that practice is, I
This implicit psychological theory is worked out in brac-

Communist Party Organization

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the erosion of "subjectivity"; or the problem in question is
of such a firmly entrenched neurotic quality that only a frontal
attack can blast it out of the way.

It should be noted that, from the Party's point of view, it
is irrelevant whether the conflict is caused by virtues -- loyal-
ty, attachment, love -- which cut across the Party's demands, or
by vices -- alcoholism, personal violence, sexual perversion.
The latter category may or may not interfere with Party demands,
but they do endanger the Party, both by making the individual
liable to indiscretion or subject to blackmail and by "exposing
the Party to attack" on the basis of the individual's derelictions.
But whether virtues or vices from a normal point of view, such
actions and attitudes are "anti-Party," that is, evil and to be
eradicated.

The treatment is drastic, and since it kills or cures, it
is utilized only when the situation is extremely serious. But
although it is not undertaken lightly, once decided upon, it is
ruthlessly carried through. I have had experience directly or
indirectly with a considerable number of such cases in my Party
career, both in England and the United States, and I know of no
instance where one of two results did not ensue: either the
person was decisively transformed and jumped sharply forward in
his Communist "development," or he left the Party -- by expulsion

The Communist "development," or he left the Party -- by capitulation
person was decisively transformed and jumped sharply forward in
instance where one of two results did not ensue: either the
career, both in England and the United States, and I know of no
indirectly with a considerable number of such cases in my Party
ruthlessly carried through. I have had experience directly or
altrough it is not undertaken lightly, once decided upon, it is
utilized only when the situation is extremely serious. But
The treatment is drastic, and since it kills or cures, it
eradicated.

But whether virtues or vices from a normal point of view, such
the Party to attack, on the parte of the individual's correlations,
itable to indirection or subject to placemant and by "expanding
but they do endanger the Party, both by making the individual
The latter category may or may not interfere with Party demands,
py vices -- alcoholism, personal violence, sexual perversion.
ty, attachment, love -- which out across the Party's demands, or
is irrelevant whether the conflict is caused by virtues -- loyal-
It should be noted that, from the Party's point of view, it
attack can plast it out of the way.

of such a firmly entrenched neurotic duality that only a frontal
the erosion of "subjectivity," or the problem in question is

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or by a rapid drift away after "removal from responsibility,"
demotion.

The instances of which I had knowledge were widely diverse.
There were those which, from any point of view but that of the
Party, would be regarded as perfectly normal and indeed admirable:
instances of devotion to father or mother, where the issue was one
of time and energy involved in their material support or of time
spent in attention to them; romances or marriages to be broken
up because the promising Party force was allied with an "anti-
Party element," or even a "non-Party element" (some one suspected
of Trotskyism, or just an apolitical husband who wanted his wife
to spend an occasional evening with him); deeply-rooted remnants
of "bourgeois" moral attitudes, taking the form of objection to
participating in some piece of deception or character assassina-
tion or other skulduggery which the Party deemed immediately and
vitally necessary.⁷

Then there were the situations where the problem from any
point of view would be regarded as neurotic: a confirmed drunk-
ard in his twenties, who without ceasing to drink lost within a
matter of weeks all the external personality traits of the
alcoholic and became a powerful and effective leader of an
extremely important movement; a girl of ability who at her
menstrual periods collapsed completely and neglected her

membranous beropes collided completely and reflected her extremely important movement: a curl of spittle who at per alcoholic and became a bawful and effective leader of an matter of weeks all the external personality traits of theard in his twenties, who without ceasing to drink lost within a point of view would be regarded as snaractic: a confirmed drunk-then there were the situations where the problem from anyvitality necessary.⁷

tion or other skidguggery which the Party deemed immediately and
participating in some piece of deception or character assassina-
of "pourbois" moral attitudes, taking the form of objection to
to spend an occasional evening with him); deeply-rooted remonste
of Trotakvam, or just an apolitical husband who wanted his wife
Party element," or even a "non-Party element." (some one unabspect
because the promoting Party force was allied with an "anti-
udent in attention to them; romances or marriages to be prokam
of time and energy involved in their material support or of time
instances of devotion to father or mother, where the frame was one
Party, would be regarded as perfectly normal and indeed admirabla:
There were those which, from any point of view put that of the
demotion.

or by a rapid drift away after "removal from responsibility."

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5 - 14

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responsibilities -- in the Party's view (and presumably correctly from the upshot) for reasons of "subjectivism," -- and who, after a showdown, functioned perfectly normally; a homosexual, who to all external appearances completely transformed his life to remain within the Party.

This last was perhaps the most remarkable and dramatic case of which I have knowledge; and since the process of direct attack upon a "critically "anti-Party" attitude" is the same in all situations, a discussion of it may illuminate the others. The approach in all such cases is delegated to a single individual of the leadership, preferably one who has been responsible for the Party work of the member concerned and knows him personally. In the discussion between them the issue is settled one way or the other. It may come eventually to a Control Commission, but the Control Commission simply registers the decision previously made by the leadership of the Party on the basis of the report of its operating member. The whole proceeding is in general conducted without emotional involvement or imputation of moral obloquy toward the specific character of the dereliction. The moral issue is -- for *if* against the Party, and what is demanded *if*

The case in point concerned a man of about 35, an outstanding member of his profession, holding positions of key importance in non-Party organizations. While not an open Communist,

["ance in non-party organizations. While not an open Communist, a member of his profession, holding positions of key import-\nance in the case in point concerned a man of about 32, an outstand-\ning member of the Party, and against the Party, and especially in the case\n\nis -- for against the Party, and especially in the case of a man of about 32, an outstanding member of the Party, and especially in the case of a man of about 32,

[Lc]

5 - 15

he was the recognized leader of the whole left-wing grouping in his profession. At the same time he was a member of the "leading fraction," the top leadership of the Party in his profession. As it turned out, he had been a practising homosexual for many years. He had managed his life so discreetly that no hint of scandal had touched him; nor, during his five or six years in the Party, had any idea of his homosexuality reached the Party leadership.

A slip in that discretion, an advance made to a Party member, caused the crisis. The Party member concerned was neither hostile nor condemnatory; he simply felt that the situation was dangerous for the Party and reported it. The reaction in the District Office was immediate and unequivocal. A scandal involving the Party and jeopardizing all the work around Comrade H must be avoided at all costs. Only two alternatives were discussed: should he be expelled forthwith, or should an effort be made to save him for the Party on the basis of complete and immediate transformation of his life. The latter opinion prevailed, on the grounds of his capabilities and high degree of development; and I was given the task of "transmitting the decision" to him.

Comrade H was a developed Communist -- or the decision would have been to expel him out of hand -- and while my discussion with him was in no way hostile or brutal, it was sharp and

upon with him was in no way hostile or brutal, it was and would have been to exasperate him out of hand -- and while my diatribe
Comrade H was a developed Communist -- or the declaration
Given the task of "transmitting the decision" to him.

of his capabilities and high degree of development; and I was
for the party on the basis of complete and immediate transforma-
be exasperated forthwith, or should an effort be made to save him
at all costs. Only two alternatives were discussed: should he
ty and jeopardizing all the work around Comrade H must be avoided
to the party and reported it. The reaction in the District Of-
nor condemnatory; he simply felt that the situation was dangerous
caused the crisis. The party member concerned was neither hostile
A slip in that discretion, an advance made to a party member,
the party leadership.

years in the party, had any idea of his homoeQUALITY reached
point of scandal had touched him; nor, during his five or six
for many years. He had managed his life so discreetly that no
one but he turned out, he had been a practising homœxual
profession.
"Feeding fraction," meaning the destruction of the party in the
inner circle, a member of the
he was the recognized leader of the whole left-wing grouping

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5 - 16

[lc]

direct. The Party, without taking any attitude morally or psychologically toward his homosexuality itself, found it politically impermissible. We recognized the difficulties in which he would find himself if he made the necessary effort to remain within the Party, but this was the only condition on which he could retain his membership. He must decide within two days whether he was willing completely to abandon homosexual practices or not. Otherwise he would be expelled from the Party. The Party would prefer it if, within a reasonable period of time, he married or showed obvious signs of an interest in women; but this was not essential. What was demanded was his Communist decision to cease homosexual activities. (It should be noted that with a person of his development, his word given to the Party was regarded as something in the nature of an oath. It is true, of course, that the Party could check up on him afterwards; but primarily it relied on his spoken acceptance of the decision, the pledge of his Communist will.)

Considering his understanding of Marxism-Leninism, Comrade H had probably long foreseen the possibility of a clash between his homosexuality and the Party. What arguments he put forward were feeble and soon abandoned: he had made an error of judgment, but in all the preceding years no such error had occurred, and he could guarantee that it would not occur again. To the

and he could guarantee that it would not occur again. To the
ment, put in all the preceding years no such error had occurred,
were people and soon abandoned: he had made an error of judg-
ment homosexuality and the party. What arguments he but forward
had properly long foreseen the possibility of a class between
considering his understanding of Marxism-Communism, Comrade
decalsion, the pledge of his Comminut will.)

was; put primarily it relied on its spoken acceptance of the
is true, of course, that the party could check up on him after-
party was regarded as something in the nature of an cash. It
that with a person of its development, its word given to the
decalsion to cease homosexual activities. (It should be noted
this was not essential. What was demanded was his Comminut
he married or showed obvious signs of an interest in women; but
the party would prefer it if, within a reasonable period of time,
practices or not. Otherwise he would be expelled from the party.
two days whether he was willing completely to abandon homosexual
which he could retain his membership. He must decide within
remain within the party, but this was the only condition on
which he would find himself if he made the necessary effort to
politically unembraceable. We recognized the difficulty in
bayeologically toward his homosexuality itself, found it
direct. The party, without taking any attitude morally or

2 - 16

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5 - 17

answer that the risk was too great, he had no rejoinder. Very shortly he faced the stark alternative. Although he was tremendously upset emotionally, there was not a trace of resentment or anger against the Party.

What private hell he went through in the next two days I do not know; but when I met with him again forty-eight hours later, he had made his decision -- for the Party. I knew him and worked with him over the next seven years. From every indication, he completely transformed his life. When I last saw him he was married to a very charming woman and was the father of two children, and he rose steadily in Party responsibility.

The method of dealing with Comrade H is typical of the handling of acute "personal problems" which the Party decides to treat radically. Where the problem concerned is a more socially acceptable one (and therefore, in the eyes of the person dealt with, not so clearly a danger to the Party) or where the "theoretical development" is not so great, more argument may perhaps be needed. Otherwise, the process is identical.

In cases such as these, the psychological theory of Communism expresses itself in its most naked form. But the same implicit psychological theory lies behind the whole process of the training of the Communist cadre. Timidity, the critical spirit, individualist resentment against authority -- every

spirit, individualist resentment against authority -- every
the training of the Communist cadre. Timidity, the critical
implicit bayeological theory lies behind the whole process of
mutilism expresses itself in its most naked form. But the same
In cases such as these, the bayeological theory of Com-
be needed. Otherwise, the process is identical.

retical development," is not so great, more argument may perhaps
with it not so clearly a danger to the Party) or where the "theo-
acceptable one (and therefore, in the eyes of the person dealt
treat radically. Where the problem concerned is a more socially
fing of acute "personal problems" which the Party decides to
The method of dealing with Comrade H is typical of the band-
and he rose steadily in Party responsibility.

married to a very charming woman and was the father of two children
completely transformed his life. When I last saw him he was
with him over the next seven years. From every indication, he
he had made his decision -- for the Party. I knew him and worked
not know; but when I met with him again forty-eight hours later,
What private hell he went through in the next two days I do
anger against the Party.

dignally upset emotionally, there was not a trace of resentment or
afterslip he faced the stark alternative. Although he was tremen-
dously confident he had no reoffender. Very

[n] 2 - 13

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5 - 18

personal trait which blocks the fusion of the personality in the mould of the Communist type -- is slowly and steadily destroyed, but without crisis tactics or dramatic confrontation. To the degree that the developing Communist accepts Marxism-Leninism as a true view of reality, his acceptance becomes an anvil upon which his personality can be hammered into shape by the Party's constant blows against those attitudes which, by the technique of reductionism, are shown to be incompatible with the accepted Marxist-Leninist outlook. This is the process of Communist进化.

From the Communist point of view, the entire process is conscious; and the major weapon in the transformation is the conscious mind. The type after which the personality is to be moulded is consciously determined on the basis of the needs of the Party. The theoretical outlook, which both vindicates the creation of that type and within the individual becomes the first prerequisite for its creation, has no concept whatever of the unconscious. The method of training itself, however much it may instinctively utilize underlying psychological realities, is based upon a theory which elevates to the decisive position the power of the conscious mind.⁸

A materialist gnosticism -- or a mystical scientism -- Communism lives in the conviction that, having mastered the secrets of Necessity and History, power over nature and man is in its hands.

of Necessity and History, power over nature and man in its hands.

A materialist ghostwriter -- or a mystical scientist -- Com-

power of the conscious mind.⁸

based upon theory which elevates to the decisive position the
instructively utilize underlying psychological realities, is
unconscious. The method of training itself, however much it may
bringeraitte for its creation, has no concept whatever of the
creation of that type and within the individual becomes the first
the Party. The theoretical outlook, which both vindicates the
mobilized is consciously determined on the basis of the needs of
conscious mind. The type after which the personality is to be
conceived; and the major weapon in the transformation is the

the process of conscious transformation.

with the accepted Marxist-Revolution outlook. The true-Marxist
the technique of reductionism, are shown to be incompatible
the Party's constant blows against those attitudes which, by
anvil upon which his personality can be hammered into shape by
Revolution as a true view of reality, his acceptance becomes an

To the degree that the developing Communist accepts Marxism-
destroyed, put without criteria or dramatic confrontation.

the mind of the Communist type -- is slowly and steadily
personal trait which blocks the fusion of the personality in

2 - 18

NOTES - Chapter 5 - Psychological Pressure

1

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1. "The Party line must be rationally calculated and must be distinguished from 'moods' both within the Party and without, that might affect it... 'Replacing objective analysis by "feelings"' -- to *any* extent -- threatens catastrophe... A Bolshevik must have perfect control over his feelings. All his political activity is 'a most coldblooded ... war.' Any imperfection in the Bolshevik's control over his feelings will cause him to become dominated by them. This will result in catastrophe... These precepts hold true even when the feelings are in themselves laudable: a 'revolutionary out of sentiment' is not a 'real revolutionary.'" Nathan Leites, *The Operational Code of the Politburo* (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1951), p. 20; *emphasized in original*.

2. Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*, p. 7

3. *The German Ideology*, p. 75

4. "The interests of the Party above all -- this is the highest principle... The Party member should see that he has only the Party and Party interests in mind and no individual purpose. He should see that his own individual interests are identical with Party interests to the extent that they are fused. When contradictions arise between the interests of the Party and the individual we can, without the slightest hesitation or feeling of compulsion, submit to Party

each hesitation or feeling of combustion, submit to Party
of the Party and the individual we can, without the slight-
are freed. When contradictions arise between the interests
are identical with Party interest to the extent that they
purposes. He should see that his own individual interests
the Party and Party interests in mind and no individual
principle... The Party member should see that he has only
4. "The interests of the Party above all -- that is the highest
3. *The German Ideology*, b. 73

5. *Marx and Engels, The German Ideology*, b. 7

McGraw Hill Book Co., 1921), b. 30, *empathia in original
Leites, The Operational Code of the Politburo (New York:
out of sentiment, is not a 'real revolutionary'." Machan
the feelings are in themselves tangible: a 'revolutionary
result in catastrophe... These precedents hold true even when
inge will cause him to become dominated by them. This will
only imperfection in the Bolshevik's control over his feel-
ing life political activity is a most coldblooded ... war'.
A Bolshevik must have perfect control over his feelings.

by "feelings", -- to any extent -- threatens catastrophe...
out, that might affect it... Replacing objective analysis
distinguished from 'moods', both within the Party and with-
out. "The Party line must be rationally calculated and must be

NOTES - Chapter 2 - Psychological Pressure

1

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2

interests and sacrifice the individual." Liu Shao-ch'i, *The Training of the Communist Party Member*, as quoted in Robert C. North, *Moscow and Chinese Communists* (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1953), p. 199.

5. "The constant theme of bourgeois psychology is the problem of inner personality conflicts; the eternal struggle of two entities: -- the human and the animal; the conscious and the unconscious; the rational and the instinctual; the social and the biological, and so on, which lead to the notorious split personality. The tenacity with which these theories persist can be largely attributed to their usefulness to the scientific lackeys of the ruling classes, who utilize them for the purpose of concealing the real contradictions which beset a class society. This is done by presenting these contradictions as inner conflicts, by reducing social contradictions to the contradictory nature of the human soul... In the contradictory nature of our thoughts, ideas as well as feelings, materialist psychologists must see the objectively existing contradictions of nature and social life, which are reflected in our thoughts, ideas and feelings." E. T. Chernakov, "Against Idealism and Metaphysics in Psychology," as translated and published in Joseph Wortis, *Soviet Psychiatry* (Baltimore: The

in Joseph Wortis, *Soviet Psychiatry* (Baltimore: The
and Metaphysics in Psychology*," as translated and published
in 1966 and feelings." E. T. Chernushov, "Against Idealism
nature and social life," which are reflected in our thoughts,
states must see the objectively existing contradictions of
thoughts, ideas as well as feelings, materialist psycho-
logy of the human soul... In the contradictory nature of our
reducing social contradictions to the contradictory nature
presenting these contradictions as inner conflicts, by
contradictions which posit a class society. This is done by
utilize them for the purpose of concealing the real con-
ness to the scientific lackeys of the ruling classes, who
theories persist can be largely attributed to their useful-
notorious split personality. The tendency with which these
social and the psychological, and so on, which lead to the
theoretical; the rational and the irrational; the
entities: -- the human and the animal; the conscious and
of inner personality conflicts; the eternal struggle of two
3. "The constant theme of profound psychology is the problem
California: Stanford University Press, 1933), p. 188.
Robert C. North, Moscow and Chinese Communists (Stanford,
The Training of the Communist Party Member, as noted in
interests and sacrifice the individual." LinShao-ch'ü,

3

[r]

3

[lc]

Williams & Wilkins Company, 1950), pp. 283-84.

6. As an American apologist for Communists puts it: "...materialism cannot conceive and does not accept a concept of mind which blocks off any large segment from interaction with reality. Hence the strenuous objection to the concept of the Freudian unconscious, to the instinct theory, to mental telepathy, or to any other concept of mind which endows it with qualities not derived from material reality. Even the mistaken thoughts of misguided people, from this point of view, are reflections of the material reality of press propaganda, of selfish class influences of scientific reaction, or represent unwarranted extensions of special or peculiar experiences. But since mistaken thoughts do not accord with reality, conflicts in the mind of men result, which are often supported by contending social forces: the forces of life and of enlightenment versus the forces of reaction and obscurantism. These in turn are reflections of class forces, so that the force of the progressive working class, its ideology, point of view, scale of values, and its culture emerge as the only true, appropriate and useful system of ideas in the present period. For these reasons political insights and a solid class orientation are regarded as indispensable prerequisites to a realistic

are regarded as indispensible preconditions to a realistic
reasons political insights and a solid class orientation
necessary system of ideas in the present period. For these
and its culture emerge as the only true, appropriate and
rigorous class, its ideology, point of view, scale of values,
of class forces, so that the force of the progressive work-
of reaction and opportunism. These in turn are reflections
the forces of life and of enlightenment versus the forces
which are often supported by contending social forces:
 accord with reality, conflict in the mind of men result,
becoming experiences. But since mistaken thoughts do not
reaction, or represent unwarranted extensions of special or
brass broadsands, of selfish class influences of scientific
point of view, are reflections of the material reality of
Even the mistaken thoughts of misguided people, from this
encourage it with dualities not derived from material reality,
mental telepathy, or to any other concept of mind which
of the trend, or to the instinct theory, to
with reality. Hence the erroneous objection to the concept
mind which blocks off any large segment from interaction
which cannot conceive and does not accept a concept of
material reality.

3

[a]

[LC]

4

approach to life, to a sound social integration or to
wholesome psychological development." Joseph Wortis,
*Soviet Psychiatry*, p. 71

7. There are multitudinous instances of this kind of Communist approach to personal life in the autobiographical and descriptive literature on Communism. Among many others, the interested reader will find the following passages at once illuminating and terrifying: Elinor Lipper, *Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps* (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1951), p. 49ff.; Stephen Spender in *The God That Failed*, ed. Richard Crossman (New York: Harper & Bros., 1949), pp. 239-41; Wolfgang Leonhard, *Child of the Revolution* (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1958), p. 51; Tamas Aczel and Tibor Meray, *The Revolt of the Mind* (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959), p. 263; Benjamin Gitlow, *I Confess* (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1940), p. 298; Bob Darke, *Cockney Communist* (New York: John Day Co., 1953), p. 14. For the flavor of matter-of-fact subordination of the personal to the political, however, I know nothing better than a sentence in Charlotte Haldane's description of the opposition of the Party, on political grounds, to her divorce from J. B. S. Haldane. She quotes William Rust of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of Great Britain: "You can take the question up with the

of Great Britain: "You can take the question ab with the
William Brad of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party
Grounds, to her divorce from J. B. Haldane. She quotes
description of the opposition of the Party, on political
I know nothing better than a sentence in Charlotte Haldane's
fact an opposition of the personal to the political, however,
John Day Co., 1923), b. 14. For the flavor of matter-of-
@ Co., 1940), b. 598; Rop Darke, *Cockney Communist* (New York:
b. 593; Benjamin Citlow, *I Confess* (New York: R. B. Dutton
*The Revolt of the Mind* (New York: Frederick V. Braeser, 1929),
Regnery Co., 1929), b. 21; Tamas Voscel and Tipor Meray,
Wolfgang Reupard, *Child of the Revolution* (Chicago: Henry
Crossman (New York: Harber & Bros., 1948), pp. 539-41;
b. 4011.; Stephen Spender in *The God That Failed*, ed. Richard
Soviet Breton Campe (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1921),
illuminating and terrifying: *Einar Ribber*, *Eleven Years in
interested reader will find the following passages at once
descriptive literature on Communism. Among many others, the
approach to personal life in the autobiographical and
7. There are multitudinous instances of this kind of Communist
*Sooner Bachmann*, b. 71
whosoever psychological development." Joseph Morrie,
approach to life, to a sound social integration or to

4

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5

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Politburo if you like...I'm sure they will confirm my line." Charlotte Haldane, *Truth Will Out* (New York: Vanguard Press, 1950), p. 177.

8. "Soviet psychology and bourgeois psychology oppose each other in this respect; bourgeois psychology takes the 'unconscious' as a point of departure, as though it were the basic determinant of human psychology, and as though it were the central core of man's personality. Soviet psychology has explicitly fostered the theory that consciousness is the highest, most specialized human level of development of the psyche and has indicated the dominant role which conscious influences play as compared with unconscious influences. In this regard Soviet psychology is in accord with Soviet pedagogy. Soviet pedagogy maintains as the basic principle of didactics the doctrine of conscious instruction. And, in questions of training, it holds to the principle that it is the conscious personality of man, his conscious behavior, and his conscious discipline that are to be molded." A. P. Fomichev, The Tenth Anniversary of the Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevist), "Concerning the distortions in the system of the Peoples Commissariat of Education," as quoted in Joseph Wortis, *Soviet Psychiatry*, pp. 119-120.

dicated in Joseph Morris, *Soviet Psychiatry*, pp. 119-120. The system of the People's Commissar of Education, as theCommunist Party (Bolshevist), "Concerning the deterronts in pedagogical

of the doctrine of con-
science in the highest, most specialized human level
psychology has explicitly fostered the theory that con-
it were the central core of man's personality. Soviet
the basic determinant of human psychology, and as though
unconscious, as a point of departure, as though it were
other in this respect: people's psychology takes the

3. "Soviet psychology and psychology oppose each
Angerard Press, 1920), p. 111.

line." Charlotte Hardman, *The Will Out* (New York:
Bohart Press) if you like...I'm sure they will confirm my

NOTES - Chapter 2 - Psychological Presses

2

[r]

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## 6. RECRUITS

While it is true that a few people become members of the Communist cadre without ever having held formal membership in the Communist Party (operatives of various apparatuses or men in important public positions who have had direct clandestine contact with Communist leaders), normally the cadre is developed from members of the Communist Party. Therefore, typically, the process of the development of the Communist begins with recruitment into the Communist Party.

This recruitment is not a chance phenomenon. It is the end-product of many aspects of the work of the Party. Of course, recruitment is not the single aim of all these modes of activity, but it is regarded as an important, perhaps as the decisive index, of their success. Everything converges toward this end: agitation and propaganda; mass actions; the quieter day-to-day activities in trade unions, other organizations and communities.
"Recruiting" in the direct sense is the reaping of a prepared harvest.

Recruitment proper, therefore, does not begin with undifferentiated human beings. Two sets of factors have brought about distinct differentiation before that process occurs.

The first set consists of those factors which bring the

The first set consists of these factors which bring about distinct differentiation before that process occurs. Differentiated human beings. Two sets of factors have brought Recruitment broader, therefore, does not begin with initial harvest.

"Recruiting" in the direct sense is the reading of a prepared activities in trade unions, other organizations and communities. agitation and propaganda; mass actions; the quieter day-to-day sex, of their success. Everything converges toward this end: but it is regarded as an important, perhaps as the decisive in- recruitment is not the single aim of all these modes of activity, product of many aspects of the work of the Party. Of course This recruitment is not a chance phenomenon. It is the end-ment into the Communist Party.

process of the development of the Communist begins with recruit- from members of the Communist Party. Therefore, typically, the contact with Communist leaders, normally the cadre is developed in important public positions who have had direct clandestine the Communist Party (operatives of various apparatuses or men Communist cadre without ever having held formal membership in While it is true that a few people become members of the

9. RECRUITS

[n]

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[LC]

individual within the reach of the Party. These influences are largely accidental from the Party's point of view, outside of its control: the political and ideological circumstances of the time; the particular situation in which the individual finds himself at a given moment; and, to a lesser degree (because the Party appeals to many different kinds of people), the personal character structure of the individual. The second set of factors consists of the actual subjective work of the Party: agitation, propaganda, activity. This further differentiates and prepares for recruitment those whom objective factors have brought within the Party's reach.

## The Objective Factors

The first question, therefore, is: what combination of circumstances tends to make men susceptible to Communist influences? The primary consideration seems to be an ambient where, for one or another reason and to a greater or lesser degree, a mood of detachment from existing customs, attitudes and institutions prevails, together with a hopeful or desperate openness to change. This is, of course, a not unusual mood in the 20th century, and therefore to a certain extent individuals anywhere and throughout this era reflect it.¹ More typically, however, it affects particular social groups at particular times. Consider, for example, the periods of important Party influence in

order, for example, the periods of important party influence in
it affects particular social groups at particular times. Con-
and throughout this era reflect it. More typically, however,
century, and therefore to a certain extent individuals anywhere
change. This is, of course, a not unusual mood in the 20th
century, together with a hopeful or desperate hope to
detachment from existing customs, attitudes and institutions
or another reason and to a greater or lesser degree, a mood of
The primary consideration seems to be an ambient where, for one
commence tends to make men susceptible to Communist influences?
The first question, therefore, is: what compulsion of cir-


## The Objective Factors

the party's reach.
for recruitment those whom objective factors have brought within
broader activity. This further differentiates and prepares
consists of the actual subjective work of the party: agitation,
character structure of the individual. The second set of factors
party abides to many different kinds of people, the personal
self at a given moment; and, to a lesser degree (because the
time: the particular situation in which the individual finds him-
self in control: the political and ideological circumstances of the
largely accidental from the party's point of view, outside of
individual within the reach of the party. These influences are

[10]

[11]

6 - 3

[LC]

the United States among two groups -- workers, on the one hand, and intellectuals and professionals, on the other.

For the workers, three periods stand out: (1) the early Twenties, when in the mass-production industries and in megalopolitan New York the foreign-born workers, stimulated by the war-time disorganization of society and the Russian Revolution, surged out against the caste-like barriers about them; (2) the early years of the Depression, when the unemployed reacted to the shock of dispossession; (3) the mid-Thirties, when a widespread movement of militancy and organization spread through great sections of hitherto unorganized American labor.

Among the intellectuals and professionals, similar peaks of accessibility are discernible. Some are contemporaneous with periods of worker accessibility and some are not. It would appear, however, that even when they are contemporaneous, different factors are responsible. Here the causes are primarily ideological -- successive shock points in the disintegrative crisis of the moral and intellectual tradition of Western civilization in the 20th century: (1) the period directly after World War I, when the trauma of the first of the great modern wars interacted with an utopian glorification of the Russian Revolution; (2) the early years of the Depression, which shook the ideological and psychological underpinnings of the American intellectual as much

psychological underpinnings of the American intellectual as much
as early years of the Depression, which shook the ideological and
an utopian glorification of the Russian Revolution; (2) the
tumors of the first of the Great Moderns were interacted with
20th century: (1) the period directly after World War I, when
moral and intellectual tradition of Western civilisation in the
-- successive shock points in the disintegrative era of the
tors are responsible. Here the causes are primarily ideological
however, that even when they are contemporaneous, different fac-
periods of worker accessibility and some are not. It would appear,
accessibility are discernible. Some are contemporaneous with
Among the Intellectuals and Professionals, similar peaks of
great sections of hiterto morganised American labor.
abroad movement of military and organization abroad through
the shock of depression; (3) the mid-Twenties, when a wide-
early years of the Depression, when the unemployed reacted to
aroused out against thecast-like barriers about them; (2) the
war-time disorganization of society and the Russian Revolution,
Politan New York the foreign-born workers, stimulated by the
Twenties, when in the mass-production industries and in megalо-
For the workers, three periods stand out: (1) the early
and intellectual and professional, on the other,
the United States among two groups -- workers, on the one hand,
the other.

9 - 3

[d]

6 - 4

[LC]

as it threatened his economic status; (3) the decade, 1936-1945, when the crusading spirit against fascism stirred the whole intellectual community -- particularly during the Spanish Civil War and the World War II alliance with the Soviet Union.

The social ambient, however, is only a first condition of accessibility. A series of circumstances, some accidental, some essential to the individual, will determine whether he will be personally accessible, even if the general social preconditions exist.

Accidental are such circumstances as the strength and prevalence of Left-wing activity in the area, the industry, or the profession where the individual happens to be; the degree to which particular accidents of his personal history have developed responsibilities or interests in sufficient strength to counteract the impact of social forces; or, the mere chance of meeting a congenial associate, reading a book or a periodical, even picking up a leaflet.²

Essential are such circumstances as a firmly based religious faith or lack thereof; the character and strength of previously acquired ideological and political attitudes; or the degree of maturity attained by the individual, which is usually, but not always, a function of his age.

In considering the circumstances essential to the individual's

In considering the circumstances essential to the individual's
but not always, a function of his age.

degree of maturity attained by the individual, which is usually,
visually acquired ideological and political attitudes; or the
tones of faith or lack thereof; the character and strength of pre-
essential are such circumstances as a firmly based relig-
bicking up a leesling.

a congenial associate, reading a book or a periodical, even
act the impact of social forces; or, the mere chance of meeting
reasonabilities or interests in sufficient strength to counter-
which particular accidents of his personal history have developed
profession where the individual has been to be; the degree to
fence of left-wing activity in the area, the industry, or the
accidental are such circumstances as the strength and brev-
exist.

personally accessible, even if the general social preconditions
essential to the individual, will determine whether he will be
accessible. A series of circumstances, some accidental, some
The social ambient, however, is only a first condition of
Civil War and the World War II alliance with the Soviet Union.
whole intellectual community -- particularly during the Spanish
1945, when the crossing spirit against fascism stirred the
as it threatened his economic status; (3) the decade, 1930-

8-4

[LC]

6 - 5

accessibility, there remains the question of his personal
character structure, his temperamental and psychological make-
up. This, in my experience, plays no important part in deter-
mining the degree of accessibility. As in the process of
training once within the Party, so in this earlier stage individ-
ual character structure does not seem to pre-determine the outcome
one way or the other. It is relevant only to the particular manner
in which the individual is affected and to the variation in approach
therefore necessary to recruit him and to train him.

While the developed cadre becomes very much of a single
type, I found among the rank and file of the Party, as in the
circles around the Party, approximately the same scatter of
temperaments as in the general community. At the time, this was
my general offhand observation; but in the years since, as I have
read elaborate endeavors to explain Party membership in terms of
specific psychological types, I have thought the matter over more
carefully. By the light of every typology with which I am ac-
quainted -- Freudian, Adlerian, Jungian, neo-Freudian, Sheldon-
ian, Riesmanian -- my conclusion remains the same, that the
distribution of types in the two Communist movements I knew
best, the American and the British, was just about the same as
in the world outside.³

[Lc]

6 - 6

## The Subjective Factors

When the objective factors, social and personal, have differentiated the undifferentiated raw material and created a semi-processed stuff, the energy of the Party sets to work upon it. The two prongs of this attack are, on the one hand, agitation and propaganda and, on the other hand, involvement in activity.

Without "activity," in the Communist view, agitation and propaganda is arid. It is true that action alone is "reformist"; it may get results, ameliorate life, but it will not advance the consciousness of the participants. But agitation and propaganda alone is "sectarian." It may gratify the agitators and propagandists and convince a few scattered hearers, but it will never produce substantial results, because ideas can only move the recipient when they are unified in his experience with practice.

Nevertheless, the technique of agitation and propaganda is developed to a high degree not only because of the role it plays in the process of conditioning potential recruits, but also because it has at least two other functions to fulfill. At a more primitive level and when the circumstances are apt, it is a major weapon for the manipulation of masses who, though fundamentally alien to the influences of the Party, can be moved into action for temporary purposes. Likewise, at a more advanced level, these techniques have been utilized since the

advanced level, these techniques have been utilized since the
into action for temporary purposes. Likewise, at a more ad-
mentally alien to the influence of the party, can be moved
a major weapon for the manipulation of masses who, though funds-
more primitive level and when the circumstances are apt, it is
cause it has at least two other functions to fulfill. At a
in the process of conditioning potential recruits, put also pe-
developed to a high degree not only because of the role it plays
Nevertheless, the technique of agitation and propaganda
recipient when they are united in his experience with practice.
produce substantial results, because ideas can only move the
gandates and convince a few scattered hearers, but it will never
alone is "sectarian." It may gratify the agitator and propa-
consciousness of the participants. But agitation and propaganda
it may get results,ameliorate life, put it will not advance the
propaganda is amid. It is true that action alone is "reformist;"
Without "activity," in the Communist view, agitation and
and propaganda and, on the other hand, involvement in activity.
The two bronge of this attack are, on the one hand, agitation
processed at once, the energy of the party sets to work upon it.
terminated the undifferentiated raw material and created a semi-
When the objective factors, social and personal, have dif-

The Subjective Factors

6 - 6

[b]

[LC]

6 - 7

transformation of the Parties into mass organizations, for the
maintenance of leadership over the non-cadre elements of the
Party itself.

Agitation and propaganda in Communist theory are formally
distinguished from one another. Agitation is "directed toward
large numbers in order to achieve unity of action on a single
question" -- with the implication that rhetorical and emotional
appeal is highly important. Propaganda is "directed more selective-
ly to riper elements on a whole complex of issues in order to
raise their political and ideological consciousness" -- the
implication is of more restrained argument affecting the under-
standing.

In practice, however, the separation between the two tends
to be obliterated. In "sectarian" periods the weight of the line
loads agitation on the simplest immediate issue with propaganda
for the full Party program. Hence the dilemma of the Bronx
landlord in the early Thirties trying to surrender to a Tenants'
Committee: "I'll paint the stairs, I'll fix the boiler, I'll
lower the rent -- but how can I defend the Chinese Soviets?"
In broad periods, on the other hand, public propaganda for the
full and true program of the Party becomes more and more absorbed
in agitation for "united front" objectives.

This latter tendency, towards the attrition of open propaganda,

This latter tendency, toward the attrition of open propagands, in agitation for "limited front" objectives.

full and true program of the party become more and more absorbed
In proud periods, on the other hand, public propagands for the
tower the rent -- put how can I defend the Chinese Soviet?
Committee: "I'll paint the stairs, I'll fix the power, I'll
landlord in the early Thirties trying to surrender to a Tenants'
for the full party program. Hence the dilemma of the Bronx
folds agitation on the simplest immediate issue with propaganda
to be obliterated. In "sectarian" periods the weight of the time
In practice, however, the separation between the two tends
standing.

Implication is of more restrained argument affecting the under-
raise their political and ideological consciousness" -- the
ly to riper elements on a whole complex of issues in order to
abase is highly important. Propaganda is "directed more selective-
duction" -- with the implication that rhetorical and emotional
large numbers in order to achieve unity of action on a single
distinguished from one another. Agitation is "directed toward
Party itself.

maintenance of leadership over the non-cadre elements of the
transformation of the parties into mass organizations, for the

6 - 7

[n]

6 - 8

[lc]

has in the years since the mid-Thirties ceased to be periodic
and become a permanent aspect of the Party's practice. The
reasons are not hard to find. The late Twenties and early Thir-
ties had seen the "bolshevization" -- perhaps "Stalinization"
would be the better word -- of the International, the replacement
of the leading role of the Party by the leading role of the cadre,
and the transformation of the Parties themselves into little more
than the highest form of "mass organization." Covert manipulation
of the masses (as distinguished from open revolutionary leader-
ship), which had always been a large element of Communist prac-
tice, became its exclusive content.

The total loyalty and dependability of the cadre has made it
possible to maneuver with consummate ease. Kaleidoscopic activi-
ties on a hundred fronts -- many of them seemingly unrelated,
some of them even in apparent opposition one to another -- are
utilized by a leadership conscious of its aims and untrammeled
by the congruence of the means, to achieve strategical and tactical
ends.

To the degree that a shift of agitational slogans alienates
one group, it becomes possible to work among another group. The
cadre can pick up the necessary mass following for any wanted
campaign quickly through an _ad hoc_ front organization, writing
off to profit and loss what is has left behind with the change of

off to profit and lose what it has left behind with the change of
campaign quickly through an ad hoc front organisation, writing
cadre can pick up the necessary mass following for any wanted
one group, it becomes possible to work among another group. The
To the degree that a shift of agitational slogans alienates
groups.

by the congruence of the means, to achieve strategical and tactical
utilised by a leadership programme of its same and untrammelled
some of them even in abparent opposition one to another -- are
ties on a hundred fronts -- many of them seemingly unrelated,
boséipie to maneuver with consummate ease. Kaleidacotic activi-
ties, became its exclusive content.

ship), which had always been a large element of Communist prac-
tice, of the masses (as distinguished from open revolutionary leader-
than the highest form of "mass organisation." Covert manipulation
and the transformation of the parties themselves into little more
of the leading role of the party by the leading role of the cadre,
would be the better word -- of the International, the replacement
tie had seem the "polarevisation" -- perhaps "statinisation"

reasons are not hard to find. The late Twenties and early Thirties
and become a permanent aspect of the party's practice. The
have in the years since the mid-Twenties ceased to be periodic

[n] 8-8

[LC]

6 - 9

line. Many of those left behind will be there, as a matter of fact, to be picked up again when the negation is negated and the next tactical jog occurs.

## Recruitment Proper

Because in this situation the burden of propaganda as distinguished from agitation falls largely upon the personal activity of individual Communists and upon informal activities organized specifically for this purpose (social events, discussion groups, etc.), the typical person close to the Party has consistently followed its line on immediate issue after immediate issue and has absorbed attitudes which have corroded the foundations of any counter-position he may once have held. But he is generally quite ignorant of the positive Communist position except in the broadest terms. In many cases he does not even know that the person he follows and admires is a Communist.

The problem of recruitment now becomes one of filling the nothingness which has been created in the realm of coherent ideas, and of polarizing towards the Party the emotional reactions which have become the common coin of his thinking on political and social matters. The stage has been carefully set. As in the old shell game, the victim hasn't a chance. If he lifts the shell over this or that defence, it is always empty; the pea isn't there. It has been arranged that way over a period of time.

isn't there. It has been arranged that way over a period of time,
shell over this or that defense, it is always empty; the best
of shell game, the victim hasn't a chance. If he little the
social matters. The stage has been carefully set. As in the
have become the common coin of his thinking on political and
and of polarizing towards the party the emotional reactions which
nothingness which has been created in the realm of coherent ideas.
The problem of recruitment now becomes one of filling the
party he follows and admires is a Communist.

broadest terms. In many cases he does not even know that the
duite ignorant of the positive Communist position except in the
my counter-position he may once have held. But he is generally
has absorbed attitudes which have corroded the foundations of
followed its line on immediate issues after immediate issues and
etc.), the typical person close to the party has consistently
specifically for this purpose (social events, discussion groups,
try of individual Communists and upon informal activities organized
tingulated from agitation falls largely upon the personal activ-
bBecause in this situation the burden of broCADES as dis-

Recruitment Proper

the next tactical jog occurs.

fact, to be picked up again when the negotiation is negated and
line. Many of those left penning will be there, as a matter of

6-9

[lc]

6 - 10

All logic arising from the positions he has adopted, one by
one, leads to acceptance of the Party's position. Intellectually
he has no resources left for defence.

That, however, does not mean that recruiting is easy, even
when the prospect is judged sufficiently ripe. Emotional factors
will stand in the way; and then there are deep underlying rational
attitudes which have been temporarily put by while the eager mind
of the activist has accepted the specious logic of the existing
situation. These have an uncomfortable way, for the Communist
recruiter, of coming to the surface just at the key moment.

## Techniques of Recruitment

Successful recruiting is almost always the result of direct
personal work. Every Party member worth his salt keeps recruiting
consciously to the fore in the "budget of tasks" which makes up
his daily examination of conscience. The Party stresses regularity
and consistency: "The important thing is to keep after your
people constantly. Do it in a regular, organized manner. Hap-
hazard methods never bring results. Keep checking on your
prospects and keep following through!"⁴

Everyone with whom the Communist is in contact is, at a
greater or less remove, a potential recruit. In the busy routine
of activity this is always kept in mind; and all personal and
social life that is not pure relaxation among Party comrades or

social life that is not pure relaxation among party comrades or of activity this is always kept in mind; and all personal and greater or less remove a potential recruit. In the busy routine of life with whom the Communist is in contact is, at a broadsides and keep following through!⁴⁴

hazard methods never bring results. Keep checking on your people constantly. Do it in a regular, organized manner. Hab- and consistency: " The important thing is to keep after your his daily examination of conscience. The party stresses regularity conscientiously to the core in the "budget of tasks" which makes up personal work. Every Party member worth his salt keeps recruiting successful recruiting is almost always the result of direct

## Techniques of Recruitment

recruiter, of coming to the surface just at the key moment. These have an uncomfortable way, for the Communist of the activist has accepted the sections logic of the existing attitudes which have been temporarily but by while the eager mind will stand in the way; and then there are deep underlying rational when the prospect is judged sufficiently riper. Emotional factors That, however, does not mean that recruiting is easy, even he has no resources left for defence.

one, leads to acceptance of the Party's position. Intellectually All logic arising from the positions he has adopted, one by

9 - 10

[c]

6 - 11

a necessary toll of the external world should be geared to the
end of immediate or eventual recruitment.

In the better-organized units this personal work is systematically directed and supervised. Long lists of contacts are maintained, sometimes divided into several categories, depending upon their closeness to the Party, with a certain number indicated for immediate intensive concentration, while others are for the time to be worked on with less pressure. A portion of every unit meeting is set aside for check-up on the member or members responsible for these individuals and for a report of progress. In units less highly organized, such discussion of "contacts" in specific terms is much more sporadic; in some it is left largely to the initiative of the individual member until a "recruiting drive" comes along, when, under pressure from above, a great flurry of activity takes place in order to attempt to fulfill the quotas established for the drive.

The "drives" do little more than register personal work already done, work specifically shaped to the particular situation of the prospective recruit.⁵ The recruiter has to become a close acquaintance, if possible a friend, of the person upon whom he is working. What he says and does is based on thorough knowledge of the person and arises naturally from day-to-day intercourse, avoiding the appearance of the arbitrary and artificial.

intercourse, avoiding the abhorrence of the arbitrary and artificial.
knowledge of the person and arises naturally from day-to-day
whom he is working. What he says and does is based on thorough
a close acquaintance, if possible a friend, of the person upon
conclusion of the prospective recruit.² The recruiter has to become
already done, work specifically shaped to the particular situ-
ation the "drives" do little more than register personal work
estABLISHED for the drive.

activity takes place in order to attempt to fulfill the quotas
comes along, when, under pressure from above, a great flurry of
initiative of the individual member until a "recruiting drive"
terms is much more favorable; in some it is left largely to the
less highly organized, such discussion of "contacts" in specific
for these individuals and for a report of progress. In units
using it set aside for check-up on the member or members responsible
to be worked on with less pressure. A portion of every unit meet-
 immediate intensive concentration, while others are for the time
 their closeness to the party, with a certain number indicated for
tained, sometimes divided into several categories, depending upon
fully directed and supervised. Long lists of contacts are main-
 In the better-organized units this personal work is systematic
 and of immediate or eventual recruitment.
 a necessary toll of the external world should be geared to the

6 - 11

6 - 12

[LC]

His approach moves from the particular to the general, starting
with the already accepted beliefs, the attitudes, and the per-
sonal problems of the individual concerned; and introduces the
Party position slowly and gradually, step by step, as a develop-
ment which seems to arise naturally from analysis of that person's
own problems. Most of this will take place in the form of personal
conversation. Pamphlets, Marxist-Leninist classics, the Party
press, informal or organized discussion groups, Party-sponsored
classes are used primarily in the later stages and strictly as
ancillary to the central technique of personal discussion.

Furthermore, if the prospective recruit is not already active
in some organization or campaign in which the Party is interested,
it is regarded as of the utmost importance to involve him in one;
if he is already involved, he must be further involved. Likewise
he must be brought into social relations with other Party members
or people close to the Party. He must be "drawn in." This ex-
perience, activity, accustomedness, are the anvil of "practice"
upon which the hammer andvil of "theory" -- propaganda, persuasion,
argument -- strikes its blows.

The precise point at which the final pressures are applied
to bring the prospect finally into the Party varies greatly from
situation to situation and person to person. Where the recruit-
ment is being carried on in a unit which functions in a conspiratorial

ment is being carried on in a way which functions in a contributory
situation to situation and person to person. Where the recruit-
to bring the prospect finally into the party varies greatly from
The precise point at which the final premises are added
argument -- strikes its blows.

upon which the hammer of "theory," -- probabably, persuasion,
persuasion, activity, acuteness, are the small of "practice"
or people close to the party. He must be "drum in." This ex-
he must be brought into social relations with other party members
if he is already involved, he must be further involved. Likewise
it is regarded as of the most importance to involve him in one:
in some organization or campaign in which the party is interested,
Furthermore, if the prospective recruit is not already active
ancillary to the central technique of personal discussion.
classes are used primarily in the later stages and strictly as
press, informal or organized discussion groups, party-appointed
conversation. Pamphlets, Marxist-Leninist classes, the party
own problems. Most of this will take place in the form of personal
ment which seems to arise naturally from analysis of that person's
party position slowly and gradually, step by step, as a develop-
mental problems of the individual concerned; and introduces the
with the already accepted beliefs, the attitudes, and the per-
His approach moves from the particular to the general, starting

[cc]

9 - 15

6 - 13

[LC]

or semi-conspiratorial manner, a much higher degree of "understanding" will be required before the recruiter is allowed by the unit to ask the prospect actually to join the Party. In more open branches, and particularly in more legal periods, much greater chances are taken; and the person's willingness to join on the basis of a general acceptance of the position of the Party is sufficient.

But, whenever it occurs, this is the crucial moment in the recruiting process. There seems to be an almost inevitable tendency on the part of potential recruits, with the exception of the very young and the very naive, to develop a reaction or block just at this stage. It may take any one of a number of forms -- some newly discovered ideological disagreement or a criticism of a specific action of the Party or simply a general evasiveness. This is quite natural, of course; it is a phenomenon which has been noticed by those who have discussed other forms of conversion. It is not only a crucial, but a very dangerous time, from the Party's point of view. Those lost at this point can become almost as inimical to the Party as ex-Communists; or they can remain indefinitely as useful but cynical and critical sympathizers, whose potential for the Party is largely frittered away in a political no-man's-land.

Therefore, at this stage extraordinary efforts are made by the

Therefore, at this stage extraordinary efforts are made by the
way in a political no-man's-land.

sympathizers, whose potential for the party is largely frittered
can remain indefinitely as useful but critical and critical
become almost as imminent to the party as ex-Communists; or they
from the party's point of view. Those lost at this point can
convention. It is not only a crucial, but a very dangerous time,
which has been noticed by those who have discussed other forms of
evacuation. This is quite natural, of course; it is a phenomenon
character of a specific action of the party or imply a General
forms -- some newly discovered ideological disagreement or a
block just at this stage. It may take any one of a number of
of the very young and the very naive, to develop a reaction or
tendency on the part of potential recruits, with the exception
recruiting process. There seems to be an almost inevitable
But, whenever it occurs, this is the crucial moment in the
the party is sufficient.

to join on the parte of a general acceptance of the position of
much greater chances are taken; and the person's willingness
more open branches, and particularly in more legal periods,
the unit to ask the prospect actually to join the party. In
stamping" will be required before the recruiter is allowed by
or semi-conspiratorial manner, a much higher degree of under-

6 - 13

6 - 14

[LC]

Party to assist the recruiter. Leading Party members are called in to help personally in conversation and discussion. This is the time for the liberal use of emotional methods, varying from the impact of large mass meetings to the flattery of inclusion in small and select social events with Party and fellow-travelling dignitaries, or in carefully stage-managed, almost-closed Party meetings, at which there are present only one or two non-members.

In my years in the Party I had considerable experience both with direct recruits of my own and as a Party leader called in to assist with others' recruits. The problems I met with had extraordinary variety; the final block seems to have forms as multifarious as human character and experience, and very often it is hidden beneath a number of false "reasons," which must be disposed of before it comes to the surface.

Sometimes the attitude of a wife or a husband was the determining factor. The easiest -- if not the quickest -- solution in such situations was to recruit the other person, or at least neutralize him or her. Sometimes personal pique about the activities of some Party member working in the same field turned out to be the ultimate objection. To this problem there are three possible answers: either the two individuals can be brought together, under Party auspices, and their difficulties