CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS

<table><thead><tr><th>ELEMENTS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IVORY BLACK</td></tr><tr><td>CHARCOAL BLACK</td></tr><tr><td>LAMP BLACK</td></tr><tr><td>INDIA INK</td></tr><tr><td>GRAPHITE</td></tr><tr><td>SILVER</td></tr><tr><td>GOLD</td></tr><tr><td>PLATINUM</td></tr><tr><td>ALUMINIUM</td></tr></tbody></table>

26

<table><thead><tr><th>OXIDES</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ZINC WHITE</td></tr><tr><td>GREEN OXIDE OF CHROMIUM</td></tr><tr><td>BURNT UMBER</td></tr><tr><td>COBALT GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>COBALT RED</td></tr><tr><td>COBALT BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>COERULEUM</td></tr><tr><td>RED LEAD</td></tr><tr><td>VENETIAN RED</td></tr><tr><td>LIGHT RED</td></tr><tr><td>INDIAN RED</td></tr><tr><td>BURNT SIENNA</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>SULPHIDES</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>CADMIUM YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>KING S YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>REALGAR</td></tr><tr><td>VERMILION</td></tr><tr><td>ULTRAMARINE</td></tr><tr><td>ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE</td></tr><tr><td>GREEN ULTRAMARINE</td></tr><tr><td>RED ULTRAMARINE</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>HYDRATES</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>YELLOW OCHRE</td></tr><tr><td>RAW SIENNA</td></tr><tr><td>RAW UMBER</td></tr><tr><td>EMERALD OXIDE OF CHROMIUM</td></tr><tr><td>MOUNTAIN BLUE</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>CARBONATES</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>FLAKE WHITE</td></tr><tr><td>WHITENING</td></tr><tr><td>BLUE VERDITER</td></tr><tr><td>GREEN VERDITER</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>SILICATES</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>TERRE VERTE</td></tr><tr><td>SMALT</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>CHROMATES</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>BARYTA YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>STRONTIA YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>CHROME YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>ZINC CHROMATE</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>VARIOUS INORGANIC SALTS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>BARYTA WHITE</td></tr><tr><td>LEAD SULPHATE</td></tr><tr><td>AUREOLIN</td></tr><tr><td>NAPLES YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>SCHWEINFURT GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>TUNGSTEN GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>MANGANESE VIOLET</td></tr><tr><td>NURNBERG VIOLET</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th>ORGANIC COMPOUNDS</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>INDIAN YELLOW</td></tr><tr><td>YELLOW LAKE</td></tr><tr><td>GAMBOGE</td></tr><tr><td>PURE ORANGE</td></tr><tr><td>ROSE MADDER</td></tr><tr><td>MADDER CARMINE</td></tr><tr><td>RUBENS MADDER</td></tr><tr><td>MADDER RED</td></tr><tr><td>PURPLE MADDER</td></tr><tr><td>BROWN MADDER</td></tr><tr><td>SCARLET ALIZARIN</td></tr><tr><td>CRIMSON ALIZARIN</td></tr><tr><td>CARMINE</td></tr><tr><td>CRIMSON LAKE</td></tr><tr><td>SCARLET LAKE</td></tr><tr><td>PURPLE LAKE</td></tr><tr><td>SAP GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>VERDEGRIS</td></tr><tr><td>EMERALD GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>INDAGO</td></tr><tr><td>PRUSSIAN BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>ANTWERP BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>BITUMEN</td></tr><tr><td>BISTRE</td></tr><tr><td>SEPIA</td></tr><tr><td>VANDYKE BROWN, B.</td></tr></tbody></table>

CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS

(CHURCH, 249)

MINERAL PIGMENTS {
  NATURAL; as Ochre, Terre Verte, Ultramarine.
  (ARTIFICIAL; as Aureolin, Viridian, Cobalt Blue)

The Mineral Pigments are, as a rule, characterized by a much higher degree of permanence than those of organic origin.

ORGANIC PIGMENTS {
  (ANIMAL; as Indian Yellow, Carmine, Sepia.
  (VEGETABLE; as Gamboge, Sap Green, Indigo.
  (ARTIFICIAL; as Prussian Blue, Verdigris.

ELEMENTS

IVORY BLACK }
CHARCOAL BLACK }
LAMP BLACK } --Contain Carbon.
INDIAN INK
GRAPHITE }

SILVER
GOLD
PLATINUM
ALUMINIUM

BLACKS - All the Black pigments in ordinary use consist of or contain the element Carbon, and are not subject to change.

GRAPHITE - Is a form of Carbon and is unalterable and inert.

GOLD - Is not liable to chemical change.

SILVER - Tarnishes by combination with sulphur.

OXIDES

ZINC WHITE ZnO
GREEN OXIDE OF CHROMIUM Cr2O3
BURNT UMBER Oxides of Fe and Mn.
COBALT GREEN CoO, n ZnO.
COBALT RED CoO, n MgO
COBALT BLUE (Genuine) CoO, n Al2O3
COERULEUM CoO, n SnO2
RED LEAD Pb3O4
VENETIAN RED
LIGHT RED
INDIAN RED
BURNT SIENNA
Chiefly Fe2O3

These have generally been prepared at a high temperature.

Are not easily amenable to chemical or physical change.

They are not liable to affect other pigments, being practically inert.

| SIGN | NAME | VALENCE |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Zn | Zinc | II |
| O | Oxygen | II |
| Cr | Chromium | II, III, IV |
| Fe | Iron | II, III |
| Mn | Manganese | II, IV |
| Co | Cobalt | II |
| Mg | Magnesium | II |
| Al | Aluminium | III |
| Sn | Tin | II, IV |
| Pb | Lead | II, IV |

SULPHIDES

CADMIUM YELLOW CdS
KING'S YELLOW As2S3
REALGAR As2S2
VERMILION HgS
ULTRAMARINE
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE
GREEN ULTRAMARINE
RED ULTRAMARINE
-Contains Si, Al, Na, O, S.

Some of these may give up sulphur to the metalic bases of other pigments.

Thus Cadmium Yellow blackens Emerald Green, producing copper sulphide.

Vermilion is prone to a molecular change, whereby the red crystalline form passes, without chemical alteration into the black amorphous variety.

The members of this group sometimes contain free sulphur, or injurious sulphur compounds.

| SIGN | NAME | VALENCE |
|---|---|---|
| Cd | Cadmium | II |
| S | Sulphur | II, IV, VI |
| As | Arsenic | III, V |
| Hg | Mercury | I, II |
| Si | Silicon | IV |
| Al | Aluminum | III |
| Na | Sodium | I |
| O | Oxygen | II |
| S | Sulphur | II, IV, VI |

9

HYDRATES

YELLOW OCHRE `-----------------Fe₂O₃,nH₂O`

RAW SIENNA `----------------`) ( Oxides and hydrates
                                `--(

RAW UMBER `----------------`) ( of Fe and Mn

EMERALD OXIDE OF CHROMIUM `-------Cr₂O₃, 2H₂O`

MOUNTAIN BLUE `----------------`CuH₂O₂

The water present in these compounds exists in two states,
essential and hygroscopic.

Sometimes a part of the former may be lost, and a change of
hue occur in consequence, but the alteration is rare,
save in the pigments which owe their color to the pre-
sence of copper hydrate.

In the case of RAW UMBER, the water present acts rather in
aiding the oxygen of the air, under the influence of
sunlight, to oxidise some of the peaty or bituminous
matter sometimes present in this pigment.

| SIGN | NAME | VALENCE |
|---|---|---|
| Fe---| Iron---| II, III |
| O-----| Oxygen-| II |
| H-----| Hydrogen-| I |
| Mn---| Manganese-| II, IV |
| Cr---| Chromium--| II, III, IV |
| Cu---| Copper---| I, II |

SILICATES

TERRE VERTE-------------------Silicate of Fe, K, Mg.

SMALT---------------------------Silicate of Co and K

These are generally inert bodies little prone to suffer or
cause change.

Some of the ochreous earths contain silicates of Iron, Manganese, and Alumina, as well as hydrates of the two former metals, and so might be placed in this group.

| SIGN | NAME | VALENCE |
|---|---|---|
| Fe---|Iron-----|II, III |
| K----|Potassium|------|I
| Mg---|Magnesium|------|II
| Co---|Cobalt----|II |

CHROMATES

BARYTA YELLOW BaCrO₄
STRONTIA YELLOW SrCrO₄
CHROME YELLOW PbCrO₄
CHROME RED Pb₂CrO₅
ZINC CHROMATE ZnCrO₄

This group consists of compounds rich in oxygen.

When in contact with some of the more alterable organic pigments (see "Inorganic Salts" page 17) the chromates occasionally lose oxygen.

On account of this they show a tendency to acquire a greenish or grayish hue, the result of the reduction of the red oxide of chromium to the green oxide.

This change is accompanied by a corresponding injury to the color of the organic pigment which has been involved in the reaction.

SIGN NAME VALENCE

Ba----Barium--------II
Cr----Chromium--II,III,IV
O----Oxygen---------II
Sr----Strontium------II
Pb----Lead----------II-IV
Zn----Zinc----------II

17

VARIOUS INORGANIC SALTS

<table><tr><td>BARYTA WHITE</td><td>BaSO<sub>4</sub></td></tr><tr><td>LEAD SULPHATE</td><td>PbSO<sub>4</sub></td></tr><tr><td>AUREOLIN</td><td>K<sub>6</sub>Co<sub>2</sub> 12NO<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td>NAPLES YELLOW</td><td>Contains Pb, Sb, O</td></tr><tr><td>SCHWEINFURT GREEN</td><td>Contains Cu, As, O</td></tr><tr><td>TUNGSTEN GREEN</td><td>Chromium Tungstate</td></tr><tr><td>MANGANESE VIOLET</td><td>Manganese metaphosphate</td></tr><tr><td>NURNBERG VIOLET</td><td>Manganese metaphosphate</td></tr></table>

A number of miscellaneous compounds having no chemical relationship have been thrown into this group.

One, a sulphate, is insoluble and inalterable; (Baryta Wt.)

Another, potassium cobalti-nitrate is generally inert, but owing to its nitrous constituent, acts injuriously upon some organic pigments, notably on Indigo. (Aureolin)

The members of the group which contain Lead or Copper may darken in the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen and of some other sulphur compounds.

SIGN NAME VALENCE

Ba---Barium--------II
S---Sulphur---II, IV, VI
O---Oxygen--------II
Pb---Lead--------II, IV
K---Potassium------I
Co---Cobalt--------II
N---Nitrogen-----III, V
Sb---Antimony-----III, V
Cu---Copper-------I-II
As---Arsenic-----III, IV

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

INDIAN YELLOW
YELLOW LAKE
GAMBOGE
PURE ORANGE
ROSE MADDER
MADDER CARMINE
RUBENS MADDER
MADDER RED
PURPLE MADDER
BROWN MADDER
SCARLET ALIZARIN
CARMINE
CRIMSON LAKE
SCARLET LAKE
PURPLE LAKE
SAP GREEN
VERDEGRIS
EMERALD GREEN
INDIGO
PRUSSIAN BLUE
ANTWERP BLUE
BITUMEN
BISTRE
SEPIA
VANDYKE BROWN,B.

Not one of the members of this group possesses the perman
ency belonging to the majority of the mineral pigments.

Some are wholly fugative.

The fading generally due to the combined action of the
water and oxygen. In oily and resonous media it is lessemed,
retarded or even prevented by the hydrofuge character of
these vehicles.

NOTE ON THE FOREGOING CLASSIFICATION

It should be noted that the members of each group, though presenting one or more characters in common, often exhibit certain chemical and physical differences of deportment.

Here is a list of the chief changes which they are capable of suffering, with illustrative examples:

MOLECULAR REARRANGEMENT (VERMILION, CADMIUM SULPHIDE)

VOLATILIZATION - KING'S YELLOW

SUBSIDENCE - SMALLT

SOLUTION - (STRONTIA YELLOW, AUREOLIN)

FUSION - ASPHALT

OXIDATION - (CARMINE, VANDYKE BROWN)

REDUCTION - (NAPLES YELLOW, CHROMATES)

SULPHURATION - (WHITE LEAD, EMERALD GREEN)

One of the chief lessons to be learned from this classification is this:

EFFECT ON EACH OTHER OF MEMBERS OF EACH CLASS
That the members of each class, as a general rule, exert no action on one another.

This is explained easily:

EFFECT OF OXIDES ON OXIDES
The oxides of the "Oxide Group" having already taken up the full compliment of oxygen which they can acquire under ordinary conditions, are not likely to be oxidized by admixture with other oxides of similar character.

EFFECT OF SULPHIDES ON SULPHIDES
In the same manner the sulphides of the "Sulphide Group" neither give sulphur to, nor receive it from the other sulphides, for all but one have been produced in the presence of excess of sulphur.

23

CHURCH'S CLASSIFIED PIGMENTS
FOR OIL PAINTING.

(Church's book 1901) ======== (Church, page 258)

CLASS I

CLASS II

CLASS III

WHITE WHITE

Baryta White

Zinc White

Flake White

YELLOW

Yellow Ochre

Raw Sienna

Naples Yellow

Cadmium Yellow

Cadmium Orange

Aureolin

Baryta Yellow

Indian Yellow

Strontia Yellow

Chrome Yellow

King's Yellow

Yellow Madder

Brown Pink; Yel. Lake

Gamboge

Zinc Chromate

RED

Vermilion

Indian Red

Light Red

Venetian Red

Red Ochre

Madder Carmine

Rubens Madder

Rose Madder

Madder Red

Purple madder

Crimson Lake

Carmine

Burnt Carmine

Indian Lake

Scarlet Lake

Purple Lake

VIOLET

Cobalt Violet

Manganese Violet

Mars violet

Violet carmine

GREEN

Em. Ox. of Chromium

Green Ox, of "

Cobalt Green

Green Ultramarine

Emerald Green

TerreVerte

Malachite

Madder Green

Verdegris

Sap Green

Green Vermilion, etc.

BLUE

Ultramarine

Artificial Ultram.

Cobalt

Coeruleum

Smalt

Prussian Blue

Antwerp Blue

Indigo

Blue Verditer

Blue Ochre

BROWNS AND BLACKS

Burnt Sienna

Raw Umber

Burnt Umber

Cappagh Brown

Verona Brown

Prussian Brown

Ivory Black

Charcoal Black

Lamp Black

Graphite

Madder Brown

Cologne Earth

Bitumen

Vandyke Brown,A.

(earthy)

Vandyke Brown,B.

(bitumenous)

CLASS I - Includes the truly permanent pigments.

CLASS II - Those which, though liable to a variable measure
change, may yet generally be allowed.

CLASS III - Should be definitely excluded from the palette.

CHURCH 258 - ***One example of this difficulty of classification - AUREOLIN is almost worthy of place in Class I, Indian Y. scarcely deserves inclusion in Class II. The action of mixed pigments on one another, though not as frequent as it is supposed to be, creates another difficulty in our classification - so also does the medium employed in the painting

NOTES in reference to

TOCH'S LIST OF COLORS

on opposite page.

I note in Toch's list that he repeats Burnt Umber twice.
twice.

He omits Yellow Ochre, unless he intends "Burnt Umber and
Umber and all oxide of iron browns" to include
Yellow Ochre. (Y.O. is not, however, an oxide - it is a Hydrate.)

(In his footnote he refers to Yellow Ochre as
a reason to exclude the madders from the list.)

Light Red is also not in the list.

Possibly he intends Light Red as one of the "oxide
of iron browns"

Note that OCHRE occurs in the list lower on the page
(quoted from his page 186. - This quotation is
without abbreviation, complete.)

Note also that he includes the native and artificial
ULTRAMARINES, notwithstanding his comment elsewhere
that "ultramarine should be kept away from colors
containing lead, copper and IRON."

Note that ULTRAMARINE BLUES occur in both the lists
(see opposite page)

TOCH'S LIST OF PERMANENT PIGMENTS.

TOCH 175 - List of pigments which can be mixed with each other or used separately, and which are not affected by light, nor do they interact on each other:

LAMP BLACK

IVORY BLACK

GRAPHITE

PLUMBAGO - Or any form of carbon or carbonaceous blacks.

ZINC WHITE - or any form of oxide of zinc.

PERMANENT WHITE - or any form of artificial barium sulphate.

VENETIAN RED

INDIAN RED

BURNT UMBER

RAW UMBER

RAW SIENNA

BURNT SIENNA

MARS REDS. ORANGE. BROWN AND PURPLE.

OXIDE OF CHROMIUM. TRANSPARENT.

OXIDE OF CHROMIUM. VIRIDIAN.

TERRE VERTE

VERMILIONS MADE OF SULPHIDE OF MERCURY

ULTRAMARINE BLUES. NATIVE OR ARTIFICIAL.

BROWN. BURNT UMBER AND ALL OXIDE OF IRON BROWNS.

CADMIUM YELLOW TO ORANGE.

TOCH 175 - From a chemical standpoint these are practically the only colors which may be mixed with each other that will not react, and I have promptly omitted an number of so called permanent colors in this schedule, such as, for instance, the madder colors, which I find will decompose when mixed with ochres, as well as if a faint trace of acid is left in the oil.

I have omitted the Madder Lakes, for although they are permanent, they cannot be indiscriminately mixed with other pigments.

TOCH 186 -

THE PIGMENTS WHICH ARE ABSOLUTELY PERMANENT WHEN USED ALONE BUT ARE NOT PERMANENT WHEN MIXED WITH OTHER COLORS.

MADDER LAKE

HARRISON RED

ANTWERP BLUE

ULTRAMARINE BLUE

PRUSSIAN BLUE

COBALT BLUE

PARIS BLUE

HOOKER'S GREEN (when made from

VERMILION (made from sulphide of mercury)

prussian blue & raw sienna

PARA RED

OCHRE

LITHOL RED

FLAKE WHITE

The foregoing list of colors must be used with some judgment. Many of these colors are permanent when mixed with some other colors, but decompose when mixed with each other. For instance, Yellow Ochre and Madder Lake when used alone are permanent, yet the two when mixed will decompose.

(See page opposite)

JACQUES BLOCKX Fils

"SERIES OF PERMANENT COLORS OF THE SAME NATURE WHICH CAN BE INTERMIXED WITHOUT ANY DANGER" - p.89

<table><tr><td>LIGHT (ENGLISH) RED</td><td>GOLDEN OCHRE</td><td>"And in general, all natural or calcined ochres and earths, provided they are suitably purified."</td></tr><tr><td>MARS RED</td><td>MARS YELLOW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>VENETIAN RED</td><td>ITALIAN EARTH</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>POZZOLES RED</td><td>MARS VIOLET</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>INDIAN RED</td><td>BROWN OCHRE</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>BURNT SIENNA</td><td>OCHRE "BRUNE MATE" (Dull Brown)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MARS ORANGE</td><td>MARS BROWN</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MARS SCARLET</td><td>MARS YELLOW &amp; ORANGE</td><td>TRANSPARENT BROWN</td></tr><tr><td>MARS YELLOW OCHRE</td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

"SERIES OF PERMANENT COLORS OF DIFFERENT NATURE WHICH DO NOT DETERIORATE IN AN APPRECIABLE MANNER WHEN INTERMIXED" -p.90

<table><tr><td>LIGHT (ENGLISH) RED</td><td>LIGHT OLIVE GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>MARS RED</td><td>MARIE COLLART GREENS</td></tr><tr><td>VENETIAN RED</td><td>LAMORINIERE GREEN</td></tr><tr><td>POZZOLES RED</td><td>COBALT BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>INDIAN RED</td><td>COERULIUM BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>BURNT SIENNA</td><td>GUIMET'S ULTRAMARINE BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>MARS ORANGE</td><td>MARS VIOLET</td></tr><tr><td>MARS SCARLET</td><td>MARS BROWN</td></tr><tr><td>MARS YELLOW-ORANGE</td><td>TRANSPARENT BROWN</td></tr><tr><td>Cadmium Orange</td><td>CASSEL EARTH</td></tr><tr><td>ITALIAN EARTH</td><td>IVORY BLACK</td></tr><tr><td>VERONESE GREEN*</td><td>BLUE BLACK</td></tr><tr><td>GELADON GREEN</td><td></td></tr></table>

*The "VERONESE GREEN" in Block's usage of the name is EMERALD OXIDE OF CHROMIUM (Hydrated oxide of chromium) the most permanent of all the colors.

(In Block's book it is called VERTE EMERAUDE, in the translation from which these notes are taken it is VERONESE G. It is the same as VIRIDIAN)

"COLORS WHICH TEND TO DISCOLOR WHEN THEY ARE MIXED WITH BLANC D'ARGENT" -p.92

DEEP MADDER LAKES PERMANENT MADDER CARMINE
PURPLE MADDER LAKES CASSEL EARTH

"COLORS WHICH TEND TO BLACKEN BLANC D'ARGENT AND WHICH CONSEQUENTLY SHOULD BE MIXED WITH ZINC WHITE." -p.92

VERMILION
VERMILION

CHINA CINNABARS

"COLORS WHICH DETERIORATE WHEN MIXED WITH IRON COMPOUNDS" -p.92
COBALT VIOLET

WINSOR & NEWTON'S LIST - 1919

CLASS I

CLASS I* -- The pigments marked thus may be considered absolutely permanent under all ordinary co conditions of oil painting.

CLASS I -- These are good sound colors, but their per manence depends to a certain extent on the conditions of their use and exposure. They may in fact, be regarded as practical ly permanent under careful treatment.

CLASS I# -- Permanent on exposure to light, etc., but sullied in an atmosphere containing sulph- uretted hydrogen, and yellowed by reaction with the oil medium.

CLASS I## - Permanent on exposure to light, etc., but sullied in an atmosphere containing sulphuretted hydrogen.

The colors in CLASS I are all of good permanence and they may be mixed together ad libitum without injury, with the possible exception of:

1 - <u>AUREOLIN</u> with <u>MADDER LAKES</u>
<u>ALIZARIN LAKES</u>

2 - <u>PRUSSIAN BLUE</u> with <u>VERMILIONS</u>
<u>CADMIUMS.</u>

According to some authorities even these mixtures are
perfectly safe.

<u>SPECTRUM RED</u>, <u>SPECTRUM VIOLET</u> and <u>SPECTRUM YELLOW</u> do not appear in the W. & N. List, But as they are products of W.&N., listed elsewhere as very durable,and as they belong to the artificial alizarins, it appears that they should have place in CLASS I (without a star*)

37

MADDER - ALIZARIN

CLASS

Organic compounds

COMPOSITION

Madder= Made from the Madder Root.

Alizarin(or artificial Madder) = ***The Manufacture by artificial means from the anthracene of coal tar of the two cheif coloring matters, Alizarin and Purpurin, has almost extinguished the cultivation of the Madder Plant in Europe.

Both Alizarin and Purpurin are now manufactured artificially from anthracene. This compound which boccurs in coal tar, is a crystalline flourescent hydrocarbon, C₁₄H₁₀. By a series of processes this substance gives rise to Alizarin and Purpurin, which are in all respects identical with these coloring matters as derived from the Madder Plant itself. --Church, 170--178

PERMANENCE

CHURCH 176 - Although the Madder colors are very much less affected by light than are the pigments derived from Cochineal, yet it cannot be affirmed that any of them are absolutely permanent when continuously exposed.

TOCH 85 - Alizarin or Madder Lake may be considered as permanent color under certain conditions
******After a lapse of three centuries have shown that this color, when used intelegently, is permanent.

******Used as glaze over thorough dry color, it will remain permanent.

******If Madder or Alizarin Lake is mixed with an any mineral or metalic color such as OCHRE, LEAD SIENNA, etc., a chemical decomposition takes place, with the result that the Lake is bleached

Madder Lake may be mixed with any oxide of iron color which has been burnt, but may not be mixed with any raw Iron color.

TUSCAN RED

Madder or Alizarin may be mixed with INDIAN RED, forming a color known as TUSCAN RED, which is perfectly permanent.

May be mixed with Burnt Sienna, Burnt Ochre, Burnt Umber, etc., But not with Raw Ochre, Raw Sienna, or Raw Umber.

The safest use is to glaze over thoroughly dry ground.

Madder Lake deepens considerably when placed in a dark place. But is revived when subjected to bright sun light.

REFERENCES

Real and artificial Madders, Make, Origin.

CHURCH -Permanence 176 - TESTS - 177, 346, 52, 152

LEMON YELLOW- 152

ON THE USE OF MADDERS WITH OTHER PIGMENTS 265

TOCH - 132, 151, 155. 86. 168. 85

MADDER - ALIZARIN , Continued

Toch, 86

COLORS WITH WHICH

MADDER & ALIZARIN

MAY BE SAFELY MIXED

Black Lead
Ivory Black
Lamp Black
Carbon Black
Indian Red
Mars Red
Burnt Sienna
Burnt Ochre
Light Red
Burnt Umber
Quick Silver
Vermilion
Cadmium Yellow
(Church 152) *
(LemonYellow)

Toch, 86

COLORS WITH WHICH

MADDER & ALIZARIN

MAY NOT BE MIXED

Flake White )
Zinc White )
Chrome Yellow )
Chrome Green )
Naples Yellow )

Lead )
Yellow Ochre )
Raw Sienna )
Raw Umber )
Mars Brown )
Mars orange )
Mars Yellow )
Zinc Yellow )
Primrose Yellow )
Aureolin ** )

All these bleach madder or alizarin.

Decompose Madders

and alizarins

Bleach

But

permanent if glazed over dry color

\* - In reference to the above LEMON YELLOW:

CHURCH 152 - Lemon Yellow may be safely associated with Madder Carmine.

\*\* - The above AUREOLIN does not belong to the Toch list, but is referred to by the manufacturer as follows:

Winsor & Newton 26 - Mixing Aureolin with Madder Lake and Alizarin is questionable.

OTHER NAMES
OF MADDERS
AND
ALIZARINS

PINK MADDER

MADDER CARMINE

RUBENS MADDER

MADDER LAKE

CARMIN DE GARANCE

KRAPP-LACK

ROSE MADDER

MADDER RED

MADDER PURPLE

MADDER BROWN

LAQUE DE GARANCE

ALIZARIN CARMINE. CRIMSON. SCARLET. BLUE.
GREEN. ORANGE. PURPLE. YELLOW.

51

VENETIAN RED

33
POSITION
REFERENCES

Oxides
Chiefly Fe₂O₃
Church 179, 180
Toch 168

ORIGIN

Church 179 - Originally Venetian Red consisted of a native ferric oxide or red haematite, less purple than Indian Red.

Of recent years the name has been transferred to a particular quality of artificial ferric oxide, made by calcining green vitrol.

Toch 168 - Venetian Red is a pure bright form of oxide of iron.

The Venetian Red of commerce is a mixture of Gypsum and oxide of iron more permanent than pure oxide of iron, neither fades or darkens,* but should not be mixed with any Lakes.

(Church's book is 1901, Toch's 1911)

PERMANENCE

Church 180 - Few commercial samples will stand the test of being free from soluable salts and from any trace of sulphates.

Church 180 - Venetian Red whether artificial or natural, is a permanent pigment which may be mixed with other permanent pigments without fear of injuring them.

Toch 168 - Permanent. Dries well. Reliable. But has tendency to darken when exposed to bright light. (See above*)

EFFECT ON
LAKES

Decomposes Lakes.

53

INDIAN RED

**CLASS** Oxides
**COMPOSITION** Chiefly Fe2 O3
**REFERENCES** Church 180
Toch 131

**ORIGIN** Church 180 - Contains about 95% of ferric oxide
Is a variety of Red Ochre, or Red Haematite.
Most of the Indian Red from India is a natural product, but some has been prepared by calcination.

Toch 131 - Is true oxide of iron. Contains no water in its combination.

**PERMANENCE** Church 180 - Genuine Indian Red perfectly permanent.
No action on other colors.

**OPACITY** Toch 131 - Extremely Permanent. Dries well.
Has enormous hiding power (opacity).

**AS GROUND FOR FLESH TINTS** Is very reliable when mixed with Zinc Oxide to produce a ground for flesh tints - Toch 131

**EFFECT ON LAKES** Indian Red does not decompose Madder Lake.

**DIFFERENT TONES OF INDIAN RED** There are many tones of Indian Red.
Some produce a violet when mixed with White, and others a distinct pink or rouge.

**RELATION TO TUSCAN AND POMPEIIAN RED** When Indian Red is tinted with Madder it is sometimes called TUSCAN or POMPEIIAN RED

**RELATION TO MARS VIOLET** Mars V. is very dark form of Crocus Martis, or Indian Red. Is nothing more or less than a purple oxide of iron. Very durable. Dries well. Is permanent to light. - Toch 141

**COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MAKES OF INDIAN RED** R. H. - (Feb. 1920) - Differing tones of I.R.
Hatfield's - Quite warm
Winsor & Newton's - violet
Rembrandt - violet
Cambridge - Much more violet, being almost equal in violet tint with Winsor & Newton's Mars Violet.

57

BURNT UMBER

**CLASS** Oxides

**Composition** Oxides of Fe and Mn.

**REFERENCES** Church p. 229
Toch p. 100

**ORIGIN** Church 229 - Burnt Umber is Raw Umber calcined. Raw Umber is not an ordinary ochre but owes its color to manganese.
Toch p. 100 - Similar to Burnt Sienna.

**PERMANENCE** Church p. 229 - Permanent. No action on stable pigments.

**DRYING** Toch p. 100 - Permanent and reliable.
One of the best drying pigments in existence.

**AS A BACKGROUND COLOR** Many painters mix Burnt Umber with their pigments for producing dark backgrounds in order to obtain a good drying surface.

**CRACKING** Carev must be exercised not to paint it over a soft or semi dry ground or cracks will result.

**EFFECT ON LAKES** Safe with Lakes.

59

BURNT SIENNA

CLASS
COMPOSITION

Oxides.
Chiefly Fe₂O₃

CHURCH 231 -

Raw Sienna roasted or calcinated becomes Fer-
ric oxide.

TOCH 99 - ***Very much similar in composition to BURNT OCHRE, excepting that its content of oxide of iron is very much larger, and the physical characteristics differ from those of Ochre. Ochre opaque, Bt. Sienna translucent.

PERMANENCE

TOCH 100 -

One of the most permanent colors in existence excepting the lighter shades which have not been so well calcined. These have a strong tendency to darken and become redder.

EFFECT ON
LAKES

Can be mixed with Lake Colors.

Exceedingly rich tints are produced by glazing Lakes over dry Sienna, which are absolutely permanent, provided the Lake itself is permanent.

CHURCH 231 - Permanent and without action on other pigments.

TOCH 100 - Bt. Sienna is excellent drier.

Will mix with almost every other perm. color.

THE MARS
COLORS

TOCH 100 - The Mars Colors are nearly all artificial siennas and are just as permanent.

RELATION OF
MARS ORANGE
TO BT. SIENNA

Mars Orange is similar to Bt. Sienna, sometimes called "Extract of Bt. Sienna" because it is composed entirely of hydrated oxide of iron properly precipitated and washed.

Mars Orange is identical with ordinary iron rust. - TOCH 140

EFFECT OF
MARS O. on LAKES

Decomposes Lakes. - Toch 140

CRACKS

Hard drier and tendency to crack. - Toch 140

Darkens on exposure. - Toch 140

OTHER FAULTS
OF
MARS ORANGE

Tones mixed with White have tendency to sadden on exposure. - Toch 140

MARS ORANGE

CLASS
COMPOSITION
REFERENCES

Toch p. 140 - Church 157

ORIGIN

Toch p. 140 - Composed entirely of hydrated oxide of iron which has been properly precipitated and washed.

It is identical with ordinary Iron Rust.

PERMANENCE

Toch p. 140 - Very hard drier. Has tendancy to crack.

Darkens on extreme exposure.

When mixed with White saddens on exposure.

EFFECT ON
LAKES

Decomposes Lakes.

RELATION TO
BURNT SIENNA

Has sometimes been called Extract of Burnt Sienna.

63

RAW SIENNA

**CLASS** Hydrates.

**COMPOSITION** Oxides and hydrates of Fe and Mn.

**REFERENCES** See Church229,252.254, See Toch p. 154

**ORIGIN** Church p. 229 - Is an earth, found chiefly in Tuscany and the Hartz. Is a rich variety of Yellow Ochre. Contains large proportion ferric hydrate.

**PERMANENCE** Church p. 230 - Liable to become rather less brown and more yellow by long exposure to strong light. Without action on other pigments.

**EFFECT ON LAKES** Toch p. 154 - Safe with all colors except the Lake Colors.

**RELATION TO MARS YELLOW** Mars Yellow is sometimes called extract of Yel. Ochre or extract of Raw Sienna, because it is composed of the coloring matter of these two pigments. Very like Raw Sienna. Is permanent, dries well and is translucent. ---Toch p. 141

**PERMANENCE** Toch p. 154 - One of the safest colors to use. Works well with every color, except the Lakes. Is four times as strong as Yel. Ochre -- that it is, contains four times as much iron. Absolutely permanent with the possible exception that it darkens very slightly after many years.

Refer to Blocks objection to R.S. p. 29.111

YELLOW OCHRE

**CLASS** Hydrates
**COMPOSITION** $Fe_2O_3$, $nH_2O$

CHURCH 138 - Yellow ochre is a ferric hydrate (Red Ochre is ferric oxide)

CHURCH 139 - An analysis of a fine example of Yellow ochre from a pit on Shotover Hill near Oxford gave the following percentages:

<table><tr><td>Hygroscopic moisture</td><td>--7'1</td><td>Magnesia</td><td>0'3</td></tr><tr><td>Combined water</td><td>9'0</td><td>Silica</td><td>6'5</td></tr><tr><td>Ferric oxide</td><td>13'2</td><td>Calcium sulphate</td><td>1'4</td></tr><tr><td>Alumina</td><td>6'3</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>1'2</td></tr></table>

The varying hues of Yellow Ochres depend mainly on two differences of composition.

One of these is the amount of white clay, silica, calcium sulphate, or barium sulphate present in them. This lightens the color.

The other is the presence of ferric oxide which gives them a ruddier or warmer hue.

All ochres when burnt - that is, calcined - lose their essential water, and become converted into various kinds of Red Ochre, Light Red, etc.

The varieties which contain much silica and clay (ingrediends which, even in good yellow ochres, often amount to two thirds of their weight) yield the less translucent and paler tints of some of the burnt red ochres.

Excellent Ochres come from Dubbo, New South Wales.

English Ochres from Oxfordshire and Derbyshire, etc., are of fine quality. --CHURCH 139

**HISTORY** CHURCH 140, 141

Yellow Ochre was used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans

***Stood with very little change test of centuries.

***Slightly darker and warmer after prolonged exposure to light.

**PERMANENCE** CHURCH - Yellow Ochre is without action on other pigments.

It is possible that ochre may injure the hue of some lakes, such as YELLOW LAKE, and CRIMSON LAKE *** but as such Lakes

are Worthless***** --CHURCH 141

**EFFECT ON LAKES**

R.H. -Judging from the above Church allows the mixing of Yellow Ochre with Madders and Alizarins.

TOCH 138 - The Madders are all permanent except when mixed with the OCHRE and sienna pigments, white lead, chrome Yellow, chrome green and metalic pigments of that nature.

TOCH 171 - Iron rust - Native clay colored with about 20% of

CADMIUM

71

**CLASS** Sulphides
**COMPOSITION** CdS
**REFERENCES** Toch 101
Church 250(M. Paul de Lapparent), 142
C, Moreau-Vauthier 167

**OTHER NAMES** Aurora Yellow Orient Yellow
**FOR** Daffodil Orange Cadmium
**CADMIUM** Sulphide of Cadmium Jaune Brilliant
Cadmium Gelb Jaune de Cadmium
CADMIUM RED

**ORIGIN**

Church 142 - The metal Cadmium, which is nearly related to Zinc both chemically and physically, was discovered by Stromeyer in 1817.

Church 142 - To one compound only of cadmium, the sulphide, are due all the hues and tints from the palest lemon cadmium to the firey orange-red. This compound is CdS, and contains 112 parts by weight of cadmium to 32 parts of sulphur.

Toch 101 - All the Cadmium Colors are manufactured by precipitating a salt of Cadmium with a salt containing a sulphide, so that the Cadmiums are sulphides of cadmium.

According to the speed of precipitation, temperature of the solutions, admixture of acids or alkalies, all shades from brilliant yellow to the deepest orange are found.

**PERMANENCE** Toch 101 - Cadmium Yellow may be regarded as a perfectly permanent pigment.

**DRYING** Toch 101 - The Cadmiums are slow but reliable driers and may be mixed with all other chemic al pigments, even Flake White, without decomposing.

**PERMANENCE WITH FLAKE W.**

Much has been written on the supposed reactions which take place between this and other pigments.

**PERMANENCE WITH WHITE LEAD**

It is said, though being a sulphide, it should not be mixed with a Lead Color, because the sulphur in the Cadmium would combine with the lead with a blackening effect.

Ordinarily this is not so. Cadmium Sulphide is a very stable chemical compound and will not give up its sulphur as readily as ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE BLUE will, for instance.

There should be no hesitancy in using Cadmium

77

AUREOLIN

**CLASS** Inorganic Salts.

CHURCH 148 - ***compound of the nitrates of Cobalt and Potassium

**OTHER NAMES** Cobalt yellow.

**PERMANENCE** CHURCH 148 149 150

Does not fade or darken in sunlight --- whatever darkening due to oil.

Good drier when properly prepared.

O. K. with VIRIDIAN. p, 194

VIRIDIAN with Aureolin produces fine colors.

LEMON YELLOW may be safely associated with Aureolin.

CHARCOAL BLACK yields with Aureolin a series of greens quite distinct from mixing same with Ivory Black.

**EFFECT ON LAKES**

CHURCH refers to the effect of Aureolin on the Lakes by saying that that Aureolin accelerates the fading of fugacious organic pigments, such as the Lakes from Cochineal.

Generally Church speaks highly of Aureolin.

WINSOR & NEWTON 26 - Mixing Aureolin and Madder Lake or Alizarin is questionable.

Mixtures of Aureolin with organic pigments should be regarded with suspicion.

**TOCH 90 -**

Its permanence depends entirely on its purity.

TOCH admits that there is a variation of opinion as to its permanence.

Some claim that it is absolutely permanent in both water and oil.

Others claim that it decomposes with a White.

If the color is thoroughly washed by the manufacturer after it is precipitated in order to free it from soluble salts, it may be regarded as absolutely permanent, because it is not affected by sulphur gases nor by sun light.

If impure, will decompose Lakes, and when mixed with raw linseed oil, looses brilliancy in short time. There are several good manufacturers of this pigment, whose Au, may be used and regarded as absolutely permanent. For safety sake it is advisable to use it alone and not mix it with any Lake pigment. Lake glazed over it, after it is dry, does not affect either the Lake or the Aureolin.

The evidence for good and for bad is about even,

1926 - observe that after 7 years the above note of aureolin has not dried.

79

LEMON YELLOW

**OTHER NAMES**
BARYTA YELLOW
YELLOW ULTRAMARINE
JAUNE D'OUTREMER

**BARIUM CHROMATE**
PERMANENT YELLOW

**CLASS**
Chromates.

**CHURCH**
Church 152 -
Of all the Chromates which have been used in
painting BARIUM CHROMATE is the most stable.

Lemon Yellow is Barium Chloride and Potassium Chromate.

**PERMANENCE**
Properly prepared Lemon Yellow may be mixed
with most other stable pigments without suffering change.

It is not blackened by sulpheretted hydrogen

**EFFECT ON**
**LAKES. ETC.**
May be safely associated with AUREOLIN, with
MADDER CARMINE and with PRUSSIAN BLUE.

**SUBSTITUTES**
Stroncian Chromate is often substituted for
true Lemon Yellow and is less reliable.

**ADULTERATIONS**
The most common adulteration of Lemon Yellow
is with pale Chrome which blackens under
sulpheretted hydrogen.

LEMON YELLOW

TOCH

**COMPOSITION**
Toch 137 - Lemon Yellow may be either:
CHROMATE OF BARIUM or
CHROMATE OF STRONTIUM

**PERMANENCE**
Is similar to Chromate of Zinc, in many
respects. May be regarded as a reliable,
permanent color.

**EFFECT WITH**
**SIENNAS AND**
**OCHRES**
Can be mixed with almost every color, excepting those containing hydrated oxide of iron
such as Siennas and Ochres.

It cannot supplant ZINC YELLOW and may there
fore be omitted.

81

ZINC YELLOW

**OTHER NAMES** Primrose Yellow ---- Zinc Chromate

**CLASS** Chromate&.

**COMPOSITION** ZnCrO₄ (zinc chromate), or

**Composition Various** Toch 151 - May be pale variety of CHROMATE OF ZINC.

or a mixture of CHROMATE OF ZINC and CHROMATE of BARIUM.

or CHROMATE OF ZINC and OXIDE of ZINC.

**PERMANENCE** Toch 151 - In any of the above cases it is a safe, permanent, reliable color.

Dries fairly well, particularly when exposed to light.

Not affected by sulphur gasses.

**EFFECT ON LAKES**

Cannot be mixed with a lake color.

**PRIMROSE YELLOW**

Church, 152 - (from Church's remarks under Lem.)

Y.)

ZINC CHROMATE and CALCIUM CHROMATE are yellow pigments of inferior value.

A mixture of ZINC CHROMATE with BARIUM CHROMATE is sold as "Primrose Yellow".

83

VIRIDIAN

OTHER NAMES

EMERALD OXIDE OF CHROMIUM
VERTE EMERAUDE
VERTE DE GUIGNET
VERTE PANNETIER
MITTLER'S GREEN

CLASS

COMPOSITION

Hydrates.

$$Cr_2O_3 \cdot 2H_2O$$

Church 194 - ***About 8 parts crystalised
Boric Acid and 3 parts of potassium bichromate
mixed, calcined, washed.

The product is a hydrated chromium sesquioxide

Viridian is essentially a hydrated sesquioxide
of chromium.

TOCH 170 - ***Form of chrome oxide***has all
charietactics of oxide of chromium, and has
the same chemical composition with the addit-
ion of water as a hydrate, or water of combi-
nation.

PERMANENCE

CHURCH 194 -

Unaffected by sunlight.

Unaffected by sulpheretted hydrogen.

Can be used with all the different painting
media, and upon all kinds of painting grounds.

No action on other pigments.

TOCH 170 -

Thoroughly safe and reliable.

When exposed to light does not show any per-
ceptable change.

Not affected by any gasses in the atmosphere.
Dries well.

EFFECT ON
Lakes

Safe with madders and all colors.

CHURCH 194 - ***Produces fine colors with
AUREOLIN and ULTRAMARINE.

VIRIDIAN

(EMERALD OXIDE OF CHROMIUM.)

OTHER NAMES

VIRIDIAN

EMERALD OXIDE OF CHROMIUM

VERONESE GREEN

VERTE EMERAUDE

VERTE PANNETIER

VERTE DE GUIGNET

MITTLER'S GREEN

CLASS

HYDRATES.

COMPOSITION

Church 194 - Viridian is essentially a hydrated sesquioxide of chromium having the formula $Cr_2O_3 \cdot 2H_2O$

Toch 170 - Form of Chrome Oxide.

Has all the characteristics of oxide of Chromium with the addition of water as a hydrate or water of combination.

WINSOR & NEWTON 16 - A hydrated and very transparent variety of Chromium Sesquioxide

HISTORY

Winsor & Newton 16 - Originally introduced by our house.

Church 194 - Pannetier and Binet 1830
Later by Guignet.

PERMANENCE

CHURCH 195 - Quite unaffected by sunlight and a sulphuretted hydrogen, has no action on other pigments, may be safely used with all painting media and on all kinds of painting grounds.

TOCH 170 - Safe and reliable.

Dries well.

Safe to sunlight and not affected by any gasses in the atmosphere.

87

RAW UMBER

**CLASS** - Hydrates.

**COMPOSITION** - Oxides and hydrates of Fe and Mn.

**REFERENCES** - See Church p. 227, 252, 254, See Toch p. 155,

**ORIGIN** - Earth found in Italy, Germany, Cypress, Turkey, England. Variation of shade from a light yellowish olive to a very deep brownish green.

**BEST QUALITY** - Church p.227 - Best variety from Cyprus.

**PERMANENCE** - Church p. 228 - Raw Umber is permanent when used with each and any painting media. The slight yellowish or dull aspect when it acquires in oil may be traced to the augmented translucency of the paint, and to the yellowing of the associated oils.

**RELATION TO RAW SIENNA** - Toch p. 155 - Is somewhat similar to Raw Sienna, with the exception that it contains manganese. It is permanent when used alone and permanent when mixed with Blacks, Umbers, Siennas, Ochres, and Zinc White.

**MIXABILITY**

**DRYING** - Church p. 227 - Works and drys well in oil.

**EFFECT ON LAKES** - Toch p. 155 - Decomposes Lakes.

**RELATION TO MARS BROWN** - Toch p. 140 - Mars Brown is similar to Raw Umber in composition, Natural color, unburnt, very good dryer, decomposes Lakes. Of itself perfect ly permanent.

**PERMANENCE** - 
- **DECAUX'S LIST, (CHURCH 260)** - In Decaux's list of Colors graduated from 1 (permanent) to 45 ( fugitive) Raw Umber is placed as low as 15 (see page 25 this root.)
- **BLOCKX. (Blockx Compendium)** page 13 - Blockx classes Raw Umber as for artists use. (see page 29 this o.)
- **RH** - notwithstanding these authorities the evidence of the other authorities and the History of Raw Umber on artists palettes and on paintings from a very powerful defence.

89

MARS BROWN

**CLASS** Hydrates.

**COMPOSITION** Oxides and Hydrates of Fe and Mn.

**REFERENCES** Toch p. 140 - Church p.157

**ORIGIN** Similar to Raw Umber.

**PERMANENCE** Toch p. 140 - Of itself it is perfectly permanent. Is a very good drier.

**EFFECT ON LAKES** Decomposes Lakes.

**RELATION TO RAW UMBER** Similar.

GENUINE ULTRAMARINE

**OTHER NAMES**
Lapis Lazuli Blau --- Lasurstein Blau ---
Outremer --- Bleu d'Azur.

**CLASS**
Sulphides.

**COMPOSITION**
Contains Si, Al, Na, O, S.
Ultramarine Blue whether it is genuine or artificial is chemically the same. ---TOCH 163
Genuine Ultramarine Blue is the powdered mineral known as Lapis Lazuli ---TOCH 163
For description of, and manufacture of Lapis Lazuli Blue, see CHURCH 203

**PERMANENCE**
TOCH 163 - The only advantage that the genuine has over the artificial is that the genuine is not so quickly affected by acids as the artificial is.

Toch 112 - Ultramarine is exceedingly permanent except when mixed with another pigment which contains Lead, like

Flake White.

White Lead.

Chrome Yellow.

Chrome Green.

It should be kept away from colors containing
Copper,
Lead,
Iron.

And such Metalic Bases as are affected by
Sulphuretted Hydrogen.

CHURCH 204 - It is generally considered that Ultramarine withstands the action of light, moisture and SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN perfectly, and that it neither affects nor is affected by any other pigments.

GENUINE
ULTRAMARINE
ASH

TOCH 163 - Ultramarine Ash is a weak variety of genuine ultramarine blue, (Or may be of Artificial)

**PERMANENCE**
TOCH 163 - Do not mix it with Lead.

93

ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE

Names -

<table><tr><td>ULTRAMARINE BLUE</td><td>NEW BLUE</td><td>BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>FRENCH ULTRAMARINE</td><td>COBALT</td><td>PERMANENT BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>GMELIN'S BLUE</td><td>OUTREMER</td><td>FRENCH BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>GUIMET'S BLUE</td><td>ORIENTAL BLUE</td><td>HENMANN'S BLUE</td></tr><tr><td>ULTREMARINE ASH</td><td>CERULEAN BLUE</td><td>GREEN ULTRAMARINE</td></tr><tr><td>VIOLET ULTRAMARINE</td><td></td><td>LILAC ULTRAMARINE</td></tr><tr><td>PURPLE ULTRAMARINE</td><td></td><td>RED ULTRAMARINE</td></tr></table>

**CLASS** Sulphides.

**COMPOSITION** Contains Si, Al, Na, O, S, Ultramarine Blue whether it is artificial or genuine is chemically the same. --Church 206

First made about 1828 by C. Gmelin and by Guimet. --Church 206

Artificially made by J. B. Guimet in France in 1826 --Toch 163

CHURCH(Date of Church's book 1901) --Now chiefly made in Germany and France.

Toch 122 - U. S. A. now the largest producers of Ultramarine Blue. ( Date of Toch's book 1911)

Toch 163 - Contains Alumina, Silica, Soda, and Sulphur.

When made by means of a potash salt instead of a soda salt Ultramarine has every analogy of color and shade to genuine Cobalt Blue, excepting that Cobalt Blue (genuine) is not affected by acids as rapidly as the artificial.

TOCH 122 - There are no less than 20 shades of French Ultramarine ranging from the palest Cobalt to the deepest Ultramarine.

CHURCH 206 - The raw material employed in the preparation of Ultramarine are

Kaolin, or China Clay,
Silica,
Sodium sulphate,
Sodium carbonate,
Sulphur,
Charcoal,
Rosin,

Some makers omit the Sodium Sulphate
Others omit the - - - Rosin.

Calcined Alum is occasionally substituted for the Kaolin.

(Continued)

95

ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE - continued

**PERMANENCE**
CHURCH - Artificial Ultramarine, when properly prepared, is permanent both in water and oils.

TOCH 163 - The Artificial Ultramarine is just as good as the genuine, and the only advantage that the genuine has over the artificial is that the genuine is not so quickly affected by acids as the artificial is.

Ultramarine is exceedingly permanent, except when mixed with another pigment which contains Lead, like

Flake White,
White Lead,
Chrome Yellow,
Chrome Green.

It should be kept away from colors containing COPPER, LEAD, and IRON.

And such metallic bases as are affected by SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. ---TOCH 112

CHURCH - If an Ultramarine should discolor EMERALD GREEN, CHROME YELLOW, TRUE NAPLES YELLOW, FLAKE WHITE,

it probably contains free sulphur, or has been insufficiently washed.

CHURCH 207 - Neither Sulphuretted Hydrogen nor caustic lime, or other alkaline substance affects the color of Artificial Ultramarine.

WITH ZINC WHITE
TOCH 122 - When used with ZINC WHITE or alone it is absolutely permanent.

GUIMET'S HENMANN'S
CHURCH - The Ultramarines known as "GUIMET'S" and "HENMANN'S" are of fine quality.

GREEN, RED, VIOLET, LILAC, PURPLE.
CHURCH - The Green, Violet, Lilac, Purple, Red ultramarines of commerce are permanent pigments of some artistic value.

TO TEST ULTRAMARINE & See Church 208

TOCH 163 - When made by means of a Potash Salt instead of a Soda Salt Ultramarine has every analogy of color and shade to genuine Cobalt Blue, excepting that genuine Cobalt Blue is not affected by acids as rapidly as the artificial.

SILICA IN ULTRAMARINE
See CHURCH 208 See TOCH 164

Toch places Ultramarine in his exclusive list of permanent and mixable colors.

97

GENUINE COBALT BLUE

ARTIFICIAL
ULTRAMARINE
continued

**CLASS** Oxides.

**COMPOSITION** CoO, MgO

**ORIGIN AND MAKE** See Church 210 Toch 111

**OTHER NAMES** Bleu de Thenard --- Kobaltblau --- Leithner's Blue --- Wenzel's Blue.

**PERMANENCE** Church 211 - The cobalt Blues work well in all media. They are unaffected by light, moisture, and oxygen. The best samples are practically permanent even in impure air, but ammonium sulphide tends to discolor them. If they appear changed in hue in any oil paintings, the yellowing of the admixed or overlying oil or varnish must be regarded as the cause. They are unaffected by commixture with other pigments.

WINSOR & NEWTON - Cobalt Blue - Alumina tinctured with Oxide of Cobalt. Our Cobalt Blue is unusually free from a tendency to become greenish on exposure

ARTIFICIAL COBALT BLUE

**ORIGIN, ETC.** CHURCH 203 to 210 - Deals with Artificial Ultramarine and covers Artificial Cobalt.

**TOCH 111** - This color is very difficult to describe as it may be a pale shade of Artificial Ultramarine Blue, or it may be a true Oxide of Cobalt, or it may be a Salt of Cobalt mixed with Alumina and Barium.

**PERMANENCE** TOCH 111 - If the Cobalt is Ultramarine it is exceedingly permanent, except when mixed with another pigment containing Lead, like

  * Flake White

  * White Lead

  * Chrome Yellow

  * Chrome Green

It should also be kept away from colors containing COPPER, LEAD and IRON, and such metallic bases as areafected by sulphuretted hydrogen, for the slightest trace of acid will liberate sulphuretted hydrogen from Cobalt or Ultramarine.

**CHURCH** - If an ultramarine should discolor EMERALD GREEN, CHROME YELLOW, NAPLES YELLOW(true), or FLAKE WHITE, it probably contains free sulphur or has been insufficiently washed. **TOCH 163** - When made by means of a Potash Salt instead of a Soda Salt Ult. B, has every analogy of color and Shade to gen. Cob. B, except that gen.Cob. B. is not affecte by acids as rapidly as the artificial.

99

NEW BLUE

TOCH - 146 -- An artificial Ultramarine of the
Cobalt shade.

WINSOR & NEWTON -- A pale variety of French Ult-
remarine.

TOCH 146 - Artificial Ultra marine of Cobalt shad
Perfectly permanent, except when mixed with White
Lead or Flake White, or any other color contain-
ing Lead. Must not be used in conjunction with
a LEAD DRIER.

By itself it is absolutely permanent. Dries well.
See all under heading: "Artificial Ultramarine"

References

FRENCH BLUE

FRENCH

ULTRAMARINE

TOCH 121 - Absolutly premanent to light.
Dries fairly well.

Can either be used as glaize or solid
Identical in composition with the gen
uine Lapis Lazuli. The author cannot find it in-
inferior in any respects to the natural stone.

Must never be mixed with any FLAKE WHITE, CHROME
YELLOW, CHROME GREEN, or any pigment containing
a metalic base, except ZINC.

This pigment should never be mixed with any othe
pigment which the free sluphurous acid is likely
to decompose.

COMPOSITION

See Composition of "Artificial Ultramarine".

CHURCH 207 - Neither Sulphuretted Hydrogen nor
caustic lime, or other alkaline substance, affec
ts the color of Artificial Ultramarine.

If an ultramarine should discolor Emerald Green,
Chrome Yellow, True Naples Yellow, or Flake Wt.,
it probably contains free sulphur or has been
insufficiently washed.

WINSOR & NEWTON - Class I* Of the finest brands
obtainable.

TOCH 122 - There are no less than twenty shades
of French Ultramarine ranging from the palest
Cobalt to the deepest Ultramarine.

(Artificial Ultramarine continue

101

## BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE BLUE

TOCH 94 - Assumed to be artificial ultramarine blue when made by calcining sulphur, clay and sulphate of soda.

Permanent to light when used alone and when used with certain of the colors on which it has no influence. See P. 95.

WINSOR & NEWTON - CLASS I* - Of the finest brands of artificial ultramarine obtainable.

## ORIENTAL BLUE

CHURCH 208 - An ultramarine with a plus of silica.

SILICA IN ULTRAMARINE - See Church 208.
See Toch 164 165

## CERULEAN BLUE

Other Names= COERULEUM, CERULIUM, COELINBLAU, BLEU CELESTE.

### CLASS COMPOSITION

Oxides. })

CoO, SnO₂ })

This refers to the True Cerulian

### Origin PERMANENCE ETC

TOCH 106 - In the present age Cerulean Blue is an artificial ultramarine of a pale shade, made by grinding artificial Cobalt with a mixture of Zinc Oxide.

Appears blue under gas or electric light. Perfectly Permanent. Can be mixed with any pigment except those containing Lead.

### SUBSTITUTES FOR CERULEAN BLUE

Ordinary Cobalt Blue mixed with White will produce practically the same shade and effect.

CHURCH 212 - May be imitated by ultramarine, Viridian and White.

R. H. - I find Cerulian Blue Best imitated by mixing Cobalt Blue, Viridian and Zinc White. (Used Remb. Cob. Extra, W&N Virid. Remb. Z.W.) Some Ultram. B. are too purple to make a clear note with Viridian.

### W&N CERULEAN MAKE OF GENUINE

Class I* - Stannate of Cobalt.

See Church 212 for the different ways of making genuine Cerulean Blue.

105

WINSOR & NEWTON'S OIL VEHICLES.

W & N - 18 -- "Contain no lead or any other form of artificial
dryer, and no resinous substances. They may be employed with
absolute confidence as to their future behavior."

OIL VEHICLE NO. 1 -- is prepared from linseed oil & oil of spike.

OIL VEHICLE NO. 1A - prepared from linseed oil & turpentine.

OIL VEHICLE NO. 1B - prepared from linseed oil & petroleum.

OIL VEHICLE NO. 2 - prepared from poppy oil & oil of spike.

OIL VEHICLE NO. 2A - prepared from poppy oil & turpentine.

OIL VEHICLE NO. 2B - prepared from poppy oil & petroleum.

The OIL OF SPIKE preparation evaporates more slowly.

The OIL OF TURPENTINE preparation evaporates less slowly.

The OIL OF PETROLIUM preparation evaporates most rapidly.

USED AS PAINTING MEDIA. USED FOR "OILING OUT."

Their usefulness in "oiling out" resides in the fact that pi
pictures oiled out with these preparations <u>keep</u> oiled out.

WINSOR & NEWTON'S MEDIUMS.

AMBER VARNISH -Genuine amber, dissolved in drying oil, thin-
ned with turpentine.

PALE AMBER VARNISH - Similar to the above. Prepared with a special view to paleness of color.

OIL COPAL VARNISH - Similar to Amber Varnish, but containing copal instead of Amber.

No guarantee as to which of the many varieties
of copal enters into the composition.

Very elastic, durable, but dries slowly.

PICTURE COPAL - Pale variety of "Oil Copal Varnish".

VARNISH Free from Lead.

Manufactured specially for artiste.

Guaranteed to be made only with the finest
Sierra Leone Copal.

Drys much more rapidly than "Oil Copal".

N. B. - "Picture Copal" was originally intend
ed for varnishing completed pictures.

It is now principally used for mixing with
colors.

When used in this way, great caution should
be exercised, as it is far more liable to cause
cracking than "Oil Copal" when used in excessive quantity.

SICCATIVE

- A special prep. of Copal *free from Lead*.

It is liable to cause crackingunless carefully
used.

107

PAPOMA

Manufactured by Winsor & Newton.

WINSOR & NEWTON - The ingredients of PAPOMA are harmless.

There is no lead in it, or anything that can injure the
most delicate pigments.

May be used as freely in oil painting as water is used in
water color painting.

PAPOMA mixes well with all oil colors sold by Artist's
Colormen.

It always flows freely and retains its place perfectly.

With it the finest line may be drawn, remaining clear and
sharp.

In most of the processes of oil painting, for which Turpentine is generally used, PAPOMA may be wisely substituted.

It dries with modeate rapidity.

For oiling out work painted with PAPOMA, BELL'S MEDIUM should be used.

Price of PAPOMA -Pint (20 oz.) 6s.

BELL'S MEDIUM (OULALIN)

Manufactured by WINSOR & NEWTON

WINSOR & NEWTON - Under no probable conditions can any injury
arise from the use of OWLALIN (BELL'S MEDIUM).

Elastic, Will not crack.

Absolutely harmless.

Has been used on Old Masters with best results.

TO RESTORE AN OLD PICTURE -

Wash clean with pure water.

Carefully dry using soft white cloth.

(Cloth white to insure cleanliness)

Cover surface of picture with thin coat of OWLALIN.

(Use a fairly stiff, well made, hog's hair brush)

Get the AULALIN well into the rougher touches.

Protect picture from dust while drying.

In ordinary temperature and circumstances the picture will
be quite dry in three days.

Repeat the coat if necessary, omitting the washing with
water.

PRICES OF PAPOMA AND OWLALIN (BELL'S MEDIUM)

<table><tr><td>2 oz. Glass Bottle</td><td>40¢</td></tr><tr><td>6 oz.</td><td>85¢</td></tr><tr><td>10 oz.</td><td>1.20</td></tr><tr><td>20 oz.</td><td>2.20</td></tr></table>