( 555 )

in ia, io, as, Азія, матерія, Птálія; but in their derivatives, я is changed into a, as, азіатець, матеріальний.

Those derivatives in which i can be contracted into і,
are written with я, as, Італьянский.

Ө is found in Greek words written with θ (not φ), in
English, French, etc. with th, as, Аөйны, Өөдор;
but foreign words introduced not earlier than the
beginning of the last century, as also those met with
in common use are written with т, as, театр,
'theatre,' теория, 'theory,' etc.

II. CAPITAL LETTERS.

97. Capital letters are used in Russian as in English,
with a few slight exceptions :

a. Adjectives are written with capitals only when used
as proper names, as : Австрійская Имперія, ‘Austrian
Empire ;’ Французская Республика, ‘French Re-
public ;’ Чёрное Море, ‘Black Sea.’ Otherwise a
small letter is used, as : австрійскій солдатъ, ‘Austrian
soldier ;’ французскій табákъ, ‘French tobacco.’

b. The pronoun вы, ‘you,’ in all its inflexions takes
a capital letter in correspondence.

ШШІ. PUNCTUATION.—(Знаки Препинанія.)

98. The points used in Russian are the following :

(1) The comma [ , ] (запятáя).

(2) The semicolon [ ; ] (тóчка съ запятою).

( 556 )

(3) The colon [ : ] (двосточие).

(4) The full stop [ . ] (точка).

(5) The interrogation point [ ? ] (знакъ вопросительный).

(6) The exclamation point [ ! ] (знакъ восклицательный).

(7) The hyphen [ - ] (чертá or знакъ отдѣлительный).

(8) The point of suspension [ . . . . ] (знакъ пресскá-
тельный).

(9) The parenthesis [ ( ) ] (знакъ вмѣстительный or скóбки).

(10) The quotation marks [ „ ” ] (кавЫчки or знакъ вносный).

99. They only differ from the English in their use in the
following particulars :

(1) Subordinate clauses, however short or whatever
word they begin with, must be separated from the
main clause by a comma.

Человѣкъ, котóраго вы вйдите, мой
братъ.

Онъ поступйлъ, какъ слѣдовало.

Л'у Л'у, чь-мь н-иког-дá.

The man whom you see is my
brother.

He acted as he ought.

Better late than never.

(2) Short sentences, whether connected by the con-
junctions и, а, по or not, are likewise separated by
commas.

Это справедливо, а то лóжно,

This is true and that is false,

100. The semicolon must be employed between two or
more members of a period, when they are either complex or
comprise subordinate or parenthetical clauses, as :

Не тотъ об'едень, кто пِмѣетъ мálю; но
тотъ, кто желаетъ многаго.

Not he is poor who has little, but
he who desires much.

( 557 )

## IV. THE TONIC ACCENT.—(Слогоударéніе.)

(See page 29).

101. The accent undergoes transposition in inflexion according to fixed and definite laws, which are easily learnt.

102. The oblique cases of nouns generally retain the accent of the nominative, as, Закónъ, тетрадь, gen. закóná, тетрáди, dat. закónу, тетрáди, etc.

103. When the accent is transposed, the change is retained in all subsequent cases. The transposition may begin :

a. With the gen. sing., as: рукáвъ, слонъ; gen. рукавá, слонá; dat. рукавý, слонý, etc.

b. With the nom. plur., as: чинъ, садъ; gen. чíна, cáда; plur. nom. чинъí, садъí; gen. чиновъ, садовъ, etc.

c. With the gen. plur., as: зубъ, гробъ; plur. nom. зубъбы, грőбы; gen. зубовъ, гробовъ; dat. зубámъ, грőбámъ, etc.

104. In the plural of neuter nouns ending in o, e, when the accent is on the first syllable of the nom. sing., it passes to the last, and when on the last passes to the first, as: слóво, винó; plur. nom. словá вýпа.

105. In adjectives and passive participles the accent is shifted :

a. To the apocopated termination of the feminine, as :

Нóвый, аросор. м. новъ, f. новá, п. пóво.
Вйдный, ,, м. вйдень, f. виднá, и. вйдно.

b. To the apocop. termination of feminine, neuter and plural, as :

Бълый, аросор. м. бълъ, f. бълá, n. бълó, pl. бълшý.
Хорóший, ,, м. хорóшъ, f. хорошá, n. хорошó, pl. хорошý.

( 558 )

To these belong passive participles in анъ, ѣнъ, енъ, and possessive adjectives in инъ, as :

Дапъ, fem. данá, neut. данó, plur. данý.
Пльйпъ, ,, Пльйнá, ,, Пльйпó, ,, Пльйпý.

106. In verbs the chief transpositions calling for notice are those of tense, person, gender, and that of number in the past tense.

(1) The present and past tenses of verbs of the first and second class take the accent on the same syllable, as : читáть, ‘to read;’ pres. читáю; past читáлъ. But in monosyllabic verbs having two syllables in the present with the accent on the last, the accent is restored to the first syllable in the past, as : пѣть, ‘to sing;’ pres. пою; past пѣлъ, fem. пѣла, neut. пѣло, plur. пѣли.

(2) Verbs of the fourth class having the accent on the penultimate, transfer it to the final in the past tense, as : горевáть, ‘to grieve;’ pres. горюю; past горевáлъ.

(3) Verbs of the second and third classes having the accent on the termination of the first person, transfer it in the second person to the radical syllable, the change being retained throughout, as: орátъ, ‘to till;’ колóть, ‘to sting;’ pres. орió, колó; second pers. óрешь, кóлешь; third pers. óреть, кóлеть, etc.

(4) The following three of the ninth class, смотрѣть, ‘to look;’ терпѣть, ‘to bear;’ and держáть, ‘to hold;’ and most verbs of the tenth class also follow this rule, as : смотрíó, терплиó, люблиó; second person, смóтршь, тéрпшь, любопшь, etc.

( 559 )

*Exceptions*.—Давáть, ‘to give;’ слать, ‘to send,’ pre-
serve the accent in the second pers., as, даю, шлю,
second pers. даёшь, шлёшь, etc.

(5) In other classes the transposition takes place as
follows :

In the 4th class :—примý, 2nd pers. прímешь, etc.
7th „ могý, „ „ можешь, „
8th „ тянý, „ „ тянешь, „

107. According to the second person singular is accented
the third pers. sing. and all persons of the plural, as, пишý,
пýшешь, пýшетъ, пýшемъ, пýшете, пýшутъ.

108. According to the first pers. sing. are accented the
persons of the imperative, as, пишý, imperat. пишн, plur.
пишите. But if the imperative end in ï, and the first person
pres. in ю accented, then the accent necessarily falls on the
vowel preceding it, as, стою, к.люю, imperat. стой, клюй.

109. When the past tense masc. sing. is monosyllabic
without counting the prefix or the suffix ся, the accent is
shifted for the other genders and number according to the
rule of adjectives and participles.

110. Of the above, those having the past in алъ, ялъ, илъ,
ымъ, shift the accent to the feminine only, such are брать,
гнать, дать, драть, ждать, жрать, звать, здать, лгать, врать,
ткать, взять, снять, and others formed from the root ять, as
also клясть, вить, жить, лить, пить, быть, плыть, слыть, ме
реть, переть, and their compounds помереть, отпереть, as,
for example :

брашъ, fem. бралá, neut. брáю, plur. брали.
былъ, „ былá, „ былю, „ былн.
прйпялъ, „ прйпялá, „ прйпялю, „ прйпялп.