THE
ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

NOVEMBER, 1878.

INTRODUCTORY.

BY THE EDITOR.

HEREWITH we present to the American public the first number of THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

As stated in our Prospectus, the primary motive which inspires this publication is a desire to lay before English speaking readers a candid and authoritative statement of the constitution, tenets and progress of the Oriental Church, which are so little known or understood on this Western Continent, except by that limited circle of students, which makes the religions of mankind a special study. We propose, through THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE, to furnish authentic information regarding a venerable and extensive community, whose members, aggregating eighty-five millions, are spread over Eastern and Southern Europe, and are steadily propagating the principles of Christianity in Asia from the Volga to Behring's Straits. At the same time the nature of our work will lead us to deal incidentally with many kindred subjects not exclusively religious in character which will attract the interest of the general reader.

Whatever misgivings we might have entertained at the outset in regard to our project, were dissipated by the cordial welcome given to our Prospectus by the press of New York and other cities. We cannot fail to be profoundly touched by a tribute so generous, warm and unanimous. Yet it did not surprise us; for to our mind it only reflects the kindly, liberal, sympathetic spirit in which the people of the United States are proverbially ready at all times to receive any one who comes among them in advocacy of any meritorious cause. In thus availing ourselves of the first opportunity to

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INTRODUCTORY.

return our sincere and grateful acknowledgments to the
press for its signal kindness and courtesy, we must not omit
to thank also the many private individuals who have encour-
aged our undertaking by voluntary pledges of aid and co-
operation.

The American people are notably a reading and thinking
people, always disposed to give a fair hearing to every side,
and then draw their own conclusions. Toward the great
European Empire, of which the Oriental Church is the
national religion, they have always cherished a most friendly
feeling, which is heartily reciprocated by the Russian people.
The amicable relations of the two countries have never been
disturbed by a breath of distrust or enmity. Consequently we
feel strengthened by the consciousness that THE ORIENTAL
CHURCH MAGAZINE, while clearing away misconceptions, will
not have to conquer any deep-rooted or hostile prejudice.

Some of our journalistic friends have found fault with us
for declaring that the mission of our Magazine embraces no
proselytizing purpose, and that it will not enter into the arena
of sectarian polemics. Nevertheless we shall adhere to our
original resolution. To the best of our ability we shall fairly
and truthfully picture the spiritual fold we represent. If any
man is thereby won to our way of thinking, far be it from us
to shut the gate in his face. But we are firmly convinced
that heated polemical controversies seldom lead to any desirable results, while they not frequently excite disgust in minds
whose quest is for knowledge. It shall be our constant aim
to publish a periodical which shall wound the sensibilities of
none, but which shall seek to cultivate and extend the spirit
of Christian love among all denominations.

"First issues" are said, as a rule, to fall short of the inten-
tion of their projectors. Hence we need scarcely bespeak the
indulgence of our patrons for any defects, typographical or
otherwise, that may be discovered in our initial number.
From the character of our contributors we can safely promise
that every succeeding number will be, if anything, an im-
provement on its predecessors, and we confidently hope that
our articles will not disappoint expectation in regard either to
their intrinsic merit or their popular acceptability.

THE NOCTURNAL SERVICE ON THE EVE OF A FESTIVAL, WHEN THE GREAT VESPERS ARE CONNECTED WITH THE MATINS, AS USED IN THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.

PRELIMINARY NOTE.—The Scriptural rule whereby to judge trees is by their fruit and foliage. Men are judged by their deeds and words, churches by their creeds and practices. The Lord Jesus Christ offers Himself, His words and works, to this test. When men hold positive beliefs, they generally concrete their doctrines in creeds, and by those creeds they ask to be judged. The explanations and expositions of creeds, like the comments of men upon the Bible, differ oftentimes very largely from the true intent, meaning and spirit of the creed, or the text that is explained and commented upon. Hence, in this initial number of our ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE, we have deemed it the fairest and best way to publish the nocturnal service for Sabbath eve in the Orthodox Russian Church. We are sure it will be much more satisfactory to many of our readers than any running commentary and explanation of such services which we might present. Man, wherever found, is a religious being. He must of necessity worship some deity. But experience and observation, not less than philosophical deductions from assured premises, satisfy us that every man's life will be such as his creed makes him; and every church's life also will correspond with its creed. The student of comparative theology, as well as the philosopher, will, therefore, find the publication of great value. He can place side by side the doctrines and practices of this Orthodox mother of all Christian churches in the world, and see whether they agree one with another. Has the Oriental Church been faithful to her high and holy calling through all the centuries? Has she preserved the faith once delivered to the saints, and handed down to us through successive generations of holy men? We think she has, and we, therefore, give the fullest opportunity for comparisons in the publication of this service. In our next number we hope to present our readers with a revised and exact translation of the Liturgy, and thereafter, from time to time, such other

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offices and rites of the Church as we think will be of interest and profit to them. And our sole aim and object in this work is, so far as may be in our power, to promote the unity of the body of Christ, His visible Church, and to answer the last prayer of His mortal life. We believe this can be best accomplished by showing wherein we agree rather than wherein we differ.

## THE GREAT VESPERS.

At sunset the person who kindles the lights comes to the Superior, bows and asks permission to begin; then he goes up and strikes slowly the great bell, after which he goes down into the church, kindles the lights and makes ready the censer. Then he goes up again, rings all the bells, returns again to the church, lights the candles on the great candlesticks, places them in the midst of the church opposite the holy doors, and bows before the Priest who is to officiate. The Priest bows before the Superior, then three times before the holy doors and toward each side, while the brotherhood are sitting. Then he goes into the sanctuary, puts on the Epitrachelion, after which he kisses the cross on the upper part of it; then he takes the censer, puts incense into it, stands before the holy table, and says in a low voice the following prayer:

## PRAYER OF THE INCENSE.

To Thee, O Christ, our God, we offer the incense as a spiritual perfume; receive it upon Thine heavenly altar, and send down upon us the grace of Thy most Holy Spirit.

Then he censes before the holy table in the form of a cross, around and throughout the whole sanctuary, opens the holy doors and goes through them. The bearer of the light takes the great candlestick from the midst of the church, with its lighted candle, holds it in his hand, and cries aloud:

Stand up.

All stand up. The Priest, entering through the holy doors, makes the sign of the cross with the elevated censer, goes and censes before each of the Ikons, first on the right, then on the left side, then before the Superior, then before each of the choirs according to their order. The bearer of the light goes before him with the candlestick, and when the Priest makes the sign of the cross with the censer and bows slightly the bearer of the light also bows with him. The Priest goes then into the body of the church, comes before the brotherhood and the people, returns into the inner part of the church, stands between the two choirs, makes the sign of the cross with the censer toward the east, and cries aloud:

Master, bless us.

Hereupon he censes again before the Ikon of Christ the Redeemer, the Mother of God, and before the Superior; goes into the sanctuary, stands before the holy table, makes before it the sign of the cross with the censer, and says aloud:

Glory be to the Holy, Consubstantial, Life-giving and Un divided Trinity always; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

THE NOCTURNAL SERVICE.

5

Now the Priest begins at first with a low voice:

Come, let us worship before God, our King.

Then, with a loud voice:

Come, let us worship and fall down before Christ, our God
and King.

Again, with a louder voice:

Come, let us worship and fall down before Christ Himself,
our King and God.

Finally, very solemnly:

Come, let us worship and fall down before Him.

Immediately the Superior, with a loud voice, begins to sing slowly, and in unison with the choir, Psalm 103:

Praise the Lord, O my soul.

Adding to each verse:

Blessed be the lord.

Then the second choir:

O Lord, my God, Thou art very glorious. Blessed be the
Lord, etc.

The Priest closes the holy doors and goes with the bearer of the light out of the sanctuary, both bow three times before the holy doors, turn toward the Superior and bow, and then toward both the choirs: then they go and take their proper place. When they come to the words of the psalm: In wisdom hast Thou made them all; — and: Glory be to Thee, O Lord, who hast created all; the Priest comes in his Epitrachelion before the holy doors, and says in a low voice the following Prayers of the Lights:

FIRST PRAYER.

O Lord, merciful and gracious, long suffering, and of great
kindness, hear our cry and accept the voice of our prayer;
show some token upon us for good; lead us in the way, that
we may walk in Thy truth; make glad our hearts, that we
may fear Thy holy name, for Thou art great and doest won-
drous things; Thou art God alone, and there is none like unto
Thee among the Gods, rich in mercy and excellent in strength
to help, comfort and deliver all who trust in Thy holy Name.
For to Thee, the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, are
due all honor, glory and worship, now and ever, and to ages
of ages.

SECOND PRAYER.

O Lord, rebuke us not in Thy wrath, neither chasten us in
Thy hot displeasure, but deal with us according to Thy mercy;
for Thou art the physician who healest our souls. Oh! lead

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us into the harbor of Thy will; enlighten the eyes of our
hearts to the knowledge of Thy truth; grant us the remainder
of this day and the residue of our life to live peacefully and
without sin, through the intercession of the holy Mother of
God and of all Thy saints. For Thine is the strength, and
Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever,
and to ages of ages. Amen.

### THIRD PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, remember us, Thy sinful and unprofitable
servants, when we call upon Thy holy and adorable Name, and
let us not be put to shame while we trust in Thy grace; but
grant us, O Lord, all we ask for our salvation, that we may
love and fear Thee with all our heart, and do Thy will in all
things. For Thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee,
the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer
up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

### FOURTH PRAYER.

O Thou, who art celebrated by the never silent hymns of
praise and ceaseless songs of glory of the holy powers, fill our
mouth with Thy praise, that we may magnify Thy holy
Name, and give us a portion and inheritance with all who
fear Thee in truth and keep Thy commandments, through the
intercession of the holy Mother of God and of all Thy Saints.
For to Thee, the Father, and the Son and the Holy Ghost, are
due all praise, honor and worship, now and ever, to ages of
ages. Amen.

### FIFTH PRAYER.

O Lord God, who holdest all things in Thy holy hand, and
art long suffering to us all, and art grieved at our evil deeds,
remember Thy compassions and Thy mercy; visit us with
Thy goodness; let us through Thy grace for the remainder of
this day escape the manifold crafts of the evil one, and pre-
serve our life blameless through the grace of Thine All-holy
Spirit, through the mercy and compassion of Thine Only-
begotten Son, with whom, together with Thine All-holy and
Good and Life-giving Spirit, Thou art blessed now and ever,
and to ages of ages. Amen.

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SIXTH PRAYER.

O God, great and wonderful, Thou who rulest all things with unspeakable goodness and bountiful providence; who hast also given us earthly goods, assured us of the promised Kingdom, and through the good things already given us, hast prepared for us the way; and hast also preserved us from all evil since the beginning of this day; grant that we may pass the remainder of it without sin, and before Thy holy glory praise Thee, our only good and gracious God. For Thou art our God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

SEVENTH PRAYER.

O great and most high God, who only hast immortality, and who dwellest in the light which no man can approach unto; who hast formed all creatures in wisdom, and hast divided the light from the darkness, and hast appointed the sun to rule the day and the moon and the stars to rule the night; and hast made us sinners worthy, even on this day, to come into Thy presence and to offer unto Thee our evening sacrifice; O Thou, gracious God, let our prayer be set forth before Thee as incense, and receive it a sweet, a smelling savor. Grant us that the present evening and the coming night may be peaceful; put on us the armor of light; preserve us from nocturnal terrors and from every evil that walketh in darkness. Grant that the sleep which Thou hast given us for refreshment from our labor may be free from every vision of the devil. Vouchsafe, Thou Giver of all good gifts, that we may feel repentance upon our beds, and also by night remember Thy most holy Name; and, enlightened by the contemplation of Thy commandments, may arise in the joy of our souls to praise Thy goodness, and to present supplications and prayers to Thy mercy for our own sins and for all Thy people, that Thou wouldst visit them with Thy grace through the intercession of the holy Mother of God. For Thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee, the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

When the Psalm is ended the Priest says the great Ektene:

In peace let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

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So after every sentence of the Ektene.

PRIEST: For the peace that is from above and the salvation of our souls, let us pray to the Lord.

For the peace of the whole world, the stability of the Holy Churches of God, and the union of all, let us pray to the Lord.

For this Holy Temple, and them that in faith, piety and the fear of God enter into it, let us pray to the Lord.

For (the Most Holy Governing Synod, or Patriarch, or Metropolitan, or Archbishop), our Bishop N. N., the honorable Presbytery, the Diaconate in Christ, and for all the clergy and the laity, let us pray to the Lord.

For our most pious and divinely preserved Monarch (Emperor, or King, or Prince of the respective country) N. N., and all his palace and army, let us pray to the Lord.

That He would fight on his side, and subdue under his feet every enemy and adversary, let us pray to the Lord.

For this city (or this habitation, if it be a convent), for every city and country, and all the faithful who inhabit them, let us pray to the Lord.

For healthfulness of the air, for plentiful fruits of the earth and peaceful times, let us pray to the Lord.

For them that travel by water and land, the sick, the suffering, prisoners and captives, and their salvation, let us pray to the Lord.

For our deliverance from all affliction, wrath, danger and necessity, let us pray to the Lord.

Help, save, have mercy and guard us, O God, by Thy grace.

Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, with all the Saints, let us commend ourselves and each other and all our life to Christ, our God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

PRIEST: For all glory, honor and worship are due to Thee, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages and ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then the choir begins to sing the first Psalm of David, adding three times to each verse the

Hallelujah.

THE NOCTURNAL SERVICE.

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THE FIRST CHOIR: Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly. Hallelujah. (Three times.)

THE SECOND CHOIR: Nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. Hallelujah. (Three times), etc.

Then is sung the first Antiphon—that is, the first, second and third Psalms.

At the conclusion of these Psalms the Priest says before the holy doors the following little Ektene:

Again and again in peace let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST: Help, save, have mercy, and guard us, O God, by Thy grace.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST: Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most-blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, with all Saints, let us commend ourselves and each other and all our life, to Christ our God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

PRIEST: For Thine is the strength, and Thine is the kingdom, and the power and the glory of the Father and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then both choirs begin to sing alternately the second Antiphon—that is, the fourth Psalm:

Hear me when I call, O God of my righteousness, etc.

The fifth:

Give ear to my words, O Lord, etc.

And the sixth:

O, Lord, rebuke me not in Thine anger, etc.

At the end of this Antiphon the Priest again says the little Ektene:

Again and again, etc.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy, etc. (See above.)

At the close, the Priest:

For Thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee, the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Finally, is sung in the same manner the third Antiphon—that is, the seventh Psalm:

O Lord, my God, in Thee do I put my trust, etc.

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And the eighth Psalm:

O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is Thy name, etc.

(All these three Antiphons are sung in the great Vespers only on the eve of a Sunday; on the eve of the great Festivals and the Saints' days only the first Antiphon.)

During the singing of the first Antiphon the Deacon approaches the Superior, bows and goes into the Sanctuary with the officiating Priest, takes his Sticharion and Orarion, and after he has asked of the Priest the blessing and kissed his right hand, puts them on in the customary manner, then goes out of the Sanctuary, remains standing before the holy doors, and says after the ending of the third Antiphon, for the third time, the little Ektene:

Again and again, etc.

CHOIR: Lord have mercy, etc. (See above.)

At the close the Priest:

For Thou art our God, and to Thee the Father, and the Son and the Holy Ghost we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Such is the beginning of the great Vespers in the convents; in the cathedrals and parish churches the Priest and the Deacon vest themselves before the service; the first in the Epitrachelion and Phelonion, the second in the Sticharion and Orarion. Then goes the Deacon, and not the one who kindled the lights, before the Priest with the light at the censing before the beginning of the Vespers, and reads also himself all the Ektenes. The antiphons and the Psalm at the beginning: *Praise the Lord, O my soul, etc.*, are sung in full only in the convents; in the cathedrals and parish churches only selected verses from these Psalms, with the additions which have been given.)

After the ending of the Ektene the reader bows, and announces the tunes appointed for the day. The choir on the right begin to sing the appointed tunes.

O Lord, I cry unto Thee, hear me; hear me, O Lord. O Lord, I cry unto Thee, give ear unto the voice of my prayer, when I cry unto Thee; hear me, O Lord.

The second choir:

Let my prayer be set forth before Thee as incense; the lifting up of my hands as the evening sacrifice; hear me, O Lord.

The rest of the Psalms 140 and 141 are read.

Then is begun the singing of the Sticheria, that is, hymns proper for the day, one of the following verses being used before each Sticherion:

Bring my soul out of prison that I may praise Thy Name.

The righteous shall compass me about; for Thou shalt deal bountifully with me.

Out of the deep have I cried unto Thee, O Lord; Lord, hear my voice.

Let thine ears be attentive to the voice of my supplication.

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If Thou shouldst mark iniquities, O Lord, Lord, who shall stand; but there is forgiveness with Thee.

For Thy Name's sake I have waited, O Lord, for Thee; my soul hath waited on Thy Word; my soul hath hoped in the Lord.

From the morning watch until the night, from the morning watch let Israel hope in the Lord.

For with the Lord is mercy, and with Him plenteous redemption; and He shall redeem Israel from all his sins.

Praise the Lord, all ye nations; praise Him, all ye people.

For His merciful kindness is great toward us, and the truth of the Lord endureth forever.

AT THE END: Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost.

Now and ever, and to the ages of ages. Amen.

During the singing of these verses and the Sticheria the Deacon takes the censer, receiving the blessing from the Superior or Priest, and censes around the Holy Table and before the Icons in the church and before the congregation in the usual manner.

When is sung the verse above: *For His merciful kindness is great toward us, both choirs come together into the midst of the church and remain there singing the Sticheria as far as: Jesu Christ, Thou gentle Light. (See below)*

The Priest, who till now has been vested in the Epitrachelion, puts on now (if he has not already done so, as is customary in the parish churches) the Phelonion, and makes the Little Entrance in the following manner:

The Deacon opens the holy doors, then he goes, with the censer in his hand, through the north door out of the Sanctuary into the church, the Priest follows him in his Phelonion; both are preceded by two light-bearers with lighted candles. The Priest stands before the holy doors; at his right, but a little behind, stands the Deacon. The latter, holding the Orarion with three fingers of the right hand, bends slightly toward the Priest and says to him in a low voice, so that he alone can hear.

Let us pray to the Lord.

The Priest says silently the following prayer:

## PRAYER AT THE ENTRANCE.

In the evening and morning, and at noonday, we praise Thee; we give thanks to Thee and worship Thee, O, Thou Ruler of all things. Let our prayer come before Thee as incense, and guard our hearts that they incline not to words and thoughts of evil; but deliver us from all that can ensnare our souls: for unto Thee, O Lord (God, our eyes are lifted up, and in Thee have we trusted, O our God; let us never be con-founded. For all glory, honor and worship are due to Thee,

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the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, now and ever,
and to ages of ages. Amen.

After the prayer the Deacon stands upright, and pointing with the Orarion
toward the east, says to the Priest:

Master, bless the holy Entrance.

The Priest, giving the Benediction, says:

Blessed be the Entrance of Thy saints, O Lord, always, now
and ever, and to ages of Ages. Amen.

Then the Deacon goes and censes before the Ikons of the Redeemer and the
Mother of God, and before the Superior or Priest, returns to his former place,
and waits till the singers have finished the Sticheria.

When these are ended, he goes into the midst of the holy doors, makes the sign of the cross with the censer, and says:

Wisdom, stand up.

The choir, still standing in the midst of the church, sings:

Jesu Christ, Thou gentle Light of the holy Glory of the
immortal, heavenly, holy, and blessed Father, now, at the
setting of the sun, as we behold the evening light, we praise
Thee, O God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. For
it is meet at all times to praise Thee, O Son of God, Giver of
Life, therefore also the whole world glorifieth Thee.

The light-bearers, with the lights in their hands, precede the Priest and Deacon as far as the holy doors; the Deacon goes into the Sanctuary and censes before the Holy Table, but the Priest bows before the holy doors, and after he has kissed them, he goes through; the holy doors are closed, and the light-bearers retire.

At the close of the *Jesu Christ, Thou gentle Light*, the singers go to their
places.

DEACON: Let us attend.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

DEACON: Wisdom, let us attend.

The Reader, standing in the midst of the church, says:

Prokimenon.

Prokimenon of Saturday:

The Lord is King, and is clothed with majesty.

VERS: The Lord is clothed and girded with strength.

VERS: For He hath established the world, and it cannot be
moved.

VERS: Holiness becometh Thine house, O Lord, forever.

Prokimenon of Sunday:

Behold, praise now the Lord, all ye servants of the Lord.

VERS: Ye that stand in the house of the Lord, in the courts
of the house of our God.

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### Prokimenon of Monday:

The Lord heareth me, when I call upon him.

### Vers:
When I call upon Him, the God of my righteousness heareth me.

### Prokimenon of Tuesday:

Thy mercy, O Lord, will feed me all the days of my life.

### Vers:
The Lord feedeth me, I lack nothing; He maketh me to lie down in green pastures.

### Prokimenon of Wednesday:

Save me, O God, for Thy Name's sake, and judge me by Thy strength.

### Vers:
Hear, O God, my prayer, give ear to the words of my mouth.

### Prokimenon of Thursday:

My help cometh from the Lord, who hath made heaven and earth.

### Vers:
I have lifted up mine eyes unto the hills, from whence cometh my help.

### Prokimenon of Friday:

Thou art my Defender, O God, and Thy mercy goeth before me.

### Vers:
Deliver me, O God, from mine enemies, and save me from them that rise up against me.

The choir repeats thrice the Prokimenon.

At the close of the Prokimenon the reader on Sundays, after he has bowed, goes to his place; and on the great festivals and saints' days, he stands, after the Prokimenon is ended, in the midst of the church, and reads the Paræmia, that is, portions of the Old Testament Scriptures which are appointed for the Feast.

At the beginning of each Paræmion the Deacon says:

### Wisdom.

### Reader:
The reading from Genesis (or the Prophets, or the Proverbs).

### Deacon:
Let us attend.

The Reader reads the Paræmion.

At the close of these Paræmia, if such there be, otherwise after the Prokimenon, the Deacon goes before the holy doors, bows once, and reads the following Ektene of earnest prayer:

Let us say with our whole soul, and with our whole mind let us say.

### Choir:
Lord, have mercy.

### Deacon:
Lord Almighty, God of our fathers, we pray Thee, hear and have mercy.

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CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Have mercy upon us, O God, according to Thy great mercy; we pray Thee, hear, and have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

Thrice; and so after every sentence of the Ektene.

DEACON: Again we pray for strength, victory, long and peaceful rule, health, and salvation of the most pious and Divinely-preserved Monarch (Emperor, King, Prince of the respective country, viz.) N., that the Lord, our God, may prosper him in all things, and subdue under his feet all his enemies and adversaries.

Again we pray for all his Christian army.

Again we pray for (the Most Holy Governing Synod, the Patriarch, the Archbishop) our Bishop N. N., and all our brethren in Christ.

Again we pray for our brethren the Priests, the Priest-monks, and for all our brotherhood in Christ.

Again we pray for mercy, life, peace, health, salvation, protection, forgiveness, and remission of sins of the servants of God, the brethren of this holy abode.

Again we pray for the blessed and ever-memorable (most holy, Orthodox Patriarchs, for the pious Emperors and Orthodox Empresses), founders of this abode, and for all our Orthodox fathers and brethren who have fallen asleep before us, and who lie here or elsewhere.

Again we pray for them who bring forth fruit and do good deeds in this holy and all-venerable Temple, who labor and sing in it, and for the people that stand around, and are expecting from the great and rich mercy.

PRIEST: For Thou art a gracious and merciful God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

READER: Vouchsafe, O Lord, to keep us this evening without sin. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, God of our fathers, and Thy name is praised and glorified forever. Amen. O Lord, let Thy mercy be upon us, as our trust is in Thee. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, teach me Thy commandments. Blessed art Thou, O Master, make me to understand Thy commandments. Blessed art Thou, O Holy One, enlighten me with Thy commandments. Lord, Thy mercy endureth forever:

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despise not the work of Thy hands. To Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, honor is due; to Thee is due praise; to Thee is due glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

### Deacon, the Ektene of Prayer.

Let us complete our evening prayer to the Lord.

### CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

### DEACON: Help, save, have mercy, and guard us, O God, by Thy grace.

### CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

### DEACON: That we may complete this evening in holiness, peace and without sin, let us ask from the Lord.

### CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

### DEACON: For the Angel of Peace, the faithful guide, guardian of our souls and bodies, let us ask from the Lord.

### CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

### DEACON: For pardon and remission of our sins and transgressions, let us ask from the Lord.

### CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

### DEACON: For things that are good and profitable for our souls and for the peace of the world, let us ask from the Lord.

### CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

### DEACON: That we may conclude the remainder of our lives in peace and penitence, let us ask from the Lord.

### CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

### DEACON: For a Christian end of our lives, without pain and shame, peaceful and for a good defence before the fearful tribunal of Christ, let us ask from the Lord.

### CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

### DEACON: Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, with all saints, let us commend ourselves and each other, and all our lives to Christ, our God.

### CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

### PRIEST (aloud): For thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

### CHOIR: Amen.

### PRIEST: Peace to all.

### CHOIR: And to Thy spirit.

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DEACON: Bow your heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

The Priest now prays silently.

THE PRAYER AT THE BOWING DOWN OF THE HEAD.

O Lord, our God, who hast bowed the heavens and come down for the salvation of the human race, look down upon Thy servants and upon Thine inheritance; for before Thee, the dreadful and merciful Judge, Thy servants have bowed their heads and inclined their necks, expecting no human help, but waiting for Thy mercy, and earnestly hoping for Thy salvation. Preserve them at all times, and on this present evening, and during the approaching night, from every enemy, and from every hostile influence of the devil, from vain thoughts and an evil mind.

ALOUD: Blessed and glorified be the power of Thy Kingdom, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Here begins the Litany.

The Priest and the Deacon, with the censer, go out of the Sanctuary into the body of the church after the two light-bearers, who go before with the lights and before the singers, who follow after and sing the Litany-Sticheria of the Feast. In the body of the church the Deacon censes before the Ikon, the Superior or Priest, the choirs in their order, and before the people. At the close of the Litany-Sticheria, the Deacon remains in his place, standing near the Priest, and says aloud, that all may hear:

THE LITANY.

O Lord, save Thy people, and bless Thine inheritance; visit Thy world with grace and mercy; exalt the horn of Orthodox Christians, and send down upon us the riches of Thy grace, through the intercession of our spotless Lady, the Mother of God, and ever-Virgin Mary, through the power of the precious life-giving Cross, through the aid of the venerable, heavenly, immaterial Powers; of the venerable, glorious Prophet, Fore-runner and Baptist John; of the holy, glorious and renowned Apostles; of our Holy Fathers, the high priests and great œcumenical Doctors, Basil the Great, Gregory the Divine, and John Chrysostom; of our holy Fathers, Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra, in Lycia, the Wonder-worker; (of our Holy Fathers the Wonder-workers of all Russia, Peter, Alexis, Jonas and Philip); of the holy, glorious, and victorious Mar-

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tyrs; of our God-pleasing Fathers; of the holy and righteous Ancestors of God, Joachim and Anna; of the holy N. N. (to whom the church is dedicated), and of all Thy Saints; we beseech Thee, most merciful Lord, hear us sinners who pray unto Thee, and have mercy upon us.

CHOIR: Lord have mercy. (Forty times.)

DEACON: Again we pray for strength, victory, long and peaceful rule, health and salvation of the most pious and Divinely preserved Monarch (Emperor, King, or Prince N. N. of the respective country), that the Lord, our God, may prosper him in all things, and subdue under his feet all his enemies and adversaries.

(In Russia the Deacon mentions here the whole Imperial family by name.)

CHOIR: Lord have mercy. (Thirty times.)

DEACON: Again we pray for (the Most Holy Governing Synod or Patriarch, or Metropolitan, or Archbishop) our Bishop N. N. and for all our brethren in Christ, and for every Christian soul, which, burdened with grief and pain, seeks grace and help of God; for the protection of this holy abode and of all who dwell therein; for the peace and stability of the whole world; for the prosperity of the holy churches of God; for aid and assistance to our fathers and brethren, who with diligence and piety labor and serve; for the absent and for those who travel; for the healing of those who lie down in sickness; for the peace, forgiveness, and remission of sins of all our pious fathers and brethren, of blessed memory, who have gone before us; the Orthodox who lie here and everywhere; for the liberation of captives; for our brethren who stand in service, and for all who serve and have served in this abode, let us say:

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (Fifty times.)

DEACON: Again we pray for the preservation of this city, of this holy abode, and of all cities and regions, from famine, pestilence, earthquakes, floods, fire, the sword, invasion of foreign nations, and civil strife; that our good and gracious God would mercifully and kindly grant that we may be preserved from all passions which are excited against us; that He would save us from the punishment which would justly fall on us, and have mercy upon us.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (Three times.)

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DEACON: Again we pray that God the Lord would hear the prayer of us sinners, and save us.

(He also silently commemorates some of the living and the dead, as he may see fit.)

PRIEST: Hear us, O God our Savior, Thou Hope of all the ends of the earth, and of them that are afar off upon the sea, and be gracious, be gracious to us, O Master, because of our sins, and have mercy upon us; for Thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to thy spirit.

DEACON: Let us bow down our heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

Then all bow down their heads to the earth and the Priest prays aloud.

## PRAYER OF THE LITANY.

Most gracious Lord and Master, Jesus Christ our God, favorably accept our prayer, through the intercession of our most spotless Lady, the Mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, through the power of the venerable, heavenly, immaterial Powers; of the venerable, glorious Prophet, Forerunner and Baptist John; of the holy, glorious and renowned Apostles; of the holy, glorious, and victorious Martyrs; of our God-pleasing Fathers; of our holy Fathers the high-priests and œcumenical Doctors, Basil the Great, Gregory the Divine, and John Chrysostom; of our holy Fathers Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra in Lycia, the Wonder-worker; (of our holy Fathers the Wonder-workers of all Russia, Peter and Alexis, Jonas and Philip); (of the holy and glorious great Martyr George, the bearer of the sign of victory); of the holy N. N., whose memory we celebrate; of the holy and righteous Ancestors Joachim and Anna, and of all Thy Saints; make our prayer pleasing unto Thee, grant us remission of our transgressions; cover us with the shadow of Thy wings; drive away from us all our enemies and adversaries; quiet our souls; O Lord, have mercy on us and on Thy world, and redeem our souls, for Thou art good and a Lover of mankind.

CHOIR: Amen.

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Then they stand up and begin to sing the Sticheria with the Stichi appointed for the day. The Deacon, the Priest, and the Singers follow the Light-bearers, who go before with lights into the church. Here a table is placed in the midst of the church, on which stands a plate with five loaves of bread, and beside it three vessels, one of wine, another of oil, and the third of wheat; the wine stands on the left, the oil on the right side, the wheat in front.

At the close of the hymn of the Sticheria the Reader says:

Lord, now lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace, according to Thy word: for mine eyes have seen Thy salvation, which Thou hast prepared before the face of all people, a light to lighten the Gentiles and the glory of Thy people Israel.

**TRISAGION:** Holy God, Holy and Mighty, Holy and Immortal, have mercy upon us. (Thrice.) Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost; now and for ever, and to ages and ages. Amen.

All-holy Trinity, have mercy upon us; purify us, O Lord, from our sins; forgive us, O Master, our transgressions; visit our infirmities, O Holy One, and heal them for Thy Name's sake.

Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Our Father, Who art in Heaven, Hallowed be Thy name, Thy Kingdom come; Thy will be done, as in Heaven, so on earth; Give us this day our daily bread; And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from evil.

**PRIEST:** For Thine is the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glory, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

**CHOIR:** Amen.

Then after the Trisagion the Troparion to the Mother of God:

Rejoice, O Virgin, Mother of God, Mary endowed with grace, the Lord is with thee; blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, for thou hast borne the Saviour of our souls. (Three times.)

(On festivals and saints' days instead of the Troparion is sung that of the saint, or of the festival, as is pointed out in the Typikon.)

The Deacon, after he has received the blessing from the Priest, censes about the table, then the Superior or Priest, then again the loaves, and says:

Let us pray to the Lord.

**CHOIR:** Lord, have mercy.

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## PRAYER AT THE BENEDICTION OF THE LOAVES.

PRIEST (aloud): O Lord Jesu Christ, our God, who didst bless the five loaves (in the wilderness), and didst feed five thousand (then the Priest takes one of the loaves, and points with it to the other loaves), do Thou also bless these loaves (the Priest points with his right hand to the loaves), this wheat (he points to the wheat), this wine (he points to the wine), this oil (he points to the oil), and multiply them in this abode (or in this city), and in Thy whole world, and sanctify the faithful who eat of them. For it is Thou, O Christ, our God, who blessest and sanctifiest all things; and to Thee, together with Thy eternal Father, and the all-holy, and good, and life-giving Spirit, we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Blessed be the Name of the Lord, now and to all ages.
(Three times.)

Oftentimes it is customary in the whole Nocturnal Service that no Litany is said, and there is no Blessing of the Loaves, and then immediately after the Prayer at the Bowing down of the Head they begin to sing the Sticheria, with the Stichi appointed for the day, then: *Now lettest Thou, etc.*, the Trisagion, the Troparion and then immediately: *Blessed be the Name, etc.* The Reader reads Psalm 33: *I will bless the Lord at all times; His praise shall continually be in my mouth, etc.*, to verse 11: *Shall not want any good.*

The Priest then goes and stands before the holy doors with his face turned toward the west, and says at the close of the reading, blessing the people:

The blessing of the Lord be upon you through His grace and mercy, always; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Here in the convents there is a reading from the Acts of the Apostles, or from the Epistles, or from the Revelation of St. John, as is appointed in the Typikon. The Priest and the Deacon lay aside their ecclesiastical vestments, and they all sit down to hear the reading of the Scriptures. Then in the convents one of the brethren takes the blessed loaves, and after he has broken them upon a plate, divides them among all, pours the wine into a cup, and gives to all from the Superior to the last. In the cathedrals and parish churches this is no longer customary; but they begin after the *Amen* to read the six Psalms. (See below.)

## THE GREAT MATINS.

AFTER the reading of the appointed Scriptures in the convents, but in the cathedrals and parish churches after the *Amen*, the bells are rung and the Reader begins:

Glory be to God on high, peace on earth, and good will towards men. (Three times.)

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21

O Lord, open Thou my lips, and my mouth shall show forth Thy praise. (Twice.)

Then he reads with a low and soft voice the following six Psalms of David:

Psalm 3: Lord, how are they increased that trouble me, etc.,
Psalm 37: O Lord, rebuke me not in Thy wrath, etc.: Psalm
62: O God, Thou art my God, early will I seek Thee, etc.

At the end of the last Psalm is added:

I have thought upon Thee in the morning wrath, because
Thou hast been my Helper; therefore under the shadow of
Thy wings will I rejoice. My soul hangeth upon Thee; Thy
right hand hath upholden me.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Now and ever, etc.

Hallelujah. (Thrice.) Glory be to Thee, O God. (Thrice.)

Lord have mercy. (Thrice.)

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Now and ever, etc.

Psalm 87: Lord God of my salvation, I cry unto Thee day
and night; let my prayer come before Thee, incline Thine ears
unto my cry, etc.

These two verses are repeated at the end of the Psalm. Then Psalm 102:

Praise the Lord, O my soul, and all that is within me.
His holy Name, etc.

The last verse of this Psalm is repeated. Psalm 142:

Lord, hear my prayer, etc.

At the close these verses follow:

Hear me, O Lord, for Thy righteousness' sake, and enter
into judgment with Thy servant. (Twice.) Let Thy good
Spirit lead me in the right way.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Now and ever, etc.

When the Reader begins to read Psalm 87, the Priest goes in the Epitrache-
lion or Phelonion before the holy doors, and says silently the following morning
prayers:

FIRST PRAYER.

We thank Thee, O Lord, our God, that Thou hast raised
us from our beds and put into our mouth the words of Thy
praise, that we may worship Thee, and call upon Thy holy
Name; and so we implore Thy compassion, which Thou hast
shown us through the course of our lives; send down also

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now Thine aid upon those who stand before the face of Thy
holy glory, waiting for the riches of Thy mercy; let them
praise Thine unspeakable goodness, as they serve before Thee
continually with fear and love. For to Thee, the Father, and
the Son, and the Holy Ghost, are due all honor and praise,
glory and worship; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

## SECOND PRAYER.

In the night season our soul is awake unto Thee, O our
God, for Thy commandments are light upon the earth; teach
us to do righteousness and holiness in Thy fear; as we mag-
nify Thee, our true God. Incline Thine ear and hear us; re-
member, O Lord, every one who is here present and prays
with us, and save them by Thy power; bless Thy people and
sanctify Thine inheritance; grant peace to Thy world, to Thy
churches, to Thy Priests, to our Sovereign, and to all Thy
people. For blessed and praised is Thy all glorious and ex-
alted Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

## THIRD PRAYER.

In the night season our soul is awake unto Thee, O God;
for Thy commandments are light. Teach us, O God, Thy
righteousness, Thy commandments, and Thy justice. En-
lighten the eyes of our minds, that we sleep not in sin unto
death; banish all darkness from our hearts; grant us the Sun
of Righteousness; preserve us in holiness of life by the seal
of Thy Holy Spirit; guide our steps in the way of peace;
grant us to behold the morning dawn and the day with joy,
that we may offer up to Thee our morning prayers. For
Thine is the strength, and the kingdom, and the power, and
the glory of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

## FOURTH PRAYER.

O holy and incomprehensible God, our Lord, who hast
commanded the light to shine out of the darkness, hast re-
freshed us with sleep in the night, and hast raised us up to
praise and invoke Thy goodness: by Thy compassion receive
us, who now adore and give thanks unto Thee according to
our abilities, and grant us all things necessary to our salva-

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23

tion. Make us children of the light and of the day, and heirs
of Thine eternal goodness. Remember also, O Lord, in the
multitude of Thy mercies, all Thy people, and those who are
present with us and pray with us, and all our brethren who,
on land, on the sea, and in all parts of Thy dominion, desire
Thy grace and help; and grant unto all the riches of Thy
grace. That we, being saved, both soul and body, by trust in
Thee, may praise the wonderful and blessed Name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and
ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

For Thou art a God of mercy, grace, and compassion, and
to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we of-
fer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

FIFTH PRAYER.

O Treasure of Goodness, ever-flowing Fountain, Holy
Father, Wonderful, Almighty, Ruler of all things, Thee do
we worship, and we implore Thee, invoking Thy grace and
compassion, for help and protection for our humility: remem-
ber Thy servants, O Lord; receive from us all the morning
prayer as incense before Thee, and reject none of us, but pro-
vide for us all in Thy compassion. Remember, O Lord, those
who watch and sing to the glorification of Thee, and of Thine
Only-begotten Son, our God, and Thy Holy Spirit: be to them
a Helper and Defender; receive their prayers on Thy heavenly
and spiritual Altar. For Thou art our God, and to Thee, the
Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise
and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

SIXTH PRAYER.

We thank Thee, O Lord, God of our salvation, that Thou
makest all things work together for our good, that we may
always look up to Thee, the Saviour and Benefactor of our
souls; for Thou hast refreshed us with rest in the past night,
and hast raised us from our beds, and hast caused us to adore
Thy holy Name. Therefore, we beseech Thee, O Lord, grant
us grace and strength, that we may worthily sing unto Thee,
and pray without ceasing, working out our salvation with
fear and trembling, through the help of Thy Christ. Re-
member also, O Lord, those who call upon Thee in the night
season; hear them and have mercy upon them, and beat down

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under their feet their invisible and obstinate enemies. For
Thou art the Prince of Peace and the Saviour of our souls,
and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost,
we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.

SEVENTH PRAYER.

O God and Father of our Lord Jesu Christ, who hast raised us from our beds, and hast assembled us at the hour of prayer, open by Thy grace our mouth, and accept the thanks-giving which we are enabled to offer; teach us Thy righteousness; for we know not how we should pray, unless Thou, O Lord, shouldst guide us by Thy Holy Spirit. Therefore, we beseech Thee, pardon, forgive, and overlook the sins we have committed, even unto the present hour, by thought, word, or deed, willingly or unwillingly; for if Thou, Lord, shouldst mark iniquities, O Lord, who shall stand? But with Thee is redemption; Thou alone art the Holy One, the Helper, the mighty Defender of our life; and to Thee we sing continual praise. Blessed and praised be the power of Thy kingdom, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

EIGHTH PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, who hast banished from us weariness and
slumber, and by a holy call hast summoned us even in the
night to lift up our hands, and to confess the judgments of
Thy righteousness, accept our prayers, supplications, confessions, and nocturnal service, and grant us, O God, faith that
cannot be shaken, constant hope, and sincere love; bless our
going out and our coming in, our deeds and works, our
words and thoughts, and let us come to the dawn of day
praising, blessing, and glorifying the goodness of Thine unspeakable mercy. That blessed may be Thine all-holy Name,
and praised be Thy kingdom, of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

NINTH PRAYER.

O merciful Lord, let the imperishable light of Thy Divine
knowledge shine within our hearts, and open the eyes of our
minds to understand the teachings of Thy gospel. Implant in
us also the fear of Thy blessed commandments, that we, sub-

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25

duing all fleshly lusts, may lead a spiritual life, thinking and
doing all things to Thy good pleasure. For Thou, O Christ,
our God, art the Enlightener of our souls and bodies, and to
Thee, together with Thine eternal Father, and Thine all-holy,
and good, and life-giving Spirit, we offer up praise and glory;
now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

TENTH PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, who hast granted to men remission
through repentance, and hast set forth unto us, as an exam-
ple of confession and acknowledgment of sins, the pardon
through repentance of the prophet David; do Thou, O Master,
have mercy upon us according to Thy great goodness, and
since we have fallen into many and great iniquities, blot out
our transgressions according to the multitude of Thy mercies;
for against Thee have we sinned, O Lord, who knowest the
secret and hidden things of the human heart, and who alone
hast power to forgive sins. Create within us a clean heart,
and renew a right spirit within us; show us the joy of Thy
salvation, and cast us not away from Thy presence; but grant,
as the good and gracious God, that we, even to our latest
breath, may present unto Thee the offering of righteousness
and sacrifices upon Thine holy Altars. Through the grace,
and mercy, and compassion of Thine Only-begotten Son, with
whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all-holy,
good, and life-giving Spirit; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

ELEVENTH PRAYER.

O God, our God, who hast created the powers of mind and
soul by Thy will, we beseech and implore Thee; accept our
praise, which we, together with all Thy creatures, offer unto
Thee, according to our abilities, and reward us with rich
bounties of Thy goodness; for before Thee doth bow every
knee in heaven, and on earth and under the earth; and every-
thing that hath breath and every creature doth praise Thine
incomprehensible glory; for Thou alone art the true God, and
full of grace. For Thee do all the heavenly powers glorify,
and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost we
offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

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TWELFTH PRAYER.

We praise Thee, we bless Thee, we glorify Thee, we give thanks unto Thee, O God of our Fathers, that Thou hast removed the shadows of the night and shown us again the light of the day; we implore Thy goodness to purify us from sin, and to receive our prayers according to Thy great mercy, for we flee unto Thee the merciful and Almighty God. Let the true Sun of Thy righteousness shine in our hearts, enlighten our understanding, and preserve all our senses, that we, walking honestly as in the day, in the way of Thy commandments, may attain unto everlasting life; for with Thee is the fountain of life, and that we may be made worthy of the joy of Thine inaccessible light. For Thou art our God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

At the close of the six Psalms the Deacon goes out before the holy doors, bows before the Priest, and, as the latter goes into the Sanctuary, takes his place and says the great Ektene:

CHOIR: Lord have mercy.

(So after each sentence of the Ektene. See the Ektene at the beginning of the Vespers).

Then the Deacon goes into the Sanctuary to his place, and the reader exclaims:

God is the Lord and is manifested unto us; blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord.

VERS: O give thanks unto the Lord, for He is good, and His mercy endureth forever.

CHOIR: God is the Lord and is manifested unto us; blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord.

READER: They compassed me about on every side, but in the name of the Lord I have withstood them.

CHOIR: God is the Lord, etc.

READER: I shall not die, but live, and declare the works of the Lord.

CHOIR: God is the Lord, etc.

READER: The stone which the builders refused is become the corner stone; this is the Lord's doing, and is marvelous in our eyes.

CHOIR: God is the Lord, etc.

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Here the Troparia are sung according to the appointed tunes, either those of the festival, or of the saints, and of the Mother of God. Then:

CHOIR: Lord have mercy. (Three times.)

Glory be to the Father, etc.

READER: Now and ever, etc.

Then they begin to read the Kathisms—that is, the prescribed Psalms of David for the appointed day, each division of the Kathisms ending with the words:

Glory be to the Father, etc.

And the Choir answers:

Now and ever, etc. Hallelujah. (Thrice.) Glory be to
Thee, O God. (Thrice.) Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

Glory be to the Father, etc.

READER: Now and ever, etc.

Then he continues to read the next division. At the close of the first Kathism the Deacon goes out of the Sanctuary, remains standing before the holy doors, and says the little Ektene.

Again and again let us pray to the Lord.

THE PRIEST AT THE END: For Thine is the strength, and Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then are sung the appointed Kathismal hymns, after which, in the convents, follows the reading of the homilies on the Gospel. Then is read, in the same way, the second Kathism, which ended with :

Glory be to the Father, and Hallelujah.

And the little Ektene also follows :

DEACON: Again and again, etc.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy, etc.

THE PRIEST AT THE END: For Thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee, etc.

CHOIR: Amen.

Whereupon the Kathismal hymns are sung again, and in the convents the reading of the homilies on the Gospel is continued.

Then commences the Polyelaion. The singers begin with solemn voice to sing Psalms 134 and 135, adding to each verse: *Hallelujah*.

FIRST CHOIR: Praise the Name of the Lord; O ye servants, praise the Lord. Hallelujah.

SECOND CHOIR: Ye that stand in the house of the Lord, in the courts of the house of our God. Hallelujah, etc.

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On the three Sundays before the Great Fast is also added Psalm 136.

By the waters of Babylon we sat down and wept. Halle-
lujah, etc.

Here the order of the service is somewhat varied. (a) When it is a festival or saint's day, while the Psalms are sung an Analogion is placed in the midst of the church, and upon it is laid the Ikon of the festival of the saint; the Superior and the Priesthood robe themselves in the customary way, and going out of the Sanctuary through the holy doors, place themselves on each side of the Analogion, and the Superior distributes candles among the clergy and all the people; then he takes the censer, and, while a Deacon goes before with the candle, censes first around the Ikon on the Analogion, then going into the Sanctuary around the holy Table, and in the whole Sanctuary, then he goes out of the Sanctuary and censes before all the Ikons, then the Priesthood on both sides of the Analogion, both the Choirs, and the assembled people; then again before the holy doors, and the Ikons of the Saviour, the Mother of God, and before that on the Analogion. At the same time the hymn in honor of the saint or of the festival is sung, as:

We exalt Thee, O Christ, Thou Giver of Life, who for our sake in the Flesh hast been born, or hast been baptized, etc.

*Or:* It is very meet highly to exalt thee, O Mother of God, more honorable than the Cherubim, and beyond comparison more glorious than the Seraphim.

*Or:* We exalt thee, O High-priest, Father N. N., and honor thy holy memory, because thou dost intercede for us with Christ, our God.

These hymns of honor are sung several times, and before each the appointed verse from the Psalms. Then the whole ministering Priesthood go into the Sanctuary and take off their vestments; only he whose duty it is to serve remains robed, in order to read the Gospel. Sometimes the Gospel is read in the midst of the church before the Ikon, and after that the Priesthood return to the Sanctuary. (b) If it is a Sunday, during the singing of Psalms 134 and 135 the holy doors are opened, and while the Deacon goes before with the candle, the Priest censes about the Sanctuary, before the Ikons in the church, and the people, as is customary. After the Psalms above, instead of the hymns of honor, the following Troparia of praise are sung:

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, teach me Thy judgments.

The multitude of angels is astonished, beholding thee, O Saviour, because Thou hast been numbered with the dead, but hast destroyed the stronghold of death, hast raised up Adam with Thee, and delivered all from hell.

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, etc.

Why, O women, mingle ye the ointment with your tears of pity? The shining angel in the sepulchre said to the women who brought the ointment: Behold the sepulchre, and know that the Saviour is risen from the tomb.

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Early in the morning hastened the women, who bore the ointment, weeping, to Thy tomb; but the angel appeared to them and said: The time for weeping is past; weep not, but announce to the Apostles the Resurrection.

The women came with the ointment sorrowing to Thy tomb, but the angel spake unto them and said: Why seek ye the Living among the dead? for He, as God, is risen from the tomb.

Let us adore the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, the Holy Trinity in Unity, and crying out with Seraphim: Holy, Holy, Holy, art Thou, O Lord.

Now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Because that thou, O Virgin, hast borne the Giver of Life, hast freed Adam from sin, and hast turned the sorrow of Eve into joy; since He, the God-Man, who became Flesh of thee, hath restored life again to those who had lost it.

At the close of the Triparia of Praise—but, on the festivals, immediately after the hymns of honor—the Deacon says the little Ektene:

Again and again, etc.

THE PRIEST, AT THE END: For highly praised is Thy Name, and highly honored Thy Kingdom, of the Father, etc.

CHOIR: Amen.

After the Ektene the singers sing the Antiphons of the appointed tunes, or the Gradual, and then the bells are rung. After the Antiphon:

DEACON: Let us attend; Wisdom.

READER: Prokimenon.

And reads the appointed verses from the Psalm of David.

The Choir sings the same three times.

DEACON: Let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST: For Thou, our God, art holy, and dwellest with the holy, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

DEACON: Let everything that hath breath praise the Lord.

The Choir sings the same.

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DEACON: Praise the Lord in His sanctuary, praise Him in the firmament of His power.

CHOIR: Let every thing that hath breath praise the Lord.

DEACON: Let every thing that hath breath.

CHOIR: Praise the Lord.

DEACON: Let us pray God, the Lord, that we may be made worthy to hear the Holy Gospel.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

DEACON: Wisdom; stand up; let us hear the Gospel.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to thy spirit.

PRIEST: The reading from the Holy Gospel according to N. N.

CHOIR: Glory to Thee, O Lord; glory to Thee.

DEACON: Let us attend.

The Priest reads the Gospel.

After the reading of the Gospel, the Choir:

Here the order of the Service is again somewhat varied. (a) On Sundays after Glory to Thee, O Lord, etc., is read this verse:

Having seen the Resurrection of Christ, let us adore Jesus, the Holy Lord, who is alone without sin. We adore Thy Cross, O Christ, and praise and glorify Thy Holy Resurrection, for Thou art our God; besides Thee we know no other, and on Thy Name do we call. O come, all ye faithful, let us adore the Holy Resurrection of Christ; for, behold, through the Cross came joy to all the world. Ever blessing the Lord, let us praise His Resurrection; for He hath suffered on the Cross, and through Death hath destroyed Death.

Then is sung Psalm 50:

Have mercy upon me, O God, etc.

Then the Choir sings:

O Thou Merciful One, do away the multitude of our transgressions through the intercessions of the Apostles.

O Thou Merciful One, do away the multitude of our transgressions through the intercessions of the Mother of God.

VERS: Have mercy on me, O God, after Thy great good-

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31

ness; according to the multitude of Thy mercies, blot out my
sins.

Jesus is arisen from the grave, as He foretold; and hath
given us eternal life and great grace.

[b] On the festivals of the Lord, after the Gospel, and: *Glory to Thee, O Lord, etc.*, is read Psalm 50: *Have mercy upon me, O God, etc.* Whereupon the choir: *Glory be to the Father, etc.*, and the verse for the festival, as:

To-day are all things filled with joy, since Christ is born of
the Virgin; or, is baptized in Jordan, etc. Now and ever,
etc.

And again:

To-day are all things, etc.

VERS: Have mercy upon me, O God, etc.

At the close of the Sticherion, or Hypakoe appointed for the festival.

[c] On the days of the Mother of God, or the Saints, follows after Psalm 50

Glory be to the Father, etc.

O Thou Merciful One, do away the multitude of our trans-
gressions through the intercessions of the Mother of God (the
Saint, the High Priest, the Martyr N.)

Now and ever, etc.

AGAIN: O Thou Merciful One, etc.

At the close the Hypakoe, or Sticherion, appointed for the festival of the
Mother of God, the Saint, the High Priest, or the Martyr.

[d] On Sundays of the Great Fast, after the Gospel and: *Glory to Thee, O Lord*, is sung:

Having seen the Resurrection of Christ, etc. (See above.)

Then is read Psalm 50, as is usual on the Sundays. Then the Choir sings the
following Troparia:

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Open unto me the gates of penitence, O Thou Giver of
Life; for my spirit watches in Thy holy Temple, bearing a
bodily temple wholly polluted; yet do Thou, the Merciful
One, purify it with Thy merciful grace.

Now and ever, etc.

Lead me in the paths of salvation, O Thou Mother of God:
for I have defiled my soul with shameful sins, and wasted my
whole life in idleness; but do Thou set me free through Thy
intercessions from all impurity.

AT THE END: Remembering the multitude of my past in-
iquities, I tremble as condemned before the terrible Day of

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Judgment; yet hoping in Thy merciful grace, like David, I cry unto Thee: Have mercy upon me, O God, after Thy great goodness.

After the reading of the Gospel and during the singing of the above mentioned verses, the Priest, with two light-bearers going before him, passes out through the holy doors with the Book of the Gospels, which he holds on his breast, and places himself in the midst of the church, and the light-bearers place the candles on each side of him. Then comes the Superior, bows twice before the Book of the Gospels, kisses it, bows again once before it, and then before both Choirs. Then afterward the whole brotherhood and the people do the same. But on the holy festivals they kiss the Ikon of the Saint, which lies upon the Analogy in the midst of the church, and not the Book of the Gospels, and the Priest anoints all with the oil, which has been blessed at the blessing of the loaves during the Great Vespers, making with the oil the sign of the cross on the foreheads of those who come. After the kissing of the Gospel, or of the Ikon of the Saint, the Priest blesses with it the whole congregation, goes into the Sanctuary and closes the holy doors; but the Deacon says in his customary place the following prayer:

O Lord, save Thy people, and bless Thine inheritance; to: Hear us sinners, who pray unto Thee, and have mercy upon us. (See above, in the Great Vespers.)

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (Twelve times.)

PRIEST: Through the grace and mercy and compassion of Thine Only-begotten Son, with whom, and with Thine All-holy, Good, and Life-giving Spirit, Thou art blessed; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Now begins the Kanon of the Festival, or of the Saint, and the Mother of God, which consists of nine hymns of several Troparia, and to each Troparion is added a Preface; as:

Glory be to Thy holy Resurrection, O Lord; or, Holy Father N., pray unto God for us; or, O Most Holy Mother of God, save us, etc.

After the third hymn, the Deacon goes out of the Sanctuary, and standing before the holy doors, says the little Ektene:

Again and again, etc.

PRIEST: For Thou art our God, and to Thee, the Father, etc.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then is sung the Kathismal hymn, or the Hypakoe of the day, and the Kanon is continued.

After the sixth hymn, the Deacon goes again out of the Sanctuary, and says the little Ektene.

Again and again, etc.

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PRIEST: For Thou art the Prince of Peace, and the Saviour of our souls, and to Thee, the Father, etc.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then is sung the Kantakion and Ikos of the festival. Otherwise is read the Senaksarion, that is, the explanation of the festival, and sometimes also the Akathistos. Then the Kanon is continued.

At the close of the eighth hymn, the Reader exclaims: *Let us praise the Lord, Father, Son and Holy Ghost, upon which, all bowing, cry out: We praise, we bless and worship the Lord, singing unto Him and magnifying Him forever. And they sing then the Katabasion, that is, the Irmos of the eighth hymn.*

Then the Deacon censes about the holy Table, and all the Sanctuary, and says aloud:

Let us magnify with hymns of praise the Mother of God and the Mother of Light.

The Choir sings the following hymns of the Mother of God:

FIRST CHOIR: My soul doth magnify the Lord, and my spirit hath rejoiced in God, my Saviour.

O Thou, who art more honorable than the Cherubim, and beyond comparison more glorious than the Seraphim, who hast borne without corruption God, the World; we magnify thee, the true mother of God.

SECOND CHOIR: For He hath regarded the lowliness of His handmaiden: for, behold, from henceforth all generations shall call me blessed. O Thou, who art more honorable, etc.

FIRST CHOIR: For He that is mighty hath done great things unto me, and Holy is his Name, and His mercy is on them that fear Him, from generation to generation. O Thou, who art more honorable, etc.

SECOND CHOIR: He hath showed strength with his arm, He hath scattered the proud in the imagination of their heart. O Thou, who art, etc.

FIRST CHOIR: He hath put down the mighty from their seat, and exalted the humble. He hath filled the hungry with good things, and the rich He hath sent empty away. O Thou, who art more honorable, etc.

SECOND CHOIR: He hath holpen His servant Israel, and remembered His mercy (as He spake to our fathers) to Abraham and his seed forever. O Thou, who art more honorable, etc.

During the singing of these Sticheria, and the ninth hymn of the Kanon, which follows them, the Deacon censes in the whole church, and before all the

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people. At the end of the ninth hymn he gives back the censer, and says the little Ektene:

Again and again, etc.

PRIEST: For Thou art praised by all the heavenly hosts, and to Thee, the Father and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

DEACON exclaims: Holy is the Lord, our God.

CHOIR: The same.

DEACON: For Holy is the Lord, our God.

CHOIR: Holy is the Lord, our God.

DEACON: Above all nations is our God.

CHOIR: Holy is the Lord our God.

Then is sung the Exapostellarion of the festival; and afterwards the Choir begins to sing the Psalms of praise 148 and 149, adding to each verse:

To Thee is due the hymn of praise, O God.

FIRST CHOIR: Let everything that hath breath praise the Lord. Praise the Lord, O ye heavens; praise Him in the height. To Thee is due the hymn of praise, O God.

SECOND CHOIR: Praise Him, all His angels; praise Him all His hosts. To Thee is due the hymn of praise, O God, etc.

The rest of the Psalm is usually read. Then the hymns of the festival are sung, and before each of them one of the following verses of Psalm 150:

To do unto them the judgment, of which it is written. Such honor have all His Saints.

Praise God in His sanctuary; praise Him in the firmament of His power.

Praise Him for His mighty acts; praise Him according to His excellent greatness.

Praise Him with the sound of the trumpet; praise Him with psalter and harp. Praise Him with timbrels and dances; praise Him with strings and organs.

Praise Him with loud cymbals; praise Him with resounding cymbals. Let everything that hath breath praise the Lord.

Then both choirs join together in the midst of the church and sing:

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35

Highly praised art thou, O Virgin, Mother of God, for
through Him, who became incarnate in thee, is Hell made
captive. Adam restored, the Curse removed, Eve set free,
Death slain, and we restored to life. Therefore we praising
thee cry aloud: Blessed be Christ, our God, who hath so willed:
Glory be to Thee.

This verse is sung only on Sundays; but on festivals, or on saints' days, is
sung the appointed verse:

THEN THE PRIEST: Glory be to Thee, who hast showed us
the Light.

CHOIR, THE DOXOLOGY: Glory be to God on high, peace on
earth, and good-will towards men. We praise Thee, we bless
Thee, we worship Thee, we glorify Thee, we give thanks to
Thee for Thy great glory. O Lord, Thou heavenly King, God
the Father Almighty, O Lord, Thou Only-begotten Son, Jesu
Christ, and Thou, Holy Ghost. O Lord God, Thou Lamb of
God, Son of the Father, that hast taken away the sins of the
world, have mercy upon us; Thou, that hast taken away the
sins of the world, receive our prayer; Thou, that sittest at the
right hand of the Father, have mercy upon us. For Thou
only art holy, Thou only art the Lord, Jesus Christ, to the
glory of God the Father. Amen.

Every day will I bless Thee and praise Thy Name forever,
and to ages of ages. Vouchsafe, O Lord, to keep us this day
without sin. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, God of our fathers,
and Thy Name is praised and glorified forever. Amen.

O Lord, let Thy mercy be upon us, as our trust is in Thee.
Blessed art Thou, O Lord, teach me Thy judgments. (Thrice.)
Lord, Thou hast been our refuge from generation to genera-
tion; I said: Lord, be merciful unto me, heal my soul: for I
have sinned against Thee. Lord, I flee unto Thee, teach me
to do Thy will, for Thou art my God; for with Thee is the
fountain of life, and in Thy light shall we see light; continue
thy mercy unto them that know Thee.

O Holy God, Holy and Mighty, Holy and Immortal, have
mercy upon us. (Thrice.) Glory be to the Father, and to the
Son, and to the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.

O Holy and Immortal, have mercy upon us.

O Holy God, Holy and Mighty, etc.

Then on the Sundays one of the following Troparia:

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To-day is salvation come unto the world; let us sing to Him who rose from the grave, the Prince of our Life; He hath destroyed Death by Death, and hath given us the victory and great mercy.

*Or:* O Lord, who art arisen from the grave, hast broken the bonds of hell, and destroyed the condemnation of death; when thou hadst saved all from the net of the enemy, and appeared unto Thine Apostles, Thou didst send them forth to proclaim the Gospel, and give peace unto the whole world, which is now become the kingdom of Thy grace.

On festivals, instead of these Troparia, the Troparion of the festival is sung.

Then the singers go to their places, and the Deacon says the Ektene of Earnest Prayer.

Have mercy upon us, O, God, according to Thy great mercy; we pray Thee, hear and have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (Three times, etc., to Amen.)

Then the following Ektene:

Let us complete our morning prayers to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy, etc.

After the exclamation of the Priest, at the end of the Ektene: *Peace to all.*

CHOIR: And to Thy spirit.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

The Priest prays silently.

## THE PRAYER AT THE BOWING DOWN OF THE HEAD.

O Holy Lord, who dwellest on high, and hast respect unto the lowly, and with Thine all-seeing eye beholdest every creature; before Thee have we bowed the neck of our heart and body, and we beseech Thee, O Thou Most Holy One, stretch forth Thine invisible hand from Thy holy habitation and bless us all; and in whatsoever we have sinned, willingly or unwillingly, forgive us, as the good and gracious God, and grant us Thy temporal and eternal gifts of grace.

ALOUD: For to Thee it belongeth to have mercy and to save us, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

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Here follows the Benediction.

DEACON: Wisdom.

CHOIR: Give the Bendiction.

PRIEST: Blessed is Christ, our God, always; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Strengthen, O God, our Orthodox Monarch (Emperor, King, or Prince of the respective country) N. N., and the Holy Orthodox Faith, and all Orthodox Christians, for ever and ever.

PRIEST: Most Holy Mother of God, save us.

CHOIR: Thou who art more honorable than the Cherubim, and beyond comparison more glorious than the Seraphim, who hast borne without corruption God, the Word, we magnify thee, the true Mother of God.

PRIEST: Glory be to Thee, Christ, O God, our Hope; glory be to Thee.

CHOIR: Glory be to the Father, etc.

Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

Give the Benediction.

The Priest opens the holy doors, and gives the following Dismissal:

Christ, our true God (Who is risen from the dead; or, Who was baptized in the Jordan; or, Who was transfigured upon Mount Tabor; according to the occasion of the festival), through the intercessions of His all-spotless Mother, of the holy, glorious, and all-celebrated Apostles, of our holy Father N. (of the day), and of all Saints, have mercy upon us, and save us, as Thou art good and gracious.

CHOIR: Amen; or, Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

Then follows the First Hour.

## THE FIRST HOUR.

PRIEST: Blessed be our God always, etc.

READER: Amen.

Glory be to Thee, O God; glory be to Thee.

O Heavenly King, Comforter, Thou Spirit of Truth, omnipresent and filling all things, Treasure of Goodness and Giver of Life, come and make Thine abode in us, Thou gracious One, purify us from every stain, and save our souls.

TRISAGION, O Holy God, Holy and Mighty, etc.

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Glory be to the Father, etc.

Most Holy Trinity, have mercy upon us; purify us, O Lord, from our sins; forgive us, O Master, our transgressions; visit our infirmities, O Holy One, and save us for Thy Name's sake.

Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Our Father, who art in Heaven, etc.

PRIEST: For Thine is the Kingdom, etc.

READER: Amen.

After the Trisagion :

Come, let us worship before God, our King, etc.

Then Psalm 5 :

O Lord, receive my words, consider my meditation, etc.

Psalm 89:

Lord, Thou has been our refuge from generation to generation, etc.

Psalm 100:

Of mercy and judgment will I sing unto Thee, O Lord, etc.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

And then the Troparion of the saint or of the festival, then:

Now and ever, etc.

What name shall we give thee, O most blessed; Heaven,
since from thee has arisen the Sun of Righteousness; Para-
dise, since from thee hath bloomed forth the Flower of Incor-
ruption; Virgin, since thou hast remained spotless; pure
Mother, since thou hast held in thy holy arms the Son, the
God of all things? beseech Him therefore to save our souls.

Order my steps according to Thy word, so that no wickedness shall have dominion over me. Deliver me from the oppression of men, and I will keep Thy commandments.

Make Thy face to shine upon Thy servant, and teach me
Thy statutes.

Let my mouth be filled with Thy praise, O Lord, that I
may sing of Thine honor and greatness all the day long.

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tion of a colossal Empire "from force to freedom" cannot be achieved in headlong haste. Remembering what a waste of life and treasure was required to liberate four millions of slaves under their own free Constitution, they are not illogical or inconsistent enough to believe that the system under which a far greater reform was peacefully accomplished in the Czar's dominions, can be so intrinsically bad, or so unsuited to the time and climate, as its enemies paint it.

Thus, we see that while Russia and the United States are dissimilar in many respects, they have also their salient features of similarity. To those already enumerated it may be added that each nation embraces a colossal territory, guaranteeing to it a splendid future, through the development of its natural resources. This vast expanse of land necessarily democratizes the subjects of the Empire as well as the citizens of the Republic, and the Government of Russia is actually engaged in training the Russian people to discharge the duties of local self-government, while a crazy Communism seeks to ruin the whole beneficent work by hurrying it beyond the powers or capacities of the people. Sagacious minds in America fully comprehend how much is at stake on the issue; hence their admiration and sympathy for the Czar and Russian nation in the grand experiment which has thus far progressed so well.

## AMONG THE GREEK ISLANDS.

BY D. N. BOTASSI, CONSUL-GENERAL OF GREECE IN NEW YORK.

IT is remarkable in this age of steam and electricity, when nations are brought together by the immense facilities of communication, and people are so anxious to read the stories of travelers who have visited distant lands and made us acquainted with the manners and customs of countries not known before, that we have comparatively so little knowledge of places situated almost in the centre of Europe, whose shores hundreds of steamers and sailing vessels almost daily skirt, and yet are terra incognita, for the simple reason that they offer no inducements to travelers to visit them. I refer to some of the smaller islands of the Grecian Archipelago; and more particularly to two of them, viz.: Hydra and

AMONG THE GREEK ISLANDS.

143

Spetzai, situated on the eastern shore of Peloponnesus, about the thirty-eighth parallel. They present separate and distinct features from the other islands of Greece, from the fact that some Albanian colonists settled on these two islands in the seventeenth century and gradually absorbed the native element, until, at the beginning of the nineteenth, the Greek language was very little spoken, the people's vernacular being almost exclusively Albanian. The dress of the men had nothing Grecian about it. It consisted of a tight-fitting vest and jacket not extending below the waist and buttoned in the front; short baggy trousers reaching just below the knee, small open leather shoes, bare legs, a long woollen sash wrapped three or four times around the waist, in which a one-bladed knife, six to twelve inches long, was buried, showing only its ivory handle. A red cap on the head, called *fessi* or *fez*, with a short blue tassel of silk, completed the costume.

The women's dress was as follows: The skirt had an immense quantity of symmetrically-arranged horizontal and perpendicular folds. On the lower edge a broad band of purple velvet trimmed with a silk ribbon of mixed colors. The skirt did not touch the ground. Small open black leather shoes. A tight-fitting velvet vest, with a low Pompadour front cut down to within a few inches of the waist. A thin silk skirt of native make was the only cover of a noble bust. A large silk or embroidered kerchief was wrapped around the head and neck, covering completely the latter, and showing just a little hair in the front, parted in the middle and pushed back on each side over the ears. This costume, it will be seen, was anything but prepossessing. The handsomest woman would look positively homely. In fact she could show nothing else but her pretty eyes and fine chest, since the hair and neck were hidden under the immense kerchief. The sleeves of the dress reached the wrist and were buttoned tightly. Gloves were an unknown luxury, and even parasols were very little used. Under an almost tropical sun the women in the streets sheltered their eyes with their handkerchiefs, and umbrellas were used only for protection from the rain, but not from the sun's rays.

The island of Hydra is about fifteen miles long, with a breadth of five miles in the widest part. It consists almost entirely of a solid mass of rock, culminating in a high peak, on which a monastery is built, called Agios Elias, where a

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few monks live, heaven knows how. So arid is the soil that the inhabitants have to bring earth from the mainland of the Peloponnesus, which is only half a dozen miles distant, in order to raise a few vegetables in their gardens and some flowers in their houses. On the western slope of the mountain is situated the town of Hydra, just opposite the ancient Hermione on the mainland, containing some fifteen thousand inhabitants, and presenting a picturesque appearance from the sea side, its white, well-built stone houses rising almost from the water's edge and reaching far up the steep hill. It possesses a small harbor, capable of sheltering twenty or thirty vessels if they are placed in line, their sterns facing the shore.

Spetzai is only one-half the size of Hydra, and is more favored by nature, as far as the soil is concerned. Its land is fertile; the hilly part is covered with pine forests; the vine grows in profusion, and many vegetable gardens surround the city, which contains some ten thousand inhabitants and over two thousand houses. The port of Spetzai is one of the best in the Archipelago, and can give shelter to fifty or sixty vessels, if not more. Besides its port, Spetzai possesses the advantage of being only two or three miles distant from the opposite shore of Peloponnesus, just at the entrance of the Argolic gulf, and vessels anchoring in this narrow passage are perfectly protected from the north winds, greatly prevalent in those parts in the winter season. Neither of these two islands possess a single village. All the life is concentrated in their respective towns, and beyond these you meet virgin soil, wild vegetation and not a single footpath. Except the very few vegetables raised in Spetzai, and which are insufficient for its necessities, all the food and other necessities of life have to be brought from without. The meat, fruit and vegetables are brought from the Peloponnesus; the wheat (they do not eat corn) from Russia and Turkey, and the dry goods from England, France, Italy and Austria.

Hydra and Spetzai produce only two articles, viz., ships and sailors. The highest aspirations of a Spetziote (the same remark applies to Hydra) is to be called "Captain." The supreme felicity of a sailor's son is reached when he embarks for the first time as a "cabin boy." At the age of twelve he knows already the names of all the rigging of a ship, has visited the topgallant masts, and plunged into the water from

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145

the lower yards. He swims like a fish; rubs his face with tar and tallow to become sailor-like, both in appearance and odor; has stolen his father's knife; practices miniature yachting, to the detriment of the house linen, and accustoms himself to dispense with shoes (stockings are out of the question), and the like superfluities.

Spetzai possesses a marine of about 110 large vessels. The ships are built on the island itself, but the timber is brought from Katakolon (at the mouth of the Alpheus), on the western shore of the Peloponnesus, opposite Zante, while the masts and yards are brought from the Danube, or Southern Turkey, and particularly from the northern shore of the Sea of Marmora. The size of the vessels seldom exceeds three or four hundred tons, being intended principally for the Danube and the Black Sea trade, carrying exclusively grain cargoes to the Mediterranean ports, chiefly to Trieste, Messina, Naples, Leghorn, Genoa, Marseilles, Barcelona, Gibraltar, Algiers, etc. Speed is the great desideratum for Greek vessels, and, although their construction is not so solid as that of the English or American ships, they are second to none as far as speed is concerned. There are no companies or associations in Spetzai. The captain is generally the owner of his ship, and from the moment the keel is placed in position he superintends the building with the keenest attention. On the day the ship is to be launched there is great commotion in the captain's house. His wife, daughters and female relations have been busy all the previous night in making a prodigious quantity of soft cakes, called *tiganites*, composed of fine flour, eggs and sugar, fried in olive oil, and sprinkled with cinnamon and Greek honey. Then they are piled on immense copper trays, called *tepsia*, and sent off to the locality where the ship lays. Dressed in their Sunday clothes, the members of the captain's family repair thither, accompanied by all their friends, and the ceremony begins. The parish priest and his acolyte, carrying the Ikon of St. Nicholas, the patron saint of the mariners, steps on board, blesses the ship, and reads appropriate prayers, all the assistants meanwhile remaining with uncovered heads. As soon as this is over, the priest is given to understand that his presence is no longer needed, it being considered unlucky for the ship to enter its element with a priest on board. Decked gayly with flags and bunting, the ship moves now gracefully into the water, an

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immense hurrah is given by the crowd, the women wave their handkerchiefs, and the captain is thrown unceremoniously into the water by his friends, as emblematic of his duty to share the fortunes of his ship. The thousands of *tiganites* are now distributed to the hungry urchins by the captain's men in true democratic style, that is to say, by simply plunging their hands in the trays and filling them with cakes, while the honey is dripping on the faces and clothes of those near by. No wine or liquors are served, and among the five or six hundred people who generally witness the launching of a ship at Spetzai not a single drunken man is to be seen.

The sailors who man these ships are all natives of the place. The result is that a closer relationship exists between the captain and his crew and a better attendance to duty. The sailor receives generally from fifteen to twenty dollars advance, for a voyage of three months. He must provide his family with two or three bushels of wheat and some olive oil. Then he hands to his wife the advance-money, and it is considered that she is amply provided for three months. If the voyage is prolonged beyond that time, the wife of the sailor calls upon that of the captain for the loan of two or three dollars, which is generally granted, and which is deducted from the sailor's wages on the return of the ship. The "itineraire" of the voyage of a Spetziote vessel seldom varies much. They start for Constantinople, and from that point decide whether they will go to Varna or the Danube, (Galatz, Ibraila, Reni, Toultza or Ismael), or to Odessa, Kertch (Crimea), or the sea of Azoff, (Berdianska, Marianopoli, Taganrog or Rostov on the Don). Taking a grain cargo from any of these places, they call at Spetzai on their way to Marseilles, Leghorn, etc., as the case may be, to discharge their cargo, and then come back in ballast. If the voyage is finished about December, they stay in their island and have a jolly time during the holidays, and start only after the middle of January, or rather, in sailor parlance, after the blessing of the waters, which takes place on the 18th of January. On their return from Western Europe the sailors are bound to bring all the necessary material for the clothes of their wives and daughters, while the captain, if the voyage has been profitable, brings home not only abundant material for woollen or silk dresses, but crockery and cut glass, walnut chairs and

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147

marble-top bureaus and fine engravings, representing gener-
ally ships under full sail.

Thus, on entering the house of a well-to-do Spetziote cap-
tain, one is astonished to see a certain elegance and taste in
the general arrangements, while the cleanliness of the house
is something marvellous and next to that of the Hollanders.
The Spetziote women do nothing but scrub all day. When
the ship is due, the house is cleaned from attic to cellar, to
receive its lord and master, the Turkish rugs are brought out
from their hiding-places, and the outside wall receives a fresh
coating of whitewash.

The close relationship of which I have spoken of above, be-
tween captain and crew, had its origin in the beginning of this
century. At that time the wars of Napoleon had completely
disturbed the Mediterranean trade, famine often existed in
several parts of France and Spain, and these islanders, with
their wonderful energy and pluck, made immense profits by
bringing cargoes of grain from Southern Russia to European
ports and selling them at fabulous prices. They had two im-
portant risks to run, viz: that of being captured by the Alge-
rian pirates, who at the time infested the Mediterranean, and
that of being taken as prizes for attempting to run the block-
ade of closed ports, guarded by men-of-war. But the profits
were so large in case of success, that the risk was worth
attempting. They provided their vessels with extra sails and
small arms, doubled their crews, and made them participants
in the profits of the voyage. The result was that the sailors
attained a high degree of excellence, stimulated both by the
risk and the gain, and looked to their commander as to a gen-
eral leading them to victory. The discipline became perfect,
and although they often were chased by the pirates, only one
Greek vessel was captured and brought to Algiers in triumph,
while many ships of other nationalities were taken almost
every week. On their return home, and as soon as the Spet-
ziote ships doubled Cape Matapan (the Tainaron of the an-
cients) the division of the profits was made by the captain,
according to his judgment, and there is no example that any
of the sailors ever grumbled or found the share too small. As
soon as the ship came to port, the money which the cargo had
realized, and which consisted exclusively of silver dollars,
chiefly Spanish, was brought to the captain's house on the
shoulders of the sailors, in sacks containing one thousand dol-
lars each, prepared and sealed beforehand on board.

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And here I will relate an incident, which I have heard from the wife of the captain in whose house it occurred. Her husband's ship had returned the evening before, from Malaga (Spain), after a very profitable voyage. The ship's capital was brought to the house after dark, in the manner stated already, and after a hearty supper, all retired to bed.

Early next morning two men knocked at the door of the captain's house. His wife was already up and went and opened it. The men stepped in the court-yard and deposited a heavy sack, containing a thousand dollars in silver.

"What is that?" asked the captain's wife.

"We found this sack this morning down on the shore, madam, where we went to fish, and we concluded that it must belong to the captain, who landed there with his boat last evening, so we brought it to you."

And they moved towards the door, as if they did the simplest thing in the world. It was with difficulty that the captain's wife made them accept a dollar each for their trouble.

In this way, between the years 1800 and 1820, these islanders made large fortunes, and the money was kept in cisterns built for this purpose, inside their houses. It was with these moneys that they armed and equipped their vessels later on, when the revolution against Turkey broke out in 1821, and with these merchantmen the Miaulis, Tombasis, Tsamados, Criesis of Hydra, and Andruzzos, Raptis, Orlandos, Anargiros and others of Spetzai, as well as Kanaris and Apostolis of Psara, immortalised their names in modern Greece's naval history by their daring exploits against Turkey's three-deckers.

Such a combination of favorable circumstances could not fail to produce an efficient class of mariners, and they are justly held in high esteem by all the nations bordering on the Mediterranean. Though theoretically inferior to those of more civilized nations, they are practically superior in handling their ships in difficult or dangerous emergencies, and many cases are stated illustrating this fact.

It is less than ten years ago, since a Spetziote captain, whom I shall call Captain Boukos, died in Athens. He was the commander and owner of a brig of about 300 tons, with which he made many successful voyages from Russia to France and Spain, realizing very handsome profits.

This Captain Boukos was a genius in his way. Although

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a morose, taciturn man, he was a most accomplished and daring mariner, and often astonished his own countrymen by the foolhardy and eccentric way with which he used to carry out his ideas, being as obstinate as a mule.

After landing his cargo of grain at Barcelona (Spain), he was about starting on his return voyage to Spetzai, when his sailors mutinied and refused to work, unless he gave them an extra bonus.

"You can go," said he, in the most unconcerned manner; "I can return without you."

The sailors all left in a body. There remained on board, besides the captain, only the mate, his brother, a cabin-boy, and a passenger, who had never been to sea before.

Captain Boukos sent for some Maltese longshoremen. He ordered them to weigh anchor and raise the four lower sails to their proper positions. After this was done, he paid them off and sent them back on shore. With his scanty crew Captain Boukos succeeded, with the greatest exertions, bringing his vessel safely to Spetzai, and when he arrived opposite the town he hove to and made a signal of distress. His old father, who recognised the vessel, took a row-boat at once and went to meet him. When he arrived within hailing distance, he hailed his son as follows:

"Is that you, John?"

"Ay, ay, sir."

"What is the matter?"

"We cannot come to anchor. We have no sailors."

"Are they all dead?"

"No, sir; they remained in Barcelona."

"How many men have you got on board?"

"Three!"

"Go to the —."

Still he went on shore, engaged a few hands, and brought the ship safely to anchor.

A few years later Captain Boukos landed a cargo of grain at Cadiz (Spain), and finding a good offer for his ship, sold it. His crew enlisted on board other vessels, but he kept two of his men, as well as the largest boat of the ship. Then he went and bought a stock of provisions, improvised a sail for the boat (a row-boat of about eighteen feet long, without a deck), put the proceeds of the ship, all in silver dollars, at the bottom of the boat for ballast, and with his two men he

150 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE

started for Gibraltar. He took care to provide himself with a
compass and a chart.

"We shall find there some Spetziote vessel to take us
home," said he to the two men, as soon as they started.

The Straits of Gibraltar were crossed without incident; but
when the boat arrived opposite the fortress, instead of turn-
ing towards the bay, Captain Boukos was steering towards
the Mediterranean.

"Boys," said he, "the wind is favorable, and in three
days we shall make Minorca (one of the Balearic islands).
What is the use of wasting our time here?" And he con-
tinued his voyage.

He used the same reasoning when they were opposite
Minorca, and continued to steer towards Sardinia, which
was safely reached four days later. The sailors insisted now
on landing at Cagliari, being completely worn out with
fatigue and exposure, but Captain Boukos refused flatly.

"Are we Albanians or are we Moreotes?" he argued.
(The Spetziots and Hydriots greatly pride themselves of their
Albanian origin, and look with scorn on the Peloponnesians.)
"Why are we to lose our time and this fine wind? You
ought to be ashamed of yourselves! No, you are not Alban-
ians, but Moreotes!"

The two sailors evidently found his argument conclu-
sive, and they stopped grumbling. In three days they
reached Sicily, but the weather became stormy and the sea
very high. The frail craft was in imminent danger of being
swallowed by the furious waves, and, to cap the climax, the
rudder was broken.

But Captain Boukos was equal to the emergency, and in-
stantly improvised a steering apparatus with an oar, while
he encouraged his men to fear nothing. "Are we Alba-
nians," he asked again, "or Moreotes?"

But the men were not to be pacified in this way, and
threatened to throw him overboard if he did not steer for
Malta. Captain Boukos knew very well that they would
desert him the moment he landed there. So he took refuge
on a small island called Pandellaria, situated between Cape
Bon of Africa and Sicily. A small settlement exists there,
and, after staying forty-eight hours, he had the rudder re-
paired and started again, and crossing the Ionian sea, four
hundred miles wide, he reached Spetzai in safety seven days

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151

later, with the money, boat, and men intact, while his two
companions trumpeted his daring feat about the town, and
created much excitement. But Captain Boukos remained
passive. "There was no Spetziote ship in Cadiz," said he
quietly, "and so I came home in my own boat."

This was the last voyage in the eventful career of Cap-
tain Boukos. Having amassed a snug little fortune, he
moved to Athens, built a large house, which yielded to him
a handsome revenue, and bought for himself a small one,
where he ended his days, ten years ago. Although the lux-
uries of the capital were not beyond his means, he never
changed his simple mode of living. He was constantly pacing
his little parlor, as if he were on the deck of his ship, and his
orders were carried out with the precision of man-of-war
discipline. Under no circumstances would he consent to put
on an overcoat, even in the coldest days of the winter, and
to all the entreaties of his devoted wife to do so he turned a
deaf ear.

"We are Albanians," was his only answer; "we are not
Moreotes."

But woman's ingenuity succeeded in getting the best of
this obstinacy. Since he would not wear an overcoat, his
wife added a flannel lining to his ordinary coat, and, as the
winter advanced, she would add a second. He smiled at this
device, but said nothing. When spring came, she took off
these supplementary linings, and Captain Boukos found him-
self dressed according to the seasons, without breaking his
resolution never to wear an overcoat.

The town of Spetzai is a decided curiosity to a civilized
traveler. Every house is an island, that is to say, two houses
adjoining each other do not exist; with the exception of the
houses of the lower-classes, all the others are surrounded by
a stone wall seven feet high, or have a fenced court-yard at
the front entrance, where some lemon and orange trees are
blooming, and a few flowers are cultivated. But this is not
all. City architects do not exist, for the simple reason that
the town has no plans. The owner of a lot of ground builds
according to his fancy, and places the front of his house
north, south, east or west, according to his whim, regardless
of his neighbors' convenience or situation. He is bound to
leave a passage between the houses, and this done, his obli-
gations cease. The result is a perfect labyrinth in some
localities, of which only the natives know all the outlets.

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But land is cheap, hence there are generally large open spaces between each house. They are all built in the most substantial manner, all of stone, it being very abundant and cheap. Bricks are almost unknown, and a wooden house does not exist on the island.

Of course there are no streets, but only passages. Where the soil is not rocky, the grass grows luxuriantly and pigs and chickens feed on it. Not the slightest attempt has ever been made to level the numerous hills and projections of the town, and walking becomes a difficult, and, in some places, a dangerous problem. No one ever ventures out at night without carrying a sailor's lamp, otherwise there would be danger to life and limb. The inside of some of the houses would do credit to any second-class European city, as far as comfort and even luxury is concerned. And yet, at ten yards beyond the street gate, big holes, where the cement for building had been prepared, remain open for months and years and nobody thinks of filling them, not even the owner of the house in whose neighborhood they are.

The houses of the captains and well-to-do people are situated by the sea-shore, some of them being built on the very water's edge, while those of the sailors and poorer classes are higher up on the hill, called Castelli, meaning castle, or fortress. All the early settlements in the Greek islands are situated on a hill two or three miles from the shore, for fear of the pirates, who infested the Archipelago a hundred years ago. The town of Spetzai began from the Castelli and gradually extended down to the sea-shore. A visit to the sailors' quarter would repay a traveler's curiosity. The houses are small, but scrupulously clean inside. Few of them have a second story. A Turkish rug, bought in Constantinople or Smyrna, is laid before a Turkish canapé with round cushions, an indispensable piece of furniture in a Spetziote house. The walls are adorned with coarse-colored engravings, representing the battles of Napoleon I., or with sailing ships made by some amateur draftsman. An earthern vase with Turkish tobacco and cigar paper lies on a wooden table, and the sailor's trunks and those of his wife, covered with a sheet, neatly pinned round, offer additional sitting accommodation to visitors.

A marriage in a sailor's house is a very important event. The invited guests begin to arrive at about noon, and as soon

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153

as a guest appears, he walks straight into the parlor and takes the first empty seat. As soon as he is seated the future bridegroom comes, armed with an immense tray, on which are at least two dozen glasses full of native wine, of which the visitor is obliged to partake. The groom is purposely dressed in his coarsest clothes. His beard is two or three days old, his stockingless feet are encased in an old pair of thick shoes, and he wears his oldest fez. He continues in this costume until the last guest has arrived. Then begins the important performance of "shaving the groom." A chair is placed in the middle of the parlor, and the barber, followed by a boy assistant, enters the room, armed with a prodigious quantity of soap, oils, perfumes, hot water, and the inevitable copper basin (leyeni), which he adjusts under the chin of the groom. The shaving ended, each guest is obliged to rise and throw a piece of money, varying from two to twenty cents, into the barber's basin, after which the latter takes his departure, amply rewarded.

And now three or four of the most intimate young friends of the groom take him to the next room, from which, in half an hour, he emerges, dressed in his best clothes and completely transformed in appearance. He is now ready to start for the bride's house, preceded by two musicians, one playing the violin and the other a sort of banjo called *lauto*, and accompanied by all the guests, men, women and children. The procession is headed by a boy, carrying on his head a huge square bottle of wine, called *botsa*.

On reaching the bride's house, the groom stops on the threshold and bows three times. His future mother-in-law steps forward, kisses him, and puts a colored silk handkerchief round his neck. He puts this in his pocket. Then the women relatives of the bride come to the front, and each of them places on his shoulder a silk handkerchief, which is put in a basket by some female relative of the groom. This part of the ceremony finished, a brother or cousin enters the room where the bride and her friends are waiting, takes her by the hand, and this is a signal that the groom has come for her. Accordingly she rises, and, followed by her relatives and friends, starts for the church, preceded by the groom and his party, who keep separate, until the church is reached.

The marriage service of the Greek Church is highly impressive. The altar and officiating priest are placed in the

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middle of the church. A piece of silk, three or four yards long, is laid on the shoulders of both the bride and the bridegroom, as an indication that henceforth their fortunes are joined together. The priest places the left hand of the bridegroom in the right one of the bride, and, taking the former by the hand, leads them three times around the altar, as a sign that they begin the journey of life led by God's Holy Church. He gives them to drink some wine from the same cup, as a sign that henceforth joys and sorrows must be common, and shared alike by both. Then he places two crowns, made of artificial flowers, on their heads, as a sign that this is the crowning event of their lives, and prays aloud as follows:

Bless them, O Lord, as Thou blessedst Abraham and Sara.

Bless them, O Lord, as Thou blessedst Isaac and Rebecca.

Bless them, O Lord, as Thou blessedst Jacob and Rachel.

Preserve them, O Lord, as Thou preservedst Noah in the ark.

Preserve them, O Lord, as Thou preservedst Jonah in the belly of the whale.

Preserve them, O Lord, as Thou preservedst the three Holy children from the fire, by giving them the dew of Heaven.

Preserve them, O Lord, as Thou preservedst Daniel in the den of lions.

Remember them, O Lord, as Thou didst remember Enoch, Shem, and Elias.

Remember them, O Lord, as Thou didst remember the forty holy martyrs, by sending them crowns from Heaven.

May they have as much joy as that felt by St. Helen when she discovered the Holy Cross.

And, turning to the bridegroom, he says:

Become great, O groom, like Abraham, and be blessed like Isaac, and multiply like Jacob, by following the path of righteousness.

And thou bride, become great like Sara, and be blessed like Rebecca, and multiply like Rachel, by following the path of righteousness.

Then St. Paul's epistle is read, followed by the reading of the gospel, which is given to be kissed by the bridegroom, the bride, and the sponsor. During the ceremony inside, the young fellows are dancing outside, waiting for the end of the service.

PREJEWALSKY'S EXPEDITION.

155

Finally the bride and bridegroom emerge from the church together, and the two groups now join each other and march to the bridegroom's house, to end the festivities with a banquet and dance. On the bridegroom's party taking away the bride from her parents' house, it is customary to leave in her place a live chicken.

Is this the value of a bride at Spetzai?

The writer has never been able to solve this problem.

PREJEWALSKY'S EXPEDITION FROM KULDJA TO LOB-NOR.

FROM REPORTS TO THE RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

COL. PREJEWALSKY'S journey from the Kuldja, the Russian frontier town in the valley of the river Ili, across the Tian-Shan to Lob-Nor, may be considered as the crowning achievement of Central Asian exploration. Six hundred years ago, old Marco Polo speaks of the desert of Lob. Jesuit missionaries, from information derived from native sources, placed it on their map, published in 1735 in DuHalde's work; later travellers speak of it in doubtful, vague terms; but it was left to the bold Russian explorer to draw a line on the map of greatest importance. The main features of the geography of Central Asia have, for the first time, been definitely established, and Prejewalsky's work may safely take its rank among the greatest feats of exploration, such as the crossing of the Australian continent, the discovery of the sources of the Nile, or Stanley's expedition down the Congo. Whoever reads the report of the fearless, intelligent explorer, who, with dauntless courage, with warm enthusiasm for his work, with brilliant accomplishments, only pursues one high aim, the fulfillment of his duty, the solution of a scientific problem of worldwide importance, cannot help being struck by the modest, unpretentious tone, the utter disregard of his own personal merits that pervade his report. Nor is it less remarkable that this great scientific work, and others, such as the publication of the map of Central Asia in twelve sheets by the

156 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Russian General Staff, containing a vast amount of new ob-
servations, measurements, etc., were quietly carried out,
while a war of almost unparalelled hardship and cost of blood
and money was raging at the other end of the Empire. The
Russian Geographical Society, which receives a most gene-
rous support from the Imperial Government, spends more
money on scientific expeditions and other works for the ad-
vancement of geographical knowledge, than any other geo-
graphical society in the world. The readers of the last Num-
ber of this Magazine will remember that Dr. Finsch's expedи-
tion to Western Siberia was carried out, almost entirely, at
the expense of a Russian private gentleman, Mr. Sibiriakoff.
Those who have formed their ideas of Russia and the Rus-
sians from Mr. Granville Murray's puerile, fictitious and phar-
isaical attacks on a great nation, advancing in culture and
enlightenment with giant strides, had better seek some other
information before applying the epithet "barbarian" to a
friendly, hospitable, and striving people. It is the pleasant
duty of gratitude and admiration to introduce Col. Prejewal-
sky to our readers, and we will now let the great traveller
speak for himself:

Another step has been gained in the exploration of Central
Asia: the basin of Lob-Nor, so long and so obstinately closed,
has at last been opened to science.

I arrived in Kuldja towards the end of July, 1876, with
my two companions, Powalo-Shweikowski and Eklon, and
two Cossacks, furnished with all necessary supplies and
materials for our expedition. We remained there nearly three
weeks, in order to equip our caravan, consisting of twenty-
four camels and four saddle horses, and we left the Russian
frontier town on the 12th of August, accompanied by the
warmest wishes of our countrymen for a prosperous journey.
It was our original intention to proceed to Lob-Nor, to ex-
plore the lake and its surroundings, then to return to Kuldja,
send home our collections, and from that point start for
Tibet.

On leaving Kuldja, our course lay along the banks of
the Ili. These are densely populated; clean, flourishing vil-
lages, with large gardens and high silver poplars, follow each
other in close succession, only interrupted by corn fields, skill-
fully irrigated by numerous canals. We crossed the Ili near
its junction with the river Kash, about thirty-five miles from

PREJEWALKSYS EXPEDITION.

157

Kuldja. The left bank of the Ili is not inhabited by any settled people. Leaving the Ili, we reached, after several days' marches, the banks of the river Tekes, which, after its junction with the Kunges, forms the Ili. We crossed this river in the same manner as the Ili, in small, flat-bottomed boats, our camels and horses swimming after us. This mode of transportation proved exceedingly injurious to our camels, three of which soon afterwards died. We followed an easterly course through the valley of the lower Kunges, until we reached the river Tsanma, a tributary of the Kunges. There we saw the last fields and pasture lands of the Turgouts. After this we met with no more inhabitants until we left the Kashgar valley.

After its junction with the Tsanma, the valley of the Kunges changes entirely its character. It becomes much narrower and more fruitful. The view of the undulating banks, covered with rich grasses, and higher up with fine trees, among which wild apples and apricots were by no means rare, was a delightful change after the monotony of the barren steppe. Two of our Cossacks and a Khirgis interpreter, having proved useless for our purpose, I had sent them back to Kuldja, and their substitutes could not reach us before ten days, so we decided to select this forest oasis as a resting-place. Plentiful opportunities for scientific collections and sport were an additional inducement.

We crossed the Kunges valley by a pass of about 6,000 feet elevation, into the broader valley of the Tsanma. Ascending this valley we reached the foot of the Narat mountains, whose northern border forms an extensive plateau known as the Yuldus. The Narat is of decidedly alpine character. We crossed it at an elevation of about 9,000 feet, and descended on the Yuldus. This name, meaning "star," has been given to the vast table-land, probably on account of its great height, and also because it is considered by the nomad Turgouts as a sort of promised land. "A beautiful, cool, fertile country, where man and beast can live without working," so they described it to us. The plateau is divided by a chain of mountains, rising above the snow line, into the Great and Little Yuldus. The Little Yuldus is crossed in its entire length by a respectable little river, the Baga-Yuldusgol, joining the Khaidu-gol, which, after traversing the Great Yuldus, empties into the Lake Bagaratsh. (Bosstang-Nor).

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There is no settled population on either of the Yuldus, though only twelve years ago Turgouts dwelt here, about ten thousand *kibitkas* strong. The kibitka is a circular tent, made of felt, resting on a light wooden frame. Conquered and plundered by the Dungans, a portion of them went down the Chaidu-gol, and settled near Karashar, another portion came along the banks of the Ili, where they remain to this day.

We spent about three weeks on the Yuldus, chiefly occupied with hunting. We were fortunate enough to obtain some splendid specimens of about a dozen different species, among them two fine Arkar rams. This magnificent sheep, which is only known to exist in the highlands of Central Asia, was frequently met here in large herds. Having satisfied our love for sport, and completed, as far as possible, our collections, we descended into the Khaidu-gol valley, as low as three thousand five hundred feet.

Halting at Kharamoto we met the first Turgouts, by whom we were most kindly received. But a very amusing incident somewhat interfered with our friendly relations. The rumor had spread that a whole Russian army was approaching. This was all the more readily believed, as the sound of our guns, which were only directed against pheasants and other denizens of the air, had been distinctly heard previous to our arrival. The Mohammedans were seized with such a panic that they left their houses and fled to Karashar.

Three days after our arrival in Khara-moto, six Mussulmans appeared, who had been sent by the Governor of Korla, to inquire after the object of our mission. I informed them that I was going to Lob-Nor, that Yakub-Bek was aware of my expedition, and had assured the Governor-General of Russian Turkestan that we should not be molested in any way; that, on the contrary, we should be protected, and furnished with all necessary supplies. We were told that the Governor would send a messenger to Yakub-Bek, and that, until his return, we must not proceed further. They left a little picket behind, to watch our movements, and returned to Korla.

I was not in the least sorry for this delay, as the wooded banks of the river were swarming with pheasants and birds of all kinds, which had taken up their winter quarters in the dense forest, and afforded excellent sport.

After a week's rest we at last received permission to enter Korla, which lies on our way to Lob-Nor.

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We were surrounded by guards, and kept from every intercourse with the natives. All our questions, referring to the town, the number of the inhabitants, commerce, character of the neighborhood, etc., were answered either in an evasive or absolutely untrue manner. And this was the case during the whole of our six months' stay in the dominions of Yakub-Bek. At a later period, when on the banks of the Tarim and Lob-Nor, we occasionally succeeded in clandestinely obtaining some information from the natives, who, on the whole, were very kindly disposed toward us.

The day after our arrival in Korla, a gentleman, of the name of Saman-Bek, attached to Yakub-Bek's personal service, made his appearance. I learnt that he was an Armenian by birth, that he had been a Russian subject, and had even been in the service of our government. He spoke excellent Russian, and informed me that he was sent by the "Badualet"—The Blessed One, name given to the Bek by his subjects—to accompany me to the Lob-Nor. I was grievously surprised at this news, for I knew he came not as a companion, but as a spy. However, Saman-Bek became afterwards quite attached to me personally, and was as attentive and kind as his difficult mission would permit. I feel grateful to the noble Bek that he sent us this one, and no other, of his "confidential servants."

We left Korla on the 4th of November, accompanied by Saman-Bek and several of his servants. After the first hour we became aware of the character of our escort. Our every step was jealously watched. We could not obtain information on the simplest matters relating to the object of our expedition; questions of purely scientific character were either entirely ignored or answered with bare-faced falsehood. We were deceived and misled in every direction; the natives were strictly forbidden to hold any intercourse with us, and once a week a messenger from the Badualet, or from the Governor of Korla made his appearance, "to inquire after our health," as Saman-Bek naively told me. It was evident that our journey to Lob-Nor was not very agreeable to Yakub-Bek, but, considering the state of political affairs, he had not been able to refuse General Kaufmann's request.

In order to discourage us, they led us by the most difficult roads to the Tarim. We had to swim across two wide rivers,

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the Konche-daria and the Intsnike-daria. I suppose they thought the cold water, with the thermometer below freezing-point, would frighten us. Certainly, our poor camels did not like their bath; but when our guides saw that we could not be discouraged by such obstacles, they built rafts and small pontoon bridges.

We now turned in a southward direction and reached the Kuruk-tag, the last turn of the Tian-Shan extending into the desert of Lob-Nor. Beyond this stony girdle stretches the vast desert of the Tarim and Lob-Nor, composed of a loose clay impregnated with salt and shifting sand, evidently the basin of a former sea. Altogether, the desert of the Lob-Nor is the wildest and most sterile of any in Asia.

We reached the Tarim, at its junction with the Ughen-daria. The name Tarim is little known to the natives, who call the river Jarkend-Tarim, or Jarkend-daria.

About thirty-five miles below the junction of the Tarim with the Ughen-daria, the river is divided into two branches, the eastern branch, called Kukala-daria, after a course of nearly ninety miles, again joins the main river.

The population along the banks of the Tarim is supposed to have formerly inhabited the shores of Lob-Nor. In consequence of the decrease of fish in the lake, and the frequent attacks of the Kalmuks, they settled here about one hundred years ago. Whether there was any population previous to these immigrants is not known. They mixed freely with fugitives and exiles from Eastern Turkestan, and thus represent very different types. As a rule, they have a pale complexion, and are narrow-chested and of generally weak physique. The women are of much smaller stature than the men. We did not see much of the ladies, who, at our approach, disappeared, like mice before a cat, through the reed walls of their huts.

As regards their language, I noticed that our interpreter, a Taranchi from Kuldja, made himself easily understood along the banks of the Tarim and the Lob-Nor, from which I conclude that the difference between the two languages cannot be very great.

Their religion is that of Islam, mixed with some strange Pagan habits. Their dwellings are constructed in the simplest manner from reeds, which grow in abundance in the marshes of the Tarim valley. These huts generally consist of

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161

one room only, serving as sleeping and dwelling place of the
whole family. A dozen or more of these huts form a village,
of which there are about ten along the banks of the river,
with an aggregate population of about one thousand two
hundred souls.

Their costume consists of a long shirt, trousers, and a coat,
a sheepskin in the winter. The women wear a long loose frock
and trousers, which they tuck into the boots, a fur cap, under
which hangs a piece of white cotton cloth, with loose ends
falling down the back. Married women plait their hair in
two braids, single women only wear one. Fishing, from
which they derive their principal food, is their chief occupa-
tion. They are a lazy, suspicious people. The woman is the
mistress of the household, but the slave of her husband,
who may have as many as he pleases, and turn them off as
he likes.

We remained a week in Achtarma, the largest of all the
settlements. It is the seat of the Administrator of the
Tarim district—a certain Aëljam-achun—who, in spite of this
high-sounding title (Saman-Bek told us it meant "the most
learned"), could neither write nor read.

From astronomical and barometrical observations taken
here, I determined the latitude and longitude and the eleva-
tion of Lob-Nor, which I estimate at 2,200 feet above the
level of the sea.

Our course led us down the stream. We crossed the Kuk-
ala-daria, a branch of the Tarim, making occasional halting-
places at the settlements along the banks.

After having followed the course of the Tarim for about
125 miles, we reached the point where the Kuk-ala-daria
again joins the main river, and reached, on its left bank, a
little square fort, built of mud, which was garrisoned by some
soldiers from Korla.

From here, instead of going at once to Lob-Nor, which
is not far distant, we proceeded to the village Tsharchalyk,
consisting of twenty-one homesteads. This was only done
because our guides thought it would be more comfortable
for them to spend the winter there, than on the barren shores
of the lake, and we were again deceived by one of their in-
numerable falsehoods—they told us that there was no direct
road from the fort to Lob-Nor. The village is situated on a
small river, the Tsharchalyk-daria, which rises in a neigh-

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boring chain of mountains, to the south of Lob-Nor, and
attaining afterwards colossal dimensions, is known under
the name of Altyn-Tag.

Having once settled down to the idea of suspending our
explorations for the winter. I left the greater part of our
luggage in the village, and three of my Cossacks to take care
of it, and with three others and my companion Eklon, I
started after a week's rest, being the day after Christmas, for
the Altyn-Tag, with the intention of hunting wild camels,
which, according to information received from the natives,
frequent these mountains, and the desert east of Lob-Nor.
Saman-Bek and his companions remained in Tsharchalyk.
We started with six weeks' provisions, and took two of the
best huntsmen for guides.

The chain of the Altyn-Tag becomes first visible at a dis-
tance of about 100 miles. After the tedious monotony of the
Tarim Valley, the traveler hails with joy the massive outlines
which with every day's march grow more imposing. When
we reached Tsharchalyk, the Altyn-Tag lay before us like a
colossal wall, which, towards the southwest, rose high above
the line of eternal snow. We explored about 100 miles of
these mountains to the east of Lob-Nor, viz: its northern
slope. The southern slope, I feel inclined to take for the
most northern part of the Tibet highlands. This would
coincide with the statements of the natives, who told me
that the range extends to the southward as far as the towns
of Korik and Khotan. To the eastward, as my informants
told me, it reaches very far; but where it ends is unknown
to them.

On account of the severity of the winter, and the want of
time, it was impossible to cross the mountains to explore the
southern slope, yet I have no doubt that it forms a vast
plateau of about 12,000 or 13,000 feet elevation.

The mountains are known to the natives by two names—
the Altyn-Tag (lower mountains), and Ustyn-Tag (higher
mountains).

During forty days we explored about 330 miles of the
Altyn-Tag, and during the whole of this time only met with
one wild camel. I fired at it at a distance of only five hun-
dred paces, and, I am sorry to say, missed it. For a good
shot, which I always flattered myself that I am, this was a
very unfortunate accident. Altogether it was a very unsat-

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163

isfactory expedition, and attended by much discomfort. At
so high an elevation, in the depth of winter, we suffered a
great deal from the want of water and scarcity of fuel, with
the thermometer often as low as—27° C. For more than a
week at a time we could not wash ourselves; our clothes,
even our linen, were covered with dust.

After having spent a week at the source of the Tshar-
chalyk, for the purpose of taking observations, we deter-
mined to return to Lob-Nor. Two of our guides were to
return to the mountains, to try to kill a wild camel, the skin
of which I was determined to have at any cost. I offered
the sum of 100 roubles for the skin of a male and female.

A few remarks about this strange animal, whose ex-
istence has often been doubted, but which hitherto has not
been seen by European eyes, might not be out of place.

According to the unanimous report of the natives, the
favorite home of the wild camel is the desert of Kum-Tag to
the east of Lob-Nor.

One of our native hunters told me that only twenty years
ago, he had seen herds of several dozen, sometimes even
of more than one hundred, not far from where the village
of Tsharchalyk is now. The old huntsman told me, that
during his lifetime he has shot, with an old crippled gun,
more than a hundred of them. As the population and the
number of hunters increased, the camels wandered further
east into the desert of Kum-Tag, which, on account of the
scarcity of water, is entirely inaccessible to man. No one
has ever penetrated it. Two bold hunters made an attempt,
but after two days, during which they and their asses,
carrying provisions, etc., had toiled knee-deep in the fine,
drifting sand, parched and blinded with the dust, they re-
turned, almost overcome with fatigue.

In seasons of very great heat the camels are attracted by
the coolness of the high valleys of the Altyn-Tag, and ascend
as high as 11-12,000 feet.

In contrast with the tame camel, whose characteristics
are timidity, want of intelligence and apathy, the wild one is
distinguished by a marvellous development of the senses, and
great sagacity and acuteness. Huntsmen have assured me,
that, under the wind, they can scent a man at a distance of
several versts (one verst, about two-thirds of an English mile),
that they hear the slightest noise at an incredible distance, and

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that their visual organs are equally developed. When they suspect approaching danger, they fly at once, and often run a hundred and more versts before stopping. I followed the trace of the camel which I missed for more than twenty versts, where it had turned into a ravine, which, being altogether out of our way, I did not care to follow.

It would seem that an animal so awkwardly built as the camel would not be able to climb about the rugged Altyn-Tag, yet we observed, many a time, their traces and their dung leading into narrow crevices and on steep cliffs, where the boldest huntsmen would hesitate to follow. It is, indeed, so strange a sight, that I could scarcely trust my own eyes, when I saw their trace mixed with that of the wild mountain sheep.

The wild camel runs very fast, and would overtake, at a long distance, a good race-horse. The period of heat is in winter, from the middle of January until the end of February. During this time fierce combats often take place among the males, which not seldom end in the death of one of the rivals. The female conceives when three years old, and carries her young for a little over a year.

The hunters whom I had sent back to the mountains returned on the 10th of March, with three beautiful specimens, a full grown male, female and a calf.

The zoological distinctions between the wild and the tame camel are not very great, and now the question arises whether the wild camel is the lineal progeny of wild parents, or is it descended from tame camels, which, having escaped from the discipline of man, have wandered away in the desert and become wild?

It is my opinion that the former theory is the correct one. I think that those qualities which, in the struggle for existence, offer to the animal the best chances for self-preservation, are strongly developed in the wild camel. Their remarkably developed senses protect them against their principal enemies —man and the wolf. A wolf would scarcely be a match for a full-grown camel, and they have little to fear from man, on account of their acute eyes, ears, and scent, and their choice of abode in the most impenetrable localities. It is probable that the deserts of Lob-Nor have, from time immemorial, been the dwelling-place of the wild camel. In former times they may have been scattered over a greater

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165

space, at present they inhabit only the most remote and im-
penetrable corner of the Central Asian desert.

In the first days of February we returned to Lob-Nor.

The Tarim, as I have said before, after its junction with
its principal branch, the Kuk-ala-daria, flows for about forty-
five miles in a direct southerly course, and finds its way into
the shallow Lake Kara-buran (black storm), or, rather, forms
this lake by extension. This sheet of water is about twenty-
two miles long, and about seven to eight miles wide. Its
extent and depth depend greatly on the quantity of water in
the Tarim. The bed of the river can be distinctly recognized
in the lake, except for a short distance, immediately after
entering it. Very near to the place where the Tarim enters
the Kara-buran, another smaller river, the Tshertshen-daria,
flows into it.

On leaving the lake, the Tarim has the appearance of
quite a respectable river; but soon its volume decreases, it
becomes narrow and shallow; the hot breath of the des-
ert devours every drop of moisture and stops the river in its
course. The struggle is ended; the desert has conquered the
river; death has overcome life! Before its end, the helpless
Tarim, by an extension of its last waters, forms the large
reed-covered morass, known for centuries under the name of
Lob-Nor.

The name of Lob-Nor, for the lake, is unknown to the in-
habitants, who apply this designation to the whole lower
portion of the Tarim. The lake itself they call Chok-Kul (large
lake), or, more frequently, Kara-Koshun (black Koshun).
To avoid confusion, I shall apply the name Lob-Nor to the
lake only.

The form of the lake is an irregular ellipse, extending
from southwest to northeast about 60 to 65 miles; its greatest
width is 12 to 13 miles. I take this statement from information
received from the inhabitants. I was only able to explore the
southern and western shore, and to reach by boat from the
Tarim about one-half the entire length. To penetrate further
was impossible, on account of the shallowness of the water
and the thickness of the reed.

The medium depth of the lake is about three feet, seldom
more than four. The water is everywhere clear and sweet.
It has a salty taste only, immediately near the banks, where
it spreads into salt marshes, entirely without vegetation.

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Fish are abundant in the lake, and of the same species as in the Tarim. As to the fauna, it is poorly represented by a few specimens of birds, tigers, wolves, foxes, wild hogs, hares and antelopes. In the beginning of the spring the country swarms with migratory birds, particularly water-fowl, which make it a resting-place on their northward journey from China, and which, without it, could hardly perform the long voyage from the Himalaya to beyond the Tian-Shan.

The inhabitants of the country around Lob-Nor, known under the name of Kara-Koshuns, are settled in eleven little villages—if one may give to a few reed huts, clustered together, this name—and number about 70 families, or about 300 people.

In their appearance they show a mixture of different types, which remind one generally of the Mongolian race; on the whole, however, the Aryan race predominates in a low, impure form.

The principal characteristics of the Kara-Koshuns are, a small, slender stature, narrow chest, small head and skull, protruding cheek-bones and a pointed chin, little beard, remarkably white teeth, very thick lips and a dark skin.

Their language is the same as that of all the inhabitants in the lower Tarim valley. There can be no doubt that they are both of common origin, only that those living in the Tarim valley have been subjected to the influence of immigrants from the Tian-Shan.

As the traveler descends the narrow, winding course of the Tarim, he notices suddenly three or four small boats, lying near an open space at the shore, and a few square sheds built of reed; that is a village. The few inhabitants hide themselves at the approach of strangers, and only when they notice some countrymen of theirs among the party, they will timidly and cautiously emerge from their hiding-place.

The traveler descends and looks around; everywhere morasses, reed, bogs—not a dry spot. Wild ducks and geese splash around the dwellings, here and there a wild hog wallows in the mire. So little are these men like other men, that even the cautious animal does not fear them.

Let us enter one of these sheds. They are constructed of reed, the only material for building purposes. The same reed is smoothly spread over the floor, as a covering over the marshy ground. The roof is covered with reed—a miserable

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167

protection against the sun and the storm. In the middle of
the floor a square hole is worked for a fire-place; their fuel is
again reed: This plant is of inestimable value to the people of
Lob-Nor; it is their building material, their fuel; the young
spring sprouts are their food; in the autumn they gather the
dry reeds for beds.

Another plant of almost equal importance is the silk plant (asclepias), that, like our hemp, yields a fiber which they weave into a cloth, and of this they make their nets and their clothing. Their dress consists of a coat and trousers; their head is covered in the winter by a sheepskin, in the summer by a felt cap. Their shoes are of raw hides.

A bed made of reed, mixed with the feathers of wild geese and ducks, is considered a luxury. Most of them lie down on the bare reed floor without any extra covering; the ragged, dirty coat which he wears in the daytime, protects the Kara-Koshun against the cold of the night. They roll themselves up in their clothes, and I have seen our oarsmen huddled together like a herd of animals.

Their principal food is boiled fish, and the same water in
which they cook them, they use for drinking. In the spring
and fall they have a chance of catching, with slings, a few
ducks, which are considered a great delicacy. Bread, made
of flour, beef and mutton, are unknown to them.

To convey a further idea of their mode of life, I will give
an inventory of one of their houses, in which I spent twenty-four hours, during a violent storm: Two boats and a few nets, outside; in the house an iron bowl, an axe, two wooden cups, a wooden dish, a pail, a knife, a razor, a few needles, a loom and spinning-wheel, the clothes which they had on their body, two pieces of cloth made of Asclepias, and a few bundles of dried fish. That was all.

The poor and physically weak Kara-Koshun is also weak
and poor in intellect. The whole world of his ideas is con-
tained in the narrow frame of his immediate surroundings:
boats, nets, ducks, reed—these are the only objects which
Nature, a cruel stepmother to this wretched being, has
given him. With such gifts only, and the absence of all
influence from without, it is natural that neither an intel-
lectual nor physical development is possible. The narrow
vision of the people does not go beyond the reeds of their
lake—the outer world does not exist for them. The contin-

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uous struggle with want, hunger and cold has stamped their
character with apathy and sadness. They never laugh or
smile; their mental capacities do not go beyond the exertion
necessary for fishing or catching ducks. Only a few can
count above one hundred; many not as high.

Mohammedanism, which is their professed religion, has not
struck very deep root; there is not a single priest in the whole
district of Lob-Nor. The prayers for religious rites, such as
circumcision, weddings, funerals, etc., are read, often at a
long distance, by the son of a local officer. They marry at
the age of fourteen or fifteen. The parents of the husband
pay to those of the bride a tribute of asclepias-fiber-dried
fish and ducks. Adultery is severely punished; but a husband
may send away his wife and take another. After his death,
the wife passes to his brother or the nearest relative.

The women are by no means attractive in appearance,
some of the old women are absolutely repulsive. I can never
forget the sight of one poor old creature; frightfully thin and
wrinkled, covered with a few wretched rags, with filthy,
matted hair, shivering with cold and wet, half starved, she
was the most terrible picture of human misery I ever saw.

The dead are buried in their own boats, one forming the
lower, another the upper part of the coffin. One-half of the
nets of the deceased are buried with him, the rest go to his
relatives.

The winter is not long, but attended with the greatest
hardships for the poor people. In their wretched reed huts
they suffer as much with the cold as if they were out of doors;
and the thermometer often falls below zero. Sometimes the
pangs of hunger are added to those of the climate. Woe to
them, if the results of the summer's fishing have not been
satisfactory; then it happens that many die of starvation.

The summer, too, has its torments. Myriads of flies and
mosquitoes make life a burden all day and all night long.
These abominable insects make their appearance early in
March and remain till late in the autumn. What sufferings
must the poor little children endure, who run about almost
naked? Diseases of the eye and skin, in consequence of the
salinous dust, are perpetual, and rheumatism is chronic with
them.

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

169

Such is the life of these poor, patient sufferers—unknown to the rest of the world, which is a sealed book to them. Sitting, one day, in the damp, pestilential reed shed of one of the Lob-Nor villages, I asked myself the question, how many centuries separate me from these poor creatures? What power of human genius has been necessary to develop from such beings, as no doubt our remote ancestors were likewise, the European of to-day? With stupid astonishment they gazed at me, and I was no less interested in them. There was almost too much that is new and strange in everything that surrounded me at this remote, unknown lake, among these people, who vividly recalled the first existence of our race.

## PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

BY A RUSSIAN.

### I.

#### THE "BLACK PEOPLE."

ST. PETERSBURG has, as well as London, its "Haymarket"; but the one differs essentially from the other. There is nothing elegant about the place bearing that name in St. Petersburg. It is the most democratic market-place of the northern metropolis, and the best point at which the Russian people, with all their customs and peculiarities, can be studied. Passing through the two miles long "Sadoraja"—Garden street—we perceive on our left a church of ancient Russian architecture. This is the "Spass na Sennoy" (our Saviour on Haymarket), and straight before us lies the market-place itself, with all its busy turmoil.

The corner, formed by Garden street and Haymarket, deserves more than a passing notice on the part of the tourist. It is the spot on which the only barricade has been erected which the young capital of the Russian Empire has ever witnessed. It was in 1832, while the cholera was raging in St. Petersburg; the people, half mad with fear and suffering, were suddenly seized by the wild fancy that the doctors were the actual cause of the plague. Rabid crowds ran about the streets, swearing vengeance against the "German

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poisoners," by which name the medical men, who, at that time, were mostly Germans, were designated. The police were terror stricken. The Emperor himself was at the time out of town, at his country residence, Tsarskoje Selo.

A formidable crowd assembled on the Sennaya. Fired by speeches of half-crazy fanatics, mad with brandy, and that uncontrollable, unreasoning passion which is apt to seize the masses in times of a great public calamity, the crowd resolved to kill all the doctors, destroy the hospitals, and save the patients lying therein from the "Dutch poison." Thousands of people passed the night in the open air on the Haymarket; and, in order not to be surprised by the police, a colossal barricade was erected, barring the entrance of the Sadovaja, the chief thoroughfare leading to the place. The adjoining church was filled with peasants, praying for the success of the morrow's "pious work."

At daybreak the deeds of violence began. A crowd, over 15,000 strong, attacked the chief cholera hospital, situated in the neighborhood of the Sennaya, dragged the patients out into the streets, and threw several German physicians, who had especially distinguished themselves by their courage and self-denial in attending the sick, out of a fourth story window on the pavement below. The corpses of those martyrs to duty were then torn to pieces by the infuriated mob.

Two hours had these horrors lasted, when the Emperor Nicholas, to whom a messenger had been despatched during the night, arrived on the Sennaya. With that peculiar calm, undaunted courage for which he was justly celebrated, he pushed into the thickest throng, alone in his sledge, unaccompanied by any escort, unattended even by an aide-de-camp. The infuriated mob was terror-stricken at the sight of the dreaded Czar. Nicholas stopped at the gate of the church, alighted, and, kneeling down on the stairs, seemed for a few moments absorbed in prayer. Then turning to the crowd, he exclaimed, in his ringing, powerful voice:

"Do you know what I have prayed for? That God may pardon the great sin you have committed. Kneel down, all of you, and pray!"

The crowd obeyed in silence, quailing before the irresistible magnetism of the "Iron Czar." The storm ceased as if by magic, and the ringleaders were arrested without resistance.

Such is one of the remembrances inseparably connected with the St. Petersburg Haymarket—the centre of the every-

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

171

day life, of the sorrows, joys and wants of what in Russia is called the "*Black People*." In the early morning hours, in winter, long before daybreak, the Haymarket is full of a busy and noisy throng. The crowd is so dense that carriages and horse-cars force their way through it with difficulty. One side of the great square is occupied by the hay-venders. There being at present in St. Petersburg over 70,000 horses, the amount of hay consumed daily may easily be imagined, and the Sennaya is the principal market for this article. Here the hay is sold in different shapes and quantities—in big wagon loads, for which colossal scales are erected in the middle of the place; in smaller bundles and in armfuls, at ten or fifteen copecks each, for the use of the *isvostchiks* (cabmen), who feed their horses in the streets. In the midst of the turmoil of sellers and buyers, ragged, miserable looking children run to and fro, picking up the stray handfuls of hay which fall from the wagons, to sell them to the isvostchiks for a mouthful of bread for themselves.

On the other side of the square, sledges, filled with vegetables, fowls, game, fish and all other sundry necessaries of life, are huddled closely together. Each sledge serves, not only as a means of transportation, but as a stand for selling the goods. All is frozen stiff in the intense cold. The geese are chopped in a dozen different parts, each of which is hung up separately on strings. Those who are too poor to buy the dainty bits content themselves with a few frozen heads, stringed like beads, or a few necks or feet, with which a dainty soup may still be cooked.

Among all this frozen anatomy, the calves and oxen present an especially curious appearance. These animals are also brought to market entirely frozen up, and stand erect around the sledges with their legs stretched stiffly forward, like bloody spectres.

Here is concentrated all that the working population of the great capital requires during one busy day. Before dawn nearly all this food is sold, and the square becomes comparatively deserted. Here is the best standpoint to study the Russian peasant, the working-man as he is; here he feels himself at home, and exhibits his true character.

A foreigner, on first perceiving a *moujik* (peasant), is generally both frightened and disgusted. The uncouth figure of the latter, his long, grizzly beard, his dishevelled, unkempt hair, his

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gruff, harsh voice—all these unsympathetic features repel the civilized foreigner, and suggest the probability of the inner man being as wild and barbarous as his outward appearance indicates. And yet nothing of the kind is actually the case. The Russian people are mild, urbane and good-natured. At the same time, they are profoundly religious, and it is erroneous to attribute to them (as is generally done), the comprehension of the outward rites and forms of religion alone. On the contrary, the whole life, the whole character of a Russian working-man is pervaded by the true spirit of Christianity.

This fact may be noticed almost in every trifle of his everyday life. A Russian peasant never passes a church without taking off his cap and pronouncing a short prayer. He is charitable in the extreme, scarcely ever refuses help where help is needed. The professional beggars know that well enough. It is not the resorts of the fashionable world, nor the churches in the aristocratic parts of the city, which they frequent the most constantly. Where the plain working-man, the wild-looking moujik lives, works and prays, there all the helpless misery and professional beggary generally assembles, and never in vain.

Approach one of those uncouth-looking, bearded fellows who stand beside their sledges on the Sennaya, and ask him how business is going on. You shall certainly receive an answer with the inevitable appendage: "*Slava Bogu!*" (thank God!) "*Slava Bogu—horosho!*" (thank God—well!) or "*Slava Bogu—otchen durno!*" (thank God—very bad!)

"But if business goes on badly, why, then, do you thank God for it?"

"I always thank God for everything," the peasant replies. "God does everything for the best, and I thank Him both for good and evil."

Can there be a finer example of Christian resignation than this simple answer?

A spirit of love and tolerance pervades the whole character of the Russian nation. Even in a criminal the Russian sees rather an object of pity than of hatred and loathing; he calls a condemned criminal an "unfortunate," and never fails to drop his copper copeck in the road when a train of exiles is passing. In the eastern provinces of the empire, and in Siberia, where such trains are of daily occurrence, the custom

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

173

prevails to place at the doors of the huts along the road,
loaves of bread and pots with milk for the use of the passing
criminals. Even the runaways from the mines, who are
tracked along the endless roads and through the boundless
forests of Western Siberia, are sure of finding shelter and
protection in most of the villages. The peasant lets them
into his house, gives them shelter, rest and food, and, with-
out asking them any questions, bids them pursue their
perilous journey.

"Bog s' nim!" (God help him!) the peasant generally an-
swers to any remark on the subject; "it is not for me to
judge or to punish the man, and I cannot let him freeze and
hunger on the road."

But let us return to the Haymarket, from which we have
strayed far away, and enter into conversation with some of
the venders.

"How much for this pair of partridges?" we ask a
sprightly looking little man with a reddish, bristly beard, and
a particularly wide-awake look about him.

"One rouble, your Honor!" he quickly answers, pulling
off his fur cap and smiling good naturedly.

"Nonsense!" we exclaim. "These partridges are scarcely
worth twenty copecks."

The face of the *moujik* takes on a piteous expression.

"My good batiushka!" (little father) he exclaims, "how is
it possible? Twenty copecks! Why, look what partridges these
are. You think they are ordinary ones? They are from
Olonetz, the very best; our father, the Czar himself, has none
better at his table. A good bird, a beautiful bird! Only for
your Honor, because your Honor is such a nice barin (gentle-
man), will I give them away for sixty copecks—the very
lowest price."

Knowing full well that this sum is still three times the
price, we move on, without answering him. At fifty paces
distance we hear the shrill voice of our red-bearded moujik
calling us back.

"Barin, dear barin!" he exclaims, brandishing the par-
tridges over his head; "here, take them for forty copecks—
below cost; may God kill me on the spot if this is not below
cost—only for you!"

And we take the birds and pay the price, fully aware that
it is still exorbitant; but laughing all the same over the good-

174 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

natured, unsophisticated manner in which the attempt to
cheat us has been made.

Such cheating is, it must be owned, a peculiar trait of
Russian retail trade, which never fails to shock a foreigner,
accustomed to the strictly business-like forms of civil-
ized commerce. If you enter a small Russian retail store,
in the Gostinoi Dvor or the Apraxin Rinok, or some of the
more fashionable establishments on the Newsky, you are
pretty sure to be charged for everything you ask at least
three times the genuine price. But on your expostulating, the
figures run down with a marvelous rapidity, and if you do
not lose patience, and have plenty of time at your disposal, you
may at the end pay a very reasonable price for what you
want.

This way of bargaining is certainly a great nuisance. And
yet it is done in such an amusing, good-natured manner,
the intention of cheating you on the part of the kupetz
(merchant) is so manifest, that it is scarcely possible to get
seriously angry with him, the more so as he himself has evi-
dently not the smallest notion of such a bargain being in any
way reprehensible. A Russian merchant will relate, with the
minutest details possible, stories of similar transactions.

"With the help of God, of the Blessed Virgin, and of all the Saints, I have done a good piece of business to-day!" exclaims a kupetz. "I had an article on hand which I considered to be a dead loss, not worth one copeck, and I have just now sold it for twice the money I have given for it!"

And yet it would be a gross injustice to consider the
Russian lower classes naturally dishonest. Indeed, precisely
the opposite is the case. The Russian peasant has a pro-
found respect for the rights of property, and hundreds of
instances may be cited of his remarkable honesty. One of
them, and a striking one, derived from my personal experi-
ence, may suffice.

An English lady, occupying a position in the Imperial
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, desired to send five hundred
roubles to her daughter, residing at Tsarskoe Selo, the sum-
mer residence of the Imperial family, about twenty miles
distant from the capital. She intrusted the sum to the care
of a court messenger, a plain peasant, attached to the
innumerable valletaille of the palace. A few hours later the
man appeared before the lady who had sent him, crying

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

175

bitterly; he had lost the money, and declared himself ready
to bear all the consequences of his negligence. The lady had
pity on him and did not denounce him. Six years elapsed.
The lady had forgotten all about her loss and the circum-
stances attached to it, when her former messenger again came
to her, and, bowing low, put into her hands a package of five
hundred roubles. Questioned as to how he had succeeded in
collecting so great a sum, the man answered that during the
six intervening years he had eked out of his monthly wages
three hundred roubles. Then he had married a girl who
brought him a dower of two hundred roubles, thus enabling
him to redeem the debt which had tormented him ever since.
The lady, touched by his story, first refused to take the
money, but upon the man positively declaring that in that
case he would not touch a penny of it, she accepted it, placed
it at interest in a bank, as a dower for the first child of the
newly-married couple, thus founding the child's fortune on
its father's honesty.

As I have said, the Sennaya is the actual center of
St. Petersburg's working population. It is bounded on all
sides by tenement houses, cheap taverns, eating houses, and
especially—gin shops. There is scarcely a house in which
one of the latter is not to be found. During the early morn-
ing hours they are usually deserted; only occasionally a
moujik or two drop in to warm themselves. But after market
time these dingy palaces of liquor begin to fill with visitors.
The *tzelovalniku* (barkeepers), clad in flaring red shirts, fly
from one end of the bar to the other, scarcely able to answer
all the calls for "vodka" which resound around them, keep-
ing an eye in the meanwhile on each of the guests, lest some
smart *moujik* might, in quitting the place, forget to put his
five-copeck piece on the counter.

Let us enter one of these dingy, dark and smoky dens.
Here is the place to study that cardinal vice which all observers
attribute to the Russian nation: drunkenness. The fact is
beyond doubt, that the Russian peasants, artisans, working-
men—in short all those classes of society which are comprised
in the one denomination, “the Black People,”—are, as a
rule, addicted to drinking liquor—so much so, indeed, that
from the Excise taxes the exchequer of the Russian Empire
derives its greatest revenue. And yet, if we were to infer
from this fact that drunkenness is a Russian national vice.

176 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

paralyzing the moral and intellectual development of the people and brutalizing its character, we would commit a serious error.

Why does a Russian peasant drink? He has two excellent reasons for doing so: first, the climate, and second, the fact that drinking on holidays is almost the only recreation afforded to him. In countries possessing so severe a climate as Russia, the food of the people must necessarily be stronger and of a better quality than in a more moderate zone. Now, unfortunately, the customary food of the Russian working-classes is extremely insufficient; it consists chiefly of bread, cabbage-soup, and buckwheat gruel. Meat is rarely seen on a Russian peasant's table, and even tea, the chief national relish, is mostly too expensive for the miserable yearly budget of a Russian working-man. Thus, it becomes for him a peremptory physical necessity to find some equivalent for the missing food, and alcohol he believes furnishes him, to a certain extent, this equivalent.

This alone would suffice to explain the necessity of a moderate absorption of liquor. As to the excess of it, into which the Russian peasant is undeniably apt to fall, his past life and present condition sufficiently explain it. In judging the moral standard of the Russian peasant one main fact must not be forgotten: that less than twenty years ago he was still a serf, a being without human rights, a thing that could be bought and sold, and in which moral and intellectual faculties were hardly recognized. Less than twenty years ago you would have vainly sought in most Russian villages for a man who could read and write. The life of a serf was an endless, hopeless drudgery, a night without dawn, a life like death, a misery the more keenly felt as the people subjected to it were at all times naturally intelligent, imaginative and impressionable. Oblivion, an occasional insensibility toward all the ordinary surroundings, such has been for centuries the only relief, the only amusement (if such a thing may be called by that name) which the Russian peasant could enjoy. What could he become but a drunkard?

Indeed, to all who are familiar with the past history of the Russian people, it may appear incomprehensible how drunkennesshas not really taken the proportions of an incorrigible national vice, instead of a bad habit, gradually waning away, or of a malady, losing daily some of its intensity. That

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

177

drinking has become more a national malady than a vice, is
clearly shown by the fact, that cases of drinking mania
(zapoy) are nowhere so frequent as in Russia. Among the
artisans, the servants and coachmen in the cities, or among
the laborers in the country, hundreds of steady sober men
are to be found who lead in every respect an orderly, respect-
able life, and for months consecutively never touch a drop of
any intoxicating liquor; but who suddenly, almost uncon-
sciously, against their will, and without having the power to
resist the strange spell, as if a demon had possessed them,
drink incessantly for days and nights. They generally
feel some time in advance the approach of the "fit." It
often happens that a poor sufferer of that kind implores
his employer or his fellow working men to lock him up, or to
watch him closely, and to stop by force every attempt on
his part to procure liquor. But all such preventive measures
are generally fruitless. In one way or another he contrives
to circumvent them, and drinks, drinks, until he falls into a
heavy sleep, from which he awakes again a sober, orderly
man.

This strange malady has spread all over the country, and
even representatives of a higher social order are occasionally
not exempt from its dreadful attacks. For every man who
has but once seen one of these sufferers, there is not the re-
motest doubt possible regarding the genuineness of the
disease; it cannot in any way be held for a willful deception,
nor is it always the result of a previous disorderly course of
life. It has undoubtedly a physiological origin, and is
probably hereditary.

Drinking is one of the many dark figures on the horizon of
Russian public life, which a greater civilization, a fuller de-
velopment of all the moral and economical resources of the
country can alone banish. But it is not in any measure
an incurable vice of the nation.

One must have lived in daily intercourse with the Russian
working people, in order to be fully able to judge of their
natural cleverness, and of the healthy standard of their moral
development. About the natural cleverness of the Russian
peasant, numberless stories are told which would lead us too
far to repeat here. Every foreigner who has visited Russia,
has certainly had occasion to become convinced of the
fact. To take one instance: it is perfectly astonishing how

178 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

easily the cabmen (*isvostchiks*) in Russia understand the directions and guess at the wishes of their foreign passengers, even if those wishes and directions were clad in the least expressive and most obscure pantomime. But it is, above and before all, in his own home, in the village, that the Russian peasant can be studied and appreciated at his just value. The life he leads is generally one of toil and hardship of every kind. His mode and standard of living is essentially primitive, not to say miserable. He is unacquainted with the most ordinary requisites of daily comfort, of which the poorest Western European or American workman would as soon think of depriving himself as of the use of air or water.

Let us enter one of those *isbas* (cottages) which, all alike in construction and architecture, are strewn over the great Russian Empire. They are all made of wood, the walls being formed of strong beams, placed one over another and connected by a peculiar method, usually without the use of iron nails. On entering, we find ourselves in a low, dingy, smoky room, badly lighted by two tiny windows. A table of the plainest possible construction—a board on four legs—is the only piece of furniture in the room. Around the wall there runs a wooden bench, in the eastern corner hang a few sacred images of the Saviour, the Holy Virgin, or of the Saints, before which a lamp is kept burning; and in the rear of the room a large stove looms out of the darkness. This stove is always the principal, indeed the only object of any importance in the house. A foreigner, used to those elegant iron or earthen-ware toys which in Western Europe and in America are called by that name, will at first sight feel inclined to take a Russian peasant's stove for some family monument or mausoleum, rather than for a heating-apparatus. A Russian stove is a huge piece of masonry, about seven feet high and as many broad; the top of it is flat, and this is the favorite lounging place of the Russian moujik, his only place of comparative comfort, where he can enjoy the only luxury his woody country affords him—warmth.

And a peasant who has fuel enough to keep him warm through the long, long winter months may consider himself fortunate indeed. In the central provinces of the Empire, in the zone of the "black earth," a tree is a rarity, much too costly for the slender purse of a peasant. Those who are comparatively well off burn turf, the poor keep warm as best they

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

179

can by curing manure, dried earth, or by keeping close to-
gether under a sheepskin.

And the poor among the Russians are greatly in the ma-
jority. We presume it is generally known that by the Emanci-
pation Law of 1861, every Russian peasant is supposed to be a
landowner, that is to say, every peasant is obliged to belong to
some village commune, which owns a certain amount of land
in common. This land is divided into small lots, according to
the number of families in the commune; without, how-
ever, being considered the private property of each re-
spective family. Thus the Russian working-class might seem
to be guaranteed by the very law under which they are living
from utter pauperism. But this is not the case. The system
of taxation, though a process of reform is still in force
in the Russian Empire, is so disproportionate, and rests
with so great a weight on the working-classes, that in a
very many cases the commune property of the peasants
becomes a myth, and its produce is more than absorbed by
the payment of the State and local taxes. Moreover, the
insufficient development of industry renders it extremely
difficult for the peasant to find any outside work, and
presses down the wages to the lowest possible minimum.
We may easily imagine, therefore, that the social and eco-
nomical condition of the Russian peasantry stands as yet on
a very low level.

Bearing this in mind, it is perfectly astonishing to observe
what energy, what natural aptitude to almost any species of
work is to be found in this much-suffering people. There is,
in the noblest sense of the word, a Spartan feature in the
character of the Russian nation; it endures the greatest hard-
ships, the severest poverty, and, what is perhaps harder to bear
than all the rest—the tedious, hopeless monotony of a life
of mechanical, physical work, without losing the shrewdness,
the natural humor, the powerful energy of its intellectual
faculties. Centuries of serfdom and pauperism have not de-
veloped in the Russian peasant either the apathy or the abject
humility of the slave. In the administration of the commune
affairs, in the provincial assemblies, where deputies from the
peasants sit side by side and enjoy the same right of vote and
speech as representatives of the higher classes, who have en-
joyed better opportunities for acquiring knowledge and practi-
cal energy, the Russian peasant has now scarcely eighteen

180 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

years after the emancipation—proved to be everywhere “the right man in the right place,” ready to work, keen in understanding the practical import of every debated question, eager to learn, and to confer on his children the blessing of knowledge and intellectual development of which he himself has been deprived.

Such is that “Black People,” the first glimpse of which we caught on the Haymarket of St. Petersburg. Outwardly they are “black” indeed; they do not please our eye by a picturesque or elegant appearance. But the heart and soul of the Russian peasantry are sound and full of promise, which is more than can be said of many of the most elegant representatives of Russian society.

## A VISIT TO THE MONASTERY KONDINSKY.

BY DR. OTTO FIN SCH,

(LATE CHIEF OF THE GERMAN EXPEDITION TO WESTERN SIBERIA).

NEXT to the Jenissei, the Ob is the most important of the Asiatic streams emptying into the Polar Sea. Its length from the junction of the rivers Bija and Katunja, which have their sources in the Altai Mountains, to the waters of the Ob-Bay, is 3,200 versts, or about 457 geographical miles. During the explorations of the German Expedition of 1876 I became acquainted with almost all sections of this before comparatively unknown river. Between Tomsk, the mercantile metropolis of Siberia, and the little village of Samdrowa, where the Irtisch empties into the Ob, there are regular steamers plying, which in all respects equal those of Europe or America. From Samdrowa, down the stream, traveling becomes more difficult, as the population becomes thinner and the villages are separated by longer distances from each other. There is only one large settlement along the entire distance from Samdrowa to Abdorsk—the city of Berezoff, historical as the place where the once mighty Prime Minister of Peter the Great.

A VISIT TO A MONASTERY.

181

Alexander Mentchikoff, and the former Count Ostermann died as exiles. One of the two stately churches in Berezoff is said to have been founded by the former. In Berezoff is, besides the stone-built church, the imposing Monastery Kondinsky. Passing by it in the beginning of July, when floating down the river, and also when returning against the stream from our irksome voyage from the desert country to Kara-Bay, we could not help but admire this lovely spot. Sailing against the current in our small boat "Bismarck," which could be propelled either by means of oars or the tow-line, we were subject to frequent delays and harrassing obstacles, through rainy days and dark and dreary nights, encountering, as we did, adverse winds. In going down the river we made the distance of 2,000 versts, or seven geographical miles, in eight days, whereas, in the ascent it required twenty-three days to pull the boat against the stream. We were now in the second half of September, and the appearance of the river, as well as the landscape, had greatly changed. Tributaries in whose waters we had formerly sailed were dried up, and geese and ducks were the only navigators. The high and often perpendicular banks formerly washed by the river, presented broad strata of sand and clay, on the ledge of which lodged enormous masses of drift-wood. The shallow water disclosed large islands of sand dividing the stream at long intervals. The heretofore luxuriant foliage of the woods was in autumnal dress; the birch and other similar trees were varied by the red of the poplar trees of smaller growth, whilst the light green of the larch and the dark black green of the pine and cedars heightened the effect. The impenetrable forest is rendered impassable by fallen timber.

For weeks we had lived on fish alone. Imagine then our delight in seeing the welcome dome of the Monastery Kondinsky. In the town there are about twenty traders in dried fish and cedar nuts. As soon as we landed, my companions went into the woods to hunt, whereas I and Martin D. Zerrwit, our accomplished interpreter, sallied forth into the village, calling at every house for supplies on our way. In response to our demands, the reply everywhere was "Go to the Monastery." There we went. It stands next to the church, and is an imposing structure. We entered. Nobody was at home, it appeared. After

182 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

knocking at several doors an old woman appeared, and advised us that the Brothers were out harvesting the hay crop. The monks are good and zealous laborers, in both practical and religious fields—obeying, I doubt not, the precept of the Holy Book, “pray and work.” As nobody knew what time the monks would return from the fields, I made another endeavor to get supplies, but failed. With the exception of two or three sheep, there was nothing to be had—no meat, no milk, no butter, no eggs, no bread. Disappointed, I went down to our boat. I had scarcely arrived when a monk appeared, and invited me to the Monastery. At the door we were welcomed by the Prior. Father Benedict, who reproached me with not having visited him while descending the river. My excuse, that it was the usual sleeping time in these latitudes he did not accept. Here I should say, that, in this region, there is no real night during Summer. The Prior said that he would have been glad to welcome us at any time. We soon became aware of how he intended to receive us, for his own room was fitted up for us, supposing that we would remain some days. When I declared this to be impossible, Father Benedict was disappointed; and hearing that we could not spare even a single day, because we might miss the last steamer to Tumen and Samdrowa, he nevertheless agreed with us. Hearty as the welcome was, I had no doubt this excellent man meant all he said; and so I frankly told him all our wants, and that nothing was to be had in the village. Father Benedict took me to the window, and pointing out more than half a dozen calves, he invited me to select one, which he immediately ordered to be slaughtered. At his invitation we visited his church, which is so constructed that one portion is used for the summer service and the other during winter—the latter being fitted with heaters, as the cold is extreme in these latitudes. The Monastery Kondinsky was erected during the reign of the Czar Alexis Michaelowitch, in 1656, but the church at this time having been built of wood, was destroyed by fire, and rebuilt in stone in 1731. Among the various treasures of the church is a very old copy of the Bible, the covers of which are ornamented with eighty pounds of silver. We were also shown the school, which the monks, who are also teachers, maintain here, and this duty of teaching among the stupid and indolent Ostiaks is

A VISIT TO A MONASTERY.

183

doubly troublesome. The parents do not care to have their children educated, and the indefatigable Prior has succeeded in inducing them to send their children to the school only after paying them for that purpose. After many years of labor, he has the satisfaction of having trained a number of zealous young men, now able to assist him in his Christian labor. On account of the climate the Christianization of the people is most difficult, and the Prior related many interesting stories of his struggling and hampered career in this bleak solitude, amid the storms of winter. The Ostiaks, who live in the depths of the woods, often omit to baptize their children. When it happens that a child is taken sick, the parents run to the Monastery to call one of the monks, who is obliged, notwithstanding the great rigor of the climate, to go many miles distant into the depths of the cheerless woods. More than once on such occasions, Father Benedict has been at the point of death, either from starvation or the intense cold. The information we received from the Prior respecting the country and people was of great interest, as was also the meal he had ordered for us before our departure. The latter was, although simple for our country, very abundant for the country through which we were travelling. There were not only the usual dried and salt fish, but, to our utmost surprise, also excellent milk, eggs, and, above all, some sour pickles—a real delicacy for these regions. Although the rules of the order did not allow Father Benedict to use strong drinks himself, he kindly offered a bottle of brandy to us, in which we drank not only to the health of the Emperor Alexander, but also heartily to the prosperity of the flourishing Monastery and its inhabitants, and to that of our beloved friend the Prior. The hours passed so quickly that only the darkness reminded us, that it was time to depart. Meanwhile the calf had been butchered, and the Prior told us to help ourselves. He gave us also fresh bread, butter, eggs, and milk. I at first hesitated to pay for the supplies, as I thought it would offend the Prior's sense of hospitality, who, in fact, upon an intimation to that effect, promptly refused all proffers of payment.

We left the Monastery deeply impressed with the admirable spirit of toleration, and the excellent education which the Prior showed—qualities of heart and mind in which he is only a fair example of the whole body of the Russian clergy. We shall always remember the Monastery Kondinsky.

184 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM.*

IN its extreme and most aggressive phases, Socialism has of late years domesticated itself in the United States, mainly and primarily in the persons of European refugees. While the ranks of its advanced disciples have not been recruited to any large extent from the period of commercial and industrial disaster through which the country has just passed, there can be no doubt that some of its peculiar theories have taken root in the popular distress; and now that a fresh impulse is expected from the operation of coercive enactments in Germany, thoughtful Americans should accurately comprehend the principles, aims and tendencies of the movement. A timely and notable contribution to the literature of the subject is a small but exhaustive volume from the trenchant pen of Roswell D. Hitchcock, D. D.

One need peruse but a few pages of the work to realize that the author brings to the discussion of his theme not only profound and extensive erudition, but a trained and acute intellect, a dispassionate purpose, and an Emersonian faculty of condensation. Every page of the book abounds in terse, pregnant texts, each in itself an essay, and all are welded into an argument of remarkable coherency and force.

Sharply marking at the outset the distinction between Socialism and its various manifestations—such as Communism, Nihilism, etc.—Dr. Hitchcock proceeds to examine the vast and complex problem of social inequality, which lies at the base of all Socialistic theories and agitations. He takes no rose-colored view of modern civilization, seeks not to conceal or palliate its defects, but, on the contrary, lays bare its every diseased fibre, with the conscientious fidelity and care of a surgeon pursuing the roots of a cancer. Conceding that modern civilization is largely materialistic, selfish, wasteful, he utterly scouts and explodes the notion that it can be redeemed or improved by communistic panaceas and vagaries. The forces and tendencies constituting what, by loose popular usage, is now indifferently termed Socialism, Communism, or Nihilism, all hasten inevitably towards anarchy, the extinguishment of individual liberty, and the

[*Socialism: By Roswell D. Hitchcock, D. D. Published by A. D. F. Ran-dolph & Co., New York.]

A NEW CYCLOPEDIA.

185

levelling down of intellect and morals. Endowed with Samson's blindness, but, fortunately, not often with Samson's strength, it would tear down the basal pillars of society and madly hope to find pleasure, not death, in the ruins.

Doubtless some votary of the destructive *isms* will retort that Dr. Hitchcock writes a "parson's plea" in behalf of capital and the conservation of misrule; but such cheap satire can make no more impression than a mad bull upon the adamantine arguments adduced. Dr. Hitchcock illustrates the character of his whole book when he says that Socialism is a philosophy to be argued down, not to be howled down. We have seen the assertion somewhere made that Communism is "Democracy run to seed." With a few masterstrokes in the volume before us, the allegation is shown to be not only false, but absurd, for Democracy, being based on the largest possible liberty of the individual, is the logical antithesis of Communism, which would crush out all individual freedom under a hideous state Juggernaut. From this and other cogent reasons, which merit careful study in the author's full text, Dr. Hitchcock concludes that Communism is not likely to menace the existence of our Republic, although it may, if encouraged, excite serious alarm in populous cities.

## A NEW CYCLOPEDIA.*

When the first ponderous encyclopedias were projected, their preparation and publication divided interest with events of the highest national and historic importance. By practically exhausting the sum of human knowledge in their time, these initial essays were generally regarded as precluding all future competition in the same field; but the marvelous advance of science, invention and discovery, with the rapid transformations of political and social life, created new and unforeseen conditions, which not only necessitated the frequent revision of earlier cyclopedic efforts, but gradually opened a wide market for works at once less voluminous and more comprehensive. While the giant tomes consulted by our grandsires were written in a subjective spirit, and designed to mold public opinion into specific grooves, later compilers adopt the scientific method and aim exclusively to present an

[*Johnson's New Universal Cyclopedia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge.—A. J. Johnson & Son, New York.]

186 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

exhaustive treasury of *facts*, digested into convenient form for ready reference. A modern encyclopedia is in itself a working library, embracing almost everything except fiction.

The forethought, care and expense required to produce one of these monuments of patience and erudition, are almost incredible. That now before us comprises four substantial volumes, handsomely printed and illustrated. President Bar-nard, of Columbia College, and Professor Guyot, of Prince-ton, exercised general supervision over the text, and were assisted by twenty-nine associate editors, all of them men of mark in their respective departments of mental culture. In addition to 2,500 articles contributed by this special corps, there are between 5,000 and 6,000 others which bear the sig-natures of competent American and European scholars. The result of their intelligently-directed and systematic labors is a cyclopedia, moderate in bulk and price, while notably com-plete and reliable in its treatment of distinctively American subjects. Surpassed, of course, by several larger works of the same class in minuteness of detail and elaboration, we should recommend it in preference to any other to a stranger entering the United States and desiring an exhaustive Ameri-can manual of reference, not too formidable in its dimensions.

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THE
ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

OCTOBER, 1879.

OURSELVES.

FOR the non-appearance earlier in the year of this number of the ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE, the Editor bespeaks the indulgence of subscribers and readers. The delay has been caused by unforeseen circumstances wholly beyond the control of the Editor; but he is now able to make positive assurances that there will be nothing to prevent the regular appearance of the MAGAZINE hereafter. Its fourth number, completing the first volume, will be published in December; and thereafter the numbers will appear promptly in March, June, September and December. The Editor takes this opportunity to renew his acknowledgments to subscribers for their generous encouragement, and to the press for its kind notices.

RUSSIA'S GREAT POET—ALEXANDER PUSHKIN.

BY A RUSSIAN.

I.

"LE STYLE c'est l'homme." This celebrated sentence can be applied not only to the individual, but to a nation as a whole. In its literature, in the literary men it sets forth as the representatives of its ideas and aspirations, its religious, moral and political conceptions, each nation expresses before the world its innermost nature, its true and undisguised character. As a man, deprived of the faculty of speech or of the possibility of otherwise expressing his sentiments and wishes, is scarcely entitled to the name of a living being, so is a nation,

188 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

deprived of an independent literature, unable to assert itself
as an active member in the great family of civilized commu-
nities.

Some twenty years ago the general opinion held about
Russia among the civilized nations of Europe was precisely
in accordance with the comparison we have just now used.
Russia was considered "a dumb nation," a nation without
literature, without science, without any ostensible token of
intellectual life. A sort of Chinese wall seemed to surround
the great northern Empire, and as nobody knew what existed
behind it, one took it for granted that there was nothing at
all, except a powerful Czar, a tremendous army and a bigoted,
uncivilized people, incapable of any independent intellectual
development.

It is true, a few excellent German translations (by Bodens-
tedt) of Lermontoff's poems had appeared before that time,
but they had attracted little notice and were generally put
down as "weak imitations of Byron, devoid of any national
originality." It is only by the last works of Ivan Turgenieff
that Russian literature has succeeded in acquiring a world-
wide reputation. For the great majority of foreign readers
this author has been a sort of revelation, showing a great
poetical genius, an artist equally accomplished in form and in
the faculty of poetical creation, where they had suspected but
a barren field of ignorance and barbarity.

As a matter of fact, however, Turgenieff does not stand
alone in Russian literature. Some of his contemporaries
are scarcely inferior to him in point of talent—of genius; and
his predecessors, of whom to the English-speaking public little
more than their names are known, have as poets and thinkers
even a greater importance in the eyes of a student of the in-
tellectual and literary progress of humanity.

There exists a widely-spread opinion about the Russian
people that its present civilization, the culture and refine-
ment of its upper classes, are all a sham, created artificially by
*ukase* of the Czars, without any corresponding organic intel-
lectual development, and that therefore the upper classes,
being entirely disjoined from the people, Russia has no claim
to a truly national literature. This opinion is entirely erro-
neous, and is based on two facts, the true import of which is
rarely understood rightly.

First of all, it is undoubtedly true that the Russian language

RUSSIA'S GREAT POET.

189

as it is now used in literature is of comparatively modern origin. Peter the Great was the founder of the new Russian alphabet and grammar. With one mighty stroke of his pen he abolished the old Slavonian characters, formerly used in Russia, and under his direction the Russian language was shaped into the grammatical forms it has retained to the present day. This fact, taken by itself, might seem entirely incomprehensible. How can the language of a people, which has been used for centuries past, be abolished by the order of a monarch, even if that monarch be as powerful and mighty as Peter the Great was? And such an act on his part would indeed have been an impossibility if Peter had made the attempt to introduce a new language into Russia. The truth is, he never attempted anything of the kind. In old Russia there existed two distinct languages—the Russian proper, the language of the people, and the old Slavonian, used by the Church, the State and the learned men. The people had no literature of their own. The Tartar yoke, which had rested so heavily on Russia for more than two centuries, had arrested the growth of a national literature in its very bud. Among the peasantry scarcely one man could have been found who could read and write. How could an independent national literature have arisen under such circumstances? All the learning which existed at the time was of an essentially clerical character, and as the chief representatives of the Russian clergy came from Greece, or were at least educated under Byzantine influence, the language they used became naturally a strange mixture of Russian, Greek and Slavonian, with an alphabet almost entirely copied from the Greek.

It was this artificially created idiom which Peter the Great abolished, and it was the plain, real, national Russian which he reinstated in its rights, giving it, at the same time, a plainer alphabet entirely independent of the Greek. This is the reason of the success with which Peter's literary reform was crowned. Far from creating artificially a language for literary and official purposes, his reform meant a return to the true national idiom, and was the foremost condition for any further development of a national literature.

The second fact, alluded to above, is that nearly all the representatives of Russian literature and poetry have so far belonged to the higher classes of the people, and have chosen their subjects from the same sphere they were living in

190 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Thence superficial observers generally infer that the Russian poets and novelists were much more society authors, cosmopolites, than true representatives of the character and aspirations of their own people.

This opinion rests on the erroneous supposition, generally entertained by foreign critics, that the historical development of the Russian people can in any measure be compared with that of other European nations. A marked division of classes, each of them representing certain interests, ideas and historical traditions, and waging a constant war with each other—such, in a few words, was, and is still, the chief character of the historical progress of Western Europe. Literature, a true mirror of the nation's life, naturally reflected this antagonism of caste. Each class had to fight its own battle, to set forth its own representatives in politics as well as in literature.

Things are quite different in Russia. There there exists no actual aristocracy—at least, no class bound together by centuries of common interests and traditions, and opposed to all other classes of the nation. Moreover, the Russian aristocracy is constantly being renovated by representatives of other circles of society, who, through the channel of Government service, can easily attain all the honors conferred on a born aristocrat. Thus, Russian aristocracy has at all times been entirely devoid of any spirit of caste. In our century it is simply the richest and consequently, the best educated class of society, and its representatives may be found in the ranks of widely different parties.

Thus it is obvious that from the fact of most of the Russian poets and authors having been aristocrats by birth, no other conclusion can be drawn than that they had received a tolerably good education. As to choosing their subjects out of the life of the educated classes, this is a feature which we can scarcely admit as being peculiar to the Russian literature. Have not the middle and higher classes of society furnished the greater part of all the heroes and heroines which walk on the stage of European literature? And it is but natural that it should be so. On one hand the complicated forms of civilized life afford a greater dramatic interest, and on the other, it is much easier to deal with these than with the plain, deeply-laid principles upon which the people's life, customs and sentiments rest.

But this does not hinder a poet, a novelist, from acquiring

RUSSIA'S GREAT POET.

191

a national importance. His literary value is not measured
by the subjects he writes about, but by the manner in which he
treats them. The creative force of his genius must be direct-
ed towards such types and in such a manner as to give the
reader a true and vivid picture of the principal characters of
the time, and of their national importance. If such is the
case, the poet has the right to the title of a national poet; he
and his works form an integral part of the people, even if
through fifty generations back nothing but "blue blood"
should have run in the veins of his ancestors.

Judging from this stand point there is, perhaps, no other
modern literature in Europe which has acquired so great a na-
tional importance as the Russian. In consequence of the
severe censorship which existed in Russia until the pres-
ent reign the serious style of political and social literature and
criticism was necessarily a terra incognita for the Russian lit-
erary man. Therefore all the talent, all the creative ener-
gies of the people were directed toward poetry and novels.
Under cover of poetical fiction things were said and ideas
were developed which, in any other form, would have been
severely proscribed. Thus the Russian literature of fiction
may be fairly considered as a sort of natural history of Rus-
sian society, the true and vivid picture of its best and highest
aspirations, of its worst vices and woes. The Russian poets
and novelists have acquired a much greater social importance
than any other writers of fiction in other countries. In writ-
ing about the national poets of Russia we necessarily write a
history of the intellectual and political development of its
people in its best and truest representatives.

II.

Alexander Sergejevitch Pushkin is universally held to be
the father of the Russian national poetry. He was born the
26th of May, 1799, in Moscow, and belonged to an ancient
Boyar family, many representatives of which played a promi-
nent part at the Court of the Czars of Moscow. But, curiously
enough, he had, on his mother's side, negro blood in his veins.
His mother came of the family Hannibaloff, whose remarkable
destiny forms one of the most interesting episodes of Russian
modern history. The founder of this family was a negro
slave, Hannibal by name, whom Peter the Great bought

192 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

somewhere on one of his numerous wanderings. This Hannibal was a man of unusual energy and talent. He first became a soldier in the Russian army and distinguished himself in all the numerous wars waged by the great Russian reformer. Gradually rising from rank to rank, he ultimately became a General and a favorite of the extraordinary Czar, who himself, so to say, a self-made man, had a peculiar liking for all self-made men.

This Hannibal was christened in the Oriental orthodox Church, added an "off" to his name, and became thus Abraham Petrovitch Hannibaloff. His son also embraced the military career, distinguished himself greatly at the siege of Kherson and at the first battle of Navarin, and died a Major-General. Pushkin's mother was a Hannibaloff, and she, as well as the poet himself, had still some marked characteristics of the negro type in their faces. Pushkin tells himself, in his diary, that at school he was often nicknamed "the negro." Is not it strange to think that under other circumstances the gifted poet, the pride of his nation, might have been sold like a head of cattle on the public market?

The Russian society of the day, however, did not attach any importance to this peculiar origin of Pushkin's mother. Her husband's house was one of the first in the old Russian capital, Moscow, and the rendezvous of all the wits and the fashionable world of the time. The Russian "upper ten thousand" of the first quarter of our century presented in many respects a very curious mixture of elegance, culture and refinement on one hand, and of brutality, ignorance and vulgarity on the other. The first-named qualities were reserved for society, for the salon, which had its own moral code, its customs, and even its special language—French. The native tongue was severely proscribed from the elegant world; it was considered vulgar, and good enough only for servants, peasants and merchants. This was the sphere in which the most exquisite dandy who in the drawing-room would perhaps, by his witty and refined conversation, have eclipsed the guests of the Hotel Rambouillet, showed the other, the dark side of his nature, and became the Russian barin (master), the slave-owner, the worthy descendant of the semi-barbarous Boyars.

Such a sphere, if it was on the one hand favorable to the development of refined wit and to the study of foreign litera-

RUSSIA'S GREAT POET.

193

ture, was on the other not such as to breed a truly national poet. And yet it was in this sphere that young Pushkin received his first education, his first impressions of life and men. This is one of the many curious instances of that independence from the conditions of society and surroundings which is frequently noticed in a true genius. All that is false and unnational glides from him without leaving any trace, and blessed with an inborn instinct of truth, he knows where to find the genuine gems of poetry and of pathetic interest in the very soul of the people, even if he scarcely should come into contact with the latter.

Surrounded with French and German governesses, the young poet, in his infancy, scarcely heard a word of Russian, and would have heard none at all if it were not for his old nurse, Arina Rodionovna, a plain peasant woman, a serf, belonging to the Pushkin family. In rocking to sleep the child whom she dearly loved, in watching over it through severe illnesses, with that touching, all-absorbing devotion of which, we verily believe, only Russian nurses are capable, she sang to him the pathetic strains of the Russian popular melodies; she told him the fairy tales and epic stories, so full of imagery and simple beauty, which live on for centuries in the mouth of the people; and at this pure, eternal source of poetry the young soul of the future poet drew the first germ of that inspiration which was to lead him to immortal fame.

In 1811 he was placed by his parents in the Imperial Lyceum of Tzarskoë Selo, near St. Petersburg, an exceedingly aristocratic and exclusive boarding-school, a favored enterprise of the Emperor Alexander I., which that monarch had furnished with all that the science of education could achieve at the time. The standard of learning in this institution was exceedingly high, and thus the possibility was afforded to Pushkin of acquiring all the knowledge attainable to a young nobleman in 1811. It must be confessed that he did not fully avail himself of this opportunity. He was always considered a rather lazy pupil. But while he neglected his lessons, he passed days and nights reading all the books of literature and poetry which he could lay his hands on. Among the foreign poets, it was, above and before all, Byron who entirely captivated the imagination of the young poet. Contemporaries tell us that after having read for the first time some of the works of that great "poet of sorrow," Push-

194 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

kin fell into a half frantic state of enthusiasm. For whole
days, and even nights, he wandered about the spacious gar-
dens adjoining the lyceum, with the cherished book in his
hand, insensible to the outward world, unmindful of college
discipline. The authors of the romantic school, among whom
Jukoffsky occupied at the time a prominent position, were
his favorite reading.

Such were the poet's true masters. To them soon another
mighty teacher in poetry was added—love: one of those pure,
romantic, youthful feelings which sometimes contribute
more towards elevating and forming a poet's soul than the
reading of whole volumes of poetry. During his stay at the
Lyceum, Pushkin published already several lyric verses
which, it is true, were little more than imitations of the ro-
mantic school, and especially of Jukoffsky, but which, never-
theless, attracted universal attention by the excellency of
their style and poetical form. These first attempts at versifi-
cation on the part of a boy sixteen years old appeared before
the Russian society as a revelation. As we have already
mentioned, the Russian language was at the time very little
used by educated Russians; it was considered a language
for the low born, incapable of expressing any refined senti-
ment, or of adopting an elegant style. And suddenly there
appears a lazy pupil of the Imperial Lyceum, who proves by
his writings that the Russian language is one of the richest,
one of the best adapted for expressing the deepest poetic feel-
ing a nation is capable of!

In this respect Pushkin richly deserves to be called the
"father of Russian poetry." What Peter the Great had been
to Russia, as a political power, Pushkin was for the lit-
erature and poetry of his country. If one compares his style
of writing with that of his predecessors, then, and only then,
one comes fully to understand the national importance he has
acquired, and the amount of energy, work and talent he has
displayed in shaping the heavy, ungraceful language of the
older Russian poets (who, by the way, scarcely deserved that
name) into that light and elegant verse in which all Pushkin's
poems are clad, and which sounds like music even on a for-
eign ear.

In 1817 Pushkin left the Lyceum and plunged with heart
and soul into the busy turmoil of society life in St. Petersburg.
But amusements and dissipation never interfered with his lit-

RUSSIA'S GREAT POET.

195

erary occupations. His first great poem was "Russlan and Ludmila," a fairy tale, drawn from the Russian folklore. Its success was very great, as indeed was the case with everything Pushkin chose to print. Yet it is neither for this poem, nor for a series of minor ones, which it would be useless for us to mention by name, that Pushkin is entitled to an immortal fame. His principal work is the celebrated "novel in verse," as he called it, "Eugene Oniegin." In this poem, which we consider the keystone to all the modern Russian literature of fiction, the poet's genius has attained its highest, fullest and most perfect development. Here he is not only the masterly versificator, the imaginative poet, he is still more the social philosopher, the shrewd observer and portrayer of the manners and men of his time.

The plot of this "novel" is certainly simple—so simple, indeed, that it is scarcely possible to relate it. Eugene Oniegin, a young Russian nobleman, who, as the poet expresses it, "by the will of fate is the only heir of all his relatives," in consequence of the death of one of his rich uncles, is compelled to quit St. Petersburg and to bury himself in a distant country place. There he makes the acquaintance of young Lensky, an enthusiastic poet of the romantic school, an idealist with a most loving nature and a true, noble heart. Lensky becomes Oniegin's intimate friend, although the latter warns him that no good can come of such a friendship, and introduces him to the family of his betrothed, Olga. This Olga has got a sister, Tatiana, a young girl, full of a passion as pure as it is earnest, confiding, honest and true to the core, but utterly inexperienced, never having left the country place on which she lives with her parents—in a word, a sort of Russian "Gretchen." Oniegin, without making any attempt at courting her, produces a powerful impression on the poor young girl. Gradually, prompted by a devilish desire to use his power, Oniegin begins to coquet with her. Tatiana loves him more and more daily, and at last writes him a passionate letter, beginning by the words: "I write to you: what want you more?" with a full avowal of her love. But after receiving this avowal Oniegin's interest for Tatiana disappears as if by magic: he sees at a glance the future of a tedious country life as Tatiana's husband, answers her with a formal, cold refusal, and begins to court her sister, Olga, Lensky's betrothed. This love affair becomes known to Lensky, who, exas-

196 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

perated by what he considers a mean intrigue on the part of
his friend, sends him a challenge. The duel takes place and
Lensky is killed on the spot. Oniegin immediately returns
to St. Petersburg without taking leave of Tatiana. Many
years afterwards they meet again in a brilliant salon of the
capital. Tatiana is married to an old but very rich General,
and has become one of the first *lionnes* of society, celebrated for
her beauty, her cleverness, and her coldness. What the poor,
innocent country girl could not achieve, becomes an easy task
for the brilliant lady of the world. Oniegin falls madly in
love with her, but she repels him most decidedly, avowing at
the same time that she still loves him, has never loved any-
body else, and has never known a moment's happiness after he
had left her. "But now," she declares, "I am given away
to another man and will be true to him forever."

Thus ends this sad tale of four broken lives, each of which
would have deserved a better fate. This is of course but the
naked skeleton of the poem, and cannot give the least concep-
tion of all its beauties. Among the latter the perfection, the
music of the verse, and the brilliant and witty pictures of so-
ciety and country life stand paramount. These pictures are
drawn with such a realistic truth that "Oniegin" has acquired
a truly national importance—has become, so to say, an in-
trinsic part of Russian life, the embodiment of a whole epoch
of Russian history.

Among those who are unacquainted with Russian modern
life and literature, the opinion generally prevails that Pushkin
is but a blind imitator of Byron, and "Oniegin" but an inferior
copy of "Childe Harold." Between the two poets there ex-
ists but one point of resemblance: that is, that they both are
children of their time, with all its sorrows and woes, as every
true poet must necessarily be. A feeling of melancholy, born
out of the consciousness of how helpless individual man, with
all his energies and aspirations, appears before what in the
language of poetry is called fate, but in the eyes of the social
philosopher is nothing else than the traditional, tedious and
tyrannical forms of social life. This feeling pervades the
works of both great poets. Each, however, expresses it
in a very different manner. Byron's melancholy is profound,
but at the same time it is active, energetic; it is, if such a
term may be applied to the works of a poetical genius, revolu-
tionary. The will, the mind, the passion of man arise in arms

RUSSIA'S GREAT POET.

197

against the cold conventionality, the narrow code of social
morals, imposed on them by society. The individual becomes
his own judge, his own criterion. The motto of demonism,
"Eritis sicut Deus!" might be inscribed on the title-page of
all the poetry of the Byronic school.

The melancholy pervading Pushkin's poetry is less pro-
found but more hopeless, more bitter and sceptical than that
of Byron; above all, it is more rational, reflecting the inner-
most character, the worst defects and the noblest qualities of
the Russian type. Oniegin is not a casual creation of the
poet's genius: he is a type; thousands of Oniegins have lived,
suffered and died in Russia, a burden to themselves and to the
people they belonged to; endowed with all the faculties of
mind and heart for becoming good men and active citizens,
and doomed to a forced laziness and apathy which gradually
killed in them all genuine feeling, all desire of good, all notion
of right and wrong. Oniegin has neither the deep feeling,
nor the almost superhuman energy, which is ready to storm
any obstacle of the Byronic heroes. He is much more the
Hamlet than the Childe Harold of the Slavonic race, whose
representatives have as a rule much less individuality and
more of that "spirit which ever denies" in them than any
other of the manifold characters belonging to other civilized
races of Europe.

In his manner of dealing with his hero, Pushkin differs,
too, essentially from his great contemporary. While Byron
lays heart and soul in the creations of his genius; while on
reading his poems you feel the strong affinity of mind and
feeling existing between the poet and his work, in "Eugene
Oniegin" the contrary is the case. The poet regards the type
which rises under his pen with a certain mocking scepticism.
Himself born and bred among the higher social classes of the
time, he seems to have thoroughly studied and understood all
their shallowness, all their estrangement from the true course
of Russian national life. He seems particularly to relish, in de-
scribing the superficial brilliancy, the petty vanity of this life,
and its degrading and debilitating influence on an able mind
and a sound nature. But in this description the poet does not
show us the true direction of his sympathies. He simply
states facts, draws us a picture of things as they are, as dis-
passionately as possible, and seems at the close of the poem to
ask us with a half smile of good-humored scepticism: "Well,

198 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

gentle reader, what do you think of all this sad story? Who
is guilty in all this misery and melancholy, in all this tedious,
aimless course of a broken life?"

Such is the true work of a creative genius. He does not
imply the answer to the questions arising from it. It simply
stands there before us in all its wonderful completeness, full of
life and truth, and it is for us, according to the ability, the
convictions, the moral and social principles of each of us, to
find the true sense of the whole picture.

As we have already stated, Pushkin's "Oniegin" has
founded a whole epoch in Russian literature, it has given the
latter the character it still retains to the present day--that of
a natural history of Russian society. Oniegin became a type
which each critic, each poet, each novelist, attempted to in-
terpret, to complete or to develop further. Oniegin is, so to
say, the forefather of all the "Russian Hamlets," who arose
later in the life and literature of the country. Lermontoff's
"Petchorin," Avdeïeff's "Tamarin," even Turgenieff's
"Rudin," "Lavretzky," and others, are children of the same
"Oniegin"--family portraits of Russia's "best men."

"Eugene Oniegin" represents the highest point of Pushkin's creative genius. If he had lived longer, doubtless he would have endowed the literature of his country with poetical works of a still maturer and higher character. In his papers after his death, sketches of poems were found, which, if completed, would have perhaps eclipsed the fame of Oniegin.

But fate had ordained it otherwise. Pushkin was scarcely
38 years of age, when a duel with a Baron Heckern, a foreign
adventurer, caused by a malicious gossip about the latter's
relations to Pushkin's wife, put a sudden end to his glorious
career.

The grief at the event among all classes of the Russian
people was intense. The loss was felt as a national calamity.
The indignation against his opponent in the duel was so great
that he was obliged to leave the city, and Lermontoff, that
other poet of modern Russia, who is worthy in every respect
to be placed side by side with Pushkin in the Pantheon of
great poets, wrote him an epitaph worthy of its object and its
author.

Pushkin is dead. But the memory of his genius and his
works lives, and will live forever in the heart of the Russian

HELLENISM.

199

people, and his fame will spread wider and wider with each step which Russia conquers towards that position in the family of civilized nations which belongs to her by right of the intelligence, the character and the national feeling of her people.

## THE FORTUNES AND INFLUENCE OF HELLENISM.

A SKETCH of the fortunes of Hellenism and the Hellenic literature would be almost a history of the globe, the history of mankind itself. Greece, though a small country, is greatly favored by the delightful variety of her climate, and, from the earliest times, has afforded to her inhabitants the means for the free development of all their natural powers. Thus, the life of the Greek nation resembles very much that of a great man from the day of his birth to the last moment of his existence. In his boyhood he is protected by the beneficial influence of birth and religion; reaching the age of puberty, he goes enthusiastically through all the exercises of soul and body; in his manhood he fights the battle of life, mingles in various undertakings, and brings forth the result of his labors—liberty, riches, science, fame; finally, having participated in all the joys and sorrows of this life, he delivers his soul to his Creator with the consciousness of having done his duty during his life on this earth.

At the same time, no man, however great, has gone through an eventful life entirely unblemished. Future generations will criticise him severely, and will find much to blame. So, in the history of great nations, some dark spots are always likely to be discovered by impartial judges. The faults of great nations, however, like those of great men, cannot be judged by the common standard, for the reason that even these afford some instruction, and nations, as well as individuals, can draw therefrom some lessons in morals and statesmanship. Furthermore, great nations and great men can occasionally sin with impunity, because one great action can efface many shortcomings. To an Achilles mankind may pardon a fault, nay, a crime; but to a Thersites the smallest deviation from the right path is considered a mortal sin.

200 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

It is generally admitted that the Greeks and the Romans were the two greatest nations of ancient times, and great nations, like great men, have a lofty mission on earth. The mission of both Greeks and Romans was conquest, and through conquest, unity towards the accomplishment of the high desires of Providence. This common aim, however, had a different character in each of them. Conquest in the eyes of the Romans was a matter-of-fact affair, in accordance with their natural character, while among the Greeks it was raised above the common standard and partook of the ideal, like their own national aspirations. The name of Rome suggests massacres and conquests by the sword, while that of Greece brings to mind the delights of liberty and of intellectual pleasures. The true greatness of any power must be always judged by the character of those who are under it. There is not much honor in ruling over slaves, according to Aristotle, but it is glorious to rule over freemen. The Romans, having conquered the material world, became for some time the masters of the Greeks also; but the latter, although they were the conquered people, were actually the rulers of their masters by their intellect, and the Romans have never been able to free themselves from this intellectual yoke. Hence the bitterness of that verse of Horace:

Græcia capta ferum victorem cepit.

Comparing these two nations we find the superiority of the Greeks to be unquestionable. Their spirit of civilization has floated, so to speak, over every tribulation, from age to age, to the present day.

The mystic character of the early Greek literature made room for the heroic monarchy, full of chivalrous actions, daring deeds and curious adventures, in which love, hatred, friendship and glory were the principal motors. The acme of the heroic age of Greece was the Trojan war, and Achilles was the ideal Greek hero.

Emigrations of every kind, the founding of new cities, the destruction of old ones, internal dissensions and troubles of every nature destroyed this Grecian middle age; the monarchies disappeared and the states took their place. Under an aristocratic form at first, they became finally pure democracies, particularly after the Persian triumphs. Athens became the ornament and the pride of Greece, and the focus of

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light and civilization. From the clash of arms of Marathon, Salamis and Platea, Greek literature came out boldly in its noblest forms, and for the first time the Greeks began to feel their superiority over the barbarians. The heroic epic poetry was soon succeeded by the brilliant and enthusiastic Doric and the Æolian lyric, which contributed so much to elevate the spirit of the Greeks and inspire them with an intense love for their country. In this was now concentrated the intellect of Greece, which established both literature and art, and produced the dramatic poetry of Sophocles, the remarkable history of Thucydides, created the metaphysic and enthusiastic philosophy of Plato, and finally the comedy of Aristophanes and the oratory of Demosthenes. It has been truly observed that both these forms of intellect develop themselves whenever the political life of a nation becomes agitated. Oratory in particular—this last form of the development of the power of speech—is like the flame whose growth and brilliancy increase according to the quantity of the burning material.

At the time of Demosthenes Greece had almost exhausted all the great questions of right, morals and political government, and was like a man who has reached full manhood, and who lives more in the sweet memories of the past than in the youthful hopes of the future. Internal dissensions and personal egotism began to predominate, and resulted in that fatal Peloponessian civil war. It is true that the Greek republics lived a little longer, but the true spirit of liberty was gone, and with that, life-giving science disappeared also and made room for sophistry.

But, like the lamp which, before going out for want of oil, throws up some bright sparks and a brilliant flame, in the same way Greece, toward the end of her ancient political life, gave two bright sparks which illuminated the whole world and acquired new glory for her. These two bright sparks, or rather suns, were Aristotle the philosopher and Alexander the Great. Until that time Hellenic literature had a purely national character, but since that epoch it became universal. Aristotle stands between two great worlds—the ancient one, which is about to disappear, and the modern which is about coming in. He may be called the end of the purely Hellenic and the beginning of the Panhellenic. Representative of the first, he is the great priest and guide to the new one; for in his vast mind he concentrated all the ancient wisdom and science.

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It is certainly one of the mysterious dispensations of Providence that these two men lived at the same epoch. They understood each other at once and projected the conquest, and, through that, the regeneration of the world. Aristotle conquered the inward, the intellectual world, while Alexander conquered the outward or the material one. The latter wanted to unite to his monarchy all the nations and attach them to it through the Hellenic spirit and literature, while the former aspired to join in a unit the intellectual energies of all people and of all ages. The human mind is amazed at the magnitude of this undertaking of science, particularly when it is accompanied by genius and power. In the short period of twelve years the young pupil of Aristotle, not over twenty years old, accompanied by the greatest savants of Greece—naturalists, geometers, mathematicians, historians, philosophers, painters and sculptors—and with an army of only 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 select horsemen, overpowered completely an ancient monarchy counting a thousand years of political existence, marched through an immense territory inhabited by warlike tribes, who, some years later, destroyed the choicest legions of Rome, and penetrated to the very heart of Asia, where nobody ever dreamed of going before.

Yet all these brilliant exploits might be considered as crimes against humanity if they had not a higher aim, a more lofty purpose—the spread of civilization among barbarians. The conquest of Asia by Alexander partakes of an ideal character, because the conquering nation was civilized and instructed, and its head was inspired with the great idea of spreading the Hellenic civilization throughout the world. Plutarch characterizes this conquest as “practical philosophy,” for, says he: “The Indians worship the Greek gods, the Sogdians feed and do not kill their parents, the Scythians bury and no longer eat the dead, and the children of the Persians, Susians and Gestrossians sing the tragedies of Euripides and Sophocles.”

Thus, all over Asia the seed of Hellenic literature was sown; but the colossal work of Alexander was interrupted by his untimely death. This, it is true, prevented Greece from ruling over those countries, but did not put a stop to the civilizing influence of Greek science. The successors of Alexander continued the noble work, and founded over two hundred cities in different parts of Asia. Asia Minor became almost

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a Greek country, while the Greek language was introduced to
the very heart of Asia, to the very center of Persia. The
Lagides, Seleucidae and Attalides were not only powerful
kings, but great men also, and supported science and the arts
with all their might. Antioch, Seleucia, Alexandria and
Pergamos became centers of Hellenic civilization.

Until now Hellenic literature had moved through the
world like a queen, surrounded and guarded by noble men
of genius. But henceforth she must wander on foot, dressed
in sackcloth, a stranger, without a home. It is time that we
should turn our looks from the East to the West, to Rome,
that favored city in which fortune made her permanent and
favorite abode. The spirit of liberty had fled from Greece
three centuries before, and although the scattered forces of
the Greeks were, for a time, united by the appearance of
Alexander on the world's stage, his untimely death caused
their dismemberment again, and with that, the greatest en-
emy of the Greeks, viz., dissension and civil war, appeared in
full force. Blinded by passion, a portion of them appealed to
the Romans and called them saviors. They learned, how-
ever, soon enough, that these would-be saviors aspired to
nothing less than their complete subjugation, and then com-
menced those bloody strifes which ended by the complete con-
quest of Greece.

This conquest would have been fatal to Greece, had she
not had that brilliant past, that widespread civilization, which
saved her in the intellectual world what she had lost in the
material one through her blundering policy. Her savants
were fighting perseveringly the battles, which she was no
longer able to fight with the force of arms. While the Roman
legions were swiftly marching through Greece, her savants
were gradually capturing Rome by their intellect, although
this colossal work was fraught with many difficulties, and all
sorts of impediments were placed in the way to prevent the
invasion of Rome by the Greek letters, this movement being
headed principally by Porcius Cato. Their password was the
well-known motto: *Roma cave tibi*.

The Romans at that time, though pretending to great vir-
tues and purity of character, were a corrupted people. On
the destruction of Corinth, Mummius sent to Rome the mas-
ter-pieces of Greek art, for the only reason that he thought
that pictures and statues for which the kings of Asia paid

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sometimes one hundred talents ($100,000) must neces-
sarily possess some hidden magic power. Inquiries made
in the year 423 B. C. under the Consuls, Valerius Flaccus, and
Claudius Marcellus, that is to say, at the time when the vir-
tues of the Romans were trumpeted throughout the world,
disclosed the fact that over 170 of the noblest ladies of Rome
were condemned to death for having poisoned their husbands.

The very nature of the Roman people and their character
were opposed to anything from which they did not derive a
material benefit. Rome always worshiped money and this
world's goods. Their very names were materialistic and com-
mon. The Greek called himself Themistocles, Pericles, Meg-
acles, Aristomenes, while the Roman patrician called himself
Fabius, Lentulus, Piso, Cicero, viz.: bean, lentil, pea, etc. The
man who could swiftly increase his fortune was the most ad-
mired. Brutus, the popular and tyrant-killing Brutus, was
loaning money at 48 percent. per annum. A Prætor, who tried
to check and pass laws against this excessive usury, was mur-
dered in broad daylight in the very temple of Vesta.

A great reaction was thus created against the invasion of
Greek letters and ideas, which, it was alleged, were corrupt-
ing the morals of the people. Greek instruction penetrated
to Rome, nevertheless, and forced even the Greek-hating Cato
to learn in his old age what he scorned to do in his youth.
Indeed, it can be asserted with perfect historical truth that
many of the great and noble deeds of the Romans were due
to the Greek influence and civilization.

Yet, this beneficial literature of the Greeks, that irresistible current of civilization, tended to increase the hatred of the proud Romans. They could not suffer that invisible yoke of the vanquished. Hence the well-known proud verses of Virgil:

Tu regere imperio populos Romane memento,

which shows the feeling of vengeance which animated them
against this intellectual yoke which had subjugated all classes
of Roman society. The Roman ladies used to express the
tenderest feelings of their hearts in the language of Sappho
and Anacreon, and this exasperated still more the national
party, whose feelings are reflected in the satires of Juvenal.
The Roman patricians were proud to add to their military and
political achievements some knowledge of Greek literature,

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while the plebeians scorned it through ignorance and stupidity.

The Greeks understood from the very beginning who were their friends among their conquerors, and tried to be on good terms with the Roman aristocracy. Like all barbarian nations, which, when they come into contact with civilized ones, are compelled to adopt the latter's manners and customs, in the same way the Romans had to submit to this inalienable historical law of nature. Everything in Rome, poetry, history, literature, philosophy, art and religion, were now Greek. From the sixth century so many Greek dilettanti had assembled in Rome, that there was scarcely a prominent man's house to be found without a Greek tutor, either for instruction or for show.

This circumstance attracted to Rome thousands of men from foreign lands who spoke the Greek language, the universal organ of ancient civilization, yet who really were not Greeks, but Egyptians, Arabs, Persians, Phœnicians, Cappadocians, Jews, and so forth. On account of these men much that is blamable was attached to the Greek name and eagerly seized by their enemies to calumniate the Greeks in general, although it must be admitted that the long servitude of the latter forced on them many of the defects of their masters. While it can be easily proved that the accusations of the Romans against the Greeks for being unfaithful, ungrateful and treacherous, cannot be sustained by facts, it is true, on the other hand, that many of the so-called Greeks at Rome were corrupted and became the parasites of the grandees of that city.

While Greek literature was accomplishing so much in the West, in Greece proper, and in the Hellenic countries in general, it had to fight a new enemy, far more formidable than the Roman, and that new enemy was—Christianity.

In the victory of Christianity over Greek antiquity we must see the finger of Providence; yet it is sad to think that the savage rabble of the early Christians destroyed indiscriminately whatever was connected with Greek antiquity, contrary to the opinions of some of the learned fathers of the church, who believed that Hellenism was not incompatible with Christianity. During two whole centuries this systematic persecution of ancient art and religion continued unabated. The magnificent Serapium at

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Alexandria, unique in the world for its treasures of science and art, was destroyed. In the year 415 the infuriated and fanatical populace of Alexandria seized in the streets the brilliant and gifted daughter of Theon, the mathematician, the woman philosopher, Hypatia, while she was returning from the museum to her house, and, stripping her naked, dragged her to a church, where she was actually cut to pieces with sharp shells. Then a bonfire was made, her remains were thrown in and burned, and the ashes scattered to the winds. The last blow against Hellenic science was given by the Emperor Justinian. While, in the year 529, the monk Benedict, in Italy, was destroying the last temple of Apollo and the garden of the Muses which surrounded it on the top of Monte Casino, Justinian was abolishing in Greece the Academy of Athens, which had existed for nine hundred years, and forbade to the Greeks, by an edict, the study of Greek literature.

On account of this edict, the last seven philosophers of Athens, finding no longer an asylum in Greece, took refuge in Persia and became the guests of the Persian King Chosroes. It required an especial article in the treaty, conducted later on, between Justinian and Chosroes, to grant permission to the seven old Greek men of letters to return to their country with the freedom of their conscience. This was actually going on in Greece, while in the West the barbarian Goths were friendly to ancient knowledge and had for counsellors men like Cassiodorus, and while Alaric not only ordered the Roman Senate not to stop the ancient subsidies given to the savants, but actually stipulated that they should not be unseated from their professor chairs without sufficient cause.

Notwithstanding all this persecution, exile and confiscation, when an inquiry was ordered by Justinian in Constantiniople, to find out how many and who they were who still practised the ancient religion, it was found that its adherents belonged to the highest classes of metropolitan society. Christianity, however, became finally victorious, and its installation on the throne of Byzantium was a step towards the reconciliation and final union of the modern Greek faith with the ancient Greek nationality, which since then have walked hand in hand to the present day.

This reconciliation and union of the Greek antiquity with Greek Christianity had, as a result, the awakening of the old

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traditions, and resuming its old character it commenced that
bloody and persistent strife of Hellenism, concentrated now
in the orthodox faith of Byzantium, against the Latin en-
croachments of Rome. This fight of the Greek nationality,
represented exclusively henceforth by the Orthodox Greek
Church, is due neither to the Byzantium Emperors, with
their often vacillating policy, nor to the orthodox clergy, but
to those remnants of ancient Hellenism which, from the
time of Alexander the Great and his successors, had sown
broadcast the elements of Greek civilization and glorious tra-
ditions. Those great civil wars of the Iconoclasts, which
shook the Orient to its very foundations, were nothing else
but a struggle of Greek nationality against the arbitrary
acts of the authorities. During the reign of the Iconoclasts,
the ancient Greek language was abolished in the Church and
was replaced by a sort of vulgar modern idiom, the Œcumeni-
cal school of Byzantium was closed, and three thousand vol-
umes of classics and the building itself became the prey of
the flames. Greek instruction was persecuted by the barbar-
ous Isaurians, and the learned men were forced to leave their
homes and seek refuge in Rome. Yet it was written that
the death blow against the Iconoclasts should come from
Hellas once more. Irene, the Athenian, daughter of an
Athenian philosopher, went from the steps of the Parthenon to
the throne of Byzantium and suppressed this persecution, and,
later on, through the influence of the Empress Theodora, the
Iconoclasts were doomed forever.

From this time Hellenism took deep root in Byzantium.
Michel III., son of the last of the Iconoclasts, in a letter to
the Pope written at the beginning of the ninth century,
called the Latin language "barbarous." Cesar Vardas, the
great protector of letters, transformed Constantine's palace
into a university, and Leo, the philosopher Archbishop of
Salonica, Theodegious and many others, gave lectures on
Plato and explained the writings of Aristotle. The great
Photius, to whom the emancipation of the Greek from the
Latin yoke is chiefly attributed, reached the highest ecclesias-
tical dignity by becoming patriarch and worthy successor of
his glorious predecessors, Nicephorus and Tarrassius.

The Macedonian dynasty of the Emperor Basilius gave
new splendor to the Empire, both by the force of arms and
the impetus given to Greek studies. Under his dynasty the

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Roman legislation was transformed into Greek by the publi-
cation of the Basilika and the last vestige of the Latin lan-
guage disappeared completely. The ninth and tenth centu-
ries, which were ages of darkness in the West, were epochs
of light and instruction in the East. Kings and queens
rivaled patriarchs and philosophers in the discussion of
scientific and literary topics, headed by that great protector
of letters, the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The
large and comprehensive dictionaries of Souida and Hesy-
chius, and the great etymological works were issued at that
time, and prove conclusively the progress made in Greek litera-
ture. This state of things continued under the reign of the
Comnenes, which produced men like Michel Psellos, the
greatest of philosophers, considered as the very embodiment
of Greek science.

This generation of emperors passed away, and the new
one which took possession of the throne of Byzantium
brought innumerable calamities from the West to the East.
Science and art received then an irreparable blow, from which
they never recovered.

At this epoch, a new barbarian nomadic people from the
Arabian Peninsula, appeared on the horizon, full of that re-
ligious fanaticism inspired in them by that enterprising and
bold Arab who shook the world to its very foundations, on
the smoking ruins of which he built, by sword and fire, a
new and unique world, an impossible mixture of cruelty and
docility, of barbarism and civilization, of Asiatic despotism
and chivalrous independence, invading Asia from Syria to
India, and Africa from Egypt to Spain.

This fanatical and irrepressible people owed to the Greeks
whatever civilization they possessed. The conquest of Syria,
a country thoroughly Hellenized by the Seleucidae, and the
establishment of the Caliphate of Damascus as their capital,
gave to these Arabs the first taste of civilization. This
Semitic tribe, having nothing in common with Hellenism,
could not familiarize themselves with its true spirit of liberty
and humanizing influences, in order to civilize the people
whom they subjugated by the sword. Thus, Arabian civiliza-
tion was but a faint reflection of that of the Greeks, but
without its invigorating influence. We find in Arabian
science many notions for the material welfare of the people,
but no elevated ideas of science or political liberty, for the

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reason that they could not exist in the fiery atmosphere of
Arabian despotism. The science of the Arabs, the center of
which was the city of Bagdad in Mesopotamia, is based
chiefly on the translation and explanation of the Greek
authors in the Syrian and Arab languages, and under the
Caliphs Haroun-Al-Raschid and Almamour, had reached its
golden age. The kings of Byzantium sent an immense quan-
tity of Greek works for translation to the capital of the
Caliphs, but unfortunately, after this was done, the originals
were destroyed, the Arabs considering them now as useless.
In this way many valuable works were lost forever. Let us
now return once more to Constantinople.

It is no longer a mystery to-day that the great enthusiasm
and uprising of the Christians of the West against the infi-
dels, which engendered the crusades in the eleventh, twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, originated in the mind and was due
to a single man, and by him imposed on the sovereigns of the
West as a mission from God. This man of genius was the
monk Hildebrand, son of a carpenter but who, later on,
became the celebrated Pope Gregory VII. His true pur-
pose was to bring under the sway of the Roman tiara all
the Eastern and Western world, and although he did not live
to see his plans carried out, his successors have been working
towards this end ever since.

The Hellenic East lost much in these great convulsions.
The interior discords of the reigning family had greatly weak-
ened the position of the Byzantine Empire. On the one hand,
the traditional ambition of the Popes, who now had reached
the highest point of their power under Innocent II, and on the
other hand, the revengeful and rapacious policy of Venice,
under the cunning Doge, Dandolo, found good opportunities
to meddle in the Byzantine affairs. The assistance asked for
by the reigning family against their own people directed now
the Christian warriors, not to the inhospitable shores of Syria
and Palestine, but to the lovely banks of the Bosphorus. On
the 24th June, 1207, the fleet of the Crusaders made its ap-
pearance before Byzantium, and under the pretext of assist-
ing the king, they landed on the 17th of July. One year
later they had made themselves complete masters of the city,
and this was the beginning of a series of great disasters to
the doomed capital. Within a few months its treasures of
science and art were completely destroyed and reduced to

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ashes. Two conflagrations, the second of which lasted eight
days, cut the city in two and destroyed the most magnificent
of residences, while cruelty, hatred and lust reigned supreme.

The heavy yoke of the Crusaders lasted fifty-eight years, until on the 25th July, 1261, the Greek King, Michel Paleologus, entered the city and forced Baldwin and his Latin Patriarch, Justinianus, to fly to Venice. During these fifty-eight years of Latin rule, Greek science suffered irreparable losses, and the mass of authors, which Photius was reading in the tenth century and had religiously preserved, were destroyed. Yet, classic instruction was not entirely dead, and even during the darkness of the crusades some sparks of it appeared occasionally in Trebizond, Epirus, the Peloponessus, and even in Byzantium, under the Patriarch Gregory. Its last rulers, the Paleologi, were learned men, and under their reign the highest offices of the state and the church were occupied by eminent men of letters like John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazis, Maximos Planoudis, Theodore Metochitis, John Glykas and others. Not only this, but many people from Italy and Western Europe went to Constantinople at this time to complete their instruction, and the Eastern capital of the Caesars was called by Pope Pius II. the asylum of science and the acropolis of philosophy. The wife of the second son of Andronicus the elder was so learned in science that she was called a second Ypatia. It was at this time that John Cantacouzene, the co-king of John Paleologus, wrote the best history of the Byzantine Empire; but its days were numbered. The series of misfortunes and constant attacks for hundreds of years had paralyzed its forces and completely undermined its strength, and on the 22d May, 1453, it breathed its last. Constantine Paleologus, the last of the Greek Emperors, fell in the defense of his capital, and Mohammed II. entered victorious and hoisted the Crescent on the dome of St. Sophia.

Expelled from Byzantium, Greek learning found hospitable
asylum in Italy; not the Italy of the barbarous and arrogant
Romans, but the modern Italy of the fifteenth century, quiet,
happy and civilized; divided into small States like ancient
Greece, but ruled by eminent men, like the Sforzas at Milan,
the Delascalas in Verona, the Carravas in Padua, the Estas in
Ferrara, the Conzagas in Mantua, the Dukes of Orvino, and
Pope Nicholas V in Rome, and above all the celebrated
Medicis, justly surnamed the Pericles of Italy, in Florence. It

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was this last noble family that established the first museums of antiquities and Greek libraries in that city; and now Rome, Venice, Ferrara, Milan, Naples and Florence become centers of Greek learning, attracting thereto the cream of the Italian youth. Florence, above all, under the Medicis, had become the Modern Athens, and it was there that was celebrated with imposing ceremonies the anniversary of Plato, in the Villa Coreggi, in commemoration of the shady gardens of the Academy. A crown of laurels was placed on the head of the great philosopher, and many a tear was shed by the poor Greek exiles who found such a cordial hospitality on the banks of the Arno.

Amid all these tribulations science won an immortal victory by the discovery of typography or printing, which made forever an insurmountable obstacle to darkness, ignorance and barbarism. Through its wonderful power, the bright rays of knowledge were sent now from Italy in all directions. Many Greeks from Italy crossed the Alps, and Plato and Aristotle found a home in Paris and Basle.

The sixteenth century saw the dawn of freedom from that slavery under which Europe had been groaning for so many years. The colossal power which brought about this happy result, which upset old traditions and laid the basis of modern liberties, was science, which was working its way imperceptibly; that ostracized and unarmed science, the invisible power of truth and ideas and its natural offspring, irrepressible public opinion. This spirit of liberty having been once awakened, who could suppress it now or check its forward march? Italy opened to it her enthusiastic heart; Germany gladly welcomed it, and the flame of science, extinguished occasionally in some places, broke out elsewhere with renewed force.

The chief and distinguishing character of Greek science is the harmony of the parts with the whole, which presents it completely before us. The usual anomaly of the interior growth is not to be seen there. The tender branches of science were not blighted, but reached a healthy maturity, presenting an unrivaled whole. Its especial feature is the elevation of the human mind from the material to the ideal world; from the low to the high and lofty: from the mean to the liberal. Its chief purpose is the inspiration of generous feelings and the formation of great moral characters. A man

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ennobled thus by science, and destined by nature to accom-
plish great things, was characterized as a *mortal god* by the
great Aristotle. The ancient Greek science differs from the
modern in an essential point, and that is its true inwardness
and morality and the close connection of its interior features
with the obligations of justice without. The modern theory
of the division and separation of the inner from the outer
man, of conscience from the act, of right and policy from
justice and morality, were unknown to the Greeks, but were
unknown purposely and through deep political wisdom.
Modern science addresses itself directly to the mind, while
that of the ancients, with the enlightenment of the mind,
looked also to the moulding of the heart. Men like Peel,
Fox, Pitt, Brougham, Chatham, North and others, were all
ardent students of classic antiquity, and left an honorable
record of political morality and virtue. The eminent profes-
sor and orator of Berlin, Dr. Virchow, who was in Athens a
few months ago, responding to a toast at a banquet given in
his honor by the medical faculty of that city, having first
offered his tribute of admiration to ancient Greece, proceeded
to say, "that the development of Germany lies in the fact
"that she drew and obtained her regeneration from the
"ancient Greek spirit. This spirit has become the property
"of the people, and to this inheritance from the ancient
"Greeks Germany owes her present rising up to the stand-
"ard of the most civilized nations of Europe."

MODERN SPIRITUALISM.

BY R. W.

What we want to believe we readily believe. This truth
is the corner-stone of modern Spiritualism, and on it has
grown a vast structure of delusion and charlatanism. The
woman who mourns over the death of a dearly-beloved hus-
band or child, or a man who feels desolate at the loss of a
good and fond wife, craves for communication with the de-
parted, or, at least, has a longing desire to know that the soul
exists, though the body be in the grave. The so-called
Spiritual medium, then, offers consolation to the afflicted by

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213

pretending to bring from above or below, or out of the im-
palpable air, the spirit of the deceased to converse with the
living. If the medium be a clever juggler, or be endowed
with some natural phenomenal power as a clairvoyant, or
through animal magnetism, the eager spirit-seeker does not
stop to reason, and believes what is told. Sometimes it takes
a little coaxing and several efforts to bring the staggered mind
into a believing state, but the weak and credulous believe in
the end what they want to believe.

Another class which eagerly embrace modern Spiritualism
are religious skeptics. They reject Orthodox Christianity
and the Divine revelation of the Scriptures, because they
cannot reconcile the things contained therein with their lim-
ited reason, and yet they accept the greatest absurdities when
taught by Spiritualistic mediums. They believe in what is
more miraculous than anything recorded in Scripture. It
may be well said of them that they strain at a gnat and
swallow a camel. While rejecting revealed religion their
minds are not satisfied with blank materialism. They long
for immortality, or for something that gives hope of a future
existence. Hence they substitute for Christianity a belief
which places no moral restraint upon them, but which
promises an existence hereafter in the "spirit world." It is
infidelity run wild into credulity.

What a smoke has arisen from a very little fire! There
are now, probably, millions of people in the United States
and England who believe in Spiritualism, or who accept more
or less the pretended miracles of mediums in producing spirits
at will, of conversing with disembodied souls, in telling pro-
found secrets, in suspending the laws of gravitation by causing
bodies to float or be suspended in the air, and in the material-
ization of ghosts so that they may be felt. Yet all this came
from a poor family in a village of the State of New York
only thirty-one years ago. True, pretentious Spiritualists of
the present day rather ignore the humble origin of the scheme
they have erected into a sort of religion or philosophy, and
they talk now of the odylic or odic force of nature through or
by which spirits act.

But the fact remains that two little peasant girls—two
children, really—were made by older and cunning persons the
instruments of this delusion and fraud. These poor children,
under the management of crafty adults who exercised stern

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control over them, were the real founders of modern Spiritualism, the votaries of which amount now to hundreds of thousands, and possibly to millions.

The phenomena, as some have dignified the noises produced at Spiritual séances by calling them, or "manifestations," as Spiritualists call them, were known originally as the "Rochester knockings," or "rappings," because it was at Rochester, in the State of New York, where the rappings were brought into notice prominently. Still, they began a short time previously at the village of Hydesville, in the township of Arcadia, Wayne County, New York, a short distance from Rochester. It was with or through the same family, the Fox family, the so-called phenomena appeared at both places.

A Mr. Weckman occupied the house in Hydesville, where the knockings were first heard, eighteen months previous to the Fox family inhabiting it. They took possession in December, 1847. Weckman said he had heard rappings at different times, and, as he supposed, at the door. He went repeatedly to the door, thinking some one had called to see him, but found no one there. He told this to his neighbors with expressions of surprise at the mystery. Whether these noises were real or imaginary, Weckman was not the man to construct a theory of spiritual manifestations out of them. To do this was left to his successors in the house. Although somewhat surprised at the mysterious noises, he attributed them, probably, to mischievous boys or neighbors, to rats, to the wind, or to some other unexplained natural cause, until the Spiritual theory was afterwards developed.

Notwithstanding the Fox family took possession of the house in December, 1847, it appears that the rappings were not heard by them till the March following. Then the noise seemed, they said, "to be in one of the bed-rooms, and sounded as though some one was knocking on the floor, moving chairs, and so on." The noise continued. The neighbors were called in for the first time to hear it on the evening of the 31st of March, 1848. If there were a suspension of knockings from the time Weckman lived in the house till over two months that the Fox family were in possession, the fair presumption is that in the interval some of the family had conceived the scheme of bringing them back to astonish the neighboring people and for notoriety.

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When Mrs. Fox was questioned about the noise, she replied: "On Friday night we concluded to go to bed early, and not let it disturb us. If it came we thought we would not mind it, but try and get a good night's rest. My husband was here on all these occasions, heard the noise, and helped to search. It was very early when we went to bed on this night—hardly dark. We went to bed early because we had been broken so much of our rest that I was almost sick. My husband had gone to bed when we first heard the noise on this evening. I had just lain down. It commenced as usual. I knew it from all other noises I had ever heard in the house. The girls, who slept in the other bed in the room, heard it, and tried to make a similar noise by snapping their fingers. The youngest girl is about twelve years old. She is the one who made her hand go. As fast as she made the noise with her hands or fingers the sound was followed up in the room. It did not sound any different at that time, only it made the same number of noises the girl did. When she stopped the sound itself stopped. The other girl, who is in her fifteenth year, then spoke in sport, and said: 'Now do just as I do. Count one, two, three, four, etc.,' striking one hand in the other at the same time. The blows which she made were repeated as before. It appeared to answer her by repeating every blow that she made. She only did so once. She then began to be startled, and then I spoke, and said to the noise, 'Count ten,' and it made ten strokes. The ages of the children were rapped out. I asked if it were a human being making the noise, and, if so, to signify that by the same noise. There was no response. I asked if it were a spirit to signify that by two sounds. Two sounds were made immediately."

This has all the appearance of being a truthful statement from a plain, uncultivated and simple-minded woman, and one of the daughters has said that her mother believed, as long as she lived, in Spiritualism, making the remark to show how credulous and at the same time how honest her mother was.

Many people called at the house of Mr. Fox to hear the noises, and questions were asked of the pretended spirits and answers given by raps. The practice became systematized. One of the girls, or mediums, would call the alphabet over, as is the custom now, and the raps would come when certain

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letters were called. In this way words were constructed and the answers given. A signal for calling the alphabet from the pretended spirits was understood to be five raps.

A few months after these "manifestations" came, all the Fox family removed from Hydesville to Rochester, and took up their abode with a married sister of the youthful mediums. Here the business went on swimmingly, and this is what gave the so-called phenomena the name of the "Rochester knockings," or "rappings." It seems, however, that the raps seldom or never came except when the sisters were together, and that the oldest and married one was the most prominent actor in the exhibitions. Other people then assumed to be in rapport with the spirit world, and began to rap. The sisters saw there was a business prospect in these knockings, and left Rochester to go from town to town. In the course of their travels they visited New York, Philadelphia, Washington, and other large cities, astonishing the educated and confounding the ignorant. All classes flocked to the seances, and paid their money for communications. The business was too profitable and fascinating, and had too much the charm of novelty about it to allow it to be a monopoly, and, hence, in the course of time, mediums and "professors" sprang up all round, books and periodicals devoted to spiritualism were circulated, and a sort of religion was formulated.

Mrs. Fox said the oldest of the two young girls, Margaretta, or Margaret, was in her fifteenth year, and the youngest, Catherine, or Kate, about twelve years of age. They did not look to be so old. Margaret certainly did not. In 1852, four years after the knockings commenced, when Dr. Kane, the famous Arctic explorer, fell in love with Margaret, she did not appear to be over fourteen. Indeed, she says in her "Love-Life" book that she was younger. Mrs. Fox was speaking, probably, of the age of her children some time after they left Rochester. Still they were small in figure, and had apparently childlike manners, so that people might easily make a mistake about their age.

There was an artless and naive manner in these two little girls that many thoughtful men and intelligent women could not believe they were either voluntarily or involuntarily practising deception, and that, even when they could not assent to the astounding pretense of departed souls rapping out communications to mortals. Yet no one could penetrate

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the secret, so well was it kept. Dr. Kane, who knew Margaret better, perhaps, than any one else, in one of his love letters to her, said: "You know I am nervous about the rappings. I believe the only thing I ever was afraid of was this confounded thing being found out. I would not know it myself for ten thousand dollars." How, then, did this secret, "this confounded thing," begin, and how so well kept and perpetuated?

Strange as it may seem these little girls, Margaret and Kate Fox, were as cunning and secretive as they were naive, childlike, and frolicsome. Mrs. Fox herself unconsciously showed these remarkable traits of character in her children when she describes Margaret as saying in sport to the rapping noise at Hydesville, "Now, do just as I do. Count one, two, three, four, etc," while she struck one hand against the other. Then, Mrs. Fox said again, "The girls slept in the other bed in the room, heard the noise, and tried to make a similar noise by snapping their fingers." In fact they could make the noise with their hands and fingers just as well as the pretended spirits, and the mother remarked that the sounds were not at all different, and were the same in number as the girls made. It is well known to those very intimate with them that they could make the same rapping noise with their toes and feet as with their fingers or hands.

The probability is that the simple-minded mother and father of these girls never knew the secret of the rappings. Margaret has said her mother died believing in Spiritualism. Soon, what began apparently in girlish cunning, secretiveness, and frolicsomeness, was made a serious matter of, and turned to a money-making business through the skill and strong will of the older and married sister. She took possession or control of the little girls, and became a medium herself to assist them. She watched them and ruled them in the strictest manner. The parents yielded to this absolute sway over the children, and even submitted themselves to her management. It was she who transferred the sphere of "manifestations" from Hydesville to Rochester.

Having been committed to the deception, and the family having become notorious as spiritual mediums, all were deeply interested in maintaining the ground they had taken. Apart from the profits derived in the business, and the flattering notoriety enjoyed, there was the strongest motive to

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prevent exposure, and, no doubt, this was duly impressed upon the little girls. As a consequence, every means were used as time advanced to fortify the secret. Still the younger members of the family became disgusted with the life of deception they were leading, and one, at least, Margaret, abjured for a time Spiritualism, and joined the Catholic church. But, previous to this, she had promised Dr. Kane "never to rap again." This was in response to an earnest appeal. He wrote: "Write me a letter, solemnly promising never to rap again. Do, dear Mag, do this; you will feel happier for it. Remember, in this awful hour of death (referring to the death of a relative of the Fox family) the fearful sins and sorrows that have grown out of that girlish trick." He struck the truth in this remark, for the whole of this monstrous superstructure of modern Spiritualism arose from "that girlish trick" at Hydesville.

But it was hard to shake off the trammels and surroundings of Spiritualism, though Margaret was disgusted enough with them. Pecuniary necessity pressed sorely upon her, and the Spiritualists followed her and Kate closely, and clung to them with leech-like tenacity. "The old fools, I despise them," Margaret has often remarked, when speaking of the spiritualists; "but they will have it," meaning the rappings. However much the older and married sister is to be censured for using her little sisters in the rapping deception, it must be said to her credit that after marrying a second time to a man in good circumstances, she abandoned Spiritualism as a profession, and has taken care not to let her own children be contaminated by the imposture.

Since the birth of modern Spiritualism, through the "Rochester knockings," a little over thirty years ago, it has been fortified by more skillful jugglers, and by the use of natural phenomena, such as are developed by animal magnetism, mesmerism, and clairvoyance. It may be said, too, that these phenomena, which caused considerable surprise and excitement just previous to the medium rappings, were the fore-runners of Spiritualism. This is shown in the published life of one of the most notorious Spiritualists, Andrew Jackson Davis, for he had been, in 1843, a clairvoyant. Nor can it be denied that certain extraordinary phenomena, arising from the occult forces of nature at times, are startling to the mass of mankind and puzzling to scientists. In the remarkable

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case of Angelique Cottin, examined by M. Arago, this learned
and scientific man says: "The fact demonstrated in this case
is this, that under *peculiar conditions* the human organiza-
tion gives forth a physical power, which, without visible in-
struments, lifts heavy bodies, attracts or repels them, accord-
ing to a law of polarity, overturns them, and produces the
phenomenon of sound."

It might be shown from a rational or scientific standpoint
how utterly illogical the so-called manifestations of Spiritual-
ism are, but this would hardly convince the votaries of the
"new dispensation." The professors, mediums, lecturers,
publishers, and others make profit out of the delusion, and
they, when Spiritualism is assailed, naturally cry out with one
accord, "our craft is in danger to be set at nought." The
ignorant, and those who cannot bear the moral restraint of
the Christian religion, while rejecting that "immortality
which has been brought to light by the gospel," still crave for
some religion or theory that promises an immortal existence.
These eagerly embrace Spiritualism. Then, there are the dis-
tressed souls—the mourners over the death of a beloved wife,
husband, child, father, mother, brother or sister. They want
the consolation of knowing that the loved ones exist, and that
they can communicate with them. To such the Spiritual
medium comes like the rays of sunlight, and they readily be-
lieve what the heart craves for. Tell these people it is absurd
to suppose departed spirits would come back at the call of
any little medium, out of the throng of mediums, to talk such
senseless twaddle as is generally represented, and for no ob-
ject whatever, and they will contend with you by rehearsing
the most ridiculous Spiritualistic fictions. You cannot per-
suade them that poor Sallie Jones has not the power to bring
Daniel Webster, George Washington, Julius Caesar, or even
St. Paul to converse with her and to answer her questions,
though some other medium, thousands of miles away, may
be holding him in conversation at the same time. So credu-
lous are they, that if the pretended spirit be caught in a lie,
or makes some blunder as to history or facts, they believe, as
the medium tells them, that they accidentally got hold of the
wrong and a lying spirit. In short, there is scarcely a limit
to the vagaries and absurdities which a thorough-going Spir-
itualist will not believe.

The extraordinary growth of this jugglery and delusion

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in the United States and England—in two of the most advanced nations of the world—is a curious fact, and reflects unfavorably upon the boasted civilization of these countries and the age.

RUSSIA'S CONTRIBUTION TO ARCTIC RESEARCH.

BY E. VALE BLAKE.

IF one could take a bird's-eye view of the Russian Empire, he would see on its northern boundary a bleak, ice-invaded coast, either dangerously rough and rocky, or stretching away into almost measureless tundras. These rolling plains resemble our Western prairies in conformation, but while ours are brilliant with many-colored flowers and waving with luxuriant grasses, these Asiatic tundras are, in winter, mainly covered with ice or snow; while in the brief summer, mosses, a coarse grass, with a few cryptogamous and other plants of a low organization, only appear. Further inland, immense forests, broken by mountain chains and broad steppes, vary the aspect through nearly 80° of longitude. But, through this continental breadth of territory, inhabited by various tribes, most of whom are of Tartar origin, there flows a magnificent system of noble rivers, with numerous and by no means insignificant affluents; these originating in the lakes and mountains of the interior, all make their way northward and empty into the Arctic Ocean. It was mainly by the aid of these rivers—the Obi, Yenissei Iana, Lena, Indigurka, Kolyma, &c.—that hunters and traders were first induced to make explorations in the extreme north of Siberia and around the northeast coast of Asia.

Naturally the first territorial acquirements of the "Kingdom of Muscovy" were on the geographical parallel of the chief city, and as these were pushed forward with vigor and success, they eventually reached to the peninsula of Kamschatka. Here their land progress east was stopped by the waters of the North Pacific, and the maritime problem now arose—how to reach those shores by water, and so avoid the tedious and laborious journey overland? The great rivers ran temptingly to the northern shore, and the hope and expectation was that by sailing eastward along this icy sea they

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might find an outlet to the Pacific Ocean, and from thence
bring back cargoes of furs to the great centers of trade, Ya-
kutsk and Irkutsk, on the banks of the Lena.

Various futile attempts were made to accomplish this in
the early part of the seventeenth century. Many only suc-
ceeded in getting from the mouth of one river to another—or
perhaps a few hundred miles—following the indentations of
the coast, in a single season. Storms, ice hummocks, and
threatened shipwreck cut short many of these brave attempts.
How daring they were can scarcely be realized by the marin-
ers of to-day; for these little vessels, in which so many adven-
turous traders and hunters set forth, were so small and roughly
built that no sane man would now think of attempting a
distant and stormy voyage in such craft. These trading
vessels were sewn boats, the planking being fastened to
the frame with thongs of leather and the seams caulked
with moss; they were only half-decked; and by the "logs"
of several captains, whose records have been preserved, we
learn that the average rate of sailing was only about three
knots; it was often less, and even going before a gale the
highest record we have discovered was eight knots. Then,
too, the time in which the sea was free from ice was very
limited. In favorable seasons it might possibly remain open
from six to eight weeks, but very rarely: frequently the ice
did not break up till the end of July and closed again in the
third week of August. Besides the nature of the vessels used,
which necessarily caused slow progress, caution and frequent
soundings were required, as of course no charts of these seas
then existed. All mankind, civilized and savage, admire
heroism; and to the majority the successful warrior is the
greatest and most admirable hero; but what is the heroism
of a successful soldier who fights in the presence of numbers,
on known ground, with the sure conviction that his record
will be preserved and his fame assured, even if his life is lost,
to that greater courage which enters boldly on strange seas,
without guide or chart, between grinding ice and a rocky
coast, with no friendly beacon light, and no certain knowl-
edge of where his wanderings are to terminate? For about the
explorer of unknown seas there lurk constant, varied and
frightful dangers; concealed shoals and rocks lie in wait for
him; treacherous tides bear him away from his course; and,
in the Arctic, ice floes crowd upon his vessel and threaten to

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crush it into atoms, or moving icebergs may collide with and sink him. Each man who sailed forth in these boats emphatically took his life in his hand, and the chances were but little more than even that he would succeed in reaching a profitable field of operations. The records of these earliest adventures show such a continuous series of wrecks, interspersed with fatal attacks by the natives of the new grounds visited; of forced detention on wild, desolate shores; of semi or absolute starvation; of suffering by cold and scurvy, that it is wonderful men could be found to make up crews for these successive expeditions, even though the profits were enormous, when the voyage was in every way successful and a full cargo of furs obtained.

It will be remembered that when the explorations of the north coast of Asia were commenced, the extent of the American continent at its northwestern extremity was totally unknown. It was even supposed by some of the ablest speculative geographers of that age that Asia and America were connected by an isthmus, and even to a much later date it was believed to extend to the north of the Asiatic continent, westward, to the vicinity of the Kolyma River. All was doubt and uncertainty before these early explorers; but forward they went, boldly rounding capes, entering bays, searching the entrances to newly discovered rivers, trying first one anchorage and then another, while taking such astronomical observations as their imperfect instruments permitted; the results of all which labor they reported to owners or patrons, if happily they survived to return.

During these unofficial trading and exploring expeditions, which marked the latter part of the seventeenth and the commencement of the eighteenth centuries, there were constant reports of land still further north; of islands in all directions; and of a "great unknown land" to the N. N. E. These rumors induced many to go out of the tracks of their predecessors, and first one and then another ventured further and further. One landing on a strange island here, another there, until by degrees all of the Bear Islands, the New Siberian group, the Kurile Islands, and some of the Aleutians became resorts for Russian traders. Some kept their discoveries secret as long as they could, hoping to monopolize the trade; others exaggerated their discoveries so as to acquire special privileges in them.

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The repeated failures to make the course around the Tschukcheian Peninsula next led to the building of vessels by Russian merchants on the shores of the Okhotsk Sea and the Kamschatkan coast, and putting out from these ports, numerous islands were soon added to those discovered in the North.

If we should give merely in chronological order the briefest notice of all the exploring parties who have aided in researches in the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans, under Russian auspices, we could more than fill every page in this magazine; we must, therefore, content ourselves with singling out a few of the most striking characters, and noting the most valuable discoveries, leaving the memory of the great mass of these enterprising mariners to be embalmed in the heavier tomes of biography and history.

The year 1648 proved one of the notable epochs of Arctic discovery. In that season seven vessels left the mouth of the Kolyma River with the intention to persevere in the hitherto unaccomplished task of reaching the mouth of the Anadyr River, which empties into the Okhotsk Sea, by sailing around the northeast coast of Asia—though the existence of any passage that way was as yet unproved. Of these seven vessels four were never more heard of; the remaining three were commanded respectively by Simon Deshneff, Gerasim Ankudinoff and Feodet Alexieff. Ankudinoff's vessel was lost on East Cape, but his crew escaping they were taken on board the other vessel; these, landing on the 20th September on a part of the coast inhabited by the Tschukchees, were assailed by the natives, and Alexieff was wounded by them. Putting to sea again, the vessels were soon separated by a storm, and saw each other no more. Of the seven vessels which started, Deshneff's alone passed on to the east without serious accident until after he had rounded the northeastern point of the Asiatic continent—thus being the first to practically prove that there was a free passage between Asia and America eighty years before Behring reached those waters which now bear his name.

Deshneff's claim as first discoverer of the straits was long ignored and even disputed. But the fact was established beyond a doubt by that diligent scholar and historian, Dr. Müller, who, in 1736, unearthed a quantity of papers relating to this voyage, which had lain neglected in the archives of Yakutsk, and which have since been placed for preservation in the

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Imperial Library at St. Petersburg. Deshneff also discovered the Diomed Islands, lying in the narrowest part of the strait, and described the inhabitants as wearing labrets (i. e., ivory ornaments thrust through the inside of the under lip), and though he did not make any elaborate scientific report, he gave such accurate descriptions of the northeast coast of Asia, and the adjacent islands discovered on this voyage, that the several points were immediately recognized by the veteran English explorer, Captain Cook, when he visited those waters in 1776. Deshneff was finally wrecked on the barren eastern coast south of the Anadyr River. Being obliged to abandon his vessel, he, with twenty-five of his crew, wandered about for ten weeks before he found the mouth of the Anadyr. They suffered greatly, and were in constant peril of starvation, as the land was there uninhabited, and shell-fish and a few berries were their principal support. At last, reaching the object of their search, they managed to live through the winter by the chase; and subsequently Deshneff built two other vessels, which he intended to send back to the Kolyma by the return track which he had followed, but was finally dissuaded from attempting it by the statement of natives, traders and others, that "the sea was seldom so open" as it had been the summer of his successful passage.

Still, from the east coast trading and hunting expeditions continued every season to go in search of new fields of enterprise, scarcely one returning without bringing back information of additional points observed on the coast, or new islands partly or wholly explored. In 1711 the Cossack Popoff, who had been charged with the duty of collecting tribute from the tribe of the Tschukchees, inhabiting the region of the East Cape, brought back, not the tribute he went for, but what was of more interest to the scientist, a more detailed and particular account of the Diomed Islands, and reports of a continent beyond, said by the inhabitants of the islands to lie to the east, and with the natives of which, they affirmed, they had formerly traded.

Up to the year 1728 all the Russian vessels which had worked their way from point to point, from the mouth of the Obi to the East Cape, in attempts to get to the Anadyr, or which had discovered islands in the Arctic or North Pacific Oceans, had gone or been sent out by private adventurers, the vessels usually being fitted out at the expense of wealthy

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merchants of European-Russia or Siberia. Frequently companies were formed for this purpose, the main object of which was the discovery of new lands which might afford a profitable yield to the hunters, in the shape of valuable furs, walrus ivory, and, at a later date, mammoth bones. The fur traffic was, however, the leading feature, its pursuit being but a northern phase of that search for the "golden fleece," which in all ages has, in some shape, stimulated the activity of maritime and mercantile nations. But while these expeditions were set in motion by private funds, the Government was not unmindful of its right of eminent domain, and as the aboriginal tribes gradually gave way before the superior prowess and better arms of the Russians, one or more Cossacks were usually detailed to accompany the voyagers, to collect tribute from the natives, and to see that the Government tax or dues were paid on all the skins collected. In this connection some very amusing descriptions are given of certain inhabitants of the Aleutian Isles, who could not understand why a tribute should be exacted for an absent person. They could comprehend why a man should want furs for himself, but for another whom they had never seen that appeared to them too absurd. These same people also believed that the Russians who came to their island was all of the race which existed, because when their tribe went on a raid to a neighboring island all the men of the tribe accompanied the expedition; hence it was long before they could be convinced that there were more Russians in the world than the few who came annually to their island! Usually the chief of a tribe was persuaded by presents, or the hope of future trade, to quietly pay the tribute demanded; but if persuasion failed, compulsion was not far off.

The continual reports of new lands, rich in fur-bearing animals, at length stimulated the desires of scientific men of the Empire to learn, more correctly than they supposed these individual adventurers could do, the precise geographical and other facts relating to them. At the same time (about 1725) the Emperor, Peter the Great, became interested in the matter, and planned an official expedition for the prosecution of further researches in these far distant northeastern regions. The vessels furnished were to be far superior to those in common use, and the party to be provided with all the best appliances for making correct observations which could then be

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obtained. The Emperor is said to have drawn up the instructions for this exploring party with his own hands, but unfortunately he died before he could see them carried into execution. This, however, did not much delay the project; the Empress endeavored to carry out his design, ordering Admiral Apraxin to complete the arrangements, and in accordance with the known wish of the late Emperor, Vitus Behring was selected to take command of the expedition, assisted by Lieuts. Tschirikoff and Spanberg. They were to rendezvous at Okhotsk, and they reached there July, 1727. Here two vessels were built, the *Fortuna* and the *Gabriel*, and the next year, July 20, Behring set sail from the mouth of the Kamschatka River.

Instead of steering directly to the E. N. E. in search of the American continent, which was the main subject of interest to the scientists of the time, he (probably under orders) took a northerly course, coasting along the shore of the Kamschatkan Peninsula, and so followed up the N. E. coast of Asia, until he reached Cape Serdze Kamen, in Lat. 67° 18' N., where the land commences to trend to the westward. Having thus confirmed Deshneff's account and established beyond cavil the existence of the straits between the continents, this main point being accomplished, and being apprehensive, on account of the lateness of the season, of being nipped with the ice, he determined to return, which he did, reaching port on the 20th of September, 1728. On his way out he had discovered, August 10th, in Lat. 63° N. and 190° E. Long., a large island, which he named the St. Lawrence, in honor of the Saint's Day which falls on that date.

The next year, in June, he sailed again, this time steering directly for the American coast, or rather where he supposed it to be; but encountering a severe storm and a succession of contrary winds, he somewhat unaccountably returned, laid his vessel up at Okhotsk and started overland to report at St. Petersburg. By some late writers* Behring has been accused of lack of courage in thus yielding to difficulties, but it is not easy at this distance of time to judge of the sufficiency of the reasons which influenced him, or for his apparent lack of perseverance on this occasion. What we do know is, that he was selected by Peter I. to a high command in the Imperial Navy for his recognized courage in the naval battles with the

* See "Alaska and its Resources," by Wm. Dall.

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Swedes, and as the Emperor very seldom made a mistake as to the quality of the men he employed, we must presume that he had justifiable reasons for the course he pursued.

Two years after Behring's return, the Russian merchant Gwosdeff also made Cape Serdze Kamen, and shortly after was blown by a gale toward the east. He reported passing an island—probably one of the Diomedes—and at last reached a "continental land," which of course could be no other than America. As he approached the shore his vessel met a native who was out paddling in a small boat, by the description given similar to those now used by the dwellers at the mouth of the Yukon. Gwosdeff afterwards sailed two days along the coast of this "continental land," but could not effect a landing, and a storm arising he also returned to his Asiatic haven.

Thus Deshneff, Behring and Gwosdeff had all sailed on the Asiatic side of the Strait, and the latter on the American side, practically completing its exploration.

In 1734 the Empress Anna dispatched three expeditions for the purpose of making a scientific survey of the whole Arctic coast from the White Sea to the Straits now called "Behring's."

The first division of this combined exploring expedition consisted of two vessels, whose commanders were ordered to examine the coast and make scientific observations from the site of Archangel, whence they sailed, to the mouth of the Obi. The second division was to continue the work between the Obi and Yenissei, and the third took the easier division from the Lena to Behring's Straits, with orders to continue the voyage to Kamschatka. The existence of a passage was no longer a problem. The first, or "Obi" division, commanded, as were both the others, by naval officers, succeeded in reaching the Petchora River, but their boats proved unfit for the rough work involved in such a voyage, so they wintered at the Petchora, and in the spring built, so says the narrative, "two *decked* boats, sixty feet long," leaving us to infer that the first vessels used were the old style of half-decked boats. In the new boats they continued their task, found in their course the island since named Tchast, and in the summer of 1737 reached the Gulf of Obi, which they pretty thoroughly explored.

The two other divisions were nominally under the direc-

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tion of Behring, though he did not accompany either. He caused, however, an improved sort of vessel to be built at Tobolsk, which is called in Cox's narrative a "double sloop," by which we may probably understand an approach to the schooner form. This "double sloop" was seventy feet long, armed with two falconets, and carried a company of fifty-three men; they also had on board a surveyor and a priest. Descending the river Obi, Capt. Owzyn in command, they reached the mouth of the river only to find it so obstructed by ice that they could not get out. This region consists of bare and desolate tundras, low land upon which the ice is driven up like the encroaching waves upon a sandy shore. They made various attempts to proceed, only to be driven back by storms and ice pressure, so that it was not until the 16th of August, 1735, that they reached, in latitude 73° 18', the northeast cape, called by the Samoïdes Mate Sol (the Blunt Point), near the mouth of the Yenissei. Here Owzyn erected a monument of driftwood with an inscription to this effect, that "on the 17th of August, 1737, he, with two vessels, sailed past that point towards the east, having arrived from the Gulf of Obi." One of his vessels had to be abandoned, and in the other his mate, Minin, made in 1738 valuable researches by boat and sledge excursions, reaching the river Passino, in which vicinity he made a complete series of soundings, and sailing northward reached 75° 15', when "impenetrable ice" compelled his return.

While these observations were taking place, a vessel for the third division of the first scientific Arctic exploring party, sent in that direction by the Government, was built at Yakutsk, and was called by the same name; it was commanded by Lieut. Prontchichtchow, who, after descending the Lena, sailed towards the north and east. He reached 77° 29' N.; there found himself beset by drifting ice, and in great danger of his vessel being nipped. He was finally driven with and by the ice to shore. After a delay of some weeks the ice broke up, and he managed to reach Chotanga, after having beaten about at the mouth of the river Olenck for six days. He had with him a second vessel as consort. His exposure and continued exertions brought on a fatal illness, and he died on the 30th of August, 1736. His young wife had accompanied him on this perilous voyage, and she too died only a few days after his decease. The crew could

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do no more that year; they sought shelter on the land in subterranean huts or caves, and next year, refitting as well as they could, attempted to double Cape Taimura, but were impeded by storms and ice and returned to the Lena. This division of the expedition reached further north than either of the others, but failed in carrying out the course laid down in their orders. The northern ice hummocks pay little regard to official programmes.

In 1739 Lieut. Septow's exploring party sailed from the Lena; surveyed, besides other portions, a part of the coast W. from Cape St. Faddie, and the next year pursued his course in the direction of the Kolyma and Chroma; he turned Svatoi Noss and reached the Indigirka River, fixing the latitude in 70° 58'. In August he had reached the mouth of the Alasei, and on the 3d inst. made the island now known as the first of the Bear Islands—he called it St. Anthony. On the 14th he attained the Kolyma, and finally brought up at the Baranov Rock. He made in all four successive voyages, and surveyed 37° longitude, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, thus completing much of the work which had been expected from the third division of the expedition of 1734. His observations have been proved to be very accurate*. In 1823, when Baron Wrangel explored a portion of that same ground, he found only a difference of a few minutes in the reckoning between those of Septow and his own.

In 1741 a better organized and equipped expedition was planned under Government auspices, and once more placed under the command of Behring, who sailed from Avatcha Bay for extended researches in the N. E.

Two vessels, the *St. Peler* and the *St. Paul*, had been built for the purpose on a little cove on Avatcha Bay, called Nia-kina, the name of which was afterwards changed to Petro-paulovsky, in honor of the vessels. With this expedition sailed two famous naturalists, George Wilhelm Steller and Louis de Lisle de la Croyère; also Müller, the historian. Lieut. Tschirikoff commanded the *St. Paul*. The two vessels left port in company on the 4th of June, 1741, this time definitely in search of the American coast, but a storm rising almost as soon as they were fairly at sea, they were separated and never met again during the cruise.

*In examining old Russian charts or records it is necessary to remember that it was customary with them to reckon their longitude, not from Greenwich, but from the Island of Ferro, one of the Canaries, making a difference of about 18°.

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Tschirikoff was the first to reach the American coast, which he touched July 15th, near what is now called Cross Sound. Casting anchor, he dispatched his mate with a number of men in the longboat to the shore, with orders to land and make what discoveries they could. Anxiously watching and waiting for their return, he waited in vain until the 21st, when he sent his only other boat, under Sidor Saveleff, to seek for and assist the missing men; but this boat's crew probably shared the fate of the first, and were undoubtedly all slain by the natives, for none of them returned; but on the 22d two canoes filled with savages put out from the shore, apparently intending to come to the vessel, probably supposing that all the strangers had come in the boats, and that they could rob the vessel at their pleasure; but when they saw the deck still covered with men, they quickly turned and fled, uttering cries of rage and disappointment. Tschirikoff had no more boats to send, so he was obliged to leave the unfortunate men, if any were still alive, in the hands of the natives. He passed and noted several islands on his return voyage, including the Sitka Archipelago, reaching the port from which he had sailed in October, 1741. Of his ship's company of seventy men he had lost twenty-one, including, unfortunately, the accomplished naturalist, Croyère, who had died of the scurvy.

Behring reached the coast of America on the 20th of July, in a port which he took to be a bay between lat. 58° and 59°, and there named two high, projecting points of land respectively. Capes St. Elias and Hermogone. He also saw and named Mt. St. Elias, placing its latitude in 60° 18' N., longitude 140° 52' W. The Kodiak Archipelago was first discovered by Behring on his return voyage. The N. E. point of Kodiak Island was that which Behring called C. Hermogone. It would be tedious to enumerate all the individual islands and marine rocks noted by Behring on this voyage. Among them were the Evdokee group of islands, lying to the northeast of the Alaskan Peninsula—one of these, named by him St. Stephens, is now called "Foggy" Island. The Shumagin, which he discovered, was so named by him in memory of one of his crew who died and was buried upon it. Several of the Aleutian Islands were also discovered by him and named on his return voyage. The *Blijnie* group (or *nearest*), the first reached from the coast of Kamschatka, had, indeed, been

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visited by Russian hunters previously, but Behring first
made them known to the Government. After pretty thor-
oughly scouring what is now known as Behring's Sea,
and sailing through the chain of islands skirting Alaska, and
the season getting late, he prepared to return. As usual,
storms and tempests did their part in hastening this de-
termination; but the commander's health, which had been for
some time failing, now became so bad that he was obliged to
relinquish the command to his lieutenant, Wexel. He,
steering southwest, fell in with an island where they found a
haven, it being now the 6th of November. There they de-
cided to winter, and, leaving the vessel at anchor, they all
went on shore. In the meanwhile, a storm having arisen,
the St. Peter was driven in on the rocks and totally
wrecked. The island was not inhabited, and there was no
better shelter on shore than the lee side of a gully between
the hills. They managed to sustain life by the capture of
marine animals—all but the ill-fated commander; he never
rallied. Unable to bear the exposure, in his weakened condi-
tion, he died on the 8th of December, under circumstances of
most pathetic misery. They had laid him, when first brought
on shore, in the most sheltered spot they could find; but this
was bleak enough, and the sand from the gully continually
blew and rolled down, partially covering him, so that if alone
he would have been buried alive; but his companions kept clear-
ing it away, until he begged them to let it remain on his feet
and the lower part of his body, saying “he felt some warmth
from it.” And so died Vitus Behring, as true a martyr to
duty and to science, and as worthy of the martyr's reward,
as many of those who have been so called with less of per-
sonal sacrifice than he made for his Czar and adopted country.
The island on which he died is now called “Behring's Island,”
and close by it is Medoni, or Copper Island, on which his crew
landed and which they explored in the spring of 1742. The
Russians called these two islands *Kormandorski Ostrova*.

To persons not particularly familiar with Russian enter-
prises of an early date, the simple fact of finding on the mod-
ern maps and charts of the North Pacific and Behring's Sea
English, French and Spanish names—the first in profusion
—the idea is conveyed that these were the first discoverers
of those places. Nothing is further from the truth. Almost
everywhere that the vessels of these nations touched N. of

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55º, either on the Asiatic or American coast, they found that the Russians had been before them; but regardless of this they named in accordance with their own fancies places already well known, either by the native or Russian names, to the merchants and mariners of the latter country. Capt. Cook literally strewed the shores of Northwest America with names of English princes, statesmen and admiralty officers years after the Russians had established trading posts, and even forts in that region, and with the same assurance renamed islands which Russian sailors and hunters had visited and made their hunting grounds ever since the days of Deshneff. Take, for example, *Kruzov Island*, which he changed to “Pitt.” *Sitka Sound* he called “Norfolk”; *Behring’s Bay*, “Admiralty Inlet.” Behring’s *St. Lawrence Island* he christened “Clerke Island,” and so on *ad libitum*. To recapitulate:

1st. Up to the close of Behring's career in 1742, the Russians had explored the whole of the northern coast line from the White Sea in Northeastern Europe to the eastern shores of the Okhotsk and Kamschatka Seas, embracing over 80° of longitude, and in reality a much greater distance, considering the deep indentations of the coast and the far-projecting capes and peninsulas.

2d. The discovery of the Kurile, the Aleutian, the Kodiak, the Evdoke, the Shumagin, the Bear, the Diomeds, and other islands in the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans.

3d. The discovery of the Strait, now called Behring's, in 1648, by Deshneff, in 1731 by Gwosdeff, and by Behring in 1828-41.

4th. The discovery and partial exploration of the north-western portion of the continent of America (1731-41), the location of which was previously as positively unknown as if Columbus had never discovered its southeastern shores.

Since these early expeditions there have been few years in which Russia has not added something to the increasing stock of knowledge relating to these regions. Had we space we should like to follow the thrilling narratives of Lieut. Anjou and Baron Wrangel, whose accurate observations have confirmed many of the earlier voyagers, and also corrected numerous errors; but we are forced to pass over these and others, and conclude with a brief notice of the latest expedition in which Russian funds, and at least one Russian officer, partic-

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ipated in adding to its success. We allude to that of the
Swedish voyager, Adolf Erik Nordenskjöld.

Prof. Nordenskjöld was announced by the daily papers of
the 5th September, 1879, as having successfully made the voy-
age from the river Lena through Behring's Straits, as the first
who had ever accomplished the feat; this, as we have seen, is
not the case, but he has nevertheless shown that a steamer
may leave a more western port than the Lena, with a fair
prospect of getting through in one season, for had the Pro-
fessor not been delayed at Tromsöe waiting for his consort,
the *Lena*, and "stopped to rest" at the mouth of the Lena
River, he would in all probability have got through the Straits
and completed his voyage in 1878.

Prof. Nordenskjöld left the port of Gothenburg in the
steamer *Vega* on the 4th of July, 1878. He reached Tromsöe
on the 25th, having with him a scientific corps, and among
the officers was Lieut. Nordquist, of the Russian Navy. At
Tromsöe he was joined by the *Lena*, Capt. Johannensen.
Proceeding on this voyage, they passed through Yugor Strait,
south of Nova Zembla, and neither there nor in the Kara Sea
were they troubled by ice, as they had reason to anticipate
they might be; but arriving in the vicinity of Taimur land,
they were delayed four days from this cause. On Aug. 19th
the extreme northern point of the continent of Asia was
reached—*Tsejekin* in the native language, on our maps North
Cape. Having attained the mouth of the Lena River on Aug.
26th, Prof. Nordenskjöld decided to remain a few days to rest;
there was then ice between the Vega (which kept within a
short distance of the main land) and the new Siberian
Islands, lying in the northeast, and in the direction of which
he sailed on recommencing his journey, but not sufficient to
impede their progress; but between Cape Cook and Van
Karem there was some little delay. Kolintsehn Bay was
crossed on the 27th of September, and the prospect looked
fair for rounding East Cape and making a safe exit
through the Straits; but with that suddenness which
has disappointed the expectations of so many Arctic trav-
elers, they found themselves the next day imprisoned in
the ice near a Tchuktchi settlement in lat. 67° 7' N. and
long. 177° 24' West. Here it became clear that no further pro-
gress was to be hoped for that season; but there was no
special reason to fear any greater disaster than delay, for all

234 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE

on board were in good health—not a single case of scurvy had occurred, owing to the care taken to prevent it by proper diet, and they were within attainable distance, by traveling over the ice, of a settlement of some four thousand inhabitants, on whom they could rely for fresh supplies of deer meat. Here the scientific corps made observations, as they had done through the whole voyage, prepared specimens, and wrote up their journals, all waiting with what patience they might for the releasing power of the next summer's sun. The name of the nearest land to where the *Vega* was frozen in is Cape Serdze Kamen. The weather was much of the time intensely cold, averaging 32° below zero, Fahrenheit. Eleven long months they had to bear the monotony of the situation. It was not until August 19 of the present year (1879) that the ice released them from its fatal grasp, when they set the *Vega*'s prow to the southwest, touched at Port Clarence in Alaska, and from thence reached Yokohama on the 2d of September.

For the outfit of this expedition the funds were mainly contributed by Dr. Oscar Dickson, a merchant of wealth and liberality in Gothenburg, and to M. Siberiakoff, a Siberian merchant whose interest in Arctic research is known in every geographical circle in Christendom. When the news came that the *Vega* had failed to get through Behring's Straits, M. Siberiakoff immediately ordered a rescue steamer to be built at Malmo, Sweden. This vessel, named the *A. E. Nordenskjöld*, and which was launched on April 23, sailed for Behring's Straits via the Suez Canal, but was unfortunately wrecked on the coast of Japan, at a place called Nemona, while the *Vega* was safely sailing toward Yokohama. Prof. Nordenskjöld had previously shown great skill and courage in the prosecution of previous Arctic voyages, having made no less than six since 1872, including one voyage to the western shore of Greenland. But interesting as it would be to follow these in detail, space forbids, and moreover, they can only indirectly be included in an account of Russian research in the Arctic.

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235

YAKOOB BEG.*

MR. BOULGER'S spirited account of the life of Yakoob Beg deserves at this moment, when the great question of Central Asian politics again occupies a prominent place in the minds of all thinking men in both hemispheres, more than ordinary attention. Among the many military adventurers who from time to time make their appearance above the turmoil and confusion of that part of the world, which is vaguely designated by the term "Central Asia," he is one of the most successful, at least in modern times. Whilst he cannot be compared for one moment with the giants whom Central Asia has produced in old times, with men like Genghis Khan or Timour, yet, without the prestige of high birth or power, or without any particular genius, he succeeded in establishing an independent rule in Central Asia, and maintained it against many strong adversaries and unfavorable circumstances for many years.

Before tracing the career of this extraordinary man, the Badaulet, or "the fortunate one," as he was called, let us first see what are the geographical and ethnographical features and the past history of the country which was the scene of his actions.

Eastern Turkestan or Kashgar, as it has been called, after the wealthiest and most flourishing town of the country, is bounded on the north by the Tian Shan mountains, on the south by the Karakoram Range, on the west by the Pamir Steppe, whilst the vast, unknown desert of Gobi presents on the east a distinct and secure line of defense against any aggressions from that quarter. The character of the country seems to offer all natural advantages to enable the inhabitants to lead a happy and prosperous existence, isolated and depending entirely on their own resources, yet its history shows one continued state of internal troubles, revolutions and warfare, so that to-day, a region which is estimated at over 250,000 square miles, contains less than a population of 1,000,000 inhabitants. Its geographical position may be said to extend from longitude E. 73° to 89° and from latitude N. 36° to 43°.

The principal city is, as has been said above, Kashgar. It

* "The Life of Yakoob Beg, Ameer of Kashgar." By Demetrius Ch. Boulger. London.

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is situated in the northwestern part of the country, on a small river known as the Kizil Su. It contains a population of about 30,000 people, and of late years an air of brisk activity and business may be observed in its bazaars and caravansaries. About five miles from the city is Yangy Shahr, with the orda or palace of the Ameer, a large gloomy barrack with several buildings within each other; the outer ones are occupied by the court officials, the inmost of all is inhabited by the family and serai of the ruler himself. Superior in population to Kashgar, yet of less importance, since Kashgar is the seat of government, is the city of Yarkand, about 120 miles to the southeast of the capital, containing about 40,000 people. Other towns of more or less importance are Yangi Hissar, Khoten, Ush Turfan, which occupies a position of considerable importance on the road followed by the Chinese caravans, and which Yakoob Beg has converted into a strong military post. Aksu is one of the old capitals of the country, and ranks as the third city of importance in the state. These six cities—Kashgar, Yangi Hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, Ush Turfan and Aksu—may be said to constitute the territory of Kashgar proper, which, indeed, at one time was called Alty Shahr, or Six Cities. Four more cities—Kucha, Korla or Kouroungli, Karashar and Turfan—should be mentioned here, but merely as having once been flourishing places and traders' stations, but now lying in desolation and ruin, having never recovered from the reign of cruel bloodshed and anarchy through which this unfortunate land has passed. The country itself presents few features of interest. The soil, though naturally fertile, is being rapidly exhausted by a system of barbarous farming. Kashgaria may be said to be a portion of Asia possessing many natural advantages, but owing to a singularly hard fortune it has been so distracted by intestine disturbances that it has sunk lower every year in the scale of civilization. The two great families of the human race, the Aryan and Turanian, have in past ages carried on a fierce strife for supremacy in these regions, and their representatives may be traced in the inhabitants of Eastern Turkistan. Until recent years the inhabitants of the country have been considered to be of pure Tartar origin, and consequently members of the Turanian family, and there can be little doubt that the original inhabitants were of that race. But the Tajik merchants, the representatives of the Aryan family,

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237

settled in the early parts of the middle ages in these regions
and became gradually Tartarized, maintaining, however,
many distinct features of their origin. The great nomadic
tribe of the Kirghiz has played an important part in the his-
tory of Eastern Turkestan. The Tungani, who are so fre-
quently mentioned in the history of the loss of Kashgar by
China, are, according to Mr. Boulger's theory, simply the
Mohammedan subjects in the eastern portion of China. These
may be considered the chief tribes in this portion of Central
Asia.

It would be impossible to give within this limited space
a detailed account of the history of Kashgar, extending over
a period of not less than two thousand years; a brief narra-
tive of the various calamities, with short and intermittent
periods of prosperity, which passed over the country, must be
sufficient for the purpose of understanding the state of affairs
at the time when Yakoob Beg founded a consolidated state on
ruins of almost mysterious antiquity.

For many years previous to the ninth century the Chinese
Empire extended to the borders of Khokand and Cash-
mere. At this period the petty rulers of Kashgar, Yarkand
and Turfan broke away from their allegiance to their imper-
rial master at Pekin, and, like the barons and counts of Italy
in the middle ages, devastated their own fair country in their
struggle for liberty and independence against the German
Emperors, these Oigur princes carried on a succession of
bloody wars against their foreign ruler. As early as 676 the
Arabs, under Abdulla Zizad, had crossed over from Persia into
Bokhara, and later another chief, Kutaiba, carried fire and
sword through Kashgar, beyond Kucha. This was the first
occasion on which the doctrines of Mohammed had been car-
ried into the Empire of China. But it was almost three cen-
turies later, before the ruling prince of Kashgar, who had
been converted to Islam, forced his people to adopt that re-
ligion. The Kara Khitay, who had migrated from the Amoor
and the north of China, founded the city of Ili, the Kuldja of
to-day, and in union with some Turkish tribes formed a pow-
erful government. Their chief was called Gorkham, the
lord of lords, and their religion was Buddhism. The cele-
brated, mysterious Prester John, or King John, who plays so
prominent a part in the myths and legends of the Middle
Ages, is said to have belonged to this tribe.

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In the middle of the thirteenth century the greatest man, the most formidable warrior, that Central Asia, or almost any country has ever produced, made his appearance on the field of action, Genghis Khan.

The Mongols began to appear as a distinct tribe about the same time that the Kara Khitay migrated to Kashgar. Genghis Khan had succeeded in 1203, when nearly forty-nine years old, in bringing all the Mongol tribes under his leadership and embarked on a series of military enterprises which, in the course of a few years placed the greater part of Asia under his dominion. At the head of an armed horde of many hundred thousands he swept down upon the astonished nations of Western Asia like a meteor from the east. The fairest regions of the world were given over to the mercies of a soldiery who had raised destruction to the level of one of the fine arts. Bokhara, Balkh, Samarcand, Khiva and the cities of the desert fell before this terrible genius like ears before the reaper. The mountain ranges of Afghanistan which to-day are considered impassable by the best armies of the world, could not stop the progress of this "Scourge of God." Cabul, Candahar had to succumb, and after having reduced innumerable rich and prosperous cities into ruin and ashes, after having devastated regions once rich in all that makes life enjoyable, Genghis Khan carried the terror of his name into the most remote recesses of the Hindoo Koosh, into regions which are unknown to us to this day, and which only have been occupied by the Macedonian and Mongol conquerors. From his headquarters on the Panjkora he sent messengers to Delhi and it is almost certain that he meditated an Indian conquest, had not a rebellion in the eastern portion of his vast dominions, distracted his attention from this project. After his death in 1227, his empire was divided among his children, and Kashgar with other territories fell to the lot of his son, Chaghtai Khan. The troubled events that characterize the epoch after the great conqueror's death cannot be investigated here. After interminable wars and revolutions, through centuries of bloodshed and anarchy, we arrive at the important event of the conquest of Kashgar by the Chinese in 1760.

In 1735 Keen-Lung, the ambitious and warlike son of Yung-Ching, succeeded to the throne of China. The conquest of Turkestan was an object dear to his heart. His own country

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was in a state of prosperous peace, his treasury filled with a
superabundance of wealth, his armies numerous and well
disciplined. Kashgar was, as usual, engaged in intestine war-
fare. The feud between the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc fac-
tions had reached its climax. One of the chiefs, Amursana,
unable to cope with the armies of his rival, Davatsi, fled into
China, to lay his grievances before the Emperor. Keen-Lung
saw the fulfilment of his hopes near at hand, and received
the fugitive prince with ostentatious friendship and favor.
In 1753 the first Chinese army, under Amursana himself,
crossed into Kashgar and defeated Davatsi. But Amursana's
career and triumph were of brief duration. In 1757 he tried
to establish himself as an independent ruler, and had broken
loose from the Chinese alliance. He was easily defeated by
the Chinese, and fled once more from his home, this time
with no certain shelter, as he had before, in Pekin. The only
place of security that seemed to be available were the Russian
possessions in Siberia. Thither he went, and was kindly and
hospitably received by the Russian authorities, but died soon
after his arrival in Tobolsk, in 1757. Such was the career of
the ill-fated prince, who was the immediate cause of the in-
troduction of Chinese power into Eastern Turkestan. Two
years later, in 1760, the Chinese were complete masters of the
whole of Kashgar. From this period until 1820, Eastern
Turkestan, or Kashgar, enjoyed an amount of happiness and
prosperity which it had never known before. Under the Chi-
nese government trade revived, native industry became once
more active; religious toleration and perfect equality of races
insured a peace and tranquillity hitherto unknown among this
unhappy people. Agriculture rose to an unprecedented
height of prosperity owing to the wonderful system of irri-
gation for which the Chinese are justly celebrated. In 1822
the Chinese rule became seriously disturbed by aggressive
movements of descendants of the old ruling families. In
1826 the City of Kashgar was taken by Jehangir, a prince of
the Khoja family. The Chinese power declined steadily, until
in 1859, the Taeping rebellion shook the very foundations of the
ancient empire, and at this period a bold and unscrupulous
adventurer made his appearance on the scene of Central
Asian affairs.

Mahommed Yakoob was born in 1820, in the flourishing
little town of Piskent, in the Khanate of Khokand, where his

240 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

father, Pur Mahommed Mirza, had held, at various periods of
his life, responsible positions under the government. His
early years were passed at the house of his parents, and it is
said that he was intended to enter a religious seminary with
a view of preparing himself for the service of the Church, but
his wayward and impulsive disposition gave distinct signs
that he was not qualified for this career, and the idea was
soon abandoned. In 1845 we find him attached to the house-
hold of Khudayar Khan, as chamberlain, and in 1847 he was
nominated a Pansad Bashi, a commander of 500. Later in
the same year he was appointed commander of an important
post on the Syr Daria River, Ak Musjid, a position which he
held with credit for six years until 1853, when Russia com-
menced her forward movement. When the Russians attacked
the fort, Yakoob Beg held it successfully for twenty-six days,
until it was taken by storm by General Perovsky. After the
conquest of Khokand by the Russians and his defeat by Gen-
eral Tchernaief before Tashkent, Yakoob Beg entered Kash-
gar in 1866 to wipe out, in other regions and against other
foes, the stain that had blotted his fame in his encounters
with the Russians. Up to this point Yakoob Beg had given
little promise of future distinction. He had earned the repu-
tation of a gallant soldier and a shrewd intriguer. But no
one would have dared to foretell that he possessed the ability
of conquering, against superior forces, a powerful state and
erecting on the ruins that fell into his hands an independent
and strong government. When he embarked in his enter-
prise of conquering Kashgar he was no longer the fiery, way-
ward youth, but a man of ripe years, who covered the burning
ambition of his soul with the cloak of religious zeal and dip-
lomatic apathy. He entered upon his enterprise without
wealth, without family connections. He was a most fanatical
Mussulman, and as such hating the Russians, whom he con-
sidered the great enemy to Islam, with all the fierce hatred
of his passionate soul. His personal appearance is described
by one who knew him well at this time of his life, as being a
man of short build, with an intelligent and handsome face.
His features, schooled to immobility by a long career of court
intrigue, appeared to the casual observer dull and uninterest-
ing. When, however, the conversation turned upon subjects
that specially interested him, he threw aside his mask, and
his views, with whatever merit in themselves, became almost

342 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Then the benediction.

(b) Prayers at the ablution after the Chrism.

On the eighth day the candidate is brought again into
the church, in order that he may be washed off. The Priest
looses his (her) clothes and girdle, and says the following
prayer:

THE FIRST PRAYER.

PRIEST: Let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST: O Thou, who, by holy baptism, hast given the remission of sins to Thy servant (handmaid), and granted him (her) the regeneration of life; let now, O Lord and Master, the light of Thy countenance shine forever in his (her) heart; preserve his (her) shield of faith unsurprised by enemies; guard his (her) robe of incorruption which he (she) hath put on, pure and spotless upon him (her); keep by Thy grace the spiritual seal on him (her) uninjured, and continue graciously inclined toward him (her) and us, according to the multitude of Thy great mercies; for highly-praised and blessed is Thine adorable and exalted name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

THE SECOND PRAYER.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST: O Lord and Master, our God, who by the laver of
baptism bestowest heavenly illumination on the baptized,
hast regenerated Thy newly-enlightened servant (handmaid)
by water and the spirit, and hast given him (her) the forgiv-
ness of voluntary and involuntary sins, lay upon him (her)
Thy powerful hands and preserve him (her) in the might of
Thy goodness; keep his (her) pledge, so that it shall not be
taken away, and make him (her) worthy of eternal life and
Thy good pleasure; for Thou art our sanctification, and to Thee,
the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up
praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to thy spirit.

PRIEST: Bow your heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

ADMINISTERING OF THE HOLY CHRISM. 343

THE THIRD PRAYER.

PRIEST: Preserve him (her) who hath put on Thee, O Christ, our God, and who hath bowed with us also his head before Thee, that he (she) may be an invincible warrior against those who, with vain enmity, assail him (her) and us; and grant that we may all be victorious to the end and receive Thine incorruptible crown; for to Thee belong mercy and salvation, and to Thee, together with Thine eternal Father, and Thine all holy, good and life-giving Spirit, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then the Priest loosens the girdle of the candidate and his linen clothes, washes him with clean water, and says: Thou art justified, enlightened, sanctified, washed in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, and with the Spirit of our Lord.

After this he takes a sponge dipped in water, washes off the face, head, breast, &c., of the candidate, and says: Thou art baptized, enlightened, anointed, sanctified, washed in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

(c) Prayers at the cutting of the hair.

THE FIRST PRAYER.

CHOIR: Lord have mercy.

PRIEST: O Lord and Master, our God, who hast honored man with Thine image, and endowed him with a reasonable soul and a beautiful body, so that the body should be subject to the rational soul, for Thou hast placed over all his head, and planted within the same a number of senses; not interfering with one another, and covered the head with hair that it should not be injured by the changes of the atmosphere; and hast fitly joined together all his members, so that he should show himself thankful through all of them to Thee, the most excellent artificer; do Thou, O Master, who, by the vessel of Thine election, Paul the Apostle, hast bidden us do all things whatsoever we do to Thine honor; bless this servant (handmaid), N. N., who has come to offer to Thee his first fruits, the hair of his (her) head, together with his sponsors, and may they learn Thy commandments and do what is well-pleasing unto Thee, for Thou art a merciful and gracious

344 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

God; and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost,
we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of
ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to thy spirit.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

## THE SECOND PRAYER.

PRIEST: O Lord, our God, Who, through the fullness of
the laver of baptism, according to Thy grace, hast sanctified
those who believe in Thee, bless the infant present, and let
Thy blessing come upon its head; even as Thou didst bless
king David by Thy prophet Samuel, so bless also the head of
Thy servant (handmaid) N. by my hand, although I am a sinner, since Thou wilt be present with him (her) by Thy Holy Spirit, so that he (she), as he advances in age, even until gray hairs, may offer up praise and glory to Thee, and see the prosperity of Jerusalem all the days of his (her) life, for to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, are due all the glory, honor and worship, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

*After this the Priest cuts the hair of the candidate in the form of a cross, and says:* The hair of the servant (hand-maid) of God, N., is cut in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.

CHOIR: Amen.

*Then follows the Ektene:*

Have mercy upon us, O God, according to Thy great
mercy; we pray Thee, hear and have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (*Thrice so after each sentence of the Ektene.*)

PRIEST: Again, we pray for grace, life, peace, health, and
salvation of the servant of God, N., sponsor, and the newly-
enlightened N.

PRIEST: For Thou art a merciful and gracious God, and to
Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer
up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

*Then the benediction.*

ADMINISTERING OF THE HOLY CHRISM. 345

(d) *Order of private baptism in case of necessity.*

*The Priest begins:* Blessed be the kingdom of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

*After this the Trisagion:* O Holy God, etc.

*After Our Father the Priest says the following prayer:*

PRIEST: Les us pray to the Lord.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: Lord, God Almighty, Creator of all the visible and invisible universe, Who hast formed the heavens and the earth, the sea and all that therein is, and hast gathered together the waters into one, and shut up the abyss, and sealed it with Thy glorious and terrible name, and hath spread out the waters above the firmament; Who hast founded the earth upon the waters, hath made the sea fast by Thy power, and hast crushed the heads of the serpents in the waters; Thou art terrible, and who can withstand Thee? Look down, O Lord, upon this Thy creature, and upon this water, and give it the gracious gift of the redemption, the blessing of Jordan: make it the fount of incorruption, for the gift of salvation. the remission of sins, the healing of infirmities, the destruction of evil spirits, unapproachable by hostile forces, filled with angelic power, so that the plotters against Thy creation may flee away from it; for I have invoked Thy name, O Lord, wonderful, highly exalted, and so terrible to the adversaries.

*Then the Priest pours oil into the water and baptizes the child, while he says:* The servant (handmaid) of God, N. N., is baptized in the name of the Father, Amen; and of the Son. Amen; and of the Holy Ghost, Amen; now and ever, and to ages of ages, Amen.

*After this he clothes the candidate and anoints him with the holy Chrism, and says:* Sealing of the gift of the Holy Ghost. Amen.

*Then he goes with him three times around the font, according to the custom, and sings:* As many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ; hallelujah.

*Finally, after this, the benediction.*

346

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

MACARIUS, METROPOLITAN OF MOSCOW.

THIS Prelate, one of the most distinguished and talented representatives of the Russian clergy, both as to his personal character and to the literary and scientific services he has rendered to the Russian Orthodox Church, was born the 19th of September, 1816, in a village of the Province and Diocese of Kursk, and was baptized by the name of Michael. His father, being but a poor parish priest, Peter Bulgakoff by name, was unable to surround his son with all the care the delicate state of the latter's health required. Thus Michael's infancy passed in constant illness, and his intellect developed slowly.

After a few years, however, the child grew stronger, and made such rapid progress in his studies that he soon outstripped all his fellow-pupils in the Seminary at Kursk. The brilliant manner in which he passed his examinations attracted the attention of His Eminence, the Archbishop of Kursk, Heliodorus, who questioned him about his family, and learning the straightened circumstances in which they lived, took the boy under his special protection.

At the Seminary of Kursk the unusual faculties of Michael Bulgakoff attracted the notice of all his teachers. In 1837 he terminated the course of studies at the Seminary and entered the Ecclesiastical Academy at Kieff. There he studied, besides the regular course, the Hebrew, French, German and Latin languages. At the same time he gave special attention to theology and rhetorics. In both of these branches he soon surpassed all his fellow-students.

In 1841, Michael Bulgakoff entered upon a religious life, and accepted the name of Macarius. The same year he was raised to the dignity of deacon and priest, left the Academy with the title of "Master of Church History," and a few months later was appointed Director of the Ecclesiastical College, at Kieff.

The scientific talents of Father Macarius did not fail to attract the notice of the highest church authorities. In 1842 he was appointed Assistant Inspector to the Ecclesiastical Academy of St. Petersburg. In 1843 he was appointed Pro-

MACARIUS, METROPOLITAN OF MOSCOW. 347

fessor of Theology, and the same year published his first important work, bearing the title, "History of the Ecclesiastical Academy at Kieff," in which he showed the profound and salutary influence which this school of theology had exercised over the whole of Russia.

In 1844 Father Macarius was consecrated Archimandrite and appointed a member of the censure committee for theological books. In 1846 he published his "History of Christianity in Russia," bringing it down to the reign of St. Vladimir, the great apostle of the Christian faith in Russia. This work conferred on him the title of Member of the Imperial Historical and Archaelogical Society of Moscow. The next year he published two books, "An Essay on the History of the Russian Church to the Tartar Invasion," and "An Introduction to Orthodox Theology."

The latter work is considered to be one of the best that Macarius has published, and is ranked highly among theological works in general. It brought to its author the title of "Doctor in Theology," and an honorary gift from the Emperor, consisting of a gold cross, ornamented with precious stones. In 1851 Father Macarius was consecrated Bishop-vicar of the Diocese of Podolia. In 1852 he published his great work, "Dogmatic Theology of the Orthodox Church." This treatise is of great scientific and theological value, and all questions are discussed therein with sound common sense and moderation, and in a truly Christian spirit, which might serve as an example to many an over-zealous theological disputant. In 1857 there appeared, by the same author, the history of the Russian sect, known under the name of "Old Believers," and in that year, also, he began the publication of his greatest work, to the accomplishment of which the study of his life has been devoted: "The History of the Russian Church," the ninth volume of which has just appeared.

Macarius's latest publication is entitled "Introduction to the Study of Dogmatic Theology." Besides, a voluminous collection of his speeches and sermons has been published.

From the very outset of his literary career Macarius had resolved to devote all the money derived from his works to the progress of science. In 1867 he was in possession of a capital of 120,000 roubles, the interest of which is given in premiums for the best writings in the Russian language. These premiums are distributed yearly, alternately by the

348 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Holy Synod for theological works, and by the Academy of Sciences for general scientific writings.

On the occasion of the Jubilee of the Academy of Kieff, Macarius presented a fund of 25,000 roubles to this institution, from the interest of which a yearly premium for the best work on ecclesiastical matters is granted. He founded, besides, an annual premium of 1,000 roubles for the best work on instruction and education, and two premiums of 2,000 roubles each, one in favor of the poor students of the Academy of St. Petersburg, and one as a stipend for the poorest scholar of the Seminary at Vilna.

Before being appointed to the metropoliton seat of Moscow Macarius occupied successively those of Kharkoff and Vilna. He is one of those men of whom his country and his church are justly proud. He is not only a great theologian, scientist, and orator, but also an eminent prelate. He is, moreover, in his personal intercourse, a man of brilliant wit and of winning and refined manners. All who have the honor of being personally acquainted with him admire and love him.

[The foregoing sketch we have translated from "L'Union Chrétienne," edited by Dr. Wladimir Guettée. We had the honor to make the acquaintance of His Eminence, the Metropolitan, during our visit to Russia in 1870, and very greatly admired his profound scholarship and the lasting services that he had then rendered to scientific and Christian literature. His unselfish devotion to these interests during a long lifetime, and the consecration of his wealth and talents to the promotion of the Russian Orthodox Church and literature are deserving of all the honor which the Church has placed upon him.—ED.]

## LITERARY NOTES.

ANNUAIRE DES FINANCES RUSSES. *Pir A. Vessélovsky*. VIII. Année. 8vo.; vii. x 524 p. St. Pétersbourg, 1879.

This most interesting work forms the eighth volume in the series of publications concerning the financial and economic condition of the Russian Empire, edited by the Russian Ministry of Finance.

As the limited space of the ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE does not allow us to notice more fully the contents of this publication, which for every student of Russian contemporary history is of great value, we must necessarily confine ourselves to the reproduction of a few specimens of the rich statistical material inclosed therein, choosing the statistics of immigration as being apt especially to interest American readers.

LITERARY NOTES.

349

For the period of twenty years, from 1857 to 1877, the lists of foreign immigration show the following figures:

<table><tbody><tr><td>Germans</td><td>557,395</td></tr><tr><td>Austrians</td><td>266,191</td></tr><tr><td>Turks</td><td>38,221</td></tr><tr><td>Roumanians</td><td>30,163</td></tr><tr><td>Frenchmen</td><td>12,034</td></tr><tr><td>Englishmen</td><td>11,608</td></tr><tr><td>Greeks</td><td>10,428</td></tr><tr><td>Italians</td><td>4,019</td></tr><tr><td>Swiss</td><td>3,019</td></tr><tr><td>Belgians</td><td>1,302</td></tr><tr><td>Americans</td><td>1,205</td></tr><tr><td>Hollanders</td><td>695</td></tr><tr><td>Danes</td><td>480</td></tr><tr><td>Swedes and Norwegians</td><td>287</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>936,549</td></tr></tbody></table>

As, however, during the lapse of these same twenty years, 453,287 Russians have emigrated, the total increase of population by immigration amounted to 483,262.

Interesting also are the figures illustrating the number of Russian travellers who leave their country temporarily every year.

For the year 1857, 32,043 Russian travellers passed the frontier, to 347,297 in the year 1876. This increase, however, was not equally distributed during the intervening years. Thus, from 1860, when the number of travellers was 275,582, the total fell suddenly to 87,125 in 1861, the emancipation year, and continued falling steadily till 1864, when but 46,832 travellers were registered. These figures correspond exactly with the "hard times" which had set in for the higher classes of Russian society in consequence of the great economical revolution produced by the liberation of the serfs and the forced redemption of the peasant lands.

The other chapters of this publication affording special interest to the political economist are: A report of the Mint of St. Petersburg from 1800 to 1878, and a full review of the most important acts relating to financial legislation and bearing on the liquor taxes, fire assurance companies, railroads, cotton fabrication, etc.

350 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

LATIN DICTIONARY. Founded on the Translation of Freund's Latin German Lexicon. Edited by E. A. Andrews, LL. D. Revised, enlarged, and in great part re-written by Charlton T. Lewis, Ph. D., and Charles Short, LL. D., Professor of Latin in Columbia College, New York. 4to.; pp. xiv. and 2,019. New York and Oxford.

This dictionary, in its purpose, and to a large extent in its execution, is one of the most important of recent publications. The original work of Dr. Freund, in four volumes, royal octavo, appeared in 1834-45, and was translated in this country in 1850, the first three letters by Dr. R. D. C. Robbins, the rest by Mr. W. W. Turner, under the general supervision of Dr. Andrews, and it was called, for convenience' sake, Andrews's Dictionary. The American work, in this form, was so much esteemed in England that it was twice re-produced there by Dr. William Smith, with very slight changes, and again by Dr. John T. White and the Rev. J. E. Riddle, with many corrections and with very extensive and valuable additions. This second American edition is enlarged by the addition of 368 pages. This addition consists of new articles, of enlargements of the old ones, and the development of Dr. Freund's citations. Very rich and important material had accumulated since the appearance of the first edition for the use of the new editors. Klotz's Latin-German Dictionary, an extensive and valuable work, was finished in 1858; the great Paduan Forcellini, edited anew by Dr. Corradini, has reached the letter P, and Merguet's Lexicon to Cicero's Orations and Greef's Lexicon to Tacitus have gone to the letter E. For the important and interesting matter of etymology, Curtius's work on the Greek, and Vanicek's on the Greek and Latin, furnished the best material, needing only to be developed and digested for the present edition. All these great works, and many minor ones, have been used according to the diligence and skill of the editors, Professor Short being responsible for the first 216 pages, and Mr. Lewis for the remainder, Dr. Gustavus Fischer, of the University of Bonn, furnishing Mr. Lewis with several important articles written with a fulness and exactness that rivals the best articles in Klotz's Dictionary.

The book is brought out with the highest skill, and having been seen in specimens while in course of publication, was adopted by the Clarendon Press at Oxford, and there seems to be a kindly feeling towards the work in England.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

From the large number of notices which THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE has received from both the secular and religious press, we select the following:

This latest number is even more instructive than the two which have preceded it. * * * All the matter is eminently readable, and nearly all of it is calculated to make us more intimately acquainted with Russia and her National Church. * * * If future issues be conducted on the same plan, the MAGAZINE will become a valuable means of making the people of Russia and the United States better known to each other, and thus cementing more strongly the peace and good-will which has always existed between the two nations.—*Evening Mail*.

The current number of THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE is of more general interest than any of its predecessors.—*New York Herald*.

The contents of this (No. 3) number are varied and attractive. * * * One of the most interesting things in this number of the MAGAZINE is the text of the very elaborate baptismal service of the Orthodox Oriental Church, and it will furnish instruction, not only to clerical and lay believers in Christian theology, but to inquirers and skeptics.—*New York Sun*.

The article on Yakoob Beg is one of the most interesting articles in this (No. 3) number.—*New York Evening Post*.

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE for October contains a number of articles of particular interest.—*New York Home Journal*.

No. 3 of THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE is an excellent number of a periodical which is judiciously conducted and accomplishes well its purpose of extending a knowledge and interest of Russia in this country.—*New York Evening Express*.

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE has a constituency here sufficient to place it upon a good foundation.—*New York Observer*.

Among the contents of THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE for October we select for mention the first article, a spirited account of Russia's great poet, Alexander Pushkin; the article on the influence of Hellenism, by Mr. Botassi, the Greek Consul-General in this city; and the review of Russia's contributions to Arctic research by E. Vale Blake, the well-known editor of Capt. Tyson's Arctic Experiences.—*The Nation* (N. Y.)

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE is an attractive and valuable publication, containing a great deal that is especially instructive and interesting to Churchmen. It is hoped that it will attain a still wider circulation, and receive the liberal support which it deserves.—*The Churchman* (N. Y.)

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE has a unique position among our quarterly. * * * The editor is doing a most creditable work in making the Oriental Church so favorably known in this country. * * * The showing he makes for his Church and for Russia is a very favorable one.—*The Independent* (N. Y.)

*All correspondence in reference to the Editorial Department must be addressed to Rev. Nicholas Bjerring, No. 951 Second Avenue, New York City.*

*Subscription and all other business correspondence must be addressed to The American News Company, Publisher's Agents, 39 and 41 Chambers Street, New York City.*

*Mr. H. Schmitzdorff (K. Röttger), Bookseller to the Emperor, Newski-Prospect, No. 5 St. Petersburg, is the sole agent for Russia.*

2

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

And the words break from his lips:
"I am the builder of ships,
And my ships shall sail these seas
To the Pillars of Hercules!
I say it, the White Czar,
Batyushka! Gosudar!

"The Bosphorus shall be free;
It shall make room for me;
And the gates of its water streets
Be unbarred before my fleets.
I say it, the White Czar,
Batyushka! Gosudar!

"And the Christian shall no more
Be crushed, as heretofore,
Beneath thine iron rule,
O Sultan of Istamboul!
I swear it! I, the Czar,
Batyushka! Gosudar!"

ALEXANDER II. AND HIS FOES.

AN interesting and impressive ceremony took place on 19 February, O. S. (2 March, N. S.), in the Russian Chapel, in New York. It was the celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the accession to the throne of His Majesty the Emperor Alexander Nicolaivitch. The divine service, according to the ritual of the Orthodox Oriental Church, was of a solemn character, and was attended by His Excellency Mr. N. de Shishkin, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Washington, and Madame Shishkin; by Mr. P. de Kartchevsky, Consul-General of Russia in New York, and Madame Kartchevsky; by Hon. E. W. Stoughton, Ex-Minister to Russia, and Madame Stoughton, as well as by many prominent American ladies and gentlemen.

Since the death of the founder of Russia's greatness, Peter the Great, in 1725, only one ruler of the empire, Nicholas I, who reigned for nearly thirty years, has enjoyed so long possession of the throne as the present Emperor, whose government of twenty-five years has been remarkable for internal reforms of the most liberal, humane and beneficent character. Among these the emancipation of twenty-five millions of serfs, who owe their freedom to his great heart,

ALEXANDER II. AND HIS FOES.

3

deserves, of course, to be mentioned in the first place; re-
organization of almost every department of the government,
commercial treaties with friendly powers, admission of for-
eigners to merchants' guilds, a complete reform of the postal
service on the most liberal basis, inauguration of trial by
jury, extension of privileges to the Jews, introduction of the
electric telegraph, extension of railways and other means of
communication in every part of the empire, scientific expedi-
tions on a truly magnificent scale from the Arctic regions to
South Australia—these are some of the events that charac-
terize the reign of this Emperor. His policy in his relations
with European powers has been equally wise and moderate,
though not forgetful for one moment of the honor and pres-
tige of Russia. All true friends of peace and progress, must
therefore desire to see his life prolonged for many years, for
the benefit of the vast empire which he has inherited from
his ancestors.

With wonderful good fortune, and as if a special provi-
dence were watching over him, the Emperor has escaped
every one of the cowardly attempts that have been made
upon his life. Five times, since Karakozoff fired his dastardly
shot in April, 1866, has the Emperor's life been at the mercy
of the assassin, but he has escaped unhurt in an almost
miraculous manner.

Who are the men that attempt the life of this noble-hearted
monarch, who are these blind fanatics that imagine, that in
killing the man, they can destroy a principle and a govern-
ment? Every one of these murderous attempts has been
traced to political conspirators, to that class of dangerous
madmen known as Nihilists. The incredible boldness with
which these men have of late come forward with their doc-
trines—which would simply be laughably absurd if they did
not try to carry them out no matter by what means—murder
or fire; no matter by what violation of every principle of vir-
tue, honor and religion—has drawn upon them the attention
of public and private men of almost every civilized country.
Who are they? What is their history, what are their doc-
trines?

The first principle of Nihilism is the destruction of all ex-
isting institutions. The ideas of that facetious revolutionist
of 1848—who proposed a new law, which began in this man-
ner: Article I. "*In 'ya plus rien'*”—have been taken in earn-

4

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

est by the Russian Nihilist. To overthrow, to destroy, is his ideal. In his opinion, human liberty should be without any limit or restraint. Even in those countries where political freedom exists in most extensive form—in England, Belgium, Switzerland and the United States—the Nihilist sees nothing but fetters and slavery. Religion, family, public opinion, compel the individual to restrain his desires, to regulate his actions according to the welfare and interest of his fellow-citizens. None of these institutions must be preserved; man must be freed from every foreign influence; he must be allowed to follow only his own individual impulse. Nihilism is inspired by the most outrageous, most senseless egotism. The Nihilist only recognizes men as individuals; humanity as a body does not exist for him. He despises or ignores the general and permanent interests of our race, which have constructed the State, the Government, by the side and above the individual. All social and political institutions which tend to establish and develop these highest interests, are doomed to destruction. Government, law, family, religion, are held in horror and contempt. Anarchy, in the most hideous meaning of the word, is these men's only aim. They are not afraid nor ashamed publicly to announce their faith. At a recent meeting in Geneva, one of the sect opened his speech with these words: "Nothing is worth possessing in the existing state of our social institutions, for the sole reason that they were left to us by our ancestors. Therefore we, Nihilists, we say: no laws, no religion, no marriage, no family—*nihil*—nothing."

Bakunin, in 1868, at the Congress of Nihilists in Geneva, shaped the dogmas of the new faith in these words: "We recognize no other law but that of our happiness. To make these laws prevail, to establish such relations as ought to exist between the majority and minority of the human race, it is first of all necessary to destroy everything existing in the shape of government or social organization."

The same doctrines have been uttered since hundreds of times in different forms, and it is natural that the most atrocious crimes against all existing laws are looked upon by these madmen as perfectly legitimate—as matters of course.

So much for the political faith of this sect. Who wishes to learn something of their ideas of social relations should read their literature. There is a novel called "What is to be

ALEXANDER II. AND HIS FOES.

5

done," by a certain Tchernishevsky, one of their rank. If it
were not known that the book is written in full earnest,
one would feel inclined to take it for the most outrageous,
uncouth satire that has ever been written. Every offense
against morals, religion and law, which is punishable by the
criminal code of civilized nations, is committed by the *dra-
matis personae* as perfectly natural and legitimate: the lan-
guage of the heroes and heroines is that of the vilest slums of
large cities. M. Zola's "Assommoir" is a nursery story com-
pared to this disgusting parasite of literature. Solovieff, one
of the would-be assassins of the Emperor, and Vera Sassu-
litch, who shot General Trepoff, are, in their private lives,
fair types of the characters in Tchernishevsky's novel.

These are the heroes that intend to reform Russia by mur-
der and fire. These are the blind madmen that attempt the
life of a high-hearted monarch, who during his reign has done
more for his country by wholsome gradual reforms than any
other ruler. What would they gain by the Emperor's death?
Would they destroy the government with his life? Do they
expect a realization of their mad-house schemes from his suc-
cessor? They would have to kill him too, and so on *usque
ad infinitum*. But the common sense, the loyalty of the best
part of the Russian people, will not permit this plague to
spread further. They will rally around their sovereign, to
whom they owe so much.

Has good ever come from evil? Among barbarous nations,
without any systematic form of government, the death of an
individual has sometimes changed the destinies of a country,
but those are rare exceptions. In almost every case political
murders have not realized the intentions of the assassin.
The murders of Julius Caesar wanted to save the Roman
republic, and only seventeen years after the fatal Ides
of March, Octavius was crowned Emperor, and the name of
the murdered hero became the most honorable title for the
rulers of the civilized world, and has descended to our days,
where it still exists in the word "Kaiser."

Religious fanaticism has often used desperate measures to
remove antagonists. Henry III and Henry IV, of France,
and William of Orange, lost their lives by the hands of fanat-
ics. Did any benefit come from these murders? Of what
advantage was the blood of the martyred Archbishops of
Paris, Affre and Darboy to the cause of religious liberty,

6

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

whose name was prostituted by the Communists for the purpose of committing the most cold-blooded murders? Twice within three weeks the life of the Emperor of Germany was at the mercy of the assassins; Louis Philippe, of France, escaped ten different attempts during his reign of eighteen years; Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. were more than once exposed to death by violence. What possible changes for the better could have come from these deeds of bloodshed? When the first Napoleon's time had come, when Europe grew tired of his wars and France became weary of his victories, he was defeated by the combined armies of those who preferred peace to war, national prosperity to military glory. Had the infernal machine that was set against him in 1800 done its work, France would most likely have been plunged back into revolution, the end of which no one could have foreseen. The death of Louis Philipe before the revolution of 1848 would in all probability have been followed by the succession of his son, the Duke of Orleans, who was during his life the most popular man in France, and perhaps the house of Orleans might rule in France to this day, which certainly was not the object of the fanatics who attempted the King's life on ten different occasions.

One of the most hideous political crimes that stains the pages of history is the murder of President Lincoln, who, with a firmness, intelligence, wisdom and moderation that have won the admiration of the world, led his country through the darkest, stormiest days that ever threatened the very existence of a young nation. In this case the assassin succeeded in his heinous attempt. The noblest and best of his generation fell a victim to a well-aimed shot of a crazy actor, but the large-hearted policy of wisdom and moderation which he inaugurated, Wilkes Booth could not destroy.

The system of bloodshed and violence by which the Russian Nihilists intend to reform and change the existing government will fall to pieces as soon as every honest man becomes acquainted with their real aims, and all who cherish true liberty will combine to fight against them as against a band of deadly foes to society.

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7

THE WOMAN QUESTION IN RUSSIA DURING THE
AGE OF PETER THE GREAT.

BY A. BRUCKNER.

THE government of Peter the Great was an epoch of emancipation and metamorphosis. It was his aim to deliver Russia from her Asiatic lethargy. Until the epoch of this great reformer, Russia was an oriental country, it had no place among European States, it stood outside of the system of civilized governments, it was, in the eyes of Western Europe, a foreign, heterogeneous body.

It is to Peter that Russia owes her admission into the family of historical countries, into the living current of European civilization. He overcame the effects of centuries of stagnation, the consequence of Byzantine-Tartar influence, to which Russia had been exposed: that is the greatest deed in the life of this great man.

One of the most vital, most important features in this reform movement, is the position of women, which experienced a radical change at this period.

There is a marked contrast in the position of women preceding his reign, when they were of no more importance than their sisters in Persia and Turkey, and that following his death, when for many years women ruled over the vast empire. The distance between the Russian woman of the seventeenth century, who was nothing better than her husband's slave, and the imposing position, the brilliant majesty, the unlimited power of Catharine II., is incalculable. That only a few years after the system of oriental exclusion of women from all education or share in public affairs, the epoch of gynecocracy, of woman's supreme influence and power, was possible, is one of the most remarkable features of the age of reform which Peter inaugurated.

There is an important incident relating to the childhood of the great Czar, which seems to be prophetic almost of the future policy of the creator of Russia's greatness. His father, the Czar Alexei Michaelovich, received one day a foreign diplomatist in his summer palace of Kolomenskoje. The mother of Peter, the Czarina Natalia Kyrillovna, curious like the humblest of her sex, was listening behind a door and

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peeping inquisitively through a crack in the panel. Her boy Peter, only three years old, was by her side; suddenly the impatient child pushed the door open, and the empress became visible. There is a symbolic meaning attached to this anecdote: Peter opened the gynecium, to let in light and air; he delivered women from their prison, and led them to take part in the affairs of men.

Look at the portraits of Russian rulers, male and female, of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Peter's predecessors, his father, his brother, look like Persian Shahs or Central-Asiatic Khans. Peter appears on the famous picture by Gottfried Kneller, painted in London in 1698, in steel armor and ermine cloak. Also, the women assume the dress of Western Europe, and approach nearer and nearer, in costume and manners, in language, taste and education, the superior civilization of the West. The fur-trimmed long robes and round caps of Tartar origin, of the first rulers of the house of Romanoff, and the Paris fashions of the 'zarinas of the eighteenth century, are two different worlds, separated by an abyss—the bridge that connects them is the age of Peter the Great.

If we cast a glance at the principal moments in the history of Russian women, we find during the heathen times the same confused and barbarous conditions which prevail among all non-Christian nations. With the introduction of Christianity, more civilized ideas of marriage and family were rapidly developed. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, women occupy, relatively speaking, an honorable position. The memory of the patriarchal reign of Olga (945-957) lived as a glorious recollection for centuries after her death. At the first rude commencements of legislation, women are protected by particularly kindly laws in their favor; both the civil and the criminal code of those early days give ample evidence of a humane tendency with regard to women's rights. Popular traditions and legends of those days represent woman, as wife and mother, as sister, as sweetheart, in an ideal light. An interesting feature is the international relationship between the Russian Grand Dukes in the twelfth century and foreign royal families. The Grand Duke Vladimir was the son of a Greek princess; his first wife was a daughter of King Harold, who fell at Hastings; his son married a Swedish princess; one of his daughters the King of Poland; another the King of Hun-

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9

gary. These cosmopolitan relations cease with the Tartar conquest. Russia became the province of an Asiatic Khanate, the Grand Duke, the vassal of an Asiatic despot. The empire was cut off from Western civilization, subject to the barbarous Asiatic influence. It was a blessing that the Church and religious life remained untouched; this prevented the introduction of polygamy. But Russia could not entirely escape from the barbarous influence of the Tartar conquerer, and it can be easily understood that the position of women deteriorated in consequence. The political and social subjection to the Asiatic yoke, and the religious and moral subordination to Byzantine traditions exercised in this, as in many other instances, a fatal influence.

The monastic system which, in many instances modified, even more than religious doctrines, the character of all classes of Russian society, and set its mark upon millions of its followers, can be traced to Byzantine origin. An ascetic view of life cannot be favorable to the position of women. It demands their seclusion, because they expose man to temptations and dangers. The idea of sin stood so prominently in the foreground, that the thought of a pure and legitimate enjoyment of life could not prevail. The main object of these ascetics was not so much to sustain the good as to fight against the evil. The principle of such a view of life is a pessimism of the worst kind, a presumption of wickedness, distrust. In order to escape the snares of the devil, every temptation must be avoided. All social intercourse between men and women became a sin. It was a transgression even to look at a woman; and thus it happened that women were rigidly excluded from all pleasures of social life, from all political influence, from all education, so far as it existed.

The effect of these baleful Byzantine dogmas found a lasting impression in the famous *Domostroi*, (Family Treasury), a kind of lay breviary and manual, which was published in the sixteenth century. The greater portion of this remarkable book is devoted to domestic life and family relations, and throws a gloomy light upon the position of women in those times. All power is concentrated in the master of the household. He is an absolute autocrat, his despotic powers are unlimited; he alone is responsible for the temporal and spiritual welfare of the family and the domestics. Man and wife are commanded to live

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in peace, but it is the husband's duty to punish the wife if she neglect her household functions, if she be guilty of a misdemeanor or even a mistake. There are cases where not only the children, but also the wife, ought to be chastised with the whip. This, however, should be done without witnesses and without anger. The husband is advised not to strike his wife in the face with his fist, nor in the pit of the heart, nor should iron or wooden instruments be used, because all kinds of diseases might arise from it, such as blindness, deafness, spraining of hands and feet, headache and toothache, etc. "But," continues this excellent family adviser, "chastisement with the whip is reasonable and painful, terrible and wholesome. Is the woman guilty of a grave fault, the whipping should be doubled; her hands should be tied and she should receive a sound thrashing. But it should be done without anger. If the woman shows no repentance, the punishment should be repeated."

Woman's sphere of action at this dark period was entirely confined to her domestic duties; she was not allowed to converse on any other subject; she had personally to superintend every household work, even those of the lowest kind.

No wonder that there was no time for intellectual enjoyment. Life was wasted away by a continuous series of manual labor. The management of the household was the only object of her life; all her time, all her faculties, only served as means for the attainment of material comfort and the preservation of her husband's property. Art and science, literature and the education of children, found no room in the wife's existence. Dull and joyless, monotonous and without intellectual enjoyment, her life passed away. Of her duties as mother, of the education and intellectual development of her offspring, the *Domostroi* does not say a word. To play with a child, to indulge even in the most harmless joke, is a sin, is frivolous, is a provocation of God's anger, is a snare of the devil to corrupt the Christian's soul. In their relations towards the master of the house, wife and children were perfectly helpless. Womanly dignity, intellectual pastime, children's love, mutual confidence, are not considered in the *Domostroi*. The Western European, particularly the Germanic, ideal of domestic happiness was unknown. Such was the inheritance which Russia received from Byzanz and from her Tartar conquerors.

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11

That these ascetic principles with regard to the social in-
tercourse with women and children took a deep and lasting
root in the hearts of the people, is proved by writings of even
later times. Two centuries after the appearance of the
Domostroi, Ivan Possochkoff recommended in the education
of children the rigor of monastic discipline. Boys and girls
should never be allowed to play together. If the boy ap-
proached his sister, to joke or play with her, "his ribs should
be broken," to keep pure his body and soul. Whoever looked
at a woman in church destroyed the efficacy of his prayers.

Proverbs and popular stories of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries express these views in their naive diction.
"The hair of women is long, but their wit is short," says a
proverb; "the wit of a woman is like a house without a
roof," says another. Womanly beauty was represented as a
gift of the devil, from which one should try to save one's self,
as Noah escaped from the flood, or Lot fled from Sodom and
Gomorrah. Of womanly virtue and kindness not a word is
said. Because Eve induced the first man to eat the forbidden
fruit, the whole sex was considered the origin of all evil. Only
harshness and severe discipline can restrain their vicious in-
clination. "As a horse is governed by the bridle, a woman
must be ruled by threats," is to this day a common proverb
among the Russian peasantry. Woman's hypocrisy and de-
ceitfulness, her insidious flattery, her cunning and avarice,
form the subject of many a folks-tale, where she is compared
to she-wolves, to scorpions and serpents, to basilisks and
toads.

That a humiliating and servile position of women should be
the natural consequence of such views can be no matter of as-
tonishment. It was remarked by all travelers. "Woman's
lot in Russia is miserable and pitiable in the extreme," writes
old Herberstein, who was sent as ambassador by the Emperor
Maximilian to the Grand Duke Vasilei Ivanovich, in 1517;
"those who are not entirely imprisoned are despised and ill-
used." The higher her rank the more rigid the monastic se-
clusion which she had to endure. The wife of the Czar and
the female members of his family suffered in this respect
more than ordinary women. They were not allowed to leave
the palace except in closed coaches, the windows of which
were hung with thick curtains. Their rooms were in that
part of the building which was most distant from the public

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street. Only one trusted official had the keys to these rooms. Baron Meyerberg says, that among a thousand persons attached to the Czar's household, there was, perhaps, not one who could boast of having seen the Czarina, or his sisters and daughters. If one of these women became sick, the attending physician saw them only through a veil, and felt their pulse through a fine linen cloth.

Attempts of marrying Russian princesses with foreign princes are of rare occurrence. Czar Michael intended to marry his daughter to a son of Christian IV., of Denmark, but this project came to nothing, and Waldemar of Denmark returned home without his bride, as he refused to assume the faith of the Oriental Church. That this total seclusion was little calculated to form the character, to develop the intellect, of these poor women is perfectly natural. A moral and physical lethargy and indifference were the obvious consequences of this life. The chief pleasure of the imperial princesses was to sit in their rooms, listen to fairy tales by their maids, surround themselves with female dwarfs and jesters, and rock themselves in swings that were to be found in the women's apartment of almost every household. Ludicrous pains were spent over the toilet which no admirers could appreciate.

The lower the social rank of a woman, the less rigid her seclusion from the outer world. In the lowest ranks of Russian society there existed, by the side of the most abject submission of the women, a sort of reckless freedom. Olearius, in 1633, remarked the drunkenness of the peasant women, who frequented public houses with their husbands and indulged in the grossest excesses.

Kotoschichin, who wrote his great work on Russia in 1665, says: "The female sex is ignorant of writing and reading; it is not the custom to instruct girls in those branches. They are wanting in intellect, simple-minded, bashful, and without ideas. How can it be otherwise? From their early childhood until their marriage, they live confined in their rooms with their mother, and only see their nearest relatives. They have no possible chance of developing their intellect and forming their character."

The will and inclination of the girl at the conclusion of a marriage were never consulted. The parents of the girl negotiated with the future husband through a third party.

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13

Kotoschichin gives a very detailed account of the tricks and deceptions that are practiced on these occasions. "If a father has three daughters," he writes, "one of whom is crippled, or deaf, or dumb, or repulsive in her appearance, while the others are beautiful and healthy, he tries to marry the cripple first, in this manner, that he shows one of the beautiful girls to the intending bridegroom in place of the ugly one. When the contract is signed and the wedding has actually taken place, where the bride appears closely veiled, then only the cheated husband discovers the fraud and finds that he has married a cripple, or a deaf or dumb, a blind or lame woman. He tries to induce his wife to go into a nunnery, and if she will not go of her own free will, he beats and abuses her until she is glad to escape his brutal treatment; or it happens that the husband himself goes into a monastery. It is of frequent occurrence that one of the pair regains liberty by poisoning the other. Dear reader," the old historian concludes his narrative, "you will not be astonished to hear that nowhere in the world is so much deception and fraud practiced with marriageable girls as here in Moscow."

It was in those days the universal fashion throughout Russia that, at the wedding, the father of the bride gave the young husband a whip, and that the latter, as a token of his future authority, gave his wife a gentle blow with the newly-acquired symbol of his authority.

All early historians agree in their accounts of the frightfully debased state of matrimonial life in Russia in the days preceding Peter the Great. Drunkenness and excesses of the most degrading kind prevailed among both sexes of the lower classes throughout the empire.

It often happened that women, in order to get rid of their brutal husbands, accused them of the darkest crimes. In those days of false accusations, this was a favorite trick to obtain a divorce. In spite of the most stringent laws against the murder of a husband—the guilty woman was interred alive up to her head, and died a terrible death, after nameless torments of several days’ duration—this crime was by no means of rare occurrence.

Any share in the public affairs of the country, even the smallest amount of political influence, was, of course, entirely out of the question. Marfa Borezkaja had, for a short period in the 16th century managed public affairs in Novgorod, and

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displayed rare intelligence and boldness, and true patriotism. But Novgorod had been less exposed to Byzantine and Tartar influence than Moscow and Kiev; the commercial republic, Novgorod, could boast of a higher state of civilization than the capital of the Czar, and Novgorod had been more in contact with Western civilization than any other part of the empire.

It is characteristic that in all cases where the influence of woman can be noticed, this circumstance can be traced to Western origin. Thus the contact with Polish civilization in the 16th and 17th centuries were of great importance in the development of Russia. Helena Glinski, the wife of Czar Vassali and mother of Ivan the Cruel, came from a Polish family. During the minority of her son she was the Regent of the empire. It created a great sensation that she induced her husband to cut off his beard. If Demetrius had remained longer on the throne, his wife's (Marina Mnishek) influence upon the manners and habits of the people, and upon the position of women in particular, would have been perceptibly felt; but Demetrius died a few days after his wedding.

The following period was one of national reaction, and consequently injurious to the position of women. The intelligent and liberal Demetrius married a foreigner, but men like Wassilij Schuiskij or Michael Romanoff would not have thought of forming a union with a Western princess. The Czarinas of the 17th century occupied an inferior position to those of the 16th century. The following incident is characteristic of Russian ideas in the 17th century. When the Russian ambassador, Lichatscheff, went to Florence in 1659, the Grand Duke Ferdinand asked him to pay his respects to the Grand Duchess. Lichatscheff refused peremptorily because he had no instructions to do so. Ferdinand became indignant, and threatened to dismiss the ambassadors without a reply, if they did not submit to a ceremony which prevailed at all European courts. The Russian ambassadors had finally to yield. Western principles triumphed over Russian prejudices.

Another characteristic of the humiliating position of the Czarinas was the manner in which their marriages were concluded.

When the Czar intended to take a wife, an order was published throughout the empire, to send the most beautiful

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15

girls of every town or village to Moscow, to be exhibited for the Czar's choice. Hundreds and thousands of ambitious girls appeared and submitted themselves for inspection. The elected bride was often of humblest origin; by one stroke of luck she and all her relations became rich and powerful. It was a game of chance, which the unsuccessful competitors tried to spoil. The bride and her family became the object of bitter hatred and persecution on the part of the unsuccessful candidates. This abominable system opened the door to the blackest, most despicable intrigues. The same people who, like dogs, crawled in the dust before the future Czarina, did their best to ruin her, to frustrate the marriage, and it was not seldom that they succeeded.

Czar Michael was engaged three times before a marriage was accomplished. His first betrothed, Maria Chlopoff, was a charming country girl of great beauty, and a most lovable character. A trifling indisposition, the consequence of eating too much sweetmeat, was exaggerated by her enemies as a constitutional disease, and sufficed to dissolve the engagement. The unfortunate girl and her whole family were banished to Siberia.

Gradually a change for the better took place, the first traces of which can be noticed under the government of Alexei, the father of Peter the Great. The difference between the two marriages of this prince is remarkable. His first wife, Marja Iljinischna, had been chosen in the usual way by taking her from the many hundreds that were exhibited for his choice. Alexei made the acquaintance of his second wife, Natalia Kyrillovna, the mother of Peter, at the home of the Boyar Matvejeff, with whom he was in intimate personal relations. The Czar's second marriage is the first evidence of Western influence in this direction.

The position which Natalia Kyrillovna occupied at her husband's court was in many respects different from that of her predecessors. Contrary to the doctrines of the *Domostroi*, she shared many of her lord's pleasures. She appeared occasionally at the imperial hunting parties, was present at private theatricals at court, drove out in open carriages in her husband's company, and was fond of music and dancing. The whole tone at court underwent a change; the Czar himself was an enterprising, pleasure-loving, social man. A fresh breeze announcing the coming epoch of reform, penetrated the heavy atmosphere of Russian court life.

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Two mighty influences to which Russia was exposed at this time were of momentous effect upon the position of women. Since the acquisition of Little Russia, the Polish—Little Russian—influence became an important factor in the development of the empire. Theologians and scientists settled in Russia as teachers and authors. The children of Alexei's first marriage, among them Peter's celebrated half-sister Sophia, were educated by foreigners. The poet Simeon Polozki, Sophia's instructor, had no little share in the strange phenomenon, that from 1682-1689 a woman held the reins of government in her hands. The Czarina of Feodor Alexejevitch, the half-brother of Peter the Great, was of Polish origin. She introduced Polish fashions and customs. Many articles of Western luxury were introduced that were able to produce a change in the private life of a woman. Western dresses, trinkets and ornaments, looking-glasses, etc., were first seen at court.

The example of the foreigners inhabiting the so-called German Suburb, in the immediate neighborhood of the capital, also contributed a great deal to work a change in the life of Russian women of the upper classes. Among the German, Dutch and English colonists of the *Njemezkaja Sloboda* (German Suburb) women took an active part in social life, shared family festivals, etc.; in fact, there existed a bright and cheerful family life. They were more attractive, more interesting and better educated than their Russian sisters. It is known on the authority of the veteran of this foreign colony, General Gordon, that foreign literature was imported for the amusement and instruction of these ladies.

The regency of Sophia (1682-1689) is the first act of the emancipation of women. After Alexei's death his daughters of the first marriage enjoyed a certain hitherto unheard of independence. The young step mother, Natalia Kyrillovna exercised no authority over these ladies, and their brother, the Czar Feodor (1676-82), a sickly, incompetent man, was little qualified to fill the position of head of the imperial family. The Czarevnas had pretty much their own way. Among them Sophia was the boldest, the most intelligent. She possessed singular firmness of character, and displayed in moments of danger exceptional courage and resolution.

In her intercourse with men like Simeon Polotzki and the learned monk Sylvester Medvedjeff the Czarevna had learned

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17

to take an interest in literature and science; through her relations with Prince Vasili Golitzyn she gained political experience, and her remarkable administrative qualities were developed.

Her relations with Golitzyn were of the most affectionate and intimate character, but many contemporary stories about their intercourse are entirely foreign to truth. When Feodor died, Golitzyn was 39 years old, married and with grown-up children; Sophia was 25 years old. Her letters to Golitzyn, which Ustrialoff published in his life of Peter the Great, set aside all doubt about the perfectly pure and legitimate nature of their relations. As the pupil of an experienced and highly cultivated statesman, Sophia displayed rare intelligence, courage and political tact in managing the affairs of the empire. There was a character of maturity and resolution in her policy, which stands in strong contrast to the ignorance and primitive helplessness of the people over which she ruled. She was superior in energy and boldness to her favorite, Golitzyn, and during the crisis in 1689, when the bitter struggle between her and her brother Peter first began, Sophia's strength of will, diplomatic cunning and power of initiative stood most prominently in the foreground. The period of her regency is, so to say, a prologue to the government by woman which lasted from 1725-1796.

When Peter became of age, Sophia had serious intentions of making herself absolute ruler of the empire; there exists a picture of her which represents her with crown and sceptre. But she had to yield before her brother's strength and genius. She spent the rest of her life in a nunnery. She was no favorite with the people; she had offended too much against all traditions of the usual life of Russian women. She certainly was an anomaly in her age, the part she played in politics had never before been assumed by any woman.

Immediately after his accession to the throne in 1689, Peter entered into intimate personal relations with distinguished men of the foreign colony. Gordon and Lefort became his daily companions; he was anxious to learn, and the intercourse with these foreigners was a school to him. He went even further, he appeared himself in the *Sloboda*, invited himself to the houses of his foreign friends, became acquainted with their families, took an interest in their daily life and entered with all the enthusiasm of his fiery nature

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into the new ideas and manners of these representatives of a superior civilization. This step which Peter took to free himself from the dull, stiff ceremonial of the Kreml was perhaps even more important than his resolution to travel in Europe. The one was the natural consequence of the other. In the "German Suburb," the Czar was, so to say, in a foreign land. This Sloboda was the first station on his westward journey; it was the first pillar of the bridge which was to unite Russia with Europe.

The Czar's intercourse with his foreign friends was that of perfect equality, and was of the most intimate private character. Here he first became acquainted with the manners and views of nations incomparably superior in civilization and culture. It was impossible for his keen eye not to discover that women here occupied a very different place from that of Russian ladies of the same rank. Here were family gatherings, weddings, christenings, social pleasures in which married and single women took part in the most free and unceremonious manner. Here Peter became acquainted with the charms of refined conversation; he even took part in their dances with unfeigned delight.

At the state receptions given to foreign diplomatists the Czar invited ladies, of course only inmates of the foreign colony. The Czar met for the first time, on these and similar occasions, what would have been impossible to find among his own countrywomen: not only beauty but intelligence and education, knowledge and refined manners. The "German Suburb" had opened a new world to his astonished eyes.

A few months previous to the revolution which led him to the throne, Peter, who was not quite seventeen years old, had been married with Yevdokiya Lopukhin according to the old hereditary fashion of the Russian court. As Peter broke more and more with the traditional dogmas and forms of his house, the union with a woman grown up in the narrowest circle of Russian routine, a woman without any charms of mind, unable to follow her husband in his lofty projects, became naturally onerous to him.

There is every reason to believe that Peter's intercourse with the foreigners was most distasteful to his wife, and there can be no doubt that she had well-founded cause for being jealous.

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19

Peter was fond of the society of women; some letters addressed to him by ladies of the foreign colony show that he was on very cordial terms with more than one. Between Anna Mons and the Czar existed a very tender friendship which lasted for several years. That such things did not contribute to the happiness of his married life is but natural. During his absence abroad Peter tried to induce his wife to take the veil, which Yevdokiya, however, refused to do. Shortly after his return the unhappy lady sought the shelter and peace of a religious establishment.

If the "German Suburb" had already exercised so mighty an influence upon the Czar, had enlarged his views and experience, had led him to new roads of progress and reform, it is natural that his travels abroad, his prolonged stay in Holland and England in 1697 and 1698, produced a still more powerful impression. His acquaintance with western ladies of the highest class, with the Duchess of Courland, with the Electress of Hanover, the Electress of Brandenburg and others, opened still more his eyes to the shortcomings of his country-women. In Dresden he was present at a supper in the apartments of the beautiful Aurora von Kœnigsmark, to which the most distinguished ladies of the court had been invited, and the evening was finished with music and dancing. At a masked ball given at Vienna in his honor he was one of the most enthusiastic dancers. In every respect this foreign journey was a school for the Czar, and formed a glaring contrast to the life of every one of his predecessors.

The deep impression which the superior and freer position of women in Western Europe made upon the monarch, and upon his contemporaries whom he had sent to travel, in Italy and France, is shown by some of the diaries kept by these astonished tourists. Most remarkable among these are the impressions of Tolstoi who was travelling in Italy and of Matveyeff, who was staying in Paris while Peter was in Holland and England.

Peter in his impetuous way tried to raise Russian social life to the standard of French society by ukases. French books of etiquette were translated into Russian by imperial command, and the rude manners of the "good old times" ridiculed by all sorts of jokes and masquerades.

Russia was ripe for such reforms. Soon after Peter's return from abroad Lefort gave a masked ball in his house in

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the German Suburb, where the Czar's sister and the eight
years old Czarevich were present.

Peter's sister, Natalia, was an early and willing convert to
these reforms. She was fond of reading and had a very fair
amount of education; she loved the theater, and is said to
have written some comedies herself.

The Russian government had reorganized the army after
foreign models, and had translated foreign works on military
subjects. Also, foreign school books on all subjects were
translated into Russian—even the catechism of the Lutheran
Church. But the Czar wanted to do more. He wanted to
reform the manners and habits of his court, of the officials
and, if possible, of all classes. Henceforth the people were to
be educated, not only for trades and professions, but for social
intercourse.

Soon after his return from abroad, Peter commanded that
women should take part in wedding and other family festi-
vals. In 1700 he issued a ukase, ordaining that men and
women should appear at court in "foreign costumes," and
this order was, not long afterwards, extended to the wives
and daughters of the clergy, the trades-people, and the
soldiers.

In 1718 followed the ukase about receptions. The nobility
were advised to hold regular "jours fixes" when to receive
their friends. Ladies and gentlemen were to appear in foreign
costumes, and the greatest freedom from restraint was per-
mitted. The host need not receive his guests in any formal
manner; even if the Czar himself, or any member of his
family, were to appear, no particular notice should be taken.
A part of the evening should be devoted to dancing, in order
to encourage full and unrestrained intercourse between men
and women. The Czar himself was a passionate dancer, and
he and Catherine, as well as the Czarevnas Anna and Eliza-
beth, never missed an opportunity to indulge in their favorite
pastime.

If these social reunions were still far behind the tone of a
Paris *salon*; if sometimes a certain vulgarity or rudeness
would break through, or some lady or gentleman drink a lit-
tle more than was good for them, yet they mark an immense
step in civilization. It was the beginning of that refined tone
and manner which characterized the court of Catherine II.
It was a complete breach with all traditions—it was a social
revolution

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The most impressive example of these radical reforms was the married life of Peter and Catherine. In glaring contrast to the women of the seventeenth century, and in spite of her humble origin, Catherine adapted herself with astonishing facility to her new life. Between Peter and his wife there was a genuine and sincere affection. Her charming qualities, her natural intelligence, the readiness with which she entered into her husband's projects, gained for her a great influence over Peter's fiery nature. She alone knew how to calm those tempestuous outbreaks of passion and anger to which Peter gave way occasionally; her gentle voice and manner could alone soothe those nervous fits and convulsions from which he suffered. Catherine was the great Czar's faithful friend and constant companion. She shared his troubles and endured with him even the hardships of war.

Catherine's correspondence with her husband is a charming indication of the friendly and perfectly natural relations that existed between them. Very different from the stiff, conventional phrases in which Yevdokiya addressed her lord, Catherine's and Peter's letters were full of pleasant, bright gossip, little anecdotes, etc. They prepare little surprises for each other; make each other presents. Nobody can read these delightful letters without enjoyment, without gaining an insight into the inner life of two amiable hearts. Former Czars had been idols secluded from the world—invisible Dalai-Lamas. Peter was a man—a man of the world, fond of pleasure and amusements. His incredible faculty for work, the devotion, earnestness and sense of duty with which he went to work at the colossal task he had undertaken, required these contrasts. His faculties for enjoyment, his sanguine and happy temperament, met the same sympathetic qualities in his wife's disposition.

The Czarina was the center of the court life. She and her ladies appeared publicly on all occasions where the Czar's presence was required. Foreign travelers represent the splendor and etiquette of her surroundings as equal to those of the Western courts.

Education of men, as well as women, received an astonishing impulse under Peter's government. Instruction in mathematics, classical and foreign languages, navigation and astronomy, found a regular and prominent place in the government schools. French governesses were engaged for the imperial family, and for the daughters of the nobility.

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Thus the new generation grew up under entirely different circumstances. Already, in 1701, the Czar occupied himself with plans of marrying his nieces to foreign princes. That the Czarevitch Alexei was married to a German princess, Sophia Charlotte, of Brunswick, was in itself a noteworthy event. That the princess was allowed to remain Protestant was more remarkable still.

But all these reforms affected only the upper classes of society. The reforms of the lower classes had to be worked in a different way. Peter made this attempt also, though with less success. It was an easier task to model the frontispiece of the social structure of Russian life than to rebuild the entire fabric. The dogmas of the *Domostroi* are to this day deeply rooted in the hearts of a large portion of the people.

It is known with what determined resistance Peter was met in his reforms. It was difficult to induce the men to cut off their beards, and some women were so obstinately attached to the old national costume that they continued to wear it underneath the hated foreign dress.

Peter's reforms, as far as they affected the position of women, were an immense step on the road to civilization. That he tried to model Russian society after the fashion of Paris and London was an incalculable benefit, and if the imitation of French manners was not always to be recommended, anything was better than the stupefying effects of monastic seclusion, which had been the fate of Russian women previous to the accession of Peter the Great. Russia's front was no longer turned towards Asia, but towards the civilized, enlightened West. If the light and warmth-giving rays of Western civilization did not yet penetrate into the depth of the people, an immense change for the better had been brought about by the improvement of the social conditions of the upper classes. Women particularly came under the immediate influence of the reformatory ideas of France, England and Germany. That Elizabeth introduced French as the language of the court, that Rastrelli built those palaces which excite to this day our wonder and admiration, that Catherine II. formed her ideas after the enlightening literature of France and England, that Alexander I. was educated under the humanizing principles of Laharpe—these are for our century the magnificent results of the reform movement of the age of Peter the Great.

THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES.

23

THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

BY PROF. JOHN ANKETELL, A. M.

IN every popular form of government there must of necessity be at least two political parties, the party of administration and the party of opposition—the conservative and the liberal—those who would have all things remain as they are and those who desire a new order of affairs. Sometimes, indeed, there will spring up a third and even fourth party on some local question or temporary issue; but these parties rarely attain to much strength, and their greatest achievement is to defeat the will of the majority by dividing it. Between the two great national parties the main struggle must always be expected to take place.

Such is in brief the history of political parties—their peculiar features in the United States will form the subject of this article

When the present Constitution of the United States was completed (September 17, 1787), the germ of two great parties had already been formed. One was called the *Federal*—the other, the *Republican*, or *Democratic*; for these two terms were then used as synonymous. The Federalists sought for a strong government, modeled after the forms of the British Constitution. They were friendly to England, and were accused by their enemies of seeking to re-establish monarchy in America. The Democrats (called then Republicans), were the party of popular rule—State rights—restricted power of the government. They were friendly to France, and were accused by their enemies of friendship for Jacobinism, the guillotine, and *sans culottes* atheism.

The immortal Washington held the presidency of the nation, by unanimous choice, for two terms of four years each, from 1789 to 1797. He was not a partisan ruler, and his influence greatly restrained the fury of party rage during the perilous days of the French revolution. He favored a mild form of *Federalism*.

Washington having declined a third Presidential term, the choice of the States fell upon John Adams of Massachusetts, who had been Vice-President under Washington. Adams

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was an extreme and violent Federalist, and his administration was very obnoxious to the Democratic States. Stringent laws were enacted against aliens and seditious persons; so that everything portended an aristocratic Republic, if not a monarchy. But a political revolution was at hand. In 1800 the power passed into the hands of the Democratic-Republican party, and was held by them for the next twenty-four years. In spite of the assertions of the Calvinistic ministers of New England, that on the accession of the Democracy to power, churches would be closed, Bibles burned, and the Goddess of Reason enthroned in the Capitol, Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, a Virginia Democrat, was elected President, and held the office for eight years. Of course, none of these direful results followed the election of Jefferson.

He was succeeded by James Madison and James Monroe, both Democrats, and each held the office for eight years. Meanwhile the country was disturbed by the European war, waged between England and Napoleon Bonaparte. Its commerce was greatly hindered by the British orders in Council and the Napoleonic decrees of Berlin and Milan. For some time an embargo was laid on all our shipping, by order of Mr. Jefferson, which aroused the indignation of Federal New England. The Democrats cried out loudly for war with England, while the Federalists would have preferred a war with Napoleon. At length war was declared against England, in 1812, and continued for three years. So unpopular was this war in the New England States that a Federalist Convention was held in Hartford, in the State of Connecticut, which sat with closed doors. It was said, and generally believed, though the fact has never been *proved*, that the design of the Hartford Convention was to bring about the secession or separation of the New England States from the Union.

This Convention, followed shortly by the successful termination of the war with Great Britain, proved a death-blow to the old Federalist party. It fell into such odium with the people that it lost its foothold in every State, and was completely exterminated. In after years it was considered a re-proach to call a man "*a Federalist*." Never has any party (except the short-lived "*Know-Nothing*") sunk under a deeper load of obloquy. Monroe's administration (1816-1824) was called "*the era of good feeling*," because at that epoch

25

every one called himself a Republican-Democrat. Monroe would have been unanimously reëlected, had not a solitary elector pledged to his support cast his vote against him, for the whimsical reason that Washington only deserved a unanimous choice to the Presidency. It was during this administration that the famous "*Monroe Doctrine*" was enunciated, viz.: that European powers must not attempt to gain any new foothold on American soil; or, as sometimes expressed, "*America for the Americans!*"

On the ruins of the old Federalist party arose a new and nobler organization, called the *Whig* party: so named from the Whig party in England, which derived its name from the "*Whigamores' raid*" in Scotland. In the presidential election of 1824, there being no organized political parties in the field, there was what was called "*a scrub race*" between four candidates, viz.: Jackson, Adams, Clay and Crawford. No one of the candidates had a majority; but Gen. Jackson, the heroic defender of New Orleans, led the poll. The election was thrown into the House of Representatives and there, by a combination of the friends of Adams and Clay, Jackson was defeated, and John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, the New England candidate, was elected President. Adams in return made Clay his Secretary of State. This was denounced as a corrupt bargain. The friends of Jackson were indignant, and spoke of it as a "*combination of the Puritan with the Black-leg*"—*i. e.*, gambler—using the taunts uttered by John Randolph, of Roanoke.

The friends of Adams and Clay—*i. e.*, the administration—combined their forces to form the Whig party, while Jackson led those who still called themselves Democrats. The distinguishing tenets of these parties were as follows: 1. The Democrats maintained a *strict construction* of the National Constitution. They believed in State rights and local self-government; declaring that all powers, not expressly guaranteed by the Constitution to the central government, were reserved to the States.

2. They believed in *hard money*—that gold and silver were the only lawful currency—and they strenuously opposed national banks.

3. They favored *free trade* with foreign nations, or, at least, a low tariff on goods, merely for the sake of increasing the national revenue.

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4. They were opposed to government undertaking the work of internal improvements. It was enough for the national government to take care of the harbors on its coast; all other improvements should be the work of the States, or private corporations.

The Whigs held to exactly opposite tenets.

1. They taught a loose construction of the Federal Constitution; that is, that the National Government might exercise all powers not expressly forbidden in the Constitution.

2. They were in favor of supporting a *National Bank*, with its paper currency.

3. They desired a *high tariff* on foreign manufactures, for the *protection* of home industry.

4. They were disposed to encourage *grants of money* by the Congress for the purpose of canals, improvement of rivers, lake harbors, etc.

On these main points the two parties joined issue and maintained an honorable conflict, with alternate success and defeat, for twenty or thirty years. The combination between Adams and Clay proved very unpopular, and at the end of four years General Jackson (called "Old Hickory") was triumphantly elected, and reëlected in 1832. It had become a custom, from the example of Washington, that no President should be elected to a third term of office; so, in 1836, Jackson retired and was succeeded by his Vice-President, Martin Van Buren, a shrewd politician, who was nick-named "The Fox of Kinderhook" and "The Sage of Lindenwald." He held office for four years. During his administration there was a period of great financial distress - an unfortunate matter for a party in power, since it always has to bear the blame. The Whigs took advantage of this weakness of their enemies in 1840. They put in nomination for the presidency General Harrison, "The Hero of Tippecanoe," a good old man, a veteran of Indian warfare, tottering on the brink of the grave. For Vice-President they nominated a disaffected Democrat of Virginia, named John Tyler. Their campaign was very successful. Van Buren was utterly routed, and Harrison won the prize by a large majority. But the triumph of the Whigs was short-lived; Harrison died a month after his inauguration; Tyler succeeded to the presidential chair, sought to establish a party of his own, and, failing in this, threw power into the hands of the Democrats, his old friends.

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About this time there appeared on the horizon a little cloud, zon which ere long attained gigantic proportions. The institution of African slavery, which had originally existed in all the States, was now confined to the Southern States, in which it was more profitably employed. None of the political parties had thus far favored the forcible abolition of this institution; but there were many anti-slavery men in the country—more of them in the Whig than in the Democratic party. A new organization was now formed in the North, called the *Liberty* or *Abolition* party. As it drew its recruits more largely from the Whigs, it proved especially injurious to that party. The Southern States desired the annexation of Texas as a slave State, and this was vehemently opposed in the North. In 1844 the Presidential contest was between Henry Clay and James K. Polk. The Liberty party drew off votes enough in New York from Mr. Clay, the Whig candidate, to defeat him, and so power returned again to the Democrats, who were also called "Loco-focos" by their adversaries. The origin of this term is curious. At a Democratic meeting some malicious Whig turned off the gas. But the members drew from their pockets loco-foco (i. e., friction) matches, and restored the lights. Hence the cry arose of "Loco-foco!"

The election of Mr. Polk, called "Young Hickory," led to the annexation of Texas as a slave State the next winter, before his inauguration. This led to a dispute with Mexico about the boundary, and this to the Mexican war of 1846-48. This war was very unpopular with the northern Whigs, and some of them violently opposed it. Thomas Corwin, of Ohio, declared in the House of Representatives that he "hoped the Mexicans would welcome our invading soldiers with bloody hands to hospitable graves!" Certainly, the liberty of free speech could not go further! In spite of this opposition the war went on successfully. Strange to say, the commanding officers of our troops (Scott and Taylor) were prominent Whigs, who did not share Mr. Corwin's sentiments: and the Democratic party failed to reap any partisan reward from the war. Its result was the acquisition by the U. S. of a large territory in the south, and a dispute immediately arose whether it should be slave or free. Mr. Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and others organized a new party, called the "Free-soil Party," the platform of which was, that

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all the territories of the U. S. should be consecrated to free-
dom. This party met at Buffalo in August, 1848, and nomi-
nated for President ex-President Van Buren (Dem.), and for
Vice-President Charles Francis Adams (Whig), who was the
son of the late President, John Q. Adams. This party was
more popular than the old abolition faction and polled a large
vote, but not enough to carry a single State for its candidates.
The Whigs put in nomination for President, Maj.-Gen. Zach-
ary Taylor, who was called "Old Rough and Ready." He was
a Mississippi slaveholder, but less favorable to slavery than
many of the northern Whigs, whom the Free-soilers in derision
called "Dough-faces." Gen. Taylor's popularity and the de-
fection of Van Buren drew off Democratic votes enough to
utterly defeat Gen. Cass, the regular nominee, and the Whigs
came into power again with a triumphant majority.

Many years before there had arisen in the extreme South
a school of thought, rather than an organized party, which
claimed the right of *nullification*, or *secession*. According
to our complicated system of government, the citizen
of any State owes a double allegiance—to the National
Government and to that of his own State—so that forcible resistance to either authority is a treasonable act. Under the
leadership of John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, an eminent
Southern statesman, who had been Vice-President in the days
of Jackson, these separatists claimed that the authority of
the State was *paramount*, so that it could *nullify* the laws of
the general Congress, or even *secede* from its place in the
Federal Union. This was carrying the "*States Rights*" doctrine of the Democratic party to an extreme which the party
as a whole never sanctioned on any occasion. Its followers
were mostly Southern Democrats, though many of the Southern
Whigs adhered to its tenets. It had but few votaries in
the Northern States, and those chiefly among the abolitionists, who wished to separate from slavery at any price.

(General Taylor held the office of President for sixteen
months, when he died, suddenly, of cholera (July, 1849), and
was succeeded by the Vice-President, Millard Fillmore, of
New York, an eminent Whig statesman, who was very favorable
to compromise and conciliatory measures. At that time
some of the ablest men whom America has ever possessed
(Henry Clay, Daniel Webster and others) belonged to the
Whig party and had seats in the United States Senate. These

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formed a combination with the leading Democrats and passed
compromise measures, of which the principal ones were the
admission of California as a free State for the benefit of the
North, and the Fugitive Slave Law for the South. These
measures seemed satisfactory to the majority of the people,
and the quarrel was supposed to be settled. In 1852 the
Whigs nominated for the Presidency General Winfield Scott,
a man of talent and courage, but vain, conceited and eccent-
ric, who bore the nickname of "Old Fuss and Feathers."
The Democrats nominated General Franklin Pierce, an un-
known hero, whose insignificance proved a tower of strength.
The unpopularity of General Scott, and the fear that he would
undo the compromise measures, led to a Waterloo defeat.
Out of about thirty States, he carried only four, viz., Massa-
chusetts and Vermont, in New England, with Kentucky and
Tennessee, Southern border States.

It is worthy of notice that of late years these Whig States
have been divided against each other—Massachusetts and
Vermont being overwhelmingly Republican, while Kentucky
and Tennessee have been as strongly Democratic. On the
ruins of the old Whig party thus overthrown there suddenly
arose a detestable organization—a secret society called the
American, or "Know-Nothing;" the object of which was the
exclusion of foreigners, and especially Roman Catholics, from
all political privileges. This party rose and fell suddenly,
carried many States for a year or two, but never attained na-
tional supremacy. The great majority of its members came
from the Whig party, since the Irish Catholics were nearly all
Democratic.

But a graver political struggle was at hand. President
Pierce was a well-meaning but weak man, and his party was
in complete possession of every branch of the government.
Senator Douglas, of Illinois, ambitious to succeed to the
presidency, introduced a bill into the Congress to allow the
entrance of slavery into the Northern Territories of Kansas
and Nebraska. The Missouri Compromise had forbidden
slavery in the Territories north of 36 deg. 30 min., N. L.; but
Douglas and his friends claimed that the admission of Cali-
fornia as a free State had repealed this famous Compromise.
The bill was passed in spite of Northern protests, and the re-
sult was the organization of a new anti-slavery party, the
avowed object of which was to exclude slavery from all the

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Territories of the United States, and to curb its power as much as possible in the States. This party took the name of *Republican*, one of the names of the old Jeffersonian party; then newly adopted in 1854.

As the election of 1856 drew nigh, the American Whigs assembled in National Convention and nominated for President the veteran statesman, ex-President Millard Fillmore, of New York; but they subsequently split on the slavery question. Most of the Northern "Know-Nothings" joined the Republican standard and swelled that party to a formidable size in the North. The Republicans nominated John C. Fremont (called "The Pathfinder"), a gallant officer, who had rendered service to the country in exploring the territories, and who was a Free-soil Democrat.

The Democrats nominated James Buchanan (who called himself "an old Public Functionary"), an old man and veteran statesman, who, in his youth, had been an ardent Federalist, declaring that "if he had a drop of Democratic blood in his veins he would open them and let it out!" But the annihilation of the Federal party caused Mr. Buchanan to reconsider this sanguinary design; and he became a consistent Democrat, holding high offices in the service of his country. Fillmore and Fremont defeated each other. Their combined strength would have routed the Democracy; but divided, Fillmore carried only one State, *Maryland*; Fremont, many of the Northern States; and Mr. Buchanan, though polling a minority of the popular vote, was elected.

Under his administration the slavery troubles were renewed. Senator Douglas now sided with the North on the question, and this exasperated the South against him, and destroyed his last chance of the Presidency. In 1860 the National Democratic Convention split in twain, the Northern portion nominating Douglas for President, while the Southern wing nominated the Vice-President, Breckenridge, of Kentucky. This of course rendered the defeat of the Democracy certain. The Republicans, instead of nominating Wm. H. Seward, who had hitherto been their leader, adopted Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, as their candidate, and made an active canvass. There was also another man in the field—John Bell, of Tennessee, the candidate of the Southern Whigs.

As the result, Mr. Lincoln carried every free State, except New Jersey, where the vote stood Lincoln 4, Douglas 3 elec-

31

tors. Besides these, Douglas carried only the 9 electors of Missouri; and the slave States were divided between Breckenridge and Bell. Lincoln, like his predecessor Buchanan, was a minority candidate on the popular vote. The votes for the other three candidates combined exceeded his by nearly a million. The cotton States immediately prepared to exercise the Calhoun claim of secession, and the result was the civil war of 1861-65. At the election of Mr. Lincoln, the Democrats had a majority in both branches of the Congress; but the withdrawal of the seceding Congressmen from the South, and the accession of many Northern Democrats to the administration turned the scale, and the Republicans gained complete possession of the Government; which they held until in 1874 they lost the House of Representatives.

The war, as all know, proved successful to the Union forces, and in 1864 Mr. Lincoln was triumphantly reëlected President by a large majority. His opponent was Major-General George B. McClellan, a Democratic officer, now Governor of New Jersey, who carried the three States of Delaware, Kentucky and New Jersey, while his opponent held the rest. Mr. Lincoln enjoyed but six weeks of his second term, when he was suddenly assassinated by John W. Booth, a play-actor, who had become deranged by brooding over the real or fancied wrongs of the South. The death of Lincoln raised to power his Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, a Tennessee Democrat, who had embraced the cause of the Union against the seceders of his State. Mr. Johnson was an honest and sincere, but at the same time a visionary and angrily-obstinate man. He imagined that he could restore the Democracy to power on a new basis, or establish a party of his own. The result was that he lost the friendship of the Republicans without fully gaining that of the Democrats. He was called "a traitor," and a "second John Tyler." The Congress passed laws obnoxious to him and the Democrats over his veto by a two-thirds vote, again and again. In 1868 the House of Representatives impeached him "of high crimes and misdemeanors," but the Senate failed to convict him, and he was soon allowed to retire to private life.

In the Presidential election of that year the Republicans nominated General Grant, the most famous Union officer; while the Democrats put in the field Horatio Seymour, of New York, the most able Democratic statesman in the country,

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and a man of unblemished integrity. The election gave Gen. Grant 214 votes, and Mr. Seymour 71. New York, New Jersey and Oregon voted for Seymour; the rest of his votes came from the South. Georgia, Mississippi, Texas and Virginia were not allowed to take part in this election.

In 1872 the Democrats resolved to put no ticket of their own in the field, but to follow the lead of a new party, who called themselves "*Liberal Republicans*;" i. e., Republicans dissatisfied with Grant's administration, and desirous of reform. It was generally supposed that their choice would fall upon the Hon. Charles F. Adams, the son and grandson of a President, and himself a statesman of no mean repute. But the convention nominated instead of him the Hon. Horace Greeley, the editor of the "N. Y. Tribune," who had always been a most violent opponent of the Democratic party, both as a Whig and a Republican. The Democrats were divided as to the expediency of ratifying this choice; but their convention at Baltimore indorsed it. The result was an overwhelming defeat for the United Liberals and Democrats, and the reëlection of Grant by an enormous majority. There was also a "straight" Democratic ticket in the field, O'Connor and Adams, which polled but few votes, and was face-tiously termed "Nobody and Adams." The result was disastrous in one respect. Mr. Greeley went mad with grief and disappointment, and died within a month of the election. This scattered the vote of the 65 opposition electors; some even voting for the *dead* candidate!

It might have been supposed that now the power of Grant and the Republican party was fixed on a sure foundation for many years. But such is the mutability of human fortune, that two years later (1874) the elections went generally Democratic, that party carrying the National House of Representatives by seventy-four majority, for the first time since the war, while the Senate remained Republican. Both parties then prepared for the Presidential struggle of 1876. The Republicans met in June and nominated R. B. Hayes, then Governor of Ohio. The Democrats met two weeks later, and selected as their leader S. J. Tilden, then Governor of New York. The canvass was an exciting one, and on the popular vote Mr. Tilden came out about a quarter of a million ahead of Mr. Hayes. But in the Electoral College the result was much more uncertian. There are now 369 electors, and of

33

these 184 were conceded to Tilden. The vote of Florida and Louisiana was disputed. The House of Representatives wished to count them for Tilden, and the Senate claimed them for Hayes. To avoid trouble, and possibly civil war, the settlement of this dispute was referred by both parties to a Joint Commission, consisting of eight Republicans and seven Democrats. This Commission, by a strict party vote (8 to 7), counted the disputed votes for Mr. Hayes, and he was declared elected by a majority of one electoral vote. On the fifth of March, 1877, he was inaugurated, and has continued to occupy the office to the present date. In this election there was a small third party, called the "Greenbackers," which put in nomination the venerable and amiable Peter Cooper, of New York. Its vote was scarcely noticed. Yet two years later (1878) it rose to greater prominence, and elected several Congressmen, but without carrying any State. It is now rapidly declining. Its platform is in favor of a great increase of the paper currency of the country, known as greenbacks.

It would be manifestly improper in an article of this character for the writer to take any partizan ground; but for the benefit of the foreign readers of this magazine it may be well to state impartially the position and claims of the parties at the present day. The Republicans control the executive and judicial branches of the government; while the Democrats have both branches of the national Legislature, Senate, and House of Representatives, by small majorities. They cannot, however, pass any law without executive approval, since they have not a two-thirds majority to override the veto. Each party is seeking to elect the president in 1880, as a matter of course.

The Republicans claim, that they are the great National party, which has wielded the destiny of the Nation for the last twenty years, overthrown armed rebellion, destroyed slavery, given the rights of citizenship to the oppressed Africans, is now protecting equal rights in every state, and by its wise measures has restored financial prosperity to the country.

To this the Democrats reply, that the civil war was largely caused by the measures of the Republicans; that it could not have been carried on to a successful issue without the aid of the Northern Democrats; that republican administrations have been distinguished by gross fraud and corruption; that they swindled the emancipated negroes by carpet-bag adventurers;

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that they desire to fraudulently influence the elections; and
that the return of financial prosperity has been greatly de-
layed by their unwise and unjust measures.

On their own behalf the Democrats claim that they are the
great national party of State rights and local self-government;
that, while they desire to preserve the central power of the
National Government in its constitutional authority, they wish
each State to look after the interests of its own citizens, un-
disturbed from without; that they have never as a party up-
held slavery or secession; that they are opposed to corrupt
jobs in the nominal interest of the government; and that their
advent to power would be the dawn of a new era of reform
and general prosperity.

To these claims the Republicans reply that the Democracy
of 1860 was a party which favored slavery and secession; that
many Northern Democrats opposed the war; that they op-
posed African emancipation, suffrage, reconstruction, and
every measure of the Republican party; that they oppress the
Black citizens of the South; and that their return to power
would be a calamity instead of a blessing to the country. And
thus the issue is made

On the subject of *finance* and the *tariff*, both parties are
divided. Most of the Republicans favor hard money - a specie currency. The Democrats of the East are also hard-money men; while in the West, Greenback theories have a wide prevalence. The Republicans, like their Whig predecessors, have always maintained a high protective tariff. This is very obnoxious to the Southern and Western States; but the power of New England and Pennsylvania has thus far been insufficient to uphold it. It would be quite safe for the Democrats to put Free Trade in their platform; since they cannot hope in any event to carry Pennsylvania or New England.

It would be very unsafe to predict the result in 1880. All
the Southern States are counted as surely Democratic, while
nearly all the Northern States are claimed as surely Repub-
lican. The Democrats must have 47 Northern votes in order to
win. The doubtful States are Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey, Indiana and Oregon. Should the elections go as they
did last autumn, the Republicans will certainly win. But ex-
perience shows that a single year may work great changes.
With so close a division, much will depend on the candidates se-
lected by the parties. Gen. Grant, as the Republican candi-

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

35

date, would gain some Democratic votes on the strength of
his military record, and lose some Republican votes from op-
position to a third term and fear of a dictatorship. The con-
test will doubtless be an exciting one, and may have a very
important influence on our national destiny.

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

BY E. VALE BLAKE.

No preceding era of American literature bears any com-
parison to the present, either as regards the variety of
production or that careful refinement of style which many
of our modern authors possess. We shall pass, in this dis-
cussion, that whole period in the life of the nation within
which the American people ceased to be colonists and took
their position in the world as an independent body, free from
all foreign control. We omit this, and the immediately suc-
ceeding years, not because there was any dearth of literary
talent at that time, but because it was almost exclusively di-
rected to political subjects. The whole mind of the people
was turned towards the important object of organizing new
theories and testing untried institutions. This condition of
affairs brought to the front many able statesmen, brilliant
orators, innumerable pamphleteers, political satirists—poet-
ical and otherwise; but the subject matter being mainly
of immediate and local interest, has, with the progress of
time, lost much of its attraction from a literary point of view,
however instructive to the historian. We shall, therefore,
come at once to the consideration of the writers of the present,
and the very recent past, for the subjects of this sketch.

Leaving behind such noble names as those of Benjamin
Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, Alexander Hamilton,
and scores of their peers in many respects, we reach the era
when several American authors forced from the transatlantic
critics the praise of superiority, which could no longer be with-
held on the score of deficient merit, even by the most preju-
diced judges.

Washington Irving, William C. Bryant and Mrs. Maria
Brooks ("Maria de Occidente") were the first American writ-

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ers who were cordially received by the self-appointed judges of literary excellence in London and Edinburgh. The two former lived long enough to fix their fame securely to both shores of the Atlantic; the latter's renown appeared for many years to be buried with her, but a recent resurrection and republication of her remarkable poems promises at least a future reparation for a curious, though not altogether inexplicable neglect.

The "Sketch Book," by Irving, which consists principally of light and airy descriptions of English scenes, was first offered to Murray, of London, for publication, and was rejected by him, apparently out of sheer prejudice against American authorship. It was brought out in New York, and a copy coming to the hands of Sir Walter Scott he was so charmed with it that he took pains to personally persuade the publisher, Murray, of his mistake, so that the latter finally bought the copyright of the work. His first edition created quite a literary breeze in English circles, and the "Sketch Book" soon became quite as popular there as here. This was about 1820, at which time there existed in New York a literary club called "The Croakers," to which belonged such literary writers as the brothers William and J. K. Paulding, Rodman Drake and others, and of this club Washington Irving was a prominent member. They established a serial publication called by the odd name of "Salmagundi," which was very successful, in which some of the best satire and wit of the time, as well as poems and graver essays, appeared.

Irving excelled as a humorist. We do not know, in any language, a better sustained historical burlesque than that of his "History of New York," under the *nom de plume* of Diedrich Knickerbocker, in which, while describing in the most grotesque and humorous way the manners, customs and events in the short life of New Amsterdam, he yet keeps so near to the actual facts that it probably conveys a truer idea of the affairs narrated than do many more stately histories, whose statistics may be indisputable, but into which no sympathetic imagination enters. We venture to say that few persons, if any, ever took up the "Knickerbocker History of New York" without reading it to the last line—and then wishing for more.

Irving, having been much praised for the polish of his style, in his next book—Bracebridge Hall—he rather overdid

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

37

the matter, refining and trimming his sentences to that ex-
tent as to somewhat injure the force and freshness of his
work. But this fault he soon outgrew, his native strength
and independence re-asserted itself, and his next publication
of importance showed his genius in a new vein, and in a style
which approximated to the faultless. This was his "Life of
Columbus," which was quickly followed by the "Companions
and Voyages of Columbus." While preparing these volumes,
Mr. Irving spent several years in Spain, at which period he
also gathered the materials for his "Alhambra" and other
works connected with Spanish history. After his return to
America he gave to the world another series of works totally
different from any which had gone before.

In 1832, and later, he wrote successively his "Tour on the
Prairies, "Woolfert's Roost" (lately dramatized in New
York), "Sleepy Hollow," &c. But his greatest and most
elaborate work he reserved for his last days, this was his
"Life of Washington," in five large volumes, a careful and
charmingly written biography. Thackeray was wont to
speak of Irving as "the first ambassador whom the New
World of letters sent to the Old."

If Irving was the first, Bryant was but three or four years
later. A scribbler from his boyhood, he leaped into sudden
renown by his poem entitled "Thanatopsis," published in the
"North American Review" in 1816, when the author had only
attained his twenty-second year. As the name implies, this
poem is an essay on the course of Time, and from the fact
that it is written in blank verse, is retrospective, reflective
and philosophical, it has doubtless been praised by thousands
—of the echoing species, who have never read it; yet it is not
long—some eighty odd lines.

To those who have taken in its scope and spirit, every re-
reading opens up new vistas of prophetic sight—whole plains
of broad-lying thought; and the full and complete harmony
of the whole composition rolls over the senses like some of
those grand old fugues of Sebastian Bach, reminding one of
those profound pulsations—the rhythmic swells and diminu-
endos of the tide-impelled, majestic sea. The poet commences
with this philosophical observation :

"To him who, in the love of Nature, holds
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks
A various language—" * * *

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He then goes on to dilate upon these suggestive variations, the "voice of gladness," the "eloquence of beauty," and also those sharper and darker experiences which, "like the last bitter hour, come like a blight." In the next stanza he calls upon all the dejected and sick at heart to—

"Go forth under the open sky, and list
To Nature's teachings."

Rather sombre are his deductions, however, for instead of the cheering views one might have expected from this so highly commended intercourse, he draws the conclusion that his reader will, in the end, become a part of that said admirable Nature, will go

"To mix forever with the elements,
To be a brother to the insensible rock; the oak
Shall send his roots abroad, and pierce
Thy substance." * * *

The next division is majestic, both in its subject and movement. The poet goes back over the course of time and shows who have already gone down that shadowy track, and in what high and mighty company the soul will find itself:

"With patriarchs and kings, the wise, the good,
Fair forms and hoary seers of ages past."

However attractive or unattractive this picture may prove, Mr. Bryant has elaborated the idea still farther by taking an imaginary survey of the whole earth, from "Barca's desert sands" to

Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound
Save his own dashings."

And thus the whole procession of the ages is made to pass in review, only to be gathered into the vast planetary tomb at last. Such is this funereal pageant, grand, but cold and chilling to the mind of ordinary humanity. It seems like one great pall spread over the whole human species. The finale, however, is too fine to suffer a prose description. We give the last lines entire:

"So live, that when thy summons comes to join
The innumerable caravan that moves
To that mysterious realm where each shall take
His chamber in the silent halls of death,
Thou go not like the quarry slave at night,
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed -
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams."

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39

It would be a great mistake to suppose that the usual tenor
either of the poet's life or the majority of his poems were of this
gloomy stamp. Mr. Bryant was an active, genial business
gentleman, for many years editor of a daily paper, and had
we space, many contrasting tones might be given selected
from his writings. One of the most sprightly of his songs is
that cheery address to the "Bob-o'-link:"

"Merrily singing on briar and weed,
Near to the nest of his little dame,
Over the mountain side and mead,
Robert of Lincoln is telling his name," &c.

America has produced a large number of able historians,
but we can mention the names of only a few, and of these
Bancroft, Prescott and Motley stand at the head, while Park-
man, Schoolcraft, Verplanck, Sparks, Hilliard and others
would be graded highly in special departments in any
country.

George Bancroft naturally fills the first place in the inter-
est of Americans, because his labors are directed to the
elucidation of our national history. He came to this work
in no narrow spirit; his mind had been broadened by foreign
travel, by studies in Germany, and by lengthened visits to
France, Italy, and other parts of Europe. Examining the
workings of various forms of governments, he was the better
enabled to judge of the advantages and defects of our own. Be-
fore his time, several "Histories of the United States" had been
written, sufficiently faithful as to the outward facts, but partak-
ing too much of the nature of mere chronicles or plain narra-
tive. Mr. Bancroft took a wider view of the historian's
province. Not limiting himself to public and notorious events,
he aimed, and in good measure succeeded, in diving down
into the very hearts of the people of the past, seeking from
obscure sources, in old newspapers, in the records of church
and town meetings, at the caucus,* in private correspondence,
in old diaries and journals, in parish registers and accounts of
militia drills—all materials whereby he could get at the real,
actuating motives and opinions of the people. Equally sedu-
lous was he, in his earliest volumes, to penetrate the influences
at work in the Governor's Council—to trace the origin and
follow out the effects of the measures of the Home Gov-

* An American word, denoting a meeting preliminary to a popular election.

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ernment; and from all these human actions and feelings, the historian deduced his theory, and drew philosophical conclusions as to the true ends of government, and for our own nation the best modes of administration.

In his view, history is not a premeditated, artificial combination or organization, but a growth, of which outward circumstances simply determine the manner. In the description of leading characters, he shows a just and clear penetration, and by the use of antithesis, makes each stand out clearer by the reflected light from contemporaries. The first volume of this compendious history was issued in 1834; the tenth in 1876. It is still unfinished, Mr. Bancroft being still at work on the last volume, which will close with the adoption of the Constitution in 1787.

William H. Prescott chose foreign subjects for his pen. A person of the finest literary taste, he labored under the disadvantage of partial blindness, and was constantly obliged to use the services of a reader and amenuensis. His first large historical work was the History of Ferdinand and Isabella, which was published in 1837. He had worked ten years upon it, being part of the time in Europe and part at his home in Boston. This gave him at once a European reputation, and it was followed successively by the "Conquest of Mexico," also that of Peru, and by his "History of the Reign of Philip II." He had every advantage of access to original documents, and ample means to overcome other obstacles arising from his defective vision. Indeed this, which might appear an insuperable bar to historical research, only made him the more careful and exact in his preparation. His assistants were sometimes obliged to read documents over to him fifteen or sixteen times, and in this way he got his facts and ideas so assimilated in his mind, that he was better able to imagine the connecting scenes and surroundings than can most persons with the full use of their eyes, who sometimes content themselves with very cursory examination of data. Hence resulted his special skill in the narration of scenic effects.

His works had from their first appearance a wonderful success. In a single year over forty thousand volumes were sold in the United States. The themes which he selected, if not entirely fresh, were new in the manner of their treatment, and much additional light was thrown upon facts hitherto un-

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

41

explained or wilfully crowded out of sight. Some of the
critics, who had detected partisanism in Bancroft, charged
Prescott with the other extreme of not expressing sufficient
indignation over sundry wrongs and crimes which he was
obliged to narrate. His private opinions can scarcely be de-
tected in his writings.

J. Lothrop Motley was, however, the crown of this histor-
ical triumvirate: and we can give him but a paragraph, who
deserves a volume Before commencing his famous histories
he had written some novels, which had met with but indifferent welcome; but probably no written history was ever re-
ceived with more enthusiasm than that of "The Rise of the
Dutch Republic." We well remember the furore it created.
For weeks the ever-recurring question heard in literary cir-
cles, by friends meeting upon the streets, in cars and on ferry-
boats, was: "Have you read Motley's Dutch Republic?" One
person, speaking to us of a lately-deceased friend, made the
remark, "O, I wish he could have lived long enough to have
read the Dutch Republic!"

When a book is received in this manner, it matters little
what professional critics and reviewers say about it. Mot-
ley's style is eminently dramatic: and he had the opportunity
of dealing with the most interesting epoch in the life of the
Low Countries and that of the Spanish Court. His pen-port-
traits are most wonderful exhibitions of word-painting. Philip
II, the Duke of Alva, Don John of Austria, Margaret of
Parma, and the Prince of Orange and his companions, are no
more buried with the centuries—they live and move, speak,
think, feel and act in our presence, like tangible realities; and
the reader follows the fate of each with all the interest which
is supposed to attach to the most attractive heroes of ro-
mance.

If the " History of the United Netherlands, " and "John of
Barneveld " was received with any less warmth, it arose from
the conviction that the fascination of the *chef d'œuvre* could
never be repeated, however valuable the succeeding volumes
might be. This luxuriance of style was no cover for careless
performance; every essential fact is habitually verified by
authentic references to an elegant superstructure on a basis of
primary rock.

Of American novelists, Charles Brockden Brown of Phila-
delphia, may be considered the pioneer, as he was also the first

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person in the United States who deliberately adopted litera-
ture as a profession. His novels have still a considerable local
reputation, but have been almost completely crowded out of
northern libraries by more modern competitors.

Mr. Gilmore Simms of South Carolina has written an im-
mense number of tales and other works, mostly novels of con-
siderable merit as exponents of local manners and feeling—
they are not very highly finished in style, but give interesting
pictures of Southern life, and particularly of the men and
times of a century ago. He has also written several novels
relating to more modern times. The latest edition of his
works consists of sixty volumes.

The first American novelist whose works were received
with what might be called popular acclaim was J. Fenimore
Cooper. He was born in New Jersey, but in his early
boyhood his home was on the borders of what was
then the western wilderness, and the many scenes which
he describes of pioneer and Indian life, were written
from his own observation and experience. He has written
thirty-two novels, and through a number of this series he in-
troduces, under the different aspects of youth, mature, and
old age, a peculiar character whom he calls Leather-Stocking
—a hunter, who forms a connecting link betwen civilized
man and the adjacent Indian tribes. This hardy pioneer was
also so familiar with the animal and vegetable life of the re-
gion, knowing the haunts of game, the notes of every bird,
the cave where the bear lurks, every mountain, tree, rock and
river, that he was almost as much an embodiment of these as
he was a specimen of untutored, but bright-witted, brave and
honest border life. Among Mr. Cooper's works the most pop-
ular are still the "Deerslayer," the "Pioneer," the "Path-
finder," the "Spy," the "Last of the Mohicans," the "Pilot,"
and "Jack Tier." Mr. Cooper had served as an officer in the
United States Navy for four years, and his sea tales have all
the relish of reality, so often lacking in novels which profess
to describe events at sea by those without practical experience.
James Russell Lowell, in his "Fable for Critics," accuses
Cooper of being unable to describe variations of fe-
male character. He says: "The women he draws from one
model don't vary, all sappy as maples and flat as a prairie,"
which ought surely to have been written if, at all, before the
publication of "Jack Tier," in which is described one of the
most remarkable female characters to be found in fiction.

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

43

From the time when Cooper ceased to write until the appearance of Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," hundreds of novels had been written, read, and more or less admired; but this story simply took the whole community by storm. It has been translated into more languages than any book except the Bible, and made the fortune not only of both publisher and author, but of many dramatic companies, some of whom are still performing mutilated versions of it. Upon the provincial stage. With the single exception of this book, which portrays Southern life as it was in the days of negro slavery, Mrs. Stowe's best efforts have been in the direction of painting New England domestic life.

For absolute literary merit neither of the above can be compared to the late Nathaniel Hawthorne, whose exquisitely attuned spirit, delicate sensibilities, weird imagination and felicity of pure expression have no superior and few who approximate his finest qualities. For artistic plot, Edgar A. Poe was his only rival, but the latter mixed so much of the grotesque and horrible with his tales that admiration for his intellectual power is more than balanced by the feeling of relief which one experiences at escape from the witching spell of his ghastly denouements. With Hawthorne, on the contrary, there may be mental anguish portrayed which somewhat overtasks the sympathies at times, but the reader's brain is relieved by touches of kindly nature, and with an ever recurring undercurrent of humor, which sees the ludicrous side and the weak points of the members of his artistic world; but with no disposition to hold them up to ridicule—he rather excites our sympathy and pity. Hawthorne excels in psychological studies. It is the vivisection of souls to which he invites us. In his most striking work, "The Scarlet Letter" we feel that an almost miraculous power of insight into the movements of the human soul had been given him, so certain are we that the persons he describes could have acted no other than they did. Few serio-humorous sketches exceed in fineness of touch his famous description of the old habitués of the Salem Custom House.

In all of Hawthorne's works their lies—not on the surface, but sometimes deeply hidden, and half obscured, a deep moral meaning, which is worth the trouble of picking out. His are not books to be read hurriedly. The mere novel reader will in all likelihood, prefer something else; but to the cultivated

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mind, accustomed to draw fine distinctions, and to think twice over the possible meaning which may have been in the mind of an author, Hawthorne is a continual well of delight and mental refreshment. His principal novels following the one above named, are the "House of the Seven Gables," the "Marble Faun" and "Blithedale." He has also written some delightful tales for young persons based on the old Greek mythology. Including some biographies and voluminous posthumous notes—which show us in a new light the earliest mental processes by which he reached the fulfillment of an end—we have from him about thirty volumes. His son, Julian, has inherited much of his father's genius and has already published several novels.

Of our peculiar western population, on the shores of the Pacific, including the mining districts, Bret Hart is the best exponent.

To our American readers it may seem somewhat trite to notice at length so familiar a poem as Edgar A. Poe's "Raven." But all of our readers are not in the United States, and not the briefest sketch of American literature could be deemed just in its standard of selection which ignored this remarkable production, one of, if not the only, purely artistic poem which has been produced in the country. It is too long to quote, but a brief analysis of its construction will enable our readers to whom it may not be known to form some idea of its merit.

The writer represents himself as sitting in his luxuriously furnished study, absorbed in melancholy thought over the lost mistress of his soul—the young and beautiful Lenore. In the midst of his revery he hears a gentle tapping. After allowing this to be repeated, thinking it some unimportant visitor, he at last arouses himself and opens the door, when instead of the expected human being, he finds "darkness there and nothing more." But the tapping is repeated, something louder, and he at last discovers the sound to come from the window, which he opens, when, to his fear and astonishment, in stepped a "grim, and gaunt and ghastly Raven"—

"Not the least obesity made he; not a moment stopped or stayed he;
But with mien of lord or lady perched upon my chamber door,
Perched upon a bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door;
Perched and sat, and nothing more."

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45

Then begins a discourse between the poet and bird, in which,
however, the Raven only answers, but always aptly, with the
single word—"Nevermore!" The poet then falls to solilo-
quising as to what this mysterious fowl may mean, by "al-
ways croaking, Nevermore." As the poem progresses, we
seem to feel the increasing nervous irritation of the poet over-
this ominous refrain, who finally arrives at the idea that the
uncanny creature had been sent in some way to give him in-
formation, and to relieve his longing desire to know "if in
that distant Aden, he should clasp a radiant maiden, whom
the angels call Lenore."

"Then methought the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer,
Swung by Seraphim whose foot-falls tinkled on the tufted floor.

'Wretch!' I cried, 'thy God hath lent thee, by these angels he hath sent thee:
Respite, respite, and Nepenthe, from thy memories of Lenore;
Quaff, O, quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore,
Quoth the Raven, 'Nevermore!'"

"'Be that word our sign of parting, bird or fiend," I cried, upstarting;
'Get thee back into the tempest, and the night's Plutonian shore!

Leave no black plume as a token of that lie thy soul hath spoken;
Leave my loneliness unbroken! quit the bust above my door;
Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from off my door;
Quoth the Raven, 'Nevermore!'"

Edgar A. Poe has written many other beautiful poems, of
which "The Bells" are perhaps the most popular. His tales
show the acme of intellectual ingenuity, but are too bizarre
and frightful to be really popular.

In perfect contrast to the storm-tossed, passionate nature
of Poe, is the cool-headed, self-poised, serene "Sage of Con-
cord"—the New England transcendental philosopher, Ralph
Waldo Emerson, now in his seventy-seventh year, but as
alive as ever to all the great ideas which have been the tools
with which he has worked for nearly half a century. When
we are asked what Emerson has actually done, to account
for the reverence in which his name is held, we find that the
tangible evidences are not so striking as the inquirer might
expect. He has founded no school of philosophy; he has
written comparatively few books. He has made no claims
to leadership, but, as was once said of one greater than he,
"Virtue went out from him." Emerson's influence has been
mainly personal. During forty years of service in the lec-
ture-field, his mind has come in contact with thousands of

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Other minds all over the country. Wherever he has spoken, he has left thought-seed behind him, and always of thenobling, elevating kind. A sham, though ever so respectable, could not stand in his presence.

The most distinctive quality which appears in his writings is the vigor of his moral imagination. Penetrating the actual, he sees the possible. He makes naught of all your marble palaces, and straightway builds himself *châteaux d'Espagne*, composed of the transcendental virtues, and revels in the exceeding worth of his habitation over yours, which mere money could buy. Emerson's prose writings, made up in great measure of his printed lectures and essays, are not books to be read once and laid aside, but are rather to be regarded as store-houses of thought, to be drawn upon as occasion requires. We believe Mr. Emerson regards himself as a poet—and so he is, in the larger sense of the word—but the necessary talent of rhythm is lacking in him. We prefer his prose; his verses are too heavily weighted with thought to easily take the polished, undulating symmetry of metre.

The poet, whom no one can mistake for anything else, is Prof. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Cultured by all which familiarity with the best teaching and contact with the best minds of both hemispheres could produce on a naturally receptive nature, to which the good Fates saw fit to add the gift of poesy, Mr. Longfellow has continued through a long life and up to the present date to publish at intervals volume after volume of original songs, ballads and poems, with occasional translations from the Spanish, German, French, Italian and Swedish, including his magnificent rendering of the "di. vine Florentine." For beauty of rhythm he easily stands at the head of all our poets; and with several of his poems—as that of "Evangeline" and the "Golden Legend"—it would be difficult to find the poet of any age who could improve them by an alteration; while several of his minor poems, such as the "Psalm of Life" and "Resignation," are cherished in grateful hearts from the Arctic circle to the antipodes, and in every city and hamlet which the sun passes in his course over civilized lands.

Among his latest issues are "Poems of Places;" but he won the crown a generation ago in his "Seaside" and "Fireside," with the poems above named, and made an epoch in his fame by his peculiar metrical Indian legends under the

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

47

title of Hiawatha. In early life Mr. Longfellow published
two prose works, "Outre Mer" and "Hyperion."

Of all his shorter poems there is none more tenderly
charming than that of "Palingenesis." It seems cruel to
divide it, but we can only spare space for a verse or two, to
show the beauty of the rhythm:

"I lay upon the headland height and listened
To the incessant sobbing of the sea,
In caverns under me;
And watched the waves that tossed and fled and glistened,
Until the rolling meadows of amethyst
Melted away in mist.

There was an old belief, that in the embers
Of all things, their primordial form exists,
And cunning Alchemists
Could recreate the rose, with all its members,
From its own ashes, but without the bloom—
Without the lost perfume.

Ah me! what wonder-working occult science,
Can from the ashes of our hearts, once more
The rose of youth restore?
What craft of alchemy can bid defiance
To time and change, and for a single hour
Renew this phantom flower?"

John Greenleaf Whittier, the sweet-singing "Quaker Poet,"
is in some respects a perfect contrast to Longfellow. With
no experience of foreign travel, and yet with sympathies as
broad as humanity, and an imagination which appears almost
a perfect substitute for reality, he has, happily for his coun-
trymen, almost by the force of circumstances, earned the
proud distinction of being most emphatically our National
Poet. Living in the beautiful valley of the Merrimac, sur-
rounded with legendary hills, on a river's bank which flows
from source to mouth through historic ground, only half a
dozen miles distant from the ocean, he has at hand in his sur-
roundings all the necessary materials of suggestiveness to a
poetic nature, while the sect to which he belongs by birth and
education, though his soul early burst through its narrow
bounds, was calculated to induce a habit of continuous reflec-
tion, which is a good pruner of poetic fancies.

But Whittier is something more and better than even a
national poet who has consecrated by song every stream and

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

49

He next describes the changes during the year to be enjoyed in a northern region, and then reverts to the differences to be found in a southern clime:

“I know not how in Southern lands
The changing seasons come and go:
What splendors fall on Syrian sands,
What purple lights on Alpine snow,
Nor how the pomp of sunrise waits
On Venice at her watery gates;
A dream to me is Arno’s Vale,
And the Alhambra’s halls a traveler’s tale.

“Then ask not why to these bleak hills
I cling, as clings the tufted moss,
To bear the winter’s lingering chills,
The mocking spring’s perpetual loss;
I dream of lands where summer smiles,
And soft winds blow from spicy isles;
But scarce would Ceylon’s breath of flowers be sweet
Could I not feel thy soil, New England, at my feet.”

A very popular poem of Whittier’s is that of “Snow
Bound,”—also, the “Tent on the Beach,” and “Among the
Hills.” His “Voices of Freedom” are less read now than
when first published, because the occasion which brought
them forth has happily ceased; his “Home Ballads” will al
ways be fresh. Some of his shorter poems, like “Maud
Müller,” and “Barbara Fritchie,” are familiar as daily speech
in half the households of the land. Mr. Whittier has written
some prose works, such as the “Legends and Superstitions of
New England,” &c. Some of the most charming of his ballads
and narrative poems are such as refer to Quaker customs and
former Quaker persecutions. The dear old poet has good
work in him yet; even as we write, his latest verses on “St.
Martin’s Summer,” have just come to hand.

James Russell Lowell (late U. S. Minister at Madrid), is
one of those versatile writers of whom it is difficult to say
which is their best vein—we are very clear which is his worst.
His poems show every variety, “from grave to gay, from
lively to severe,” from the tenderest pathos to the broadest
humor—from the most finished style, to what seems the most
careless, though probably the latter cost him more trouble to
simulate than the former, which would be natural to a culti-
vated mind like his, which is the heir of an hereditary and
educated taste for many generations. Among the best of his

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poems is that of the "Vision of Sir Launfal," which is descriptive of a Knight who sets out to seek the Holy Grail (the sacred cup which Christ is supposed to have used at the Last Supper with his disciples). As he leaves his castle gate, he perceives a poor leper, to whom he throws a dole of gold more in disgust than pity. Returning, unsuccessful in his search, after years of weary toil, having been taught by hard experience and suffering to sympathize with the poorest of God's creatures, he finds apparently the same afflicted beggar in the same position at his door. Now he has no gold to give, but he does better, he shares with him his pilgrim's crust, and fetches him water to drink with his own hands, when to his opened vision the form of the seeming leper arose, all gloriously transformed into the very Christ whose cup he had gone into foreign lands to seek.

"And the voice that was calmer than silence
Said, 'It is I, be not afraid;
In many climes without avail
Thou hast spent thy life for the Holy Grail;
Behold it is here—this cup, which thou
Didst fill at the streamlet for me but now.
This crust is my body, broken for thee,
This water His blood that was shed on the tree;
The Holy Supper is kept indeed
In what we share with another's need.

* * * * * *
Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,
His hungering neighbor, himself and ME.'"

In the satirical poems and letters published by Mr. Lowell, under the assumed name of the "Bigelow Papers," he has chosen to use an exaggerated local dialect, involving false spelling and ignoring all grammatical laws; but under the grotesqueness of this garb, he has enunciated his favorite theories and most earnest convictions. He probably believes that more people read them for the novelty of the diction than would otherwise have done so. In this we think he made a great mistake.

It seems hardly fair to distinguish Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes as especially a humoristic poet, because he is so much else; yet we are compelled to do so because he is the finest example which we have of that class. John G. Saxe has written more than well in this direction, and many of his efforts would compare favorably with the comic muse of Holmes;

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but he has published far less, and shows less versatility. Holmes has accomplished a vast amount of literary work. His professional lectures alone would fill many volumes, and his miscellaneous addresses would have exhausted the talent of many able men. As a novelist, he is one of the most popular; his "Autocrat at the Breakfast Table" is a mine of good things, and in his "Elsie Venner" he teaches a subtle physiological truth under the pleasing guise of a story, simple in plot, but wrought out with exquisite effect—in fact the acute reader might infer in many of his passages, in this and other writings, that the accomplished anatomist stood behind the chair and prompted the novelist and poet, as also in some of his most amusing sallies of wit. But wit and wisdom with him are very close companions. Here are a few slight specimens of their combination:

"Our brains are seventy-year clocks. The Angel of Life winds them up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hand of the Angel of the Resurrection. Tic-tac! tic-tac! go the wheels of thought; our will cannot stop them; they cannot stop themselves, sleep cannot still them; madness only makes them go faster. Death alone can break into the case, and seizing the ever-swinging pendulum, which we call the heart, silence at last the clicking of the terrible escapement, we have carried so long beneath our wrinkled foreheads."

Here is another of his bright thoughts:

"Peace be with you and a summer by the still waters of some quiet river, or by some yellow beach, and where you can sit with Nature's wrist in your hand, and count her ocean pulses."

Speaking of a woman whose musical voice had charmed him, but who was otherwise unrefined and ignorant, he says, in substance: "One had better drown themselves in Lake Erie than commit such a mesalliance; better to accept asphyxia, which takes only three minutes by the watch, than a mesalliance that lasts fifty years to begin with, and then passes along down the line of descent, breaking out in all manner of boorish manifestations * * which can be traced back to beings that ate with knives and said 'Haow?'"

On the 2d of Dec., 1874 (postponed from Aug. 19), the friends of Dr. Holmes greeted him on the seventieth anniversary of his birthday with a public "breakfast," at which all

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the leading wits and poets of Massachusetts, and many from
other States, were present. His own poem read on that oc-
casion, entitled the "Iron Gate," is one of the most finished
and beautiful which he has ever written, and shows not the
least sign of failing powers.

J. Bayard Taylor, late United States Minister to the
Court of Berlin, whose recent death has caused in many
circles an awakened interest in his works, first wrote him-
self into popularity by a series of letters addressed as foreign
correspondent of the "New York Tribune." These were
afterwards collected and published in book form, under the
title of "Views Afoot," and were the result of a semi-
pedestrian tour of two years duration through Europe. He
has written a large number of volumes of travel, relating to
various parts of the world; but none have become as popular
as the first named, though they are all interesting, without
being very profound or exhaustive of the subjects handled.
Had he not been in haste to make fame and money, he would
probably have remained a poet only, for that is evidently his
forte, though his prose writings are by far the most volumin-
ous.

He had not an introspective mind, but he siezed readily the
salient points of all externals. The sensuous beauty of the
Orient charmed him, and awakened his nature as it had never
been stirred before—as he says in his poem, "The Poet in
the East:"

"And the Poet knew the land of the East,
His soul was native there.
Here is the light on land and sea,
And the dream deceives no more."

Again, in "L'Envoi," he strikes the same idea:

"I found among the children of the Sun
The cipher of my nature" * *

Mr. Taylor's capacity for continuous labor enabled him to
produce book after book with great rapidity, to gather matter
for which he traveled over almost every section of the globe.
His easy assimilation with all sorts of people, with considerable
linguistic readiness, facilitated his observations and brought
him into contact with scenes that more fastidious travelers
would have avoided. It is no disparagement to say of most

MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE.

53

of his books of travel, that the earning of money was a prime
motive in their production. His natural curiosity and keenness
of observation make some of his descriptions unique in their
way, others of them are like enlarged "Murray's" and "Uni-
versal Guides;" a little more repose of character would have
improved them. This is shown in his last works, when he
was less pressed by the money-fiend than in the earlier part
of his life. His translation of Faust is a most careful and
conscientious piece of work, and it is evident that he spared
no time nor trouble to put himself, so far as was possible, into
that attitude of mind in which the author himself was when
he conceived and executed the original, which we take to be
the master-key to all good translations.

The "Prince of Deukalion," a drama, is an ambitious work,
tending to exhibit the struggles of man in his progress from
the merely physical good to the heights of the moral and in-
tellectual. With the exception of the two last-named works,
Mr. Taylor's "Poems of the Orient" and his "California Bal-
lads," show the workings of his mind to the best advantage.
Several of his poems have been translated into the Russian
language, and in Germany his works are almost as well
known as in his native land.

It must be evident to the reader in the slightest degree ac-
quainted with modern American literature, that the above
synopsis is too straitened to be just to the many excellent
writers omitted in these pages, but the exigencies of limited
space have compelled us to avoid all mention of our eminent
jurists, scientists, and dramatic authors, as also many novel-
ists, poets, historians, essayists and journalists of established
reputation, with all that large number of female writers
which would rightfully have a place in any extended com-
pendium of American authors.

The most recently published synopsis of these, all ranking
above mediocrity, contains between eight and nine hundred
names, and it is by no means complete; while the general
diffusion of education, which has created an immense reading
public, also tends to the inspiration of authorship, which
would undoubtedly be yet more largely developed did not the
absence of an international copyright law offer every induce-
ment to publishers to reprint foreign books, at slight ex-
pense, in preference to paying for the products of American
brains.

54 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

BY THE MARQUISE DE —

THE great regard which is paid to persons enjoying what are called titles of nobility in many parts of Europe, and the eager pursuit of titles of distinction in almost every part of the world, is a fact of history, which confronts us everywhere. In many countries, no sooner does a person find himself raised beyond the need of pursuing business for an income, than he begins to think if he may not procure a title to add to his name and estates. As a general rule, those who possess hereditary titles look down upon those who have only recently attained them with supreme contempt; while others, even of education and refinement, and possessing every essential comfort of life—even its luxuries—yet make themselves unhappy if they cannot wear a star, an official ribbon, or some such decoration.

Whence did this general desire spring? and what is the real origin of the leading titles of nobility and distinction?

We will try to answer these queries as plainly and briefly as possible.

Let us look back, for an instant, to the first dawnings of human existence in communities or tribes, and we shall find that nature has made one man stronger, wiser, more beautiful, cunning or fluent in speech than his kinsmen in the same tribe. If any one person combined several of these qualities, he would almost certainly be chosen as the leader or chief. This would bring to him certain advantages at once: in the first place, it would give him power over his fellows—they would execute his will, bring him the finest and softest skins, the fattest game, the largest fish, the ripest fruit. He would have the largest tent or hut, and his sons would be treated with more consideration than the children of other men. Who then, would not wish to be recognized as chief? But the capacity for headship of a tribe—still more a civilized nation—is limited; what are all the rest to do? (until they learn the true philosophy of life, and the unessential nature of such ambitions). Naturally get as near to the head as they can, and share the favors pertaining to sovereignty.

Hence, in the progress of society, we soon see the head or leader of a people surrounding himself with body—household

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

55

and military—servitors, and it is precisely out of this primitive and natural growth of society that all the titles of nobility of the highest rank have been developed. They all, below the rank of sovereign, originally indicated some form of servitude!

One of the most curious facts relating to titles is the changes which they have undergone, both as regards the meaning of the words and the relative degree of honor attaching to them. Take, for instance, the title of king; in modern Europe it is now regarded as next in dignity to that of emperor; yet, time was, when in the north and west, among the Scandinavians, Saxons, Celts and Britons, a king was comparatively a very insignificant person, as every one may convince himself by reading the sagas, songs and chronicles relating to the sixth and seventh centuries. In the description of every battle fought we find the names of numerous kings, perhaps a dozen killed in one conflict. The fact is, that these so-called "kings" were simply the leaders of small bands of fighting men, and, as appears by subsequent evidence, of not more than a hundred—sometimes less. From this historical fact arose the division of part of the soil of England into what is known as "hundreds"—equivalent to a village or parish in other parts of the country. Blackstone, the great English commentator upon the common law, describes at length the jurisdiction of "The Hundred's Court." The Chiltern Hundreds is one of these divisions yet remaining, and it has a peculiar and amusing history in English politics.

In the period of the early Saxon settlements in England, these swarming kings of the period usually divided the conquered soil among their followers, so that each permanent settlement received this numerical name, whether these freebooters numbered more or less than the average. That the kingly estate was at a low ebb in the early Saxon times, may be farther inferred from the fact that King Egbert, who had obtained a wider ascendancy than his predecessors, strove to have his title changed by the Pope of Rome into the Greek word *Basileus*. But his successor, Alfred, did better: through his personal ability he made it respected. Vi-king was merely a king who traveled; the name was invented by the old Latin chroniclers; the marauding Norsemen did not call themselves vi-kings. It is from the Latin word *viator*, a traveler.

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The title of prince is oriental in its origin, and came to
Western Europe through the Latins. In the East, among the
Hindoos, Tartars and Slavs, it originally indicated a person
with independent jurisdiction, such as was maintained
by the princes of Muscovy before they adopted the
more comprehensive title of Czar. In England the title
has no legal significance, except as applied to the Prince
of Wales or heir apparent; when used in regard to other mem-
bers of the royal family it is merely a courtesy, and means
nothing. It is derived from the Latin *princeps*, meaning the
*first*. The Germans use both forms of the title, *prinz* and
*fürst*. In Russia, princes and princesses abound, for the rea-
son that all the ancient princes, who finally submitted to the
Russian Czars, with others since ennobled, have transmitted
the title, not to the eldest son only, but to all their offspring;
some of these, having neither land, wealth or education, have,
in the course of generations, still farther extended the title, so
that it is not now a positive proof of either exalted position or
refinement. In the ordinary estimation, a recipient of less
high-sounding honors from the present government is far
more highly respected than are these impecunious heirs of
the old noblèsse: this is an exception to the general rule in
other countries, and a peculiarity of Russian society.

The title of duke means a leader—originally a leader in
battle. In ancient times a duke, or generalissimo, was usually
chosen from among the petty kings, when combined action
was needed; the office was then temporary; the duke, or gen-
eral, falling back into his lesser dignity of kingship after the
conclusion of a peace. In England, duke is the highest title
to which a subject can attain. The title has several times
become extinct, and been renewed.

Next in dignity is that of marquis; this is common to all the
south and west of Europe, and, under the name of markgraf
or margrave, is also common in Germany. In the Italian it
is marchese. This title is as old as war and conquest. A
markisman is simply a marker, one who marked and kept the
boundaries of the march. In the earlier times these marks
or bounds would be natural objects—a rock, a tree, the margin
of a river, a spring or covered well. With the advancement of
civilization, more artificial marks would be made—rude in-
scriptions on stone; monuments and standards would follow.
In the Roman mythology there was a *deus limitaneus*—a sort

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

57

of celestial marchese; the tutelary goddess Marcia was such a divinity. At one time it was so common in France as to be used as a "traveling title." And of a person inclined to assume honors to which he was not entitled, they said, "il se marquise."

Other offices of a more strictly household nature grew up by the side of royalty. In former days, when kings went personally into battle and fought with their own hands, their personal safety must frequently have depended upon the quality of the horse which they rode; hence, in almost every language, we find some title existing equivalent to the French maréchal. In England we find an earl marsha!—where the title has long been hereditary in the family of the Dukes of Norfolk—John Howard being premier duke of England. However dignified the title may now sound, the first royal marshal appointed was neither more nor less than a head hostler, who was required to look personally after the grooming and feeding of the royal stud. In the time of Richard the Third there existed an old song, which is quoted by Shakspeare, referring to this element of the marshal's office, in which the Duke is spoken of as a "jockey":

> "Jockey of Norfolk, be not too bold,
> For Dickon [Richard III], thy master, is bought and sold."

Thus we might continue to trace out the original of every hereditary title of modern times, and we should come upon the same primary fact: that connected with them all was some form of service.

Barons holding under feudal tenure, were obliged to furnish men-at-arms on the call of their suzerain or lord paramount. He who even held only a knight's fee must bring his quota. Many of the German and French mediæval barons conducted themselves more like highway robbers than nobles. There exists a treaty at Chartres by which a baron promises the king that he "will not commit rapine upon the people," nor "follow bad customs." The ancestors of the Lord High Steward were actual purveyors for the royal household; the Lord High Chamberlain had no higher origin. The royal house of Stuart took their name from a favorite steward of the Scottish king, Robert Bruce, whose daughter, Marjorie, he married, and thus succeeded to the throne; the name being altered from the title of his former office to Stewart, as

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it continued until the time of Mary, Queen of Scots, who sub-
stituted the modern spelling in her French correspondence
from necessity, on account of the deficient letter in the
alphabet of the latter language.

There is another class of titles in Europe, connected with
orders of knighthood, which in modern times at least are
valued more for the decorations and insignia which accom-
pany them, and as marks of the favor of their sovereign, than
for any substantial benefit which they bring to the wearer.
Such are the Orders of St. Andrew, St. George, St. Catharine
and others of Russia. The Imperial Order of St. Andrew
was established by Peter the Great in 1698, in honor of the
apostle who is said to have first preached Christianity in Rus-
sia. This takes rank of all the other orders; it consists of
only one class, and is conferred only on sovereign princes, on
Russian nobility of the first rank, and foreigners of the high-
est distinction. The badge consists of an image of St. An-
drew on the cross, richly chased and enameled, resting upon
an imperial eagle of gold—the heads of the eagle ducally
crowned, and over both heads is an imperial crown. It also
bears the letters S. A. P. R. (Sanctus Andreas Patronus Rus-
siaci). It is worn pendant to a broad, blue riband over the
right shoulder. The jewel is a star of eight points, embroidered
in silver on the left breast of the outer garment; within
a circle of light blue is the motto: "Pour la Foi et la Fidé-
lité," in the Russian language. In the center of all is an im-
perial eagle on a gold ground, surmounted by a crown. On
state occasions the badge is worn pendant to a collar of gold,
composed of square chains and imperial eagles ducally
crowned, and over both heads the imperial crown; in the
right claw of the eagle is a sceptre. On the breast is a red
shield, charged with St. George slaying the dragon, with
some other decorations. The knights also wear a splendid
costume on days of ceremony. All the members who live in
St. Petersburg are required to be present at the annual festival
of the order, which is held on the 30th of November
(O. S.I.).

Beside this order, the insignia of which we have thus de-
scribed in detail, the principal orders in Russia in addition to
the above, are those of St. Catharine, instituted in honor of the
empress in 1714. The Order of St. Alexander Nevski was
founded in 1722, in honor of Alexander Yaraslovitch, Prince

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

'59

of Novgorod—a hero of 1240, who fought against the Swedes. He became a monk, was known in religion under the name of Alexis, and was subsequently canonized. The Imperial Order of St. George was founded by the Empress Catharine II, in 1769. She also established the Order of Vladimir, in honor of Vladimir the Great, first sovereign of "all the Rus-sias." There are also the Order of St. Anne, and some of lesser dignity, not necessary to mention. The Emperor is ex officio grand master of all the orders.

All the sovereignies of Europe have established similar orders of knighthood. One of the most prized on the conti-nent is that of the *Toison d'or*, or Golden Fleece, originally found in the Netherlands, now bestowed by the Emperor of Austria and the King of Spain. France has had its Ordre du Saint Esprit, commonly called *Le cordon bleu*, and its Legion of Honor, &c. Though the former order has been abolished, it is still cherished by those of the old *noblesse* who possess the insignia. Yet they are embarrassed by not being able to wear it on public occasions, which causes the irrever-ent *flaneurs* of the Boulevard to express the situation thus: *Notre Saint Esprit est chez nous un éléphant*.

Sweden has its Order of the Seraphim, the Sword and the Polar Star; Denmark, the Order of the Elephant and the Dannebrog; Prussia, those of the Red and Black Eagle, and the Iron Cross; Belgium, its Order of Leopold, recently conferred on the artist, Rosa Bonheur. In England the fam-mous Order of the Garter takes rank of all the others, though that of the Bath is both ancient and honorable; and the Victoria Cross and Star of India are as fresh and modern as the present reign.

Of all the saints, St. George appears to be the favorite, and his introduction, at least into England, is very curious. So far as is known the history is this: The Roman Emperor Trajan, while at war with Gurgistan (now Georgia) took a standard on which was displayed a dragon struck down by a horseman. He adopted it (the word "dragon" is from the Greek, and means looker-on, or watcher). It was worn as a device on the pectoral or breastplate of Roman officers serv-ing in Britain; and after the abandonment of the island by the Romans the British raised a similar device on their stand-ards, when going to battle against the invading Saxons, and early in the Christian era the Georgian chevalier was conse-

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crated as the first patron saint of Albion (the exact date is unknown). The symbol consisted of a white horse trampling a dragon.

In the old records of the City of Reading, under date of the 23d of April (1350), St. George's day, his festival was celebrated under the title of "Nostre Seignor St. George." There exists also a mandamus, in low Latin, calling upon the citizens to furnish workmen to "Renew the body of the dragon, and Notre Seignor Saint George." Three calf skins are also demanded to cover the dragon, with boards, nails and harness. A new dress is required for the prelate who was to represent the Saint. This lengthy mandamus concludes thus: "This expense being an homage rendered by the city to the Holy Patron, the dress shall remain as a present to the honorable prelate, representer of the sacred Chevalier. By George! Amen." The "By George!" was undoubtedly a substitute for "By Jove!" or "By Jupiter!" which had been used in the Pagan festivals under the Romans; and this explains the origin of the appeal to the Saint, as sometimes heard in vulgar phraseology. At Castle Mt. Orgueil, in the Isle of Jersey, are preserved, it is claimed, certain relics of the veritable St. George, and something is kept and shown in the crypt as such.

Beside these ornamental orders, there existed for several centuries in Europe at least two other orders of knights, who, in the zenith of their power and popularity, took rank of all others. These were the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem and the Knights Templar. The former subsequently received the names successively of Knights of Rhodes and Knights of Malta. Both orders did good service in repelling the Saracen invaders from the shores of Europe; and during the period of the crusades the grand masters of these orders, in the general councils of the papacy, took precedence of all present—kings, princes and knights of other orders—excepting only the Roman Pontiff or his Nuncio. The Teutonic knights were also held in high esteem; at first organized as hospitalers, and next as crusaders to operate in the Holy Land, they soon turned their arms to "converting," by fire and sword, the Pagans, Wends and others in the neighborhood of the Baltic, and thus conquered much of the land now occupied by Prussia, towards the northeast of her dominions. It would be impossible to

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

61

enumerate within the limits of a single article all the orders,
secondary titles and innumerable decorations of distinction
which the several governments of Europe have issued for
the reward and gratification of their subjects; no doubt find-
ing in these stars and ribbons a strength as of steel bands in
attaching the holders to their persons and service.

What has brought titles of honor and their insignia into
special contempt is the inordinate value which the weaker
class of people attach to them, and the still more absurd cus-
tom in some countries of very ordinary people presuming,
upon the merits of their ancestors and derived titles, to in-
sure respect for themselves without personal merit. Where
undue importance is placed upon these artificial distinctions
it sometimes leads to very ludicrous scenes. Readers of Ger-
man court gossip will recollect the remark of Frederick the
Great, when he experienced a delay and found that an ob-
struction had occurred between some punctilious persons on
a question of precedence. Upon being appealed to, he an-
swered: "Let the greatest fool go first."

In England the laws of precedence and etiquette are in
general very clearly understood, but there is one title applied
to so many ranks that it sometimes leads to confusion. This
is the title of "Lady," which may be used to describe a
person of as high rank as a duchess, or a mere knight's wife,
or even the wife of an acting mayor. This custom led
at least on one occasion to a most ludicrous scene. The late
Princess Amelia, when old, was quite deaf, and had for her
gentleman-in-waiting one of those martinets who had a far
better memory for the superficial laws of etiquette than either
judgment or common sense. It seems also that the princess
was in the habit of kissing such ladies as visited her. But on
one occasion a knight's wife was presented to her with the
title of "Lady ——." The gentleman usher looked on
aghast; afraid lest his royal mistress might not perceive the
precise rank of her visitor. Nor were his fears unfounded.
In the goodness of her heart the princess was just about to
salute her visitor, when Mr. Martinet shouted out, as he must
do if he meant to be heard: "Don't kiss her, your Highness;
don't kiss her; she isn't a real lady!"

People have sometimes been ennobled for very curious
reasons. King Richard II put one Tanner "into the estate
of a gentleman," that he might be enabled to answer a French
knight's challenge.

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In 1603 Sir Robert Spencer was believed to possess the largest amount of ready money of any person in England. King James always had need of that article, so the simple knight was forthwith made a baron, and complimented with an expensive journey to Wirtemburg on the King's account, which the new Baron Spencer paid for out of his own pocket.

Le Nôtre, the landscape gardener of Versailles, St. Cloud, the Tuileries, Champs Elysées, &c., received a patent of nobility from Louis XIV, and was given for arms "a cabbage, with a spade and rake for supporters"—one of those practical jokes with which le Grand Monarque delighted occasionally to flout his courtiers. Some persons have had titles changed and others forced upon them much against their will. In France, under the first empire, wholesale changes of this kind were made. One of the most aggravating cases was that of M. de Montmorency, the representative of one of the most ancient families of Europe, and who prided himself upon being "le premier baron chrétien;" he was made a comte. At the Faubourg St. Germain, they were in the habit of calling persons who thus had the new titles thrust upon them, "les comtes refaits."

A few persons have refused to accept titles when offered to them. Many of the old noblesse in France refused all honors offered them by "the Corsican." Louis XV presented Rameau with a patent of nobility that he might be eligible to accept the Order of St. Michel, which he wished to bestow upon him; but the author of "Le Système de Musique Théorique" did not record the patent, and allowed it to lapse. The artist, Tintoretto, refused an order and title from the Council of Venice.

Beaumarchais, the versatile French author, refused the Order of St. Michel offered him by the Minister Baron de Breteuil.

William Pitt, the "Great Commoner" declined the peerage which George III was anxious to give him; and the father of Earl Fitz William long postponed accepting a title because of the cost of the official fees to be paid into the Herald's office.

One of the most peculiar cases was that of the son of the first Lord Purbeck, who died in England in 1657; he refused to assume his title; even destroyed the enrollment of the patent of peerage, and persisted in calling himself Rob-

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

63

ert Danvers. Three years after the death of his father he was summoned to his place in Parliament as a peer of the realm, when he denied the peerage, saying that the King (Charles II) had given him leave to surrender it. But the Lords, after arguing the case, declared the surrender illegal—however, a lord he would not be; he expatriated himself, and died in Calais. Thus, as Shakspeare says:

> "Some are born great, some achieve greatness,
> And others have greatness thrust upon them."

Ecclesiastical titles have in former times been very highly valued. For some three or four hundred years there was no title in Europe which conveyed more reality of sovereignty than that of the Roman Sovereign Pontiff, who deposed princes and put kingdoms under interdict at his pleasure. His power over temporalities is gone, and to a great extent his spiritual power is weakened; and bishops of his nomination can no more raise armies and defy the Emperor of Germany as they often did the Emperor of the West in the mediaeval times. But ecclesiastics still sit as lords in the British House of Peers, and the Archbishop of Canterbury is recognized as the second person in dignity outside of the royal family, the Lord High Chancellor being the first. In England an archbishop is addressed as "Your Grace"—a bishop, as "My Lord Bishop;" but the wives of neither, though called by courtesy, "Lady," have any legal title whatever; which is probably to be accounted for by the fact, that when the Christian hierarchy was established, marriage was forbidden to the clergy of all grades, and the tenets of the Reformation, in that particular were not suddenly or decisively adopted under the Tudors. The growth of the sentiment in its favor was gradual, and hence no official title was ever bestowed on the wives of the "Lords Spiritual."

Among other curiosities of title-bearing, is the singular fact that some general sobriquets which at the present day are supposed to indicate very exalted rank or qualities, really had their origin in facts by no means creditable to the first persons who bore them. For instance, most persons, unless they are historical students, imagine that the name Plantagenet is one to be highly envied. Was not Richard Cœur de Lion a Plantagenet, and other royal persons? True, but the name or title came from anything but a royal incident.

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It arose in this way: Geoffrey, Earl of Anjou, father of Henry II, had been guilty of an atrocious crime, involving murder. For this he was assigned, as a penance, by his confessor, to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and arriving there to submit to castigation at the hands of his servant who accompanied him. Arrived at his destination, it appeared that no other suitable object presented itself wherewith to inflict the flagellation than some sprigs of a species of broom, known as the *planta genista*. The earl having at last attained to a condition of remorse for his crimes, adopted this plant as his emblem, and on his return to his native land, to show his humility, wore a sprig of it in his cap. When Henry II became king, his son was called the "Royal Sprig of Genista." The emblem continued to be worn by the kings of that race until the last scion, Richard III, was slain on the field of Bosworth.

The greatest drawback to the value of any title is even the suspicion that it can be bought. Yet there is no doubt that tangible considerations have procured many decorations. In some instances there has been little care taken to hide the humiliating fact. James I of England acquired the sobriquet of the "Title Broker" from his wholesale creation of baronets, for which it was notorious that money was paid. In the Empire of Brazil no secret is made over it, and patents of nobility with the titles of baron or commendadore, &c., can be had for a definite sum. The money thus obtained in the latter country is devoted to the maintenance of hospitals and other charitable institutions. What adds the greatest value to a title or an order is its strinent limitation to persons of the highest rank or most distinguished talent. Great care has usually been observed in the bestowal of the "Garter," which renders it among the few most highly prized at the present time. Yet it had its day of degradation—when Charles II presented it to the nine-years-old son of the Duchess of Portsmouth, of unsavory fame.

In remarkable contrast to the laxity of such a sovereign, is the permanent rule in Sweden that forbids any one, directly or indirectly, to apply for either of the three leading orders, with the deterrent penalty attached, which renders any such applicant for ever after ineligible. One of the exclusive privileges of the British peerage is that a "Lord" con-

CURIOUS ORIGIN OF TITLES.

65

victed of a felony may demand to "be hung with a silken
cord!"

The only attempt ever made in the United States to make
an honor hereditary, was by the "Order of the Cincinnati."
This was an association formed directly after the Peace of
1783 by the officers of the Continental Army. Its first in-
ception appears to have been simultaneous in the minds of
Major General Henry Knox and Major General Baron de
Steuben. The first meeting was called on the 10th of May,
1783, at the headquarters of the army, not yet disbanded, on
the banks of the Hudson River, some few miles north of West
Point, near the present site of Fishkill. The immediate ob-
ject of the society was social—to form a bond of union between
those who had been brothers-in-arms through the war, and to
perpetuate friendship through their children and later de-
scendants, including, of course, the idea of preserving invio-
late the principles for which they had fought through a seven
years' war. General Washington was elected the first Presi-
dent of the Society, which office he held until his death, when
he was succeeded by Alexander Hamilton.

The society had a branch in France, of which Marshal
Count de Rochambeau was president. It was formally recog-
nized by Louis XVI, and such of his subjects authorized to
join it as had seen service in America. It was very popular
in Paris. Six field marshals, ten generals, nine lieutenant-
generals, three admirals, three vice-admirals, two rear-
admirals, two princes, three dukes, eighteen marquises, and
others of lesser rank, so far stretched the license to join, as
to imagine "they had in some way served America," if not
in it.

The peculiar, and to many offensive, clause, in the rules of
the order, in the United States, was the provision that on the
death of a member, the vacancy should be filled by the eldest
son of the deceased. This feature caused immense indigna-
tion. Some of the State Legislatures went so far as to pub-
licly and officially protest against it, "as tending to create an
aristocracy." The Society were obliged, by the force of pub-
lic sentiment, to modify their published reports, and to an-
nounce that they would fill vacancies by election. The storm
blew over, the critics found other affairs to occupy their atten-
tion, and the Order of the Cincinnati has continued quietly
on its way to the present day. Nearly all of the present

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members hold their membership by hereditary claim, as either
the son or next nearest of kin in lineal descent from an original
member, and no one has been hurt, nor has any aristocracy
been established. Its membership has always included some
of the best and highest names in the thirteen original states.
No branch societies exist in the newer states. The badge of the
order is a gold eagle, with a pectoral shield, on which is a
representation of Cincinnatus solicited by the Roman sena-
tors, and other emblems. It is worn on a blue and white
ribbon, emblematic of the early alliance between France and
the United States.

The framers of the Constitution of the United States, an-
ticipating the future possibility of such temptations, enacted
the following as part of the organic law of the nation: "No
title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall,
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present,
emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any
king, prince, or foreign state" (Constitution of the U. S., Art.
1st., Sec. 9th, Clause 7th).

The prohibition in regard to the latter class of titles, it will
be noted, is not absolute, but simply discourages the reception
of decorations or titles from foreign courts. Yet we observe
that scarcely a session of Congress is held during which there
are not applications for permission to accept some proffered
foreign honor. This is particularly true of our naval officers.
But, as a general rule, it will be found that the American
trusts to his personal force of character, energy and talent to
distinguish himself, being of the same opinion as the poet :

"What can ennoble slaves, or fools, or cowards?
Not even all the blood of all the Howards!"

RUSSIAN MISSIONARY WORK IN JAPAN. 67

IT is but a few years since the first Russian Orthodox Church was founded at Tokio, thanks to the untiring zeal and devotion of the chief of the Japan mission, the Archimandrite Father Nicholas. And yet, in these few years, the work done by the Russian missionaries has progressed and developed with extraordinary rapidity.

From the annual report of the mission, read at the Synod of the Japanese Orthodox Church, we learn that in 1879 the church numbered a total of 6,000 members, an increase of 2,000 having taken place during one year. In the provinces, the congregations are beginning, of their own accord and out of their own means, to construct orthodox churches, taking as a model the Russian church architecture. Thus churches have been constructed in Marioka, Sapuna, and other towns and villages. In four other localities the necessary ground for the construction of churches has already been purchased, and the sums requisite for the accomplishment of the work are already in a great measure collected. In the provinces, not only the peasants and workmen, but also the chiefs of the communes, the judges, and other government officials, embrace the orthodox faith. In some provinces our Church numbers hundreds of members. Thus, at Tokio there are nine hundred and sixty-three members; at Cendau, seven hundred; at Odavari, two hundred and thirty. In some other villages the congregations, though less numerous, still embrace many of the most prominent, honorable and respected families. Though the other Christian Churches control over three hundred and twenty missionaries, and have in their possession enormous pecuniary means, still our missionaries have succeeded in gaining full and exclusive control over the northern part of the island of Nipouna, and compete most successfully with their Roman Catholic and Protestant brethren in the central part of the island.

This brilliant success is chiefly attributable to the chief of our Japanese mission, Father Nicholas, whose profound learning, eloquence and ability have gained him the love and respect of the whole people. His name is well known and pronounced with veneration all over the country. He has succeeded in preparing his missionaries in the most careful man-

68

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

ner, and has rendered them entirely capable of propagating
our faith among the Japanese, a thorough knowledge of the
language being the first condition required by him of every
missionary. In this, so the report states, the Russian missionaries greatly surpass their Catholic and Protestant brethren.

Our mission is still weak on the islands of Kiouciou and Cikakou, situated at the southern extremity of Japan. In the first-named locality our missionaries have just begun their work, and meet therein with a violent opposition on the part of the Roman Catholic clergy, and on Cikakou there is for the present but one orthodox missionary. The Synod of our Church in Japan, assembled in seventh session, resolved to send to the southern isles some of our best missionaries. This resolution has been passed in consequence of frequent deputations sent by pagans and Buddhists, requesting instruction in the orthodox faith. Our mission is frequently visited by similar deputations, coming from different parts of the country. Unfortunately, however, the limited means of the mission render it impossible to satisfy all the applicants. "Our only hope," so the report of the mission concludes, "rests in the zeal of all good Christians in Russia. We do not doubt that if it were possible to cover Japan with a net of our missions, the whole country would in a short time become Orthodox Christian."

The report of the mission from which we have condensed
the above-stated facts was read in the tenth annual session
of the Synod of the Japanese Orthodox Church, which took
place on the anniversary of St. Peter and Paul's Day, at Tokio,
in the building of the Russian Mission Church, Archimandrite
Father Nicholas presiding. At a table, placed in the center of
the church, were seated, besides the Archimandrite, three of
the Russian missionaries and six Japanese priests. Behind
them, assembled in the aisle of the church, eighty Japanese
catechists and one hundred and fifty deputies of the Japanese
people, from all parts of the country where our missionaries
had been at work. Among them several bonzes attracted the
general attention. They had come there, probably, to see and
hear for themselves how the destruction of their religion and of their idols is preparing. Father Nicholas
opened the proceedings by a touching sermon, whereupon
various questions touching the progress of missionary work

SUGGESTIONS TO RUSSIAN IMMIGRANTS. 69

in Japan were discussed and disposed of. The Synod re-
mained in session for ten days. In one of its last meetings a
resolution was passed to the effect that the Holy Synod in St.
Petersburg be requested to consecrate an orthodox bishop for
Japan, with the title of Bishop of Jeddo and Cendau.

According to the latest intelligence which reaches us from
St. Petersburg, this request has been granted by the highest
authority of our Church. Archimandrite Nicholas, hereto-
fore chief of the Russian mission in Japan, has been raised to
the dignity of Bishop. A worthier choice could scarcely have
been made. We have the honor of knowing the 'Bishop
personally, and can but express our profound and unmiti-
gated joy at seeing the interests and future destinies of our holy
faith in Japan laid in the hands of a man so able, so learned
and possessed in so high a measure with all the energy of
faith and action necessary for leading the missionary work to
a fruitful end.

IN September of the year 1874, *the Editor* addressed to the Russian press of St. Petersburg, the following communication :

“ Scarcely a week passes without my receiving from Rus-
sians, residing in the United States, applications for work, or
pecuniary assistance, sufficient to save them from misery and
hunger. On similar occasions all applicants are unanimous in
declaring that they have been greatly deceived in their hopes
of a better life in the New World, and that they sincerely re-
gret having left their own country. These are the reasons
which prompt me to address myself to the Russian press,
requesting all its organs to advise most earnestly all Russians
not to emigrate to America. For such Russians, however,
as are nevertheless desirous of venturing on this long and
tedious journey, I consider it advisable to bear in mind the
fact that persons acquainted with some practical trade, such
as tailors, shoe makers, stone-cutters, carpenters, etc., have,
perhaps, a chance of finding occupation in this country,
while school-teachers, literary men, clerks, and such like are

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sure to find themselves here in the most precarious position. A thorough knowledge of the English language is, naturally, the first and necessary condition for every immigrant. From some remarks on the part of Russians coming to New York, I have inferred that a notion prevails in Russia of the existence of a 'Russian Benevolent Society' in New York, the object of which is to procure occupations to newly arrived Russians, give them temporary aid, and so forth. This notion is, however, entirely unfounded. If some of the Russians intending to emigrate to America should notice these lines and be by them arrested in the accomplishment of their rash design, I will consider that my letter has fulfilled the purpose for which I have written it."

The above notice was published by the Russian newspapers, as we have stated, more than five years ago, and still every word of the warning it contains is as applicable to the present state of things, as it was at that time. In our own experience we meet nearly every week with the fact that persons emigrate from Russia to America, not only without having decided upon some plan for their future life in this country, but utterly devoid of the remotest notion about the actual conditions of life, the manners, even the language, of the country they emigrate to.

This circumstance is chiefly attributable to the fact that in Europe generally, and more particularly in Russia, the most erroneous notions about this country still prevail, which, far from being dispelled by the accounts and descriptions of superficial travelers and pleasure seekers, are as a rule still more exaggerated by them. According to these notions the United States appear as a part of the globe endowed with most exceptional, nearly supernatural, properties, far exceeding all normal conditions of civilized life in other countries. Work and wages—and the highest and most munificent wages—appear to be lying here in the streets awaiting the passer-by to take them up; a blacksmith, a carpenter, a car-conductor, without mentioning the clerks and book-keepers, every one of whom is supposed to rival Rothschild in wealth—all of them are said to earn here wages comparable only to the emoluments received in Europe by ministers of state and the chief generals of the armies. And what is more wonderful than all this, the conditions of American work appear in the lively imagination of most of the European emigrants

SUGGESTIONS TO RUSSIAN IMMIGRANTS. 71

surrounded by a sort of glittering halo and devoid of all the
usual hardships and difficulties inherent to human toil. We
have met with scores of emigrants, who, without possessing
either talent or aptitude for, or knowledge of, any specialty
whatever, come to this country in the full confidence that all
this is here utterly superfluous, that it suffices for be-
coming rich in America to land in New York and to express
a desire to work.

These fabulous notions are chiefly based on exaggerated ac-
counts of the sudden prosperity which followed the war.
What was after all but a golden bubble on the surface of
American social life has been mistaken in Europe for a normal
condition of affairs. And it will doubtless take many a year
of bitter deceptions and hard experience to dispel this great
illusion, and to teach the European, and foremost the Rus-
sian, emigrant the following simple truths:

1. That the United States, like any other country, and, be-
ing a young country, perhaps more than any other, are in
need of men thoroughly and carefully instructed in the differ-
ent specialties of trade, art or science, and that they are cer-
tainly not in need of persons who cross the ocean for no other
reason than because they do not know what to do with them-
selves on the other side, and still less know what is awaiting
them here.

2. That even within the limits indicated above, the differ-
ent trades and specialties in America dispose of an amount of
working forces not only sufficient for the ordinary require-
ments of social and industrial life, but (especially after the
crisis of 1872-79) even exceeding those requirements, so that
competition of labor has of late become distressing even for
the resident laboring class—how much more so for the immi-
grants.

3. That while the chances of success for an immigrant
workman or tradesman are very small, they are infinitely
smaller for every man who has received a so-called "general
education," and for whom in our essentially practical com-
munity there is decidedly no room.

4. That the extraordinary facilities for purchasing and es-
tablishing a farm in the "Far West" (another delusion under
which emigrants frequently labor), though actually existing,
are now only accessible to persons in possession of at least
1,000 dollars—the minimum of the sum necessary for the

72 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

journey, the purchase of the land, and of agricultural tools,
instruments, of cattle and so forth; without mentioning the
trifling circumstance that even for farming some aptitude and
knowledge are necessary besides money.

It is highly desirable that these clear, plain facts, should
be taken into consideration by every Russian, who from any
cause whatever might be seized by the fever of emigration.
May he bear in mind that Russia, too, is a young country,
which stands badly in need of the combined energies of all her
best children, and that emigration, though a salutary measure under some circumstances, when it takes the shape of a
transfusion of vital, wholesome forces from one national body
to the other, is, on the other hand, the very reverse of a blessing, either for the country whence it comes or for that where
it goes, when it arises from a morbid misdirection of forces,
a delusion as to the conditions and exigencies of practical life.

As the above lines are meant solely for the guidance of
the Russian public, the Russian press will certainly confer a
favor on many a misguided Russian by giving to them and to
the warning contained in them, and based on the experience
of many a year, the widest possible circulation in Russia.

A SOCIETY PROBLEM.

WELL-EDUCATED men, who have reached, or passed,
what may be termed "middle life," now and then find
themselves at a loss how to dispose of an "off" evening.
They have had all that is to be had of entertainment at the
theatres and the opera; lectures and concerts have no charm
for them; clubs, as now organized and conducted, are repulsive rather than attractive to their tastes; dinner parties offer
nothing to intellectual people; and the other parties—to wit,
the "balls"—of the present day are, to men of culture, a
cross between purgatory and pandemonium. Some of the
class of men above indicated are married, some are widowers, some are bachelors. They all have more or less of a
"home," and they spend many evenings at home with their
families, or their friends, as the case may be; or they visit their
friends at their homes—as the case may be. But, with all that,

A SOCIETY PROBLEM.

73

there will be an off-evening, here and there, when the hours
are unoccupied and tedious. What is to be done with them ?
is the question, or the problem, indicated at the head of this
paragraph.

The Scripture tells us, "As iron sharpeneth iron, so the face of a man his friend;" and thus the meeting face to face of friends, and of congenial spirits who need but to meet to become friends, sharpens the intellect, enlarges the views, and adds greatly to the enjoyment of intellectual men. That is a speculative, or, rather, a theoretical solution of the problem. The matter in hand is—how can we get a practical solution of it?

That point has been considered and debated many times,
and for many years in this metropolis of the western world ;
and one man has shown himself to be a genius, by elucidat-
ing it.

A wealthy citizen of New York—a gentleman of genial
temper, courtly manners, high cultivation and unusual per-
sonal endowments, some years ago invited to his house the
"representative men" of the better classes of New York so-
ciety. The list included selections from the clergy, the bench,
the bar, the medical profession, the army, the navy, presi-
dents and professors of colleges, artists, musicians, Southern
planters, bankers, authors, editors, diplomats, educated men
of any specialty, and active and retired merchants—whether
or not residents of New York.

As a matter of course, the beginning of this enterprise was,
comparatively, "a day of small things"—that is to say, of
small numbers; it was an experiment, judiciously made with
a view to future increase. But there was not a moment's
uncertainty as to its success. Agreeable surprise was the
unanimous sentiment of the guests of the first evening; the
list of invitations was extended from units to tens in the
several classes; the evenings were made weekly for the sea-
son; and, in short, MR. HAMERSLEY'S Friday evenings became
an Institution. Thus was the problem solved.

But there is something more to be said. Generalities do not
explain the success of the Institution. It is by no means a
matter of course that one clergyman, one judge, one lawyer,
one doctor, and so on, taken at random from the several pro-
fessions and avocations, would form a homogeneous and con-
genial gathering. On the contrary, a selection of one from

74 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

each of the many varieties *might* be so made that each factor of the compound would be repulsive to each other factor, and the result would be a modern Pandora's box. But it is here that the inventor of the Institution showed himself to be master of the situation—as capable of arranging the details of the machinery as of inventing the machine in its entirety. From each department of our social organization he had the tact to select spirits congenial to each other; and that selection proved to be at once the secret and the element of permanent success. The same number of guests indiscriminately taken from the mass would, after the experience of their first evening, take the best of good care never to be caught in such company again.

The manner in which these gentlemen entertain themselves and each other varies with the varying number of the guests on succeeding evenings. If, owing to foul weather, but six or ten are present, they all join in discussing the topics of the day. If the number of guests is large, they form coteries in corners and then change about. Sometimes, one who has something of special interest to communicate takes the floor for the common benefit, and, in such cases, much that is new and important, which might otherwise never gain circulation, is disseminated and remembered.

It has sometimes happened that with a full attendance of guests, including several of the U. S. Generals who were in active service during the late rebellion, one of those officers would be called on for the details of a turning point in one of the great battles of the war; and his remarks, with corroborating circumstances from other officers there and then present, would produce a chapter of history never committed to paper, yet never surpassed in thrilling interest by any printed record. There is a fascination in the details of a battle-field, when related by actors in and eye-witnesses of the fight, which far exceeds what any one reads in a newspaper, or a book; and which, in fact, comes very near to making the auditors themselves eye-witnesses to the conflict. Those of Mr. Hamersley's guests who had the good fortune to be present on such an occasion, and to listen to, for instance, Generals Hancock, or Doubleday, or Kiddoo, and other living officers, or to the late Generals Hooker and Custer, will long remember how delightedly they listened, until the church clock across the way rung out the small hours of the night, or morning.

A SOCIETY PROBLEM.

75

Again, the lovers of music have listened to Col. Maple-
son's store of anecdotes about the great singers, from Malibran
to the latest operatic celebrity, facts which never get into
print, but which, like the details of battles already referred
to, are more interesting than anything ever published.

Still again, one of our prominent judges, or lawyers, will
(constructively) take the floor and give a sketch of refractory
witnesses, innocent prisoners, stupid juries, and blatant ad-
vocates—their narratives being usually comic and “as good
as a play.” And among the miscellanies of these evenings,
is an occasional narrative of Mr. Thurlow Weed’s experiences
in Paris while conferring with DeMorny, Loubat and others
of Louis Napoleon’s counselors during the rebellion, and
touching our relations with France. Again, the gentle voice
of Bryant would be heard discoursing on “poetic numbers;”
the enthusiastic dissertations of Osten-Sacken on entomology
or abstrusest mathematics would follow; Du Chaillu would
tell of his first battle with a gorilla; Waterhouse Hawkins
would take his turn on the Reconciliation of the Facts with
the Fables of History, and they, at intervals on succeeding
evenings, would be followed by Page on the head, likenesses,
busts and sonnets of Shakspeare; O’Sullivan on materialized
spirits; Mayo on Morocco with its variety of races; Stoughton
on Russia; Di Cesnola on Cyprus; Carr on the Western In-
dians; McDowell on Bull Run; Parsons on California; Law-
rence on International Law; Forbes on China and the brilli-
iant world at large; Brevoort on geography; Gen. Sharpe on
the surrender of Lee; and the thrilling narratives of Admirals
Gordon and Alden; of the brilliant Commodore Baldwin; and
Captain Pearson, U. S. N., the only Companion of the Bath in
America.

Sometimes the North and South meet in the persons of
Confederate and Union Generals, whose interviews were once
only at the cannon's mouth, but which are now marked by
the grasping of hands instead of crossing of swords or ex-
changing of pistol shots; and by the ringing of glasses in-
stead of the crash of arms.

Again, and as a further variation, Mayne Reid and others
send their greetings in prose or verse across the Atlantic;
poems, anonymous or otherwise, are read from the authors'
manuscripts; Gilman's poetic recitations, and his humorous
sketches of New England and Texan Life are in order.

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THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Gould first here "published" his "Church Bells" supplementary to Poe's "Bells," but of a higher order of inspiration; and Gen. de Peyster delights with his general military and other information, and opens and closes the successive seasons with his salutatories and valedictions in ringing verse.

In addition to those episodes, there is the general interchange of thought, opinion, speculation and what not, on current events at home and abroad, between intelligent gentlemen who have often met there before, or, it may be, who have never met before, all of which goes into the common stock of knowledge from which each guest is sure to carry away a good weekly or monthly dividend. And, what is perhaps the most important of all, friendships are formed in that hospitable house between men who otherwise may never have met—friendships which fill the vacancies made by the death of preceding friends, and which bid fair to last until the grave ends them.

Such a mingling of men of all creeds and from almost every civilized country was not inaptly described by one of our Doctors of Divinity on a special occasion by the words "This is truly missionary ground." And the assemblages may be said to rival the Noctes Atticæ at Tusculum and the Ambrosianæ of Christopher North.

In conclusion, it is proper to say that no games make a part of the varieties of these Friday evenings, and that, although no guest is allowed to go hungry or thirsty or cigarless away, the chief entertainment consists of "the feast of reason and the flow of soul."

And, "third and lastly," it may not be improper to say that, while these reunions are in every sense private gatherings, their peculiar attractions have given to them a kind of public reputation in New York society which seems to warrant this public, though very imperfect, account of them. At least, the writer hopes that his volunteering to be their narrator will not disoblige his kind friend and host, who could never have supposed that his guests had

"A chiel amang them takin' notes,
An', faith ! he'll prent 'em."

The foregoing sketch would be more complete if the writer could add to it, by way of appendix, a full list of the names of Mr. Hamersley's guests. He has nothing to aid him in

A SOCIETY PROBLEM.

77

making such a list but his memory, and he will tax that to
its utmost, with a certainty that it will fail him in many in-
stances.

Besides those gentlemen who have already been men-
tioned, he remembers having met, at different times, in
Mr. Hamersley's *salon*, men of many nationalities, avoca-
tions and professions which he cannot undertake here to
assign to them severally; the mere names, as a rule, must
suffice.

Of Bishops and Judges have been met, Bishop Clark,
Bishop Tuttle, Chief-Justice Waite, Chief-Justice Richards, of
Canada; Judges Daly, Curtis, Maunsel Field, Hoffman and
Parsons, of California, Shea, Parker, Pierrepont, etc.; of the
Army and Navy, Rear-Admiral Gore Jones, R. N., Price;
Generals Crawford, Doubleday, Butterfield, Jefferson C.
Davis, Augur, Mitchell, Arnold, Carr, Cullum, Sigel, Lilly,
Preston, Dawson, Van Vliet, Lawrence, A. S. Webb, Hum-
phreys, Vogdes, Prince, Tower, Fry, Wright, Van Allen;
Colonels Woodruff, Williams, Van Buren, Myers, Gardiner,
Bailey Myers, "Old Probability" Myers, Griffin, Barnard,
Bryce, Stickney, Boanerges Ormiston and Monumental Lun-
dy; the Rev. Drs. Tiffany, Schenck, Howland, Weston,
Osgood, Vassar, the universal traveller, facetiously styled
the "Wandering Jew;" Gov. Archibald, Nova Scotia; Baron
Lederer, Esterhazy; Sir Rose Price, the soldier-author; Lord
Dunraven; Baron Westenberg; Chaillé Long Bey, Aristarchi
Bey, Count Kreutz Diplomats Flores, Sandford, Lawrence,
etc.; Artists, Page, Terry, Huntington, Bierstadt, Freeman,
Eastman Johnson. Without further classification may be
mentioned: Crosby, Habersham, Sanderman, Bigelow, Pruyn,
LaFayette Foster, Milliken, Henry Bergh, Oakey, Bell, Fred-
erick Seward, Bayard Clarke, Griswold, President Barnard,
Roemer, Gov. Carroll, Jones of Nevada, Dr. I. I. Hayes,
Nairne, Nathan Appleton, Oliphant, Dr. Barker, Bradish
Johnson, Jno. Taylor Johnston, Worrall, Townsend Harris,
Beekman, Trescott, Gerard, J. J. Townsend, Eugene Vail,
Leroy, Morton, Loubat the medallist, Robb, "master of
finance;" Wm. Hamersley, Drisler, Geo. W. Childs, Botta,
Talboys, Bristed, Joaquin Miller, Peter R. Strong, the Duke
della Torre, etc., etc.

THE
ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

JUNE, 1880.

AN ELDORADO IN SIBERIA.

OF all countries on the globe, Siberia would certainly be the last one thought of in which to look for an Eldorado—Siberia, that cold land of exile, the dread of every Russian. And yet, the discovery of gold there has lured countless numbers to brave terrible hardships in the hope of finding the precious dust. The glitter of gold drew the Greeks to Colchis, the Spanish and Portuguese to India and America, in later times the American to California, and now draws the Russian gold hunter into the primeval forests of Siberia, and the rugged mountainous wastes of the Olekminsk district.

Infinite are the difficulties which this hilly region, covered merely by a scanty vegetation of bog-moss and pine-trees, and inhabited only by small nomadic tribes of Tunguses and Yakoots, presents to the invader, who, leaving the already populous work-places, penetrates into the as yet unknown parts of the "Taiga." "Taiga" is the name given in Siberia to those endless wastes that extend in swampy wildernesses up to the Arctic Ocean, occasionally checkered with chains of hills in the east, and thinning gradually into mere shrubbery towards the north, till finally nothing but moss and branches are to be found on the ground.

But few of these Taiga have as yet been explored, as for instance, those portions where the gold hunter, following the course of the Yenisei far up into the north, has paved a way for his necessities, and herewith laid the first foundation for a primitive culture. Side by side with the gold hunter, and penetrating with even more daring into the wilderness, the fur hunter works for the gradual cultivation of these vast desolate tracts. Through means of these the

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nomad enters into closer relations with Europeans, or at least their descendants, and slowly assumes their habits and way of life.

The hunters for gold and fur are well-nigh the only Europeans who venture to invade these boundless forests, where for weeks at a time hardly a living being is to be met with, and towards the northeast an enemy may be often encountered. Only Siberian tribes wander in scanty numbers through these immeasurable labyrinths, sustaining life poorly by means of fishing and hunting.

The Olekminsk Taiga may be sought for on the map by following up the course of the Lena, and finding that portion of the country which is washed on three sides by the waters of the Lena, the Witim and the Olekma, and separated from Trans-Baikal by tributaries of the Yablonoi-Chrebet.

The character of this Taiga is altogether mountainous. Countless brooks unite into rivulets and swell to considerable streams, which flow either into the Lena itself or some of its large tributaries. These brooks and rivers, in accordance with the character of the landscape, have a very strong fall, and become very rapid in the spring, still more so in summer, when the masses of surrounding snow melt to swell their bulk. Soon, however, their flow grows calmer, and they assume a mien so innocent as to make it appear hardly possible that it was they who had changed whole stretches of shore, uprooted primeval trees, undermined rocks, and swept along stones and earth with resistless fury. At such peaceful times they may be crossed almost dry shod.

Whoever has learned to know this characteristic of the waters of the Taiga, will readily comprehend how they could have carried the gold into the lowlands, deposited it there, and in turn heaped other layers upon it.

The Siberian gold fields are almost always to be found on the banks of rivers or brooks, or in their beds. Most surprisingly gold is often found in crevices of the earth that have evidently once served as beds for running water. Moreover, those rivers that washed up gold were always such as had their source in ravines, the rocks of which were very much weatherbeaten. Very rarely is gold found at precipitous spots, and mostly there where the water undoubtedly had a calmer current, and consequently no longer possessed the necessary strength to carry the heavy metal along

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with it. Large rivers hardly ever carry gold with them. Though an exceptional case now and then occurs, the treasure cannot be recovered, as to turn the water from its channel would be too great an expense.

The shape of the wash-gold likewise points to a violent change of place. At times the particles of gold are flat and thin, for they have been dragged over sand and rocks. Again they are round like grains, for they have been partici-pants in a mad, whirling dance. Occasionally, only fine dust-particles are found, then again larger pieces, with various minerals attached to them, particularly quartz. In the latter shape the gold has probably had a comfortable and quiet jour-ney. The gold is mostly situated in layers at some depth beneath the surface of the earth, or in the beds of rivers. The thickness of the layer of earth covering the gold deposit varies mostly from one to ten Arshin, but increases at times to seventy, and even more.

At some spots three and four deposits of gold lie one over the other, separated by thick layers of earth and rocks. The lowest of these deposits is generally the richest.

Only very rarely is a gold bed found directly beneath the Tundra (moss), and as rarely on the summit of a hill.

The thickness of a gold layer (plast) varies from one-eighth to seven and a half Arshin. Its composition is just as diverse. Blue clay, coarse sand, quartz, clay slate, limestone, granite, and syenite occur most frequently; equally so iron in the most various combinations; more rarely ferruginous red clay. The latter is very tough, and during the rainy sea-son causes the workmen no little difficulty; in return, how-ever, it contains a great deal of gold.

In the Olekminsk district, to which specially these descrip-tions pertain, the gold-containing deposit rests on a bed of firm rock, mostly diosite. The color of the gold is not the same everywhere. In some places it is found very dark, often still covered by a crust of oxide of iron; in others it is of a very light color, and contains silver.

If the gold-hunter can not rely on pyrites, quartz with a thick crust of crystals, iron, or slate clay as guides in his search for gold, then nothing remains to him but to confide in his own penetration, and to trust to his lucky star. As a matter of course, many expeditions are entirely unsuccessful, and numberless claims must be forsaken as yielding too small

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a quantity of gold. However, there are people who, despite the fruitlessness of former expeditions, are still ready to undertake new ones—each of which costs considerable sums of money—in the hope of finally discovering some Eldorado.

The genuine *tayoshnik* (gold hunter) will be debarred from his search by no difficulties. He throws himself into a labyrinth of small valleys and hills, intersected in all directions by rushing mountain streams. With no path to guide him save the course of rivers, and often no compass save the position of the sun, he proceeds on his way, mounted on the small horse of the Yakootsk country, or the still more modest reindeer. In the winter, at times when it is impossible for him to make use of small sledges drawn by reindeer on the frozen rivers, he runs on snow-shoes, everywhere encountering hardships and dangers, with certain death in store for him should he lose his way. Fortunate is he if he have a sure and faithful guide in some familiar Yakoot or Tunguse at his side. But often the latter, offended by some careless word, or suddenly struck by the thought that his promised reward is too insignificant, disappears as if by magic, and leaves his companion to the mercy of God. And among all the gold hunter's hardships, hunger is by no means the least. The *tayoshnik's* whole stock of provisions consists of black rusks, dried meat, brick tea* and brandy; and often he does not possess a sufficient quantity of this meager fare, as he is obliged to carry with it all requisite tools and weapons on his beasts of burden. For communication with the "marts" or "washing places" is often very difficult, if not entirely impossible, especially in the spring.

Yet, despite all the privations and dangers to which the gold hunter is exposed, there is never a lack of persons who voluntarily offer their services to wealthy projectors. The reason is to be found in the large wages given them, and the high percentage of gold when found, which often amounts to enough to satisfy for the rest of his life a not too pretenious mortal.

* This sort of tea has a large consumption in Siberia. There are two kinds of brick tea, black and green. It consists of the refuse from the first tea crops and the yield of the last and worst, with the addition of a sticky mass. The whole is pressed into forms and dried, and has then the hardness and shape of a brick. Instead of milk and sugar, salt and butter are mostly added to it before serving.

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The way through the Taiga is further rendered impassable by the fabulous masses of dry wood lying about on every side. Whole forests of snow-white skeletons of trees bar the way with their ghostly branching arms, and it is often preferable to make a long detour to cutting a path with the ax.

The Siberian cedar, the larch, and some dwarfed specimens of birches offer the only variety of trees, while the ground is covered by the soft moss of the *tundra*. The nuts of the above-mentioned cedar, several kinds of mushrooms, and a scant growth of berries comprise all that is eatable.

The formerly much-sought-for denizens of the forest, the sable, bear and musk, driven away by the intruding gold hunters have retired to the remoter portions of the Taiga, and only squirrels hop merrily from branch to branch, unintimidated by the presence of man. The ermine is still to be found in large numbers, while the reindeer, tamed and brought from their more northern home, are made use of in manifold ways as beasts of draught and burden, and as a means of conveyance.

Ere the first adventurers set foot in the Olekminsk Taiga it was inhabited by two nomadic tribes only, the Yakootsk and the Tunguses. Although of different descent and speaking different languages, these two tribes have much in common. Both nomadize, subsist poorly on the products of the fishery and the chase, and belong to the Greek Catholic Church, though many marks of paganism still attach to them.

The Yakoot is generally of medium size and rather slight build. However, no other race of men, with the exception perhaps of the Samoyede and Esquimaux, is so well able to endure the greatest cold. They often pass the night in the open air, partly disrobed and with their upper clothing converted into a covering, lying in the snow and turning now one side then the other towards the fire. In Yakootsk, at times when it is so cold that the breath of other mortals freezes in their very mouths, they hold their wares for sale in the open market-place, laughing and bandying jests as if it were the finest spring weather.

They are very skillful in manual labor, the men at carving, and the women in constructing tasteful rugs out of skins. The manner of saluting each other is rather peculiar; like the Esquimaux, they touch noses instead of kissing.

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The Tunguses, on the other hand, are generally of a very good figure, have straight dark hair, a dark skin, and rather narrow, obliquely-set eyes. They are almost without exception quite beardless—as, by the way, the Yakoot is also. They are of soft and yielding character, as cunning as the Yakoot, but by no means so industrious. Both tribes are good huntsmen. They make use mostly of antediluvian weapons. Their clothing is with little variation the same. Trowsers, *parka* [a sort of blouse closed in front and drawn on over the head] *dacha* [a cloak with sleeves], all constructed of reindeer skin and the latter two garments worn with the hairy side outwards, constitute the costumes of both tribes, as well as of both sexes. To these are added a fur cap or hood, and high boots (*unty, kamusy* or *torbasy*), made of the same material as dacha and parka. Stockings of hare-skin are worn inside the boots.

Their principal articles of food are fish, game, the milk of reindeer, a sort of cheese and butter. Cleanliness they do not consider a necessity by any means. Thus, for instance, they deem it superfluous to draw the intestines from fishes and even maintain that such a proceeding would do away with a peculiarly fine flavor. Butter they devour in unheard of quantities, and in a way to horrify the unaccustomed spectator. It is a poor stomach that can receive but two or three pounds of melted butter at a meal. On the whole, they are rather voracious than otherwise, though able, according to the manner of wild beasts, to fast for a long time without great hardship.

Since the Russians have invaded their territory in greater numbers, the necessities of the Yakoots and Tunguses have increased markedly. Many of them now wear cloth garments of European cut, while the fairer sex have added a number of ornaments, principally silver coins to their dress. They have likewise become accustomed to bread (which they already prepare themselves from grain raised by them) tea, sugar, tobacco, &c. It is hardly necessary to add that they have become fondly attached to the "water of life."

These poor people have a scourge in the shape of two diseases, tape-worm and syphilis, with which the population of whole districts is afflicted from birth. The former of these diseases is ascribed to the consumption of raw or very slightly-cooked food; the latter is undoubtedly the result of great filth.

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The principal wealth of these tribes consists in the reindeer. The food of this animal is the grayish-white reindeer-moss, which in the winter it scratches up for itself from beneath the snow, and, as a particular dainty, bread. It is a great misfortune to the natives if the first snow thaws and freezes again; for this forms an impenetrable ice-crust, prevents the reindeer from getting its food, and during a winter reduces many a stately herd to a small company.

And now that we have devoted some time to the original inhabitants of this gold country, let us give a short space to its later invaders. Until the year 1870 the right to search for gold and hold claims was restricted to the higher classes, noblemen, civil functionaries and merchants. Since this limitation was removed, however, the number of gold-hunters has not increased so rapidly as might have been expected. The cost connected with such an undertaking is too great to make it common. In the first place, several troupes, each including from five to twenty workmen, under the command of a well informed employé, and with a Tunguse as guide, are sent out with the greatest secrecy to find a good place. An official notification of the number, name and standing of persons so sent is forwarded to the nearest police authority. The reason for the secrecy of such undertakings may be found in the following anecdote:

The conductor of a *Pryisk* (gold-washing) was led to suspect the existence of a rich gold mine in a plot adjoining his claim, and formed the project of taking possession of it for his employer. Unfortunately he was imprudent enough to express his intention to some companions. A few days subsequently one of the latter appeared, accompanied by fifteen workmen, ostensibly on the way to explore a claim already taken possession of by him, and making this detour in order to obtain some missing tools, spades, axes and the like, that had been forgotten. The obliging host readily supplied the necessary instruments and the expedition went on its way while its leader stayed for the evening meal, purposing to join his workmen later on. Late at night he also departed taking an affectionate leave of his host, who on the following morning was no little confounded to hear that a whole body of workmen was at work digging trenches with the spades borrowed from him and under the direction of his whilom guest, on the place found by him, and which was already duly

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marked off. Such little rascalities occurred frequently enough in former times.

The possessor of a gold-washing in the wilderness of the Taiga need not incur nearly so much trouble nor expense. When he has discovered a promising place, which task is generally accomplished by some person whom he authorizes to undertake the search, he sends thither a couple of workmen who dig a few trenches, whereupon the claim is legally his. As a matter of course, report of this must be immediately made to the proper official authorities.

The gold sand found is washed and its value then determined. The standard is 100 *Pud* sand. If 5 *Solotnik* gold be found in this, it is rich, if less than 1 *Solotnik*, it is very poor,

Before any work is begun a rude log cabin is built in which the overseers and workmen make their home for several months. It may readily be imagined that such a building, constructed of freshly-hewn trees, often not even furnished with a roof, and heated only by a portable iron stove, is by no means an enviable abiding place. The wind whistles through the cracks of the badly moss-thatched walls, an insupportable heat reigns in the vicinity of the stove, while on the opposite walls icicles gleam like brilliants and melting snow falls from the ceiling. The air is rendered poisonous by the exhalations of from fifteen to twenty persons, and the vapor ascending from damp clothing hung to dry near the fire. In the words of the workmen, the atmosphere is thick enough "to hang up an ax in."

However, in the wilderness even such a shelter is a longed-for refuge, when a fierce snow-storm is raging and the thermometer stands far below zero.

It is during the course of the winter months that the projector must determine whether he can risk his capital in the working of a claim, for only in the cold season can the trenches be dug with advantage. In the summer they would quickly be flooded by the water that everywhere oozes through. Even in the winter, this enemy must often be fought against.

The trenches are dug under the direction of the overseers. The ground, frozen to such stiffness that neither pick-axe nor spade can dissever a piece even so small as a hazel-nut, must be softened by fire. Mighty trees are felled, mixed with dry, withered branches, and a great fire kindled, which does its

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work well. When the whole pile is transformed into ashes, the earth may be dug into to some depth. This manoeuvre is repeated until the longed-for gold is found, or unyielding stone offers an insuperable obstacle. These trenches, dug at some distance from each other, and from which samples of earth are frequently taken and tried, point out pretty accurately the direction in which other work should be begun, as well as the depth and breadth of the bed of gold, and finally even its average capacity.

Often, however, the gold lies so far beneath the surface of the earth, that it would scarcely be possible to dig out all the trenches begun. In such cases, the wider ones are sunk into wells or shafts, and subterranean passages made. These are the beginning of the so-called gold mines.

When finally the capacity of a claim has been gauged, its possessor, or his representative, must make the calculation, whether it would be of advantage to work it. And here he must consider three factors: the quantity of gold gained, the cost of food and its conveyance, and finally the level of the brook or stream on which his claim lies, during the summer months.

The last named item is a matter of great import, as without the necessary supply of water the colossal wash machines could not be set in action, and an artificial water conduit would incur an expense not at all in accord with the yield of gold, however good.

If the result of the calculation is favorable, then the erection of a mart or capital is set about. The most necessary buildings are erected, such as dwellings for the overseers, clerks, &c., barracks for the workmen, shops, and a hospital.

At the same time the possessor contracts with merchants to deliver him at stated times the requisite articles of food and various wares.

The subterranean mining work, which is carried on during the winter months principally, does not differ much from the usual work of the miner. Poisonous vapors do not occur, but the frequency of sulphate of cobalt in the clay slate often has an injurious effect. The passages have a height and width of 4 Arshin, and two workmen generally yield 150 Pud of gold sand per day. The sand thus accumulated during the winter is formed into heaps which are washed through in the summer.

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The gold thus gained is poured into bags made of coarse linen, which after having been furnished with the trade-mark of the gold-washing, are sewed into leather sacks. Each bag contains about 1½ *Pud* of gold. Two of these, further protected by a covering of thick felt, and provided with a long cord and a piece of dry wood, constitute the load of one horse, and two horses are generally accompanied by one Cossack. The cord and board are affixed in the case of accident during the long journey by water which the gold has to make. For should the vessel be wrecked and the gold fall into the water, the little board floating on the surface would indicate where to look for the submerged treasure.

How necessary such a precautionary measure is, even in the Taiga, may be discerned from the following anecdote. During the passage of a gold caravan across a swollen stream, a horse stumbled over a stone in the river-bed, and was carried away by the rushing waters. The groom who had the guidance of the animal, intent only on its rescue, cut the fastenings that secured the gold to the saddle. The horse escaped death, swimming ashore further down the stream. The gold, however, despite the most anxious search, could not be discovered.

On the departure of a load of gold from the digging place, pistol shots, the boom of cannon, cheers and blessings bid the caravan God-speed.

Two, three, and even four of these caravans are dispatched in the course of a summer. Arrived at the Witim, or Lena, they board steamers or mail boats, and proceed on their way to Irkutsk, where they are bound, immediately on landing, to deliver the gold to the chief of the smelting station.

After the lapse of a few days they receive an invitation to witness the smelting.

The purified gold is now sent to the Mint in St. Petersburg. It makes the journey packed in logs, which are split, hollowed out, and then held together by means of iron hoops. Each log contains twenty-five to twenty-eight *Pud* of gold, and constitutes the freight of a wagon or sledge. Usually three caravans of gold, under proper escort, and the command of an officer or civil functionary, annually leave Irkutsk; in case of necessity, there are even more.

The owner of the gold is furnished with a receipt, for

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which he receives its value in money at St. Petersburg, or by
request from the bank in Irkutsk.

As may readily be imagined, it is a manifold mixture of
races and people, who, coming from almost all portions of
the earth, meet at the gold mines of Siberia, all guided by
the one impulse, upheld by the one desire—to find the great-
est gain in the shortest possible time. The nobleman and
the Siberian peasant, the former officer of the army and the
pardoned convict, the Pole, the German, and numberless
others, work in common, freezing in the icy blasts of winter,
or scorching in the heat of the summer sun.

What a rich field for the novelist, the depicter of human
passions, does this not offer. May we not hope that in time
it will find its own peculiar interpreter, as our California has
done, in Bret Harte ?

To return to the miners. Despite all the hardships already
recounted, it must not by any means be imagined that they
have an altogether too hard life of it. In most cases they
have healthful food, warm quarters, attention in sickness,
and the support of authority that protects their rights. All
this is offered them by their employer.

It is true there are annually a number of desertions from
the mines. The causes of these, however, are not to be found
in harsh treatment of the miners nor in their hard work. The
deserters are mostly transported criminals, vagabonds, who
shudder at the idea of work as a paying off of debts incurred,
and to whom the only escape from this seems to be—desertion.
Then, again, it occasionally happens that a miner has secreted
a pretty little amount of gold, which he would like to carry
into safety at the earliest moment, and, therefore, makes his
way off as speedily as may be. Many have in this way in-
curred death from starvation—the useless gold held in the
grasp of lifeless fingers.

A great scourge for employer as well as workmen are the
liquor dealers. It is forbidden by law to sell liquor at the
mines, as the transported criminal and the Siberian peasant
are alike strongly addicted to drink. Only the managers of
the mines have the right to keep liquor in their possession,
and to dole it out to the workmen as occasion requires. This
certainly very sensible regulation is often circumvented by
contrabandists—in most cases former workmen—who con-
duct a large trade in liquor. They are daring men, fully

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acquainted with all the secret by-ways of the Taiga, well
armed, and afraid neither of the wild beasts of the forest nor
the human pursuers on the search for them. These pursuers
consist of a company of mounted grooms led by some prom-
inent employé at the mines. This company is further
strengthened by a detachment of Cossacks furnished by the
police. However, the arrests are few, partly on account of
the immense area to be watched, and partly because all ener-
getic action is forbidden. Moreover, the zeal of the pursu-
ing grooms is by no means great. No miner would willingly
incur the anger and revenge of a contrabandist. The silent
forest might reveal many a horrible tale, while justice scarcely
ever overtakes the evil-doer. Even those who could point
out the criminal are as silent as the grave from fear.

However, it is avarice that prompts most of these crimes.
Let the following serve as illustration:

It is growing dusk. The inhabitants of the Taiga prepare
for rest; the birds are silent in the trees, and the other deni-
zens of the forest slip silently over the ground towards the
distant rivulet at which they sip their nightly drink.

Some human beings there are also, two solitary wanderers
who with tired, lagging steps approach the same goal. Each
of them carries a flat tin box on his back, over this a sack of
food and a copper tea can. From their belts hang large knives
in wooden sheaths, as well as the indispensable tobacco bags.
Moreover, each carries one of the small, though sure and
far-shooting, weapons which the Siberian knows so well how
to handle.

They are contrabandists. Their tin boxes are filled with
spirits. They are on a road that has fallen into disuse since
some years, but on which some deserted huts, used as station
houses, are still standing, and offer a desirable shelter to such
wayfarers as harbor a justified aversion for more public high-
ways.

Towards one of these our wanderers direct their steps.
Already the roof gleams through the surrounding trees. One
of the wanderers pauses and takes off his load.

"Hold, Grisha," he cries, "be cautious. Dost see the house?
The devil may know if it be empty."

"Thou art right." returned the other and younger, a
stalwart youth, following his companion's example, and like
him, ridding himself of weapon and tin box, and concealing
them among the shrubbery.

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"There," said the other, "now let any one tell that we
are not perfectly innocent miners. We are on our way to the
mines and our papers have been sent by mail."

They approach the hut; strange to say the door is locked.
They knock.

"Who's there?" cries a voice from within.

"Workmen."

"Where from?"

"From Kr—wo!"

"Whither bound?"

"To Mat—, to the mines."

The door is opened very cautiously, and three men who
are busily eating black bread fried in butter and drinking
brick tea, become visible.

They prove to be old acquaintances, contrabandists like
our two wanderers, and soon all are seated amicably round
the cups of steaming tea. The three in the hut are on their
way back after having successfully sold their wares.

Grisha goes for the spirits that were concealed in the
shrubbery. Soon the strong drink loosens all tongues. The
three confess that they are in possession of enough money to
give up their dangerous business, and retire comfortably for
life. Their eyes grow smaller, their tongues heavier. Only
Grisha and his companion abstain, and throw meaning glances
towards each other. At last, all retire to rest, and in a few
moments loud snores fill the hut.

After the lapse of about a half hour, Grisha arises and
touches his companion. The latter raises himself from the
ground and looks up with clear eyes that have not yet been
dimmed by sleep. After several eloquent signs to each other,
both leave the hut, taking all the weapons with them. They
bolt the door from without, and vanish in the shrubbery.

A few minutes later, two shots, followed almost immedi-
ately by a third, awaken the sleeping echoes of the forest.
Soon after the newly-risen moon looks down wonderingly on
the lately so tired wanderers proceeding fleetly on their way,
the hospitable hut flaming towards heaven behind them.

Grisha and his friend had completed their dread work.
They had shot their sleeping comrades through the open win-
dow and then possessed themselves of their riches. The
flames were to wipe out all traces of the crime.

Two days afterwards a small company of riders approached

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the still smoking hut, seeking a shelter for the night. They were Cossacks and grooms belonging to the mounted guard. When they caught sight of the smoking ruins and charred bodies each expressed his opinion, and all agreed in thinking that drunkenness and carelessness had been the causes of the accident. At last the leader, in a vexed tone, ordered his men to dismount and kindle a fire near the hut. To this they strenuously objected, protesting it was by no means agreeable to sleep beside the dead, as they then appeared in dreams—and so the company galloped off.

Let us conclude with a tragi-comical incident: On a gloomy spring morning, long before daybreak, the Cossack, Emilian, weapon in hand, sallied forth, full of hope that he would succeed in bringing down at least one large bird.

Suddenly, however, his whole attention is chained by quite another sort of game. On a precipitous, dangerous path, a man with the familiar tin box on his back, is making his way into the valley, there, no doubt, to sell his spirits at some safe place. As Emilian plainly can see, it is Jashka Kriwoi, one of the most daring contrabandists, for whose arrest vain attempts have been made again and again. With an eager gaze he follows each motion of the unsuspecting wanderer, and when he has approached to within a few paces from him he springs suddenly forward and cries, "Stand, or I shoot!"

Jashka was unarmed, and however much against his will, was forced by the Cossack to walk before him on the way to the Pryisk.

At first, both were silent. At last, in order to lighten the tedious tenor of the way, they fall into a conversation. The Cossacks are an amiable, good-natured race, and soon Emilian quite forgot how important a prisoner he was leading. They spoke of the chase.

"Alas," said Jashka, "all hunting is now at an end for me; in prison there is no game. See, there, what a splendid woodcock! it is a sin to let so beautiful a bird escape. If you would but give me your gun to shoot at him! Consider, it may be the last shot I shall ever have at anything."

The good-natured fool of a Cossack, well comprehending his companion's desire, lent him his weapon. But soon the scene gained another aspect. Jashka took aim, not at the woodcock, but at Emilian.

"Now, fool, arrest me," he cried, jubilantly.

The Kirgiz in especial occupied themselves with the capture of Russian subjects. They abducted the Cossacks of the Ural mountains, and Russian fishermen on the shores of the Caspian Sea, and, when a sufficient number had been accumulated, sent parties of them to Khiva and Bukharia. Owing to the wonted carelessness of the Russians such captures were very frequent.

As already stated above, the capture of Russians for the purpose of selling into slavery is of ancient date. Signs of this custom may be traced to the most ancient times. This slave-making, once begun, lasted on uninterruptedly until the very latest times, as the conditions favoring it always remained the same. Political reasons sometimes brought about a temporary decrease of this custom; only radical measures could totally abolish it.

Previous to the Tartar supremacy Russian slaves for Central Asia were procured by the attacks of the Steppe inhabitants. During this supremacy the manner of procuring slaves became different. During the earlier period of the Tartar supremacy over Russia, the Khans of the Golden Horde leased out their tribute. For the purchase of such lease, however, no inconsiderable sum of money was requisite. The merchants from Khoresm, of whom there were many in the Golden Horde, had the best prospects of "leasing the tribute." The Russians were very badly off under this system. Poor persons who were unable to pay the taxes imposed on them became the property of the lease holders. Our chronicle writers cite many cases of insolvent tax payers dragged into slavery by lease holders. The nearest market for these was Khoresm, whence they were forwarded into other countries.

When the system of leasing out the tribute was abolished the Russian Empire began to gather strength, disorders prevailed more and more among the Horde, and the slave-making, as a natural consequence, greatly diminished. In the XVI. century, however, after the fall of the Czardoms, Kasan and Astrachan, the number of Russian slaves in Central Asia began to increase again. Russia had stepped into direct contact with the nomadizing inhabitants of the northwestern part of Central Asia.

The first who brought the news that Russian slaves were at that time to be found in the Central Asiatic Khanates was

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the English merchant Anthony Jenkinson, who, in the year 1858, journeyed from Russia to Khiva and Bukharia, and from the last-mentioned Khanate brought twenty-five Russian slaves ransomed by him.

In the beginning of the XVII. century Ataman Schemai, at the head of a troop of Cossacks consisting of three hundred men, concluded to make an invasion into Khiva, following the example of Ataman Netscha, who, a short time previously had plundered this Khanate, but who had perished there, together with all his followers. Schemai was captured by the Kalmucks; his Cossacks, however, pressed on without him. They were forced to winter there. Exhausted by the distresses attending their march in a strange country, and possessed of no provisions for the winter, they soon suffered in such a degree from hunger that they began to eat the bodies of their comrades fallen in battle. Finally, they implored the Khivans to take them captive, and by this means save them from death by starvation. The Khivans seized them, and "all the Cossacks," says tradition, "perished there and then." Probably they were made slaves.

The Embassadors sent from time to time to Khiva and Bukharia speak of thousands of Russian slaves in these Khanates. Florio Beneveni, who was in Bukharia from 1721 to 1725, thus reports to Peter the Great: "What does your Majesty desire concerning the captive Russians here, Cossacks, soldiers and others, who were captured not only during the campaign of Prince Bekowitsch, but, also, on other occasions by Karakalpaks and Cossacks? ...... About 250 Russian captives are with the Khan and his courtiers, about 1,000 in the whole city; in other cities and villages of the Steppe about 2,000, on the whole. According to report their number is by no means small in Balcha and Ankne, and there are about one and one-half thousand in Khiva and on the Aral. There are plenty of them in Astrabad [with the Persians], as they continually fly out of Chiwa and seek refuge there, building on the Shah's friendship for your Majesty, where, however, they are again drawn into captivity."

We perceive, from this report, that there was in Bukharia a greater number of prisoners than in Khiva, which was quite possible. After the campaign of Bekowitsch, the Khivans were forced to fear even the Russians in their own Khanate, therefore it cannot seem strange that they tried to

dispose of them as quickly as might be to neighboring Bukharia. The Khan of that country, Abul Fees, possessed a body guard of Russian prisoners, for the greater part survivors from the division of Bekowitsch.

Florio Benevini was the first to declare that thousands of Russian captives were to be found in the Khanates of Central Asia. No one counted them, yet there is no reason to believe that he over-estimated the number, and the contrary was more probably the case. For this assumption there were many causes: the campaign of Belsowitch, the existence previous to this campaign of Russian captives in Bluwa and Bukhaia, and the capturing of our Cossacks by the Kigiz which was then in full activity.

The whole of the XVIII and the early part of the XIX century were the period of the highest development of Russian slavery in the Khanates of Central Asia. For more than a century, Russian prisoners by the thousand were to be found there. The number of those unfortunates who perished in the very act of being captured, on the marches, in consequence of overwork, through cruel treatment by masters and other causes, can never be determined; it must however be assumed that it was very great.

From fear of pursuit, the robbers were forced to press on as rapidly as might be, and the unfortunates—always several of them tied together—were driven on by these mounted robbers with blows of the knout and often at the point of their lances, in order to reach a safe spot. Those who in utter exhaustion sank to the ground, were either dispatched on the spot by their blood-thirsty persecutors, or left to the torture of death by starvation.

In 1740 the number of Russian slaves in Central Asia was somewhat diminished. Towards the end of that year, the Persian Shah, Nadir, made a conquest of Khiva and set the Russian captives languishing there at liberty. After he had provided his Persians with all means necessary for their return home, he also gave the Russians money and horses to take them back to Russia.

At that time, Nadir had plenty of money; he had just plundered India. But this decrease in Russian captives was soon replaced by new victims. When, in 1753, the merchant Rukawkin returned from the Khanate Khiva, he brought with him four slaves whom he had ransomed.

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The principal markets for Russian slaves were always in Bukharia and Khiva. Very few were sold into the other Khanates. In the beginning of the XIX. century the number of Russian captives in the Khanate of Bukharia began to decrease markedly. In the Khanate of Khiva, however, the reverse was the case.

From the former place the last slaves returned to Russia in 1858. But a small number of captives still remained in Khokand, Tashkend, Turkestan and other cities. On the other hand, however, many fugitive Russian Tartars and Cos-sacks were in hiding in these cities, who, from fear of punishment for their criminal deeds, had fled into the Khanate of Khokand. The choice between being flogged through the line or sent to the Siberian mines and a flight to Khokand, could not remain doubtful. Despite this, however, our fugitives always endeavored to return to their country, and only fear of punishment for their escape deterred them from making the attempt to regain Russia. At the beginning of the seventh decade of this century, our position in Central Asia, and particularly on the Sir Daria, was already so firmly established that there could be no more question of the existence of Russian slaves in Khokand.

In Central Asia, Russian slaves were always valued at twice the price of Persian, and only Persian women brought more than Russian. The ordinary price for a slave varied from 50 to 70 *Tulls*, that is 200 to 280 Roubles. This explains the comparatively better condition of the Russian slaves.

Some of the slaves who were apportioned to the Khan—the latter received the tenth, at times the fifth part, of the captives, and besides this purchased from the dealers—raised themselves, by their spirit and intelligence, far above the level of ordinary slaves, and attained a more independent position. During the reign of Mohammed Rahim, Khan of Khiva, a native of Astrachan, Kowyrsin by name, occupied the post of tax receiver's assistant to the Khan. Another prisoner, Tichon Rjasanow, was made tutor to his son by the same Khan. The Khan Allah-Kull placed such entire confidence in Feodor Gruschin, that he entrusted him with the overseeing of the workmen at the cleaning of the aqueducts, and often held confidential conversation with him. This was testified to by merchants coming from Khiva to Orenburg. Most frequently, however, of all distinctions, the artillery was

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entrusted to Russian prisoners, though many of them had never seen a shooting engine before. In Allah-Kull's time, all the cannoneers were Russian—in all 54 men. They were commanded by a Russian likewise, the Astrachan fisherman, Wassilii Lawrentjew, who gained the surname Büll-Büll. He attained the high rank of Toptschi-Bascha, from having had the ability—being a carpenter—of affixing a missing wheel to a cannon; and, to render Lawrentjew due justice, although he undertook a charge entirely foreign to him, he acquitted himself in a manner calculated to do his nationality no shame.

Considering the respect with which some of the Russian captives in Central Asia were regarded, it was quite natural that they should exercise a certain influence over the natives, and even over the Khan himself. As, however, the slaves were of the lowest classes of the people, they did not think to diffuse, in those countries, any of their acquirements, but rather communicated to them their vices. Above all, the Russians taught the Khivan and their Khans the art of drinking brandy. The famous Mohammed Rahim drank a great deal, so did his sons, Allah-Kull and Rachman Kull. The proof, however, that the Khans also learned something else from their Russian slaves, is offered by the already mentioned Allah-Kull, who could read and write Russian, taught him by a certain Foma, a native of Astrachan.

The condition of the ordinary slaves, those who had the hard lot of working without recreation or reward, was very different. There was a great number of these true slaves in the fullest sense of the word. The Asian who bought a slave gained at the same time unlimited power over him. This power went so far, that a master could kill his slave (although this latter right is disputed by some of our reports). At all events, he could punish him as he desired. Jakowlek states that a Mullah, whom his slave had in some manner enraged, killed him. Jakowlek's informer was the victim's father. This fact speaks for itself.

The slaves were obliged to work in gardens and orchards; to till the fields, sow corn, grind the meal for daily use on a hand-mill, and prepare the grist in mills worked by the feet; to construct wagons and all farm implements; do the work of the house; in one word, they were burdened with work from morning till night. The slightest negligence or nonfulfilment of a task, was punishable with a flogging. Only

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twice in the year, says Murawjew, did the slaves in Khiva have
freedom from labor. These were two local holidays, during
which the slaves might enjoy a little freedom, and visit each
other. All the rest of the year they had no recreation, and
only sickness dispensed them from labor. As Jakowlek tells
us, however, there were many cases when the master, taking
the slave's illness to be a pretence, flogged him unmercifully,
the victim often perishing beneath the blows.

There is, further, one instance known of the general mas-
sacre of Russian captives. Rahim-Beg, the ruler of Bukharia,
ordered the killing of all the Russian slaves in his dominion, as
he suspected them of conspiring against his life.

Despite the hard and constant work the slaves were obliged
to perform, their food was of the poorest kind. Benevini
writes to Peter the Great: "I am constantly overrun by
several [captives], who beg to be bought off. Others sue for
alms, as they are poorly fed by their masters." The captive
Gruschin states that the Khan of Khiva gave to his slaves
every month 3 pounds of wheat (at times in the shape of
flour); 20 pounds of millet; 10 pounds of lentils; 10 pounds of
meat; and 5 pounds sesame oil. Such rations were distri-
buted only till 1816, in which year a Chodcha, who came to
Bukharia, put it before the Khan that it was sinful to feed
Russian slaves (Kjaffirs) so plentifully, and that they ought
to be left to endure the pangs of hunger. Thereupon the
Khan ordered the rations to be reduced to 3 pounds of
wheat, mixed with about 20 pounds of earth. The other
inhabitants of the Khanate, continues Gruschin, treat their
slaves badly, and allow them to suffer hunger. Another
prisoner, Jakow Sinowjew, whose captivity began later than
than that of Gruschin, describes the Khan's manner of treat-
ing his slaves in such gloomy characters, that one must know
the Khivans in order to believe him. He says: "Each slave
received every month 40 pounds of wheat, half of which is
earth, and 5 pounds whereof must be given up as grinding
tribute. He must bake the cakes himself, and for this pur-
pose receives neither wood nor time. The former he must
steal from his neighbors, the latter perform at night." Only
one means to support life remained—theft. "Whoever will not
steal," the same Sinowjew goes on to say, "can get nothing to
eat nor to wear. One day the Khan's old wife came into the
garden. I said to her: 'You must be ashamed to look at us,

gracious lady; we are almost the same as naked; why does not the Khan give us some clothes?' What was her answer! 'Why should I be ashamed? Is it not all the same whether I look at you or at a dog, who also runs about unclad?'"

From this it may be inferred how the other Khivans treated their slaves.

In this miserable condition, the Russian slaves had one consolation—they were permitted to profess their own faith. However, they were occasionally deprived of even this one comfort. The more zealous of the Khans sought to forcibly convert their Russian captives to the Islam faith. Thus, for instance, Schah Murad, Khan of Bukharia, had a very skilful locksmith among his Russian slaves. At various times he tried to persuade him into accepting the Islam faith, but being decisively repulsed, the Khan ordered his execution. The unfortunate man's throat was cut, and he was then hung. In Khokand it was eagerly sought to turn captives to the Islam faith; and although no coercive measures were employed, the prisoner who clung obstinately to his religion was in great danger. On his first transgression he was condemned to death, and in order to save his life was obliged to turn Mussulman. The larger part of our prisoners in Khokand became converts to the Islam belief. This was comprehensible and natural. The majority of prisoners in this Khanate were fugitive Cossacks, who had no hope of ever returning to their native country. In order, however, to attain the rights of citizens in their new country, they were obliged to become Mussulmen. The example of one had due effect on another, and the majority turned to the Islam faith. For this reason the demand for conversion was far more strict in Khokand than in Khiva or Bukharia.

There were principally two modes of becoming liberated from slavery—conversion to the Islam faith or ransom money. The former was rarely made use of by Russians; and only such as had acquired a family, and, after long years of captivity, could scarcely hope ever to see their country again, had resort to this means. After accepting the Islam faith the captive ceased to be a slave, and became free. The second process, buying off, it was even more difficult for the captive to accomplish, as he was obliged to pay his master double and three times the sum that had been paid for him. The consequence was that only a very few could ever gain enough

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money for this purpose. During Gruschin's time [1819-1829] there were in all only a hundred such ransomed slaves. For twenty and more years, slaves would lay aside the half of their scanty rations for the purpose of saving up their purchase money, and live on alms. The majority were unable to accomplish such a task, and remained slaves for periods of forty years and over. At times slaves bought themselves off by their labor. But in ceasing to be slaves the Russians were still prisoners. They did not have the right to leave the Khanate in which they had dwelt as slaves, and did not venture to secretly return to their country, out of fear of cruel punishment in case of recapture. For this reason they hastened to marry as soon as possible after their liberation—generally choosing a Russian captive, at times even a native woman—and to found a household, or else to turn to the Islam faith, as already described. These were very fortunate in comparison with such who, at the advanced age of 60 to 70 years, still bore the heavy yoke of slavery.

However, the liberated as well as those still slaves, longed in equal measure for their country, no matter how favorable the condition of some. During the entire history of this bondage there are only two cases known where captives rescued from Khiva voluntarily returned to that Khanate. There is, however, an instance of the opposite kind. Andrei Nikitin, born of Russian prisoners in Khiva, and understanding no word of Russian, still considered Russia his native country, and finally fled from Khiva to Orenburg.

There was a third way of escaping slavery—flight. But, in the first place, this was possible only after years of captivity, when the captive had learned the language of the country and gained a knowledge of locality; and, in the second place, was connected with so many difficulties and dangers, that not every one possessed the resolution and energy to undertake so venturesome an enterprise.

The Kirgiz maintained a sharp, unceasing watch on all who passed through the Steppe, and took care to return all fugitives to their places of residence. This proceeding bore direct advantages for them. In the first place they received pay for the returned fugitives; and then, in seizing these unfortunates, there lay a means of concealing their constant captures of Russian subjects. The same reasons caused the Turcomen to bar the way of fugitives into Persia. Finally, the govern-

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ments of the Central Asiatic Khanates had adopted the most decisive measures for the prevention of attempts at escape. The employés of the Khan kept strict guard on all caravans on the way back to Russia. Russian slaves were never made use of as sailors, out of fear of attempts on their part at escape. Correspondence between slaves and their relations in Russia was strictly forbidden. Jegor Schtich, a slave in Khiva, being suspected of exchanging letters with his family in Orenburg, was executed by order of the Khan. He was led from the city at dark of night, forced to dig his own grave, and then buried; some say, after he had been put to death, others, while still living. Andrei Nikitin tells us that in 1829 the Khivans hanged a Kirgiz, on whose person letters from Russia to the captives were found.

The punishments prescribed for all attempts at flight were in themselves sufficient to drive away any captive's desire for it. For the first attempt the following were inflicted: two hundred to four hundred blows with the whip, or else the recaptured fugitive had his heels cut open, hog bristles inserted into the slits and the wound then healed up, or else his sinews were severed, or he was nailed by his ear to a post and allowed to remain in this position for three days, or one of his eyes was put out, or his nose and ears cut off. This last named punishment, however, was most frequently applied on a second attempt at escape. For a third attempt (occasionally even after a second), the wretched victim was impaled and died amidst the most terrible agony. The torture was all the more dreadful, as the punishment was inflicted in such a manner that the poor victim could live for several days and offer a disheartening example to the other slaves.

Therefore, it cannot be wondered at that so few resolved to fly, and that still fewer succeeded in regaining their native country.

The extended period of years that many captive Russians passed in the Khanates of Central Asia, made them acquainted with the customs and mode of life there, and their statements have contributed greatly towards a closer knowledge of these countries. Many of their relations have appeared in print and there are still a number of manuscripts in the archives of the Border Commission.

As long as two and three centuries ago the Russian Gov-

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ernment earnestly strove to release Russian subjects from
captivity. Being unable by force of arms to check the cap-
tures on the southeastern border, it sought other means for
the liberation of the slaves. The Government either charged
its ambassadors to buy off prisoners, or entered into negotia-
tions with the Khanates of Central Asia in regard to the set-
ting at liberty of Russian slaves.

The earliest attempt on the part of the Government to lib-
erate the slaves dates from the reign of the Czar Feodor-
witsch, who, in 1620, sent the nobleman, Irvan Danilow
Chochlow, as Ambassador to the Khan of Bukharia, Imam
Kuli. In his letter to the Khan of Bukharia [May 14, 1620],
the Czar begs for the liberation of Russian prisoners. The
Ambassador had the order to make inquiries in Bukharia in
regard to the Russian slaves, especially those of noble birth.
Chowlow was received in the most friendly manner. To his
plea for the liberation of the captive Russians the Khan an-
swered that he would grant it, would cause all the captives to
be looked up, and send them to Chowlow in Bukharia. The
Khan would probably have kept his promise, but was pre-
vented from fulfilling it by the insurrection of several prov-
inces. On taking leave of Chowlow, Imam Kuli declared
that he had ordered all Russian captives at his court who de-
sired to return to their country not to be withheld from doing
so, but that on account of the disturbances in his kingdom he
had no time to look up the others. He promised, however,
after the quelling of the insurrection to liberate all the cap-
tives. This promise was not fulfilled.

Twenty-six years later, in June, 1646, the Czar Alexis
Michaelowitsch sent the merchant Aniss Gribow to the Khan,
Nadir Mohammed, with a letter announcing his accession to
the throne. At the same time he desired that the Russian
captives in Bukharia should be sent back with this mer-
chant.

In consequence, however, of the insurrection in Bukharia,
ending with the deposal of Nadir Mohammed, Gribow never
reached Bukharia; the letter he sent to the place of its desti-
nation from Persia, but remained without success.

In 1699 the same Czar resolved to begin anew the interrup-
ted negotiations with Bukharia and, therefore, sent an em-
bassy to Bukharia and Khiva. It is not known, however,
whether this expedition had anything to do with the captives;

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it is only certain that at the time twelve captive Russians were ransomed for 848 roubles and brought back to Astrachan.

In the same year the brothers Boriss and Ssemeon Pasuchin were sent to Bukharia. In the letter they bore with them the Czar demanded the delivery of the Russian captives to the Ambassadors. The latter took particular pains to gain compliance with this demand, and were partly successful. Previous to the departure of the brothers Pasuchin the Khan sent them nine captive Russians—bought, at a price of 40 to 50 roubles, from Khivans coming to Bukharia. The Khan sent these to Alexis Michaelowitsch in order to confirm their mutual good understanding and friendship, and promised to liberate the remaining captives, but not until the return of his Ambassador from Russia and the arrival of new ones from the Czar. All attempts of the brothers Pasuchin to gain the freedom of a greater number of captives remained fruitless. They themselves bought off twenty-two at the price of 585 roubles; among the latter there were neither noblemen nor sons of Boyars. Faithful to their instructions, the brothers Pasuchin secretly exhorted the captives to remain true to their faith and endeavor to regain their liberty. Promises on the part of the Khan were as profuse as heretofore.

In 1675 Wassili Alexandrowitsch Dandow was sent to the Khan of Bukharia with a letter reminding the latter of his promise to allow the captive Russians to return home. Dandow journeyed over Khiva, where he took no small pains to persuade the Khan to liberate the Russian captives. The Anuscha did not directly refuse the fulfillment of the Ambassador's plea, and promised to grant it in case the Khan of Bukharia, who, as Anuscha said, possessed many prisoners, would do the same. At first the Khan of Bukharia would not hear of any liberation of Russians, but, on being hard pressed by Dandow, allowed him to take away five already ransomed slaves. He would yield up no more, affirming a want of men in consequence of a war with Khiva. However, he sent a letter to Alexis Michaelowitsch containing the promise to send, with his Ambassador, twenty prisoners for whom he would demand no ransom money. Dandow bought off thirty-three Russian slaves in Khiva and Bukharia, which, including the cost of the journey to Russia, made an outlay of 1,114 roubles.

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The matter was now, for the present, allowed to rest. The Khans of Bukharia and Khiva promised much, but performed nothing. In further dealings with them we find no allusions to the slavery question. Had Peter the Great succeeded in his attempt to conquer the Central Asiatic Khanates, Russian slavery there would, of course, have been abolished. Unfortunately, however, his plan was not realized.

After Peter the Great, the attempts to put an end to the capture of slaves were renewed, but from another side. In 1730 Abul-Chair, Khan of a small Kirgiz horde, entered into the alliance of Russian subjects. Although his entry was merely an act on paper, and he himself afterwards conducted many attacks on our border, the Government believed that the union with Russia of a Kirgiz horde would diminish, if not wholly put an end to the capture of Russian slaves by the Kirgiz, When, however, deeds by no means justified these expectations, negotiations were resorted to. Abul-Chair constantly asseverated his entire readiness to comply with our just demands concerning the capture of Russians and the surrender of those held by the Kirgiz. When, in 1738, Abul-Chair pronounced the oath of allegiance [it was the second one] to Russia, he promised to liberate all captive Russians, not only those retained by the Kirgiz, but also such as were languishing in adjoining Khanates. Of course Abul-Chair did not fulfil this boastful promise given for the sake of certain advantages. He was not able to force his own subjects to give up Russian prisoners, far less could he procure the liberation of slaves in Khiva, Bukharia and Khokand. Convinced that neither treaties nor exhortations were of avail, the Government resolved to have recourse to more energetic measures. Only fear of reprisal for the robberies committed by them could induce the Asians to liberate Russian prisoners. A ukase issued by the Board of Foreign Affairs on October 31, 1743, recommended the Governor of Orenburg to capture Kirgiz from the noblest families whenever opportunity rendered favorable, and make use of them as hostages. This measure did not remain unavailing. Abul-Chair at once released a large number of Russians captured during the more recent incursions. When, in 1745, this Khan pronounced the oath of allegiance to Peter III., he released thirty Russians and Kalmuks from captivity. His successor, Khan Nurali, did the same. As long as the matter

was limited to treaties it had no result; violent measures were at least partially successful. Regiments were at various times sent to the Steppe in order to punish the robbers and take their prisoners from them. In 1785 a new campaign was called forth by the numerous captures made by the Kirgiz. The result was the taking of 213 Kirgiz women and children, to release whom all the Russian captives held by the Kirgiz were surrendered.

In 1786, when the resolve had been taken to depose the Khan Nurali, the latter, in order to appease Russia, sent back some of the prisoners in his horde.

The journeys of Major Blankennagel, in 1793, and Capt. Murawjew, in 1819, to Khiva, again turned the attention of the Russian Government to this Khanate, which was the principal instigator of the capture of Russians. As the majority of the Russian captives in Khiva were fishermen who had been captured at the Caspian Sea, it was resolved to erect a fortification on the shore of the Caspian for their protection. The years 1838-1839 proved that this fortification [Norvo-Alexandrowsk] did not answer the purpose of its erection. Another measure, the allowance of a certain sum for the ransom of captive Russians, proved alike unavailing. When, however, the Government ordered that all subjects of Khiva found along the borders of Russia were to be taken prisoners, affairs began to wear another aspect. It was then that Allah-Kull, in 1837, sent back twenty-five prisoners, and two years subsequently added eighty to this number. When, however, the captures on the Caspian Sea began to increase again, it was determined to compel Khiva, by force of arms, to give up, once for all, the purchase of Russian captives for the purpose of turning them into slaves. From well known causes this expedition never reached Khiva; its purpose, however, was accomplished. Allah Kull released all the captives languishing in Khiva. Of the whole number—474—of Russian captives in this Khanate, 418 desired the return to their country. Afterwards five more expressed the same wish, and the Khan sent them to Orenburg. Thereupon Allah-Kull issued a firman prohibiting all incursions into Russian territory and the purchase of captured Russians. This was the effect of our resolute course of action towards Khiva. In the meanwhile the old practice by means of treaties, which was at the same time—1841—entered upon with Bukharia,

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proved as unsuccessful as ever. In 1841, Major Butenjew was sent as ambassador to Bukharia, where he begged of the Emir the release of Russian prisoners and their return to Russia. Nasr-Ullah promised to fulfil this desire, but not until after the conclusion of the treaty between the Emperor of Russia and the Emir of Bukharia. At the same time he put the demand that the Emperor of Russia should be the first to sign the deed. After such a presumptuous demand, further negotiations were out of the question, and Butenjew decided to leave Bukharia. On his departure, Butenjew took with him three very old Russian captives, in the hope that they would be allowed to pass as being quite of no use. He had, however, not gone as far as Wardaisa, when the prisoners were taken from him.

It was Colonel Ignatjew [the present Adjutant-General] who, in 1858, succeeded in procuring the return of Russian captives from Bukharia.

After the release of the Russian slaves in Khiva, in 1840, nothing was for a long time heard of new captures. At the end of the year 1854, Turcomen captured four fishermen on the Caspian Sea, but were, however, compelled to surrender them after a lapse of four months.

On this occasion it was discovered that there were no more Russian captives among the Turcomen. Shortly before the year 1870, there was again a rumor that Russian merchants traveling through Khiva were detained there as prisoners. This, however, proved to be unfounded.

When the hostile conduct of Khiva called forth the Russian campaign of 1873, and the Khan of Khiva received news of the preparations for war, he released twenty-one captive Russians and sent them to Kasilinsk. After the abasement of Khiva the Khan was compelled to abolish slavery in his Khanate for all time. One word of the "White Czar" released 15,000 Persian slaves and gave them back to their country. Thus Russia cried quits with Persia, in whose debt Russia had been since 1740, in which year the Shah of Persia had liberated the Russian slaves languishing in the Khanate of Khiva.

The old, fondly cherished wish of the Russian Government to put an end to the disgraceful slave trade in the Khanates of Central Asia, has at last found its realization under the present reign. And this is one of the happiest and most brilliant results of our advance into the interior of Central Asia.

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JOURNALISM IN THE UNITED STATES.

BY E. V. B.

A NATION can be studied by no surer light than the char-
acter and condition of its periodical literature. The
favorite tests of art culture, painting, music, architecture, even
the highest book literature, are comparatively deficient, because
these limit the inquiry to the favored classes—to those who can
afford to exercise their choice in expensive luxuries. But the
daily paper is a daily need to almost every family in the
United States; hence it, and other current literature, will con-
sciously or unconsciously represent the average intelligence
and culture of the people.

This is not theory; it is fact. The journalism of to-day,
as a rule, reflects the popular mind. It is the small minority
of periodicals which make it their business to effect changes
in public opinion. By ascertaining, then, what is the tone of
the most popular journals in different sections of the country,
we may truly prefigure to ourselves the moral and mental
caliber of the community in which they are read and ap-
proved.

By journalism we do not mean merely the daily or weekly
newspaper press, but all that mass of periodical literature
which goes to make up the current reading of the period,
monthlies and quarterlies included, for into all of these the
spirit of journalism has entered, and there is no longer that
infinite distance which once existed between them. Not in-
frequently the same hand which indites the short, spicy para-
graph for the morning daily, furnishes learned and elaborate
articles for the more stately magazine or review.

An essential element to be considered in the discussion of
this subject is the vast quantity of production. Weight tells
in morals as in physics, and as the United States print and
circulate more than half of all the periodicals published in the
world, it certainly becomes a matter of moment to ascertain
its quality, and the effects of its daily, almost hourly, con-
tact with all classes of the population. Perpetual iteration
of almost any set of ideas will produce conviction in the av-
erage mind. Hence the immense importance of a pure and
honest press.

213

That no one may question the above statement as to quantity, we refer to the Report of the Commissioners of the Exposition of Vienna, rendered in 1873. Mr. Steiger, an adopted American citizen, took immense trouble to collect and exhibit specimens of all the periodicals published in the United States. He succeeded in ascertaining the whole number, but about one-third of the publishers failed to forward specimens in time. But six thousand were actually exhibited, while eight thousand five hundred had been ascertained to exist. The International Jury awarded a medal of merit to Mr. Steiger for this collection, which proved, indubitably, that this, the youngest of the nations, takes the lead in periodical literature. Nor is the number more astonishing than the immense circulation of some of them, several of the metropolitan journals issuing from one hundred thousand to one hundred and thirty thousand copies, daily, these all publishing, in addition, weekly or semi-weekly papers, or both, for country and foreign circulation. One weekly paper claims a circulation of three hundred and fifty thousand. Very few townships of eight thousand persons in this country can be found which has not at least its weekly paper, probably a daily; and at ten or twelve thousand we expect to find two dailies, representing the two leading political parties. The exceptions to this rule will be townships situated near the large cities, and which depend upon the latter for the daily papers.

But printers in the United States do not always wait for a paying population to spring up before commencing their work of publication. Anticipating events, they proceed to attract settlers by presenting the ever acceptable fact that a local newspaper already exists. One of the most interesting cases of this kind occurred in the far Northwest, at the town of Newport, where the "Wisconsin Mirror" was first printed under the shadows of the primeval forest. There was but one dwelling house within a mile of this pioneer press. Deer, cartridge and quail ran tamely among these enterprising publishers. In his first issue the editor said: "The fact is, we expect a large village to grow up rapidly around us, and that is why we are here, printing in the woods." The first copy of the "Mirror" was sold to one of the new settlers for $65, at auction; the second copy brought $10; and the third $5, bought as mementoes of the founding of the town.

Americans cannot live without their newspaper. During the civil war, newspapers were printed in camp wherever troops were stationary long enough to get material together. And even prisoners of war improvised manuscript newspapers, and circulated them among the different wards and divisions of the fortress or barrack.

In parts of the country where fewer papers are published than in New York, lending and borrowing is often indulged in, and in remote country districts men will congregate at "the store" or the post office to read the papers which their richer neighbors have subscribed for, so that many persons often read a single copy. But one of the best statisticians on this subject, the late Horace Greeley, estimated that three-fourths of all the families in the United States habitually took some paper. Since he made that estimate, we know that the number has largely increased, at least in the Southern section of the country. Many persons take several papers regularly, besides literary, religious, scientific or agricultural magazines. Nor is all the journalistic talent concentrated in the Atlantic cities. The interior and the west, even to the Queen City of the Golden State, can show their large, ably-conducted dailies, competing successfully, in every respect, with the great journals of New York.

There are about three hundred religious periodicals published in the United States, representing every sect and denomination, mainly, of course, read by the members of these diverse churches, but not limited to them, for in every public reading room they lie side by side, and are picked up and perused by all classes of readers.

Between sixty and seventy are devoted to agriculture, horticulture and cognate subjects. Not exclusively filled with matter relating to the garden or the field, but, taking a wide range, they embrace almost every subject suitable for family reading. Some are beautifully illustrated with wood cuts, engravings and colored plates. Several make a prominent feature of country and suburban villa architecture.

There are nearly eighty magazines and papers which treat of educational matters, theoretical and practical, including not only current facts in connection with the subject, but entertaining essays, theories and discussions on every thing of interest relating to schools and colleges, including the best construction of schoolhouses and academy buildings. At the

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last Paris exposition the highest award in the department of educational journalism was bestowed upon the "New England Journal of Education."

Over one hundred weekly, semi-weekly and monthly periodicals are devoted solely to the instruction and entertainment of children and youth, and these find eager readers all over the land. Many of these are illustrated.

There are twenty Masonic papers and magazines, and sixty advocating "temperance" (by which is generally understood, in the United States, "total abstinence from all which can in-toxicate"). Commerce, finance, insurance, real estate in-terests, science, mechanics, law, music, medical and sanitary affairs, the turf and other sports, &c., all have a number of representative journals, while hundreds of different indus-tries have their special organs through which they reach the great reading public.

The principal difference in character between the past and present tone of the daily press is to be found in the fact that formerly all were partisan in politics and excessively addicted to personalities in the editorial column, which have now to a great extent been eliminated.

What has changed this, and instead of the predominance of personal antagonisms, made of the profession a fraternity? Mainly, the introduction of the telegraph, which has equalized the opportunities of all and cut off those former bitter rivalries, for precedence in furnishing news. Next in importance was the organization of the General News Association, which originated in New York in October, 1856. Seven of the leading daily papers were thus connected by their business interests in such a way as to preclude the necessity for forestalling each other, and arrangements were made by which other papers, not original stockholders, might also receive cable and telegraphic news at a stipulated price. But a factor not to be forgotten in this connection was the establishment of the "penny press," for though in its early years, it eminently provoked and indulged in that reprehensible warfare, it eventually benefitted the whole body of newspaper publishers by becoming the successful rivals of the "old respectable sixpennys," forcing them to recognize their influence and to widen the sphere of their own operations; giving them enough to do to maintain their footing in the face of this new force.

The first penny paper printed in the United States was issued by Mr. Day, of New York, in September, 1833. There had been abortive effects in the early part of the same year by a young man named Shepherd, who was really the originator, one may truly say the inventor, of "penny papers" and "newsboys." He failed, through unforeseen accidents, but his idea lived. The "Sun," in the hands of Mr. Day, prospered amazingly; though at first it was not noticed by its larger and more genteel contemporaries, who failed to perceive that this was the entering wedge which was to revolutionize the whole domain of journalism. Its success had the effect of encouraging imitators, who were destined to completely throw into the shade the old style of commercial and political papers. That success was, in fact, the first step in the direction of independent journalism--free from the dictation of parties, and standing on the sole merit of producing a paper which should give all the news in the promptest possible manner. Two years later James Gordon Bennett established the "Herald"; then followed the "Tribune," and later the "Times," each of these beginning as penny papers and professing independence of parties; though the two latter did not long keep themselves free from the entangling alliances of partisan politics.

One of the leading daily papers of New York—the "World," was started as an experiment, to see if a religious daily could be sustained. The event showed that the people preferred to receive distinctly religious instruction in some other form. The "World," under that regime, did not pay. It changed hands, and at the exciting and interesting juncture of the commencement of hostilities between the North and South, The "World" swung into position as a defender of the latter. At least it took the position, which was held at the time by many Northern Democrats, that each State being sovereign, reign in itself, could not rightly be coerced by any combined number of other States, or by the general Government. During the war, though giving the actual news with considerable fairness, its tone was such as to discourage the loyalists, and to set forth, in the best possible colors, the courage, honor and sincerity of the confederated secessionists. Whatever could be said in behalf of the South was most ably and intelligently dilated upon in the columns of the "World." Indeed, at that time, there were no editorials which exceeded those of

217

that paper in ability and brilliancy. But the "World" found its literary skill of no avail, and, wisely acquiescing in the inevitable result, still lives, not as a malcontent, but as an able exponent of Democratic ideas, in every respect a valuable and well conducted party paper—one of the four leading journals of New York.

Mr. Parke Godwin, himself a journalist of mark, in his book entitled "Out of the Past," gives it as a curious fact that no individual has attained fame solely as a journalist. This can be clearly shown to be a mistake, even at the time when this opinion was written, and is still more untrue at the present time. But we should not have gone out of our way to correct it, had not this statement been closely connected with the question as to personal and impersonal journalism, of which there are ardent advocates on both sides. Most of the theorists who have favored impersonal journalism have found a shining example, as they think, in the prosperous growth of the London "Times," in which paper the name of an editor was never printed, the reverse being common in the United States. But the editor of the London "Times" has always been known to persons specially interested in knowing it, to members of Parliament, and in what are called the "leading circles" of London. To the general public it was certainly not known, but the example, as it stands, is imperfect, the editor being known to some and not to others. On the other hand, the most prosperous journals in this country have been edited by men whose name was known to every one who read their paper. As to the greater or less amount of influence and weight of opinion which attaches to printed matter, with or without the author's name, we believe that it depends entirely upon whose name it is. If a name is known and respected, then giving the name adds weight to the opinions expressed; while an equally good article by an unknown writer would probably be more influential if the name was not given. But no name or title can float a badly written essay or review. We believe readers invariably desire to know whose thoughts they are perusing.

To return to the actual history of journalism in the United States, we perceive that the editors of all the successful papers have been known and appreciated by different classes of the community, their personal force of character adding weight to their printed opinions. This has been true since

218 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

the days when Benjamin Franklin edited the first paper est-
tablished in Pennsylvania, or Isaac Hill the first in New
Hampshire, to the present time. Not only the metropolitan,
but the provincial press has given a real and enduring fame
to its able editors. What other fame had Ritchie, of the
"Richmond Enquirer," Prentice, of the "Louisville Journal,"
or Bowles, of the "Springfield Republican?" Yet what in-
telligent citizen is there who does not know and respect their
ability? These and others of a like caliber, are as much a part
of their papers as was Francis P. Blair, of the Washington
"Globe," Horace Greeley, of the "Tribune," or Bennett of the
"Herald;" and, if the characteristic founders do not and cannot
last forever, they do at least succeed in imparting such a tone
to their several establishments as does not readily fade into
forgetfulness. Thus we find that each prominent journal to-
day has its individual traditions, policy and methods, derived
from its original founders. The ways of the "Tribune" are not
the ways of the "Herald." The "Times" would stand aghast
at some of the editorial habits of the "Sun." These and other
papers of note have not grown into interchangeable common-
place with their fellows any more to-day than when in the
midday heat of rivalry the elder Bennett and Greeley strove
for the chieftainship.

In noticing the individual journals more fully, this fact of
personal influence in journalism will become more apparent.
The papers which exist to-day, though so numerous, are yet
but a moiety of those which have been started and failed of
success, for in journalism it is not sufficient that a good ar-
ticle is produced, that even excellent, readable matter is
printed; it must be such as is *absolutely wanted* by a class
sufficiently large to support it. Every claimant, therefore, for
public favor must supply a hitherto unfilled need. This has
been very clearly the case with those papers now having a
large permanent circulation.

Take, for one example, the "Evening Post." There were
good commercial papers and advertising mediums, and also
papers which furnished the news as well, before Mr. Coleman
established the "Post" as after. The "Commercial Advertiser,"
commencing its career in the last decade of the last century,
had fulfilled all the usual requirements of a daily journal. But
the founders of the "Post" saw that there was room for more
intellectuality in journalism, and they ventured on the experi-

219

ment of giving their subscribers well chosen literary pabulum. When Wm. C. Bryant became associate editor, this feature was enlarged, and it was found by this successful experiment that more literary aliment was just what a certain class of readers wanted. When Mr. Bryant's son-in-law, Parke Godwin, became connected with the paper, his brilliant essays added flavor to the more solid editorials of the senior proprietor, and the "Post" soon became the tea-table paper of the city, before the fashion of late dinners came into vogue. Above all things, the "Post" aimed at purity of style, and for many years had, and, we believe, still has, a long list of condemned words and phrases—a miniature *index expurgatorius*—in operation in the office, which neither contributor nor reporter is suffered to infringe; if they do so inadvertently, the proof reader amends their vocabulary without mercy. That Wm. C. Bryant should have desired to eliminate slang from the eminently respectable "Post" is in all respects praiseworthy. But his interdict extended far beyond this, and was aimed at such innocent Latinisms as "obituary" (in lieu of "death") and "commence" (where he would have "begin"), and other words as completely Anglicised as these. His object was to maintain the Saxon supremacy among his types, which thereby often lost in richness what they gained in technical purity.

The most complete and effective master of the English language which this country has produced was that unrivaled jury lawyer, Rufus Choate, and his sentences contained a large proportion of words derived from the language of Cicero, and still more from his favorite Greek.

Though the "Post" carried its scruples in this direction to the very verge of fastidiousness, it was a movement in the right direction, and one which its contemporaries might still profit by. But with all this nicety, perhaps in a measure because of it—for this severity of diction naturally repressed, to a certain extent, that vivacity of which some of its later rivals had a superabundance—the "Post" is comparatively little known out of the circle of its regular subscribers and exchanges, its moderation having preserved it for many years from those exciting personal controversies which have enlivened the columns of other journals.

The "Sun" here requires notice, as earliest in date of the penny papers, and for its hereditary qualities, as impressed

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THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

by its early history. Having passed from the hands of Mr. Day, its original proprietor, it was subsequently for many years the property of Moses Y. Beach. But during its youth it was, for a period, under the editorial care of Richard Adams Locke, who, in its columns, gave to the world one of the most wonderful literary frauds ever successfully palmed upon an unsuspecting public. This was the long-remembered "Moon Hoax," which purported to relate, with much skill and circumstantiality, a series of astronomical discoveries by the late Sir John Herschel, and it was so plausibly wrought out as to almost deceive the very elect of American scientists. Has the original taint descended, and is it through inherited sin that the "Sun" still bears the reputation of a sensational paper, ready to give currency to any rumor, however extravagant or improbable, without compunction as regards consequences or the private feelings of individuals? Is it thus that all the wonderful phenomena which are reported, the snake stories and fish stories, the incredible exploits by land and sea, naturally gravitate to the columns of the "Sun?" Not to the editorial space, we admit, for there corrections will be made of fatal errors, if demanded with sufficient unction, two sensations being the result, an affirmative and negative on a single subject! Mr. Dana's paragraphs are short, sharp and decisive, consisting mainly of moral dicta based on current events, failing only in sound common sense when the personal prejudices of the writer disable him from the exercise of ordinary charity of judgment. The great majority of the readers of the "Sun" are of the mechanic and laboring classes, people who have not time to read the large dailies, and to whom even the low price is an object. Here, too, they find the real kernel of all the news, but stripped, not only of all verbiage, but of all ornament likewise. In its columns paragraphs are reduced to the minimum of words which will express a fact or convey an idea. It has always been a patriotic paper, and never more so than under its present editor. It has a very large city circulation. The man who daily reads the "Sun" will almost certainly imbibe some unwarrantable prejudices, but he will also pick up a vast deal of fragmentary information, and will not be allowed to forget his duty as a citizen and voter.

About two years after the establishment of the "Sun," the late James Gordon Bennett started the "Daily Herald" as a

221

penny sheet. He had been trained in a hard school, had written for several years for various journals and magazines including the old "Knickerbocker," had been associate editor with Col. Watson Webb on the "Enquirer," and later with the combined papers, the "Courier and Enquirer," which brought into the partnership the eccentric M. M. Noah. Mr. Bennett abandoned the concern when the senior editor, Col. Webb, changed his politics, deserting President Jackson and making his affiliations with the party sustaining the United States Bank. He then went to Philadelphia, and edited a Democratic paper called the "Pennsylvanian," working hard, faithfully and efficiently in preparing the way for Martin Van Buren's succession to the Presidency. He subsequently returned to New York, convinced of the irredeemable ingratitude of politicians, and determined to establish an independent paper.

On May 6, 1835, was issued the first number of the "Daily Herald," a small sheet of four pages, price one cent. Mr. Bennett announced from the start that he had "no principles." By which phrase, well calculated to shock the "moral sixpennys," he intended to say, and did explain that he had no predetermined theories to maintain or defend, but held himself free to pass upon each day's event as it occurred. His aim was not to establish a moral censor, but to build up a model *news*-paper; not a literary journal, not a party organ; committed to no creed or specialty of any kind; above all, the mouthpiece of no financial clique, but a paper which should give all the news in an attractive form, and with the greatest possible expedition.

He had ascertained, to his own conviction, at least, that the great mass of newspaper readers care far more for what is happening than for what any editor thinks on this or that subject. It is this natural curiosity which the "Herald" has always endeavored to gratify. To the mind of Mr. Bennett the daily press was the jury of the nation, before which all the testimony of the revolving hours was to be given, and into which the people might look and render their verdict. He is reported by his biographer to have said, on more than one occasion, "I never wish to be more than one day in advance of popular opinion." This policy has been carried out to the letter, with the natural exception, that both he and his successors have not been always able to read aright what the real

public sentiment was. This attitude, which we may term
short-tether leadership, frequently gives an air of glaring in-
consistency, and even, at times, of monstrous tergiversation
in the leading articles, and has caused the "Herald" to be
looked upon rather as an indicator of what is probably coming
than as any guide as to what is to be desired. It is like
those water metres upon the Nile which faithfully register the
rising or falling level, but which are not constructed to check
or accelerate its course. Hence the influence of the "Her-
ald" results, not from its editorials, but from its accumulation
of facts, systematized and ample in breadth, which it puts
before its readers, and from which they are able to judge of
all matters for themselves. For, as is well known, in the
matter of enterprise in obtaining news, for lavish expenditure
and boundless energy, the "Herald" has no rival in the United
States, and but two which make any near approximation to
it in the world.

To the "Herald" is to be attributed several great improve-
ments in journalism. The first and most essential to success
was the introduction of the cash system. Many fair promis-
ing papers and magazines all over the country, previous to
1835, had been wrecked on that fashionable stumbling-block
of extended credit. The modern methods of distribution, also,
though originating in the "Sun" office, were reorganized on a
large scale, with many minor improvements, by the "Herald."
"Money articles," which are now a regular feature of all com-
mercial and many other papers, were first written by Mr.
Bennett, and great was the flutter and commotion which they
caused. From 1835-8 the "Herald" kept the lead in this im-
portant branch of intelligence. For a year or two it was
roundly abused by all its rivals for its audacity and imperti-
nence, and then quietly imitated, by one after another, till all
acquired the habit, if not the skill, of the original.

What has been called a stroke of financial genius was the
elimination by the "Herald" of long permanent advertise-
ments, and the introduction of systematized short "wants,"
and daily renewals of all sorts of notices. So that there is
something of the nature of news inhering even in the adver-
tising columns, while the profits of the proprietor are im-
measurably increased and the public better served. More val-
uable to the latter was, also, the editor's rigorous adhesion to
his rule to exclude all puffery of advertised objects or projects
from the space devoted to reading matter.

223

It was in the "Herald" of May, 1839, that detailed reports were first given of the anniversary meetings of religious and benevolent societies. And five years later the plan of reporting sermons in the Monday issue was inaugurated. These reports excited great opposition; why, it seems difficult now to conceive, for at the present time any paper which omitted notice of the former, at least, would be condemned as lacking in enterprise.

The next great improvement in journalism was made when the "Herald" established a permanent corps of reporters and correspondents at Washington during the sessions of Congress, and throughout the principal cities of Europe. Other papers had employed special and transient foreign correspondents, but not on the same scale of numbers or permanence as Mr. Bennett. And it was soon apparent that every event of interest occurring in any part of the civilized world was certain to be reported directly to the "Herald." That this spirit of enterprise has descended to the present management is recognized by all who remember the search for Livingstone; the present expedition to the Polar regions, and, perhaps, what is of more practical service, the establishment of the "Herald Reading Rooms" in Paris.

The most pugilistic editor in New York, morally speaking, was undoubtedly Horace Greeley, the founder of the "Tribune." Previous to the establishment of this great daily, he had edited, for seven years, a weekly paper called the "New Yorker" with but moderate financial success, but through which he had acquired the reputation of a man of general integrity and an accomplished statistician, particularly in the matter of election returns and other political data. Just previous to starting the "Tribune" he had also conducted a campaign paper called the "Log Cabin," which was intended to aid in the election of General Harrison to the Presidency. This vigorous little sheet bounded at once into unprecedented popularity—ephemeral to be sure, but so sudden and extended that its editor was totally unprepared to meet the demand for its first issue. An edition of 20,000 was sold the first day, which was all that the working force of the office could accomplish. During the night 8,000 more were printed, which were sold before noon the next day; 4,000 were added to the number in the afternoon, and still the demand continued; 6,000 more were printed, and then the forms were broken up

and the type distributed, to make way for the next number. Subscribers poured in at the rate of seven hundred a day. In a few weeks sixty thousand were registered, and before the November elections occurred they amounted to ninety thousand!

It had not originally been intended to continue its publication after the election returns had been received and the results known. But public interest in the "Log Cabin" was still maintained, and it only ceased to exist when Mr. Greeley had determined on establishing a permanent, respectable daily. The word "respectable" was a fling at the "Herald," the style of which did not please the more refined and religious part of the community. The "Tribune" was at first Whig in politics, and, when that party ceased to exist, naturally gravitated towards the Republican ranks. But the peculiar character which the "Tribune" developed did not turn on politics. It acquired not only a literary reputation, but more especially that of advocating, or allowing individuals to advocate, in its columns, all sorts of novel and radical isms. Early in its career it gave large space to the doctrines of Fourier, the French Socialist, then to the peculiar vegetarian theory of Dr. Graham. It commenced a warfare (in which it was joined by the "Journal of Commerce") against the drama, even refusing theatrical advertisements. It was slow to adopt the abolition platform, but when it did no language was strong enough in which to describe the enormities of the slave power. Mr. Greeley was exceedingly erratic, and, though of very pronounced principles on many important subjects, was entirely void of that kind of consistency which is maintained by reiterating an opinion to day because he had affirmed it yesterday. So far was he from this that he was never considered "safe" as a party man. He was the *enfant terrible* of any cause which he espoused, being liable at any moment to break out in condemnation of a measure at which he took personal umbrage. Nor was his judgment always sound as to the gravity of passing events, or far-seeing as to ultimate results. In the very crisis of the rebel projects of 1860-61 he argued in favor of allowing the disaffected States to secede, reasoning not only that the North would be better off without them, but that there was no inherent right of coercion in the National Government. In a few months he had shed all these opinions as clean as a crus-

225

tacean sheds its shell, and was the most urgent and impatient
for an immediate and vigorous campaign against the Con-
federates.

And yet the "Tribune" was then, as it had been for
many years, a widely influential and respected journal; its
country circulation of weekly and semi-weekly probably ex-
ceeded that of any other paper; it had not only admirers, but
almost worshippers in the New England and Western States,
and its subscribers consisted largely of the most highly edu-
cated and intelligent classes.

Wherein, then, lay the power of the "Tribune" and its
equivalent, the personal influence of Horace Greeley?

This is accounted for mainly by the fact of the general be-
lief in his absolute integrity of purpose. No one believed him
capable, in his wildest vagaries, of being swayed by other than
patriotic motives or expressing other than his sincere convic-
tions. In addition to this, the "Tribune" had for years an
exceptionally fine staff of writers. It included such names as
the late George Ripley, Mr. Hassard, Henry J. Raymond,
Charles A. Dana, Margaret Fuller, Bayard Taylor, Mr.
Whitelaw Reid, its present accomplished editor, and others of
equal talent. In business enterprise it had but one superior,
the "Herald," and the influence of its editorials was infinitely
greater, because it was known to believe in itself. As a policy
it did not follow any dictation, but aspired to lead opinion,
and not unfrequently defied and affronted public sentiment.

The "New York Daily Times" had the advantage of starting
with ample financial means and an experienced editor, "born to
journalism." It was Henry J. Raymond, then associate editor
of the "Courier and Enquirer," who vanquished, in an argu-
ment of six months duration (through the columns of their
respective journals), with Mr. Greeley, the Fourierism and so-
cialistic doctrines which the latter had advocated, and finally
swept all traces of socialism out of the columns of the "Tri-
bune." The "Times Association" divided its cash capital into
shares of the par value of $1,000 each. In a few years a share
could not be bought for $11,000. Commencing in 1851 as a
Whig paper, it also drifted into Republicanism. Its tone has
generally been moderate, and it has the supreme credit of
having banished from its editorial columns all offensive person-
alities. Mr. Raymond also set the example of "parlor offices."
Previous to the erection of the "Times Building," editors had

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THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

been content to occupy unattractive corners, well up towards
the attics, with no attempt at comfort, much less elegance in
their surroundings. Raymond changed all that. His edito-
rial and other rooms were fitted up with every convenience,
handsomely furnished—with carpeted floors, easy swinging
chairs, the latest improved desks, frescoed walls and ceilings,
mirrors, pictures, bookcases, everything needed either to aid
in the transaction of business or to render the occupant easy
in mind and body. Had not these luxurious apartments some
retroactive influence in subduing that impatience and acerbity
of temper which so often broke out in libelous personalities
under the old régime of bare boards and slovenly discomfort?
We think there is little doubt of it. The habitual surround-
ings of a person will inevitably affect, more or less, his feelings
and his temper.

The "Times" has always been a partisan journal, circulat-
ing among the respectable classes who were dissatisfied with
the eccentricities of the "Tribune," and shocked by the au-
dacities of the "Herald." It grew in favor rapidly, and it
has been a mystery to not a few journalists, as to "where the
original twenty thousand subscribers to the 'Times' came
from," as neither of the other leading papers lost any appre-
ciable number. The "Times" employs good literary talent,
and, to those approving of its political principles, is an emi-
nently satisfactory paper. Its founder was a man of indom-
itable energy, a great worker, capable of intense continued
application, and in case of an emergency could put his hand
to any part of the office work. It is considered a particularly
moral paper, by its special admirers, but neither of its great
rivals could be called the reverse, nor indeed do such flourish
in this country. Not one, of decidedly bad tendency, has ever
prospered, or paid its way for any length of time, with possi-
bly one exception, in this city.

It has been a mystery to many people, particularly for-
eigners, as to how the numerous country papers, with their
necessarily limited subscription lists, could be made to pay.
There is one mode of economizing, freely used in the west,
which greatly aids the country journals to furnish a good
readable paper at a small cost: this is the system known as
"insides" and "outsides." This plan took its rise in necessity.
On the outbreak of the civil war, in 1860-1, all the journeymen
employed on the "Wisconsin Republican" volunteered and

227

joined the Union army, and the editor could not obtain a suff
icient relay of hands to prepare his paper. He therefore ap
plied for, and obtained, of his nearest editorial neighbor, the
proprietor of the "Madison Daily Journal," a ready printed
half sheet supplement, and folded it in for distribution with
his own sheet, which was blank on one side. Realizing that
this had a bad look, he made immediate arrangements with
the editor at Madison to furnish him with outside read
ing matter, ready printed, with the name of his own paper
(the "Wisconsin Republican"), as the heading, he being pre
pared to fill up the inside with editorial matter, news and
advertisements. This fashion, thus set by Mr. Kellogg, led
to the creation of a regular business of furnishing half printed
papers. By 1865, two hundred offices were supplied in this
way, mainly in the west.

Thirty different styles and sizes were furnished. And this
convenient and thrifty fashion has since extended to other
sections of the country. A branch office exists in New York
for the supply of "outsides" for country papers in the
Eastern States.

One of the latest papers in existence was started about a
year ago (in 1879) in Colorado, in a newly discovered rich
mining district, at a place called Rico, in the beautiful valley
of Dolores. Here a large mining tent was erected by Senator
Jones of Nevada (the discover of the mines), and the news of
"the find" spread so rapidly, that in a few days four hundred
cabins were erected; and a month later it was found that
there were three hundred American citizens entitled to vote
in the State elections of November (the rest of the population
being foreigners). Now it is obvious to all who know the
race, that no three hundred voters could do without a paper.
The "Doloresian News" was started, with an editor and ma
terials obtained from Denver. At first this was a large and
well filled sheet; but during the winter of 1879-80 the com
munity were "snowed in" so completely, that all communi
cation was for a season interrupted. At long intervals the
mail agents succeeded in reaching them, but freight or heavy
materials of any kind, could not be transported over the deep
snows of that unbroken mountain country. As the stock of
paper was reduced, the "Doloresian News" was shrunk in
size until it was no larger than a sheet of letter paper. But
with the opening of spring it resumed its normal proportions.

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Rico, being now over ten months old, has a population of
several thousand, and the "News" has probably by this time
a vigorous rival, at least an additional campaign paper.
Thus does the press speedily follow the American pioneer
into the wildest uncultivated regions of the continent. And
who can estimate its immense influence in keeping alive and
active those ties which bind the hardy frontiersman to the
centres of civilization, through the medium of a common in-
telligence, and the cultivation which results from an ably
conducted journal, giving the best selected matter from city
papers and magazines.

At the first glance it may not strike the general reader
that the advertising department of a paper is worthy of no-
tice in a review of journalism, but practically it has often
proved of paramount interest to the community. Take, for
instance, the history of the construction of the great trans-
continental railroad. For some time after the commence-
ment of this gigantic work, the bonds sold very slowly, only
the most far-sighted financiers daring to touch the stock.
The public were timid, and not even the national pride in the
work could induce the people generally to risk their money
in it. So the bonds dragged along below par. They had
been put into the hands of agents and bankers all over the
country, but the officers even of the National banks did not
push them, but made their sale subordinate to their own
local business. At last a bright idea was suggested to the
Secretary of the Treasury by an active business man, Mr.
Shattuck, and this was to advertise them on a grand scale,
and in such a way as to compel the attention of the people to
the fact that the purchase of bonds was a trustworthy in-
vestment. During the latter part of 1866 a most skilful
system of advertising was inaugurated, and a large amount
of money was placed at the discretion of the agent to induce
editorial endorsements of these advertisements, wherever
this was found to be necessary.

The style of these announcements was of the most sensa-
tional kind. Enthusiasm began to show itself. On the 1st
of January, 1867, the bonds suddenly jumped from 90 to 95,
and a week later they were at par. The good effects of the
advertising were evident, and efforts in that direction were
redoubled. Every country paper that applied for an adver-
tisement received it, and thus the farming population was

229

reached, and the cautious husbandman began to bring out
his hoards and venture a few hundred dollars in the great
road. In April, '67, the management advertised in large
figures, and with many exclamation points, that "600
miles of the railroad was completed"; in May, 640; in June,
660; in July, 700; December 15, 1,000. By June, 1868, the de-
mand for the bonds of the Union Pacific Railroad was greater
than could be supplied, and the pressure was nearly as great
on the Central Pacific. On the 2d of March, 1869, the roads
met, and were united near the Great Salt Lake. Only then
were the advertising accounts called in. They had effected
the sale of $30,000,000 worth of Union Pacific and $20,000,000
worth of Central Pacific. Advertising had done its work. It
had popularized the bonds among all classes of the community,
and given the people the opportunity of investing, not only
their superfluous money, but their good will and permanent
interest in one of the greatest works of the century.

It ought to be an invariable rule in newspaper manage-
ment, not to allow its columns to be used by any of its part-
ners or stockholders, for the purpose of advancing any
business project disconnected with the paper. It is a direct
fraud upon readers, who are not able in such case to draw
the line between that which they know is paid for as an ad-
vertisement and that which is spread before them as edito-
rial opinion, or interesting reading matter, but which is in
fact advertisement in disguise. It would seem that strict
honor would tolerate no half way course in such a matter.

Review and magazine literature has kept pace with the
expansion of the daily press, and in regard to quality need
not fear comparison with cotemporary literature of the same
class in Europe. The oldest Quarterly Review, the "North
American," has for over sixty years maintained a very
high standard of excellence. The "National" and "Interna-
tional" quarterlies will compare favorably with the "Edin-
burgh," "Westminster," the "Revue des Deux Mondes," or
other foreign reviews of the same nature. The "Christian
Examiner," published in Boston, is a model of pure intellectu-
ality. It circulates chiefly among Unitarians. Most of the
other denominational reviews are too limited in their scope to
interest the general public. Of course we cannot individu-
alize any considerable number out of the hundreds of month-
lies and quarterlies which are published in the United States;

230 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

but one very interesting feature of this class of periodicals is the very large number, all over the country, which give valuable scientific information, in a popular and attractive form, as also inventions and discoveries in the arts and manufactures.

In the Western States—in Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, San Francisco—these sort of magazines are not only numerous but of a very high grade of merit. Mineralogy and mining, of course, take a prominent place in several periodicals in the latter State. But, perhaps, as a model magazine of this kind, we cannot select a better example than that of the "Popular Science Monthly," edited by Dr. Youmans. This monthly has probably done more to popularize science, as its name imports, than any other publication in the United States. It has an extensive circulation, and though not professedly an illustrated journal, always furnishes such illustrations as are needed to elucidate any subject treated in its pages. It registers the present year its seventeenth volume.

Of magazines which are not in the habit of using reprints, the "Atlantic Monthly," founded in Boston twenty-three years ago, has been one of the most successful and well sustained. There seems to be a fashion in magazines, as in other things, one and another rising successively into public favor. Of those thoroughly established we may name "Scribner's," of New York, "Lippincott's," of Philadelphia, as good healthy specimens. "Harper's Monthly" seems to stand alone in the constant measure and increase of its popularity. The paper on which it is printed is not counted by reams, but weighed by tons. Like "Scribner's," its letter press is clear and beautiful, and it is profusely illustrated. It is now in its thirty-first year and may safely be said to have no superior of its class in the United States.

Of purely art publications, the two leading magazines are the "American Art Review" and the "Art Journal," published by the Appletons, both of which give illustrations of engravings, etchings and wood cuts from foreign artists as well as American. They are both large quartos of thirty-two pages. Boston and the western cities also issue art journals and illustrated papers. Frank Leslie's successors, in New York, publish, simultaneously, eight illustrated periodicals in English, and two in the German language. Their illustrations are mostly original, and limited to current events in this and foreign countries.

231

Sunday papers are a comparatively modern feature of jour-
nalism. The earliest successful attempt was inaugurated
about 1832-3 by Mr. Gilbert Vale, of New York, who pub-
lished successively the "Sunday Reporter," the "Citizen of
the World," and the "Beacon." The latter was continued for
some dozen years, but these were edited in too philosophical
a spirit to acquire a very large circulation, and the editor's
advanced views on religious subjects did not at that time cor-
respond in sentiment to any large class in the community.
Subsequently, very popular Sunday papers have been estab-
lished, depending in great measure for their success on the
publication of serial stories, the transactions of clubs, amateur
theatricals, and sports of various kinds. Some of the large
dailies began to issue Sunday papers during the excitement of
the war in 1861-4, and have continued the practice since.

The influence of women in journalism in the United States
is far greater than appears on the surface. The fact that
there are sixty papers and periodicals openly edited and pub-
lished by women gives but a very small fractional idea of the
extent of their connection with journalism. The number of
female contributors to all classes of papers and magazines is
not known to the general public, and not always even to the
publishers, from the fact that in the higher class of periodi-
cals, they frequently adopt male *noms de plume*, while many
others form part of the editorial staff of influential journals,
where, as impersonal contributors, sex is not recognized. That
keen analytical dissector, Mrs. Laura C. Holloway, is thus
connected with a paper claiming to have the largest circula-
tion of any evening daily in the United States; and this is but
one sample of numerous similar cases.

Journalism in the United States naturally stands upon a
different footing from that which it obtains in most European
countries. Here we have no public censor, nor any official
oversight of the press whatever. It is absolutely free—sub-
ject only to the general law of libel, which makes every per-
son guilty of uttering libelous matter amenable to an action
at law for damages. It is obvious, then, that it is to the
interest of editors and proprietors of papers not to lay them-
selves open to such actions, and those who know the interior
management of newspaper offices are well aware that far
more care is exercised in this respect than the proprietors are
usually credited with. If anyone doubts this, let him write a

libelous article and try to get it inserted in any journal of
standing in the country, and he will find that he has to trav-
el far and wide, with the almost certainty of rejection every-
where. Yet the great license which public opinion allows,
and the indisposition on the part of individuals to commence
actions at law for the remedy of real or fancied injuries through
the press, has undoubtedly tended to encourage a freedom of
discussion that looks sometimes like a pernicious degree of lib-
erty. The fault, we believe, is more with the public than with
the papers. Persons of means and eminence will permit
their names to be made butts of ridicule for weeks and
months, simply because they will not take the trouble to
put an editor on his defence. Yet there are few editors of
long standing who have not at some time been mulcted for
libel. The novelist Fenimore Cooper sued several publishers
for libel, among others Horace Greeley, obtaining a verdict
against him of several hundred dollars.

We remember some four years ago, that a popular and
learned lawyer of New York published an article on this sub-
ject in a cotemporary review, in which he deprecated the
laxity of the existing laws, and proposed to amend them by
adding to the penalty a fixed amount of fine, to be paid on
conviction of libel, beyond any sum which a jury might as-
sess. It is needless to say that the suggestion has never
been acted upon, for the law is all-sufficient as it stands. No
one need allow himself to be injured with impunity, and,
except under periods of great political excitement, it is rarely
that any person is attacked by the press, unless some public
or official act has given sufficient provocation. We are satis-
fied that any further legal restrictions would prove injurious
to the best interests of society, rather than a benefit.

Had the press been hampered with the daily dread of in-
fringing some newly concocted law of libel, how would it
ever have broken up (by its exposures) that giant ring of
fraudulent officials who a few years ago were so industriously
engaged in sapping the prosperity of New York for their own
selfish purposes? To a nation which chooses its own rulers it
is essential that the merits or demerits of all candidates
for office be fearlessly discussed.* That this should be

* The only legal justification for otherwise libelous matter is proof of these two facts—first, that it is true; and secondly, that its publication is calculated to subserve the public interests.

233

done in a generous and gentlemanly spirit is desirable, but even this is not so absolutely necessary as that the press should be able to tell the truth without fear of embarrassing interruptions. The press is not perfect, but to the American it is an ark of safety, and let no discontented pessimist put his hand upon the vital principle of our national life—free speech and a FREE PRESS.

With its numerous imperfections admitted, we yet see no reason to doubt that the periodical press of the United States exerts, in the main, a healthful influence. It is certainly the most efficient educator, because it meets the mental requirements of all classes and all ages. It follows up the work of the public schools, and induces a love of book reading and study of scientific subjects, by selecting the newest facts and the brightest thoughts of every writer of merit who appears, either in the shape of historian, philosopher or scientist. And, as we have seen, there is no corner of the country so remote that the press does not penetrate. Since the addition of Alaska to the national domain, a periodical has been established in San Francisco called the "Alaska Herald." It is printed in both the English and Russian languages, is a semi-monthly, and is devoted principally to news and politics.

The greatest need of popular journalism in this country is *non partisan*, clear and intelligible instruction for the mass of the people in the primary elements of political economy. Had the press generally explained, in clear and terse language, which the day laborer could understand, the inevitable effects of war and war debts, and made plain to them the fact that "greenbacks," or any paper money of a similar origin, are signs of the nation's indebtedness rather than of its wealth, much of the disappointment and consequent discontent exhibited by the workingmen would have been averted. A knowledge of the causes of "hard times" (now happily past), though it does not relieve them, makes the sufferers more reasonable in their expectations and modest in their demands. Had the press done its whole duty in warning the people in time on these subjects, such agrarian gatherings as have been witnessed in California within the present year would have had no place, for social demagogues would have found no material ignorant enough to work upon or to be misled by them.

234 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

We cannot leave this paper without saying a few words against the odious practice of interviewing unwilling victims concerning affairs which should be left in privacy if the parties concerned so desire. The usage has grown up, no doubt, out of the wish to give the public the benefit of everything interesting which occurs. But the line must be drawn somewhere, and private parties have their rights to withhold information, if they choose, without being subject, in consequence of refusal, to be held up to ridicule by a baffled reporter. Let the journal which covets the title of *superior refinement* set the example of suppressing mere gossip, which can benefit no one, while seriously annoying the subjects of it. And society journals, also, which indulge in personal descriptions meant to be complimentary, should at least ascertain whether such publicity is desired. Indiscriminating praise is sometimes worse to bear than calumny.

## THE RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY.

BY A. P. LOPUCHIN.

THE present Russian Bible Society, (or, as it is called in Russia, "The Society for the Propagation of the Holy Scriptures,") is quite a new institution. There had been a Bible Society in the first quarter of this century, but for several reasons, and especially because at the hands of foreign leaders it had become a tool for the propagation of mysticism in the country and seemed to stand in opposition to the National Orthodox Church, it had been suspended. The present Society has no relation to the former one and is quite independent in its origin and purposes.

The Society for the Propagation of the Holy Scriptures was founded in 1863. That decade was a remarkable period in the history of modern Russia. It was a time when Russia, after many years of lethargy, was seized with a great enthusiasm for regeneration, which found its highest expression in the emancipation of the serfs.

All had become alive and harmonious, as all nature is alive and vocal with music in the spring, after the deadly

THE RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY.

235

cold of the winter is past and gone. The educated classes
proclaimed in literary works the approach of a golden age,
when nobleman and peasant (barin i mujik) would be one
soul and one body. But as soon as this flaming enthusiasm
descended to the mujiks, so soon the chill of disappointment
dampened its fire. The peasantry, emancipated from slavery,
represented such a dark and heavy mist that in its natural
condition it could be only an awkward obstacle to the suc-
cessful evolution of the country. The first and natural
thought was to teach the people to read and write, and
indeed schools soon began to appear in such numbers that
before long there was no considerable village without a
school.

The leaders of society went further. They wished not
only to instruct the people in reading and writing, but also to
break up suddenly their traditional methods of thought and
belief, and for this purpose they began to clean and sweep the
souls of the mujiks with such an indiscreet ardor that the
very faith of the Church was in danger of injury. This state
of affairs alarmed the well disposed portion of Russian soci-
ety, and out of it appeared those serious and patriotic people,
who endeavored to take measures both for supporting reli-
gious belief among the peasantry and for a reaction against
the spread of unbelief among the educated classes. The
separate actors in this field at length combined in various so-
cieties, and one of the last was called, "The Society for the
Propagation of the Holy Scriptures in Russia."

These are the conditions which called into existence this
Society. At first it consisted of a very limited number of
members, but in time it increased its membership. The So-
ciety regarded as its principal task the circulation of the
New Testament among the people, the Russian translation
of which had just appeared. Afterwards it issued the other
books of Holy Scripture, as they were translated under the
immediate supervision of the Holy Synod of the Russian
Church, and next by participation of its first member, His
Eminence, Metropolitan Isidor of St. Petersburg. (The en-
tire translation of the Bible was completed in 1876.)

The rules by which the Society decided to be governed
were as follows:

1. To circulate only the books of the Holy Scriptures
which are edited with the blessing of the Holy Synod.

236

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

2. To sell the books in a binding as cheap as possible. For the people who are very poor, as also for hospitals, alms-houses, prisons and schools, it sells the books at reduced prices, and even gives them gratuitously as far as the pecuniary means of the Society will allow.

3. In order that the price of the books in all parts of the country shall be the same, it sends the books free of postage, which charge the Society itself assumes.

In distributing the books among the people, the Society was obliged to take such measures as would be called exclusively Russian ones. Through absence of the ways of communication, and because of the small circulation of newspapers, the usual means of circulating the books by selling them in stores and by advertisements in the papers would be quite ineffectual, as into most villages such ways only lead by which "*the magpies go easy*" (as is said in Russia), and where no paper ever appears. Therefore the Society chose the system of colportage in the country, the colporteurs going into the villages with boxes of books and hawking them about for sale. This method was found the fittest, also, because many of "the dark people" do not even know what these books are, and therefore need a preliminary explanation of their contents and value. Fortunately, among the members of the Society suitable persons for this purpose were found, who devoted themselves with their whole hearts to the holy work, and made their labor in circulating the holy books the serious work of their life and devotion. With heavy boxes on their backs, they went in all directions over the boundless fields of Russian territory—from Warsaw to the far depths of Siberia, and from the cold rocks of Finland to the burning country beyond the Caucasus. Everywhere they bore with them the holy books, announcing the truth of the Word of God. New Testaments were bought with the greatest zeal, and there were frequent occasions which show what attractive power the Gospel has for people to whom before it was not accessible except by fragmentary reading in church and in the old Sclavonic language, which is not quite clear to them.

On one occasion a bearer of the holy books, together with many other persons, was obliged to wait for a steamer three days at a station on the Volga. Through *ennui*, the passengers spent the time in telling the recollections of their lives and in reading. Among them was a good reader. "The last

THE RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY.

237

evening” (thus the agent relates, in his report to the Society), “I asked him to read for us something from the Gospel according to St. Luke. He granted my request, and read the first eight chapters, one after the other. A striking impression was produced by this marvellous narrative. I should like to be a painter to represent this scene! A sailor, who was about to leave the room, stopped on the way, clad in sheepskin, with a lantern in his hand, as though rooted to the ground, with his eyes wide open, immovably fixed on the reader, with the closest attention impressed on his face. By my side a woman was seated on the ground. Touching my hand, she asked what book it was, and learning that it was the Gospel, she made the cross on her face in the orthodox fashion, and repeatedly said: ‘Oh! it is marvelous reading!’”

The Holy Scriptures are circulated with great success among the soldiers, most of whom, through the proper organization of regimental schools, are able to read and write. During the last Turco-Russian war many of them marched to assault the deadly Plevna with Gospels in their knapsacks, and for the survivors of those murderous assaults the reading of the holy book was the only consolation. “For this book, dear brethren, we must give up even life,” said a soldier buying the Gospel; and this can be considered as the general feeling of the Russian soldiery.

The work of the Society during seventeen years of its existence is shown by the following figures:

<table><thead><tr><th>Year.</th><th>Copies.</th><th>Year.</th><th>Copies.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1863</td><td>2,450</td><td>1872</td><td>84,976</td></tr><tr><td>1864</td><td>4,742</td><td>1873</td><td>66,162</td></tr><tr><td>1865</td><td>13,385</td><td>1874</td><td>33,373</td></tr><tr><td>1866</td><td>19,849</td><td>1875</td><td>42,932</td></tr><tr><td>1867</td><td>17,433</td><td>1876</td><td>39,473</td></tr><tr><td>1868</td><td>27,716</td><td>1877</td><td>46,347</td></tr><tr><td>1869</td><td>19,591</td><td>1878</td><td>42,727</td></tr><tr><td>1870</td><td>42,841</td><td>1879</td><td>34,642</td></tr><tr><td>1871</td><td>72,867</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody><tfoot><tr><td colspan="2">Total for 17 years</td><td></td><td>611,506</td></tr></tfoot></table>

This sum total of books circulated during seventeen years may appear to readers accustomed to the large figures in the yearly accounts of British and American Bible Societies as very small. But to properly estimate these figures we must bear in mind that Russia is not America, and its people, until

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THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

recently, had not emancipated themselves from the evils of
slavery demoralizing and killing the spiritual life; that the
first generation of free citizens, born after the year 1861, has
not yet attained full age, and that learning, until recently,
could take but weak root among the people. Since 1873, as
appears from the table, there is observable a sort of decrease
in the circulation of the holy books. But this can be ex-
plained by the fact that since that date the Holy Synod of the
Russian Church has itself begun to work most earnestly for the
circulation of the Holy Scriptures. The Synod now has its
own book stores, and it is possible that hereafter it will take
on itself the whole work of the Society. At all events,
these figures concerning the circulation of Holy Scrip-
ture in Russia are quite sufficient for the Society to claim the
gratitude of the country, where the darkness of ignorance
still covers, with an impenetrable and heavy vail, many remote
villages, which have no idea of a newspaper, and in which
the only learned people are the priest and the village clerk.
The appearance of even one copy of Holy Scripture in such a
village, before all other books, is a blessed event. It is the
first ray of light—the Divine light, in the kingdom of dark-
ness.

THE JEWS IN MOROCCO.

BY GERHARD ROHLFS.

A present the attention of the civilized world is again
turned to that country, which, in shame to Europe be it
said, at the latter's very gates, drags along its wretched
existence under the most miserable government in the world.

Whoever has from personal observation learned to know
the condition of the population and government of Morocco,
believes himself to be in a dream. One's own eyes are often
mistrusted, one's ears accused of false hearing, and yet it is
bitter truth.

Separated only by a narrow arm of water, Gibraltar ex-
hibits the life of one of the most civilized people on earth,

THE JEWS IN MOROCCO.

239

while in Morocco the state of the country is the same as that
in the time of Abraham. Nothing has changed there. Every-
thing goes on as in the time of Mohammed, while fanaticism
and hatred towards those of other faith, here in especial
bear the most splendid fruit.

And no interference can help here; conferences and lega-
tions produce no change in the condition of the country.
The frightful religious insolence of the Sultan of Morocco
and his court make all improvement impossible. V. Conring,
who was in Morocco last year and may serve as one of the
latest witnesses, confirms fully what has just been said.

The principal cause why Morocco will never be accessible
to any reforms lies in the fact that it knows itself protected by
*one* power—Great Britain. Let the English, as a people, be
ever so philanthropic, the English government itself has
the deepest interest in keeping the barbarians as they are, in
letting the miserable state of the country alone. Great Brit-
ain has a political interest in keeping Morocco as it is, because,
should the country fall at issue with itself, the result would
be its conquest by other powers; because, should the coast
district opposite Gibraltar fall into the hands of a powerful
State, the worth of the English fortress would be diminished,
and its victualing become a very much more difficult matter;
and finally, because the English purse would suffer a sensible
loss, as the Morocco market is supplied almost wholly by
England. The same tender interest that England evinced so
long a time for the Osman state, it now entertains for Moroc-
co. Should, however, the fall of this miserable country no
longer be avoidable, then we do not for one moment doubt,
England would find its Moroccan Cyprus. It need but be re-
called to people's minds that Tangier was English from 1662
to 1684.

The Morocco Government always promises everything, but
never keeps any of its promises. The uppermost circles of Mo-
rocco, as well as the people, as every Mohammedan, think in-
deed that it is quite unnecessary to keep faith with the whites,
and in self-deceit neither Government nor people in Morocco
can be beaten by any one, and are rivaled at best only by the
Turks. Despite their many defeats, the Moroccan people
still think that they are the mightiest nation on earth; that
their Sultan is the most powerful monarch among rulers.
The arrogance of the so-called ministers and the dullness of

the ambassadors* from Morocco, are surpassed only by their
stupid fanaticism.

Sir Moses Montefiore's embassy, in 1861, was therefore at-
tended by not the slightest success. It is true that in the
seaport cities the Jews are now a little better off, and many
of the natives are able gradually to place themselves under
the protection of some European power and can then lead a
little more human-like existence.

However, though they need no longer to go barefoot
through the streets of Tangier and Mogadore, it could still
happen that when Prince Joinville bombarded Mogadore
[1844], the Mohammedan population burst into the Jewish
quarter, plundered and fired it, outraged women and children,
and finally killed all.

In the interior, however, nothing has yet been changed.
And why should the condition of the Jews be improved, when
even that of the Christians has not been ameliorated?

The Jews are allowed at least to dwell in the interior of
Morocco, in Fez, in the city of Morocco itself, even in sacred
Nesan, as well as south of the Altas mountains—in Nun Sur
Draa and Tafilet. The Christians would not gain permission
to do so. It is true that the Jews in the interior of Morocco
live in a condition so frightful that a European could hardly
be found to submit to it. The Jews there are treated not
as "slaves," but as things.

At present Sir Drummond Hay is in Fez. Will he persuade
the Sultan to make concessions? Assuredly; but they will
be as little regarded as those made to Montefiore. The handsomest promises will be made, but none kept. And, indeed,
in the interior of the country this is quite impossible. Those
who have faith in such a possibility, are simply a prey to illusions, and totally unacquainted with the condition of the
country and the people in the interior. Even the European
representatives, who go now and then as ambassadors to the

*I do not except one, and can, if necessary, prove their excessively stupid ideas regarding all European matters from the reports of Moroccan ambassadors to their Sultan. Si Timi, who in his time was in Berlin, presented the cross of the Kronen order, that was awarded him, to his Sultan, who dealt with it in a manner impossible of repetition here. V. Conring, in his work, confirms the former statement; and further, in order to illustrate the character and education of the worthy ambassador, states that in the capital of the German empire only one object made a lasting impression on Si Timi—Minna, a chambermaid in the "Hotel de Rome."

THE JEWS IN MOROCCO.

241

court of the Sultan, cannot learn to judge country and people, as they see everything under unusual conditions. The only European who thoroughly knows the character of the Moroccans, Sir Drummond Hay, does not believe in the least that the Moroccan Government will emancipate the Jews in the interior. He does not believe it, because he knows the character of the Moroccans. However, it must be said on behalf of the Sultan and his Government, that even if they wished to grant relief to the unfortunate Israelites and place them on an equality with the faithful, such an intention could not be carried out, as all measures pertaining to it would be frustrated by the fanaticism of the Moroccans.

The grandfather of the reigning Sultan, Mulei Abd-er Rahman, once granted permission to the Jews of Fez to leave their *Milha* (thus the Jewish quarters or *Ghettos* are styled in Morocco) in yellow slippers. The first unfortunate who ventured thus clad to show himself in the streets of Fez, did not return alive to the Ghetto; he was stoned to death by the infuriated populace.

And yet the Jews have been longer in Morocco than their torturers and brothers, the Arabians.

There can be no doubt concerning this, though Leo Africanus, otherwise well informed, says in his work (page 42, in the translation by Lorsbach): "Judaism, on the other hand, has been exterminated partly by the Africans and partly by the Christians." Leo, who in the year 1530, or near that time, was in Fez, gives, however a close description of the Jews living there at his time. He says, in his book, page 265:

"There, where formerly the royal guard of archerers were lodged, Jews now dwell. They used to live in the old city, but were usually plundered of everything by the Moors whenever a king died. It became necessary, therefore, that King Abu Said (who doubled their tribute) should remove them to New Fez, where they still dwell in a long and broad street, and have booths, houses, and synagogues. Their number, especially since the King of Spain expelled all their brothers in faith, has increased to such an extent that it is impossible to count them. They are, however, everywhere regarded with contempt; they are not allowed to wear ordinary (that is, yellow or red) shoes, but must go about in slippers of sea-rushes, and wear black turbans; those who desire to wear caps must tuck red patches on them. The tribute

242 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

which they pay the King amounts to 400 ducats every month.”

We have already said that Leo deceived himself when affirming that there were no Jews in Morocco or North Africa at the time of the invasion by their brothers, the Arabians.

There are in Morocco three kinds of Jews, so far as regards the length of the period of their existence there; or, if the latest immigration be included, four periods of immigration, and consequently four kinds of Jews can be pointed out. The first and oldest Jews date from an immigration that took place before our reckoning. To these belong those Israelites of whom Davidson relates, and of whose actual existence I gained knowledge during my crossing of the Atlas Mountains. These Jews speak the Barbar language (*mersigh*, *schellah*, or *tamersirht*). They live quite independent of the Moroccan Government, at least as much so as the Barbars. It is true they yield military duty to a Barbar sheik and follow him. They live, however, on an equal footing with the Barbars, and carry weapons as well as they. They are, therefore, the only Jews who, in the midst of a Mohammedan population, carry weapons. They dress exactly like the other inhabitants of the mountains, and do not, as is otherwise prescribed to the Morocco Jews, address the Barbar-Mohammédans with the prefix of “Sidi,” that is, “master,” but simply by name. These Jews are said not to possess the books of Moses, not to have any knowledge of the existence of Jesus Christ, not to have gone into the Babylonian captivity, but at that time to have already emigrated to Africa. If, however, as Davidson says, south of the Atlas Mountains there is a large Jewish city, he can refer only to the large Jewish quarters in Tafilet and Draa, which, it is true, are very populous, but, as I can testify from personal observation, are completely dependent on the Moroccan Government.

On the Nun also, whether I regret to say I did not penetrate, there are said to be Barbars who confess to the Jewish religion. They also maintain that their ancestors came from Palestine long before our reckoning. As Godard says, page 15, Volume I., it is hard to determine the value of the traditions collected by Arabian writers in order to maintain with certainty whether the Jewish tribes, whose customs agree with those of the Barbars, are actual descendants of those expelled and dispersed Jews, or if they went forth as proselytes of the old

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synagogue, whose influence in the Old World was far more
considerable than is commonly thought. It is maintained
that these tribes speak a corrupted Chaldaic, comprehensible
to such as are versed in the Syro-Chaldaic of the Talmud.

Then there are Jews who came to Morocco the same time
with the Arabians, or immediately after the Mohammedan
invasion, and who live in Noida, Tesa, Fez, Tafilet, Figig,
Draa and other places. They all speak Arabic, but employ
the Hebrew characters in writing.

After this we find large immigrations from the Nether-
lands in 1350; from England, in 1290 and 1403; from France,
in 1403; from Italy in 1342, and particularly from Spain in
1492 and 1494. These Jews inhabit principally the seaports
of Morocco. The English, French and other European Jews,
have, however, long since been absorbed by the Spanish. All
of them speak Spanish and most of them Arabic, but among
each other they make use of Spanish exclusively. While,
until within a few years, Spain, which had, under Ferdinand
and Isabella, driven out the Jews, together with the Arabs,
completely ignored its Jewish subjects, it now begins to re-
member that the belonging to a country cannot be determined
by the confession of faith of the individual concerned, and
many Jews have again become subject to Spanish authority.

But what the unfortunate Jews suffered until the acces-
sion of Mulei Abd er Rahman ben Hisham, is quite incredible
and impossible to recount here. Nor can it herewith be said
that since that time they have gained an existence based on
law and justice. Said Sultan merely prohibited the number-
less massacres and forbade the faithful to kill a Jew without
cause.

But how easily may a cause be found? For instance, being
rich is one. Thus, in the year 1853, this same Sultan caused
the Frenchman Darmon, a Jew born in Marseilles, and
occupying the post of Spanish Consul in Masagan, to be
murdered because he had accidentally killed a Morrocan.

By order of the Sultan, Darmon was dragged to the same
spot where the unfortunate ball had hit the Morrocan, and
there shot in cold blood. Reparation was made neither to
France or Spain.

We will not, however, dwell on the afflictions of past
times—as when, for instance, under the Sultan, Mulei Yasid,
all the Jews of several cities were murdered on account of

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their wealth, after, as a self-understood matter, the most out-
rageous cruelties had been perpetrated—but will examine into
the present state of the Jews in Morocco. It may be said that
there are two kind of laws prescribed for the Jews, such as
are, so to say, lawful and applicable to them in the whole
country, and such as are set up by every city and every in-
dividual, and which are dictated entirely at will. The latter
are often far more annoying than the former.

According to law the Jews cannot possess land or houses,
nor cultivate the ground outside of their milha (ghetto).
Nor are they permitted to accept lots and houses as mort-
gages. They are not allowed to ride horses, and may employ
only mules or donkeys for this purpose. They are not per-
mitted to lay hand on a Mussulmen, even in self-defence, ex-
cept in their own dwellings. They cannot bear witness in
court, and may not speak to a Mohammedan Judge excepting
in a bent position.

On the markets or at the booths a Jew may not outbid a
Mussulman in a purchase of victuals. They are forbidden to
read and write Arabic. They may not, while on a journey,
approach a spring at which Mussulmen are standing; nor are
they permitted to sit down directly opposite a Mohammedan,
but must do this in an oblique position. On an encounter in
the street they must always turn out to the left, and on a
journey must, if mounted on a donkey, descend therefrom at
a considerable distance in order to pass the Mussulman on
foot. They are not permitted to wear a red fez, but must don
a black one; likewise black slippers instead of yellow or red
ones. The Bournous they must wear in such a manner that the
opening is on the right side, and hence they cannot make any
use whatever of the left arm.

In order, however, to somewhat compensate for these
numerous prohibitions, they have a number of permissions or
injunctions. Thus, for instance, they are bound to pay a certain
sum at the birth of every prince. And this event occurs often
enough in Morocco, or else is made a pretence of in order to
offer them an opportunity of making a present of money to
the Sultan.

They are also under obligation to bury the corpses of
criminals, or themselves to behead or hang them, and they
are entrusted with the feeding of the Sultan's wild animals.
Fortunate the Jew on whose pretty daughter the Sultan or a

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245

prince has thrown a favorable eye. It is true, she must be-
come a *Mislemata* (Mohammedan), but her family is as a
rule thenceforward secure from vexation and persecution.

We have tried here as far as possible to recount the legal
commands and prohibitions concerning the Jews in Morocco,
if the term legal may be mentioned at all in connection with
that country. But far more numerous are the individual
practices of every tribe, of every city, of every believer, to-
wards this unfortunate people; and these in turn are again
surpassed by the ‘‘casual’’ treatment that any Mohammendan
can inflict upon a Jew.

And no redress is to be procured. We can imagine it pos-
sible for the seaports, but not for the interior of the country.
Who will exercise the control in Fez ? And it would surely be
more than *naive* to believe that Mohammedans so fanatical
as the Moroccans would of their own free will accord equality
to ‘‘unbelieving dogs.’’

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Oh! come, our souls' true riches;
Oh! come, Immortal King,
And to Thy rest eternal
Departed brethren bring.

The Prophet cries in sorrow:
I am but earth and dust!
Look at these mouldering bodies,
Stripped of their pride and lust.
Which is the king, the beggar,
The righteous, or the vile?
Lord, lead Thy parting servant
To rest beneath Thy smile.

At Thy command my being
Sprang into life from death;
Thy skill my body fashioned,
Thy grace bestowed my breath.
Then lead, O Christ, Thy servant
Into that better land,
Where they who wait Thy coming
In joy and beauty stand.

Once in Thine own true image,
The race of man was made;
Then by fierce Satan's malice
In sinful paths he strayed;
And, tasting guilty pleasure,
Became of death the slave;
Now to the earth returning
Grant rest beyond the grave.

I weep, I wail, I sorrow
When gazing on the tomb,
I see these precious bodies
In filth and shame consume.
Oh! mystery of sorrow!
Dark mystery of doom!
Grant, Lord, the resurrection;
Grant rest beyond the tomb!

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249

ΠΑΝΝΥΧΙΣ;

OR,

ORDER OF THE PRAYERS

FOR THE

REMEMBRANCE OF THE DEAD, ACCORDING TO THE USE OF THE HOLY
EASTERN CHURCH.

INTRODUCTION.

ACCORDING to a very ancient apostolical tradition, it has
always been the custom to pray for the faithful who
have departed in peace and in communion with the Church.
This custom, founded upon firm faith in the words and prom-
ises of the Redeemer (cf. Matt., 21, 22; Mark 11, 22-24; Luke
11, 9; John 16, 24), still continues without interruption in the
Church, to the health of the souls of the departed, and to the
consolation of the sorrowing hearts of those who remain here
on earth.

There is nothing more exalted, nothing more touching,
than the prayers which the Holy Eastern Church offers up
to the Throne of God in memory of her departed members.
The deep meaning of the service is rendered even more im-
pressive by the beautiful, heart-touching singing which ac-
companies these prayers. The significance of the function
and the symbolism of the ceremonies which are employed in
this service of mourning exalt the praying soul to such a
height of religious fervor that, lifted high above these earthly
spheres, it feels itself to be in the very presence of God.

We give here the translation of a short service which is
used for the remembrance of the dead in the Holy Eastern
Church. Its Greek name, "navvvχις," reminds us of the
nightly vigils which during the first centuries of Chris-
tianity, were kept in the catacombs over the relics of the
martyrs. The tenor of the prayers and the order of the rites
in this service confirm us still further in the belief that it
comes down from that holy, ancient period of Christianity,
when Faith was still so pure, Hope so firm, and Love so
strong. The Church, as a faithful, continued manifestation
of the true idea of Christianity, remains ever true to herself

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in all her forms. Centuries have passed away; times and generations have changed their manners and customs. She alone remains unmoved and unshaken, in spite of all the storms which have raged around her, so that the word of her Lord and Master has been fulfilled: "And the gates of hell shall not overcome her" (Matt., 16, 18). It is, therefore, no wonder that the forms of the Church, not only for the unin- itiated, but sometimes even for her own children, are not so well understood and even appear quite strange. The sym- bolism of the Church has now become, in the eyes of those not instructed therein, but an empty form; and yet it is so significant, so full of meaning, so rich in instruction, that it speaks more than a long sermon would.

Since we intend this translation of the Prayers for the Dead for the use of strangers, in order that they may clearly understand the ceremonies and rites employed, we will give a minute description of the way and manner in which these prayers are offered in the Orthodox Oriental Church. We hold this to be the more necessary, because many who do not belong to our Church, as we have ourselves remarked, partly out of sympathy for their friends of the Orthodox Church, and partly for other reasons, take part in this service; and usually, from lack of acquaintance with the Sclavonic lan- guage, are touched only by the outward form, without being edified by its real import.

The Πανυνίχις, or Service of Mourning, is usually said im- mediately after the departure of an Orthodox Christian, over his corpse. It is generally the first lamentation, and at the same time the first consolation, with which the Priest enters into the house of mourning. Afterwards the same office may be said at any time and place that is desired. How often does it happen that a mourning wife or a comfortless mother, bowed down with grief, goes to the grave of her departed loved one, and asks the Priest to pray there with her for the repose and happiness of the soul so dear to her and unfor- gotten. The Πανυνίχις is the prayer usually said.

But there are also in the Church appointed days when, according to her precepts, prayer is offered for the departed. These days are, in the first year after death, the third, the ninth, the twentieth and the fortieth; then the day six months after death, and later the anniversary of the death in every following year. Moreover, the love of those left be-

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251

hind dedicates of its own accord other days of prayer for near relatives. These are usually the days of remembrance, once so joyous, of the birth and baptism of the departed. For other days of remembrance it is not necessary to assign a reason. Here the heart is law-giver, and the Church, as a mother, repels no heart from her.

As regards, first, the days appointed by the Church, the true ground of this usage appears to be lost, although the tradition is very old and general in the Church. It is generally maintained that the third day after death is appointed for special prayer in behalf of the deceased because, anciently, on that day the burial took place. The *spiritual* meaning of the custom is that the three-fold number reminds us of the Trinity of God, the nine-fold, answering to the ninth day, either of the "Thrice Holy" of the Trinity, or the nine-fold ranks in the world of pure spirits, whither now the soul has gone. More positive is the explanation of the fortieth day after death, for here it points not only to the example of the people of Israel, who mourned forty days over the death of Moses, but still more to the example of the Lord Jesus Christ himself, who for forty days was seen by his disciples, and on the fortieth ascended into Heaven. According to this analogy, it is believed that the soul of the departed also remains for forty days still so near the place of its earthly life that to some extent it watches the thoughts and feelings of its dear ones left behind, as if it would not yet part from them. Therefore, there is now a pious custom in the Russian Church to pray during the first forty days unceasingly for the dead— in the Church by the daily participation in the Masses and Panchids, at home by the reading of the psalms both day and night.

The remembrance of the dead on the day of their departure is too natural to require any explanation; the same is true of the semi-annual day, and also the twentieth, which is the half of the previously hallowed term. The chief object is to afford as many opportunities as possible for troubled hearts to enter into the Church, to cast their care upon God in fervent prayers; and that they really find comfort and relief in them is best proved by the fact that these prayers are used with fervor by all orthodox believers.

Let us now examine more closely the Order of Prayer for the Dead, and in order to have a *clear* understanding of it, let

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us enter into the church where it is said. The first object
which we behold is a little table, covered with black, standing
in the centre of the church. On this little table, which we
will call the Altar of Mourning, stands a crucifix, and before
it a burning taper. Immediately before this candle we see
a plate containing rice boiled with honey, mingled with
raisins and sugar, and sometimes adorned with green leaves.
The incense, on another little plate, and a small book of prayer
complete the arrangements. So long as the holy doors of the
chief altar are not yet opened, and the clergy have not yet
entered, let us look upon the objects now before our eyes,
and first of all the Mourning Altar itself. We will first notice
its covering of grief; for it is a general custom to employ the
colors black and white as symbols of mourning; perhaps
on this account, because the black contrasts with the white,
even as our pain with joy. But it is more important for us
to consider why this Mourning Altar stands thus solitary in
the middle of the church. Is there not here an emblem of
the condition of our departed brother, whose soul, now sepa-
rated from us, moves in the boundless regions of eternity? At
any rate, it should admonish us, and that right earnestly, to
remember that we also sooner or later must part from all to
which we here so closely cling, and go forth into eternity.

But this thought, always so sharp and bitter, need not
long disturb us, for on this impressive altar is enthroned the
symbol of our deliverance, the token of our victory over death
through the Crucified.

If ever the truth and the power of the Cross may be
deeply felt, if ever the greatness and the fullness of the Death
of Christ, that redeems us, rightly understood, it is surely in
such moments, when man is so clearly reminded of his own
death. The tears of sorrow are dried so soon as the eye of
Faith is directed unto Him who hath given himself up to
Death that he might deliver us from Death; the sigh and the
groan are hushed so soon as the heart is deeply moved by a
joyful hope of the Resurrection and the Second Advent, when
it beholds the Love of God accomplished on the Cross. Then
also the end is attained for which this crucifix is raised on the
Mourning Altar. But its import is lost if either the tears of
excessive sorrow dim the eye of the soul, or the moral sight
of the heart is not clear enough to look beyond that which
only is visible to the bodily eye.

ORDER OF THE PRAYERS.

253

Just here the Church hastens to the help of the weak, and, after the example of her Lord and Teacher, makes the truth easier to those who, seeing cannot see (Matt. 13, 13), by parables and symbols. For this cause is the burning candle. The light before the cross! Is it not a symbolic admonition to the light of Faith, which should be dimmed by naught, not even by the most justifiable sorrow? Should not this light, burning before the mysterious symbol of our Redemption, shine throughout our souls and dispel the thick mists of our earthly thoughts and feelings? Yes, truly; this is at least the design of the Church, such is the warning import of this burning light!

But what signifies this plate with boiled and decorated rice? We have already shown how deeply significant is the symbolism of the Church. As the bearer of eternal truth, she has made for herself a form forever fixed; which is not capricious, but absolutely necessary, because it corresponds to fundamental truth. And, therefore, we see also in this symbolic food a deep meaning. For we are reminded of the words of the Lord Jesus (John 12, 24), and the encouraging doctrine of the Apostle concerning the Resurrection of the body (1 Corinth., 15, 30-32), for it becomes quite clear to us why this truth is represented to us under the form of grain. These grains of rice represent to our troubled souls that truth is difficult to believe, in spite of its consolation, and serve as a sufficient answer to their weary doubts. But should any of the faithful lose this hope through the bitterness of fear, should this expected re-awakening to life on a new earth and under a new heaven no longer seem so joyful as a life spent in happiness on this earth, then the anxious heart is reminded of the Promised Land flowing with milk and honey, that land which is so often portrayed to us in the Word of God as the pattern of the coming Life. For this purpose is the rice on the plate mingled with honey, and enriched with sweet raisins and with sugar. It is, alas! true that all cannot expect the same happy portion after death; many, Oh! many of those, who have called themselves Christians in this life, shall meet there a bitter lot. On this account this symbolic plate with sweetened rice stands directly in front of the crucifix, before which a burning light stands; for he alone who looks with the light of Faith upon the Crucified in this life shall inherit that land. Moreover, the faithful should

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not be too anxious for their departed, if, during their earthly course, they have walked in communion with the Church, and with childlike trust in her means of Salvation. For the prayers of the Church are powerful, and her Faith that she is heard is strong. "Remember, O Lord, our God!" she cries, full of confidence in the Eternal Mercy, in one of her numerous prayers for the dead, "remember Thy servant, our brother, departed in Faith and in Hope of eternal Life; and, "as a gracious Lover of mankind, Who remitteth sins and "blotteth out iniquities, be gracious and pardon to him all "his voluntary and involuntary sins, preserve him from "eternal torment and from the fire of hell, and grant that he "may be a partaker of the enjoyment of Thy imperishable "riches, which Thou hast prepared for those who love Thee. "For, though he hath sinned, he hath not fallen away from "Thee, but hath believed faithfully on Thee, the Triune God, "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and confessed the "Unity in the Trinity, and the Trinity in the Unity, orthodox "even to his latest breath. Therefore be gracious unto "him, and account to him his Faith in Thee instead of "works, and, as Merciful, give him rest with Thy Saints. "For there is no one who liveth and sinneth not: Thou alone "art without sin, and Thy righteousness is an eternal right- "eousness. For Thou art the God of grace, mercy and "goodness, and we offer up unto Thee our praise to the "Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, Amen." He who can thus pray will never lose the hope of forgiveness, even after death.

But let us hear what the Church prays to God for her children at the commemoration of their departure hence. At the sight of an altar erected for the service of mourning we are already prepared to understand the deep significance of the following rites. In silent meditation we now stand before the closed doors of the sanctuary. Then we are aroused from our earthly reverie by the rustling of the curtain drawn back behind the holy doors of the chief altar. This so mysterious sound in the midst of the stillness of God's Temple reminds involuntarily of the still, small voice with which once the Lord approached His prophet (1 Kings, 19, 12); and we are filled with a sense of the nearness of God, Who condescends to us, in order graciously to hear our cry. Then is opened the holy door—the door through which the King of

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Glory alone enters (Psalms, 24, 9), and we behold the Throne of the Lord, on which He is present in His most Blessed Sacrament, veiled, indeed, in mourning, but still in its sacredness illuminating us with comfort. The opening of these holy doors in the Divine Service of the Orthodox Church has always this meaning: that the gates of heaven, so long closed to us by sin, are now opened for us again by the High Priest of the coming good things (Hebr., 9, 11 and 24), in order to give us entrance to Paradise. Impressed with this thought, we behold also in the Priest himself, who now comes through this door to the people, the notable symbol of that eternal High Priest Who hath given Himself once as an offering for the world, and yet continues to come down to us from His Glory, in which He is seated on the right hand of the Father, graciously to listen to our complaints and troubles, and to present our prayers before the Throne of Eternal Mercy. So consoling and elevating for the faithful is the very appearance of the Priest, who now, in his clerical robes, as one clothed by God with grace and power of intercession for the people, comes forth from the holy dwelling-place of God, and places himself at the head of the mourning congregation before the Mourning Altar.

His voice now is heard, and the first sound which proceeds from the lips of the consecrated servant of God is the praise of the Triune Godhead. "Now," it says, as in a certain ecclesiastical hymn, "let all human flesh be still; stand with fear and trembling, and think in heart on naught that is earthly." The sorrow of earthly parting and the bitterness of solitude in this world are now forgotten. All emotions are directed to the praise and glory of the Lord. The Psalm which follows (91) should remove the last trace of anxiety from our souls, and fill us with joyful courage at beholding the powerful protection of God. Trust in God, in His Providence, in all difficult affairs of our life, ascends from this Psalm in the sweet incense of the heart's prayer to the Throne of the Most High, and bears our hearts upward with it. "There we gaze into a clear heaven of soft-shining stars, while without the dark terrors of war rage, and death in all the horror of his imperious power strides over the earth." We behold here how the Lord delivers the pious from the midst of terror, where the pestilence walketh in darkness and the destruction wasteth at noonday, by the

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gracious preservation of His angels. How, then, is every
troubled thought of death and separation made clear by this
vision of comfort! How is the soul encouraged by these ma-
jestic descriptions of the Love of God to His creature! And
thus the downcast heart is raised from its sorrow, and joy-
fully unites in the solemn Hallelujah! of the Church with
which the Psalm is closed.

At the end of the Psalm and the beginning of the Hallelu-\jah! we observe in the Priest's hand the censer, from which
clouds of fragrant incense ascend towards Heaven. Shall we
enlarge on the meaning of incense in the Church? Or is it
enough to say that this custom is only the continual fulfill-
ment of the command of God, Who once said to His faithful
servants: "Thou shall make an altar to burn incense upon
(Exodus, 30, 1); a perpetual incense before the LORD through-
out your generations (v. 8)." In any event, it is certain that
nothing so visibly represents our prayer to God as does this
incense mounting upward to Heaven. Thus David sang:
"Let my Prayer come before Thee as incense" (Psalm 141, 2).
Did not the Apostle use the same figure when he said that
"we are to God a sweet odor to Christ"? (2 Corinth., 2, 15)
But we are best taught why incense is the most excellent
figure of our prayers to God, by the mysterious visions of the
Apostle John. When he beheld the four living creatures
and the four and twenty elders standing before the Lamb
with bowls full of incense, he gives the explanation of this
symbol by adding: "These are the prayers of the Saints"
(Rev., 5, 8). Again, he saw the angel of God go before the
altar, who had a golden censer, and there was given to him
much incense, that he should give (it) to the prayers of all the
saints upon the golden altar before the THRONE. And the
smoke of the incense, continues St. John, ascended (with) the
prayers of the saints, out of the angel's hand, before God
(Rev., 8, 3 and 4). Impressed by this representation, the
Church uses incense very abundantly during her offices of
sorrow; for it is at no time so necessary to remind men
urgently to raise their spirits toward Heaven, as in moments
of grief, when the human heart, smitten by pain, is deeply
bowed down.

And now we see that the officiating clergyman not only
swings the censer before the Eikon of God, to admonish the
faithful at each revolution to earnest prayer, but also censes

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257

around the altar itself, then bows before the holy pictures in
the Temple of God with the censer, then, turning towards
the people, envelops all standing near with fragrant incense.
All these different censings have different meanings in the
Church. Each of these we shall explain at the proper place.
At present let us follow the Order of the Service.

After the Hallelujah, with which the Reader closes the
Psalm, the Deacon sings the Ektene, or Litany. After
each suffrage of the Ektene in the Orthodox Church is said
the majestic, simple response: "Lord, have mercy!" Those
who regard this response as too monotonous and uniform
understand but little of the depth of humility which is ex-
pressed in these short words. For orthodox believers, the
Church herself has expounded the meaning and reason of
this short and so often repeated exclamation in the following
prayer: "Be gracious to us, O Lord, be gracious to us! We
are sinners, and we know no other prayer to offer to Thee in
our behalf than this: Lord, have mercy upon us!" The con-
tents of the petitions of the first Ektene correspond well to
the fervor of the service. The repose of the soul, which is
obtained now by the forgiveness of sins, as in this life, so still
more after its departure hence, is the most ardent desire of
the Church for its departed member. For the mourners,
who also are not forgotten in the prayer, there can be no
better consolation than to know that their departed friend
and brother is placed in a world where all tears of earthly
sorrow have ceased, where no pain of bodily infirmity, no
sorrow for the bitter disappointment of departed good things,
can find place. The bosom of Abraham, the symbol of the
eternal rest of departed souls, according to the expression of
Jesus Christ himself (Luke, 16, 22 and 24), is the favorite ex-
pression also of the Church when she prays for her dead.
Her hope therein is grounded entirely upon her belief in the
ineffable mercy of God towards mankind. She searches not,
she seeks not to know whether, when, or how far her
fervent prayers may be heard. She desires only to know of
the grace of God, and therefore she closes all her prayers
with the words: "For thou art a good God, the Lover of man-
kind; Thou art good and merciful." From time to time she
turns to the Holy Virgin, asking her powerful intercession
with her Son, the eternal Mediator between God and men.
"Of great avail," she says in one of her prayers to the

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Mother of God, "of great avail is the petition of a mother to her son;" and so the Church does not neglect, on this occasion, also to invoke these powerful intercessions of the Holy Virgin.

Scarcely are these prayers, in which we hear only of pardon and forgiveness, ended, when the Hallelujah! re-sounds again, first sung by the clergyman, and then thrice repeated by the choir. These solemn notes amid the hymns of lamentation seem strange to one. But it must not be for-gotten that, according to the words of the Apostle, concern-ing those fallen asleep, we should not sorrow as do the rest, who have not hope. For if we believe that Jesus died and rose again, so also those sleeping in Jesus will GOD bring with Him (1 Thess., 4, 13 and 14). Therefore this Hallelujah! is often repeated in the prayers for the Christian dead, in order that those who remain behind may be forcibly reminded of the joyful hope of the Resurrection. With the same end in view, at this moment the tapers are lighted and placed in the hand of each of those who are present.

Many significations has the burning light in the Church. Now it denotes our illumination by the Word of God; then it reminds us of the Light of the Glory of God; then it ad-monishes us to stronger Faith, which, as a burning light, can dispel the darkness of doubt and uncertainty. But never is the meaning of this light so profound and impressive as in the hands of the mourners during their prayers for the de-parted soul. Here these significations are all united, and thus exalt the meaning of the emblem. For where is it more fitting to place before the eyes of man, in the true sense of the word, the light of Faith in the immortality of the soul and the Resurrection of the body, than immediately before the opened grave and at the painful loss of a precious life? Here the natural man must sustain a severe conflict with himself, in order not to be overpowered by deep sorrow, but to be able to look in heart beyond the darkness of earth to the world of eternal light. The burning taper in his hand re-minds him every moment that he is no longer in the dark-ness of heathenism, where there was no consolation for sorrow, no deliverance from death, but that, in the light of Christianity, he believes that he shall find again all he has lost. Before his eyes there is no dimness on account of the pressing sorrow of earthly separation, but all is clear through

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Faith in our imperishable Sun of Righteousness, the arisen and ever-living Redeemer, Who enlighteneth every man coming into the world (John, 1, 9). This light is to him not only a consolation but also a joy, since it reminds him that we all, through living Faith in Him, shall hereafter shine like stars in His heavenly kingdom, and that this brightness shall have no end.

Touching are the verses which are sung by the choir immediately after the Hallelujah! We are by these reminded for the first time of our lost happiness. It was sin that gave us over unto death; but in joyful remembrance of the glorious triumph of the first heroes of Christian truth over death, the Church turns to the holy martyrs, as though by their example courage might flow into the heart deeply bowed down by the cruel stroke of death: for the martyrs were the first who followed Christ in contempt of death. Moreover, if it seem to us still grievous, on the narrow way of sorrow to bear our cross even to the grave, then we hear the comforting voice of our Saviour, Who cries unto us: Come unto Me all ye laboring and heavy laden (Matt., 11, 28), "come and inherit the deserved reward and the heavenly crowns which are prepared for you." The remembrance of our former resemblance to the Divine Being especially admonishes us to unceasing prayer to God. The soul, which was created in the image of God, yearns to recover its lost Fatherland. Therefore our prayer to God for the restoration of the perfected to that Paradise where all the righteous find their place of rest is now so ardent and frequent. But the end and crown of all our prayers is always the praise of the Triune God, Who for our prayers delivers those who are His in spirit and truth from destruction and that terrible fire of eternal retribution. Finally, the Blessed Mother of God is again faithfully hailed as the quickener of our hopes in again obtaining Paradise. A solemn Hallelujah! once more closes the whole, and inspires into the troubled heart new power for more earnest attention to the following funeral hymns.

During the singing of these hymns, thus mentioned, there follows a general censing in the church with the blessed incense. The officiating clergyman goes first in a circle around the Mourning Altar, swinging the censer thrice on each of the four sides before the crucifix, and bowing slightly. This censing of the Mourning Altar in the form of a circle

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corresponds exactly to the first verse which is sung at this
time by the choir, for it represents before our eyes how the
choirs of the saints, who "have already found the fountain
of Life and the gate of Paradise," assemble in the holy abode
out of all the four ends of the earth, that they may unceasingly
sing to the undivided Trinity, by Whom they were
saved, their hymns of thanksgiving and praise, and how they,
like the apocalyptic spirits under the Throne of God, forever
send up their songs of praise (in the form of ascending incense)
to Him that sitteth on the Throne. Then the clergyman
enters with the censer into the sanctuary itself, and
censes thus in a circle the main altar, in order to show that
here, in this type of Heaven, where God Himself dwells in
inaccessible Light (1 Timothy, 6, 16), all our prayers, wishes
and desires, whether joyful or sad, should be consecrated,
that they may be changed, before the eternal radiance of the
Glory of God, into an emotion of deep reverence.

And now the clergyman comes again out of the sanctuary,
and censes first the pictures of the saints, then turns to the
people, and censes them with the holy incense from the Altar
of God. In this case the incense serves as a new symbol of
the Grace of God, which, proceeding forth from His Throne
on high, reaches us through the intercession of the saints.
Therefore each person present bows his head reverently before
this incense, as a token that in his heart he receives the grace
of God sent down to him. But the worshipers at this service
cannot long enjoy these pleasant emotions. With the same
censer which just now portrayed to us the glory of Heaven
and the joys of grace, the clergyman returns to the Altar of
Mourning, and the remembrance of the melancholy occasion
of this prayer again involuntarily pervades the heart.
Once more the same humble prayers are repeated for the reuse
of the soul, for the pardon of sins of the departed, and
that he may attain to the heavenly kingdom.

The frequent repetition of the same prayers is quite common in the Oriental Church. By this the Church leads us to the correct idea that nothing so distracts the spirit as a frequent change of expressions, even when they are religious; while, on the other hand, nothing so collects the thoughts of men as the uniformity of an often-repeated prayer. In the first case, the mind has more room for the selfish enjoyment of religious beauty, while in the latter there is an humble

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seeking for simplicity, whereby we are more admonished of
the earnestness of the occasion, than charmed by the novelty
of thoughts and feelings. Moreover, it is a very ancient usage
of the Church, and therefore holy and edifying for her chil-
dren. The singing which accompanies these prayers, and
returns each time with them, holds the soul in constant at-
tention, and in this way increases more and more the first
impression of the form of prayer, until it sinks deeply into
the heart.

How much this beautiful, earnest hymnody of the Oriental
Church serves to render its prayer impressive can be seen
from this, that the meaning and expression of the simplest
prayers often produce a most effectual working in the pious
mind. This is especially the case with the well-known burial
hymn of the Orthodox Church, which consists of these short
and simple words alone: "With the Saints give rest, O Christ,
to the soul of Thy servant, where there is no more pain, nor
sorrow, nor sighing, but Life without end." If any one who
is unacquainted with the Russian Church or its language is
present at a funeral service, he will certainly, even without
any previous acquaintance with the order of the service, be
conscious of that moment when this touching hymn is sung.
Apart from the beautiful melody, which now reaches the
highest effect of its power, this circumstance alone would
arouse the attention of the observer, that at the first notes of
this hymn scarcely a single person stands erect in the church,
but nearly all fall upon their knees, and this not as the result
of an ecclesiastical regulation; no, simply as the result of a
powerful impression, which fills the heart with emotion and
the soul with humility, so that few are in a condition to with-
stand the inward impulse to a reverential bowing of the knee.
The intonation of this hymn begins with a soft harmony of
four voices, and arises in its first tones to the full expression
of a deeply-moving melody, in which is poured forth the en-
tire fullness of a heart praying in sorrow; then, by and by, it
falls into a softly-sounding finale, and seems at last to expire
in a gentle sigh. A second of perfect stillness, and then the
short petitions are repeated to God: "Give rest, O Lord, to
the soul of Thy departed servant." This interchange of
prayers and hymns can only be compared to the natural con-
dition of a sorrowful suppliant, who, overcome by a deep
feeling of grief, mingles his cries and prayers to God with

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tears, and then, prostrated by the power of his emotions, falls in sorrow to the ground, then, coming to himself, arises and again directs a look of hope to Heaven.

And now the service is approaching its end. With the last notes of the concluding hymn on the wonderful Incarnation of God, at which "the Heaven trembled, and the ends of the earth were astonished," the clergyman first extinguishes his taper, and then the people follow his example. The Church has given no special significance to this quenching of light, but what mind would not be impressed by the thought: "Thus fades away our weak life on earth"? It is indeed so! The soft wax is the best type of our bodily being; the fire destroying the taper is our earthly life; the light is our soul; with a slight puff this burning light is driven from the wax, and naught remains in our hand but a warm taper, which soon becomes cold and stiff. Such are our thoughts and feelings at the simple, but really, considering the importance of the occasion, significant extinguishing of the light. But, as before said, the Church does not demand this interpretation. On the contrary, at this moment, she recites by the Reader a most earnest prayer, that prayer which is both the beginning and the crown of all Christian prayers. "Our Father, Who art in Heaven," we hear him read, and for a moment we forget our earthly and fleeting cares in the joyful feeling that we belong to the family of God.

Now the worshipers are about to be dismissed, but they must not be deprived of comfort on the way, and therefore once more earnest prayer is said for the repose and happiness of the departed soul. The short hymn and the doubled Ektene—doubled, because the response: "Lord, be gracious to us!" is thrice repeated—concludes the whole. Then follows the formal dismissal. The Priest leaves the Altar of Mourning, where he stood as a fellow-mourner among the people, and returns to the chief altar. Here he turns, as the ambassador of God to the people, and assures us in the Name of Christ, that our true God (Who Himself became Man, died and rose again), through our now completed prayers (which are especially powerful because they have been offered in fellowship with the Triumphant Church of God), will cause the soul of our departed brother to rest in the mansions of the righteous, in Abraham's bosom, and that through the Blood of Christ he will be numbered with the justified; and

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He will be gracious to us walking here below, “for He is good, and a Lover of mankind.”

The service is over; the prayers are completed, and the faithful could leave with consolation the house of their Mother, the Church. But this mother is a tender mother. She feels even as deeply as her children. She is no despot, who demands with cold severity the fulfillment of her laws. No; such is not her nature. She has a heart for her children, and treats them with affection. So also, now, after she has fulfilled the desire of her children, after she has prayed with them, sighed and wept with them, and given them joyful hope upon the way, she turns to God, and invokes for her departed, perfected child an ever-enduring remembrance upon earth. Maternal love seldom leaves the dear grave of a child without a mark, it may be small and insignificant, a floweret blooming for a moment, or a fading wreath. The Church, impelled by the same maternal love, erects an enduring monument over the grave of her child; for she prays God Himself that He would cause the memory of the departed ever to endure, not merely in some dead letters on a cold stone, but in the living remembrance of the warm hearts of the after-world, in the prayers of the Church, which will endure even to the end of the world.

Here we can close our introduction. But we are still pressed with the question, which is often put to our brethren by those not of our Church: “How long do the Prayers for the Dead continue in your Church?” Many could read the answer already given in the last words of the prayer of mourning, which lies before us. The Church, which prays of God Himself, that He would let the remembrance of the dead endure forever, has certainly set no limit to this remembrance; consequently the continuance of the prayers is limited to no period of time. Her wish is that these prayers might continue to the end of the world. What has led her to this wish? Certainly, not a conjecture, in accordance with which she can reckon, that after such and such an amount of prayer the soul will be cleansed from its sins; for this would be not only sin, but even a blasphemy of God. Could we offer to the gracious God our good works and our prayers as a merit, in return for which we are entitled to demand from him a reward? No; the Orthodox Church understands too well the words of her Lord and Head: *When ye shall have done all*

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things commanded you, say: we are unprofitable servants; we have done what we were bound to do (Luke, 17, 10). The only impulse which urges her to ceaseless prayers for the dead is her Love—the Love which never faileth. It would be terrible for the heart of man, if he were forbidden to remember in prayer his departed friends and relatives. It would be unchristian if the Church were to blame those who pray for their dead to God; for, if we believe in the fellowship of all souls, if we would not utterly destroy our connection with the Invisible Church, there remains for us no other way than to place ourselves in connection with the members of that Church, which the Church, indeed, does in a double manner, since she invokes the perfected and justified spirits as her helpers and intercessors before God; but the rest she herself remembers in Love, and prays for them.

We will say no more as to how far we are justified in expecting the fulfillment of our prayers for the dead. We hope, we love, and therefore we believe. *Having the same spirit of faith, according to that which is written, "I believed, therefore did I speak:" we also believe, and therefore speak (2 Corinth., 4, 13).* And this is the boldness of speech which we have toward Him, that if we ask anything according to His will, He heareth us. And if we know that He hear whatsoever we may ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired from Him (1 John, 5, 14 and 15).

## PRAYERS FOR THE REMEMBRANCE OF THE DEAD.

**THE PRIEST:** Blessed be our God always, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

**THE READER:** Amen.

* O come, let us worship our King and God.*

* Come, let us worship and fall down before our King and God Himself.*

* Come, let us worship and fall down before Christ Himself, our King and God.*

He, who dwelleth in the defense of the Most High, in the shadow of the God of Heaven shall lodge. He shall say to to the Lord, My Helper art Thou and my Stronghold; my God, I trust in Him. For He shall deliver thee from the snare of hunters, and from the destructive pestilence. With His pinions will He overshadow thee, and under His wings

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265

shalt thou trust. As a shield shall encircle thee His truth,
thou shall not fear from nocturnal terror, from the arrow
flying by day, from the pestilence walking in darkness, and
from the sickness wasting at noonday. There shall fall at
thy side a thousand, and ten thousand at thy right hand, but
to thee it shall not approach. Only with thine eyes shall
thou behold and see the reward of sinners. For Thou, Lord,
art my Hope, Thou didst make the Most High Thy Refuge.
Evils shall not approach thee, and a plague shall not come
nigh thy dwelling. For He commandeth His angels concern-
ing thee, to guard thee in all thy ways. Upon their hands
shall they bear thee, lest thou dash against a stone thy foot.
Upon asp and basilisk shall thou tread, and shall trample
down the lion and dragon. Because he hoped in Me, I also
will deliver him. I will cover him, because he knew My
name. He shall call upon Me, and I will hear him. I am
with him in trouble, and I will deliver him, and will glorify
him. With length of days will I satisfy him, and will show
him my Salvation.

Glory be to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, now
and ever, and to ages of ages.

Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah!
Glory be to Thee, O God!
Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah!
Glory be to Thee, O God!
Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah!
Glory be to Thee, O God!

THE DEACON*: For peace let us pray to the Lord.

THE CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For the peace from above and the salvation of
our souls, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For the forgiveness of the sins of him (or her)
who has gone hence in blessed remembrance, let us pray to
the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For the servant (or handmaid) of God, ever liv-
ing in our memory, for the soft repose and blessed remem-
brance of the same, let us pray to the Lord.

* Where there is no Deacon, all the prayers, which should be offered by him, are said by the Priest.

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CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For the forgiveness of all his sins, voluntary and involuntary, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have! mercy.

DEACON: That he may appear uncondemned before the Judgment of the Lord of Glory, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For those weeping and mourning, trusting to the consolation of Christ, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That he, delivered from all pain, sorrow and sighing, may enter into that place where the Light of God's countenance is shining, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That the Lord our God may lead him to the place of light, happiness and rest, where all the righteous dwell, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That he may be numbered with those reposing in the bosom of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That we may be delivered from all tribulation, wrath, danger and necessity, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Help, save, have mercy, and preserve us, O God, by Thy Grace.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Praying for the grace of God, for the Kingdom of Heaven and the forgiveness of his sins, let us commend ourselves, and each other, and all our life to Christ, our God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord!

PRIEST: For Thou, O Christ, our God, art the Resurrection and the Life, and the Rest of Thy departed servant (or hand-maid), and to Thee we offer our praise, with Thine eternal Father, and Thy most holy, blessed and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

DEACON: Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah!

CHOIR: Hallelujah! (Thrice).

DEACON: Blessed is the man whom Thou hast chosen and taken unto Thee.

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267

CHOIR: Hallelujah! (Thrice).

DEACON: His memory endureth from generation to generation.

CHOIR: Hallelujah! (Thrice).

DEACON: His soul shall dwell in happiness.

CHOIR: O sole Creator, Who ordained all things in deep
wisdom for men, and givest what is most profitable unto all,
grant rest, O Lord, to the soul of Thy servant (or handmaid),
for he put his trust in Thee, his Creator and Preserver and
our GOD.

In Thee, O Virgin and Mother of God, we have a fortress
and a rock, an intercessor well-pleasing unto God before Him
Whom Thou hast borne for the Salvation of the faithful.

Blessed be Thou, O Lord, teach me Thy statutes.

The choir of the saints hath found the fountain of Life
and the gate of Paradise. Oh! that I too may find the way
by penitence! I am the lost sheep; call me back, O Saviour,
and deliver me.

Ye who proclaimed the Lamb of God, who were yourselves
led as lambs to the slaughter, and are placed as Saints in an
eternal Life, pray unceasingly, O Martyrs, that we may obtain
remission of our sins.

All ye who have gone the narrow way of tribulation, and
have borne the cross as a yoke upon you in your life, and
have followed after Me in Faith, come and inherit the reward
and the heavenly crowns that I have prepared for you.

I am the image of Thine ineffable Glory, although I also
bear the wounds of sins; look down with mercy upon Thy
 creature, O Lord, and purify it according to Thy grace; re-
store me to the rights of the Fatherland, after which I long,
and make me an inhabitant of Paradise.

O Thou, Who at first didst create me out of nothing, and
didst make me worthy of Thy Divine Image, but for the
transgression of the commandment didst consign me again to
dust, from whence I was formed; Oh! lead me back again to

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my former Likeness unto Thee, so that my original beauty
may be again restored.

O God, grant Thy servant (or handmaid) rest and place
him in Paradise, where the choirs of Thy holy and righteous
ones shine like the stars! Give Thy servant rest and forgive
him all his sins.

Glory be to the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost.

Let us praise the Triune Radiance of One Godhead, and
believing cry aloud: Holy art Thou, O Eternal Father, like
Eternal Son and Divine Spirit! enlighten us, who worship
Thee in Faith, and save us from the eternal fire.

Hail, O pure, blessed Mother of God, who hast borne GOD
in the flesh for the salvation of all; through Thee the human
race found blessedness. Oh! that we through Thee might
again find Paradise.

Glory be to Thee, O God!

Glory be to Thee, O God!

Glory be to Thee, O God!

DEACON: Again and again, in peace let us pray to the
Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Again we pray for the rest of the soul of the de-
parted servant of God, and for the forgiveness of his sins,
voluntary and involuntary.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Where the Righteous rest, there make his soul
to rest, O Lord, our God.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: The mercy of God, the Kingdom of Heaven and
the forgiveness of his sins we ask from Thee, O Christ, the
Immortal King and God.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST (*silently*): O God of all spirits and of all flesh, Who

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269

hast destroyed Death and trodden down Satan and given Life to Thy world, grant, O Lord, that the soul of Thy departed servant may rest in the place of light, peace and blessedness, from whence pain and grief and sighing have fled away. Forgive him, as a gracious and merciful God, all the sins which he hath committed in thoughts, words and deeds; for there is no man who liveth and sinneth not. Thou alone art without sin; Thy righteousness is an everlasting righteousness, and Thy Word is truth.

(Aloud): For Thou, O Christ, our God, art the Resurrection and the Life and the Rest of Thy departed servant, and to Thee we ascribe our praise, with Thine eternal Father, and Thy most holy, blessed and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Grant, O our Saviour, that Thy servant may rest with the righteous, and let him dwell in Thine abode, even as it stands written. Forgive him, according to Thy goodness, his sins which he has committed consciously or unconsciously, O Thou Lover of mankind.

O Christ, our God, Who hast appeared to the world through the Virgin, and through her revealed in us the children of the light, have mercy upon us.

Grant, O Lord, rest to Thy departed servant.

O Lord, Creator of the heavenly spheres and Founder of the Church, strengthen me in Thy Love, Thou End of our wishes, Thou Fortress of the faithful, Thou only Lover of mankind!

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Again we pray for the rest of the soul of the departed servant of God, and for the forgiveness of his sins, voluntary and involuntary.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That the Lord God may lead his soul where all the righteous find their rest.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

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CHOIR: Grant, O Lord!

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST (after the prayer: "O God of all spirits"): For
Thou, O Christ, our God, art the Resurrection and the Life
and the Rest of Thy departed servant, and to Thee we ascribe
our praise, with Thine eternal Father, and Thy most holy,
blessed and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of
ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

I pour forth my prayer before the Lord, and show Him
my distress; for my soul is full of sorrow, and my life is near
to the pit. But I pray, like Jonas, lead me forth from de-
struction.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Again we pray for the rest of the soul of the de-
dparted servant of God, and for the forgiveness of his sins,
voluntary and involuntary.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: The grace of God, the Kingdom of Heaven and
the forgiveness of his sins we ask of Christ, the Immortal
King and GOD.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST (after the prayer: "O God of spirits"): For Thou,
O Christ, our God, art the Resurrection and the Life and the
Rest of Thy departed servant, and to Thee we ascribe our
praise, with Thine eternal Father, and Thy most holy, blessed
and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

With the Saints give rest, O Christ, to the soul of Thy
servant, where there is no more pain, nor grief, nor sighing,
but Life without end.

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271

Thou alone, the Creator of men, art immortal; we below, made of earth, must thither return, as Thou, our Maker, didst ordain and say: Thou art dust, and shalt again to dust return. Thither all we men are coming; but instead of the mournful funeral hymn we sing Hallelujah!

Grant, O Lord, rest to the soul of Thy departed servant.

The spirits and souls of the righteous shall bless Thee, O Lord!

The Heavens trembled and the ends of the world were astonished when GOD appeared in the Flesh, and the body became more spacious than the Heaven; therefore, O Mother of God, the choirs of angels and men praise thee.

READER: Our Father, Who art in the Heavens, Hallowed be Thy name; Thy Kingdom come; Thy Will be done, as in Heaven, so on earth; give us this day our daily bread; and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil—

PRIEST: For Thine is the Kingdom, the Power and the Glory of the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Give rest, O Saviour, to the soul of Thy servant with the spirits of the righteous, and preserve him with Thee in the Life of bliss, O Thou Lover of mankind.

In Thy place of rest, O Lord, where all Thy Saints repose, give rest also to the soul of Thy servant; for Thou alone lovest mankind.

Thou art God, Who didst descend into hell and loose the fetters of the bound; grant, O Lord, rest to the soul of Thy servant.

O only pure and spotless Virgin, Who hast borne GOD in perfect purity, pray for the salvation of his soul.

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CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord!

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

PRIEST (*silently*): O God of all spirits and of all flesh, &c.

(*Aloud*): For Thou, O Christ, our God, art the Resurrection and the Life and the Rest of Thy departed servant, and to Thee we ascribe our praise, with Thine eternal Father, and Thy most holy, blessed and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR. Amen.

DEACON. Wisdom!

CHOIR: O Thou, Who art more honorable than the Cherubim, and incomparably more glorious than the Seraphim, Thou, Who hast borne, without corruption, GOD, the Word, we magnify Thee, O Mother of God!

PRIEST: Glory be to Thee, O Christ, our Hope; glory be to Thee!

CHOIR: Glory be to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Lord, have mercy. (*Thrice*.)

Give the Benediction.

PRIEST: Christ, our true GOD, who is risen from the dead, through the prayers of His most pure Mother, of the holy, glorious and all-celebrated Apostles, of our holy Father—and all Saints, give rest to the soul of Thy servant departed from us, in the abodes of the righteous, in the bosom of Abraham, number him with the righteous, and have mercy upon us; for Thou art good and the Lover of man.

DEACON: Grant, O Lord, eternal rest to Thy servant, and may his memory endure forever!

CHOIR: May His memory endure forever! (*Thrice*.)

GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE IN RUSSIA.

273

BY BARON F. V. D. OSTEN-SACKEN.

THE past twenty-five years have proved very fruitful to Russia in the realms of geographical science. They have produced a number of important discoveries that must forever mark distinct epochs in the history of the earth's surface.

Let us transport ourselves in spirit to the beginning of the year 1855, and try to give an account of the situation of our eastern boundaries, which extended across the entire Asiatic continent.

Along the Pacific Ocean and adjoining waters, all was still a solitary, desert waste. Japan had not as yet entered into communication with the rest of the world. The sea of Japan had, since Krusenstern, at the beginning of this century, remained unexplored and unvisited. The shore of Manchuria was on the maps represented as a continuous, inhospitable bank.

It was left for Russian explorers in Amour to make the first steps towards the disclosure of this extensive river region, and they set about this work hesitatingly, it may be almost called secretly, as the whole country was considered as belonging to China.

Further on, almost 4,000 versts from the junction of the Shilka and Argun rivers up to the Tsai-ssau, we were kept from further progress by a Chinese wall, in the full sense of the word, though one not visible to the eye. The only gap in the wall was Kiakhta. Here the gates were unbarred every ten years, in order to allow a clerical mission to pass, which was to relieve the preceding one. But even these rare journeys were not accomplished without great difficulties. At the beginning of the sixth decade of this century, the memory of the hard opposition that the leader of our mission, Colonel Kovalevsky, had to overcome in order to gain merely the permission that our caravans might travel over passable roads through Mongolia instead of the sandy deserts of Argaly, through which the Chinese guides had, for the space of a century, purposely led our countrymen, was still freshly borne in mind.

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In Central Asia, Russian exploration had not gone beyond
the two rivers Ili and Sir-Daria. The more eastern of these
boundaries, the river Ili, we had but just crossed. In the
year 1854, Fort Wernoje was erected. We had arrived at
the foot of the Thian Shan range, which on the maps of that
time was represented as a simple line between the 40th and
45th degrees of latitude. Ritter and Humboldt had already
placed the importance of this gigantic mountain range to
geography in its proper light, but as yet no educated traveler
had penetrated into its labyrinths, and all learned as well as
critical descriptions thereof were, according to the confession
of Humboldt himself, to be ascribed to mere hypothesis.

Exploration in the region of the Sir-Daria was to be thought
of only, if for this purpose a military expedition should be
equipped.

The eastern shores of the Caspian Sea had not been visited
since Karelin's expedition between the years 1830 and 1840,
and the rich results of this secret exploration lay quietly in
the archives of the Government, withheld from the public.

In the Caucasus Mountains there was still the old strug-
gle that made scientific exploration impossible.

We perceive, from this hasty sketch, that in the year 1855,
from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, all countries along
our borders were almost utterly unknown to our explorers,
and into them they could not penetrate, partly from politi-
cal reasons, partly also, and it may be principally, in conse-
quence of the obstacles which were at that time laid in the
way of all private enterprise.

Our present task is devoted to the representation of the
rapid changes which, in a geographical point of view, have
taken place during the last twenty-five years, and the extra-
ordinary results that have been attained, thanks to the hearty
encouragement of the Czar, and the complete liberty to ex-
plore accorded by the Government to all disciples of science.

We have already said that at the beginning of this period
Japan had not yet unlocked herself to other countries. This
event soon followed.

Shortly before the beginning of the space of time of which
we treat, and by order of the late Czar, Nikolas, an expedi-
tion under the command of Count Putjatin had been sent
to the Pacific Ocean, where a cruise that lasted for three
years was attended with success.

275

After the treaty of Simoda, in the year 1855, Japan also became accessible for scientific researches and it will hardly be disputed that, as regards the knowledge of Japan, Russian works in certain branches of science surpass, in many respects, the works of other nations. As early as the year 1858, the *first* Japanese-Russian dictionary, compiled by Goshkevitsh, a member of our legation in Japan, was printed by command of the Czar.

As regards natural science, we have every reason to expect that the first thorough investigation of the Japanese flora, a study rendered specially interesting on account of its intimate relation with botanical geography, will proceed from a learned Russian, who visited Japan shortly after its opening to foreign nations. Thanks to the exertions of the academician, Maximovitsch, who has expended many years in the examination of the flora of the extreme East, St. Petersburg has become the central point of botanical research in Eastern Asia, the rallying point toward which flow all new materials that science owes to the travelers of all nations.

Adjoining Japan lies the island of Saghalien, which was finally ceded to Russia under the Government of Alexander II. The wealth of coal on this island was the cause of a thorough examination of its geological structure and its fossil flora; by means of which valuable and most interesting indications in regard to a former connection between the main lands of America and Asia were gained. Indeed, the tertiary flora of Saghalien proved almost identical with that which existed at the same period in the peninsula of Alaska.

With the acquisition of the southern part of Saghalien the ethnographic diversity of the peoples subject to the sceptre of Alexander II, was enriched by another type, rendered most interesting from its insular life, the Aino, whose speech, manners and customs have been very thoroughly examined.

The principal outlines of the coast of Saghalien were pretty well known from descriptions given by seafarers of the last and the beginning of the present century. The physical circumstances however of the waters surrounding it, were left for the present generation to discover. The academician Schrenk deserves particular credit for his work in this respect. His standard disquisitions on the fauna, the currents and the temperature of the above mentioned waters, are of great significance to the physical geography of the mighty Pacific Ocean.

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The fogs that constantly overcloud the western shore of the Japan Sea rendered a survey thereof almost impossible for a long time. Until 1850 the De Castries Bay, discovered by La Perouse, was the only known part of the whole Manchurian coast. Thanks to the efforts of Russian seafarers, it is now known that the whole shore is indented by excellent harbors, which presage a brilliant future for the Manchurian coast. The first survey of the northern shore of Korea was likewise made by Russian officers, who belonged to the fleet of Count Putjatin.

Immediately after the opening of Japan, the Czar turned his attention to our bearing with China. It is true we had had relations with this old neighbor since two centuries; but of what sort these relations were can be clearly seen from the above related instance, out of the history of our migratory clerical mission in Peking.

The treaties of Aigun, Tien-Tsin and Peking, concluded in short successive periods, in the course of a few years, completely altered the standing state of affairs. It is indisputable that these treaties mark an epoch in the history of the gradual unclosure of China and its approach to Russia, as well on account of their contents as for the consequences they had in the development of our commercial relations, and the extension of our scientific researches in a country which for centuries had been accessible only at its boundaries.

The importance and extent of the results gained by us began to become plainly apparent in the year 1858. Many will still remember the profound sensation created by the rapid journey of a Russian courier from China through Mongolia to St. Petersburg, through whom western Europe first received tidings of the conclusion of the treaty of Tien-Tsin, which put an end to the second Anglo-Chinese war. China had come nearer to us. The desert of Gobi lost its terrors. The way through Mongolia suddenly became the main road from Europe to the capital of China. Unmolested this road could now be traversed, not only by Russians, but by all foreigners. It served for the passage of our trading caravans, and for a regularly organized mail.

This hitherto unimaginable freedom of movement towards various points of the Asiatic mainland, is one of the important results gained under the present government. This liberty was especially productive of scientific research, which

277

made rapid strides in every direction. And here we must
give due credit to our explorers, who fought for this freedom,
granted anything but voluntarily by the Chinese Government.

We would far outstep the confines of our sketch, were we
to essay anything like a complete review of the results at-
tained by our explorers in the heart of the Asiatic continent
during the last twenty-five years. It must suffice to desig-
nate only the most important events.

Many of the expeditions undertaken were called into ex-
istence by private persons. All, however, were aided by the
government, and stood under its protection.

The first place is due to the untiring and daring Prshew-
alskij, who succeeded in accomplishing two arduous journeys
to the hitherto almost fabulous basins of Central Asia, Kuku-
Nor and Lob-Nor, and who in all probability is at present
already within the walls of the capital of Dalai-Lamah.
The investigation of the physical relations of these inhospita-
ble countries, that stretch from the great Chinese wall as far
as Kashgar, their topography, fauna and flora, is an acquisi-
tion to the reign of Alexander II. brought about mainly by
the efforts of Prshewalskij.

Another remarkable expedition undertaken at the insti-
gation of the government, and under the command of Colonel
Ssosnovskij, took its way from the centre of China in a
northwesterly direction, and reached the Russian dominions
at the Ssai-ssan. Almost in a parallel direction, but more
towards the north, Pevzov accomplished his memorable
journey from the confines of the government of Tomsk up to
the northeastern boundaries of Mongolia, to Kukuchoto, and
then back through middle and western Mongolia to Russian
territory.

The trading expedition of the Butin brothers passed from
the region beyond the Baikal, in a meridianal direction to
Peking and Tien-Tsin. It is important from the fact that it
discovered anew a convenient and interesting passage for
our caravans, which our legations still traversed in the XVII.
century, and from which the Chinese in later times were
anxious to divert our attention.

The establishment of a consulate in Urga, and a diplomat-
ic mission in the capital of China, between the years 1860
and 1865, were of great importance to Russian research.
Thanks to our Russian representation there, Peking as well

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as Urga were enabled to become the central as well as the
starting points of a number of small expeditions, which con-
tributed in a high degree towards the closer knowledge of the
Asiatic continent. We will here briefly allude to the tireless
researches of Dr. Fritsche, the director of the Russian meteor-
ological observatory, and to the journey of the Archimand-
drite Palladius, who were the first to open a way for science
along the Amoor through southern Manchuria.

The present government turned its active sympathy to the
development of the Chinese language as well as to geographi-
cal explorations. The dictionaries of the Chinese and Man-
churian languages, compiled by Professors Wassiljev and
Sacharov, the representatives of our former clerical mission
to Peking, are two excellent works, which possess no rivals
in European literature. The appearance of these works falls
in very naturally with the epoch of the regulation of
our boundaries and the development of our commercial re-
lations with China.

The number of moral conquests over the former seclusion
of the Chinese realm recounted above, was, of course, princi-
pally made conditional by the considerable extent of Russian
possessions in Asia. The southern boundary of Siberia, which
for two centuries we were used to look upon as unchange-
able, and which extended for over 10,000 versts in a parallel
between 50 and 55 degrees of latitude, rapidly changed its
outlines, and in the course of the past twenty-five years
assumed the shape of a horse shoe, which embraces the heart
of the Asiatic mainland in the east and in the west. In the
east we have acquired the extensive region of the Amoor to
the boundaries of Korea; in the west we have made a stride
over the whole central Asiatic plain, and planted firm feet in
the highland of Thian Shan and the basin of the Amu Daria.

The classical "Dictionary of the Russian Empire," which
was published by Schtschekatov in the beginning of the
present century, comprehends under the name "Siberia,"
the "entire north of Asiatic Russia." And in truth, the
name Siberia was for a long time the collective term for our
possessions in Asia. This historical peculiarity gained clear
expression in our official language when, upon our settlement
in the Steppes, in the midst of the nomadizing Kirghiz pop-
ulation, the territory of the *Siberian* Kirghiz was formed.
Moreover, our ships of war in the far east, which protect the

279

harbors of *Russian Manchuria*, are still designated as the
*Siberian* fleet.

Under the government of Alexander II. an end was put to
this arbitrary terminology. In Asiatic Russia, in the south
of Siberia, two great geographical units were set apart: the
Amoor region in the east, and Turkestan in the west.
Compared with these two new acquisitions, Siberia seemed
nearer to Russia, and this result acted beneficially on explor-
ing excursions undertaken for scientific purposes.

Since the time of Peter the Great numberless expeditions
were sent out from St. Petersburg to the unknown regions of
Siberia. These were expeditions similar to those which even
at the present time are equipped for the interior of the Asiatic
or African continent; that is, such as are, so to say, given up
to the chances of fate, and which travel to a distance of ten
thousands of versts from their starting points. The famous
journey of Middendorff, between the years of 1840 and 1850,
was, to be strictly exact, the last undertaken of this kind.
With the publication of the monumental work called forth by
this journey, a work which forms an invaluable encyclopedia
of Siberia for all future explorers, a radical transformation
in the character of Siberian explorations was accomplished,
for which now certain local centres were formed. Divisions
of the Geographical Society were established, first in Irkutsk,
at present in Omsk also. This institution has become the rally-
ing point for local explorers. It is also a support to travelers
coming to Siberia. A common tie binds the disciples of
science, the explorations lose their character of expeditions or
excursions, and gain the signification of an enduring and
consistent activity in the thorough investigation of this im-
portant territory.

Among the most important geographical results attained
under the government of Alexander II. is that attendant on
the astronomical expedition of Scharnhorst and Kulberg,
which was at the same time fitted out for the observation of
the transit of Venus. This expedition fixed with the greatest
exactness the coördinates of all the most important cities,
from Kasan, through whole Siberia, up to Wladiwostok and
the harbor of Possiett. For this purpose the observers, for
the first time in these remote districts, made use of telegraph
wires, which, under the present government, have been
stretched to the above mentioned places in the remotest part

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of the realm. The places designated by the expedition will constitute the starting points of all future astronomical determinations; all triangulations and topographical surveys of Siberia will conform with them; they have finally concluded the circle of longitudinal reckoning which encircles the entire globe!

The importance of this expedition for the cartography of Siberia may be in part compared to the leveling undertaken from the foot of the Ural Mountains to Irkutsk and Lake Baikal, during the past decade. This leveling made it possible more exactly to determine the atmospheric pressure over Siberia, and hence all measurements of altitude in these remote districts, according to barometric and bypsometric methods (the only ones accessible by travelers), gain a reliable basis and scientific importance.

Among geological investigations the highest rank is due the works of the late Czekanowskij, who discovered in Siberia a Jurassic flora, which, treated by Oswald Heer, may already be looked upon as the richest from this period. These works, with those of Schmidt, Maak, Lopatin and others, mark with justice an epoch in the history of the geology of Siberia. The geographical importance of these explorations were further made conditional by the circumstance that they were, in most cases, undertaken by learned travelers in regions hitherto unvisited; thus, for instance, on the Tunguska, the Wiljuy, the Olensk, and along the less accessible river regions of the Yenesei and Lena. Hence these geological efforts served further to fill up important gaps in the topography of the country.

Consequent upon the successful results in geology, the fossil flora of Siberia was also enriched by valuable contributions.

In regard to zoological researches, we must assign a place of honor to those of Dybowskij, at Lake Baikal. By order of the Royal Academy of Sciences, the academician Schmidt undertook the arduous journey to the remains of an excavated mammoth on the Siberian coast, during which mission he succeeded in making multifarious botanical and geological researches. Finally the government turned its attention to the remotest parts of our Asiatic possessions—the land of the Sclutkchees. Thanks to the care of the local authorities, the expedition fitted out by the government for administrative purposes was enabled to contribute no unimportant facts for

281

the more extended geographical knowledge of this uttermost corner of Siberia.

Next to actual Siberia, it was the Amoor region that attracted the attention of our explorers. This country, which was utterly unknown until the first half of the present century had well nigh passed away, which was spoken of as almost mythical, soon, through the combined efforts of our learned explorers, became an acquisition of science.

The astronomical works of Schwartz, Ussolzew, and other members of the Geographical Society's Siberian Expedition, as well as the later ones of Scharhorst and Kulberg, the geological and botanical researches of Schmidt and Maximovitsch, the zoological labors of Radde, Maak and others, combined to cast a bright light on the geographical circumstances, the formation, flora and fauna of the Amoor territory. The manifold ethnographic peculiarities of the indigenous population likewise became subject to the most careful observation.

Among the various nationalities, that of the Koreans is, in many respects, most interesting. They still shun all communication with the civilized world, though such of them as live near the coast fly from the rude state of society at home, and seek protection and safety under the sceptre of the Russian Czar.

The Korean settlements in the south of the Ussuri territory, and the highly successful Russian colonization there, bear promise of a splendid future, and we have full reason to believe that it will be just at its northern Russian side that Korea will first become accessible to commercial relations and scientific explorations.

This condensed skectch of our principal geographical labors in those territories of ours that border on China proves that the "moral Chinese wall," to which we alluded at starting, no longer exists. The conquest attained by civilization during the twenty-five years of the present government, has found its echo in an event touching the most northern confines of Siberia. We allude to the successful voyage of Professor Nordenskjold in the Polar Sea, along the Siberian coast. Although the problem of the existence of a northeastern passage, which has engaged the attention of seafarers from all countries for many centuries, has lost its importance since the opening of the Suez Canal, for Russia the

282 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

discovery of a new Siberian ocean passage bears quite a different meaning. Our Siberian rivers then attain the importance of commercial high roads. The vast tracts of land through which the Obi and Yenissei flow are endowed with the possibility of exporting their products to European markets, there to exchange them in the most profitable manner.

The Emperor, who takes a warm interest in the development of the productive powers of Siberia and their favorable disposal, immediately after Nordenskjold's first expedition, caused the thanks of the Russian Government to be expressed to the famous explorer.

The explorations in Central Asia have increased to a marked extent during the last twenty-five years. In most cases our learned explorers, without waiting for appointment by the Russian Government, or the protection of a military force, boldly pressed onward, and thus became veritable pioneers for the progress of Russia in Central Asia. This entirely new feature in the history of Russian geographical discoveries gained life at the accession to the throne of Alexander II., and is owing to the liberty which the Emperor grants to all private enterprise.

The brilliant beginning of these explorations was made by Ssemenow, the present Vice-President of the Society, who, in the year 1857, succeeded in penetrating the Thian Shan Mountains, and who was the first European traveler to behold the region of eternal snow and glaciers of this extended mountain range. The daring journey was crowned with complete success. However, those who undertook such solitary expeditions exposed themselves to the utmost perils. The fate of Ssewerzow, occurring at about the same time, may serve as proof thereof. While engaged in zoological researches along the Syr Daria, during one of his excursions from Fort Perowskij, he was captured by natives, his flesh cruelly torn, and saved from death almost by a miracle. As a matter of course, the Russian Government took the most energetic, and, happily, successful measures to liberate Ssewerzow from captivity.

Ten years subsequent to Ssewerzow's journey, Poltarazki's expedition made the first crossing over the Naryn (upper course of the Sir Daria), and pressed onward to within fifty versts distance of Kashgar, at the southern declivity of the mountains. Thus the gigantic range had been traversed

283

in a meridional direction, and soon the whole mountain district of Thian Shan, from its western branches that extend almost to Tashkend, up to its most eastern limits, had with all its manifold natural treasures become the domain of science. Of late the circle of exploration has been considerably widened by including the more southern mountain districts of Alai and Pamir, so long the yearned for goal of our geographers.

It can not be the aim of my present sketch to render justice to all who deserve credit for this great work. In citing the names Walichanow, Wenjukow, Ssewerzow, Reinthal, Bunjakowski, Baron Kaulbar, Fedschenko, Muschketow, Majew, I wish to point to only one other most pleasurable circumstance: the fact that persons from the most various stations of life could take part in the common work of science; and these were for the most part representatives of various departments, the exercise of whose activity was connected in some way with our Central Asiatic affairs.

Although nature is not so attractive on the plains surrounding the basins of the rivers Sir and Amoo as on the Alps of the Thian Shan and Amoo, yet the traces of former, now vanished rivers, and ruins of old cities and fortresses, render these level tracts, with their movable quicksands, highly interesting objects of exploration, toward which particular attention has been turned during the last twenty-five years. And in this relation we must remember that our material enterprises in the Steppes were always connected with scientific labors. The campaign in China was very fruitful in a scientific respect, as were likewise the numerous exploring tours conducted in different directions through the Steppes. The establishment of the Russian might on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea was the signal for a number of examinations of the Amoo-Daria's old bed, which furnished rich material for the versatile treatment of one of the most interesting questions of the physical geography of Asia.

As a matter of course, geographical explorations in Asia stand in direct connection with the establishment of new roads for Russian commerce and international intercourse in the widest sense of the word. Especial attention must here be drawn to the preliminary explorations made in the last few years, for the laying of a railway that will connect the markets of Central Asia with the principal commercial cen-

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tres of Russia and Europe in the north, and with India in the south.

Considering the extent of this task, we cannot expect its realization in the near future. But many cornerstones for this work, so important to the whole world, have been laid during the last twenty-five years, and geographical explorations of the highest significance been conducted along the little known districts of the upper and middle course of the Amoo-Daria.

The last link in the extended chain of our Asiatic border is formed by the Caucasus.

The accomplished pacification of this country belongs to the most remarkable events of the present reign, and in immediate connection therewith is the development of a versatile, scientific activity, since the wildest regions of the Caucasus Mountains have become accessible to our learned men.

The division of our Society in Tiflis, the military topographical representatives of the general staff, and finally, the museum founded in 1865, have contributed much toward the exploration of these mountains.

Chodsko and Stebintzki, with their excellent surveys and triangulations, the geologist, Abich, the versatile natural scientist and traveler, Radde, the ethnographers and linguists, Uslar and Bergè—all these names and many others are an ornament to the history of scientific exploration under the government of Alexander II. It may be said that these made a second conquest of the country, this time in the cause of science.

An excellent chart in relievo, descriptive of our advance in the Caucasus, was executed in Tiflis by the topographers Dennisow I. and Kurizyn, under the direction of Colonel Stebnitzki, and presented to the Emperor in the Summer of 1868. The Emperor graciously gave this masterly representation of one of the most interesting of our border countries to our Society, which in that very country established the first of its local divisions.

During the last twenty-five years most particular attention has been paid by the government to the waters washing the east and west of the Caucasus. The hydrographic exploration ordered by the Czar to the Caspian Sea and placed under the command of Admiral Iwaschinzow, completely ex-

285

amined this vast reservoir, and worked out a description which
is acknowledged as standard. A like task is being accomplished
at present in the Black Sea. As regards the Sea of Azov,
thanks to the question agitating government circles concern-
ing its filling up by sand, our society, assisted by the Gov-
ernment, was enabled to fit out an own expedition for the
examination of its physical-geographical relations.

The names of our academicians, v. Baer, v. Helmersen
and the talented explorer, Danilewski, are connected with
this expedition.

In order to complete our review of geographical activity
during the reign of Alexander II., we have still to mention
the labors undertaken in European Russia.

Instead of great geographical discoveries, we here find
steady work on every side in all branches of geography, by
means of which an exact knowledge of our country was
much advanced. Under the present government two geo-
detical enterprises of the highest importance were concluded:
one, the complete treatment by our astronomer, Struve, of
the results of the measurement of the great meridian between
the Danube and the Polar Sea, executed under the Em-
peror Nicholas; the other concerning the measurement of
degrees in Central Europe.

These comprehensive geodetical labors, combined with the
triangulations accomplished in various parts of the Empire,
created a reliable basis for all cartographical works, which,
thanks to the rich material furnished by our untiring topo-
graphers, have attained an extraordinary extent during the
present reign.

Prominent among our geographical tasks is that executed
during the late war on the peninsula of Balkan. The entire
country south of the Danube, as far as Constantinople and
the Ægean sea, was in great part trigonometrically surveyed,
whereby the formation of the surface was not left unre-
garded. What was so long neglected, the determination of
the *third coördinate*, the altitude of the sea, has, since the
last few decades, been regarded with particular care in sur-
veying, and the results gained in this respect in European
Russia must be designated as a peculiarly excellent perform-
ance of our general staff.

We cannot help here mentioning by name one of our
numerous cartographical works which possesses a particular

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interest for the majority of our educated public. We allude to the special chart of European Russia, consisting of 145 leaves, and executed by Major General Strelbitzki, on a scale of 1:420,000. The comparatively small scale makes this chart particularly adapted for practical purposes, and hence it has been made the foundation for many of our graphical works, as, for instance, the ethnographical chart of Russia, and all late geological works.

The geological examination of Russia has made rapid progress in consequence of the attention directed by the government to this subject, and the material aid of our learned Societies. The Mineralogical Society has set itself the task of a number of detailed geological examinations, according to a general plan. A considerable number of monographs have already appeared, and form an important addition to the knowledge of Russia.

The Royal Academy of Sciences, as well as the Geographical Society, allowed no opportunity to pass in which to make use of the learned men at their disposal, for the purpose of exploring the soil and natural treasures of Russia.

As a consequence of the report, soon after the year 1860, of the Minister on Public Education, concerning the advance of the study of natural sciences, the natural science societies at the Russian Universities were originated. These local societies now likewise lent material aid to all scientific undertakings, and in this manner exercised great influence on the development and success of explorations in their country.

The first place among these University Societies belongs to the Royal Society of the Friends of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography, at Moscow. It fitted out various expeditions, among others that to Turkestan, which, on account of its results, is particularly important. This Society has enriched our libraries by numerous excellent works, and finally it has acquired a right to general gratitude from the organization of exhibitions, by means of which the aim set up by the statutes of the Society, to disseminate a knowledge of natural sciences among the masses, has been most ably accomplished.

The Universal Russian Ethnographic Exhibition in 1867, the Polytechnic in 1872, and the Anthropological in 1879, are three important events during the Government of Alexander II.—events whose significance extends to the furthest limits of our country, and even produced effect abroad.

GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE IN RUSSIA. 287

The last of the above mentioned exhibitions showed the
rapid progress of archeological explorations in Russia, and of
the history of primeval man. Specimens of implements from
the stone age at present come in from all parts of the Empire,
and render it possible to lay the foundation for a special
museum.

Ethnographic researches have likewise been considerably
advanced during the term of years that we speak of.
A great sensation was created by the songs collected
by Rybnikow in the Government of Olonez. These songs
bear unmistakable traces of the very oldest national epic.
The expedition which, under the leadership of Tschubinski,
and by order of the Geographical Society, traversed the south-
western governments, was the first commissioned to make
ethnographic studies.

The results thereof are seven stately volumes, which,
among others, contain highly valuable contributions on the
life of the people in Russia Minor, their manners, customs,
theory of life, and songs. These results offer pleasing proof
of the increase of the work of local explorers.

Further, many new museums have been founded during
the past twenty-five years, and the old ones greatly increased.
The government shunned no expense whenever an opportunity
was offered to increase the scientific collections of our col-
leges by new contributions, and large sums were expended
in the effort to make such institutions conform to the demands
of modern science. Thus, for instance, the Physical Central
Observatory received under the present government an en-
tirely new organization. The means granted enable it to
enlarge the circle of its meteorological observations in such
degree as deemed necessary by the extent of the Empire.

This liberality in the interests of science, this anxious
readiness in all undertakings that have for their purpose the
exploration of the country, and, finally, the warm sympathy
for any useful enterprise—proceed it from a corporation, a
society, or a private individual—these are the most agreeable
phases of the present government of Russia.

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FEMALE EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

BY AN AMERICAN LADY.

THE most essential as well as obvious point of difference between education in the United States and elsewhere in the civilized world, is undoubtedly the fact that while all other nations, with scarcely an exception, base the common instruction of the people on religious dogmas, making them the foundation on which secular instruction rests, in this country it is intellectual culture which is the main object aimed at; religion entering into the system as a subsidiary adjunct, to which, in the public schools, the minimum of time is devoted.

It is not, however, to be inferred that religion is therefore a matter of indifference, either with teachers or with the parents of pupils; it is simply a necessary result of our political organization—of the organic structure of the Constitution, which recognizes no national religion; that instrument guaranteeing to all sects and denominations the equal right to promulgate their doctrines; no one sect having any privilege to dominate the others: hence, definite denominational teaching is relegated to parents, churches, Sunday-schools and other special appliances furnished by the various sectarian organizations. Yet, though there is no national religion officially established, the numerical preponderance and universal usage of expression, founded on historic facts, justifies us in speaking of the United States as not only Christian but as a Protestant nation.

It is also certain that the very absence of national control or supervision in matters of religion has the effect of stimulating individual and denominational effort in the direction of education. Each sect is emulative of every other, striving to maintain the best schools and colleges possible, and, as we shall see in the various institutes for the higher education of young women, a decidedly Christian influence prevails in their management, almost without exception.

As female education of a superior character is of later development than that provided for males, and possesses in its history and progress many salient points of interest and va-

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variety of experiences, it is in many aspects the most attractive portion of the general subject of education in this country. The importance of the education of boys and young men was early recognized and provided for to the extent of the ability of most sections of the country, particularly in New England. That the education of the female moiety of the community was equally essential to the well-being of the republic did not dawn upon our ancestors to any appreciable extent, until about fifty years ago, previous to which time but very limited and inefficient means for even elementary instruction for the daughters of the land was provided at the public expense; private schools and governesses partially supplying the place to those who could afford them. A few of these private schools then inaugurated still exist, like that of the Collegiate Dutch Church, which was established in 1633 and a few months ago celebrated its two hundred and forty-seventh anniversary at the school chapel in Twenty-ninth street, in this city. This is the oldest female school in New York.

But we do not propose to dwell upon the past period of darkness and disabilities, but prefer to present a brief sketch of the dawn, advancing light and present hopeful condition of female education.

At the present time females enjoy equal privileges in all the primary, or elementary, and public grammar schools in the land with boys; and with rare exceptions the same is true of all public high schools. These American high schools have no exact counterpart in European systems of education, as the instruction is wholly intellectual—no forms of industrial or manual work being taught; they are, in their course of studies, preparatory schools for colleges, though comparatively few of the pupils ever enter college. The existing schools of technology do not belong to the public system.

It is within a very recent period that foreign languages have been taught in the public grammar schools, and French or German is now only taught in such of the schools as where the parents or guardians of at least thirty pupils desire it; and if at any time the attendance on such class falls below the number of fifteen, the teacher is authorized to discontinue the instruction. Elementary music is taught in all grades of the public schools, and drawing in both the primary and grammar departments. The prominence given

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to different studies varies somewhat in different localities. In New York and the New England States arithmetic and other branches of mathematics are most rigidly demanded, while in some of the Western States languages are given a preëminence not accorded here. In the Southern States the adoption of the public school system has been so recent that we do not yet look to them for matured results, though in all of them some progress has been made, and in a few, like Tennessee and Georgia, the public schools have already attained to such general favor that we expect to soon see them rivaling the more advanced States in all that appertains to the instruction of youth. Even the State of Texas appropriates one-fourth of her general revenue to educational purposes.

What we may call the machinery which sets the public schools in motion may be thus described in a general way, allowing for slight local differences, as to titles of officers and other non-essential matters.

Each State manages its own school affairs under a "State Superintendent of Instruction," the highest official who has the general supervision of all the public schools. In some States this officer is chosen by popular election; in others, he is appointed either by the Governor or Legislature; in some, by School Boards or Commissioners. In all large cities there is also a City Superintendent, and in smaller towns and villages there are School Committees, Boards of Education or equivalent officers, possessing powers of general oversight. There is also at Washington, attached to the Department of the Interior, a Bureau of Education, but this exists for the purpose of gathering and publishing statistics and has no control over the schools in any State.

The "school age" varies in different States, but is usually reckoned between six and sixteen. That strangers to our system may estimate the value of the instruction given in the elementary public schools, we will enumerate the studies of the two highest classes in the primary and in the grammar schools.

The Primary Department has six grades, in the highest class of which is taught reading, spelling, definitions, geography, arithmetic (mental and written), tables, oral and object lessons, writing, drawing, vocal music. In the Grammar Department there are eight grades, in the highest of which is taught reading, in modern history; etymology, words from Greek, Latin and other roots; arithmetic reviewed,

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exchange, equation of payments, averaging accounts, custom-
house business, partnership, involution and evolution, geog-
raphy, mensuration; general review; English grammar and
composition; astronomy; algebra; book-keeping, business
forms, letter writing, drawing, from model and perspective,
designing, shading, vocal music; French and German, under
conditions named above. In the evening schools, which are
held during the winter months (November—February), the
studies are adapted as nearly as possible to the special needs
of more adult persons.

It is worthy of notice that at the last annual exhibition
of drawings by scholars of the public schools in this city, in
June, 1880, there were very many excellent original designs
for wall-papers, dress and lace goods, cornices, brackets,
vases, articles of furniture and ornaments, some of which
were in water colors. Of all these, those presented by the
female department of the grammar schools were declared to
be superior in design and execution.

In addition to the above-named schools, New York City
maintains a Normal School for young ladies, mainly for the
purpose of educating teachers, though many who graduate
there never teach. The course is four years and includes Latin,
French, German, the higher mathematics, ancient and modern
history, physics, botany, physiology, rhetoric, geology, draw-
ing, music, including harmony and composition; methods
of teaching; zoölogy, intellectual and mental philosophy, &c.
There is an acknowledged rivalry between the young ladies
of the Normal School and the young men studying in the
Free College of the City of New York. On the last examina-
tion of these pupils (we quote from a leading newspaper
report) it is stated: "The young ladies have done remarka-
bly well, and their efforts have given much greater satisfac-
tion than have the male pupils in the Free College. The
percentage of scholarship demanded of them was higher,
and yet they showed a higher average. This fact has caused
considerable comment; not only greater proficiency, but the
classes taught by women were found to progress the best,
which caused great chagrin among male teachers, and some
of them claimed that the questions given the young men
were harder and the rules for percentage different. But on
a general review of this claim by the committee, it was found
that the examinations were equally hard for the girls. The

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result was an average of 75 per cent for the girls, and for the
young men 68." The writer adds: "The committee decided
to reduce the standard for the boys from 75 to 68."

It is impossible in our limited space to go into details of
similar courses of free instruction in other States of the
Union, further than to indicate in what sections of the United
States a young lady may pursue the amplest course of study
under the best possible moral and social conditions.

New York State expends annually between $11,000,000
and $12,000,000 for public free schools, and New York City
alone appropriates this year $3,600,000 for the same purpose.
In some of the States the text-books used are freely given or
lent to the pupils. In the matter of free books the State of
Michigan takes the lead. In all of her schools the books are
free. New Jersey appears to come next in this particular.
In that State there are 157 districts where text-books are sup-
plied gratuitously, while several other States, as California,
Iowa, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, are
visibly verging towards that system.

What is called the "superior instruction of women" has received a fresh impulse within the last decade, which has been greatly accelerated by the success of the "Harvard University examinations" of women students; but the movement for high university education for females, though in a different form, was commenced in this country over forty years ago. Two zealous Presbyterians, Rev. Messrs. Finney and Mahan, projected the establishment of a college in which females should enjoy equal instruction with males. The site selected was in Ohio, in a section then but partially settled. The college buildings were located in a semi-wilderness and named Oberlin, which has since given its name to the township which has grown up around it. It opened its doors to students in 1832, and from its first session it has been a success; and the problem, not only of the highest education for women, but also that of the co-education of the sexes, was being practically solved in the woods of Ohio before the Eastern mind had prepared itself for the experiment—though a few wealthy citizens of New York were among the most liberal donors to this Western movement. In one of the early issues of a newspaper conducted by the male students of Oberlin occurs this passage: "The young ladies pertinaciously keep their health" (it had been predicted that women

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could not stand the nervous strain of hard study) "and
strength in a way that is aggravating, and they persist in
evincing a capability for close and continued mental labor
which, to the ordinary estimator of women's brain-power,
seems like pure wilfulness!"

The report of a subsequent period says of young lady
students: "Their presence has not called for the enactment
of a single new rule or for the slightest change in our
methods of government or grade of work. There has been
no tendency to lower the standard. None of the many objec-
tions which are still raised against co-education of the sexes
have been found in practice to have any force here. The
admission of young women has led to no difficulty or embar-
rassment whatever." Since 1870 the standard for admission
has been raised still higher.

The history of the first years of Oberlin College is unique.
There was not a pupil *sent*; they all *came*. Young men
and women with noble life-aims, desirous of obtaining
an education that would better fit them to aid the interests
of religion and the good of humanity flocked to Oberlin,
realizing that there, for the first time, was opened a pure
spring of learning, free from the fetters and conventionalities
of the older States.

The influence of this institution on the Northwestern
States can scarcely be overrated. The subsequent establish-
ment of twenty-two other colleges, based on the Christian
and liberal ideas of Oberlin, are traced directly to her inspir-
ation; and ten of these are now officered by graduates of the
original *mater*. Oberlin now annually instructs about twelve
hundred students, of which over five hundred are young
ladies.

In the State of New York an association was organized as
early as 1814, in Albany, for the purpose of founding a fe-
male academy of high grade, and the Legislature granted a
donation (in 1821) of $1,000 to the institution, which was the
first money ever appropriated by the State of New York in
aid of female education. The first President of the Board of
Trustees of this Albany school was the renowned Chancellor
Ferris, of the New York University, who, after removing to
this city, was largely instrumental in founding the famous
Rutger Institute, now "Rutger College," on Fifth avenue.
This movement led indirectly to the founding of that very

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popular and valuable school in the neighboring city of Brooklyn known as the Packer Collegiate Institute, where over six hundred young ladies are under instruction of a high grade annually and which is still presided over by the veteran Professor Dr. A. Crittenden, its first Principal. Mrs. H. Packer has given to found and equip this school over $80,000.

We find by the report of the Hon. J. Eaton, Commissioner of the National Bureau of Education, that there are 1,125 secondary or academical schools for young ladies in the United States entirely disconnected from the free school or public system. For the superior instruction of women there are 230 collegiate and other institutes; and of the universities and colleges originally founded for male students, about half now receive female pupils.

Perhaps the best mode of conveying an idea of the kind of education these higher institutions afford will be to exhibit somewhat in detail the curriculum and modes of instruction in a few of them. The most popular in the State of New York is undoubtedly Vassar College, situated in the suburbs of Poughkeepsie, on the banks of the Hudson, seventy-five miles north of the city of New York. Vassar College was founded through the munificence of a private individual whose name it bears and was opened in 1864. Its general interests are confided to a board of trustees, and it has a faculty consisting of a president and thirty professors—part male and part female—with a lady superintendent. On its first opening for examination of applicants for admission, several hundred—far more than was expected—presented themselves, of which three hundred and fifty were accepted.

The college grounds contain two hundred acres, with several miles of gravelled walks, a lake available for boating in summer and skating in winter, with calisthenic apparatus for indoor exercise. A physician resides in the building. This college is not conducted in the interest of any particular sect, but the management aim to give it a decidedly Christian character. There are daily prayers in the college chapel and a religious service is held every Sunday morning, the afternoon being devoted to bible study. Religious meetings are held twice a week, but attendance upon them is not obligatory. The health of the pupils is here made a prime object of attention; the proper ventilation of rooms, the cui-

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sine, and all that can affect the health is carefully arranged for the benefit of the pupils; a certain period is set apart every day for invigorating exercise.

All applicants for admission must be sixteen years of age and in good health when they enter, which is only after a careful examination in preparatory studies. The full course is four years, divided as in ordinary colleges. The studies of the Freshman year include Latin grammar and composition, either French or German, with translation both from and into the languages selected; mathematics, natural history, elocution, drawing. For the Sophomore year: Latin continued, Greek grammar, English literature, trigonometry, analytical geometry, Byerly's calculus, comparative zoölogy, descriptive and practical chemistry, with work in the laboratory; lectures on astronomy, elocution, English composition. Junior year: in Latin, Tacitus; Greek, Xenophen and Homer; mineralogy, geology and astronomy, physics, force and motion, hydrostatics and hydraulics, pneumatics and electricity, logic, physiology. Senior year: Latin and Greek continued; also advanced studies in mathematics, including quaternions; history, ancient and modern; mental philosophy, and other branches completed. In languages, all students are required to learn Latin, but may choose either of the other three languages as a second; the approval of the Faculty is necessary to take three languages at a time.

Special courses for those pursuing the study of the arts are arranged; one of these is usually added to the regular course, but the departments of drawing, painting, modeling and music constitute schools for separate instruction. Drawing and painting, it is claimed, are not taught in a merely mechanical manner, but the pupil is inducted into the true principles of art, while the eye and hand are trained to practice; drawing from the natural form, and out-of-door lessons are given in landscape drawing, oil and water colors are employed, and modeling in clay or wax is taught. This personal instruction is supplemented by lectures, which are free, not only to the art students but also to all the members of the Junior and Senior classes. The lectures are on the theory of painting, sculpture and architecture, &c., and their application to modern life, the history of the arts being illustrated by copies of the works of great artists and stereopticon illustrations of the finest specimens of European art and statuary.

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The course in music aims at the very highest style of culture; none but models of undisputed excellence are admitted. For the pianoforte the works of Bach, Handel, Haydn, Scarlatti, Clementi, Mozart, Cramer, Beethoven, Moschels, Weber, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann and Litz form the foundation. For the organ, principally Bach, Rink, Hesse and Ritter. In singing, the methods, vocalises, solfeggi, etc., of Garcia, Vaccaj, Concone, Bardogni and Marchesi, with arias from the best Italian, French and German operas, and songs by Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, R. Franz, etc.

Experience has shown that this course can be added to the regular curriculum with satisfactory results, but the Faculty admit that it calls for the most rigid economy of time and effort. Lectures on the history and aesthetics of music, on forms of musical composition and cognate subjects are delivered by able professors. In the musical library of the college are six hundred pieces of music for the free use of the pupils. Students in either of the art departments who are not taking the classical studies may reside or not in the college buildings, at their choice. When the full course of either art is taken, three full yearly terms are required.

Vassar has a library of 14,000 volumes, with a commodious reading-room, profusely furnished with American and foreign magazines, reviews and papers. It has an excellent laboratory, furnished with the best modern apparatus for experiments in chemistry and physics. It has also a museum of natural history, illustrating all the sub-kingdoms, rich in ornithological specimens, and some five hundred mammals and other zoological objects; elastic anatomical models, cabinets of minerals and fossils, etc. The astronomical observatory, eighty feet long, is based upon a firm foundation of natural rock; it is fifty feet in height. The large telescope has an object glass of 12½ inches, with a focal reach of 17 feet; and there is one smaller one on the roof in constant use; a "comet seeker," a beautiful transit circle, a siderial clock and chronograph are a few of the objects in use here.

The students' dormitory arrangements are home-like in their plan, being divided into groups, with usually three sleeping-rooms opening into one parlor, for study, all being

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comfortably and tastefully furnished. The entire combination of buildings are lighted with gas, heated by steam, having an abundant water supply for bathing-rooms, with elevators in daily use. The present number of pupils is over three hundred, there being representatives from nearly every State in the Union, from Canada, Brazil, and even far-off Japan. The average expense for students in the regular or special courses is $400 per annum. Music, $100 extra; drawing, painting and modeling, $80 extra, when these are taken in addition to the classical studies.

There is one very pleasant trait to be recorded of college life in Vassar. When new pupils are admitted they are not subjected to the rude annoyances and cruel tricks of "hazing," as is almost universal in the old style male colleges, but the scholars already at home there, appoint a committee to wait upon the strangers, see to their comfort, introduce them to their future class-mates, and in every pleasant way, and without oppressive officiousness, make the new pupils welcome to the home life of Vassar. Other female and mixed colleges, we are informed, do the same.

In Massachusetts, Wellesley College, for young ladies, fifteen miles from Boston, provides a still more ample curriculum than Vassar. It gives seven distinct courses: the first, or general, consists of four years' study in Latin, Greek, German, French, the higher mathematics, physics, logic, essay writing, drawing, mental and moral philosophy, chemistry, botany, geology, and, for all studies which need it, laboratory practice. Then there are post-graduate courses "for honors" in the classics, mathematics and modern languages. The scientific course diverges widely from the preceding; it is laid out for four years and embraces such studies as geometry, trigonometry, university algebra, chemistry, mathematical and perspective drawing, mineralogy, crystallography, lithology, geology, astronomy, physics, biology, mental and moral philosophy. A pre-knowledge of French and German is required in this course, as some of the text-books in those languages are used, and other books which are to be consulted; a microscopical laboratory for the practical study of histology is one of the features here.

In the Conservatory of Music the course is very thorough and continues through five years. The branches taught are

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piano, organ and solo singing, harmony, counterpoint and fugue, composition, with the theory, history and æsthetics of music. Wellesley employs thirty-three professors; it is chartered to confer degrees. The grounds contain three hundred acres and include a large and beautiful lake; the whole surroundings are beautifully laid out; a profusion and great variety of flowers aid the practical students of botany, and the interior arrangements are as tasteful and artistic as that of any college in the country.

Of institutions similar to Vassar and Wellesley, for ladies only, there are between two and three hundred in the United States; we mean similar to the extent of thoroughness in the regular course of college instruction, but comparatively few of them are equally well equipped for scientific work, or in the schools of art and music, or in the elegance of their general surroundings; but good, faithful work is done in them, nevertheless, and it is no small addition to the intellectual force of a people to have educated every year thousands of young women in all the best results of modern learning. We observe with satisfaction that a large number of these institutions employ professors of other colleges to conduct the annual examinations, so as to forestall all suspicion of easy tests of scholarship.

According to the report of the Hon. J. Eaton, Commissioner of the United States Bureau of Education, there are between 23,000 and 24,000 pupils in these female colleges and higher institutions of learning, while the number in mixed or co-educational colleges and universities is very considerable, though not so large. Over 16,000 are in Normal schools, and of these a large number become teachers.

Of the universities and colleges founded on the principle of co-education of the sexes, that of Cornell, in the State of New York; that of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, Mich., and that of Boston, in Massachusetts, are fair specimens. The existence of Cornell University is due to the combined bounty of the United States Government and that of a wealthy citizen, Mr. Ezra Cornell. In 1862 Congress passed an act granting public lands to each of the States and Territories which should provide schools for the promotion of agriculture and the mechanic arts. By this act 30,000 acres were to be allotted for each Senator and Representative of every State. The share of New York was 990,000 acres. In ac-

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ceiving this gift (in the shape of land scrip) the Legislature
made over the entire proceeds of the grant to Mr. Cornell, on
the conditions that he should give to the institution to be
founded $500,000 and that free tuition should be annually
given to one student from each Assembly District in the
State, these to be selected by competitive examination. No
distinction of sex is recognized in this competition; the best
scholar wins the prize of four years' gratuitous instruction.
There are in this way always over one hundred free pupils in
Cornell. The choice of studies is wide and extremely varied
and largely elective. The professors are chosen for known
capacity in their respective branches, without regard to their
religious or political opinions. As between the male and fe-
male students, there is no separation at lectures or recita-
tions, but a spacious building is appropriated for the sole use
of the young ladies as a dormitory and residence. It is
known as the Sage College, it having been erected at the ex-
pense of Mr. H. W. Sage, who also made the gift of a beau-
tiful chapel, in which non-sectarian services are held.

Mr. Cornell's favorite idea was "to found an institution
where any person could learn anything." In accordance
with this liberal plan, fifteen different courses of study are
laid out, under the general heads of Arts, Literature, Philos-
ophy, Science, Mathematics, Natural History, Agriculture,
Veterinary Science, Physics, Civil Engineering, History and
Political Science, Rhetoric and Oratory, Medicine, Ento-
mology and Languages. For the latter the amplest provision
is made. A large corps of professors, many of them Euro-
peans, give instruction, if demanded, in not only all the living
languages of Northern and Southern Europe, but in the Ori-
ental tongues, Hebrew, Sanscrit, Persian, Tartar, Arabic,
Chinese, Japanese and many others. They have a library
of 40,000 volumes, laboratories, a model farm of one hundred
acres, a printing office in which is printed the "College Reg-
ister," some of the text-books used and a paper in the Portu-
guese language, conducted by students from Brazil.

The age for admission for young women is not less than
seventeen. Post-graduate studies are permitted, either in
ancient, modern or oriental languages to such as wish to
continue them; also in mathematics, philosophy and some
other branches. The average total expenses at Cornell, for
such as are not free students, is, for tuition, only $75 per an-

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the wordly knowledge, but in the inwardness of human heart;
in patience, meekness, in fulfillment of the vital needs of your
house.

Teachers and tutors of youth, and you, pretending to be
wise, men of science and literature! Restrain your thought
and word, lest the freedom appropriated by yourselves shall
be temptation and peril for the weak persons. Remember the
words of our Lord Jesus Christ: Woe to the world from se-
duction. Woe to him who will seduce a little one of those
believing in Christ. Subdue the pride of your scrutinizing
thought into obedience of faith. Don't deceive yourselves
and your brothers by the false visions of freedom amidst the
servitude to sin which is incompatible with freedom, and by
the visions of rights amidst oblivion of duty binding for all
and neglected by everybody. Fear God, honor the king
(1 Peter, ii., 11), along with all the orthodox people.

Rulers and judges! To you much is given, but of you much
will be required (Luke, xii., 48). Not for vain glory, not for
self-complaisance, not for enjoyment and self-enrichment have
you received your power from the supreme distributer of pow-
er, but for the sake of the great public service; be careful that
you carry your sword and your sceptre with good sense. Your
calling is holy, your duty is to be equal to it, and not defame
it; to guard the authority, and not to weaken it. Being called
to perform God's work, justice and judgment for the people,
remember that he is accursed who doeth the work of the Lord
deceitfully (Jer., xlviii., 10). Observe the law; defend the
oppressed, punish the guilty, show no indulgence to vice and
crime, punish seductions, try the human deeds in the spirit of
the true faith, lest you should deem the evil to be the good
and the good to be the evil. Work not unto man, but unto
the Lord, with fear (Colos., iii., 23), in order that the oath now
taken by all the people shall be for you the word and the deed
of truth for all your life—the sacred vow expressed in the
hour of the Lord's awful visitation; vow that you shall not
spare your blood in remaining loyal to our God-chosen em-
peror, to truth and the law, and that you shall sacrifice your
soul for our creed and our country.

And you, Christian people, villagers, made free by mercy
of our benefactor, in God reposed sovereign and Emperor
Alexander Nicholaevitch! Let be blessed among you his
memory from generation to generation, hence and forever!

PASTORAL LETTER.

51

Fulfill his will—to preserve yourselves like the God's children, free from the inimical and malicious insinuations, and from every corruption. Preserve the orthodox faith of our fathers and the good morals in yourselves as well as in your children, love the labor and temperance, obey the lawful authorities—not only for the sake of fear, but also for the sake of conscience.

Beloved in the Lord! children of the Holy Christian Church! Our pastoral word to all of you; we call on all of you, and pray all of you, repent! And now, also, the axe is laid unto the root of the trees; every tree therefore which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire (St. Luke, iii., 9). Let us bring forth fruits worthy of repentance. Let us do as the people of Ninevah did in the day of God's awful wrath: let every one abandon his evil way, subdue himself by prayer and lent, and the Lord, who had preserved our country amidst troubles and calamities, by the prayers of his most pure Mother and of all the saints of God, will guard in peace the empire of our most pious sovereign and emperor Alexander Alexandrovitch, and will forgive and will have mercy upon us, for he is gracious, and loves mankind. Amen!

The original is signed:

ISIDOR, Metropolitan of Novgorod
and St. Petersburg.

PHILOTHEY, Metropolitan of Kieff
and Galicia.

MAKARY, Metropolitan of Moscow
and Kolomna.

ALEXANDER, Archbishop of Litva.

PALLADY, Bishop of Riarzan.

Protopresbyter W. BAJANOFF.

Protopriest JOHN ROCHDESTVENSKY.

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SOCIALISM.

BY L. L.

THE struggle between capital and labor is as old as the existence of modern society. Among the nations of antiquity slavery gave an entirely different character to the relations between the classes. The condition of the people of the Middle Ages was founded and regulated by the system of feudalism and serfdom. What in Western Europe has been the work of many long centuries was accomplished by one stroke in two countries by the genius and greatness of two men, whose names will, for all ages, be connected with the progress and happiness of the human race—Alexander II. of Russia and Abraham Lincoln, the President of the United States. It is a strange and grievous coincidence that both these men, who freed millions of their fellow creatures from slavery and degradation, met with a violent death at the hand of fanatical assassins.

When modern society developed itself from the gloom and oppression of the Middle Ages, when education spread among all classes, when private enterprise of every kind of industry and trade sprung up in every direction, a sharply defined division was soon established, separating mankind in two classes: one containing those who represent capital and are able to pay, among other commodities, for the most vital of all, labor; and another, far more numerous, who possess no capital, and who are consequently compelled to sell that for which they have either never paid, their strength, or what they have acquired at a comparatively small outlay, skill. It is impossible to inquire into the origin of wealth in every individual case. That in by far the largest majority of instances it is due to the intelligence, industry and thrift of one or more generations will only be denied by those most blinded by fanatical hatred of law and order. Yet it is but human that those who are wanting this incalculable advantage of riches should look with envy and sometimes with hatred upon those who are so much more favored by fate than themselves. In

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all times and among all nations there have been men who, having become convinced that the social relations of mankind might be put upon a more just and harmonious basis than that on which they rest in existing society, have tried to devise and to put into actual practice new schemes of social life. They saw misery, sickness and distress around them, and asked themselves the question. If it could be possible that Nature intended the majority of mankind to exist in such a state of squalor and wretchedness; that Divine Providence had summoned more to the banquet of life than it had provided for? Men of generous, tender hearts and lofty, speculative minds have keenly felt the existence of a state of things which must appear to many unjust and unnatural.

Those who have devised new schemes for the improvement and reform of the social order of things may be divided into three classes. The first are the merely theoretical, who have planned new systems, purely ideal, based upon a supposed equality of intellectual and moral virtues of all men, upon the same moderation of desires, of likes and dislikes. So impossible is this scheme, of which Plato, in his "Republic," may be considered the author, that it deserves our attention only on account of the ingenious exercise of imagination. It is absolutely without any value for practical purposes. The second class are the purely practical—that is to say, those who have formed small communities, have withdrawn from every contact with the actual world, and lived among themselves a useless, blind and selfish life: *Non raggionam di lor, ma guarda e passa!* The third class alone enters into consideration. They are those who would combine the impossible theories of the first class with the ignominious practice of the egotists of the second, and apply to society in general these schemes, which, wherever they have been tried on a small scale, have proved impracticable, unjust and productive of degradation of all that is noble and independent in human nature. It is the followers of this last class, consisting of a large body of dangerous fanatics and ambitious demagogues, whom the civilized world has to face as enemies of society, of law and order. These men, who have now for many years been known as Socialists have relied upon the ignorance and worst passions of the large masses for the accomplishment of their own nefarious purposes.

Socialism is a product of the thickly populated countries

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of the Old World. Impracticable and injust as are the means
by which these modern reformers would carry out their
schemes of remodeling the old society, here in the United
States, as will be seen hereafter, there is not even a *raison d'être* for its existence. It would be difficult to draw the line
between Socialism and Communism. What Communism
declares as its first and fundamental principle, the abolition of
personal property and the community of all goods, would be
the aim of Socialism if there were any possible chance of
carrying its schemes into practice. Leaving the early dream-
ers of social revolutions, such as Rousseau, Fourier, Saint-
Simon, Owen and others, entirely out of the question, the
first apostles of Socialism who attempted to carry their doc-
trines into practice on a large scale appeared in Germany and
France about forty years ago. Louis Blanc may be considered
as the author of the system of Socialism as we understand it
to-day, and his celebrated work, *L'Organisation du Travail*,
is regarded as the gospel of this new creed. The leading
features of his plans are, in the first place, to make the gov-
ernment responsible for the equal distribution of work among
the laboring classes. The government must not only find
work for all, but also guarantee their wages; furnish with
capital all those who require it. On these principles Louis
Blanc was elected a member of the Provisional Government
that followed the February Revolution of 1848. He found
himself suddenly in the responsible position to carry into
practice what had looked very plausible on paper, but what
assumed overwhelming proportions when it took the shape of
reality. The Provisional Government had declared that
every man was entitled to work. There were at that moment
something like 200,000 mechanics in France without work.
They had to be provided for, and the Republican Government,
with that poor poet Lamartine at the head, rushed blindfold
into the establishing of public workshops. The terrible con-
sequences did not wait long to follow this crazy act; they
came relentless and pitiless, and went far beyond the peaceful
intentions of Louis Blanc and his fellow dreamers. Only a
few months later, in June of the same year, Cavaignac was
obliged to sweep the streets of Paris with shells and grape-
shot. Anarchy and red rebellion had risen to destroy every
vestige of the existing order of things. That was the first
act of the bloody drama in France. The second act, more

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terrible still, took place in May, 1871, immediately following
the German war, when the Commune raised her Medusa
head; when the beautiful city of Paris was lighted up by fires,
destroying monuments of art that had been the delight of man-
kind for centuries; when they butchered in cold blood innocent
hostages, women and children, the venerable Archbishop of
Paris and many pious priests. This hideous finale has extin-
guished for the present all attempts at establishing Socialism
in France.

In Spain and Italy the movement is represented by occa-
sional outbreaks of the International in murders and con-
flagrations. In Russia the movement can be characterized at
once, when it is stated that it is not related to, but the same
as Nihilism, which is only another word for destruction of
all that the best and wisest of men have recognized as the
surest guidance of men to happiness. In Germany the
Socialistic movement has assumed larger proportions than in
any other country in the world, and its foremost representa-
tives, Carl Marx and Lasalle, are natives of that country.
The sophisms of these two men, supported by extracts from
other writers and speakers, which were partly maliciously
misrepresented, partly misunderstood and partly invented,
have done more harm among the ignorant working classes
than anything else. A most active public agitation in news-
papers, pamphlets, meetings and societies has made the Ger-
man Empire the headquarters of the Socialistic movement all
over the world. It is beyond the limits of this article to go
into a detailed analysis of their doctrines. The first and per-
fectly sufficient objection to them is that they are based upon
the assumption that tastes, talents, physical and intellectual
qualities are the same in all men and that every individual
possesses an equal share of it. This is not the case, and what-
ever equal distribution of property, labor and wages may be
made, the same division of the classes as it exists now will
soon take place again. There are other more tangible
grounds on which to prove the fallacy of Socialistic doctrines:
Is it in accordance with human nature that every one will
fulfill his duties with the same care and devotion when his
personal welfare, wealth or poverty are no longer depending
upon his own exertions, his intelligence, thrift and capabili-
ties? Is it psychologically possible that when competition
ceases, when prizes and wages are fixed by government

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ordinances, progress and development will go at the same rate
as now? The total shallowness of their principles is nowhere
more fully recognized than among the few educated men
who have taken part in the Socialistic movement, from
various causes, among which two are most conspicuous:
disappointed ambition and greed of notoriety and the spoils
of their victims. The Socialists and Communists are divided
into innumerable little sections, and hate and curse each other
more cordially than their bitterest enemies could wish for.

There is much wretchedness and misery in this world, and
every one has to bear his burden to the best of his power,
with patience and hope for better days. The remedies which
these fanatics propose have not yet produced the slightest
possible result. Slavery and feudalism have died out, and
much that appears grievous, miserable and injust now will
die, too, as education and civilization, which bring wealth
and happiness in their wake, make progress all over the world.

Socialism in the United States is harmless and comical
only. It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good, and
even the ill wind of Socialism has brought a passing amusement
to many a thinking man. Some two years ago, an Irish
rowdy from the slums of San Francisco came eastward to
preach the gospel of Socialism in the cities of the Atlantic
slope. Denis Kearney came here armed with a vocabulary
of obscene and blasphemous language such as no man ever
had at his command. After pouring out his foul vituperation
before crowds of ragged street boys, who were delighted to
find an opportunity of enriching their phraseology, he
sneaked back to his Sand Lot in San Francisco, to collapse
there for ever and ever.

There exists a small number of men here in New York,
who proudly call themselves the Socialistic Party of New
York. A party, indeed! Almost without exception a crowd
of disreputable, dissipated outcasts, too ignorant or too lazy
to work. Their headquarters is a beer shop on the east side
of the city, the keeper of which is considered the leader of
the movement. Judiciously combining politics with profit, he
summons his followers to his ill-ventilated, sawdust-covered
cellar, and when bad odors, bad tobacco and stale beer have
completely muddled the little brains they have left, they
spout sedition, in hoarse, guttural voices, against all things
that are human or divine. Laziness, and greed for means to

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support them in it, are the only motives of this ill-conditioned,
ill-washed mob. A few weeks ago one of the leading spirits
of this fraternity arranged a theatrical performance in the
Academy of Music for one very vague purpose, "The Lib-
eration of Germany." The receipts amounted to a very hand-
some sum, but poor Germany had very little benefit of this
patriotic undertaking. The wife of the manager of the
evening's entertainment, who took a leading part in the play,
was presented by "the committee" with a handsome gold
bracelet studded with diamonds, besides receiving baskets of
flowers, as a special recognition of her dramatic efforts. The
other actors and actresses were presented with minor gifts in
the shape of gold watches, chains, studs and other articles of
luxury entirely out of keeping with republican simplicity.
The affair was wound up with a jolly dinner, this time some-
thing better than sausage and lager beer; and altogether
everybody had what is called, in familiar language, a good
time of it, except poor Germany, who will have to wait a long
time before such champions will come to her aid. This is but
a specimen of innumerable cases of abusing the confidence of
the masses. The author of this outrage of imbecile credulity
has been publicly charged with it and has never refuted it.

In this country, where cities grow up within a few years,
where feverish activity prevails in every branch of industry,
there is a chance for every man to bring his skill and work
into the best market. And who cannot find work in the large
cities, let him move westward, until he comes to the vast
plains where hundreds of millions of acres of virgin soil are
waiting for the plough. Socialism in Europe is a danger, and
is treated as such by every civilized government. Here in
America it is a farce, and will die of ridicule before it is
much older.

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THE SACRAMENT OF MATRIMONY,

ACCORDING TO THE DOCTRINE AND RITUAL OF THE ORTHODOX ORIENTAL CHURCH.

BY REV. I. BASAROFF.

MATRIMONY is a holy alliance; the germ from which all human society springs. The family is one of the first foundations of civil life. For this reason, matrimony has everywhere, from the oldest times, been regarded as a holy act. The Christian Church has done yet more in this respect, since she exalted the right to the rank of a holy Sacrament. The reason of it she finds first in the original ordinance of matrimony by God in Paradise; but she feels herself yet more justified through the words of Jesus Christ, who confirms the first law of matrimony and elevates it to a higher rank when He says: "Therefore shall a man leave father and mother, and cleave unto his wife; and they twain shall be one flesh."

"Wherefore they are no more twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let no man put asunder." The Apostle Paul called matrimony a sacrament, and at the same time, indicated the high significance of this covenant in comparing the matrimonial union with the indissoluble one-ness between Christ and His Church. "This is a great mystery," he writes of matrimony, and then adds: "but I speak concerning Christ and the Church," in order to show thereby that the matrimonial alliance can only then be great and holy, when it is made in the Christian sense. In these words, the Apostle represents the conjugal union as an image of the spiritual union of the Church with her supreme Head, in order to move the Christians to regard wedlock not merely as a human institution, but rather to esteem it a divinely appointed and mysterious ordinance. That the Christian idea of matrimony was only a restoration of the primitive meaning of this institution, is clearly seen from the answer of Christ, which He gave the Jews, "Moses, because of the hardness of your hearts, suffered you to put away your

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wives; but from the beginning it was not so." Christianity even here, has approved itself the new birth of humanity. The great purpose of Christianity is, to lead man to the highest grade of moral perfection, to the likeness of God, as much as is possible for him to attain upon earth. The chief means by which this ennobling of the human nature is to be effected, consists, according to the doctrines of Jesus Christ, in the awaking and strengthening of the true love of God and man in the hearts of the regenerated. Therefore everything in Christianity has this aim, to imbue man with this love, and to make it, as it were—his second nature. And indeed is it not of great value, that man, owing to the circumstances under which he lives from his birth, is encouraged and brought up to this love in various ways; that, being from early childhood most tenderly united with a number of persons, he exercises his young heart, even before reason is awakened in him, in the sentiments which, as a consequence, are to be the means of his becoming noble, and the source of his happiness? And all that, according to the counsel of God, the matrimonial union is to effect. In this union, the noblest germs of human love receive their first nourishment; and its fruits, the good fortune of home and civil prosperity, ripen only under the quiet roof of family life sanctified by God. This sentiment guided even the heathen nations, although more darkly, on account of idolatry, since it inspired them with especial esteem for the matrimonial state. Yet rarely is such a rude people to be found, or such a savage race, among whom matrimony is not accompanied by certain ceremonies, and thus in some manner treated as an extraordinary transaction. It required the foolishness of the understanding, darkened in its pride, to deny wedlock completely the character of a divine ordinance, and to declare it a purely human institution. Ecclesiastical antiquity knows nothing that might even cast a shadow upon such a corruption of the Christian idea. Indeed there may have been still in the times of the Apostles, heretical teachers, who rejected matrimony generally, as a thing not human. But this error was too great to provoke an extensive discussion. On the contrary, the teaching of Christian matrimony in the first few centuries was assailed so little, that the defenders of Christianity found themselves rarely called upon to leave us something more explicit in their writings on the subject.

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Tradition, however, affirms sufficiently, that matrimony
among the Christians existed always as a divine institution,
and was esteemed as such very highly by all. The best proof
of this is found in the practice and the teaching of the dif-
ferent churches, which, on account of some dogmatic views,
separated from each other in the first few centuries, yet re-
tained unaltered the number of the seven sacraments, among
which matrimony was included. Especially worthy of note,
of the many positive testimonies concerning matrimony as a
sacrament on the part of the Church Fathers of the first four
centuries, are those of Tertullian and John Chrysostom, who
both called matrimony a sacrament in the sense of the Apostle.
In turning from the positive testimonies to the dogmatic con-
siderations about matrimony, we shall find here, in full
measure, all that is requisite for a sacrament? What is a
sacrament? A sacrament is a transaction of the Church in
divine service, in which, by virtue of the divine ordinance,
the most important gifts of grace are both symbolically indi-
cated, and in reality secured. That marriage was never per-
formed any other way but under the blessing of the Church,
we have the undeniable testimony of the Church Authors.
"How can I." writes Tertullian, "describe the bliss of wed-
lock, which is made by the Church, sanctified through the
offering, sealed by the benediction; which the angels an-
nounce, and the Heavenly Father confirms!" Much the
same can now be said also of the divine transaction of mar-
riage in the Orthodox Church: for none of the Sacraments,
the Holy Communion excepted, is in this Church celebrated
with such solemnity as the nuptials. And in reference to the
antiquity of the ceremony in the Oriental Church, exists no
doubt. As regards the divine ordinance of matrimony itself,
we are fully convinced of it through the words of Christ. Of
course, the same could not be said of the manner and mode
of performing this sacrament. The Apostles allowed the
Churches, even in their life-time, a certain freedom in ar-
ranging their performances in divine service, and the ritual
developed itself by degrees into that grade in which it is now
established. Only this one thing is certain for the Church,
that she is guided in these arrangements by the Holy Spirit,
which was given her by Christ as her guide and ruler, and
therefore can receive nothing that is contradictory to the
principles of faith. From this side of the question, therefore,
nothing can be objected against matrimony as a Sacrament.

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But if it be said that no special gift of divine grace be necessary for marriage, we refer to the words of the Apostle, to the Corinthians, vi. 19, 20: "What! know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your own? For ye are bought with a price; therefore glorify God in your body, and in your spirit, which are God's."

If any one knows why these words were written, it will clearly appear that the faithful are therein exhorted to show their union with Christ, not only in his spirit, but also in his body. And, indeed, should not the union be holy, from which the sons of the kingdom of God are born? Should such an union not need the special grace of God, which is the foundation of all civil ties, which is full of pure joy and bliss, whence we imbibe, with blood and milk, the spirit of holiness? Matrimony, in the Christian sense, is much more than a mere alliance between two persons of different sexes for conjugal life. It is the hearth of the heart's true love; it is the school of all domestic virtues; it is the foundation of morality for future generations. "They two shall be one flesh,"—this is the requirement of this union? One in spirit, one in love, one in sentiment, one in desire. Can the natural man fulfill such a calling in his own strength? Does not even the regenerated need the especial grace of God to comply with these demands of Christian marriage? Truly, whatever is produced from the senses is only sensual; and only that which is formed through the spirit is spiritual. Christians, as children of light, must be sanctified even in their birth, and to this end is needed the especial grace of God, which can be realized only by means of the Holy Spirit working in the Sacrament. As in every sacrament is received this secret effect of grace under visible symbols, so it is also in that of matrimony. When we consider the external transaction of the ceremony, we see before us two persons of different sexes, who vow to each other before the altar of God, eternal love and fidelity; we hear how the priest prays for them, and blesses this matrimonial union in the name of the Holy Trinity. But this solemn promise of both parties, and this priestly blessing, are just the visible forms under which the invisible grace of the Holy Spirit is imparted to those who become here united. Through this grace the natural bond between man and woman becomes spiritual, after the image

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of the secret union of Christ with His church. The sanctified
alliance between the man and the woman in the name of the
triune God, receives now from God Himself the grace for the
blessed production of children, and the ability for the fulfill-
ment of all obligations on the part of those married. And
these gifts, which are not merely human in their nature,
make up the real substance of Christian wædlock, its interior,
sacramental character.

When we compare marriage with the other sacraments of
the Church, we perceive that also in the Lord's Supper, not
the simple reception of bread and wine is sacramental, but
their change into the body and blood of Christ, through the
priestly blessing; just so in baptism,—the sacramental part
does not consist in the washing of the baptized with water,
but in the priestly performance of this act in the name of the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. It is altogether the same in
the sacrament of marriage: the mutual consent of bride-
groom and bride for entering into the matrimonial state, and
even the declaration of this resolution before the priest, do
not yet amount to a sacrament. But it becomes a sacrament
as soon as this mutual promise of connubial love and fidelity
before the altar of God receives its sanctification through the
priestly blessing in the name of the Holy Trinity. The holy
Clement of Alexandria makes the blessing of the Christian
marriage dependent even on the faith of those to be united.
And thus it must be in reality; for although not every one of
the sacraments may be for condemnation as the Holy Com-
munion, when it is received without becoming reverence, yet
the effects of all sacraments are doubtless more or less de-
pendent upon the faith of the recipient. If, therefore, mat-
rimony is a sacrament, it must necessarily be indissoluble, for
the grace of God cannot be despised unpunished,

The original law of matrimony, according to which two are
to become one flesh, Jesus Christ confirmed yet more, when
He said: "What God has joined together, let no man put
asunder." (Matt. xix. 6.) The Lord calls every one an
adulterer, who during the life-time of the other enters into
another alliance. (Mark x. 11.) The same was also taught
by the Apostles. (1 Cor. vii. 10, 11, and Rom. vii. 2, 3.)
This rule, therefore, was observed by the whole Christian
Church at all times. The celebrated pulpit orator of the
fourth century, St. Chrysostom, by way of explanation of

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the words of Jesus (Matt. xix. 4, 6), said to his hearers as follows: "Let us admire the wisdom of the Master! He declared, before He answered the question proposed to Him in relation to divorce, that this commandment was that of His Father, and that he set it up without contradicting Moses. Behold, how He ratifies His words, when He says, God not only created one man and one woman, but He commanded them also to be united. But if God had wished that one man should abandon his wife, and take another, then He would have created one man and several women. Thus the Lord has shown in the method of creation, as also in the manner and mode of the giving of the law, that the man is to unite himself with the woman forever, and never to be separated from her. And observe how he speaks: 'Know ye not that He which made them at the beginning made them male and female?' That is, because they originally sprang from one root, therefore they also unite themselves in one being; 'for they become,' says He, 'one flesh.' Afterwards, in order to show how dangerous it is to neglect this law, He did not say for the confirmation of this law, 'Do not commit adultery;'} but *what* did He say? 'What God has joined together, let no man put asunder.' If thou dost show me the ordinances of Moses, I refer thee to the Lord of Moses, and in this way bring forward the antiquity of this ordinance; for God created in the beginning male and female. This is the original law, and it was introduced with particular force. For the woman is not only brought to the man, but it is commanded that the man should leave father and mother; it is commanded not only to live with the woman, but to cleave to his wife. Even in these words is seen the indissolubility of this union. But that was not enough; yet another stronger oneness is demanded; for it is said, 'and they two shall be one flesh.' After he had interpreted thus the original law, which was introduced, not only in word but in deed, and had proved its truth by the authority of the Lawgiver, He ratifies the same by His own remark, and confirms it with the words: 'Thus are they not twain, but one flesh.' Therefore, as it is a horrible thing to part in twain a living body, it is, in the same manner, contrary to the law to separate from the woman. And even here He did not yet cease, but pointed to God for greater confirmation, in saying, 'What God has joined together, let not man put asunder.' Thus He

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has shown that it would be contrary to nature, as well as to law—to nature, because one and the same being is divided—to the law, because one endeavours to part that which God has joined, and which He has commanded should not be separated." In prohibiting the separation of the matrimonial union, God has again revealed His wisdom, as also His grace, with respect to mankind. For only such a union can serve for the attainment of the purpose of marriage. From how many temptations of carelessness and carnal lust this law might keep the married! From how many irremediable disputes numbers of families might be spared! And what a misfortune it would be for the children, if they were not protected from neglect by this law of the inseparable union of their parents! In accordance with the teaching of Holy Scripture, the connubial tie is loosed by the death of one of the wedded pair. But even in this case the Apostle advises rather to remain single than to enter into a new marriage. (1 Cor. vii. 40.) According to the Christian idea, it really should not be otherwise. For the bodily death must not be in the eyes of the Christian a hindrance to the continuance of the spiritual covenant of eternal love and fidelity. For this reason a second marriage in the Christian Church was always regarded as an allowance made for human weakness. Therefore in case of a second marriage in the Orthodox Church, are omitted several ceremonies that beautify every first wedding; in like manner, those who have entered upon marriage a second time are not admitted to priestly offices.

As regards third marriage, it is either absolutely forbidden, or only allowed under certain circumstances, and more often under an ecclesiastical penalty. Jesus Christ gives only one case where matrimony may be dissolved, and that is adultery. (Matt. v. 32.) Through the slighting of the chief matrimonial duties by one of the parties, the other is necessarily freed from the union which is already broken by the act. With the Lord it is no crime if the innocent party in such a case free himself from the conjugal tie; and the Church has declared in her acts of council, that, under such circumstances, marriage with another person is not to be denied to the innocent one. Yet even in this case, the Church pursues a very cautious course, since she does all in her power to conciliate the offended party, and bring the guilty to repentance. The laws of the state themselves limit this case, in so far as it is

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ordered that the confession of the disregard of the holiness of matrimony through adultery on the part of the guilty one, should not be considered before other clearer proofs of the fact have been supplied.

In the civil law, still other cases are admitted in which matrimony is severed, namely, when one of the pair is absent for more than five years, the whereabouts not being known, or in case of exile for life. In both these instances, the abandoned is allowed to apply to the ecclesiastical authority for permission to enter into a new marriage. It is unnecessary to say, that even in these cases, only after more particular official investigations concerning the whereabouts of the absentee, and after previous admonitions to patience, on the part of the priest, is given the unavoidable dispensation from the first marriage. As regards the other circumstance under which marriage may be severed, namely, the unfruitfulness of one of the parties, this exception takes place only in extraordinary cases. But on the whole, matrimony is regarded by the Church as an indissoluble alliance, and, as such, blessed by her. Only from this view of matrimony can be rightly fulfilled the duties which are prescribed to the married couple by the Church. For these obligations consist in this, that one give himself a sacrifice to the other all through life, and that they devote all their powers to the education of their children, and that also, in general, they assist each other in the foundation of earthly prosperity, and in attaining the bliss of heaven hereafter. The means for fulfilling these obligations, are the constant conjugal fidelity, and mutual devoted love. It does not suffice for the Christian marriage, which is *not* a mere external compact, but a spiritual union, to regard all these obligations only in an external light. No; Jesus Christ calls it already a crime, when a man looks upon a strange woman with desire. (Matt. v. 27, 28.) And this upon the principle of a doctrine much to be taken to heart, that out of the heart proceed all evil thoughts as well as deeds. (Matt. xv. 19.) The preservation of conjugal fidelity, even from the sinful emotions of the heart, is all important, for the reason, that matrimony is a union of hearts; but when the heart goes astray, then begins also of itself dissolution of this union.

But, considering at the same time what sad consequences for the whole family follow matrimonial unfaithfulness, it is

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clear why the Lord warns the married even against the secret unfaithfulness in thought. Not to mention that this unfaithfulness is a great sin against God and the Church, since it violates the Holy Sacrament, and goes against the express command of God, it is in itself a great crime against morality. The person who is guilty of adultery, offends his partner most deeply, robs the children of their parent's love, causes family dispute, and destroys, in this way, domestic prosperity forever. And what a terrible example for the children! Therefore the conjugal faithlessness was counted as one of the greatest crimes among all nations, and punished very severely. According to the law of Moses, adulterers were stoned. The Apostle St. Paul exhorts the Christians to matrimonial fidelity, as those who are called to higher perfection and holiness, and accompanies this admonition with the terrible threat, that those who do not maintain the same, shall have no part in the Kingdom of God. (1 Cor. vi. 8, 10.)

As regards connubial love, it is really a matter of the heart, which cannot be commanded by any precept. But love, as a sentiment, is to precede the conjugal union, but after its consummation it becomes a duty. It is true, that man is often not able to govern his own heart; but the love that has once been experienced between two persons, which after mature consideration and mutual testing receives its sanctification before the altar of God, this love must be reasonable, and shape itself in accordance with the laws of the obligations undertaken. Matrimonial love, as a sentiment sanctified in the sacrament, cannot grow cold itself without the personal fault of the married ones. If, then, therefore, as regards matrimony, mention is made of the duty of reciprocal love, it means that husband and wife are obliged, before God and the Church, to avoid everything that might lessen their love,-- but, on the other hand, to do all that might confirm and strengthen this emotion of the heart. For whenever the ties of reciprocal love between husband and wife begin to become loose or feeble, then disappear also, by degrees, the rest of the family virtues.

The most dangerous enemy of connubial love, and thus of the welfare of the family, is undeniably the desire for a frivolous, worldly life, combined with the inclination for social pleasures, whereby the charm of the quiet hearth is gradually lost, and the lovely experience of domestic happiness sinks

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into monotony. Then only one feels that matrimony is not an uninterrupted feast of joy, but a union full of duty, which often requires the sacrifice of self-denial. But rarely does man make up his mind to consider seriously that we are placed upon this earth by God, not so much for pleasure, but for the fulfillment of higher, holier duties. The joys in the path of life are scattered like flowers along a stony road, lest we faint, as it were, in the constant longing after our destination. In this respect matrimony is considered most highly by the generous hand of God; but just on this account, it becomes the more unpardonable, if, amidst the joys of domestic bliss, the most important duties of matrimony are not sufficiently considered. The man becomes the more responsible for this neglect, since his misfortune is his own fault, for the truly Christian marriage is in itself happiness. As the sincerest and holiest bond of friendship, it elevates all joys of life, and enlightens its hardships; it doubles the enjoyment of earthly goods, and sweetens the bitterness of want. Among the wealthy, it advances love of activity, and among the needy it supports the inclination to industry. On all sides it nourishes the sense of virtue, and everywhere sets up a barrier to vice. In fine, if there can be a paradise on earth, certainly it can only be found in the happy wedded life of Christians; and this Eden is the more important, since it is equally accessible here to the rich as well as to the poor, to the high as well as to the low. Matrimony being a covenant between two persons, which has its meaning in the Church as well as in civil society, its consummation is made dependent upon certain conditions. These conditions are partly natural, partly ecclesiastical, and partly civil. But in Russia, where the Orthodox Church is so closely united with the State, all these conditions are consolidated into one, and left to the Church for her management and inspection. At the same time it is required of the Church herself, that those entering into matrimony should have a mutual affection even before concluding marriage, and that their decision for a matrimonial union be of their own accord. But since such a step in life is a most important and decisive one, and therefore demands more mature consideration on the part of those to be wedded, naturally care is taken that the bridegroom and bride be of a suitable age for the purposes of matrimony. Of course the limit of this capability may be different and dependent upon

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certain circumstances, and therefore the ecclesiastical law is
not decided in this respect; however, at the present time, in
Russia, it is fixed as the minimum, that the bridegroom shall
not be younger than eighteen, and the bride not younger than
sixteen years of age. But as the young may often be misled
through passion to take a wrong step in the consummation of
matrimony, the State, as well as the Church, demand that
both bridegroom and bride have the consent of the civil au-
thority and their parents to their marriage. Especially the
latter is so highly esteemed in the Russian Church, that in
case the parents are deceased, the godfathers and other
relatives are required to be present as representatives of the
parental power and blessing at the time of the ceremony.

Another matrimonial condition, which is made by the
Church, and sanctioned by the State, consists in this, that
those to be betrothed do not stand already in near relation-
ship to each other. The reason of this law lies already in the
idea of matrimony itself, as being a covenant which, among
others, is also destined for the purpose of augmenting the ties
of love and common interests in human society. This im-
pediment of relationship reaches in Russia to the sixth gener-
ation. Out of regard for the spiritual relationship between
the god-parents and the god-children, the Orthodox Church
requires that also baptismal relationship be as strictly ob-
served in case of marriage as the natural. In order to meet
all these, as other partly local, partly extraordinary demands,
it is arranged that no one can be united in matrimony before
adducing to the priest all requisite testimonials, and before
two or three witnesses on both sides have supplied the mar-
riage certificates with their signatures, at the risk of a legal
penalty in case of any defalcation on the part of the sub-
scribers.

In order to avoid any reclamation afterwards by persons
who might have occasion to hinder an intended marriage, it
is the custom everywhere in the church to make a previous
proclamation three times. For the same purpose, it is strictly
prohibited to perform any nuptial ceremony without witnesses
and outside of the church, or with closed doors. The cer-
emony of blessing in church is preceded by some domestic
ceremonies and customs, of which some have a deep signifi-
cance and an edifying religious sense. Thus the custom
exists not to pronounce bridegroom and bride as such before

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they have received the blessing from the parental hands. This blessing is usually given in narrower family circles, when, after prayers to God, a holy picture, the symbol of this blessing, is taken, and with it is made the sign of the cross over the heads of the pair kneeling before their parents. This picture of blessing remains there forever, a symbol of the paternal congratulations for those to be wedded. It accompanies them into the church, to the altar, and returns with them to their new home, where it is preserved and revered as a precious sacred relic. Another custom, greatly to be praised, consists in this,—that the betrothed attend Holy Communion before the nuptials, and thus prepare themselves for a truly Christian life in this so important union. Many persons go so far in their esteem for the Sacrament of Matrimony that they do not approach it except fasting, if even they should have to fast till late in the evening. In ancient times, however, the custom was even general to combine the nuptials with the reception of the Holy Communion, and so have it follow immediately after the Liturgy. For eight days after the wedding the newly married remained adorned with their crowns, since during this time they celebrated before God only their spiritual union. At the present day, these crowns are immediately removed after the nuptials, and as a substitute for this eight days' feast of spiritual union, remains only the pious custom to kneel immediately after the ceremony before the holy pictures, and to listen to a grateful *Te Deum*. There yet remains one more remark in reference to the time at which the nuptials may take place. Inasmuch as marriage in general is a joyful event, and according to the words of Jesus Christ himself (Mark xi. 19) not reconcilable with fasting, it was determined in the Christian Church at large that during the seasons of fasting marriages should not be made. In the Russian Church, the weekly fast days are also reckoned in the forbidden time. Only the days are taken not in the general, but in the Church's sense, according to which the days do not begin after midnight, but follow each other in the ecclesiastical order in such a way that a day begins with the vespers of one evening, and continues until vespers of the day following. From this circumstance, it is clear why a wedding may not take place on Tuesday or Thursday evenings, while on the evenings of Wednesday and Friday it is legally permitted. For another reason the nuptials

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cannot be celebrated on the eves of the feasts of the Church. Here is to be considered, rather, the hour in the day of celebrating marriage. This hour can only be such an one as does not precede divine service; hence on ordinary days marriage cannot be celebrated between midnight and the hour of service; on feast days, not between the vespers, which ordinarily take place the evening before, and the hour of service of the feast itself. Therefore, in case of necessity, for instance, marriages on Saturday can be performed only before vespers; otherwise they are usually altogether omitted on this day, in order not to disturb the festivities of the occasion with the necessary preparations for the Lord's day.

Now let us pass to the ceremonies of divine service which accompany the nuptials. We shall then see yet more clearly how high this sacrament is esteemed by the Orthodox Church, and how solemnly it is celebrated. The wedding propen is preceded by the betrothal, which is a solemn promise between bridegroom and bride before God, and in the face of the Church, whereby the blessing of God is asked upon the intended union. This betrothal was in former times made some time, even some years, before the nuptials. But now, in ordinary cases, it is entered into immediately before the wedding, and only at the nuptials of the members of the imperial family, according to ancient custom, it is separated from the same by some days or weeks. But in every case, this holy transaction is made publicly in church. It is customary in ordinary life, that the bridegroom arrive at church before the bride, and that then a lady of the company of the bridegroom is sent to bring the bride from her parental house. Here she receives the last blessing from her parents, and takes her last farewell of her family circle, in order to enter into the new family bonds, where she is to forget her parents' house, and to cleave to her husband. In order to bring to her mind this necessity more impressively, the parents do not generally accompany their daughter to the nuptials; but on the other hand, the representatives are present. As soon as the bride enters the church, in most cases, she is saluted by an appropriate chant, and introduced by one of the nearest relatives to the bridegroom. The same relative, as the chosen marriage friend during the whole ceremony, places the bridegroom and bride in the middle of the church, some distance from the hymeneal altar, upon which are the Gospel and the

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cross, and in such wise, that the bridegroom occupies the
right, and the bride the left side. This position already in-
timates the legal relation in which the woman is placed to
her husband according to the will of God. Then the acting
priest hands them the lighted tapers, which, as a sign of the
solemnity of the transaction itself, and still more as symbols
of the light of the grace of God which they are about to re-
ceive, they hold before them during the whole ceremony. The
signification of these tapers is heightened yet more by the
fact, that at the presentation of the same, the priest blesses
with them the bridegroom and the bride, crosswise, in the
name of the Holy Trinity. And thus with the sign of the
cross, the beginning of the transaction of the divine service
is made. In the first prayers, the whole church is invited to
ask God for those about to be betrothed, that he would send
down upon them his rich blessing. Thus they ask for the
perfect love, for peace and unity among themselves, for the
fulfillment of all their good wishes, and the salvation of their
souls, for the blessing of their conjugal union, and the purity
of their mutual life. After these prayers, said by the deacon
and priest alternately, follows the chief act of the betrothal,
—the putting on the rings. This ceremony has existed in
the Church from oldest times, and has in it agreat meaning.
Even in most distant antiquity, and among almost all nations,
the ring was used as a symbol of mutual confidence, honor,
and love. Thus, as is also mentioned in the prayer upon the
rings, was given to Daniel, in Babylon, a ring, as a sign of
special trust in him, on the part of the King. So Joseph was
honored by Pharaoh with a ring. The father had a ring put
on the finger of his converted son, as a token of love. In all
these meanings, the ring finds a suitable application at the
solemn betrothal. Then, when two persons stand before the
altar of God, to vow to each other love and fidelity till death,
the ceremony of the rings is a pregnant emblematical declara-
tion of the importance and the high significance of the holy
transaction, which at this moment is made. The rings are
here the most conspicuous emblem of the eternal, inseparable,
and pure union of the two parties. Pure and clear as gold,
precious and durable as this metal, the marriage of the newly
wedded is to be throughout their whole life. This ring, which
the betrothed now receive from the hand of the priest, is to
them even in later years a pledge of their mutual happiness.

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and at the same time, a vivid remembrance of the vows they
made to each other in the face of God. In order to add to
these pledges still greater importance, these rings, before the
beginning of the betrothal, are deposited upon the altar in
the Holies; and only at the moment of the betrothal in
church, they are taken from there, as coming from God Him-
self, and put on the fingers of those about to be betrothed,
the following significant formula being said: "The servant of
God N. is betrothed to the maid of God," and then: "The maid
of God N. is betrothed to the servant of God N., in the name of
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Amen." This, and
the blessing crosswise, with the ring of the bridegroom and the
bride, exalts this transaction to the grade of an holy act, in
which their mutual vows receive their sanctification from
Heaven. But since the Orthodox Church wishes to see the pa-
rental power in case of marriage especially honored, she leaves,
after the rings have been handed to the betrothed in the
name of God, to the parents and their representative, the
completion of this emblematical ceremony. Accordingly,
directly after, one of the oldest of the relatives, or the
chosen friend of the marriage, advances to the newly be-
trothed, and interchanges their rings three times, giving first
the ring of the bridegroom to the bride, and then, that of
the bride to the bridegroom. This transaction is to signify,
on the one hand, the entire consent of the parents to the con-
jugal union of the newly betrothed; and on the other hand,
the express confirmation of the given promise of conjugal
fidelity and love which the bridegroom and the bride now tes-
tify before their nearest relatives. Also for the newly be-
trothed themselves is found, in this threefold interchange of
rings, a beautiful lesson; for from it they are to learn that in
matrimony it is expected, in some cases, to divide and inter-
change mutually the power and the rights of each, and in
such a way that, owing to circumstances, the husband is to
follow and obey the advice of his wife, and the wife is to as-
sume the great cares for the support of the family. In short,
in this interchange of rings is expressed, in full measure, the
communion of love, which only love itself can assure to the
heart. After the conclusion of this chief ceremony of the
betrothal, the priest asks God once more for the descent of
His grace upon the newly betrothed. The ordinary prayers
for the Emperor and all the imperial family, for the Clergy

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and all Christians, conclude the ceremony, which, although it
does not yet unite the betrothed for married life, yet strongly
confirms already to them their near union; it is therefore
holy and full of blessing for those that take part in it. But
this holiness and this wealth of blessing and of grace apper-
tain in a yet higher degree to the nuptials, as a sacramental
transaction. The wedding, in the language of the Orthodox
Church, is called coronation. This arises from the custom of
placing crowns upon the heads of those who are united in
matrimony. This custom, the significance of which in the
present case we shall show afterwards, has descended from
the oldest times. Crowns were always used as symbols of
honor, and still more as tokens of festivity and joy in general.
But they were also employed by nations in marriages. Thus
we find in the Song of Solomon a passage, from which is to
be seen that already, in that day, this custom was extant.
"Go forth, O ye daughters of Zion, and behold King Solomon
with the crown wherewith his mother crowned him in the
day of his espousals, and in the day of the gladness of his
heart." It is probable that these crowns at first were ordi-
nary garlands made of flowers, and that only in course of
time they assumed the form of crowns. This form was after-
wards, without doubt, retained by the Church the more
readily, since it harmonized best with the significance of the
espousals.

We have already remarked that none of the Sacraments,
the Holy Communion excepted, are administered with such
solemnity as the nuptials. And, indeed, when we enter into
a temple of God, where this sacrament is celebrated, we are
involuntarily captivated with the feeling of that joyous en-
thusiasm, which permits us to take the liveliest part in this
divine service. The burning lights, like the stars of heaven,
gleaming from all sides; the priests, in their splendid vest-
ments, standing like angels of God; the bridegroom and the
bride, with their golden crowns before the altar, upon which
rest the symbols of our faith,—the Holy Gospel and the rev-
erent cross; the clouds of incense, as emblematic of our
prayers rising up to Heaven; finally, the festive song, which
bears the soul up into the higher regions of spiritual enjoy-
ment. But if we turn our attention to the prayers, to the
singing, and the reading on this occasion, first we are taught
by the Apostle concerning the high significance of Christian

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matrimony; then we find the narration in the Gospel of John, where we ascertain that the Lord Himself once honored a marriage with His presence, and thus signified his pleasure in lawful wedlock. Every song, every verse, which is there heard is only a blessing over the now crowned heads of those to be united, only praise and glory to the loving Father in Heaven, who sanctifies this union by His grace. But let us enter into a closer examination of this transaction, and explain in their order the ceremonies as they occur. If the nuptials follow immediately after the betrothal, or even some time after, in both cases the beginning of this ceremony is distinguished by greater solemnity. In both cases the betrothed advance now with a certain pomp to the wedding altar, the priest in front, and the more or less numerous company of wedding guests behind. The choir at the same time sings loud and solemnly the words: "Glory be to Thee, Our God, Glory be to Thee!" while the priest, as he passes on, sings in a low voice a few suitable verses from the 128th Psalm; as, for instance, the following: "Blessed is every one that feareth the Lord; thy wife shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thine house, thy children like olive plants about thy table. Behold, that thus shall the man be blessed that feareth the Lord! The Lord shall bless thee, that thou shall see thy children's children." After that the officiating priest asks first the bridegroom and then the bride, if they unite from their free choice and with a firm purpose, and if they have not been betrothed to some one before. This question before the altar of God, before the cross and the Gospel, in the face of all present, is like an oath to make the union about to be concluded irrevocable. And such it is in reality. In this moment, even before marriage is consummated, those that are to be united are to make themselves responsible before God and his Church for the zealous fulfillment of all obligations, which, as married people, are awaiting them. Therefore the Church begins the nuptials only after they have answered in the affirmative to the first question, and in the negative to the second. The place where the bridegroom and bride are standing during the whole ceremony is also in this case, as it is at the betrothal, in the body of the church, only immediately before the wedding altar, and besides, they stand upon a small spread, ordinarily of pink silk. This situation is to indicate to those to be wedded, what a holy act

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they are now performing; for here the eyes of the whole Church are directed upon them, when God Himself is the witness of the promise that love is given each other of love, fidelity, and attachment until death. The covering spread out under their feet indeed pleases the eye by its color, which typifies clearly the joys of life; but it is small, and thus signifies, that the union which they are now cementing is not only so narrow, that a third person shall not find a place in it, but also, that they themselves are entering upon a very narrow path of life, upon which they are not to depart from each other a single step all through life, without abandoning unlawfully the way which was appointed them. The commencement of the nuptial prayers is made by the ascription of praise to the Holy Trinity. "Blessed is the Kingdom of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," exclaims the priest, and the choir responds with an Amen! And now follow prayers, first the general Church prayers, and then the especial ones, having reference to the marriage. In the latter is expressed the hearty requests of the Church for the prosperity of the earthly life, and the salvation of the souls of those to be united. But in particular, prayer is made for the rich blessings of God upon them, that he would give them a quiet, undisturbed home life, hearty love for each other, and constant fidelity; that they may take pleasure in beholding their children, and their children's children; that they may be blessed with all possessions, and not suffer any want of the necessities of life.

Of the highest significance are the prayers, in which is asked for the spiritual union of the wedded pair, for their union in sentiment, wishes, and plans, in order that, through this holy covenant, they may both become virtuous, and free from all snares, to attain the more easily the felicity of heaven, where they are to shine as the stars before the Lord.

Now follows the chief act of the nuptial ceremony, namely, the coronation of bridegroom and bride. The crowns are brought on a plate, some time before, from the altar, and the priest, after the conclusion of the prayers, takes one into his hand, blesses crosswise first the bridegroom, hands to him a picture of the Saviour, painted upon one of the medallions which are upon the crowns, that he may kiss it, and then the priest puts the crown upon his head with the words: "The servant of God N. is crowned for the maid of God (i. e., is

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united under this crown with the . . . .), in the name of
the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." After this,
he crowns also the bride in the same manner, with the words,
"The maid of God N. is crowned for the servant of God N.,
in the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost." This done, the priest takes his place before the
couple, blesses them three times with his hand, while he
says the following words with a loud and solemn voice: "O
Lord our God, crown them with honor and glory!" The
meaning of these words is this: "O Lord, as this pair now
stand adorned with crowns, so crown and adorn this their al-
liance all through life with all Thy good gifts, which testify
to Thy glory, and serve to the honor of the recipients, that
they may become happy, and shine by reason of their virtues,
as also by their brilliant crowns, to the glory of Thy Holy
Name." Herewith, by the coronation and priestly blessing,
the nuptials are finished, and the joining of the two persons
completed. The crowns are here only symbolic, as the water
in baptism, and as the imposition of hands in the other sac-
raments. The chief thing consists in the sacramental form-
ula expressed in the name of the triune God, over those
to be united. Only through this form of words the two be-
come one flesh, and the conjugal union receives its strength.
But the coronation also comprehends a deep meaning, and is
of great importance at the nuptials. The crown is a symbol
of honor and glory; it was often placed as a sign of triumph
upon the head of conquerors. In both these meanings, the
Church found the crowns appropriate for marriage. The be-
trothed were crowned by the Church, thereby to pay publicly
a solemn honor to the virtue of chastity. The Church pre-
supposes that those who enter into legal matrimony have pre-
served, up to the time, the purity of their hearts unspotted,
which thing is rarely attained without struggle with tempta-
tion; therefore she crowns them now as victors, and applauds
their pure intention to enter upon matrimony blessed by God.
Just for this reason, she denies coronation to those who marry
a second time; for in this case she considers, in accordance
with the saying of the Apostle (1 Cor. vii. 9), these no longer
as victors, but as conquered. Another not less important sig-
nificance of the matrimonial coronation consists in the fact,
that those about to unite enter upon an estate, wherein they
are not only to lay their own hearth-stone, but have the full

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hope to become the heads of a long posterity. It has been
justly remarked by a venerable author of Russia, that the
original blessing of God upon marriage is fulfilled in full
measure in those who marry, that is, not only, "Be fruitful
and multiply and replenish the earth," but also, "subdue and
have dominion over it" (Gen. i. 28).

Finally, the coronation has also a mysterious meaning in
it, since, as we saw, the bridegroom and bride in their spiritual
union are to represent Christ and His Church, in which
case the crowns belong to them as a royal ornament, and as a
sign of honor. Besides all this, the coronation at the nuptials,
although it be no essential act, is yet always an important
ceremony, through the omission of which, as is the case in
second marriages, the whole solemnity of this sacrament is
essentially lessened. Moreover, the marriage is not yet consummated with this act; there are yet some ceremonies,
which are intended to illuminate still more the high significance of the conjugal covenant. Thus, immediately after the
coronation, follows, by way of interpretation of this act, a
song, in which the spiritual sense of these ceremonies is expressed by these words of the Psalmist: "Thou hast set upon
their heads crowns of precious stones; they asked life of Thee, and Thou gavest it to them." The verse following completes
the idea, which lies in these words: "For Thou wilt give them
the gift of eternal life, and Thou wilt make them glad with
the joy of Thy countenance." The newly wedded are not
then to forget in this moment, nor ever in their lives, that
they receive their matrimonial crowns as symbols of their
earthly prosperity from the hand of God itself, and that these
symbols are to serve them at the same time as pledges of their
salvation and eternal felicity in heaven. In the passage read immediately after from the Epistle of the Apostle St. Paul to the
Ephesians, the reciprocal duties of the married are shown,
and also the high significance of matrimony, after the image
of the mysterious union of Christ with the Church. Then
follows the lesson from the Gospel of John, from which
we all learn, to our consolation and joy, how the Lord, with
His innate condescension, visits a marriage at Cana; how He
there, in company with His mother and disciples, takes part
in this festivity; and how He even works a miracle whereby
he prevents any blemish in the joy of the marriage guests by
the unforeseen lack of wine. Therefore we know that the

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Lord Himself is well pleased in our pure joys, and blesses the
solemnity of matrimony with His grace.

Now follow two other important ceremonies,—the pre-
senting of the so-called common cup to the newly wedded,
and the kind of procession of the crowned pair around the
wedding altar, with the priest in advance. But before that,
prayers are made, in which the officiating priest asks God that
He would grant to the newly united peace and concord,
purity and chastity in their matrimonial life, great age, and a
long posterity; but principally, constant adherence to the
law of God until their life's end. These prayers ended, all
are invited to listen with reverence to the prayer of the Lord,
and the choir chants the Lord's Prayer. Immediately after
the singing of this prayer, a cup of wine mixed with water is
brought from the altar. The priest blesses it first with a
prayer, then takes it into his hand, and gives of it first to the
man, and then to the woman, to each three times alternately.
This ceremony is so full of meaning, that it speaks for itself.
For it is not this common cup, from which now the newly
united drink at the hand of the consecrated servant of God,
to signify clearly, that henceforth the fortunes of these two
persons are so closely bound, that they are to bear in common
all that may happen to them in life, not only the joys of pros-
perity, but also the sufferings of misfortune? But both are to
become easy for them, through the security of the covenant it-
self; for while the joys are so constituted that they are in-
creased through communication with friends, the sufferings,
on the other hand, are of quite an opposite nature, since they
are considerably diminished as soon as they can be confided
to a true heart.

But who can be a better and more sincere friend than the
man in relation to his wife, and vice versa? Fortune, voca-
tion, and different interests separate often the best friends;
the married alone have all in common. Whatever concerns
the one, concerns also in the same degree the other. Even per-
sonal qualities of the one are to the other for honor or shame.
But, although these mutual relations are derived from the
intimacy of matrimony itself, yet, according to the teaching
of the Church, they are to be real duties for both parties. A
Christian is not to be content with simply following the im-
pulses of his heart; he must besides, be guided by a higher
duty. We will also repeat that love, which must precede

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marriage as a sentiment of the heart, becomes a duty after
the conclusion of the same. Therefore the Church reminds
the newly married, by the common cup, that all which they
are now ready to fulfill from a free impulse of the heart, is
asked of them as a holy duty by God Himself, and that the
neglect of this duty shall have a heavy responsibility as
its consequence. With the common cup are completed
the admonitions as to the duties of the married. Now
follows the solemn nuptial procession as the last celebra-
tion of marriage. The officiating priest puts the right
hand of the bride in that of the bridegroom, takes both
in his right hand, and thus leads them in a circle around the
altar, while the persons appointed for the purpose hold from
behind them the crowns over their heads. This conducting
around the desk is done three times, and every time is accom-
panied with a verse solemnly sung by the choir. It is worthy
of observation in this connection, that this triumphal proces-
sion so adapted to a Christian marriage in which the joy and
solemnity of the transaction are mingled, is only then at an
end, after the newly married have solemnly attested before God
and man their readiness for all possible mutual sacrifices.
It is a new reminder of the fact that the happiness of wedded
life depends solely upon the strict fulfillment of the duties of
marriage. Therefore, the priest in this procession walks in
front, to signify still more that the married can finish their
course of life securely and joyfully only under the guidance
of the Church, and that religion alone can secure to them the
crowns of victory over all assaults of the world. Their
hands being now united under the priestly care, they are
especially to be impressed with the thoughts that in
Christian matrimony the salvation of the souls of both man
and wife must be a common matter with each of them; for
the passing around the nuptial altar three times is a speaking
picture of their inseparable union in spirit for all eternity.

One of the married parties must not be indifferent if his
partner stands behind him in regard to piety, or even deviates
from the same entirely. The pure joy of love must continue
undisturbed also beyond. The crowns, with which they are
now adorned, dare not fall from the head of one without
pain to the other, for they are now no longer two, but one
being. But this procession includes yet another very great
meaning. Namely, it is a clear interpretation of the mysteri-

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ous meaning of matrimony as a holy sacrament. For we see
here in this crowned man a type of the Lord Himself, who
led His Church, according to the word of the Apostle, as a
bride by the hand from among the heathen, and united her
with Himself forever in an indissoluble union. Reference is had
to this also in the verses sung during the procession; for in the
first is directly announced the joyous fulfillment of the proph-
ecy of Isaiah in regard to the birth of Immanuel of the
Virgin, and then is celebrated the accomplishment of the
union of Messiah with His Church, as a pure bride predicted
from the beginning, and long expected. In the second verse
is already shown the fruits of this firm and indissoluble love
of the Church to her divine bridegroom, since the martyrs
are adduced as the first witnesses of this love,—the martyrs,
who sealed this covenant with their blood, and thereby re-
ceived the crowns of victory from the hands of the loving
bridegroom of the Church. In the last verse, Christ our God
is glorified, as the only honor of the faithful, and the true joy
of His elect. Thus is the nuptial joy of the newly wedded
over the accomplished union of their souls and their alliance
for an inseparable life on earth, not only sanctified by this
high sacramental significance of their covenant, but exalted
to a heavenly joy, in which we all feel reason to exclaim,
"Blessed is he who is called to the marriage supper of the
Lamb!"

After the ceremony of the nuptials is in this wise com-
pleted, the crowns are taken from the heads of the newly
wedded. Of old it was done on the eighth day after the nup-
tials, when the newly married, after the conclusion of the
festivities connected with the nuptials, came again into the
church to receive here the final blessing for their matrimonial
life at the hand of the priest. By this new ceremony the
newly united are shown that now their nuptial joy is to make
room for the more serious cares of life, and that their bright
crowns are only pledges of those that must be won in the future.
At the removing of the crowns, the priest salutes the pair
with patriarchal wishes of blessing, while he says to the man :
"Be honored, O bridegroom, like Abraham; be blessed like
Isaac; and increased like Jacob; walk in peace, and fulfill
the commandments of God in righteousness!" To the wife
he says: "Be you, too, honored, O bride, like Sarah; be glad
like Rebecca, and increased like Rachel; take pleasure in thy

THE SACRAMENT OF MATRIMONY.

81

husband, and observe the limits of the law according to the pleasure of God!" Thus sound the last wishes of the Church for the newly wedded. The heavenly benediction, the increase of family, and the God-fearing life, are the chief contents of the final prayers which conclude this holy transaction. In conclusion, the married are notified to bend their heads before the Lord, and the priest speaks over them the following blessing: "The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, the holiest Trinity in equal substance, the source of life, bless you, and give you many years of fruitfulness and growth in grace and in the faith; fill you with every good on earth, and make you worthy to take part in the eternal heavenly possessions promised by Him, through the prayer of the holy mother of God, and all saints. Amen!" After this final blessing, the priest causes the newly wedded to kiss each other,—the first sanctified kiss by which their hearts are united before God forever. Then the newly wedded betake themselves to the holy pictures and kneel before them, while they offer their gratitude to God in silent prayer for the completed union. But in many cases, even the solemn *Te Dumm* is sung at the same time. And after these prayers are finished the relatives approach, to bring their congratulations to the newly married. The return from the church is generally either in company with the priest, or at least with the holy picture, which, as a symbol of the parental blessing, was carried before those to be married into the church for the nuptials, and which lay during the whole transaction upon a special desk. When they arrive at home, they are received with bread and salt by their parents, as a sign of their best wishes for their prosperity, and the blessing of God upon the new family hearth. Of the then following marriage feast is to be remarked only, that it is ordinarily celebrated in the presence of the priest, and thus the first step of the newly married couple in their independent life is made in connection with the Church, and, so to speak, under her eyes.

When we now take a retrospective view of the whole, we realize that matrimony, in the eyes of the Orthodox Church, is not only a holy covenant, but a most important act in life, which decides the destiny of the two persons, not only for a life-time, but for eternity. The Church wishes to see, in the Christian marriage, the primitive condition of man in Paradise again restored; where, yet pure and unspotted from sin,

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he was placed by the creating hand of God to become the
patriarch of the human race, and the ruler of the world. In
the rising generation, wedlock was in reality to become the
hearth around which youth should find its education, and the
knowledge of God its growth. Therefore, many exhortations
to those becoming united are placed in the marriage prayers ;
to this end are directed all ceremonies which accompany this
transaction. We have already seen the sense and significance
of all these ceremonies, and we have been convinced that they
bear a deeply engraved character. It is possible that many of
these ceremonies originated in the later years of Christianity ;
but when they were accepted by the Church it was certainly
with the best intention, and the assurance of a useful edifica-
tion for those that take part in them. Symbols generally are
the standing monuments of certain truths. What else is the
cross, for all Christians, but a sign of our faith in the accom-
plished salvation of man on the cross by the Redeemer?
Guided by this thought, the Church received gladly all the
symbolical signs with which her temples are decorated, and
thus she adorned even her language in many allegorical
pictures, in which she speaks to the people as once the Lord
Himself. From the order of the prayers at the time of the
betrothal, as well as at the nuptials, is yet more clearly to
be seen that this symbolical language is far from dimming
the purity of doctrine ; but, on the contrary, it rather ele-
vates the simplest truths to that degree of edification which
rarely a human sermon can grant. It remains only to desire
that Christians would give more attention to all these signs
and insignia of the Church. But here is she also justified in
speaking the warning word of Jesus Christ, "Who hath ears
to hear, let him hear."

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In the cool and verdant mead :
Why a stranger should I wander
By another's flocks, in need ?

B'NOTH JERUSALEM.

8. If thou know not, fairest woman,
Seek the footsteps of the flock,
Feed thy kids beside the shepherds'
Tents, in shadow of the rock.

SH'LOMOH

9. To My steed in Pharaoh chariot
I liken thee, my dear;
Fair are thy cheeks with circlets,
Thy neck with beads *shines clear*.

11. Chains of gold will we make thee,
Where silver studs *appear*.

SHULAMITH.

12. While the King is at His table,
Spikenard yields its fragrance *rare*.

13. Purest myrrh is my Beloved;
O'er me flows His shining hair.

14. As the cyprus is my Loved One,
From En-gedi's gardens *fair*.

SH'LOMOH.

15. Behold, thou art beautiful, My love,
Behold, thou art fair, with eyes like the dove.

SHULAMITH.

16. Behold, Thou art fair and sweet, my Love,
And our couch is *the verdant dale* ;

17. The beams of our house are the cedars *red*,
Our wainscot the cyprus *pale*.
*But* I am a wild-flower of Sharon's plain,
And a lily of the vale.

II.

SH'LOMOH.

2. As a lily 'mid the brambles,
'Mid the daughters is My dove.

SHIR HASHIRIM.

85

SHULAMITH.

3. As an apple-tree 'mid forests,
   'Mid the sons of strength my Love.
   In His shade I sit delighted,
   Taste His sweetness, *never rove*.

4. He hath led me to His banquet,
   O'er me streams His banner, Love.

5. With pressed grapes and apples stay me,
   Sick of Love's *long agony*.

6. His left hand my head supporteth,
   His right arm embraceth me.

7. Salem's daughters. I adjure you
   By the *dear* gazelle and hind,
   That ye stir not, that ye wake not
   Love, till sweet repose He find.

8. Hark! my Beloved, behold He came
   Leaping over the hills;
   The mountains *echo* His joyous steps,
   *And my heart with rapture fills*.

9. My Beloved is like a *young gazelle*,
   Or the fawn of a *graceful hind*;
   Behold, He standeth behind our wall,
   Through the lattice His *ferrid glances* fall,
   *Till His heart's delight He find.*

10. My Beloved spoke, and said unto me,
    "Arise, fair love, go forth!

11. The rain is over, *dark winter* gone
    *Away to the ice-clad north;*

12. The fields are spangled with *springing flowers*,
    The meadows ring with song,
    The voice of the turtle-dove sounds through ourland,
    *And the summer days grow long.*

13. The fig-tree sweetens her fresh green figs,
    The fragrant vines bloom fair;
    Arise, My love, fair *dove* come forth,
    *In the perfumed summer air.*

14. My dove in the clefts of the craggy rock,
    *Unscorched by the noonday heat,*
    Let Me see thy form, let Me hear thy voice;
    Fair thy form, and thy voice is sweet."

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15. Take the young foxes, that spoil the vines,
For our vineyards are *bright* in bloom.

16. My Beloved is mine, and I am His,
He feeds 'mid the lilies' *perfume*.

17. When the day grows cool, and the shadows part,
Turn, my Beloved, and be
Like a young gazelle or a tender hart
On the hills of Galilee.

### III.

On my bed by night I sought Him,
Whom my soul loves, *ne'er* forgot;
Sought Him *long with weary watching*.
*Sought Him long*, but found Him not.

2. I will rise and roam the city,
Search each light, each hidden spot;
I will seek my soul's Beloved;
*Thus* I sought, but found Him not.

3. Then the watch that roam the city
Found me *by their torch's flame*:
"Have ye seen my soul's Beloved!"
*Thus I cried—no answer came!*

4. Scarcely had I past *and left* them,
When I found my soul's Desire;
*Then my heart, in ashes lying,*
*Kindled with a sudden fire*:
*To my loving breast I prest Him,*
Held Him, would not let Him roam;
Brought Him to my mother's chamber,
In the *fond* maternal home.

5. Salem's daughters, I adjure you,
By the *dear* gazelle and hind,
That ye stir not, that ye wake not
Love, till sweet repose he find.

### B'NOTH-JERUSHALEM.

6. Who cometh out of the wilderness
Like pillars of smoke *and fire*,
Perfumed with myrrh and frankincense,
The dust of the merchants' *desire*?

7. Behold the couch of Solomon!
There threescore warriors stand,

SHIR HASHIRIM.

87

The mighty men of Israel,
The heroes of our land.

8. Each stands ready to wield the sword,
   Each hath in war delight,
   Each standeth nigh
   With his sword on his thigh,
   Because of fear in the night.

9. A stately bed King Solomon made,
   Of Lebanon's wood most rare.

10. Its pillows He did of silver mould,
    Its seat of purple, its back of gold,
    Its sides were embroidered by love *untold*
    Of Salem's daughters *fair*.

11. Daughters of Zion, come forth and see
    King Solomon with the crown,
    Which His Mother gave on His nuptial Day,
    The Day of His glad *renown*.

IV.

SH'LOMOH.

Behold, thou art fair, My love, thou art fair;
Thine eyes behind thy veil are doves:
Thy locks like a flock of *fleecy goats*,
That Gilead's mount *for pasture* loves.

2. Thy teeth are a flock of well-shorn sheep,
   Fresh from the fountain, *fair and strong*;
   All of them fruitful in tender twins,
   Not a bereaved one amid their throng.

3. Like a crimson thread are thy lips *that speak*,
   Thy mouth is fair *as a flowery dale*;
   Like the pomegranate fruit thy *ruddy cheek*
   Under *the shadow of thy veil*.

4. Like the tower of David thy *graceful neck*,
   Built for the armour of Zion's halls,
   A thousand bucklers *its turrets* deck,
   Shields of the mighty *who guard its walls*.

5. Like two young fawns are thy *beautiful* breasts,
   Twins of the *delicate, wild* gazelle,
   Feeding among the lily *crests*,
   *Where the brooklet glides through the peaceful dell.*

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SHULAMITH.

6. Till the breeze is felt, till the shadows melt,
   *Till the setting sun goes hence,*
   I will get me to the mountain of myrrh,
   To the hill of frankincense.

SH'LOMOH.

7. Thou art fair, My loved one;
Not a spot in thee.

8. Come with Me from Lebanon,
   *Fair bride, come with Me;*
From the lofty summit
   *Whence Amana flows.*
From the top of Hermon,
   Robed in summer snows,
From the den of lions,
   Where the panther goes.

9. Thou My heart hast ravished,
Sister, *loved one,* bride;
Thou My heart didst ravish,
When thy glance I spied,
With the jeweled necklace
'Round thy fair neck tied.

10. Oh! how fond thy fervor,
Sister bride of Mine!
Better far thy raptures
Than the *choicest* wine!
Sweeter smell thine ointments
Than all spices *fine*!

11. Liquid drops of honey
From thy lips distil,
Milk and honey flowing,
*Give their sweetness still;*
Lebanon's best perfumes
*All thy garments fill.*

12. Thou a well-closed garden,
Art, My sister bride;
Thou a pure, sealed fountain,
Art, *where joys abide.*

13. Orchards of pomegranates
Yield their fruitage sweet;

SHIR HASHIRIM.

91

VI.

B'NOTH-JERUSHALEM.

Whither has thy Beloved gone,
O fairest of womankind?
Whither has thy Beloved turned?
Let us seek Him with thee, *and find*.

SHULAMITH.

2. My Love has gone down to His garden *seat*,
   To the beds of *sweet* perfume,
   Of His *precious* garden fruits to eat,
   And to gather the lily's *bloom*.

3. I am my Love's, and my Loved One is mine:
   He feeds His fair flock where the lilies twine.

SH'LOMOH.

4. Fair art thou, dear one, as Tirzah's towers,
   Comely as Salem, bright as a host.

5. Turn from Me now thy *loving* eyes,
   For *gazing upon them* My strength is lost:
   Thy locks are a flock of fleecy goats
   Couching *dark* Gilead's *slope* along:

6. Thy teeth are a flock of *snowy* sheep,
   Fresh from the fountain, *white and strong*,
   All of them fruitful in *tender* twins,
   Not a bereaved one amid their throng.

7. Like a piece of pomegranate thy ruddy cheeks
   *Glowing* behind thy *flowing* veil.

8. There are threescore queens, and fourscore wives,
   And damsels whose numbers never fail.

9. But My dove, My perfect, is only One;
   The sole delight of her that bare.
   The daughters saw her, and called her blest;
   The queens and the concubines called her fair.

10. Who is she that looks forth as the morn,
    *Lighting the torch of day*,
   Fair as the moon, pure as the sun,
   And bright as a bannered array?

SHIR HASHIRIM.

95

The keepers that guard its fruitage
A thousand of silver must bring.

12. My vineyard, my own is before me:
   The thousand, O King, is Thine,
   And two hundred shall be the portion
   Of the keepers of the vine.

SH'LOMOH.

13. Thou that dwellest in the gardens,
   *Fair and sweet of voice,*
   The *virgin* throng await thy song:
   Let Me hear it *and* *rejoice*.

SHULAMITH.

14. Haste, my Beloved, come, haste with me,
   And be like a young gazelle,
   Or a tender hart on the hills of spice,
   *Where the fragrant odors dwell.*

THE GREGORIAN CALENDAR.

BY D. N. B.

IT is a well known fact that in Greece and Russia, and generally in the countries where the Greek Church predominates, there is a difference of twelve days with Western Europe and the rest of the civilized world, in the way of counting the date of the months, the different seasons of the year, the holidays, etc. Thus, the first of December in Greece corresponds with the thirteenth of December according to the Gregorian Calendar, and the same principle is followed with regard to the holidays. Christmas is celebrated throughout Christendom on the twenty-fifth of December, but in Greece and Russia, the twenty-fifth of December, according to their calendar, corresponds with the sixth of January of the Gregorian, viz.: twelve days later. The government dispatches of Russia and Greece, and the merchants of

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these countries who have foreign correspondents, put in their
letters both dates, say 1-13 January, 1881, and very often,
particularly in the last ten days of December of each year,
they have to use such awkward dates, like the following:

ATHENS, December 22, 1880.
January 3, 1881.

A few words of explanation of this difference in counting
the date may be found interesting to our readers. It is a fact
that the earth has two movements, one around its axis,
which takes precisely twenty-four hours, and another around
the sun, which is made precisely in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 min-
utes, 49 seconds and six-thirds. This is what we call the
year.

But the ancients, before the Christian era, with their im-
perfect astronomical knowledge, were desirous of counting so
many days in the year, leaving out the fractions. Here an
insurmountable difficulty arose. If they were to calculate
the year with 366 days, it would be too long; if, on the
contrary, they were to take 365 days, it would have been
too short by 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49 seconds and six-thirds.

To obviate this difficulty, without going very far from the
astronomical calculations, it was decided to calculate the year
at 365 days and *six* hours. These six hours each year made
precisely twenty-four hours every four years, and this extra
day was added to the month of February, making what is
called in English *leap year*, or more correctly the Bissexile
year, when February has twenty-nine days.

But this calculation was not strictly correct, for, as
we said above, the surplus of 365 days is not *six* hours,
but *five* hours, 48 minutes, 49 seconds and six-thirds. Hence
this difference with the six hours, which was the mode
of calculation of the ancients, amounts to 11 minutes, 10
seconds and 54 thirds. These fractions, in 134 years, would
make one day of twenty-four hours, and in the year 1585 of
the Christian era, the difference was within a fraction of
twelve days.

In that year the equinox had fallen from the 23d to the
11th of March. Pope Gregory the XIII corrected the calendar by adding these twelve days, and ever since the new and
undoubtedly more correct mode of calculating the year's
seasons, is called the Gregorian calendar, from the name of

JAPAN AS IT IS.

97

its illustrious founder. Of course, reckoning on this basis,
two more days should be added to make the date correct, since
the year 1585, but at any rate the Gregorian calendar is the
more correct of the two, and let us wish that the day is not
far distant when the Greeks and the Russians will abolish the
old date and adopt the new and correct one, which is ine use
by all the civilized nations of the earth.

JAPAN AS IT IS.

SUBSTANCE OF A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE AMERICAN
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

BY E. W. SYLE.

SOME thirty years ago, the Empire of Japan was the strong-
hold of national exclusiveness. This exclusiveness, per-
sisted in since the time of Queen Elizabeth, was discarded by
the Japanese chiefly through the action of the United States
government.

Three points are interesting, as showing the connection of
Japan with America :

*First*.—The physical configuration of the continents would lead us to suppose that the northern provinces of Japan were originally peopled by the same migration which overspread the northwest of the American continent. The likeness of the *Ainos* inhabitants of Yezo to both the Esquimaux and certain Red Indian tribes of the American continent, lends probability to this supposition. The discovery by Professor Nordenskjold of a tribe with settlements upon both sides of Behring's Straits, evidences the feasibility of migrations from the northeast extremity of the Old World to the north-west extremity of the New.

*Second*.—It was while sailing westward in search of India,
China and Japan, that Columbus discovered America.

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*Third*.—The expedition which opened Japan, in 1854, to foreign intercourse, was an American expedition under Commodore Perry.

Soon after, and partly in consequence of Perry's expedi-
tion, commenced the overthrow of the Shogunate in Japan.
Foreign treaties had been made with the Shogun's govern-
ment, but the Mikado's party, though originally anti-foreign,
upon coming into power, wisely accepted these treaties.
Foreigners are largely employed in the remodeling of the
Japanese government. The navy has been under the direc-
tion of Englishmen, the army of Frenchmen. Scotchmen
principally preside over the engineering department, and Ger-
mans over the medical ; to English and Americans, in about
equal numbers, have been entrusted the general education of
the country. A few instructors in certain departments are
Chinese, Russians, French, Germans and Dutch. There is
now established a school system throughout the country, ris-
ing from the Village Primary, up through the Middle Schools,
the Academy, and the Special College, to the University at
Tokio. In this last mentioned institution are to be found,
under separate faculties, the Departments of Law, Literature,
Physics, Chemistry, Medicine and Biology. To these must be
added the Mint at Osaka, dockyards at Nagasaki and Yokos-
ka, a woolen-mill, a paper-mill, a penitentiary, two lines of
railroad, an arsenal, a hospital with 300 students in attend-
ance, there being about 1,000 students attached to the Uni-
versity altogether, and a Normal school for girls. It is
worthy of notice that Japan has a Minister of Education, a
functionary not to be found in either Washington or London.

Music is held in high honor among the old school Japanese.
They named the three principal strings of their *Koto*, a sort
of harp-guitar, respectively the *Ruler*, the *Minister*, and the
*Po people*. He who could harmonize these could rule the empire.
Again, he who could play pathetically upon this same *Koto*,
could hold heart-communion with the departed. When it
was proposed to teach music in the Department of Education,
an effectual objection was found to proceed from the Kio-bu-
sho or Department of Religion, who considered the subject
too sacred to be entrusted to secular hands.

The Shogun *Iyeyasu* inaugurated that peculiar system of
feudalism, one of whose chief features was that the families
of his thirty-six chief Daimios should reside continuously in

JAPAN AS IT IS.

99

the capital. Their lords and masters, for a part of the year, were allowed to dwell on their provincial estates. Twelve years ago these thirty semi-independent nobles voluntarily replaced all their privileges in their sovereign's hand. This remarkable fact is explained by the weakened and effeminate condition to which the above mentioned policy had reduced the Daimio class. Their provinces were practically governed by a host of officials, whose political suggestions the Daimios did little but order to be carried out. Naturally this class of men would not be sorry to see the fall of those who obstructed their own rise to power in the central government. But not all the activity to which the new *régime* has given rise in Japan has sufficed to employ the energies of the influential class whose minds have been stirred by the writings of Mito, the visit of Perry, the Restoration of '68, and the intellectual emancipation introduced by foreign books, travel and teachers. This energy is now chiefly finding expression through a recently established, but already powerful Press, and numerous Chambers of Commerce. These two institutions give utterance to the voice of the people, which is demanding in clearer and clearer accents representative government, in accordance with the promise of the Mikado made at the Restoration of 1868.

Experimental efforts have been made by successive Assemblies of the Governors; a Great Council has been established; also a Cabinet, with the necessary departments. Delegates chosen by the people would have been admitted to the Governor's assembly, if the provinces would have provided their expenses, which, however, they failed to do. According to the present arrangements, one who pays two dollars annual tax may vote, and a five dollar taxpayer is qualified for election.

A false impression has been made as to the abolition of Buddhism; it still flourishes, but its temples have been removed in cases where they encroached on ground dedicated to the *Shinto* cult. So, also, the prohibitions of Christianity have been removed from the edict boards, but only on the alleged ground that they had become sufficiently understood by the people.

Examination of criminals and witnesses by torture is pro-
fessedly abolished; but there is reason to fear that it is still
resorted to in exceptional cases.

As to physical geography, Japan furnishes opportunities

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peculiarly favorable for the observation of earthquakes, typhoons, winds, currents, tides and volcanoes. An Arctic current from Behring's Straits affects the western side of the islands; the *Kuro-Siwa* (a Pacific Gulf Stream) moderates the climate of the eastern side.

Altogether, Japan opens a novel and most interesting field to the explorer in all departments. In history, in art, in natural phenomena, in ethnography, and in many other respects, we find in Japan aspects of fact and of detail which are unique and of exceptional value. No country better repays the traveler, and in none can he be more certain of a courteous welcome. The Japanese have nothing to learn from us on the score of good manners; while we might learn from them more lessons than could be briefly enumerated.

## THE LADIES OF THE WHITE HOUSE.*

BY MRS. E. VALE BLAKE.

IT is not easy to convey to the minds of Europeans, who have not visited this country, the immense difference which exists between that class of persons which are here considered true ladies, and that other class, more numerous than desirable, who are simply the representatives of wealth, but unrestrained, of little education, showy and pronounced in their manners, who are often mistaken abroad for true representatives of our upper classes.

The true American lady, if traveling in Europe, is not to be seen dashing about from one famous hotel to another, seeking receptions at Court, carrying as it were, the national flag before her; challenging attention by willfully traversing all

*"The Ladies of the White House; or In the Home of the Presidents. Being a Complete History of the Social and Domestic Lives of the Presidents, from Washington to Garfield," 1789-1881. By LAURA C. HOLLOWAY, with Numerous Portraits on Steel and Wood. PHILADELPHIA: BRADLEY & Co.

101

the settled ideas of the people among whom she may happen to be, by way of showing her American independence; spending money with reckless prodigality, and dressing for the street in garments suited to a ball or reception. The people who do these sort of things, no matter what position they claim, would not be considered ladies here; they almost invitably belong to families who have grown suddenly rich—perhaps in a mining speculation; in oil wells; a Government contract, or even less honorable modes. They are the mushroom rooms of society, who inevitably spring up in every prosperous community; but their erratic careers are generally brief, and if the riches thus foolishly displayed are not lost in the present generation, they will most likely be dispersed in the next; the family falling back into the obscurity from which it sprang.

The true American lady, when abroad, is not distinguishable by her speech or actions from other refined people—for culture has the same effect in every nation; namely, the power of toning and moderating—even obliterating local and provincial mannerisms. The mind becomes as it were cosmopolitan, and is at home everywhere, and hence feels no necessity or inclination to attract attention by lavish extravagances or other unworthy methods. True, we regard some persons here as ladies who might be debarred from that title in many parts of Europe, for we do not base it exclusively either on blood, riches, landed estates, official titles or upon any fixed position in society. Our measure of a lady, as of a gentleman, is CHARACTER; and that person is a lady in America who is educated, intelligent and of refined manners, even though she may have no hereditary wealth upon which to repose in idleness and uselessness.

Perhaps we can give no better idea of how the American applies the term "ladies" than to refer our readers to the book we have used as the text of this brief paper, that very attractive work, "The Ladies of the White House," or in other words, the female members of the Presidents' families; and probably the first impressions of a foreigner upon reading it would be the thought, that the Presidents of the United States had been exceedingly fortunate (nearly all of them) in the character of their wives; while the American reader would naturally add, "how many thousands of other ladies scattered all over the country, would have been just as capa-

102 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

ble of filling the position as those who were fortunate enough
to reach the White House.

And this would be perfectly true; for these ladies have
come from the mass of the people, with no special prepara-
tions for such exalted duties. As no man can become Presi-
dent except through the choice of his fellow-citizens, there is
scarcely an individual in the nation who can with any cer-
tainty reckon, far in advance, of being thus elected; and as
no person under the age of thirty-five years is an eligible can-
didate, it is clear that scarcely one of our Presidents can have
chosen their wives with the remotest idea that they might at
some time be called to preside over the White House; and
thus we have no right to expect, nor do we find that the Pres-
idents' wives were exceptionally brilliant—while we do find
that they were all quite capable of performing the public
duties devolving upon them there; that two or three have
been open to criticism, for endeavoring to force their private
opinions upon the public, may be granted—but is not this also
true of the ladies of royal families?

In Europe, those who fill thrones, are almost invariably
"born in the purple," and come to their hereditary positions
with the instinct for rule and command; these traits are inate
in their organizations, physical and mental, and every step in
their training and education fosters these hereditary feelings
and sentiments; every facility surrounds them for their be-
coming fitted for their destined positions. Certainly the freely
chosen ruler over forty millions of freemen, is a sufficiently
exalted position to satisfy the cravings of the most ambitious;
and every native male American may aspire to it; but
there is in the history of the United States, but one case
in which any lady in early life might reasonably antici-
pate that she might at some future time share that honor.
This exceptional case was that of Mrs. Adams, wife of
John Quincy Adams, who was the son of President
John Adams. This lady spent six years in Russia, her
husband being appointed the first American Minister to
the Court of St. Petersburg. While there Mrs. Adams made
many personal friends, appearing on all proper occasions at
Court; but preferring a quiet and retired life, occupying her-
self with literary pursuits and the instruction of her young
son. Those who met with her were universally impressed with
her as a lady of superior culture, which she was. It is only

103

necessary to look upon the fine engraving of her, copied after
the painting of the famous portrait painter Leslie, given on
a page of the "Ladies of the White House," to pronounce the
subject "a lady" at sight. This portrait represents Mrs.
Adams, full length, seated, dressed in the style of the "first
Empire;" with an elegant lace drapery falling from her left
shoulder; on her head is worn a helmet-shaped silver comb
which adds to the classic effect of the costume, suggesting a
royal personage. This is one of the finest of the many excel-
lent portraits which illustrate this book. While looking at
this galaxy of charming women, we are tempted to agree with
the poet, that

"We need not go abroad for stones to build
Our monumental glory; every soul
Has it in the material for its temple."

Mrs. Adams did eventually occupy the White House, as
wife of the sixth President of the United States.

Several of the "Ladies of the White House" had shone as
belles of society before their elevation to the Presidential
mansion—notably Martha Washington—also Jefferson's
charming daughter—"the sweetest woman in Virginia;"
likewise Mrs. Madison, whose charms seemed almost immor-
tal, so long did she remain a centre of attraction.

"Age could not wither, nor custom
Stale her infinite variety."

But few exceeded in popular favor the stately Harriet
Lane, neice of President Buchanan; but though these and
others have done their share in the home of the Presidents to
make American womanhood respected abroad, as well as ap-
preciated at home, these have necessarily been too few to rep-
resent American society, and their exceptional position makes
them less available in some respects for that purpose. Yet
some of these are peculiarly valuable as illustrating that
striking characteristic trait of the American lady—the faculty
of easy adaptation to change of circumstances. Mrs. Madison,
for instance, had been brought up a Quakeress, in all the
plainness and seclusion of that quiet sect, yet who more bril-
liant than she when presiding over the Republican Court?
The daughter of President Andrew Johnson, only claimed
that they were "plain people from Tennessee"—called by
Providence to fill official positions; yet no critical eye detected

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any deficiency, even when foreign ambassadors had to be re-
ceived, or State dinners presided over.

But we will glance aside from the Presidential mansion,
and we shall find that the mass of the educated ladies
of society fully equal them, and in many instances exceed
any of them, in at least learning, literary ability, and general
accomplishments.

As a true representative of our Southern ladies we might
instance Madam Le Vert, a native of the State of Georgia,
who has been pronounced by connoiseurs of both hemispheres
"the most charming woman in the world." Irving said of
her: "She is such a woman as occurs but once in an Empire."
Lamartine said "that her conversation was the most delight
ful and instructive he had ever listened to from the lips of a
woman." Frederica Bremer likened her "sweet presence"
to the "Magnolia flower of the South." Yet she was not a
useless beauty; intelligent and well read, an able linguist, as
much at home in Paris as in Savannah. Yet when the
dread pestilence of yellow fever broke out in her native city,
she was first to volunteer her services as a hospital nurse, in
some cases taking sick neighbors into her own house. When
in England, she was received into the family circle of the
Queen, and on one occasion, the Turkish Ambassador being
present, and being told that she was "a Georgian," remarked:
"Ah, Madam! I can well imagine you a Georgian, for no
other women possess such beauty." Yet this flattered child
of society, when at home, so interested herself in the welfare
of the needy, and all who sought her assistance, that she was
equally the object of semi-adoration by the poor as by her
equals and those of more exalted station; and so beloved was
she by her slaves, that when the Proclamation of Emancipa-
tion was issued by President Lincoln, her colored people re-
fused to leave her; saying, that if freedom meant separation
from her, they chose to remain as they were.

It was in her album Rev. John Pierpont wrote the follow-
ing *jeu d'esprit* upon her name:

"OCTAVIA—what! the eight! If gracious Heaven
Hath made eight such, where are the other seven?"

Another lady, in an opposite section of the country, well
represents the active energy and broad mental capacity of the
New England character. The name of Mrs. Harrison Grey
Otis, of Boston, was long known as that of a reigning belle;

105

but to shine at balls and parties was not all her life. On the
death of Mr. Otis, she took her sons to Europe to educate,
and remained abroad seven years; being herself received into
the highest literary and aristocratic circles. Returning to
Boston, she interested herself in every good work, charitable,
national and artistic. Through her efforts came the last money
which secured the Mount Vernon estate for permanent pres-
ervation. It was mainly through her influence that the birth-
day of Washington was made a legal holiday in Massachu-
setts. When the civil war broke out, Mrs. Otis put away her
books, her works of art, interrupted her social life, and de-
voted herself to aid the Union cause by assisting the private
soldiers. She opened "Donation Rooms" in Boston for the
reception and distribution of all sorts of articles of use or com-
fort to the outgoing troops. Every day, except Sundays, she
spent in this work, for the whole four years of the war. Never
ceasing till peace was proclaimed. And if all ladies cannot
appreciate what that work meant, its mental strain and bodily
fatigue, they can at least judge of its absorbing interest to her,
when we state, on good authority, that in all those four years
she never took the time to have one new dress made!

Other ladies might be named, who more nearly represent
all portions of the United States, such as Mrs. Jessie Benton
Fremont, well known and esteemed in Europe as well as here,
and who very narrowly escaped being numbered with the
"Ladies of the White House," General Fremont being a can-
didate for the Presidency in 1856. But instead of multiplying
individual instances, it may be more profitable to ask how it
is, that so large a proportion of the women of America have
that versatility and power of mental adaptation which the
whole history of the country proves that they possess.

There are two reasons which stand prominently out, and
are probably the basis of these characteristics. The first is
the universality of education, and the quality of the highest
grades.* The second reason may be found in the grand possi-
bilities which are opened to all kinds of talent, and the ab-
sence of any legal bar in the way of attaining the highest
political office in the country; and though these high offices
are not open to women, their natural sympathies with fathers,
husbands and brothers, induce them to fit themselves for all

*See article on Female Education in the December, 1880, No. of the O. Ch. Mag.

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the probable or possible elevations to which these may attain.
The whole atmosphere of social and political life opens out as
a sea of boundless expectation, which is in its nature, a mental
tonic; and this acts both directly and indirectly upon the
women of the land, as well as upon the male portion, and
thus we may say, that education stimulated by hope, and bal-
lasted by practical common sense, are the national integral
components of the true American lady.

Mr. H. Schmitzdorff (K. Röttger), Bookseller to the Emperor, Newski-Prospect, No. 5, St. Petersburg, is the sole agent for Russia.

THE

ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

OCTOBER, 1881.

PRESIDENT GARFIELD.

AFTER eighty days of unparalleled suffering, borne with Christian patience and heroic fortitude, President Garfield has at last succumbed to the fatal wound which the murderer Guiteau inflicted on him on the morning of July the 2d. When the news of the crime spread like wildfire over the country, a cry of deepest indignation and horror re-echoed from Maine to California, from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. For the first time, perhaps, since the establishment of the Republic, all parties were united. The expression of horror and execration at the foul deed was unanimous. Nor were tokens of indignation and sympathy confined to this country. From all parts of the civilized world, from distant Russia, the well-tried and faithful friend of this young Republic in her darkest days; from kindred England, once her master; from Germany, whose sons can be numbered by millions on this continent; from all parts of the globe messages of kindness and sympathy poured in upon the afflicted nation. President Garfield had succeeded in a wonderfully short space of time to gain the confidence and affection of the people. His short rule was one of fairest promise. He has had no time to gain actual results, but every one of his political acts augured well for a period of order, peace and prosperity. At the outset of his great purpose he has been taken away from us by the hand of the assassin. It is impossible to view the immediate future without some apprehension.

If President Arthur and the men whom he may call to his council succeed in carrying into effect what was begun under such fair auspices, they may depend upon hearty co-operation and sympathy at home and respect and esteem abroad.

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Republican institutions have been put to the most excruciating test in this country within the last twenty years: A civil war of four years' duration and of unparalleled magnitude in the world's history; two Presidents murdered, one impeached, another holding his high office by the smallest possible majority, which one-half of the voters of the country considered to have been obtained by fraud and corruption; cabinet ministers have been tried for crimes which would bring less protected and less powerful citizens to prison. Surely, we should disabuse ourselves forever of the idea that Republican form of government secures the Chief Magistrate, elected by the people, against the dark deeds of fanatical assassins. When a few months ago one of the noblest, wisest, most kind-hearted of rulers that ever sat on a throne fell the victim to the fiendish plot of ruthless murderers, every well-meaning citizen of this country deplored the execrable deed. Yet, with all the expressions of heartfelt sympathy, some voices were heard declaring that in this free country where the chief ruler holds his temporary office by the will of the people, instead of inheriting the reins of government by virtue of his birth, such an event would be impossible. Guiteau's pistol has forever destroyed this hallucination. This is by no means the least of the many sad, but fruitful lessons which the noble President's martyrdom has taught us. May his soul rest in peace.

## THE AKHAL-TEKE-OASIS AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA.

BY GEN. M. ANNENKOV.

THE latest campaign of the Russians in Central Asia has attracted the attention of all Europe, and of England in particular, in which country a number of writings treating in general of the Russian possessions in Central Asia, and especially of the advance of the Russians into the Teke Oasis, have recently appeared.

The campaign in the Oasis is now concluded; it has completely accomplished its aim of a definite restoration of peace in Central Asia, and it now appears as necessary as it is timely to dwell on the question of Russia's and England's position in

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Central Asia, which demands so much of the island kingdom's attention, and concerning which many English writers had expressed their opinion before the Akhal-Teke expedition had even been organized.

It is worthy of remark that well nigh all English authors evince a striking unanimity of thought so soon as Russia, and in particular Russian politics, are the subject of debate. Regarding one point especially they are almost all of one opinion, and that is, that England, in its Asiatic possessions, has done everything to make the natives participators in the fruits of civilization, while on the other hand Russia has done and does absolutely nothing for the peoples subject to it.

Of all recent English writers on the Central Asiatic question, the continuous advance of the Russians into Central Asia has no more stubborn opponent than Boulger, even though—as he proves in his description of the Indo-English border—he is convinced that Russia cannot become dangerous to England if the latter would but adopt some measures for the defense of the borders and the reformation of the Anglo-Indian army.

In this connection Boulger points out the direction in which a collision would have to ensue did one indeed take place. It is the same route which Nadir-Shah and many other conquerors took to India, and on which the Russians would be obliged to advance. The author arrives at this opinion by the following considerations: As the troops in the Turkestan dominions are not numerous enough to spare a considerable body for a sally without the confines of the country, Russia, did it desire to carry out plans of conquest, would be obliged for this purpose to draw troops principally from the Caucasian army, and then the way over Krasnowdski, Kisil-Arwat, Ashabad, Herat and Kandahar, would of course seem the most suitable.

It is a characteristic phenomenon of the action of Russians, as well as English, in the Orient, that both, despite the most honest and decisive efforts to arrest every tendency to advance, still do advance, or are obliged so to do.

Thus a large part of England was against any conquest in India during almost the entire Anglo-Indian campaign, as such conquest was deemed most injurious and dangerous to England. This question was repeatedly debated in Parlia-

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ment. Pitt and Fox, the two great opponents, both brought in bills having for their subject the policy to be followed in India. Pitt's bill, which was accepted by Parliament, became the English Government's rule of conduct. It stipulated expressly that every project of conquest opposes in the highest degree the desire, honor, and interest of England.

And it was not only in the time of Pitt and Fox that the English government was opposed to an aggressive movement in India.

The most eloquent voices, supported by the English Government itself, were raised in the endeavor to put a stop to the forward marches in India, and to advocate a limitation to the securing of the domains already involuntarily acquired. It is well enough known to what this led; Nepal and Cashmere acknowledged the sovereignty of England, and then the might of circumstances drove England to Afghanistan. After the unsuccessful campaign of 1841, the English again forsook Afghanistan; nevertheless the latter still remains under the influence of England. The Anglo-Indian government constantly interferes in its politics and internal differences, and, indeed, cannot do otherwise, as a considerable number of Afghans is under its dominion in the Punjaub. All mountain passes and the entire mountainous country in the north and northwest of India are inhabited by Afghans. Moreover an advance is often undoubtedly the best and cheapest means of defense, and in case England should give up its influence in Kabul, Kandahar and Herat, Afghan hordes, incited by the continuous wrangles of Afghan rulers, would menace the English powers not only in Singapore and Peshauer, but in Lahore, and it may be even in Delhi.

We see precisely the same phenomenon in Russia, where the government on its side always, and in the same decided manner, opposed every forward movement into Central Asia, and was nevertheless forced by the same circumstances as England, to advance more and more.

This penetrating forward began as early as 1730, when the Kirghise of the Small Horde, who saw no way of escape from the attacks of the Tshungars, Bashkirs and Zaizkish Cossacks turned to Russia with the plea to be accepted as Russian subjects.

The shortly ensuing determination of the border lines on the Ural and in Siberia, were such that the Nomadizing

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111

Hordes could advance unhindered to the Irtish and Ural. The Government found itself obliged to adopt opposing measures, which led to a series of wars with Khokand and Bukharia, having in consequence the accession of the vast territory of the river regions of the Sir Daria, Tshu, Isli and Sarawskhan.

These acquisitions agreed so little with the intentions and desires of the Russian Government, that on October 31st, 1864, the Supreme command was issued to stop all further forward marches. But soon it became evident, that Tshenkend and Turkestan, which were not to be occupied, could not be given up, as they, on account of the main roads leading from the Central Asiatic Khanates to Russia, possessed an all too great importance for the protection of the Siberian and Orenburg borders.

Then Tashkend likewise had to be permanently manned. The aggressive movement was bidden by necessity. Russia was forced to be most thoughtfully anxious for the defense of its borders, as much from moral considerations as out of regard for the material powers of the Central Asiatic Khanates.

Thus, as already mentioned, the same endeavor, the same intention not to advance, to make no conquests, is evident in England as well as in Russia, and yet both powers, following as it were, the will of an inevitable destiny, advance farther and farther, and in this forward movement approach nearer from year to year to that period of time when they must come into direct contact. The question now arises, what will be the character of, or better said, the results of this meeting?

We incline to the belief that this meeting need by no means call forth a combat between the two kingdoms, and that it is possible to accomplish it on the peaceful fields of trade, industry and international relations. Further, that it is not only a possible matter, but a profitable one in every way for both states; for each of them there is open already at the present day an enormous field of action among the peoples subject to them, into whose life it appears a necessity to introduce new, civilized customs. And yet, how much can be said in favor of the view that a collision between Russia and England must be not only useless to both governments, but in any case, of considerable damage to each?

So far as regards Russia it may be maintained with the

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most complete conviction that without exception, and everywhere, the wish is dominant for a peaceable arrangement of affairs in the Orient.

It has been the fault of English authors that in their accounts of the Russian and English possessions in Central Asia, they have given a sombre coloring to everything relating to Russia, while on the other hand they have never failed to set everything concerning England in the most rosy light. A great number base their assertions on the book of Mr. Schuyler, formerly American Consul in St. Petersburg, a work of some literary value, but spoiled by evidences of partisanship. And here we must touch upon a peculiar trait of Russian character. The Russians have a great predilection for relating trifles of every kind to strangers. A fact in itself very insignificant is endowed with a little strong coloring, thereupon persons who have a weakness for such stories catch it up, exaggerate and disfigure it until finally it assumes a shape that has no particle of similarity with the original.

Of course it cannot be asserted that misuses never occurred in the administration of the Turkestan dominions; on the contrary, such did occur, and do at the present day. It is only that in Schuyler's book they are largely exaggerated and misrepresented.

Goethe says that human intelligence consists in the power to correctly "reduce and classify."

This capacity Mr. Schuyler by no means always proved. Many of his facts are true, only he did not perceive the real signification of his reports on the government at Turkestan. He saw everything, though with no lack of friendly intention, through colored glasses which showed him only disorders, and in this manner it is natural that all the good which the Russians brought to Central Asia escaped him.

But let us now turn to the subject of the present article, roads to India.

Trading relations between Russia and Central Asiatic peoples extend backward into antiquity. The passage to India was an aim longingly looked to by all nations. It is first made mention of in the history of the extraordinary development of civilization on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, where voluptuous Babylon and Ninevah received Indian wares from caravans that traversed Beloochistan, penetrated through the land of the Chaldeans to Phœnicia, whence the

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113

Phœnicians, those daring seafarers of old, carried them through the Mediterranean Sea to the remote shores of Africa and Europe.

This route from India to the West may be designated as the first.

The second route on which in ancient times Indian wares were taken to the West, was discovered, so to say, by the owners of vessels on the Euphrates and Tigris, who not only navigated the above mentioned rivers, but penetrated through the Persian Gulf into the Red Sea. The great treasures and civilization of Europe may perhaps be explained by the direction of the way from India through the Red Sea and thence onwards on the canal built by Sesostris for the transportation of Indian wares to the Mediterranean Sea.

The famous campaign of Alexander the Great in India, along the Atrek, over Herat, Kabul, the Kheiber Pass to the banks of the Indus and farther, was actuated by the policy of destroying Persia, the barbarous kingdom that with its hordes had stationed itself on the way between Europe and the ancient Orient. Alexander's campaign against the nomadic tribes between the Sir Daria and Amoo Daria is endowed with quite another significance when explained not by his love of conquest alone, but principally by the necessity of securing the great trading highway to India against the constant attacks of the wild hordes of the steppes.

The same necessity explains the colonization of the banks of the Amoo Daria and Murkhab and the founding of famous Bactria, which flourished so long a time.

In the times of the Romans Indian articles of trade came by way of the Red Sea over Alexandria to Rome, which prized Indian wares so highly that for these alone 120 galleys were annually fitted out.

Thereupon an extraordinary period of prosperity begins for the Arabians, during which, after a long struggle between the Abassides and Omeijads, Bagdad receives the significance of a central point, which city, together with Babylon and Ninevah, owes its wealth to the transit from India.

The attacks of the Turks and Mongols, however, destroyed the flourishing kingdom and the way to India again led through the Red Sea and Egypt. This route was now used for the transportation of Indian wares to Europe, and on it the Arabs penetrated to China, where they learned the uses

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of the compass and gunpowder, until the famous discovery of Vasco-de-Gama.

It did not suffice, however, to discover a new sea passage, but to prevent the Semites, as indeed all seafarers in general, from transporting Indian wares on the Egyptian way, that is, through the Red Sea—to the Occident. To attain this end several successful expeditions into the Persian Gulf and Red Sea were undertaken, and this conquest of the newly discovered passage proved of great profit to Portugal.

The latter erected a number of fortifications along the new way, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, on the Island of Soportara, at the city Maskat, in the Persian Gulf, on the Island and Strait of Ormuz, and finally at Bassora, on the Strat-el-Arab, a river formed by the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates.

The English have, in point of fact, only continued the work begun by the Portuguese. By erecting a new line of fortifications along the road to India and taking possession of the young Indian trade, they have managed to hold for their kingdom the part of mediator between Orient and Occident, and thereby laid the foundation for the enormous wealth of England.

All Europe when desirous of acquiring cotton, indigo, spices or other Indian wares, must resort to English docks. This end England gained as well by means of the great development of its war and trading fleets, as through the erection of marine stations for the protection of trading vessels. These stations are such as Gibraltar, Malta and Cyprus for protection of the way to the Suez Canal, the Island of St. Helena, the Cape of Good Hope and the Isle de France for the security of the way round the Cape of Good Hope, and finally, Perim and Aden to guard navigation in the Red Sea.

At times remarks become audible concerning the immense expense of maintaining all these forts and stations with their garrisons. The immeasurable wealth of England, however, has proved the use of such costs.

In this manner the Portuguese, and after them the English, have lent a domineering significance to the sea passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope, so that all Indian articles of trade reach Europe almost exclusively on this way.

Nevertheless the endeavor to again bring the former route (over Egypt) into repute was not given up.

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115

Thus, for instance, Leibnitz, in the time of Louis XIV., and the French dominion in the Mediterranean Sea, proposed to subjugate Egypt in order to gain possession of the Indian trade. In this connection Napoleon's campaign in Egypt may likewise be mentioned. The realization of this project was, however, abandoned after Nelson's victory over the French fleet at Abookir. Yet Napoleon by no means abandoned the idea of a campaign in India, and intended to accomplish it, either in league with Russia—in which case he meant to get to India along the Danube, through the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, down the Don and Volga, over the Caspian Sea and Astrabad, or in league with Persia and Turkey, when the march was to have been undertaken by way of Herat. It is remarkable that in both cases the line of Herat-Kandahar, was chosen as the principal line of operations.

We have hitherto spoken of only the southerly passages to India. Besides these there were some routes in the north, by means of which trading relations were sustained with India, by Russia and other countries, and a possible reconstruction of which is of special interest for Russia.

Plinius says that Indian wares are transported in seven days from the upper Indus to the Icarus River in Bactria, which flows into the Oxus (Amoo Daria). From the Oxus they came to the sea of Hyrcanus (Caspian Sea), and then to the river Cyrus (Kura); thence the way led by land over Colchis to the city of Sarapon, which was the chief mart on this road, and thence the wares were sent on the Phasis to the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea).

At the beginning of the eighth century after the conquest of the Byzantine possessions by the Arabs, the trading route to India took a northerly direction. Oriental wares reached Constantinople by the following route: From the Caspian Sea they were turned into the Volga, and thence transported by land to the Don, from where they were again brought on ship over the Black Sea to Constantinople.

It was at about this time that trading relations began between Russia and the Orient. A Persian author who flourished in the ninth century, writes the following:

> "As regards the Russian merchants—the Russians are a Slavonic tribe—they come down the Slavonic stream (Volga), on ships, take the way to the Aral Sea, thereupon repair to Balch and Maweranagr and go to Sina (China)."

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Hence it is evident that Russian merchants made their way to China as early as the ninth century. It is very probable that Arabic, Indian, Bukharian, Chinese and Persian merchants came to Russia by the same route, and we have even proofs that they actually brought their wares on the Caspian Sea and the Volga to Kasan, where merchants from Novgorod purchased them, and carried them to that city and to Nowaia-Ladoga, whence they reached neighboring countries.

Asiatic merchants soon learned that the great Slavonic stream led not only to the Slavs but to other nations as well, and it is undoubted that they also penetrated into the strange countries in the West.

The Mongol Empire cut off for a time not only this connection with the Orient but other trade routes as well. It was well nigh forgotten, and only lived on as a tradition of the fabulous wealth of oriental countries. This state of affairs continued until Russia shook off the Mongol yoke. Then India gained new power of attraction for every one. As far as is known the Russian merchant Afanassi Nikitin, was the first who towards the close of the fifteenth century attempted to reach India, but got no further than Khorassan.

A short time after the Genoese Paolo Centurione proposed to the Grand Duke Wassili Iwanowitch, to begin commercial dealings with India, by route of the Caspian Sea. He pointed out the advantages for Russia of having Indian wares transported over the Caspian Sea to Astrakhan, thence on the Volga and Oka to Moscow; by land to the Duna, finally on the Duna to Riga, from which place wares could go by water to all Europe.

The English likewise sought to pave a way to India through Russia. After establishing relations with the Czar, Ivan Wassiliwitsh, they brought large quantities of English wares to Russia, whereby, however, they did not have Russia in view so much as the object of beginning commercial relations with the oriental countries on the Caspian Sea. In England a special trading company was formed for the purpose of discovering the shortest and most convenient passage to India and China. Many Englishmen charged with this mission came to Astrakhan to solve the problem; the one best known among them was Anthony Jenkinson, who, in 1555 crossed the Caspian Sea from Astrakhan to Manguslov on the eastern coast, and thence gained Bukhara. This arduous and

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117

perilous journey, however, was quite useless; Bukhara was
provided with such an amount of wares by way of Aleppo
and Smyrna, that Jenkinson was forced to sell his articles
with scarcely any profit.

The English Company now resolved to enter into direct
commercial dealings with Persia. In the year 1561 Jenkinson
was sent by way of Russia to Persia, and traveled from Mos-
cow with the Persian Ambassador, who was returning to his
native country. In Astrakhan Jenkinson took ship and
sailed to Skhabran, where he unloaded all his wares, and re-
paired over Skemaka, Ardebil and Tebris to Kasbin, the
capital of the then reigning monarch of Persia. There
Jenkinson remained over the winter and then returned to
Russia.

But it was not alone on the part of the English that the
attempt was made to enter into relations with Persia and the
Orient in general by way of the Caspian Sea. In 1602 the
Roman Emperor Rudolph sent an ambassador to Persia, who,
however, died on the way. In 1635 Duke Frederick of
Holstein-Gottorp fitted out embassies to Russia and Persia in
order to establish friendly commercial relations with these
countries, principally, however, for the purpose of pro-
curing silk from Persia by way of Russia. At about
the same time Andreas Burraeus, the Ambassador of
the Swedish Queen Christine, worked out a plan for
a convenient route over the White Sea to Astrakhan and
across the Caspian Sea to the Orient. Finally the Dutch,
who at that time profited greatly by the trade with East
India, turned their attention to Russia as a country through
which it would be easier to deal with the Orient.

Russia itself now began independently to think of an ap-
proach to India.

The Czar Alexei Michaelovitsh twice sent ambassadors to
the Great Mogul, who, however, were unsuccessful both
times, as the Persian Shah Abas II. would not allow them to
pass. It was then resolved to send the ambassadors to India
over Bukhara, which plan proved more successful. The
Great Mogul, however, when he heard of the arrival of a
Russian ambassador, deemed the idea of relations with Russia
as unprofitable, for evidently the "Russian Czar sent ambas-
sadors to the Persian Shah for the purpose of acquiring
treasure and not for any other cause."

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It was not until the year 1695 that the merchant Tsemin Maleukü, richly provided with wares and gold, came unhindered to Delhi, sold his goods, purchased Indian products, and, after receiving an elephant from the Great Mogul as a gift for the Russian Czar, set out on his homeward journey. He died on the way, however, at Skemaka, and we have no detailed account of his journey.

Thereupon Peter the Great, fired by the glowing accounts of the wealth of India, fitted out two expeditions, which, however, came to a disastrous end. In 1750, owing to the endeavors of Neplinjev, the then Governor of Orenburg, another attempt was made to send a caravan to India. For this purpose a Russo-Indian company was even formed, which fitted out two large caravans for India; but this time again the attempt failed, and was not in future repeated by the company.

Thus Russia, despite repeated attempts to enter into commercial relations with India, was unsuccessful in attaining this end.

These attempts go to prove that a direct connection with India is possible, indeed, but that it is combined with immense difficulties.

All endeavors to maintain a commerce with the Central Asiatic Khanates, Khiva and Bukhara, by way of Krasnowodsk and the Caspian Sea, were unsuccessful, as the caravans were constantly attacked in the steppes between the Caspian and Aral Seas by the rapacious hordes dwelling along the Murkhab and Tedshend Rivers. The consequence of these unpunished robberies was that no caravan dared to take the way from the Amoo-Daria to the Caspian Sea.

From the above short sketch of ways to India it becomes apparent that at present there are but two routes on which Indian wares get to Europe, or rather more correctly said, to the English docks. These are the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope, principally for sailing vessels, and the passage through the Suez Canal, which is mainly used by steamships.

The distance and duration of these two from Falmouth to Bombay are as follows:

1. Falmouth, St. Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Bombay, 10,400 miles distance. Duration of voyage, 42 days.

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119

2. Falmouth, Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Bombay. Distance, 6,000 miles. Duration of voyage, 24 days.

Thus the second route has considerable advantage over the first. Nevertheless, after the opening of the Suez Canal the fear was expressed that it would lessen the importance of English commerce and the English trading fleets. This fear, however, proved entirely unfounded. Every improvement in means of transportation raises the amount of passenger as well as cargo conveyance. Many articles which hitherto had been accessible only to the "select," are now, thanks to the decrease in cost of transportation, more widely diffused. Many persons who otherwise would never have made up their minds to undertake long voyages, now willingly make use of the rapid and luxurious steamers that ply through the Suez Canal.

In recent times various projects for new routes consisting some entirely of railroad connections; others, part rail, part water, have sprung up and engaged public attention.

One of these is a regular mode of communication by means of railroad and steamer between Paris and Calcutta, over Brindisi, Alexandria, Suez, Aden and Bombay—in all, 6,164 miles.

Another road repeatedly planned by English and other projectors leads from Scutari to Alexandretta, in two directions—the one over Bulwaden to Adana; the other over Kara-Hissar and Konija—then passing over Aleppo, takes the road along the Euphrates by way of Bagdad to Bassora, and thence by water to Bombay—in all 3,380 miles.

The third road proposed by the engineers Lesseps and Co-tard, between Paris and Calcutta, over Orenburg, Tashkend, Balch and Peshauer, is entirely a railway line, and has a length of 5,783 miles.

The shortest and, as it seems, most practical route, however, is that from Paris over Warsaw, Moscow, Baku, the Bay of Michailov, Kisil-Arwat, Sserax, Herat, Kandahar and Quetta, to Shirkapore. This route is 4,326 miles long, and at present of particular significance.

The subjugation of the Akal-Teke Oasis of which the Russians have finally taken possession, will undoubtedly lead to the establishment of complete peace and security in the Steppe, whereby a regular mode of communication between the Amoo Daria, the Aral and the Caspian Sea will be rendered

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possible. At the same time, this is the shortest line for a rail-
way from the Caspian Sea to the eastern boundary of India.

This route further has the advantage that it leads through
an uninhabited region of steppe only for a distance of 125
versts, whereas the railway projected by Lesseps and Cotard
would lead through a deserted region of 740 versts, and that
from Alexandretta over the Euphrates and Tigris over a dis-
tance of 720 versts.

At what time and in which manner this important trade
route will be opened it is impossible to state at the present day;
however, this one fact is certain, that it will bring about the
shortest and most convenient connection between the central
points of European and Indian life.

The task set by Peter the Great to his successors, for which
he fitted out two expeditions, the one sent over Siberia, the
other over Krasnowodsk, has been solved toward the close of
the reign of Alexander II. The railway road to India has
been begun, and if the English, on their part, will build a rail-
way from Kandahar to Herat, and the Russians extend their
line from Kisil-Arwat over Sserax to Herat likewise, then the
way from Paris to Shirkapore may be traversed by rail, in-
cluding a small stretch by water, in eleven days. It is prob-
able that the transportation of passengers which, at present,
is confined to the Suez Canal, will, to a considerable extent,
be transferred to this line. The trip to India will then not be
the privilege of a few, as has been the case hitherto, for even
by way of the Suez Canal the voyage occupies about a month,
and, moreover, 250 millions of Hindoos, whose religion for-
bids them to leave their country by way of water, will be ad-
mitted into a new world of intercourse and research. On the
other hand, it will be possible for Russia directly to receive
Indian products, and to send corn to the Hindoos who are so
often visited by famine.

There is no doubt that the part of the railway as far as
Herat can be built by an English company without a previous
conquest of Afghanistan; it is only necessary that peace and
a steady government be restored in Afghanistan, which Eng-
land can attain by the same means that Russia applied for
like purpose in Khiva and Bukharia.

Under these circumstances, Afghanistan will remain a
neutral territory (between Russia and England), even though
English influences will always remain predominant for the

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121.

reason that a part of the Afghan population in the mountain
passes and no northern part of the Punjaub is already subject to
England.

If both eventualities are opposed to each other on the one
side, an endless war, in which as carried on by the two most
powerful kingdoms of the world, rivers of blood would flow,
and millions of money be spent—or on the other side, peaceable
commercial relations which would open new marts to both
countries and thus serve for the further development of their
national industries—no one can doubt which is to be chosen.
The proverb says that even a poor peace is better than a good
war.

As regards the fear of rivalry between the new route and
the older way to India, it may be freely maintained that the
development of new and powerful modes of intercourse so
considerably accelerates activity in trade, and lends so mighty
an influence to the development of industry, that at the pres-
ent day a rivalry in this field is no longer feared. In the
present case, however, there are so many new articles of com-
merce that engage attention that there can scarcely be any
talk of actual rivalry.

In the accomplishment of this idea lies that peaceable foun-
dation of a contact which the Russians are striving for, and
toward which the English, in the service of humanity and for
the progress of civilization, ought likewise to aspire.

Such a contact is, we repeat, not only desirable but entire-
ly capable of realization, as a wide field of independent activ-
ity is open to England as well as Russia among the people
subject to them in Central Asia.

HYDROMETRIC MEASUREMENT ON THE AMOO
DARIA.

BY C. MIELBERG.

BY friendly permission of the military chief Colonel Irva.
nov, I received for my expedition, from the engineer
department, two iron pontoons with the requisite anchors,
oars, &c., and as escort fifteen sharpshooters under the com-
mand of Lieutenant Werigin, who assisted me greatly in all

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my work. Provided with the necessary instruments I began
my journey on the 2d of July, and proceeded from Petro-
Alexandrowsk down the Buss-Jass Canal and up the Amoo
Daria, in iron boats manned by six natives.

On July 3d, we arrived at the Ak-Kamysh thickets where,
while out on a pheasant hunt, we came across a herd of wild
boars, at which, however, I could not fire successfully, as I
was provided only with a simple shot-gun. On the 4th, we
came in sight of the partly-ruined fort Chauskaya Stanka,
which is romantically situated on the high sand-stone banks
of the Amoo Daria.

Toward the evening of the 5th we arrived at a long narrow
plain left free by the retreating sand-hills. Here we pitched
our camp and concluded to make our measurements as the
place was favorably situated for this purpose. At 6 o'clock
in the morning our first work was geodetically to determine
the breadth of the stream. Thereupon single distincts were
measured at a breadth of from 20 to 20, and 30 to 30 metres,
laths driven into the ground at these points and measure-
ments of depths taken at the same time, in order to gain the
profile of the stream. This, however, we could do only to a
distance of 250 metres from the shore, as further on the
strongly increased current tore out the laths as soon as they
were driven into the ground; moreover the depth also in-
creased to a height of 8 metres, so that the distances had to
be measured by means of boats fastened with grappling irons.
This was done by connecting two boats with a rope 20-30
metres long. While we lay at anchor the other boat rowed
along the stream as far as the length of rope permitted, and
I concluded my measurements, whereupon the latter boat
was in turn made fast, and the first rowed further on.

Towards noon this alternate fastening of the boats nearly
cost us our lives. As I was being rowed up the stream in or-
der to pass the boat that was fast, the current proved so
strong that despite the six rowers in my boat it was dashed
against the other with such force that it turned on its side
and rapidly filled with water. Simultaneously my men sprang
into the other boat which, under the increased burden, like-
wise began to fill with water.

The situation was very critical. I immediately ordered
the anchor to be raised, and now the boats floated calmly side
by side down the stream. I ordered some of the soldiers into

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123

my boat which, though partially filled with water, could
carry three or four men, and both boats were now rowed to
the shore where we bailed out the water. The measurements.
however, were not yet concluded and I was at some pains to
persuade any one one to accompany me out on the river again.
At last, with the assistance of Lieutenant Werigin and a prom-
ise of a reward, I induced some of the more courageous to re-
sume our undertaking, and I could continue my measure-
ments which, however, were now less accurate, as I had but
one boat at command.

After the last measurement, which occupied ten minutes, the
anchor could not be raised as it had sunk too deep into the
miry bottom; the rope had to be cut and the anchor given up
as lost. This was the only sacrifice that our expedition was
obliged to yield to the Amoo Daria.

Our store of provisions was nearing an end. We had sub-
sisted on nothing but tea and rusks for a few days past, and
therefore signalled to natives whom we saw in their boats in
the stream, to come near us in order that we might procure
something from them. However, they must have been either
rapacious Tekins, who were rendering the neighborhood inse-
cure and who had fear of the Russian soldiers, or they were
timid Khivans who always sought to escape our vicinity as
speedily as possible.

Towards the evening of the 7th we finally finished our
task and set out on the homeward journey. At sundown we
reached Pitnjak and entered it in order to purchase provisions.
But there, also, the few persons we caught sight of fled as
soon as they perceived us.

The town looked gloomily deserted. We met an old man
whom we asked for provisions, but he answered that there
was nothing to be had in the city, as 300 Turcomen had lately
entered and entirely plundered it. The Khivans had defend-
ed themselves and killed 25 Turcomen, whom out of revenge
they had not buried, which act the Turcomen consider a des-
ecration of the remains of their dead. Hence, all of the in-
habitants of the city had, out of fear that the Turcomen would
come again in order to revenge themselves, taken all the
property that was left them and fled to more inhabited re-
gions. He, the old man himself, had nothing and subsisted
on the fish that he caught from day to day. The Turcomen,
he thought, were again in the neighborhood of Pitnjak and

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he therefore advised us to be on our guard. This was poor comfort for our hungry stomachs. We repaired to our boats and rowed across to the picturesque, wooded island that lay opposite to Pitnjak, there to pass the night. We searched the island for game, but found nothing with the exception of singing forest birds. Our camp was pitched in a clear place, but we built no fire that might give signal to the Turcomen of our whereabouts, and contented ourselves with merely bringing to a boil the contents of our traveling samovar. We ate up the remnants of our tea and rusks, and stationed two sentinels on guard, the one on the river bank to accost any passing vessel or boat, the other to keep watch near the forest.

Deeming ourselves by this means guarded against every possible danger we lay down on the rugs we had brought with us, but had hardly fallen asleep when the cry "Kölmanda" (come here) of the sentinel aroused us. We soon caught sight of a man in a light fishing boat floating silently up the stream at about ten paces from the shore. When he saw the sentinel on guard he turned about rapidly and sought to escape, but again the soldier thundered "Kölmanda," and aimed his gun at him, seeing which he was forced to come to the shore. On being questioned he said he was a fisherman and engaged in his occupation. The boat was searched and two fishes were indeed found therein, but no nets nor other fishing implements which seemed to us as suspicious. We said to him:

"As you are a fisherman you will no doubt sell us these fish!"

"Willingly," he answered.

The entire camp now rose at the tidings that two fish had been procured, a fire was built and soon the fish were boiling in a kettle, the soldiers round about expressing their joy as they are wont to do in dancing and loud singing. The fisherman, who had a wooden flute with him, was taken into their midst and induced to play all sorts of tunes, at which the soldiers made merry and joined in with laughter and song. The strange "Tamar" (friend or guest) was jostled and joked at from all sides and formed the central point of merriment.

After the meal our Tamar was desirous of leaving us, but was invited to spend the night in our camp. He answered that it was absolutely necessary that he should return that night to his Kibitka where his comrades expected him. On

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125

being questioned where his Kibitka was he at first answered that it lay back of Pitnjak, then corrected himself and affirmed that it was in Skurakan, 5 versts back of Petro-Alexandrowsk. We then told him that it was impossible to reach that place in one day, much less on that same evening; and besides to get there he must go down and not up stream. He was not clever enough to extricate himself from his contradictory statements and lies, whereupon we told him that he could attend to his affairs on the following day and must spend the night with us.

He answered: "If you will not let me go, there is nothing else but for me to stay." and taking up his flute again began to play. We bade the sentinel keep strict watch on him, lay down once more and soon the whole camp was at rest.

Again the cry "Kölmanda" roused us, and we heard a loud lamenting. We ran to the river and found our sentinel standing in one of the boats and threatening to pierce with his bayonet the friendly Tamar of the previous evening who was sitting in another of the boats and loudly bemoaning himself. The sentinel told us that in the night the Tamar had softly risen, stepped in a boat, untied two others, and was just about to glide away when he had espied him and brought him to shore again by threats of shooting. The Tamar plead and wept, said he had only intended to lie down to sleep in one of the boats, when they had come loose of themselves, &c. We now no longer had a doubt that he was a spy from some band of Turcomen. What could we have done on this solitary island if deprived of our boats? We therefore held court martial what was to be done with the Tamar. After a great deal of debate we came to the conclusion of dictating the mildest form of punishment, which was that the Tamar should sleep next the sentinel, who was to shoot him at the slightest attempt to escape; which decision was imparted to the Tamar, who seemed elated at escaping with such slight punishment and willingly submitted to his sentence.

At dawn we started again and in two divisions. It was my task to execute an approximate plan of the stream, which I did from the current by means of a watch and a compass; the width I determined by eye-measurement; moreover I had particularly to designate the navigable parts on my plan, beginning at a depth of about 1½ metres, for which purpose I made measurement of depth the entire length of the stream.

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One month later the steamer "Perowsky" making some partial use of my plan, made an attempt to navigate the Amoo-Daria, but succeeded in getting only as far as Chanskaja-Stanka, as above this place the vessel was driven back by the current.

As I could not accomplish my task in an iron pontoon, all the more as a strong wind might overtake me at any moment in the middle of the stream, I took possession of the Tamar's boat; he himself was to have the pleasure of accompanying me to a distance beyond Petro-Alexandrowsk. As at a pinch the boat could accommodate four men I further took two soldiers along, and caused myself to be rowed down the left bank of the stream. Lieutenant Werigin repaired with the two iron pontoons to the right Russian bank, along which he continued the homeward journey, soon, however, remaining far behind my light fishing-boat.

In the afternoon just as we were above Khasar-Asp, and about in the middle of the stream, 2 versts away from the right bank, a Northeast gale overtook us and threatened to blow us against the hostile shore. It cost us a good deal of exertion to reach the right bank, two of us rowing and the other two bailing out the water that was cast into our boat by the high waves. Fortunately we reached the Russian bank ere the storm burst in real fury. Had we been out then the little fishing-boat would have been buried in the waves.

The storm came over the plain Kisyl-Kum. Though it had traversed a distance of 4-5 kilometres over the wilderness of Ak-Kamysh, it yet carried so much sand and dust with it that the otherwise clear, warm and sunny day was quite darkened.

In the meanwhile, Lieutenant Werigin arrived, whereupon we awaited the end of the storm in the shelter of a tent we had with us, and partook of a meal consisting of tea and the remains of the fish from the preceding night. After the lapse of an hour, the storm has subsided, and we again made a start. Lieutenant Werigin, with the escort that I now believed I could dispense with, proceeding down an arm of the Amoo-Daria, directly back to Petro-Alexandrowsk, while I proposed to follow the main stream down to the summer camp of the troops, about 7 versts below Petro-Alexandrowsk.

In the evening a strong gale again arose and threatened

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127

to drive us against the left bank, so that I, abandoning my intention of following the river to the summer camp, was forced to keep close to the right shore for fear of being carried along by the current. At a distance of 20 metres from the shore one was entirely in power of the wind.

In the meanwhile it had grown dark and the water overstepped the banks so that the bed of the stream could not be distinguished from the flooded parts; we often struck on firm land, whereupon we were obliged to get out of the boat and draw it after us.

About two o'clock at night, we arrived safely at the summer camp of the Russian troops, consisting of about 3,000 men. The soldiers who had belonged to my escort returned to their battalion. The Tamar, or rather, Turcoman, I dismissed after giving him a rich present and treating him with the best at my command, at the same time telling him that he could now return to his comrades and tell them where our camp was, of how many men it consisted and how they were armed. He was very much touched by the mild treatment he had received, and begged to be allowed to pass the night in the Russian camp, which petition was granted him. I spent the night with an officer, and on the next day rode back to Petro-Alexandrowsk, where I immediately reported the result of the expedition to the military governor. He had been a little uneasy about us on account of the disquietudes on the left bank of the Amoo-Daria, and was therefore all the more rejoiced at the successful result of the expedition.

## ORDINATION.

### (a.) Office at the Ordering of an Acolyte, Reader, and Singer.

He who is to be made an Acolyte, Reader, or Singer, is conducted by two Sub-deacons into the church, where he bows thrice towards the Altar, then towards the Bishop, and again towards it; then goes to the Bishop and inclines his head before him. The latter crosses him thrice upon his head, lays his hand upon him, and prays.

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THE FIRST PRAYER.

O, Lord, who hast enlightened all creatures with the light of Thy marvels, and knowest already the design of each before it was made, and strengthenest those who are determined to serve Thee, adorn with Thy pure and undefiled garment also this Thy servant N, who at the Service of Thy Mysteries is resolved to bear the tapers before them. So that he, enlightened, may go before also, in the coming world, receive the incorruptible, honorable crown of life, and rejoice in eternal blessedness with Thine Elect. So that hallowed may be Thy Name, and hallowed Thy Kingdom, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*If no Liturgy is said, the Bishop then begins this office, saying:*

Blessed be our God always; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

Choir: Amen.

Deacon: Heavenly King, Comforter, etc.

*After this the Trisagion: O, Holy God, etc.*

*After Our Father, etc., the Troparion of the day is said.*

*But if the Holy Liturgy is said, then: Heavenly King and the Trisagion are not sung, but the following Troparia are read:*

Holy Apostles, pray the merciful God that He may grant our souls the forgiveness of sins.

Bursting forth in splendor like the fire's light, the grace of thy mouth hath enlightened the earth, won for the world better treasures than those of covetousness, and displayed to us the grandeur of humility; do thou now, O, Father John Chrysostom, who hast instructed us by thy words, pray Christ, God, the Word, to deliver our souls.

Over every land, which hath received thy word, thy voice went forth, by which thou hast taught, well-pleasing unto God, hast enlightened the children of men, and hast made clear the morals of men. Royal priesthood, holy Father Basil, pray God, Christ, for us, to deliver our souls.

The shepherd's flute of thy theology hath overpowered the trumpets of the orators, for as Thou hast searched the depths of the spirit, so also hath perfection in eloquence become thy portion; now, therefore, Father Gregory, pray God, Christ, to deliver our souls.

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129

Glory be to the Father, etc.

For the sake of the intercessions, etc.

Then the Bishop cuts the hair of the candidate in the form of a cross and says: In the name of the Father.

Proto-deacon (or a Reader, or a Singer): Amen.

Bishop: And of the Son.

Proto-deacon: Amen.

Bishop: And of the Holy Ghost.

Proto-deacon: Amen.

After this the Bishop puts upon him the short Phelonion, crosses again thrice his head, lays his hand upon him and prays.

## THE SECOND PRAYER.

O Lord, Almighty God, choose this Thy servant and sanctify him; grant that he, with all wisdom and understanding, may give instruction in Thy holy Word, and the reading of it; keep him also in a blameless course of life. By the grace and mercy and compassion of Thine Only-begotten Son, with Whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all-holy, and good, and life-giving Spirit; now, etc.

After this prayer the Bishop opens the Book of the Apostles over the head of the Reader: then the Sub-deacons lead him away from the Bishop, place him in the middle of the church, with his face towards the east, and give him the Book of the Apostles, and he reads:

The reading from the Epistle of the Holy Apostle Paul to the Romans (or some other church);

Reads from the beginning to the end of a lection, turns towards the Bishop and bows to him thrice. The Sub-deacons take off his short Phelonion and lead him to the Bishop, who crosses his head again thrice. After this the Sticharion is handed to the Bishop, who blesses it thrice on the Cross: the candidate crosses himself, kisses the Cross on the Sticharion, and also the hand of the Bishop, and after this is vested with the Sticharion by the Sub-deacons; when the Bishop makes to him the following address:

## THE ADDRESS.

My son, the first step to the priesthood is that of the Reader; so it is becoming to thee that thou shouldest daily read in the Divine Scriptures, so that the hearers, seeing thee,

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may be edified, and thou thyself prepared for a higher station, and in no way disgrace thine election; for by a sober, and holy, and righteous life thou wilt obtain the grace of the merciful God, and also make thyself worthy of a higher ministry, through Jesus Christ, our Lord; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.

Then the Bishop cries aloud:

Blessed be the Lord! Behold the servant of God, N. N., has become a Reader of the Holy Church, N.: in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.

Then the Bishop gives him a taper, and the ordained places himself before the Bishop in the place appointed for him. If several readers are to be ordained, they are ordered together, and the prayer is couched in the plural form.

### (b) Office at the Ordination of a Sub deacon.

If he, who is ordered Reader or Singer, is to be made a Sub-deacon the same day, after he has been vested with the Sticharion, the Sub-deacons hand the Bishop the Sticharion—girdle. The Bishop crosses the girdle, the candidate kisses the girdle and the hand of the Bishop, and the girdle is put upon him. The Bishop crosses his head thrice, and the Proto-deacon says:

> Let us pray to the Lord.

> *The Bishop lays his hand on the candidate and prays.*

## THE PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, Who by one and the same Holy Ghost grantest gifts to those whom Thou hast chosen; Who hast granted to Thy Church divers orders, and hast ordained different grades of the Ministry for the administration of Thy holy and spotless Mysteries; Who hast also, by Thine ineffable foreknowledge, predestinated this Thy servant to be worthy to serve Thy Holy Church: do Thou Thyself, O Master, preserve him blameless in all things, and let him love the beauty of Thy house, to stand at the doors of Thy Holy Temple, and to kindle the lights of the habitation of Thy glory. Plant him in Thy Holy Church as a fruitful olive tree, which beareth the fruits of righteousness, and show this, Thy servant, perfect, at the time of Thy coming again, to receive the reward of those who are well-pleasing unto Thee. For

ORDINATION.

131

Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory of the Father, etc.

After this prayer, the Sub-deacons give the candidate a basin of water, and lay a towel on his shoulders. The Bishop washes his hands, while the candidate pours water on them. After this the candidate and all the Sub-deacons kiss the Bishop's hand, and go to their place, where the candidate for Sub-deacon, remaining until the Cherubic Hymn of Praise, holds the ewer, the basin of water and the towel, and says silently for himself the prayers:

Trisagion: O, Holy God, etc.; Most Holy Trinity, etc.; Our Father, etc.

The Creed: I believe in One God, etc.

Forgive, remit, pardon, O God, our voluntary and involuntary transgressions, committed in knowledge and ignorance, by night and by day, in deed and in thought; forgive us all of them, as the good and gracious One.

And, at his pleasure, he reads also other prayers.

During the Cherubic Hymn he is conducted to the Bishop before the holy doors; the Bishop washes his hands as usual and says the prayer; then he blesses the water thrice in the form of the cross, and sprinkles with the water his eyes, ears, nostrils and mouth. At the Great Entrance the candidate goes behind all, and when the Bishop takes the Most Holy of all, and all the priests enter the sanctuary, the Sub-deacon to be ordered bows toward the Bishop, and bears water to the right and left choir, and then before the people, and all sprinkle themselves with the water. After this the candidate is led back into the sanctuary, where what remains of the water is poured back into the receptacle. After that the candidate is led forth before the holy doors, where he remains standing in one place, until the Bishop in the Mass says the words: And the grace of the great God, etc. After this exclamation he is led into the sanctuary, where he receives the blessing of the Bishop, and places himself among the other Sub-deacons.

(c) Office at the Ordination of a Deacon.

After the Bishop has said the words in the Mass: And the grace of the great God, etc, the Sub-deacons take the Bishop's throne, and place it before the holy table a little to the left side, so that he shall not sit with his back to the holy place. As soon as the Bishop is seated, two Subdeacons from both sides go to the candidate standing in the middle of the church,

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so that each one lays one hand upon his neck, but with the other holds his hand, and causes him to bow according to custom. Then one of the Deacons in the sanctuary cries out: Command! Then those with the candidate step forward a little, and make him bow as before. Then another Deacon says: Command! and they go to the holy doors, and make the candidate bow before the Bishop a third time. Then the Proto-deacon says: Command. Right Reverend Ruler.

Then the Sub-deacons leave the candidate in the holy doors, and there draw near to him a Proto-deacon and a Deacon, and take him one by the right hand, and the other by the left, while he bows toward the Bishop. He blesses him in the form of the cross with his hand, and those who are with him, lead him around the holy Table and sing with the rest.

Holy Martyrs, who have gloriously striven and are crowned, intercede with the Lord, that He may have mercy on our souls.

Those outside the sanctuary sing also the same. The candidate kisses the four corners of the holy Table, the hand of the Bishop and the Epigonation resting upon his knee. Then they go again around the holy Table, and sing:

Glory to Thee, Christ, God, Thou praise of the Apostles and joy of the Martyrs, who preached the consubstantial Trinity.

Those outside the sanctuary repeat this also. The candidate kisses again the four corners of the holy Table, the hand and the Epigonation of the Bishop. Then they go for the third time around the holy Table and sing:

Rejoice, Isaiah, the Virgin hath conceived in the womb, and hath borne the Son, Immanuel, God and Man, Dayspring is His Name; highly exalting Him, we call the Virgin blessed.

Those outside the sanctuary sing the same. The candidate kisses for the third time the holy Table, the hand and the Epigonation of the Bishop. Then the Bishop stands up, his throne is removed, the candidate places himself on the right side of the Bishop, bows thrice towards the holy Table, and says: God be merciful to me, a sinner.

After this the candidate kneels upon the right knee, lays both hands crosswise on the holy Table, and his forehead on the same. The Bishop lays the end of the Omophorion on the candidate's head, and crosses him thrice upon the head. Then the Proto-deacon or Deacon says:

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Let us attend.

The Bishop lays his right hand upon the candidate's head, and says loud enough to be heard by all:

The Grace of God, which always healeth all that is weak, and supplieth all that is wanting, advances this most pious Sub-deacon N. to be Deacon by the laying on of hands; let us therefore pray for him, so that the Grace of the all-holy Spirit may come upon him.

The Priests on the right side of the Altar sing thrice: Lord, have mercy.

Then the Priests on the left side of the Altar sing the same thrice.

After this both choirs in the church sing alternately thrice. Lord, have mercy.

All sing very slowly, until the Bishop has completed the following prayers. The Bishop crosses thrice the head of the candidate for ordination, lays his right hand upon him, and the Proto-deacon says in a low voice:

Let us pray to the Lord.

The Bishop prays in a low voice.

## THE FIRST PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, Who, according to Thy foreknowledge, sendest down the Gift of Thy Holy Spirit upon those whom Thou, according to Thy unsearchable might, hast appointed to minister and to assist at the administration of Thy spotless Mysteries, do Thou Thyself, O Master, keep in all good conduct also this man, whom Thou, by my laying on of hands, hast vouchsafed to advance to the ministration of the Diaconate, so that he may preserve the mystery of the Faith in a pure conscience. Give him the grace which Thou didst give Stephen, the first Martyr, whom Thou didst first call to the work of Thy Diaconate. Make him worthy, by Thy goodness, to fulfill the office bestowed according to Thy good pleasure: for they who minister will procure for themselves a good degree; show also Thy servant perfect. For Thine is the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glory of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Then the Proto-deacon says in a low voice the following Ektene, and after each sentence response is made with the words: Lord, have mercy.

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In Peace let us pray to the Lord.

For the peace from above, and the salvation of our souls,
let us pray to the Lord.

For the peace of the whole world, the stability of the holy
churches of God, and the union of all, let us pray to the
Lord.

For our Bishop (or Patriarch, Metropolitan, Bishop or
Archbishop of the Eparchy) N. and his Priesthood, his de-
fense, his prosperity, his peace, his health and his salvation,
and for the works of his hands, let us pray to the Lord.

For the servant of God N., who is now advanced to be
Deacon by the laying on of hands, and for his salvation, let
us pray to the Lord.

That the gracious God may grant him a spotless and blame-
less Diaconate, let us pray to the Lord.

For our most pious and Divinely-protected Monarch (Em-
peror or King, Prince of the respective country) N. N., for
all his court and army, let us pray to the Lord.

For this city (for this holy abode, if it is a cloister), for
every city and country, and the faithful dwelling in them, let
us pray to the Lord.

That we may be delivered from all affliction, wrath, dan-
ger and necessity, let us pray to the Lord.

Help, save, have mercy, and guard us, O, God, by Thy
grace.

Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most blessed and
glorious Lady, the mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, with
all the Saints, let us commend ourselves and each other, and
all our life, to Christ, our God.

Response: To Thee, O Lord.

The Bishop holds during this his hand upon the head of
the candidate and prays in a low voice.

THE SECOND PRAYER.

O God, our Savior, Who with Thine imperishable voice by
Thine Apostles hast ordained the law of the Diaconate, and
appointed Stephen, the first Martyr, as such, and called him
first to the fulfillment of the work of the Diaconate, as it
stands written in Thy holy gospel: Whosoever will be first
among you, let him be your servant. Fill, O Master, Ruler
of all, also this Thy servant, whom Thou hast made worthy

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to undertake the ministry of a Deacon, with all Faith and with all Love, power and holiness, by the visitation of Thy Holy and life-giving Spirit: for not by the laying on of my hands, but by the descent of Thy rich mercies is grace given to those, who are worthy of Thee; so that also he, free from all sin on the terrible day of Thy judgment may stand blameless before Thee and receive the sure reward of Thy promises. For Thou art our God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Then they raise the person so ordained, and loose his girdle. The Bishop takes the Orarion, lays it upon his left arm and exclaims aloud:

“Worthy.”

And those in the sanctuary repeat singing thrice “Worthy,” even so both choirs in the church.

After this the maniples are given to him; the Bishop exclaims aloud:

“Worthy.”

And those in the sanctuary and the choirs repeat it. Also the fan is given to him; the Bishop exclaims the third time:

“Worthy.”

And those in the sanctuary and the choir sing it again. After this the newly ordained kisses the Bishop on the arm, and he is placed at the right side of the holy table, where he fans the Most Holy Sacrament. At the time of the Communion the newly ordained receives the Holy Sacrament before all other Deacons, and says in the H. Liturgy: Let us worthily give thanks, etc.

If the Ordination precedes the Liturgy of the Presanctified (here however can only that of the Deacon be completed), it takes place after the bearing of the Holy Gifts from the Prothesis to the holy table (after the Great Entrance).

(d) Office at the Promotion of an Arch-deacon and Proto-deacon:

He, who is advanced to be Arch-deacon or Proto-deacon is conducted by a Proto-deacon and a Deacon to the Right Reverend Bishop, standing during the Little Entrance in the middle of the Church. Here the candidate bows thrice, and inclines the head. The Bishop sits down and crowns him thrice on the head, then rising lays his hand on his head.

Deacon: Let us pray to the Lord.

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THE PRAYER.

Bishop: O Lord and Master, our God, who by Thine in-
effable foresight hast granted to our race the Archidiaconate
(office of Proto-deacon), whereby those endowed with the
same administer the order and the service with inferior help-
ers at Thy holy Mysteries; clethe with the same grace of the
Archidiaconate this Thy present servant N.; adorn him with
dignity to stand at the head of the Deacons of Thy people,
and to serve as a good example to those who follow him. Let
him attain an old age full of blessing, and praise Thy most
glorious Name of the Father, etc.

After this the Bishop crosses him on the head and says:

Blessed be the Lord! Behold, the servant of God N. has
become an Arch-deacon (or Proto-deacon) in the Name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.

The Bishop lays now his hand upon his head and says
thrice: Axios. The choir repeats the same thrice, and then
they go according to Order into the sanctuary.

(e) Office at the Ordination of a Presbyter (i. e. Priest).

The candidate for Ordination standing in the middle
of the church after the Cherubic Hymn is led by two
Deacons on each side before the holy doors; here two Priests
receive him and lead him before the holy Table to the right
of the Bishop. The Bishop blesses him crosswise, and then
the Priests lead him thrice around the holy Table in the
same way as at the Ordinance of a Deacon, and sing:

Holy Martyrs, etc.

Glory be to Thee, O Christ, etc.

Rejoice, Isaiah, etc. (as in the Ordination of a Deacon).

After this the candidate kneels on both knees before the
holy Table, lays both hands crosswise upon the same and his
forehead on his hands. The Bishop lays the end of the
Omophorion on his head and crosses it thrice.

Then the Priest conducting him says:

Let us attend.

The Bishop lays his hand on the head of the candidate
and says aloud:

The Grace of God, which always healeth all that is weak,
and supplieth all that is lacking, advances this most pious
Deacon N. to be Presbyter by the laying on of hands; let us
therefore pray for him, so that the Grace of the all-holy
Spirit may come upon him.

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137

Within the sanctuary the Priests on the right side sing thrice: Lord, have mercy, and even so those on the left side; then also the singers in the right and the left choir of the church. Lord have mercy, antiphonally thrice, all very slowly, until the Bishop has prayed the following prayer to the end. The Bishop crosses thrice the head of the candidate, lays his right hand on it, and the Proto-deacon says with a low voice:

Let us pray to the Lord.

*The Bishop prays in a low voice.*

## THE FIRST PRAYER.

O, God without beginning and end, Who art elder than all creatures, and hast honored with the name of priest, those who shall be accounted worthy of this rank, so that they may administer the word of Thy truth in a priestly manner; do Thou Thyself. O Ruler over all, vouchsafe that this man whom Thou hast been pleased to advance by my laying on of hands, may receive the great grace of Thy Holy Spirit in a blameless course of life and firm faith: make Thy servant perfect; so that he may please Thee well in all things, and live worthy of the gracious gift of the great priestly office granted him by Thy fore-knowing power; for Thine is the might of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and Thine is the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*The Priest or Proto-presbyter reads now with low but audible voice, the following Ektene, and to each suffrage they respond: Lord, have mercy.*

For the peace from above and the salvation of our souls, let us, etc.

For our Bishop (Patriarch, Metropolitan, Archbishop or Bishop of the Eparchy) N. and his priesthood, his protection, his prosperity, his peace, his health and his salvation, and for the works of his hands, let us, etc.

For the servant of God N., who is now advanced to be Priest, by the laying on of hands, and for his salvation, let us pray to the Lord.

That the gracious God may grant him a spotless and blameless Priesthood, let us pray, etc.

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For our most pious and Divinely-protected Monarch, etc.,
and so the Ektene as far as: To Thee, O Lord.

The Bishop holds his hand on the head of the candidate and
prays in a low voice.

## THE SECOND PRAYER.

O God, great in power, unsearchable in wisdom, and wonderful in counsel above the sons of men, do Thou, O Lord, fill this man, whom Thou hast vouchsafed to enter into the priestly rank, with the gift of The Holy Spirit, so that he may be fit to stand blameless before Thine Altar, to proclaim the Gospel of Thy Kingdom, to administer the word of Thy truth in a priestly manner, to offer unto Thee spiritual gifts and sacrifices and to renew Thy people through the layer of regeneration; so that also he, at the second coming, meeting the great God and our Savior Jesus Christ, Thine Only Begotten Son, may receive the reward of a good administration of his office, according to the fullness of thy bounty. So that highly blessed and glorified may be Thy glorious and exalted Name, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen

And then they raise up the newly ordained and bring the Epitrachelion. The Bishop takes from him the Orarion, blesses the Epitrachelion and gives it to the ordained to kiss; and after he has kissed it and the hand of the Bishop, the Bishop puts it about his neck and exclaims:

> "Worthy."

> Those in the sanctuary sing thrice:

> "Worthy."

> And both choirs sing antiphonally the same thrice.

And thus the Bishop gives him the girdle; the ordained kisses it and the hand of the Bishop, girds himself, and the Bishop says again:

> "Worthy."

And again the same is repeated in the sanctuary and both choirs sing thrice. So also is done at the delivery of the Phelonion and the Mass-book. Finally the ordained kisses the Omophorion and the hand of the Bishop, goes forth and kisses the Archimandrites and all his fellow-servants on the upper part of the arm, and places himself among the Priests.

(f) Office at the Promotion of a Proto-presbyter.

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139

He, who is to be advanced as Proto-presbyter is led by a
Proto-deacon, or two Deacons, to the Bishop, standing in the
middle of the Church during the Little Entrance, bows thrice
towards the Bishop, and inclines his head. The Bishop sits
down, and crosses him in blessing thrice upon his head; then
rising, lays his hand upon his head. The Proto-deacon says:
Let us pray to the Lord.

THE PRAYER.

Bishop: Lord and Master, Jesus Christ, our God, who hast
granted to our race the priestly office, and clothed us with
this gift and dignity, and graciously counted us worthy to
perform priestly rites, and to lead subordinate helpers in
Thy Mysteries: clothe with Thy grace also this our brother
N.; adorn him with honor to stand at the head of the Priests
of Thy people; make him worthy to become a good example
for those who are with him; preserve his life unto old age,
that he may end it in piety and honor, and have mercy upon
us all, as a gracious God. For Thou art the Sower of wisdom,
and the whole creation praises Thee for ever and ever.

Then the Bishop blesses the candidate on his head, and
says:

The Lord be praised! Behold, the servant of God N., has
become Proto-presbyter in the most holy church of God N.,
in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost. Amen.

Then the Bishop lays his hand on the head of the ordained
and exclaims thrice: Axios; the singers repeat, singing
thrice the same word. Then they place the Proto-presbyter
with the other Priests, according to his rank, and he goes
through the holy doors into the Sanctuary.

(g) Office at the Promotion of an Abbot and Archimandrite.

He, who is to be advanced as Abbot or Archimandrite, is
led by a Proto-deacon, or two Deacons, to the Bishop, stand-
ing in the middle of the Church during the Little Entrance,
bows thrice towards the Bishop and inclines his head. The
Bishop sits down and crosses him (in) blessing thrice on his
head; then arising lays his hand on it, and the Proto-
deacon says:

Let us pray to the Lord.

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THE PRAYER.

*Bishop*: O God, Who carest ever for the salvation of men, and hast brought into unity this rational flock: do Thou, O Ruler over all, preserve the same by Thine unbounded grace blameless, to keep Thy commandments without ceasing, so that not a single sheep from it shall be lost and driven away by the wolf; show this, Thy servant, whom Thou hast been pleased to appoint over them as Abbot (or Archimandrite), worthy of Thy grace, and adorn him with every virtue, so that he by his good works may be a good example to those who are under him: that they may be emulators of his blameless course of life, and at length with him stand uncondemned before Thy terrible Judgment Seat. For Thine is the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glory of the Father, etc.

*Choir*: Amen.

*Bishop*: Peace to all.

*Choir*: And to thy spirit.

*Proto-deacon*: Bow your heads before the Lord.

*Choir*: To Thee, O Lord.

*Bishop softly*: Incline, O Lord, Thine ear; hear our prayer and show this Thy servant, Abbot (or Archimandrite) of this holy cloister, as a faithful and wise ruier of that reasonable flock entrusted to him by Thy grace, that he may do Thy will in all things, and be worthy of Thy heavenly Kingdom.

*Aloud*: Through the grace and compassions and mercy of Thine Only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art highly prais-ed together with, etc.

*Proto-deacon aloud*: Command, O, Master.

*The Bishop exclaims*: The Grace of the all-Holy Spirit advances thee through our lowliness to be Abbot (or (Archimandrite) of the holy abode, which is dedicated to our Lord, and God, and Savior, Jesus Christ (or, to the all-holy Mother of God, our Lady, or, the holy N.).

*After this the Bishop lays his hand upon the candidate's head and exclaims thrice*: Axios, and the singers sing thrice: Axios.

*In Russia a mitre is also placed upon the Archimandrite.*

*Thereupon the promoted kisses the Bishop's Omophor, then the right and left shoulder, and goes among the Abbots and Archimandrites according to his rank. Then they all enter the sanctuary according to rank, and the Mass is continued.*

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141

After the close of the Liturgy the Bishop delivers to the Abbot or Archimandrite the staff and says:

Receive the staff, supported on which thou must lead the flock; for thou hast an answer to give for them to our God on the day of judgment.

> If this solemnity takes place in a cloister where the candidate is to be installed, and the Bishop does not perform the Liturgy, it proceeds in the following manner. The Bishop standing in his place, rests himself with the Epi-trachelion, wristlets and the Omophorion, and begins as usual:

Choir: Amen.

Heavenly King, etc. Then the Trisagion: O, Holy God, etc. After: Our Father, the Troparion of the saint, to whom the cloister is dedicated, and to the holy Virgin.

Then the Elect is conducted by the monastic Priests to the Bishops with the following words:

The Very Reverend, chosen and confirmed, monastic Priest N. is presented to receive the holy prayers, and to be installed as Abbot (or Archimandrite) and shepherd of the holy abode N.

After the foregoing presentation the Bishop exclaims:

The Grace of the Holy Ghost be with thee, enlightening, strengthening, and informing thee through all the days of thy life.

One of the Priests: Let us attend.

## THE PRAYER.

The Bishop holding his right hand on the head of the presented candidate, says thus:

O God, our God, Who ever carest for the salvation of men, and hast gathered together this reasonable flock in Thy name, do Thou, O Ruler over all, protect the same by Thine unbounded grace under the shadow of Thy wings, and keep it unharmed by any assault of the adversary. Preserve Thy servant, the monastic Priest N., whom Thou hast been pleased to appoint Abbot (Archimandrite) over the same, blameless;

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that he may keep Thy commandments unceasingly and watch continually over the flock entrusted to him, so that not one sheep may be lost from it by the pernicious threatening of the spiritual wolf. Yea, Lord, show this Thy servant worthy of Thy goodness, and adorn him with every virtue, so that he by his works may be a good example to those who are under him, may he also lead them on to emulation of his blameless conduct, and with them at length stand uncondemned before Thy terrible judgment-seat. For Thine is the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glory of the Father, etc.

*After this follows the same Ektene, which is read at the Ordination of a Priest, only more closely connected with the Abbot, the cloister and the brotherhood. The Bishop says the second prayer above: Incline, O Lord, etc.; and the laying on of hands ends as above.*

*Afterwards the Bishop enthrones the person promoted on his seat in the middle of the church, and says:*

The servant of God, monastic Priest N., is enthroned as Abbot (or Archimandrite) and shepherd of the holy abode N.

*All the monks exclaim thrice: Axios, Axios, Axios. The Bishop and all the monks embrace him and the staff is given to him, as above.*

### (ii) Bishop's Ordination.

#### 1. The Ceremony of Nomination.

When the time is come to fill the vacant Bishop's throne, a consultation takes place in the Holy Governing Synod, and each member writes with his own hand the name of the person whom he thinks worthy of this high office. When all has been maturely considered, they choose from the nominated two names and lay them before the Emperor for his decision. After the Emperor has made the choice, the ceremony of nomination takes place in the following manner: On the appointed day all the Bishops, present in the capital, are invited to the Holy Synod, and after these are assembled, the Presiding Bishop puts on his Epitrachelion, and begins:

Blessed be our God, always; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

*All the others: Amen. Heavenly King, Comforter, etc.*

*After this the Trisagion: O, Holy God, Holy and Mighty, etc. After: Our Father, etc., the following Troparia:*

Blessed be Thou, O Christ, our God, Who hast made the fishermen wise by the Holy Ghost sent to them, and through

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them hast caught the whole world; O, Thou gracious One;
glory be to Thee.

When the Most High came down, and confounded the
languages, He divided the nations; but when He distributed
the fiery tongues, He summoned all to unity: and now we
praise with one voice the Holy Ghost.

*Then the first Bishop says the following Ektene:*

O God, have mercy upon us according to Thy great
mercy; we pray Thee, hear us, and have mercy upon us.

*All respond:* Lord have mercy (*tirice, and so also after each suffrage of the Ektene*).

*The first Bishop:* Again we pray for the most pious Mon-
arch, our Emperor, etc.

Again we pray for the Holy Governing Synod.

Again we pray for the Right Reverend (Archimandrite or
monastic Priest) N., who is now chosen to the episcopal chair
of the God protected cities N. N.

Again we pray for all brethren, and for all Orthodox
Christians.

For Thou art the merciful and gracious God, and to Thee,
the Father and the Son, and the Holy Ghost we offer up
praise and glory: now and ever, and to ages of ages.

*All others:* Amen.

*Then the benediction of dismissal.*

*At the close of this the first Bishop says:*

Christ, our true God, Who hath sent down the all-holy
Spirit in form of fiery tongues from Heaven on his Holy dis-
ciples and Apostles, through the intercession of His all-spot-
less Mother, the venerable and renowned prophet and fore-
runner John the Baptist, the holy N. (*whose day it is*), and
all Saints, be gracious to us and deliver us, for He is good
and rich in mercy.

*Now is announced, to the newly nominated his choice, by the Synodal Secretary, in the following manner:*

Venerable Father (Archimandrite or monastic Priest), N.,
the Most Illustrious and Most Autocratic great Monarch and
and Emperor N., Autocrat of all Russians, commands in his
own decree, and the Most Holy Governing Synod for all Rus-
sia gives its blessing thereto, that your Holiness should be-
come Bishop of the God-protected cities, N. N.

*The Elect answers:* Since the Most Illustrious and Most Autocratic great Monarch and Emperor N., Autocrat of all Russians, has decreed to place me in this service, and the Most Holy Governing Synod for all Russia has judged me as worthy of the same, I offer thanks for it, accept it and in no way oppose.

*After this the Bishops present sit down and place the newly chosen among them.*

*The singers sing "For Many Years" for the God-fearing Emperor, for the Most Holy Governing Synod and for the newly-chosen. When the singing is completed, the Presiding Bishop stands up, blesses the newly-chosen with the cross, sprinkles him with hallowed water, and the office is concluded.*

### 2. The Ordination.

*On the evening before the Ordination of the Bishop a broad platform is raised in the Ambon of the church opposite the holy doors, which is covered with carpets; upon which are set the chairs for the Bishops present according to their rank; that of the Metropolitan with 8, of the Archbishop with 6, of the Bishop with 4 steps. In the middle of the church, near the Ambon, a carpet is spread out, having the figure of an eagle with one head and its wings spread out, and a city so worked with its walls and towers, that the eagle appears to stand upon a tower.*

*Then the Bishops and all others assemble in the cathedral church, and ascend clothed as before described that broad platform. The Archimandrites, Arch-priests and the assembled clergy place themselves on each side.*

*Then the Bishops order a Proto-presbyter and a Proto-deacon to bring in the person to be ordained. These bow, kiss the hands of the Bishops, lead the candidate in full Priest's-vestments from the Altar, and place him on the tail of the eagle, where he bows thrice, while the Proto-deacon announces his first approach:*

The well-beloved of God, Archimandrite (or monastic Priest) N, elected and confirmed as the Bishop of the God-protected cities N. N., is conducted hither, so that he may receive consecration by the laying on of hands.

*The Elect holds a confession of the Holy Orthodox Faith written by himself in his hands, and the Presiding Bishop asks him:*

ORDINATION.

145

Wherefore art thou come, and what desirest thou of our
humility?

*The Elect*: The imposition of hands for the holy gracious
gift of the Episcopal Office.

*The Presiding Bishop*: And what believest thou?

*The Elect says aloud the holy Confession of Faith*: I be-
lieve in One God, the Father, Almighty, etc.

*After this the Presiding Bishop blesses him, and says*: The
grace of God the Father, and our Lord Jesu Christ, and
the Holy Ghost be with thee.

*Then the Elect is led to the middle of the eagle, and the
Proto-deacon announces again:*

The well-beloved of God, Archimandrite (or monastic
Priest) N., chosen and confirmed as Bishop of the God-pro-
tected cities N. N., is conducted hither, that he may receive
consecration thereto by the laying on of hands.

*The Presiding Bishop says now to him, standing on the
middle of the eagle*: Explain yet more fully: what is thy
confession concerning the incarnation of the inhypostatic
[i. e., in one Hypostasis] Son and Word of God?

*The Elect reads now in a voice loud and audible to all the
second confession:*

I believe in One God, the Father, Almighty, Maker of the
Heaven and the earth and all visible and invisible, without
beginning, and unbegotten, and unoriginated, the Author of
nature and the Casualty of the Son and the Spirit. I believe
also in His Only begotten Son, who without emanation and
without time is begotten of Him, and is of One Being with
Him, by Whom all was made. I believe also in the Holy
Ghost, Who proceedeth from the same Father, is glorified
equally with Him, eternal equally with Him, and equally
honored with Him on the same Throne, and is the Founder
of Creation. I believe also in the tradition concerning God
and Divine things, and in the doctrine of the only Catholic
and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge One Baptism for the
Remission of sins; and look for the Resurrection of the dead
and the Life of the coming world. Amen. But those who
herein think otherwise I reject as heretics, anathematize
Arius and those who agree with him, and the partakers of
his insane evil doctrine; even so I reject and anathematize
Macedonius, and those with him who are rightly named
"Spirit-fighters;" Nestorious and the other originators of

heresies and their adherents; and distinctly and with loud
voice I cry out: Anathema to all heretics, Anathema to her-
etics of all places. But our Lady, the Mother of God, Mary,
I acknowledge really and in truth as she who hath borne
the only Christ of the Trinity, our God, according to the
Flesh; may she be my helper, guard and defense through all
the days of my life. Amen.

*The Presiding Bishop blesses him crossing, and says:*
The grace of the Holy Ghost be with thee to enlighten and
confirm thee, and to lead thee into all truth through all the
days of thy life.

*After this the Elect is placed on the head of the eagle, while the Proto-deacon for the third time exclaims:*

The well-beloved of God, Archimandrite (or monastic
Priest) N., elected and confirmed as Bishop of the God-pro-
tected cities N. N., is conducted hither, so that he may receive
consecration by the laying on of hands.

*The Presiding Bishop says now to him, standing on the head of the eagle:* Explain still, how thou holdest the Canons of the Holy Apostles and the Holy Fathers.

*The Elect:* Besides this, my Confession of the Holy Faith,
I promise to observe the Canons of the Holy Apostles, of the
Seven General and also of the venerable Provincial Church
Councils, which are lawfully instituted for preserving the
right commandments; and whatsoever Canons and holy De-
crees have ever been established at divers times and in divers
years by the true defenders of the Holy, Oriental, Orthodox
Religion, all these I bind myself by this my promise to main-
tain, firm and unimpaired unto the end of my life; and all,
that they have received, I also receive, and what they
have rejected, I also reject. Again I also promise to main-
tain the peace of the Church and strenuously to uphold
it, zealously to teach the people entrusted to me, and
in no way nor manner to indulge in sophistry against
the Orthodox, Oriental Christian Religion, through all the
days of my life; but always to follow and to obey the Most
Holy Governing Synod for all Russia in everything which
was instituted by His Majesty the Emperor Peter the Great,
of pious and ever celebrated memory, and is graciously con-
firmed by His Majesty, the prosperously reigning Emperor;
also with the highly venerable Metropolitans, Archbishops,
Bishops, as my brethren in everything to agree and work to-

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gether according to the Divine laws and rules of the Holy Apostles and the Holy Fathers, also to be bound to them in spiritual love with my whole soul, and to esteem them as brethren. Also I promise in the fear of God in a fitting manner to lead the flock entrusted to me, teaching them with all zeal and diligence to beware of all suspicion of evil, of Latinism, and of all other heresies. Also I acknowledge further by this my writing, that I have not attained by promise of gold or silver, or present to this service, for I have not given anything to any person to obtain this dignity, and also I have not promised to give anything to any one, but have obtained it gratuitously according to the will of His Majesty, the most serene and autocratic Monarch our Emperor N., Autocrat of all the Russians, and by the election of the Most Holy Governing Synod for all Russia; but I hold that they who obtain it by riches are worthy of deposition, like Simon the Sorcerer, who thought to obtain this gift of grace by wordly goods. Moreover, I promise that I will do nothing on compulsion, though urged by powerful persons or by the multitude of the people, even if they should command me with threat of death to do something which it is not permitted to do according to the Divine and holy rules; neither will I in the Eparchy of another Metropolitan, Archbishop or Bishop, perform the Liturgy or any other spiritual function without consent of the Bishop of that Eparchy, except in the Eparchy assigned to me by the Most Holy Governing Synod for all Russia. And wherever I may chance to be, that I will ordain no one as Priest or Deacon, or to any other clerical office of another's Eparchy or receive those ordained elsewhere, without the Letters Divilissory of their own bishops.

I also promise further, that if the Most Holy Governing Synod for all Russia shall please to summon me to any church assembly with the brethren, I will go to the church assembly, without any excuse or pretense, and if any potentate, or the multitude of people, would hinder me therefrom, still I bind myself not to be disobedient to the orders of the Most Holy Governing Synod for all Russia. Even so I promise to adopt no strange customs in the ecclesiastical tradition and church ordinances, especially no novelties, added by the Latins, but to preserve unaltered all traditions and church ordinances in the Oriental, Orthodox Church, agreeing and in harmony with the Most Holy Governing

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Synod for all Russia, and with the four Most Holy Patriarchs, the preservers and rulers of the Oriental worship of God. I bind myself in the service of one Liturgy not to ordain two, or three, or more priests or deacons to the same rank, but in one Liturgy only one priest and one deacon; also in the Liturgy of the pre-sanctified to ordain only one deacon, as the Church order of the Holy Oriental Church requires, and as the rule of the Most Holy Patriarchs requires, and the Bishops of Greece, Great and Little Russia, holding with them, prescribe. Also I believe and hold, that the transsubstantiation of the body and the blood of Christ in the Divine Liturgy, as the Oriental and our ancient Russian doctors teach, comes to pass through the reception and the operation of the Holy Ghost, by means of the episcopal or priestly invocation in the words of prayer to God the Father: And make this bread the precious body of thy Christ, etc.

Also I promise further and swear, that I will and must serve faithfully and without hypocrisy His Imperial Majesty, my true and natural, most gracious and great monarch, the Emperor N., Autocrat of all Russians, and His Imperial Majesty's successor to the throne, who shall be appointed thereto, also faithfully and without hypocrisy, and be obedient in everything, without sparing my life to the last drop of blood; all power and authority belonging to His Imperial Majesty's most sublime authority, Autocracy, with its lawfully determined, and yet to be determined rights and privileges according to my utmost understanding, power and ability to maintain and to defend, and therein to be extremely circumspect, to demand all that concerns the faithful service of His Imperial Majesty and the advantage of his most supreme government, in every event; but so soon as I, perceive anything which injures, hurts or lessens the interest of His Majesty, I will not only at the proper time declare it, but also exert myself in every way to hinder and not to permit it; keep strictly every secret entrusted to me; the office entrusted and given to me, appointed according to both general and personal instructions, regulations and ordinances, and to be appointed from time to time in the name of His Imperial Majesty by the authorities placed over me, in a proper way conscientiously to fulfill, and not to manage for private advantage according to relationship, friendship and enmity, contrary to my duty and my

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oath; and in this way to behave myself, and set an example
as is becoming to a faithful subject of His Imperial Majesty
and my duty, and as I can always answer for it before God
and His terrible judgment, so help me God spiritually and
bodily. To the sealing of this mine oath, I kiss the word
and the cross of my Savior. Amen:

Moreover, I promise also to anathematize no one, whosoever
he may be, according to my passion, or on account of any quar-
rel with me or with my dependents, whether in a family, collect-
tively or for himself alone, also not to refuse the Sacraments
of the Church, unless one appear an open transgressor and
subverter of the Divine commands, or to be a heretic against
the Church; if he has been thrice admonished according to
the word of Christ; but still does not humble and amend
himself to anathematize and exclude him for himself alone,
and not with his whole household. To deal with the adversar-
ies of the Holy Church prudently, regularly and gently,
as the apostle Paul says, that the servant of the Lord must not
contend, but be gentle towards all, apt to teach, enduring
evil, in meekness instructing those who are adverse; if, per-
adventure, God may give them repentance to acknowledgment of truth.
To keep the monks by their rules and laws
of order; not to allow them to go about from one monastery
to another, or to enter citizens' houses without my knowl-
edge and my written permission, unless it happen in most
urgent cases on petition, and otherwise for a good purpose.
To build no superfluous churches merely for my pleasure, nor
to suffer others to build, lest such churches hereafter for want
of necessary funds should go to decay. Also, for the sake of
filthy lucre, not to increase the priests and deacons and other
clergy beyond what is necessary, nor to take any out of re-
gard to inheritance, but only to feed the flock and from the
real need of the Church. Also, I promise that I will person-
ally visit and inspect all the flock now entrusted to me, if
possible yearly, in any event every two or three years, ac-
cording to the example of the apostles; I will not visit them
for the sake of vain advantage or honor, but apostolically and
in the Lord, in order to see if the faithful live religiously and
in the practice of good works, but especially the priests, and
diligently inspect, teach and warn them, so that no sectarian-
ism, superstition, or worship displeasing to God arise, and
that no tombs unknown and not warranted by the Church be

150 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

esteemed holy. Those who hypocritically pretend to be in-
spired, with elf-locks, barefoot, and in shirts only, I will not
only punish with words, but also give them over to the civil
authority, and endeavor to prevent, that under the pretense
of piety, anything fraudulent be done by clergymen or lay-
men, so that the holy pictures shall not be worshipped as
divine, and no false miracles ascribed to them, in order that
thereby the true worship be not perverted, and no occasion
be given to adversaries to deride the orthodox; but that they
shall be venerated according to the sense of the Holy Ortho-
dox-Catholic Church, as it is established in the definition of
the second, holy, general Council of the Church at Nicœa.
In worldly affairs and customs I will in no way meddle, un-
less there be an open injustice; such as do this, I will
first admonish, and then also announce in writing to His Im-
perial Majesty in order according to the Apostle to help the
weak. In short I presume and acknowledge myself to be
bound to observe inviolably all that is prescribed to me by
the regular law of the Most Holy Governing Synod for all
Russia and by the synodal diploma, which will be given me
concerning the exercise of the office entrusted to me; also
what may hereafter by the same Most Holy Synod according
to permission obtained of His Imperial Majesty be unani-
mously enjoined and lawfully commanded to hold myself
strictly thereto, according to which I will strive zealously to
fulfill what is commanded and in all obedience, and singly
and solely at all times to regard only the real truth and real
justice. But all this I will fulfill conscientiously to serve
without respect of persons, nor to be led by enmity, envy, ob-
stinacy or avarice, nor in a word to be taken by any passion,
but in the fear of God, bearing always in memory His incor-
ruptible judgment with zealous love of God and my neighbor,
setting before myself as the final aim of all my thoughts
and efforts and actions the glory of God, the salvation of man-
kind and the edification of the entire whole church, and not
seeking what is mine own, but what belongs to Jesus, the
Lord. And I swear by the living God that I always remem-
ber His dreadful word: "Cursed be every one who doeth
the work of God negligently," in all matters of this vocation
as in the work of God, not negligently, but with all diligence,
will act according to my utmost ability. Also I will not allege
my ignorance, but if I am not sure about anything, I will in

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151

every way seek instruction, both in the teaching of the holy
scripture, and also in the Canons of the Councils and in the
agreement of the ancient great Doctors. But if I transgress
in any way against that, which I have hereby promised, or
show myself disobedient or hostile to the holy Canons and
Rites of the Oriental, Orthodox Church, or the Most Holy Gov-
erning Synod for all Russia; or if I wish to seclude myself from
the Eparchy entrusted to me, or in any way to be disobedient to-
ward the most holy Governing Synod for all Russia: then will I
without any excuse and objection be deprived of all my dig-
nity and power, and the heavenly gift of grace which has
been given to me in the imposition of hands by the consecra-
tion of the Holy Ghost. Also I swear by the all seeing GOD,
that all this now promised by me I do not understand in any
other sense than as I pronounce it with my mouth, i. e., the
sense and meaning these words here written import to those
reading and hearing them. But that all which I have to day
promised with a living word I bind myself to fulfill in deed
unto my latest breath for the sake of future salvation: this
I confirm with my oath: GOD, who searcheth the hearts be
witness to my vow, that it is not false; and if it be false
and not according to my conscience, may He be my Judge
and Avenger. But in my just and zealous duty and activity
the Lord Jesus Christ, our Savior, be my Helper. To Him,
together with the Father and the Holy Ghost be glory and
power, honor and adoration; now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.

These confessions and covenants are taken from the person to
be ordained, signed with his own hand. And after this is
done, the Bishop blesses him and says:

The grace of the Holy Ghost promotes thee, the well be-
loved of God Archimandrite (or monastic priest) N., chosen
Bishop of the God-protected cities N. N., through my
Humility.

The Elect bows himself thrice towards the Bishops, is led to
them by the Proto-deacon and kisses their right hands;
then he descends from the Ambon and bows; the Bishop
crosses him with his hand and says:

The grace of the Holy Ghost be with thee.

Then he is again placed upon the eagle, and the singers
sing the "Many Years" to his Imperial Majesty, the Synod and
the newly-elected Bishop.

Then begins the Holy Liturgy. After the singing of the Trisagion: O Holy God, Holy Mighty, etc., the person to be ordained is led by the Proto-presbyter and Proto-deacon before the holy doors, and received by the Bishop in the sanctuary before the holy Tables where he kneels down among the Bishops. These take the Holy Gospel, open it and lay with the letters inverted upon his head, while they hold it on all sides. The leading Bishop says audibly to all:

By the choice and examination of the Bishops, well-beloved of God and all the holy congregation.

The grace of God, which ever healeth all that is weak, and supplieth every defect, advanceth thee, the well-beloved of God Archimandrite (monastic Priest), N., chosen to be Bishop of the (God-protected cities, N. N., by the laying on of hands. Let us therefore pray for him, that the Gift of the All-holy Spirit may come upon him.

The Priests: Lord have mercy (thrice).

And while the Bishops hold the gospel on the head of the one to be ordained, the leading Bishop crosses him thrice on the head and says:

In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Then all the Bishops lay their right hands on the head of the one to be ordained, and the Principal prays thus:

## THE FIRST PRAYER.

O Lord and Master, our God, Who by Thine illustrious Apostle Paul hast appointed to us the succession of degrees and offices, to serve at Thy holy Altar in Thy sacred and spotless Sacraments, and to wait upon them, first the Apostles, then the Prophets, thirdly the Teachers: do Thou, O Ruler over all, strengthen by the laying on of hands of us present, fellow Bishops and ministers, with the reception, and with the power, and with the grace of Thy Holy Spirit also this elect one, who has become worthy to take upon him the yoke of the gospel and the Episcopal dignity, as Thou hast strengthened the Holy Apostles and Prophets, as Thou hast anointed Kings, as Thou hast consecrated Bishops, Prove his Episcopal worthiness without fail, present him holy, and adorned with every honor, that he may be worthy to pray for the Salvation of the people, and to be heard of Thee: for Thy Name is hallowed and Thy Kingdom glorified of the Father, and of the Son, and of the, etc.

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After this prayer one of the ordainers says half aloud, so that the bystanders only can hear him, and can respond to the following suffrages:

For the peace of the whole world, stability of the holy churches of God, and the union of all, let us pray to the Lord.

For the Most Holy Governing Synod, the Priesthood, their defense, good conduct, peace, health, their welfare and that of the works of their hands, let us pray to the Lord.

For the servant of God, N., who is now advanced to be bishop (or Archbishop) by laying on of hands, and for his salvation, let us, etc.

That the gracious God would make his Episcopal administration without spot and blemish, let us pray to the Lord.

For the most pious monarch, etc.

While this is said, the leading Bishop lays his hand on the head of the candidate and prays in the following manner :

## THE SECOND PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, because it is impossible that human nature should endure the Divine Substance, therefore hast Thou by Thy governance appointed for us subordinate teachers, weak like us, who occupy Thy seat in order to offer unto Thee sacrifices and gifts for all Thy people: do Thou, O Lord, make also this man, who has now become a steward of Episcopal grace, an imitator of Thee, the true Shepherd, Who giveth Thy life for Thy sheep. Make him a guide of the blind, a light of those who are in darkness, a corrector of the unwise, a teacher of the young, a light in the world, so that he, after that he has made perfect the souls committed to him in this life, may appear without shame before Thy throne, and receive the great reward which Thou hast prepared for those who have endured for the preaching of Thy Gospel—For it is Thine, O our God, to have mercy and to save us, and to Thee, the Father, etc.

After this they place the gospel on the holy Table and vest the newly-ordained with the Sakkos and the Omophorion.

The leading Bishop exclaims: “Worthy.”

The clergy repeat the same thrice.

Then all Bishops present kiss the newly-ordained, and after

a customary greeting they ascend the elevation to the throne,
which is erected in the sanctuary above the holy Table. The
Bishop says: Peace to all, as is customary before the reading
of the Apostle, and thus the Holy Liturgy is continued.

At the close of the Holy Liturgy the Bishops take off their
vestments in the sanctuary. Then they conduct the newly-ordained
to the leading Bishop, and vest him with the Episcopal
upper garment, which the leading Bishop blesses also with the
Panagion and Mandyon, then the head covering Kamelay-
kon and the veil of the same and gives him the rosary. Then
they go out of the sanctuary and ascend the Ambon erected in
the middle of the church; and the Proto-presbyter and Proto-
deacon lead the newly-ordained likewise upon the Ambon,
where the pastoral staff is delivered to him with the following
instruction:

Right Reverend Bishop (or Archbishop) N. N.

Since God, our all-gracious Maker, has seen fit to arrange
the common life of men with every order, holiness and hon-
esty, so that we may unceasingly praise and bless Him for
His unspeakable mercy and grace towards us in His Three
Persons but one godhead, for in Him are all things, and in
Him we live and move according to the teaching of the holy
Apostle Paul: therefore there is also appointed the official
authority and power for the conduct of our life, and the ec-
clesiastical welfare is established according to the heavenly
ordinance for the salvation and great good of men. So art
thou now also, Episcopal grace, by the mercy of the all-holy
and life-giving Spirit, on that account chosen to be
Bishop, and advanced to be Bishop (or Archbishop) of the
God-protected cities, N. N., by means of our humil-
ity through the laying on of hands, so that
thou shouldest wait on the ministry and care,
to feed the Church of Christ, which He, Christ, our blessed
Savior, hath preserved with His Blood; so that thou shouldst
keep diligent oversight over the reasonable flock of Christ in
thy whole Eparchy, and at the same time manifest thyself as
a pattern of all virtues. Thou art now bound, thus to care
for the Episcopal dignity, and in everything, as is becoming,
to be obedient to the Church of God and the Most Holy Gov-
erning Synod for all Russia, without any opposition. Be,
then, harmonious in working, and in concord with thy breth-
ren, the Bishops, as thou hast taken thy vow here in the