14th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs

Venice, 11th - 16th April, 1965

STATEMENT FROM THE PUGWASH CONTINUING COMMITTEE

The 14th Pugwash Conference which was held in Venice from the 11th to the 16th of April, 1965, was attended by 78 scientists and scholars from 20 countries. The agenda was concerned with two main topics: international cooperation in science, and problems of disarmament. The Conference also considered problems relating to the situation in Vietnam. The discussions have been held in five working groups which submitted their reports to the Conference as a whole. In addition, the Conference received a report from a study group on Biological warfare which met in Trieste prior to the Venice meeting.

This statement has been drawn up by the Continuing Committee on the basis of the reports from the above groups.

A. Regional, National and International Institute

In view of the tremendous advances which have taken place in Science and technology it is clear that, even at our present level of knowledge, it is possible to transform radically the standards of living in the developing areas of the world in a few decades. It is of vital importance that there is an understanding of this in the developing nations so as to generate an atmosphere of confidence in the future. It is also of the greatest importance to create, soon, an objective approach to all aspects of human endeavor, an approach which follows immediately from the development of science.

An important component in the growth of science in the developing countries is the creation of national scientific cadres. The immediate task in these areas is the transfer of existing scientific knowledge (with necessary adaptation to local conditions) and its application to ensure rapid economic growth. The major effort of the national cadres should be on task-oriented programmes with defined time scales for their accomplishment. Fundamental research, however, needs to be supported strongly to ensure balanced development; this is true also for the advanced countries.

The limited resources in finance and skilled manpower can be best utilized in a few centers of high quality at national level. Regional and international institutions should have lower priority, wherever the creation of national institutions is feasible.

These few centres for research and development should be associated strongly with teaching, either by being part of existing Universities or by developing into University-like institutions; if for specific reasons centres purely for research have to be set up, very good coordination between them and the Universities should be ensured. Regional-international-type institutes can be of great value, since they can utilize materials for study and research which are most readily available in their regions; their studies can cater for the scientific objectives of the regions and thus be directly beneficial to them.

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International institutes for research should be set up only if they fulfil scientific needs which cannot be catered for by national centres for reasons of cost, skills, location, etc. Such institutes should have only a small permanent staff and establish strong two-way relationships with Universities and other national centres so that scientists can be cycled continuously through the international centre and large numbers can thus benefit from the excellent facilities set up for all.

These institutions should not develop into centres of attraction to drain away permanently the best brains from Universities. This is also true for national centres which are set up to carry out research only. The international institutes should have a simple, flexible organizational and administrative structure and be essentially run by working scientists.

International Scientific Expeditions such as the International Indian Ocean Expedition can serve a very important function and be particularly valuable to the developing areas, since they do not drain away the best scientists from these areas, while contributing to scientific development and economic growth of these regions and to further international cooperation.

## B. Problems of International Cooperation in Science

1. The Group welcomed the activities of groups of scientists in connection with the ICY, and appealed to scientists everywhere to expand such efforts.

2. The Group discussed the state of the International Biological Programme and recommended that the UN, its agencies and the Expanded Technical Assistance Programme assist scientists from developing countries to increase their participation in the programme, and that the Pugwash Groups urge their governments to support the IBP projects, including expeditions and the organization of centres for the collection, analysis and publication of the assembled data.

3. The Group considered storage, retrieval and analysis of scientific data. It noted the interest of ICSU and UNESCO in the field. It made several recommendations to these groups, including the establishment of an international code of practices for the publication of scientific papers and abstracts, a unified international system for coding the contents of scientific publications, and the elimination of wasteful duplication of abstracting efforts in different countries. The Group hoped that initial coordination will open the way to the creation of an international center of scientific information. The activities in this field should include not only collection of data, but also their analysis and presentation, much of which can be now done by computers, and the preparation of compendia.

4. The Group recommended that at the forthcoming Pugwash Conference in Addis Ababa, a Working Group be formed for the study of problems of population growth and the resources needed to take care of this growing population. The Group suggested that the WHO, FAO and UNESCO, as well as natural and social scientists, in both developed and developing countries, increase their concern with the biological (including clinical), social, educational and economic aspects of the problems of human populations and resources.

5. Noting that the UN, its agencies, and non-governmental organizations such as ICSU now show an increasing concern with cooperation in science as a contribution to the establishment of stable peace, the Group believed that these activities should be further increased. It recommended the establishment of an International Science Foundation, to help scientists of countries not able adequately to support scientific research. This Foundation should support on the basis of achievement and promise, individual scientists rather than nations or programs. The necessary funds might be provided by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, as well as by other sources, and the Foundation could be established under the sponsorship of UNESCO.

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6. The Group noted the establishment by the ECOSOC of a Scientific Advisory Committee on the Application of Science and Technology to Development and recommended that the Continuing Committee explores (a) the possibilities of better liaison of this Committee with the scientific communities and (b) the possibility of improving the UN machinery for cooperation in science and technology in areas not covered by the ECOSOC Advisory Committee.

7. The Group recommended that steps be taken by the UN to set up an International Institute for Technical Economics; it reaffirmed an earlier Pugwash resolution recommending the establishment by UNESCO of an Institute for Natural Resources Analysis.

8. The Group welcomed the establishment of an Institute for Peace Research in Sweden and suggested that its programme should be concerned with preconditions for the establishment of stable peace in a society revolutionized by science and technology; and that both social and natural scientists should participate in these studies.

### C. International Cooperation in Science Education

In a world of rapidly accelerating change, brought about through science and technology, general education must be concerned with the adjustment of men and of societies to change. It must concern itself, among other things, with the role of science in human life, and also with the nature of scientific investigation itself. Scientific knowledge is now doubling in every 10 to 15 years. The useful lifetime of most scientific textbooks is about that of an automobile (5-10 years), and the obsolescence of a teacher of science, lacking renewal of training, covers about the same span of time. Enlightened public policy will therefore implement efforts to improve science curricula and extend the training and renewal of training of science teachers.

It follows that the task of revising and reforming our educational programmes and methods is urgent and needs to be continuous. In this task international cooperation is particularly needed.

The future progress of science depends upon effective education in science, fully as much in the secondary and elementary schools as in the universities. More attention must be given by scientists to revising and reforming the science curriculum. In order to keep it sound and broadly based, yet flexible and experimental in nature. The simplest and least expensive form of international cooperation in science education consists of two steps:

1. the development of mechanisms for prompt transmission to and free use of the products of curriculum studies prepared in one country by interested groups in other countries; and

2. the payment of expenses to enable experienced personnel from one country to work with active science education groups in other countries in sessions of some weeks to months in duration.

The developing countries have special problems in this area because of their great shortage of trained scientists and science teachers. Regional groups of such countries may profitably unite in developing new science courses for the elementary and secondary schools.

We recommend that the pilot projects of UNESCO in Brazil (Physics), in India (chemistry), and in Africa (biology) be pushed with speed and urgency, and be extended as soon as possible on a more comprehensive scale, and that further study be devoted to science education in the next and later Pugwash conferences.

Footnote to Item B. - ECOSOC - Economic and Social Council

ICY - International Cooperation Year

ICSU - International Council of Scientific Unions

UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

WHO - World Health Organization

FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization

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A greatly reformed training of science teachers and their retraining at periodic intervals by means of specially planned institutes, seminars and summer courses, are necessitated by the rapid advances of science itself. We emphasize the great importance of breadth of training, especially for elementary and secondary school teachers; and equally emphasize that the science must be integrated in general education. The relations of the sciences to the humanistic and social studies must be stressed.

We recommend that UNESCO and other agencies be asked to form a permanent study group to devise such measures and to communicate them to all governments. We also recommend more vigorous action to support joint studies and programmes relating to the training and renewal of training of science teachers.

The recruitment of science teachers is inadequate in all countries, and in some countries is desperately low. In nearly all countries teachers are seriously underpaid. Better salaries, leading to higher social standing, and a reduction in the daily load of classes and subsidiary duties may be recommended. In the developing countries, where science teachers are in very short supply, corps of teachers acquainted with modern methods of science teaching and curricula should be organized on a multinational basis to assist in teaching and in training of teachers.

Human society is based on utilization of a diversity of types of individuals. There will be no peace among nations until we have learned not only to tolerate but in fact to esteem these differences between ourselves and others. The study of science is particularly able to teach the lessons of tolerance. Science itself is international in scope and cannot flourish in secrecy.

We believe that in a peaceful, disarmed world, education will have the first priority in the budgets of the nations and first claim on the quality and quantity of manpower.

We believe that even now all nations should reconsider their apportionment of funds and manpower and allocate far more to education.

As disarmament proceeds, the liberated funds now devoted to military defence should be shifted with highest priority to the improvement of education. A generation better educated in science and in tolerance will lead mankind toward lasting peace.

## D. Current Problems of Arms Control and Disarmament

### 1. Interim measures towards arms limitation or reduction

#### (a) Destruction of bomber aircraft.

The Group considered some of the suggestions for arms limitation or reduction discussed at previous Conferences and reaffirmed the view that one of the measures to limit the arms race and one of the first steps of actual disarmament might be the destruction of bomber aircraft over the next few years, within an agreed period and without replacement. This could be done by an agreed sequence according to type of aircraft.

Taking into account that bomber aircraft are vital for the national security of some nations which do not possess more advanced military equipment, one could begin with the major powers.

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(b) Foreign bases.

The Group discussed the problem of military bases and troops on foreign territory. While there were some dissensions, the following represents the views of most members of the Group.

They agreed with the views expressed at previous Conferences that foreign troops and bases contribute to international tension, especially between the major powers, and consider that, as a step towards general and complete disarmament, all such bases should be liquidated and all foreign troops withdrawn as soon as possible.

Having this in mind as an ultimate goal we consider that reduction in the strength and number of military units maintained in foreign bases and territories, as a step towards their gradual elimination, would make an important contribution to the relief of tension. Amongst foreign bases, these maintained against the wishes of the country in whose territory they are located have a special position. It was felt that in the first place one should reduce in strength or eliminate the bases in countries whose Governments have requested their abolition.

The Group considered that temporary difficulties which might arise in certain circumstances in connection with the elimination of foreign bases and troops, should be solved in accordance with the principles and provisions of the United Nations Charter.

2. Measures to relieve tension.

The Group discussed the problem how to prevent small commitments of a major power in a distant area growing into a major involvement which might ultimately escalate into a major conflict, particularly in the event of civil war.

3. Extension of test ban treaty.

The Group endorsed the hope expressed at the 13th and previous Conferences that the Moscow Test Ban Treaty be extended to underground tests and to all countries, and there be a moratorium on underground testing pending the conclusion of a treaty covering such tests. This hope has not yet been realized, and since the 13th Conference underground tests have been carried out.

E. Problems of General and Complete Disarmament.

Working Group 5 considered the difficulties which are standing in the way of further progress towards comprehensive disarmament and measures which should be undertaken to overcome them. The Group recognized that the condition of a treaty on general disarmament, under effective controls, would eliminate the problems arising from the large-scale proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and also create an atmosphere in which it would be much easier to solve many of the political problems which are now impeding progress. On the other hand, the adoption of interim measures of arms control and reduction would not only decrease the dangers of nuclear war, but would also make it easier to arrive at a more comprehensive disarmament agreement. There was, however, a spectrum of opinions regarding the relative emphasis which should be placed at this time on the short-range measures as compared to the ultimate goal.

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On the question of further proliferation and dissemination of nuclear weapons and of weapons technology, the Group reaffirmed the conclusions of the Karlovy Vary Conference regarding measures which should be undertaken to prevent proliferation, as well as the dangers of proliferation which arise from various schemes for nuclear sharing (as for instance the MLF). Our discussions elaborated on some of the Karlovy Vary proposals, most especially those relating to the guarantees which could be given to the non-nuclear nations on the part of the nuclear powers within the framework of the United Nations, to the control over materials used in peaceful atomic energy applications, and to the types of measures which could prevent the work by experts from one country on weapons programmes in another. We also considered schemes for applying and strengthening the peace-keeping procedures provided for in the Charter of the United Nations.

## F. Biological Warfare

The Study Group considered the consequences of the possible use of biological and chemical weapons and reiterated its concern about the danger to mankind from the further development and use of these weapons. A total ban on such weapons, as well as of nuclear weapons, must be accomplished in achieving our final aim of complete and general disarmament under strict international verification.

The dangers to world security posed by all classes of biological and chemical weapons are closely interrelated. Both in public opinion and in military practice it does not appear possible to maintain any lasting distinction between incapacitating and lethal weapons, or between biological and chemical warfare. The great variety of possible agents forms a continuous spectrum, starting from those that are temporarily incapacitating and ending with highly lethal ones. If the restraints on the practice of any kind of biological or chemical warfare are broken down, the entire spectrum of these weapons may come into use.

A brief discussion took place regarding the Geneva Protocol of 1925 banning the first use of biological and chemical weapons. The Group felt that the effectiveness of the Protocol would be greatly increased if those states which have not yet adhered to it were to do so. It wished to emphasize its conviction, however, that arrangements going beyond the Geneva Protocol will be needed if the development and production of biological weapons are to be avoided.

Although the problems of preventing the use of biological and chemical weapons are interrelated, the Study Group confined its discussion to means for preventing the use of biological weapons, because the far greater destructive potential of biological weapons qualifies them for attack on large civilian populations. The Group is of the opinion that the human destructive potential of biological weapons could, with continued research and development, eventually rival that of nuclear weapons. Furthermore, once they are perfected, devastating biological weapons may be far cheaper and easier to produce than nuclear weapons, thus placing great destructive capability in the hands of many nations.

At present there are reasons to believe that biological weapons have not been brought to a degree of perfection which would make them operational for any but limited military ends. However, a number of states are known to be working in this field. In this situation, it is important to consider means for inhibiting the further development of biological weapons. A variety of proposals for accomplishing this have been discussed.

It is hoped that a series of pilot activities will be implemented in several European countries aimed at minimizing secrecy in biological research, building mutual trust and confidence and the conclusion of an agreement not to do research and development of biological weapons.

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G. <u>The Situation in Vietnam</u>

The participants in the 14th Pugwash Conference considered that the recent aggravation of military action in Southeast Asia threatens by escalation the peace of the world, and increases the suffering of the Vietnamese people. They think that reason and humanity should prevail.

Different views were expressed as to the origin of the conflict and the means for its settlement. All participants, however, agreed that means should be sought to achieve the earliest restoration of peace in this area; the United Nations should do everything in their power to achieve this.

It was agreed that the members of each national group will convey the different opinions expressed at the conference to their governments.

H. <u>The Use of Gas in War</u>

At the instruction of a plenary meeting, a Working Group prepared the following statement:

We have discussed the dangers inherent in the use of unconventional weapons. We condemn the use of gas warfare in any part of the world.

The public response to the recent use by the United States of an agent, known in the United States as a riot-control gas, in combat in South Vietnam shows how deeply this concern is felt by public opinion.

We believe there is much wisdom in this public reaction against even the most limited use of gas and even when the effects of such use are said to be no more than temporarily incapacitating.

There are two considerations which lead us to this belief:

1. There are gases of all grades of toxicity running from gases with only brief effects to lethal nerve gases. But that which is only incapacitating for a healthy adult can be deadly for an infant or a weak person. Once gas of any kind is used and the various barriers to the use of gas are broken down, there is no clear line to prevent escalation to the use of the entire range of gas weapons available.

2. If weapons said to be merely temporarily incapacitating come into general use, they would be directed against civilian populations, in cases when more destructive weapons would never have been used. Thus civilians would become exposed to military action to which they are not now subject.

I. <u>International Year for the Preparation of Disarmament</u>

To focus general attention on the necessity of disarmament and on the ways in which disarma-
ment can be safely carried out under international control, the Conference suggests that an
International Year for the preparation of Disarmament (IYPD) be proclaimed by the United
Nations and organized by the methods so successfully use in the International Geophysical
Year, the International Year of the Quiet Sun and the United Nations Freedom from Hunger
Campaign.

Governments should take the initiative in setting up National Committees of Preparation for Disarmament, in which voluntary organizations of all kinds should be invited to join.
The Committees should promote lectures in Universities, teacher-training colleges and high schools, organize public meetings, prepare suitable literature, and make full use of television, radio and other media.

The Conference suggests that a representative preparatory Committee for the holding of the IYPD be set up in which the Pugwash Movement will take an active part.

XIV W.G. 4

XIV W.G. 4

FINAL

1. Interim measures towards arms limitation or reduction.

The group considered some of the suggestions for arms limitation or reduction discussed at previous Conferences and reaffirmed the view that one of the measures to limit the arms race and one of the first steps of actual disarmament might be the destruction of bomber aircraft over the next few years, within an agreed period and without replacement. This could be done by an agreed sequence according to types of aircraft.

Taking into account that bomber aircraft are vital for the national security of some Nations which do not possess more advanced military equipment, one could begin with the major powers.

(b) *

The group discussed the problem of military bases and troops on foreign territory. We agree with the views expressed at previous Conferences that foreign troops and bases contribute to international tension, especially between the major powers, and we consider that, in the framework of general and complete disarmament, all such bases should be liquidated and all foreign troops withdrawn as soon as possible.

Having this in mind as an ultimate goal we consider that reduction in the strength and number of military units maintained in foreign bases and territories, as a step towards their gradual elimination, would make an important contribution to the relief of tension. Amongst foreign bases, those maintained against the wishes of the country in whose territory they are located have a special position. We feel that in the first place one should reduce in strength or eliminate, the bases in countries whose Governments have requested their abolition.

The Group considers that temporary difficulties which might arise in certain circumstances in connection with the elimination of foreign bases and troops, should be solved in accordance with the principles and provisions of the United Nations Charter.

* M. Messelson and Martyn abstained from approval of item 1

(b)

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The group discussed the problem how to prevent small commitments of a major power in a distant area growing into a major involvement which might ultimately escalate into a major conflict, particularly in the event of civil war.

We regard this as an important problem for further study and suggest that some thought should be given to this before the next Pugwash Conference concerned with disarmament.

Surprise attack -- The group considered briefly the problem of guarding against the possibility of surprise attack, and acquainted itself with several points of view on possible measures. There was not sufficient time to complete the discussion but we regard this as an interesting subject and suggest its inclusion in the agenda of a future Conference.

3. Extension of test ban treaty.*

The group endorsed the hope expressed at the 13th and previous Conferences that the Moscow Test Ban Treaty be extended to underground tests and to all countries, and that there be a moratorium on underground testing pending the conclusion of a treaty covering such tests. This hope has not yet been realized, and since the 13th Conference underground tests have been carried out.

The group considered the suggestion in the paper by J. Prawitz and W. Ericsson of an agreement between non-nuclear powers to pool the information from their seismic measurements, so as to give them direct means of detecting undeclared underground tests throughout the world. We regard this proposal as meriting detailed study.