These two irreconcilable symbols: The Stars and Stripes over the Grand Kremlin Palace announce that the American head of state is in residence.

HIGHLIGHTS OF
PRESIDENT NIXON'S TRIP

May 20 to June 1, 1972

Saturday, May 20—Flies from Washington to Salzburg, Austria.

Sunday, May 21—Meets with Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky; guest at luncheon given by the Chancellor at the Kobenzl Hotel.

Monday, May 22—Flies to Moscow; meets for more than two hours with Communist party General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev; guest at dinner in Granovit Hall in the Grand Kremlin Palace.

Tuesday, May 23—Meets with Soviet officials in Catherine Hall in the Grand Kremlin Palace; signs agreement on U. S. — Soviet cooperation in environmental protection; agreement on medical science and public health signed by Secretary of State William Rogers; confers with General Secretary Brezhnev for two hours in the afternoon and three additional hours in the evening.

Wednesday, May 24—Lays a wreath on Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Aleksandrov Gardens; confers with Soviet leaders; signs agreement for U. S. — Soviet cooperation in space; agreement on science and technology signed by Secretary Rogers; companies Brezhnev to country home for evening discussions.

Thursday, May 25—Meets with Soviet leaders; agreement to prevent incidents at sea between U. S. and Soviet navies signed by Secretary of Navy John Warner; attends evening performance of ballet "Swan Lake" at Bolshoi Theater.

Friday, May 26—Agrees with Soviet leaders to establish a U. S. — Soviet Commercial Commission to negotiate trade agreements; hosts dinner at Spaso House, the American Ambassador's residence; signs agreements on limitation of strategic nuclear weapons.

Saturday, May 27—Flies to Leningrad; visits Piskaryev Memorial Cemetery, honoring Leningrad's World War II dead; guest at luncheon given by City Soviet; visits Pavlovsk Summer Palace; returns to Moscow.

Sunday, May 28—Attends services at Baptist church; addresses Soviet people on television and radio.

Monday, May 29—Signs declaration of basic principles for U. S. — Soviet relations; attends farewell diplomatic reception in Kremlin's St. George's Hall; flies to Kiev.

Tuesday, May 30—Lays wreath at Tomb of Unknown Soldier in Kiev; flies to Tehran, Iran; guest at dinner given by Shah of Iran in Niavaran Palace.

Wednesday, May 31—Confers with Shah; flies to Warsaw, Poland; guest at dinner given by Polish officials.

Thursday, June 1—Confers with Polish officials; returns to Washington, proceeds directly by helicopter from airport to U. S. Capitol; reports results of the Moscow Summit before a special Joint Session of the Congress.

(Cover photo) The loneliest job in the world — a frequent description of the American Presidency — is dramatically portrayed in this view of President Nixon in a Kremlin corridor near the apartment in which he stayed during the eight days in Moscow.

Author, David C. Whitney
Managing Editor, Thomas C. Jones
Assistant Editor, Harriet B. Helmer
Photo Editor, William W. Parish
Layout, Al Josephson

Photography under the direction of Ollie Atkins, Personal Photographer to President Richard Nixon, including the work of:
Ollie Atkins, Robert Knudsen, and Jack Kightlinger of the White House
Robert Moore Director of White House Photographic Laboratory
Byron Schumaker of the Department of the Interior

Copyright © 1972 by J. G. Ferguson Publishing Company
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 72-85826

Lithographed in U.S.A.

QUEST FOR A LASTING PEACE

On January 20, 1969, moments after taking his oath of office as the 37th President of the United States, Richard Nixon declared: "I shall consecrate my office, my energies, and all the wisdom I can summon, to the cause of peace among nations." By the beginning of Mr. Nixon's fourth year in the White House, the foreign policy initiatives growing out of that inaugural pledge had paved the way for two unprecedented Presidential "journeys for peace" to the capitals of longtime Communist adversaries of the United States.

In February, 1972, the President visited the People's Republic of China, seeking a normalization of relations after more than twenty years of mutual hostility and isolation between the United States and the Peking regime. Then in May of this year he traveled to the Soviet Union, where intensive talks with leaders in Moscow produced a series of landmark agreements, including an arms limitation accord which may mark the beginning of the end of nuclear confrontation between the two superpowers.

Addressing the Congress in a special joint session only minutes after *The Spirit of '76* had landed from the final leg of his Soviet trip, Mr. Nixon summed up the high drama of the Moscow summit by recalling the picture of the American flag flying above the Kremlin Palace where he had stayed: "No one would have believed, even a short time ago, that these two apparently irreconcilable symbols would be seen together." And he spoke of the role which this trip, together with the one to Peking, may play in the larger drama of history: "An unparalleled opportunity has been placed in America's hands... to build a new structure of peace in the world." How the Stars and Stripes came to the Kremlin, and how their eight days there contributed to the world's hopes for peace, is the story told in the coming pages.

Prelude to the Trip

Plans for a U. S. - Soviet summit meeting in Moscow, under discussion for many months, were finally consummated and made public in the fall of 1971, when progress in the Berlin negotiations and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks had convinced both sides that solid achievement would now be possible at a meeting of the top leaders. Trip preparations proceeded on schedule through the spring of 1972, despite a sharp escalation of the fighting in Indochina when Hanoi committed most of its main-force army to a full-scale invasion of South Vietnam.

But early in May, following North Vietnam's rejection of renewed American initiatives for a negotiated settlement — initiatives for which Presidential advisor Henry Kissinger sought Soviet support on a private trip to Moscow — the President decided new measures were needed to counter the threat to the remaining U. S. forces in Vietnam. North Vietnamese ports would be mined, he announced in a May 8 address to the Nation, and air interdiction of other supply routes would be stepped up.

Would the result be a military confrontation with the Soviet Union — principal supplier of war materiel to Hanoi — or a cancellation of the forthcoming Moscow visit? President Nixon made clear that it need not be. The United States countermeasures to the North Vietnamese aggression, he emphasized, "are not directed against any other nation... We, the United States and the Soviet Union, are on the threshold of a new relationship that can serve not only the interests of our two countries, but the cause of world peace. We are prepared to continue to build this relationship. The responsibility is yours if we fail to do so."

Soviet determination not to fail to do so was made clear shortly, as Moscow's expected protest to the U. S. action took a relatively restrained line. When Ambassador Dobrynin and the Soviet Minister of Foreign Trade made an apparently cordial call on the President three days after the mining announcement, remaining fears that the trip would be aborted were dispelled, and final preparations went forward.

Saturday and Sunday: Austria

On Saturday morning, May 20, the President, Mrs. Nixon, and other members of the official party boarded

The President and First Lady with Chancellor Kreisky and his wife and Matthias and Christi Schmidhuber, who had presented bouquets of welcome to the Nixons at Salzburg airport.

The Spirit of '76 at Andrews Air Force Base outside Washington and took off on the first leg of the mission to Moscow. They arrived at Salzburg, Austria, about 10:30 P.M. that night, and were greeted at the airport by Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky. Anti-war demonstrations by a small crowd of young protesters, including the Chancellor's 28-year-old son, failed to mar the arrival ceremony.

Laying over for a day to adjust to the seven-hour time differential of the Soviet Union, the President spent a relaxing Sunday in Salzburg. He and Chancellor Kreisky held conversations at Schloss Klesheim, while Mrs. Nixon entertained Mrs. Kreisky at tea. Then the two couples drove to the Kobenzl Hotel several miles outside Salzburg, where the Nixons were guests of the Kreiskys for lunch.

## Monday: On to Moscow

The President flew to Moscow on Monday, May 22, arriving in the late afternoon to begin the first official visit ever made by an American chief executive to the Soviet Union. (President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1945 meeting with Churchill and Stalin at Yalta on the Black Sea had not taken him to Moscow, nor was it considered an official visit to the U.S.S.R.) For Richard Nixon, this was his fourth trip to the Soviet capital; he had first been there in 1959 as Vice President — the visit which included the famous "Kitchen Debate" with Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev — and again briefly in 1965 and 1967 as a private citizen.

The welcome at Vnukovo Airport was correct but cordial, with President Nikolai Podgorny, Premier Aleksei Kosygin, and Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko on hand to greet the Nixons. Communist party General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev, who holds no official government post despite his pre-eminence in the Soviet collective leadership, observed protocol by

The Nixons with Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky and his wife on the terrace of the Kobenzl Hotel, Salzburg, following the Chancellor's luncheon.

The President and Dr. Kissinger confer with Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky, Salzburg.

his absence from the airport reception. After the arrival
ceremonies, the Nixons were driven into the city by
limousine, along streets decorated with U. S. and
Soviet flags, to the walled fortress of the Kremlin, the
seat of the Soviet government. Their residence during
the week in Moscow was to be a handsomely appointed
seven-room suite in the Grand Kremlin Palace itself.

The formal conferences were not scheduled to begin
until the following morning, but the President had
been at the apartment a short while when he received
an invitation to meet at once with General Secretary
Brezhnev. This session, which lasted for over two
hours, helped to set a constructive and businesslike
tone for the Summit from the outset.

In the evening the American party were guests of
the entire Politburo at a state banquet in the Kremlin's
Granovit Hall. Caviar, vodka, and various Russian

Through this spectacular Kremlin doorway the official party passed from St. Vladimir's Hall into Granovit Hall for the welcoming dinner. (Below) Granovit Hall in the Grand Kremlin Palace, scene of the welcoming dinner.

delicacies highlighted the dinner in the room which
was once the family chapel of the czars.

In his welcoming toast to the President and Mrs.
Nixon, Soviet President Podgorny expressed hope for
the success of the talks and the improvement of Soviet-

American relations. "We proceed," he said, "from the
view that Soviet-American talks will promote the solu-
tion of the urgent international problems to the benefit
of the Soviet and American peoples, the peoples of
all the countries, in the interests of world peace."

Responding, President Nixon said in part: "We do
not just meet in an atmosphere of good will, which I
know we shall have; we do not just meet to conclude
agreements, which I hope we shall conclude; we meet
to begin a new age in the relationship between our
two great and powerful nations . . . Let us be worthy
of the hopes of the Soviet people, the American people
and all the people on this earth as we work together
toward the goal of a peaceful world."

Tuesday: The First Agreements

The first of a series of agreements to come out of the
Moscow summit meeting were concluded on Tuesday,
May 23. At a solemn ceremony recorded by television
cameras in the Kremlin's high-domed Vladimir Hall,
President Nixon and President Podgorny signed an
agreement for U. S. - Soviet cooperation in the field
of environmental protection. This was followed by the
signing by U. S. Secretary of State William P. Rogers
and Soviet Minister of Health Boris V. Petrovsky of
an agreement for cooperation in the fields of medical
science and public health.

The environment agreement provides for the estab-
lishment of cooperative programs in all aspects of en-
vironmental protection, such as air pollution, water
pollution, environmental changes in climate, and earth-
quake prediction, with a joint committee to meet
annually to supervise the progress of these efforts.

The health agreement provides for coordination of
American and Soviet medical research and exchanges
of information and specialists, especially on cancer
and heart disease. A joint committee will also be
established in this field.

Later on Tuesday, President Nixon and General
Secretary Brezhnev met twice more for personal dis-
cussions, a two-hour talk in the afternoon and a three-
hour talk in the evening. Though details were not
made public, the conversations were described as
"frank and businesslike" by the official Soviet news
agency Tass. The cordial personal atmosphere of the
sessions was hinted when at one of the public gather-
ings Brezhnev threw his arm around Nixon as they
clinked glasses of champagne.

Wednesday: Space and Science,
a Wreath and a Dacha

Two additional agreements were concluded on
Wednesday, May 24. The first, an agreement for co-
operative exploration and use of outer space, was

Nixon and Brezhnev make a point to Podgorny
in an informal discussion.

The President toasts Soviet leaders
Podgorny, Brezhov, and Gromyko
at the signing ceremony
of the second agreement, May 24, 1972.

Wreath-laying ceremony at Moscow's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in the Aleksandrov Gardens outside the Kremlin Wall. (Right) A Red Army soldier emotionally watches the Presidential wreath-laying ceremony in Aleksandrov Gardens.

signed in public ceremonies by President Nixon and Premier Kosygin. The second, an agreement for co-operation in science and technology, was signed for the United States by Secretary of State Rogers.

The space agreement calls for the first joint American-Soviet space flight to be held in 1975, with the docking of U. S. and Russian spacecraft in earth orbit. It signals a sharp change in direction for the two leading space powers, both of which have thought mainly in terms of space competition since the first satellites were sent aloft in the late 1950's.

The agreement on cooperation in science and technology calls for the establishment of another joint commission to supervise implementation of American-Soviet projects, including exchanges of scientists and scientific information, and joint research and development in basic and applied science.

The intense pace of what the President termed this "working summit" was indicated by the fact that it was Wednesday morning, forty hours after his arrival in Moscow, before he had a chance to get outside the Kremlin walls. At that time Mr. Nixon went to the Aleksandrov Gardens where he laid a memorial wreath on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Then it was back to the conference table for two more hours of talks with the Soviet leaders in St. Catherine's Hall at the Great Kremlin Palace.

Following the signing of the space agreement in the afternoon, Brezhnev took the President to his dacha

out in the countryside west of Moscow, where they dined informally and then resumed the talks, focusing especially on the subject of Vietnam, until far into the night.

A busy newsstand in Moscow shows a wide variety of publications.

Official party at the Bolshoi Ballet's performance of *Swan Lake*.

Scene from the Bolshoi Ballet's performance of *Swan Lake* in honor of the American guests.

### Thursday: "Chicken of the Sea" and "Swan Lake"

On Thursday, May 25, the President's fourth day in Moscow, a fifth agreement was announced, this time one more directly related to the danger of U. S. — Soviet military confrontation. This agreement, signed for the United States by Secretary of the Navy John W. Warner, contains detailed procedures to be followed by ships and planes of the U. S. and Soviet navies to end the dangerous game of "chicken" at sea, and so to lessen the chance of incidents which could lead to hostilities. This was the first high-level military agreement between the two powers since the breakup of their World War II alliance.

Except for two hours of hard — but ultimately inconclusive — bargaining with Soviet leaders on the subject of trade, the President spent most of Thursday conferring with members of his own staff. In the evening, he and Mrs. Nixon attended a performance of Tchaikovsky's ballet "Swan Lake" at the Bolshoi Theater, accompanied by Soviet officials.

## Friday: Trade and a Landmark Arms Agreement

Friday, May 26, was the final day of discussions between the President and Soviet leaders. After further talks on trade matters, an agreement was announced to establish a joint commercial commission to negotiate an overall trade agreement and decide on other matters of commercial relations. The first meeting of the commission was set for July in Moscow.

The President and Mrs. Nixon hosted a dinner for the Soviet leaders that night at Spaso House, residence of the U. S. ambassador. The all-American menu featured baked Alaska, which Brezhnev dubbed "hot ice cream," declaring, "America is a country of miracles."

In a toast to his guests, the President said:

"Every leader of a nation wonders at times how he will be remembered in history. But as I have met with the top Soviet leaders — with General Secretary Brezhnev, with Chairman Kosygin, with Chairman Pod-

gorny — I am convinced of this fact: We want to be remembered by our deeds, not by the fact that we brought war to the world, but by the fact that we made the world a more peaceful one for all peoples of the world."

Throughout the day Friday, high U. S. and Soviet officials in Moscow, as well as members of the two countries' strategic arms negotiating delegations in Helsinki, had been racing to put the finishing touches on the most important summit agreement of all: a pair of accords which would limit, for the first time ever, offensive and defensive nuclear weaponry in the arsenals of both superpowers.

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks — or SALT, as they had come to be known — had first been proposed to the Soviets by President Johnson in 1967, but it was not until late 1969 that President Nixon was actually able to get negotiations under way. With the President acting to break deadlocks at crucial points

Forty-six minutes to midnight: President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev exchange congratulations after signing the Strategic Arms Limitation Agreements, May 26, 1972.

along the way, the talks had progressed steadily until
only a handful of key issues stood in the way of an
agreement by the time the Moscow meetings began.
These were resolved in the course of several marathon
sessions between the leaders that week, setting the
stage for a last flurry of activity on May 26, with the
top negotiators arriving by air from Finland in early
evening with the final documents in hand.

The signing ceremony, televised live to the Soviet
people, took place in the glittering St. Vladimir Hall
only minutes before midnight Friday. President Nixon
signed for the United States, and General Secretary
Brezhnev — in an extraordinary gesture considering
his unofficial government status — for the U.S.S.R.

The accord is in two parts: a treaty limiting each side to two anti-ballistic missile sites, and an interim agreement imposing a five-year freeze on certain categories of land- and sea-based missiles — chiefly those where the Soviets had a heavy momentum of new deployment and the U. S. did not. Later that night Mr. Nixon's press secretary stated that the President felt the arms accord was "a historic event in every sense of the word," enhancing the security of both sides and strengthening the prospects for a lasting peace.

## Saturday and Sunday: Tanya of Leningrad

Saturday brought the first change of pace in the
President's summit work routine. Early in the morn-
ing he and Mrs. Nixon flew in a Soviet airliner with
President Podgorny to visit Leningrad — old St. Petersburg,

burg, the czarist capital of Russia for more than two
centuries. In the Baltic city huge crowds of Lenin-
graders lined the President's motorcade route, but
were held back a block or more by police and bar-
ricades.

The President and First Lady went first to Piskaryev
Cemetery, last resting place of 470,000 of the one
million persons who perished in the 900-day German
siege of the city during World War II. Following a
wreath-laying ceremony at the Tomb of the Unknown
Soldier, the President paused at a display to read from
the diary of little Tanya Savicheva, who had recorded,
one by one, the deaths of her entire family during the
siege, until only she was left. Deeply moved, the
President wrote in the cemetery's guest book: "To
Tanya and all the heroes of Leningrad."

Later, at a luncheon hosted by the Leningrad Coun-
cil of Workers Deputies, Mr. Nixon concluded his
response to the mayor's toast by saying: "I only hope
that the visit that we have had at the highest level
with the Soviet leaders will have contributed to that
kind of world in which the little Tanyas and their
brothers and their sisters will be able to grow up in a
world of peace and friendship among people . . . all
people in the world." After the luncheon, the Presi-
dent and Mrs. Nixon toured the Pavlovsk museum,
formerly a summer palace of the czars. In the evening
the Nixons flew back to Moscow.

On Sunday the Nixons attended services at the
All-Union Baptist church in Moscow. The President

Honor guard passes in review be-
fore the President and the Mayor
of Leningrad, at Piskaryev Mem-
orial Cemetery.

spent most of the day preparing for what was perhaps the most dramatic communications event in the history of U. S. - Soviet relations - a speech which was to be broadcast live on radio and television that evening to the Soviet people, and simultaneously by satellite to the American people.

Speaking on the air from the Green Room of the Kremlin at 8:30 Sunday evening, the President keyed his message to the Soviet people with these words: "As great powers, we shall sometimes be competitors, but we need never be enemies." Besides the greetings, spoken in Russian, with which he began and ended the half-hour talk, Mr. Nixon drew on Russian proverbs and folk tales for a homespun quality which one high-ranking Soviet journalist said "hit just the right tone for the average man watching in his living room." He reminded his listeners that Russians and Americans are similar peoples in many ways; that they made common cause in World War II; and that "a new road of cooperation" can now open up before the two countries once again.

At the end he turned once again to the tragic story of Tanya, the schoolgirl whose diary he had read in Leningrad. "Let us do all that we can," he said, "to insure that no other children will have to endure what Tanya did, and that your children and ours, all the children of the world, can live their full lives together in friendship and in peace."

Journalists in press center at the Intourist Hotel watch telecast of the President's speech to the Soviet people.

## Monday: A Map, a Farewell

On his last day in Moscow, Monday, May 29, the President joined General Secretary Brezhnev in signing a twelve-point declaration entitled "Basic Principles of Relations between the United States and the U.S.S.R." This document, without precedent in Soviet-American diplomacy, was later compared by Mr. Nixon to a road map. Though time alone can tell whether the two countries will follow it, it does set forth guidelines for a radically new relationship between the two longtime adversaries.

The twelve points are:

1. Common determination that differences in ideology and social systems need not be obstacles to peaceful coexistence.

2. Renunciation of the use or threat of force.

3. Recognition of special responsibility to avert conflicts or situations which increase international tensions.

4. Intention to faithfully implement agreements and treaties.

5. Intention to increase contacts between government officials and representatives of the two countries.

6. Commitment to continued arms limitation efforts, with the ultimate objective of complete disarmament.

7. Intention to actively promote increased commercial and economic ties.

8. Intention to develop contacts and cooperation in science and technology.

9. Intention to promote cultural exchanges and tourism.

10. Readiness to establish permanent joint commissions in fields of mutual interest.

11. Pledge neither to assert, nor to recognize on the part of others, claims to special rights or advantages in world affairs.

12. Recognition that the above principles do not affect previous obligations by the U. S. or U.S.S.R. to other countries.

A comprehensive and detailed joint communiqué also was issued, summarizing the various agreements that had been reached and recording the outcome of discussions on a number of other topics. In the communiqué both countries voiced agreement on preliminary steps leading to a European conference on security and cooperation and to special talks on mutual and balanced reduction of forces in Central Europe. They called for a peaceful settlement of differences between Israel and the Arab states, supporting United Nations peace efforts in the Middle East. They set forth their separate viewpoints on Indochina.

Diplomats, churchmen, and other dignitaries were among the guests at the Soviet farewell reception in the Kremlin's St. George Hall.

After the signing of the declaration of principles in the Kremlin's St. Vladimir Hall, a farewell reception for the American party was held in St. George's Hall. More than a thousand guests were on hand, including the diplomatic corps, prelates of the Russian Orthodox church, and the entire Politburo. While the guests attacked a huge and lavish buffet, a band played "Oh Susanna!" and other American tunes. President Nixon chatted with reporters, conversed intently with a group of Soviet cosmonauts, and joked with General Secretary Brezhnev about the American and Russian words each had learned during the many hours of talks in the past eight days.

The departure from Vnukovo Airport was routine except for trouble with one of the four engines on the Soviet jetliner on which the President, as a courtesy to the host country, was to fly to Kiev. After a brief delay the party transferred to another Soviet plane which had been standing by. When Premier Kosygin

jokingly asked what should be done with the Soviet Air Minister because of the trouble, the President recommended promoting him — since the trouble had been detected before they got airborne. Finally, after one more round of farewells, the Presidential party left for Kiev, the capital of the Soviet Ukraine, about an hour behind schedule.

## The Home Stretch: Kiev, Tehran, Warsaw

A large crowd waving Soviet and American flags greeted the President at the airport in Kiev, and more thousands of Ukrainians lined the streets for a glimpse of his motorcade. That evening he and Mrs. Nixon were guests at a dinner given by Soviet officials at Mariinsky Palace. The President toasted his hosts, saying, "We should drink tonight to the heroes who fought in war and the heroes who have rebuilt this city in peace and, we trust, to the new leadership to which our two countries, the Soviet Union and the

The Nixons with Iran's royal couple before the State Dinner at Niavaran Palace, Tehran.

United States, may contribute by which the world may have a period in which the tragedy of war will never again be visited upon this city or any other city like it in the world."

On Tuesday, May 30, the President laid a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Kiev's Park of Eternal Glory to the Soldiers of the Great Patriotic War. Then he and Mrs. Nixon toured St. Sophia's Cathedral and Museum.

Tuesday afternoon the Presidential party enplaned again, heading far south and east to Tehran, the capital of Iran. Hundreds of thousands of Iranians, cheering and openly demonstrative in contrast to the silent Soviet crowds of past days, lined the five-mile motorcade route which took the President to Shahyad, the monument commemorating the 2,500th anniversary of the Persian Empire. There the mayor of Tehran presented the President with a key to the city, and then the President and the Shah of Iran drove to Saadabad Palace for private discussions.

In the evening the Shah honored the President and Mrs. Nixon with a state dinner at the Niavaran Palace. In a toast, the Shah reviewed the good rela-

tions that have existed between the United States and Iran for more than a century and a half, and complimented the President on the success of his journeys to China and the U.S.S.R. The President praised Iran's dynamism and the leadership of the Shah, and reaffirmed America's conviction that its free world friendships and alliances must be the starting point of all efforts for peace.

Three terrorist bomb explosions early Wednesday in Tehran prompted tighter security measures, but it seemed clear the violence was not directed at the person of the President. Mr. Nixon proceeded with his schedule as planned; a wreath-laying at the tomb of Riza Shah, father of the present monarch, then further discussions with the Shah at Saadabad Palace. The Nixons entertained the Shah and his wife at a luncheon, where warm and friendly toasts were again exchanged. The Presidential party then departed for Warsaw, the capital of Poland.

The President and Mrs. Nixon were greeted at Warsaw's airport by Poland's President Henryk Jabłonski and Prime Minister Piotr Jaroszewicz. On the ride into the city from the airport along a flag-lined route, many Poles had turned out to welcome the American visitors, though at first there was none of the tumultuous enthusiasm which had marked Vice President Nixon's 1959 visit to Poland.

However, when the motorcade stopped at Victory Square, where the President laid a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, that feeling began to surge up. The crowd of several thousand which had gathered in the square cheered lustily when the President waved to them. As he and Mrs. Nixon got into an open-roofed car and prepared to depart, the crowd broke through the police lines and pushed forward, chanting, "Nixon! Nixon!" and "Sto lat" (May you live a hundred years.) The President climbed out of the car, pushed past security guards, and spent several minutes shaking hands in the sea of friendly Poles. Finally the motorcade proceeded on to the Parliament building, where the Nixons were greeted by Edward Gierek, leader of Poland's Communist party.

On Wednesday evening, the Nixons attended a state dinner given for them at the Palace of the Council of Ministers. In his remarks, Prime Minister Jaroszewicz called attention to the fact that this was the first visit ever made by a President of the United States to Poland, and expressed the hope that it signalled better relations between Poland and the United States. In his response, the President said in part, "... the world knows that no country in the world has suffered more from war than has Poland. And so, in a very real sense, peace in the world means peace for Poland and, therefore, it is fitting that we should

end in this capital what we hope will be recorded in history as a Journey for Peace."

On Thursday the President called on President Jablonski and met for further talks with Communist party secretary Gierek. At the conclusion of the discussions a joint communiqué was issued describing the various topics covered, with emphasis on plans for broadening trade relations, the creation of a joint Polish-American Trade Commission, and the opening of new consular offices in both countries. After hosting a luncheon for Polish leaders, the President and Mrs. Nixon boarded *The Spirit of '76* for the return flight to the United States.

## Home Again: Report to the Congress

The Warsaw to Washington flight on the afternoon of June 1, last leg of a trek which covered more than 16,000 air miles in all, took ten hours. As the white fastnessess of the Greenland icecap sped beneath the plane, the President spent part of the time napping, more of it taking stock of the past thirteen days and polishing the speech he would give before the Joint Session of the Congress that night. A five-hour trans-Atlantic time gain put the travelers on the runway at Andrews just after 9 P.M. Washington time, and within moments they were airborne again, headed for

Wilanow Palace, the Nixons' residence during their stay in Warsaw.

Warsaw crowd strains for a glimpse of the President.

an unprecedented helicopter arrival on the floodlit
East Plaza of the U. S. Capitol.

Waiting there were the Nixon daughters, Julie
Eisenhower and Tricia Cox, who gave their parents
a warm welcome home as live television coverage
began. When Mrs. Nixon entered her box in the
gallery of the House of Representatives, she received
a standing ovation from the assembled dignitaries, as
did the President a few minutes later when he
mounted the rostrum at the front of the chamber. The
less than 36 hours notice given law makers on the
Joint Session had caught about half of each House
absent on election-year travel away from Washington;
but those in attendance showed bipartisan enthusiasm
for the Chief Executive's message, interrupting him
with applause a dozen times or more.

He recognized, Mr. Nixon began by saying, that the
request to address this special session was extraordi-
nary. But — he asserted — so was the mission which
had occasioned that request.

"The foundation has been laid for a new relation-
ship between the two most powerful nations in the
world," the President explained. "Now it is up to us
... to all of us here in this Chamber, and to all of us
across America ... to join with other nations in build-
ing a new house upon that foundation, one that can
be a home for the hopes of mankind and a shelter
against the storms of conflict ...

"Three-fifths of all the people alive in the world
today have spent their whole lifetimes under the
shadow of a nuclear war which could be touched off

by the arms race among the great powers. Last Friday
in Moscow we witnessed the beginning of the end of
that era which began in 1945. We took the first step
toward a new era of mutually agreed restraint and
arms limitation between the two principal nuclear
powers.

"With this step we have enhanced the security of
both nations. We have begun to check the wasteful
and dangerous spiral of nuclear arms which has dom-
inated relations between our two countries for a gen-
eration. We have begun to reduce the level of fear by
reducing the causes of fear, for our two peoples and
for all peoples in the world ...

"For decades, America has been locked in hostile
confrontation with the two great Communist powers,
the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China.
We were engaged with the one at many points and
almost totally isolated from the other, but our relation-
ships with both had reached a deadly impasse. All
three countries were victims of the kind of bondage
about which George Washington long ago warned in
these words: 'The nation which indulges toward an-
other an habitual hatred . . . is a slave to its [own]
animosity.'

"But now in the brief space of four months, these
journeys to Peking and to Moscow have begun to free
us from perpetual confrontation. We have moved
toward better understanding, mutual respect, and
point-by-point settlement of differences with both the
major Communist powers . . .

"An unparalleled opportunity has been placed in
America's hands. Never has there been a time when
hope was more justified or when complacency was
more dangerous. We have made a good beginning.
And because we have begun, history now lays upon
us a special obligation to see it through. We can seize
this moment or we can lose it; we can make good this
opportunity to build a new structure of peace in the
world, or let it slip away. Together, therefore, let us
seize the moment so that our children and the world's
children live free of the fears and free of the hatreds
that have been the lot of mankind through the
centuries.

"Then the historians of some future age will write
of the year 1972, not that this was the year America
went up to the summit and then down to the depths
of the valley again — but that this was the year when
America helped to lead the world up out of the low-
lands of constant war, and onto the high plateau of
lasting peace."

WHILE
THE PRESIDENT WORKED
... THE FIRST LADY
TOURED AND SHOPPED

While the President spent most of his time in Moscow closeted in the Kremlin for the talks which produced such a dazzling array of agreements, Pat Nixon made every moment count in her role of unofficial goodwill ambassador to the Soviet people.

Events during Mrs. Nixon's first moments on Soviet soil set the tone of color and warmth for her whirlwind schedule in the days ahead. As she stepped down from *The Spirit of '76*, she was presented with a bouquet of red carnations. On her way to the limousine which would take her to the Kremlin, she paused to greet a group of children of American diplomats stationed in Moscow.

At the state dinner that first night, the American First Lady charmed her hosts, wearing a short blue and silver dress with silver sandals. Most of the Russian women at the dinner wore black.

Tuesday morning Mrs. Nixon was off early to visit a school; with her were Mrs. Brezhnev, wife of the Communist party leader; Mrs. Gromyko, wife of the Foreign Minister, and Mrs. Dobrynin, wife of the Soviet Ambassador to the United States. In addition fifty or more newsmen, cameramen, and security agents tagged along. Though her Russian hostesses seemed ruffled at times by the jostling of the newsmen, Mrs. Nixon maintained her customary good spirits and jaunty attitude.

The First Lady with one of her hostesses, Mrs. Andrei Gromyko, in front of St. Basil's Church on Red Square.

Pat Nixon visits a Soviet classroom.

Scenes at the Bolshoi School of Choreography during Mrs. Nixon's visit, when the students performed for her.

At the school, she looked in on a first-grade reading class, hugging one small girl who had recited a poem. She tasted cookies in a home economics class, and watched a basketball practice.

Then in the afternoon Mrs. Nixon went for a ride on the Moscow subway — to the amazement of hundreds of Russian straphangers. Despite the accompany-

ing crowd of security men and reporters, Mrs. Nixon also got a glimpse of the art that makes the Moscow subway famous.

Wednesday morning the First Lady visited the sky-
scraper Moscow University, touring museum displays
on geography and geology. That afternoon she went
shopping at the GUM department store, buying sev-

Fashion show in the
First Lady's honor
at the All-Union Fashion House.

Crown jewels at the Kremlin: one of the treasures viewed by Mrs. Nixon on her walking tour.

Nixon prepared for his television speech to the Soviet people on Sunday, Mrs. Nixon went on a walking tour of the Kremlin, admiring exhibits of armor, antique ceremonial carriages, and jewelry.

The torrent of applause which greeted her in the House Chamber on homecoming night indicated that the First Lady was a gracious and effective partner in the success of the summit mission — and that the American people know it.

Mrs. Nixon at Moscow's
largest clock
and watch factory.

## OFFICIAL GIFTS: A CADILLAC AND A HYDROFOIL

At President Nixon's two summit meetings in 1972, some new changes have been rung on the old custom of exchanging gifts between visiting heads of state. The presents at Peking seemed to take a zoological line — rare musk oxen and porcelain swans from the American side, prize pandas from the Chinese. In Moscow the theme was more technological.

Learning of Communist party General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev's penchant for luxury automobiles, President Nixon presented him with a 1972 Cadillac donated by General Motors. Brezhnev already had a Citroen-Maserati and a Renault presented to him by France's President Pompidou during a state visit last year; his collection also includes a Rolls Royce.

The Communist leader, not to be outdone, presented the American President with a 28-foot hydrofoil speedboat. Mr. Nixon had been given a ride in a similar boat at Brezhnev's dacha, and had expressed admiration for it.

The Nixons' gift to the people of the Soviet Union was a porcelain-and-gold chess set designed by American artist Harry Burger, Jr. The chessmen, each five to seven inches tall, represent various mythical figures

The Nixons presented to the Polish people this pair of original portrait drawings of American Indians—Apache and Shoshone—by Boleslaw Cybis, a Polish born naturalized American citizen.

inspired by an ancient tapestry called "The Nine Heroes."

Each of the Soviet leaders was presented with a specially designed clock encased in glass and set in minerals from various parts of the United States, including petrified wood from California, granite from Tennessee, and volcanite from Utah.

The wives of the Soviet leaders were given large porcelain arrangements of birds and flowers designed by the late Edward Marshall Boehm.

## AGREEMENTS REACHED IN MOSCOW

* **Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection.** This Agreement calls for cooperative efforts to control pollution of the earth's environment. (May 23)

* **Agreement on Cooperation in Medical Science and Public Health.** This agreement calls for joint efforts to promote a general improvement in health with exchanges of information and specialists. (May 23)

* **Agreement on Cooperation in Space.** The United States and the Soviet Union agreed to cooperate in various projects for the exploration and use of outer space. (May 24)

* **Agreement on Cooperation in Science and Technology.** The two countries agreed to establish closer and more regular cooperation among scientific and technical organizations and specialists of both countries. (May 24)

* **Agreement To Prevent Incidents On and Over the Sea.** The United States and the Soviet Union agreed on procedures to prevent incidents between their naval ships and planes which might lead to war. (May 25)

* **Agreement to Create a U.S.-Soviet Joint Commercial Commission.** President Nixon and Soviet leaders agreed to establish the commission to work out an overall trade agreement between the two nations. (May 26)

* **Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems.** This agreement restricts ABM deployments by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. to two sites, totaling 200 missiles, for each country. (May 26)

* **Interim Agreement on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms.** The other half of a landmark effort to check the nuclear arms race, this accord places a five-year freeze on certain categories of land-based and submarine-launched strategic missiles. (May 26)

* **Basic Principles of Relations.** This 12-point declaration lays down guidelines for the conduct of future relations between the long-implacable Cold War adversaries, based on what the document calls "the common determination that in the nuclear age there is no alternative to . . . peaceful coexistence." (May 29)

SPECIFIC DETAILS OF AGREEMENTS REACHED IN MOSCOW

● AGREEMENT ON COOPERATION IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

On May 23, 1972, President Nixon and Soviet President Nikolai Podgorny signed an agreement for U.S.-Soviet cooperation to control pollution of the environment. The text follows:

The Government of the United States of America and the
Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics;

Attaching great importance to the problems of environmen-
tal protection;

Proceeding on the assumption that the proper utilization of contemporary scientific, technical and managerial achievements can, with appropriate control of their undesirable consequences, make possible the improvement of the interrelationship between man and nature;

Considering that the development of mutual cooperation in the field of environmental protection, taking into account the experience of countries with different social and economic systems, will be beneficial to the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as to other countries;

Considering that economic and social development for the
benefit of future generations requires the protection and
enhancement of the human environment today;

Desiring to facilitate the establishment of closer and long-
term cooperation between interested organizations of the two
countries in this field;

In accordance with the Agreement between the United
States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
on Exchanges and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Edu-
cational, Cultural, and Other Fields in 1972-1973, signed April
11, 1972, and developing further the principles of mutually
beneficial cooperation between the two countries;

Have agreed as follows:

ARTICLE I

The Parties will develop cooperation in the field of environ-
mental protection on the basis of equality, reciprocity, and
mutual benefit.

ARTICLE II

This cooperation will be aimed at solving the most impor-
tant aspects of the problems of the environment and will be
devoted to working out measures to prevent pollution, to study
pollution and its effect on the environment, and to develop
the basis for controlling the impact of human activities on
nature.

It will be implemented, in particular, in the following areas:

-air pollution;

-water pollution;

-environmental pollution associated with agricultural pro-
duction;

-enhancement of the urban environment;

-preservation of nature and the organization of preserves;

-marine pollution;

-biological and gentle consequences of environmental pol-
lution;

-influence of environmental changes on climate;

-earthquake prediction;

-arctic and subarctic ecological systems;

-legal and administrative measures for protecting environ-
mental quality.

In the course of this cooperation the Parties will devote
special attention to joint efforts improving existing technologies
and developing new technologies which do not pollute the
environment, to the introduction of these new technologies into
everyday use, and to the study of their economic aspects.

The Parties declare that, upon mutual agreement, they will
share the results of such cooperation with other countries.

ARTICLE III

The Parties will conduct cooperative activities in the field
of environmental protection by the following means:

-exchange of scientists, experts and research scholars;

Henry Kissinger confers with the President outside the Nixons'
quarters in the Grand Kremlin Palace; at left, Major John
Brennan, Marine aide to the President.

- organization of bilateral conferences, symposia and meetings of experts;

- exchange of scientific and technical information and documentation, and the results of research on environment;

- joint development and implementation of programs and projects in the field of basic and applied sciences;

- other forms of cooperation which may be agreed upon in the course of the implementation of this Agreement.

### ARTICLE IV

Proceeding from the aims of this Agreement the Parties will encourage and facilitate, as appropriate, the establishment and development of direct contacts and cooperation between institutions and organizations, governmental, public and private, of the two countries, and the conclusion, where appropriate, of separate agreements and contracts.

### ARTICLE V

For the implementation of this Agreement a US-USSR Joint Committee on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection shall be established. As a rule this Joint Committee shall meet once a year in Washington and Moscow, alternately. The Joint Committee shall approve concrete measures and programs of cooperation, designate the participating organ-

izations responsible for the realization of these programs and make recommendations, as appropriate, to the two Governments.

Each Party shall designate a coordinator. These co-ordinators, between sessions of the Joint Committee, shall maintain contact between the United States and Soviet parts, supervise the implementation of the pertinent cooperative programs, specify the individual sections of these programs and coordinate the activities of organizations participating in environmental cooperation in accordance with this Agreement.

### ARTICLE VI

Nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prejudice other agreements concluded between the two Parties.

### ARTICLE VII

This Agreement shall enter into force upon signature and shall remain in force for five years after which it will be extended for successive five year periods unless one Party notifies the other of the termination thereof not less than six months prior to its expiration.

The termination of this Agreement shall not affect the validity of agreements and contracts between interested institutions and organizations of the two countries concluded on the basis of this Agreement.

## AGREEMENT ON COOPERATION IN MEDICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH

On May 23, 1972, during President Nixon's mission to Moscow, U.S. Secretary of State William P. Rogers and Soviet Minister of Health Boris V. Petrovsky signed an agreement for cooperation between the two countries in the fields of medical science and public health. The text follows:

Realizing the significance which medical science and public health have for mankind today;

Recognizing the desirability of joining in a common effort to promote their further development;

Desiring to promote the broadening of cooperation in this field, and by so doing to promote a general improvement in health;

Desiring to reaffirm the understanding reached in the Letters of Agreement between the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare of the United States of America and the Ministry of Health of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, signed February 11, 1972;

And in accordance with the Agreement between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Exchanges and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Educational, Cultural, and Other Fields, signed April 11, 1972;

Have agreed as follows:

### ARTICLE I

The Parties undertake to develop and extend mutually beneficial cooperation in the field of medical science and public health. By mutual agreement and on the basis of reciprocity, they will determine the various directions of this cooperation, proceeding from the experience acquired by the Parties in the course of previous contacts, visits, and exchanges.

The Parties agree to direct their initial joint efforts toward combating the most widespread and serious diseases, such as cardio-vascular and oncological diseases, because of the major threat they pose to man's health, toward solving the problems associated with the effects of the environment on man's health, as well as toward the resolution of other important health problems.

### ARTICLE II

The cooperation provided for in the preceding article may be implemented specifically in the following ways:

- Coordinated scientific research programs and other activities in health fields of mutual interest;

- Exchanges of specialists and delegations;

- Organization of colloquia, scientific conferences and lectures;

- Exchange of information;

- Familiarization with technical aids and equipment.

### ARTICLE III

The Parties will encourage and facilitate the establishment of direct and regular contacts between United States and Soviet medical institutions and organizations.

The Parties will also encourage and facilitate exchanges of equipment, pharmaceutical products, and technological developments related to medicine and public health.

### ARTICLE IV

The Parties will continue to provide assistance to international medical organizations, specifically the World Health Organization, and will afford these organizations the opportunity of drawing on the knowledge gained by the Parties, including knowledge gained in the course of their joint efforts.

### ARTICLE V

The Parties will delegate the practical implementation of this Agreement to the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Joint Committee for Health Cooperation. The Joint Committee shall periodically work out specific programs of cooperation, creating working subgroups whenever necessary, and shall be responsible for supervising implementation of these programs.

### ARTICLE VI

Cooperation shall be financed on the basis of reciprocal agreements worked out by the Joint Committee, using the resources of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare of the United States of America and the Ministry of Health of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as the resources of institutions participating in direct interinstitutional cooperation.

### ARTICLE VII

This Agreement shall enter into force upon signature and shall remain in force for five years, after which it will be extended for successive five-year periods unless one Party notifies the other of the termination thereof not less than six months prior to its expiration.

## AGREEMENT ON COOPERATION IN SPACE

On May 24, 1972, President Nixon and Premier Aleksei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union in exploring and using outer space. The text follows:

The United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics;

Considering the role which the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. play in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes;

Striving for a further expansion of cooperation between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes;

Noting the positive cooperation which the parties have already experienced in this area;

Desiring to make the results of scientific research gained from the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes available for the benefit of the peoples of the two countries and of all peoples of the world;

Taking into consideration the provisions of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space;

In accordance with the Agreement between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Exchanges and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Educational, Cultural, and Other Fields, signed April 11, 1972, and in order to develop further the principles of mutually beneficial cooperation between the two countries:

Have agreed as follows:

### ARTICLE I

The parties will develop cooperation in the fields of space meteorology; study of the natural environment; exploration of near earth space, the moon and the planets; and space biology and medicine; and, in particular, will cooperate to take all appropriate measures to encourage and achieve the fulfillment of the Summary of Results of Discussion on Space Cooperation Between the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. dated January 21, 1971.

### ARTICLE II

The parties will carry out such cooperation by means of mutual exchanges of scientific information and delegations, through meetings of scientists and specialists of both countries, and also in such other ways as may be mutually agreed. Joint working groups may be created for the development and implementation of appropriate programs of cooperation.

### ARTICLE III

The Parties have agreed to carry out projects for developing compatible rendezvous and docking systems of United States and Soviet manned spacecraft and stations in order to enhance the safety of manned flights in space and to provide the opportunity for conducting joint scientific experiments in the future. It is planned that the first experimental flight to test these systems be conducted during 1975, envisaging the docking of a United States Apollo-type spacecraft and a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft with visits of Astronauts in each other's spacecraft. The implementation of these projects will be carried out on the basis of principles and procedures which will be developed in accordance with the Summary of Results of the Meeting Between Representatives of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences on the Question of Developing Compatible Systems for Rendezvous and Docking of Manned Spacecraft and Space Stations of the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. dated April 6, 1972.

### ARTICLE IV

The Parties will encourage international efforts to resolve problems of international law in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes with the aim of strengthening the legal order in space and further developing international space law and will cooperate in this field.

### ARTICLE V

The Parties may by mutual agreement determine other areas of cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes.

### ARTICLE VI

This Agreement shall enter into force upon signature and shall remain in force for five years. It may be modified or extended by mutual agreement of the Parties.

## AGREEMENT ON COOPERATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On May 24, 1972, during President Nixon's mission to Moscow, U.S. Secretary of State William P. Rogers and Soviet Chairman of the State Committee for Science and Technology Vladimir A. Kirillin signed an agreement for U.S.-Soviet cooperation in the fields of science and technology. The text follows:

Recognizing that benefits can accrue to both countries from the development of cooperation in the fields of science and technology;

Wishing to assist in establishing closer and more regular cooperation between scientific and technical organizations of both countries;

Taking into consideration that such cooperation will serve to strengthen friendly relations between both countries;

In accordance with the Agreement between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Exchanges and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Educational, Cultural, and Other Fields, signed April 11, 1972, and in order to develop further the mutually beneficial cooperation between the two countries;

Have agreed as follows:

### ARTICLE I

Both Parties pledged themselves to assist and develop scientific and technical cooperation between both countries on the basis of mutual benefit, equality and reciprocity.

### ARTICLE II

The main objective of this cooperation is to provide broad opportunities for both Parties to combine the efforts of their scientists and specialists in working on major problems, whose solution will promote the progress of science and technology for the benefit of both countries and of mankind.

### ARTICLE III

The forms of cooperation in science and technology may include the following:

a. Exchange of scientists and specialists;

b. Exchange of scientific and technical information and documentation;

c. Joint development and implementation of programs and projects in the fields of basic and applied sciences;

d. Joint research, development and testing, and exchange of research results and experience between scientific research institutions and organizations;

e. Organization of joint courses, conferences and symposia;

f. Rendering of help, as appropriate, on both sides in establishing contacts and arrangements between United States firms and Soviet enterprises where a mutual interest develops; and

g. Other forms of scientific and technical cooperation as may be mutually agreed.

### ARTICLE IV

1. Pursuant to the aims of this Agreement, both Parties will, as appropriate, encourage and facilitate the establishment and development of direct contacts and cooperation between agencies, organizations and firms of both countries and the conclusion, as appropriate, of implementing agreements for particular cooperative activities engaged in under this Agreement.

2. Such agreements between agencies, organizations and enterprises will be concluded in accordance with the laws of both countries. Such agreements may cover the subjects of cooperation, organizations engaged in the implementation of projects and programs, the procedures which should be followed, and any other appropriate details.

### ARTICLE V

Unless otherwise provided in an implementing agreement, each Party or participating agency, organization or enterprise shall bear the costs of its participation and that of its personnel in cooperative activities engaged in under this Agreement, in accordance with existing laws in both countries.

### ARTICLE VI

Nothing in this Agreement shall be interpreted to prejudice other agreements in the fields of science and technology concluded between the Parties.

### ARTICLE VII

1. For the implementation of this Agreement there shall be established a US-USSR Joint Commission on Scientific

and Technical Cooperation. Meetings will be convened not less than once a year in Washington and Moscow, alternately.

2. The Commission shall consider proposals for the development of cooperation in specific areas; prepare suggestions and recommendations, as appropriate, for the two Parties: develop and approve measures and programs for implementation of this Agreement; designate, as appropriate, the agencies, organizations or enterprises responsible for carrying out cooperative activities; and seek to assure their proper implementation.

3. The Executive Agent, which will be responsible for assuring the carrying out on its side of the Agreement, shall be, for the United States of America, the Office of Science and Technology in the Executive Office of the President and, for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers for Science and Technology. The Joint Commission will consist of United States and Soviet delegations established on an equal basis of which the chairmen and members are to be designated by the respective Executive Agents with approval by the respective Parties. Regulations regarding the operation of the Commission shall be agreed by the chairmen.

4. To carry out its functions the Commission may create temporary or permanent joint subcommittees, councils or working groups.

5. During the period between meetings of the Commission additions or amendments may be made to already approved cooperative activities, as may be mutually agreed.

### ARTICLE VIII

1. This Agreement shall enter into force upon signature and shall remain in force for five years. It may be modified or extended by mutual agreement of the Parties.

2. The termination of this Agreement shall not affect the validity of agreements made hereunder between agencies, organizations and enterprises of both countries.

## AGREEMENT TO PREVENT INCIDENTS ON AND OVER THE SEA

On May 25, 1972, during President Nixon's mission to Moscow, U.S. Secretary of the Navy John W. Warner and Soviet Admiral Sergei G. Gorshkov signed an agreement to prevent incidents between ships and planes of the two countries on and over the sea. The text follows:

The Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,

Desiring to assure the safety of navigation of the ships of their respective Armed Forces on the high seas and flight of their military aircraft over the high seas, and

Guided by the principles and rules of international law,

Have decided to conclude this Agreement and have agreed as follows:

### ARTICLE I

For the purposes of this Agreement, the following definitions shall apply:

1. "Ship" means:

(A) A warship belonging to the naval forces of the Parties bearing the external marks distinguishing warships of its nationality, under the command of an officer duly commissioned by the government and whose name appears in the navy list, and manned by a crew who are under regular naval discipline;

(B) Naval auxiliaries of the Parties, which include all naval ships authorized to fly the naval auxiliary flag where such a flag has been established by either party.

2. "Aircraft" means all military manned heavier-than-air and lighter-than-air craft, excluding space craft.

3. "Formation" means an ordered arrangement of two or more ships proceeding together and normally maneuvered together.

### ARTICLE II

The Parties shall take measures to instruct the commanding officers of their respective ships to observe strictly the letter and spirit of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, hereinafter referred to as the Rules of the Road. The Parties recognize that their freedom to conduct operations on the high seas is based on the principles established under recognized international law and codified in the 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas.

Henry Kissinger, Secretary of State Rogers, and Peter Flanigan confer in President Nixon's suite in the Kremlin.

Navy Secretary John W. Warner and Admiral Sergei Gorshkov of the Soviet Navy exchange congratulations after signing the agreement on prevention of incidents at sea.

ARTICLE III

1. In all cases ships operating in proximity to each other, except when required to maintain course and speed under the Rules of the Road, shall remain well clear to avoid risk of collision.

2. Ships meeting or operating in the vicinity of a formation of the other Party shall, while conforming to the Rules of the Road, avoid maneuvering in a manner which would hinder the evolutions of the formation.

3. Formations shall not conduct maneuvers through areas of heavy traffic where internationally recognized traffic separation schemes are in effect.

4. Ships engaged in surveillance of other ships shall stay at a distance which avoids the risk of collision and also shall avoid executing maneuvers embarrassing or endangering the ships under surveillance. Except when required to maintain course and speed under the Rules of the Road, a surveillant shall take positive early action so as, in the exercise of good seamanship, not to embarrass or endanger ships under surveillance.

5. When ships of both parties maneuver in sight of one another, such signals (flag, sound, and light) as are prescribed by the Rules of the Road, the International Code of Signals, or other mutually agreed signals, shall be adhered to for signalling operations and intentions.

6. Ships of the Parties shall not simulate attacks by aiming guns, missile launchers, torpedo tubes, and other weapons in the direction of a passing ship of the other Party, not launch any object in the direction of passing ships of the other Party, and not use searchlights or other powerful illumination devices to illuminate the navigation bridges of passing ships of the other Party.

7. When conducting exercises with submerged submarines, exercising ships shall show the appropriate signals prescribed by the International Code of Signals to warn ships of the presence of submarines in the area.

8. Ships of one Party when approaching ships of the other Party conducting operations as set forth in rule 4(C) of the Rules of the Road, and particularly ships engaged in

launching or landing aircraft as well as ships engaged in replenishment underway, shall take appropriate measures not to hinder maneuvers of such ships and shall remain well clear.

ARTICLE IV

Commanders of aircraft of the Parties shall use the greatest caution and prudence in approaching aircraft and ships of the other Party operating on and over the high seas, in particular, ships engaged in launching or landing aircraft, and in the interest of mutual safety shall not permit: simulated attacks by the simulated use of weapons against aircraft and ships, or performance of various aerobatics over ships, or dropping various objects near them in such a manner as to be hazardous to ships or to constitute a hazard to navigation.

ARTICLE V

1. Ships of the Parties operating in sight of one another shall raise proper signals concerning their intent to begin launching or landing aircraft.

2. Aircraft of the Parties flying over the high seas in darkness or under instrument conditions shall, whenever feasible, display navigation lights.

ARTICLE VI

Both Parties shall:

1. Provide through the established system of radio broadcasts of information and warning to mariners, not less than 3 to 5 days in advance as a rule, notification of actions on the high seas which represent a danger to navigation or to aircraft in flight.

2. Make increased use of the informative signals contained in the International Code of Signals to signify the intentions of their respective ships when maneuvering in proximity to one another. At night or in conditions of reduced visibility, or under conditions of lighting and such distances when signal flags are not distinct, flashing light should be used to inform ships of maneuvers which may hinder the movements of others or involve a risk of collision.

3. Utilize on a trial basis signals additional to those in the International Code of Signals, submitting such signals to the Intergovernment Maritime Consultative Organization for its consideration and for the information of other States.

ARTICLE VII

The Parties shall exchange appropriate information concerning instances of collisions, incidents which result in damage, or other incidents at sea between ships and aircraft of the Parties. The United States Navy shall provide such information through the Soviet Naval Attache in Washington and the Soviet Navy shall provide such information through the United States Naval Attache in Moscow.

ARTICLE VIII

This Agreement shall enter into force on the date of its signature and shall remain in force for a period of three years. It will thereafter be renewed without further action by the Parties for successive periods of three years each.

This agreement may be terminated by either Party upon six months written notice to the other Party.

ARTICLE IX

The Parties shall meet within one year after the date of the signing of this Agreement to review the implementation of its terms. Similar consultations shall be held thereafter annually, or more frequently as the Parties may decide.

ARTICLE X

The Parties shall designate members to form a committee which will consider specific measures in conformity with this Agreement. The committee will, as a particular part of its work, consider the practical workability of concrete fixed distances to be observed in encounters between ships, aircraft, and ships and aircraft. The committee will meet within six months of the date of signature of this Agreement and submit its recommendations for decision by the Parties during the consultations prescribed in Article IX.

## ● TREATY ON THE LIMITATION OF ANTI-BALLISTIC MISSILE SYSTEMS

On May 26, 1972, President Nixon and Communist General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev signed a treaty limiting anti-ballistic missiles—the first arms limitation treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union. The treaty required ratification by the U.S. Senate, but both leaders pledged to live up to its provisions immediately. The text follows:

The United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, hereinafter referred to as the Parties,

Proceeding from the premise that nuclear war would have devastating consequences for all mankind,

Considering that effective measures to limit anti-ballistic missile systems would be a substantial factor in curbing the race in strategic offensive arms and would lead to a decrease in the risk of outbreak of war involving nuclear weapons,

Proceeding from the premise that the limitation of anti-ballistic missile systems, as well as certain agreed measures with respect to the limitation of strategic offensive arms, would contribute to the creation of more favorable conditions for further negotiations on limiting strategic arms,

Mindful of their obligations under Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons,

Declaring their intention to achieve at the earliest possible date the cessation of the nuclear arms race and to take effective measures toward reductions in strategic arms, nuclear disarmament, and general and complete disarmament,

Desiring to contribute to the relaxation of international tension and the strengthening of trust between States,

Have agreed as follows:

### ARTICLE I

1. Each Party undertakes to limit anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems and to adopt other measures in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty.

2. Each Party undertakes not to deploy ABM systems for a defense of the territory of its country and not to provide a base for such a defense, and not to deploy ABM systems for defense of an individual region except as provided for in Article III of this Treaty.

### ARTICLE II

1. For the purpose of this Treaty an ABM system is a system to counter strategic ballistic missiles or their elements in flight trajectory, currently consisting of:

(a) ABM interceptor missiles, which are interceptor missiles constructed and deployed for an ABM role, or of a type tested in an ABM mode:

(b) ABM launchers, which are launchers constructed and deployed for launching ABM interceptor missiles; and

(c) ABM radars, which are radars constructed and deployed for an ABM role, or of a type tested in an ABM mode.

2. The ABM system components listed in paragraph 1 of this Article include those which are:

(a) operational;

(b) under construction;

(c) undergoing testing;

(d) undergoing overhaul, repair or conversion; or

(e) mothballed.

### ARTICLE III

Each Party undertakes not to deploy ABM systems or their components except that:

(a) within one ABM system deployment area having a radius of one hundred and fifty kilometers and centered on the Party's national capital, a Party may deploy: (1) no more than one hundred ABM launchers and no more than one hundred ABM interceptor missiles at launch sites, and (2) ABM radars within no more than six ABM radar complexes, the area of each complex being circular and having a diameter of no more than three kilometers; and

(b) within one ABM system deployment area having a radius of one hundred and fifty kilometers and containing ICBM silo-launchers, a Party may deploy: (1) no more than one hundred ABM launchers and no more than one hundred ABM interceptor missiles at launch sites, (2) two large phased-array ABM radars comparable in potential to corresponding ABM radars operational or under construction on the date of signature of the Treaty in an ABM system deployment area containing ICBM silo launchers, and (3) no more than eighteen ABM radars each having a potential less than the potential of the smaller of the above-mentioned two large phased-array ABM radars.

### ARTICLE IV

The limitations provided for in Article III shall not apply to ABM systems or their components used for development or testing, and located within current or additionally agreed test ranges. Each Party may have no more than a total of fifteen ABM launchers at test ranges.

The President and Dr. Kissinger crossing an inner courtyard at the Kremlin going to or from talks or a signing ceremony.

### ARTICLE V

1. Each Party undertakes not to develop, test, or deploy ABM systems or components which are sea-based, air-based, space-based, or mobile land-based.

2. Each Party undertakes not to develop, test, or deploy ABM launchers for launching more than one ABM interceptor missile at a time from each launcher, nor to modify deployed launchers to provide them with such a capability, nor to develop, test, or deploy automatic or semi-automatic or other similar systems for rapid reload of ABM launchers.

### ARTICLE VI

To enhance assurance of the effectiveness of the limitations on ABM systems and their components provided by this Treaty, each Party undertakes:

(a) not to give missiles, launchers, or radars, other than ABM interceptor missiles, ABM launchers, or ABM radars, capabilities to counter strategic ballistic missiles or their elements in flight trajectory and not to test them in an ABM mode; and

(b) not to deploy in the future radars for early warning of strategic ballistic missile attack except at locations along the periphery of its national territory and oriented outward.

### ARTICLE VII

Subject to the provisions of this Treaty, modernization and replacement of ABM systems or their components may be carried out.

### ARTICLE VIII

ABM systems or their components in excess of the numbers or outside the areas specified in this Treaty, as well as ABM systems or their components prohibited by this Treaty, shall be destroyed or dismantled under agreed procedures within the shortest possible agreed period of time.

### ARTICLE IX

To assure the viability and effectiveness of this Treaty, each Party undertakes not to transfer to other States, and not to deploy outside its national territory, ABM systems or their components limited by this Treaty.

### ARTICLE X

Each Party undertakes not to assume any international obligations which would conflict with this Treaty.

### ARTICLE XI

The Parties undertake to continue active negotiations for limitations on strategic offensive arms.

### ARTICLE XII

1. For the purpose of providing assurance of compliance with the provisions of this Treaty, each Party shall use national technical means of verification at its disposal in a manner consistent with generally recognized principles of international law.

2. Each Party undertakes not to interfere with the national technical means of verification of the other Party operating in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article.

3. Each Party undertakes not to use deliberate concealment measures which impede verification by national technical

means of compliance with the provisions of this Treaty. This obligation shall not require changes in current construction, assembly, conversion, or overhaul practices.

### ARTICLE XIII

1. To promote the objectives and implementation of the provisions of this Treaty, the Parties shall establish promptly a Standing Consultative Commission, within the framework of which they will:

(a) consider questions concerning compliance with the obligations assumed and related situations which may be considered ambiguous;

(b) provide on a voluntary basis such information as either Party considers necessary to assure confidence in compliance with the obligations assumed;

(c) consider questions involving unintended interference with national technical means of verification;

(d) consider possible changes in the strategic situation which have a bearing on the provisions of this Treaty;

(e) agree upon procedures and dates for destruction or dismantling of ABM systems or their components in cases provided for by the provisions of this Treaty;

(f) consider, as appropriate, possible proposals for further increasing the viability of this Treaty, including proposals for amendments in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty;

(g) consider, as appropriate, proposals for further measures aimed at limiting strategic arms.

2. The Parties through consultation shall establish, and may amend as appropriate, Regulations for the Standing Consultative Commission governing procedures, composition and other relevant matters.

### ARTICLE XIV

1. Each Party may propose amendments to this Treaty. Agreed amendments shall enter into force in accordance with the procedures governing the entry into force of this Treaty.

2. Five years after entry into force of this Treaty, and at five-year intervals thereafter, the Parties shall together conduct a review of this Treaty.

### ARTICLE XV

1. This Treaty shall be of unlimited duration.

2. Each Party shall, in exercising its national sovereignty, have the right to withdraw from this Treaty if it decides that extraordinary events related to the subject matter of this Treaty have jeopardized its supreme interests. It shall give notice of its decision to the other Party six months prior to withdrawal from the Treaty. Such notice shall include a statement of the extraordinary events the notifying Party regards as having jeopardized its supreme interests.

### ARTICLE XVI

1. This Treaty shall be subject to ratification in accordance with the constitutional procedures of each Party. The Treaty shall enter into force on the day of the exchange of instruments of ratification.

2. This Treaty shall be registered pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

## • INTERIM AGREEMENT ON THE LIMITATION OF STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE ARMS

On May 26, 1972, President Nixon and Communist party General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev signed an executive agreement limiting offensive atomic weapons, or intercontinental ballistic missiles. Although the agreement took effect upon signing, President Nixon later asked both houses of the Congress to ratify it. The text follows:

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America hereinafter referred to as the Parties,

Convinced that the Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems and this Interim Agreement on Certain Measures with Respect to the Limitation of Strategic

Offensive Arms will contribute to the creation of more favorable conditions for active negotiations on limiting strategic arms as well as to the relaxation of international tension and the strengthening of trust between States,

Taking into account the relationship between strategic offensive and defensive arms,

Have agreed as follows:

### ARTICLE I

The Parties undertake not to start construction of additional

President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev at the signing ceremony of the SALT agreement in St. Vladimir Hall at the Kremlin, May 26, 1972.

fixed land-based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) launchers after July 1, 1972.

### ARTICLE II

The Parties undertake not to convert land-based launchers for light ICBMs, or for ICBMs of older types deployed prior to 1964, into land-based launchers for heavy ICBMs of types deployed after that time.

### ARTICLE III

The Parties undertake to limit submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) launchers and modern ballistic missile submarines to the numbers operational and under construction on the date of signature of this Interim Agreement, and in addition launchers and submarines constructed under procedures established by the Parties as replacements for an equal number of ICBM launchers of older types deployed prior to 1964 or for launchers on older submarines.

### ARTICLE IV

Subject to the provisions of this Interim Agreement, modernization and replacement of strategic offensive ballistic missiles and launchers covered by this Interim Agreement may be undertaken.

### ARTICLE V

1. For the purpose of providing assurance of compliance with the provisions of this Interim Agreement, each Party shall use national technical means of verification at its disposal in a manner consistent with generally recognized principles of international law.

means of compliance with the provisions of this Interim Agreement. This obligation shall not require changes in current construction, assembly, conversion, or overhaul practices.

### ARTICLE VI

To promote the objectives and implementation of the provisions of this Interim Agreement, the Parties shall use the Standing Consultative Commission established under Article XIII of the Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems in accordance with the provisions of that Article.

### ARTICLE VII

The Parties undertake to continue active negotiations for limitations on strategic offensive arms. The obligations provided for in this Interim Agreement shall not prejudice the scope or terms of the limitations on strategic offensive arms which may be worked out in the course of further negotiations.

### ARTICLE VIII

1. This Interim Agreement shall enter into force upon exchange of written notices of acceptance by each Party, which exchange shall take place simultaneously with the exchange of instruments of ratification of the Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems.

2. This Interim Agreement shall remain in force for a period of five years unless replaced earlier by an agreement on more complete measures limiting strategic offensive arms. It is the objective of the Parties to conduct active follow-on negotiations with the aim of concluding such an agreement as soon as possible.

3. Each Party shall, in exercising its national sovereignty, have the right to withdraw from this Interim Agreement if it decides that extraordinary events related to the subject matter of this Interim Agreement have jeopardized its supreme interests. It shall give notice of its decision to the other Party six months prior to withdrawal from this Interim Agreement. Such notice shall include a statement of the extraordinary events the notifying Party regards as having jeopardized its supreme interests.

## PROTOCOL

TO THE INTERIM AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS ON CERTAIN MEASURES WITH RESPECT TO THE LIMITATION OF STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE ARMS

Having agreed on certain limitations relating to submarine-launched ballistic missile launchers and modern ballistic missile submarines, and to replacement procedures, in the Interim Agreement,

Have agreed as follows:

The Parties understand that, under Article III of the Interim Agreement, for the period during which that Agreement remains in force:

The US may have no more than 710 ballistic missile launchers on submarines (SLBMs) and no more than 44 modern ballistic missile submarines. The Soviet Union may have no more than 950 ballistic missile launchers on submarines and no more than 62 modern ballistic missile submarines.

Additional ballistic missile launchers on submarines up to the above-mentioned levels, in the U.S.—over 656 ballistic missile launchers on nuclear-powered submarines, and in the U.S.S.R.—over 740 ballistic missile launchers on nuclear-powered submarines, operational and under construction, may become operational as replacements for equal numbers of ballistic missile launchers of older types deployed prior to 1964 or of ballistic missile launchers on older submarines.

The deployment of modern SLBs on any submarine, regardless of type, will be counted against the total level of SLBs permitted for the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.

This Protocol shall be considered an integral part of the Interim Agreement.

● BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RELATIONS

On May 29, 1972, President Nixon and Communist party General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev signed a declaration of basic principles to be followed by the United States and the Soviet Union to promote peaceful relations and coexistence. The text follows:

Guided by their obligations under the Charter of the United Nations and by a desire to strengthen peaceful relations with each other and to place these relations on the firmest possible basis,

Aware of the need to make every effort to remove the threat of war and to create conditions which promote the reduction of tensions in the world and the strengthening of universal security and international cooperation.

Believing that the improvement of US-Soviet relations and their mutually advantageous development in such areas as economics, science and culture, will meet these objectives and contribute to better mutual understanding and business-like cooperation, without in any way prejudicing the interests of third countries,

Conscious that these objectives reflect the interests of the peoples of both countries,

Have agreed as follows:

*First.* They will proceed from the common determination that in the nuclear age there is no alternative to conducting their mutual relations on the basis of peaceful coexistence. Differences in ideology and in the social systems of the USA and the USSR are not obstacles to the bilateral development of normal relations based on the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in internal affairs and mutual advantage.

*Second.* The USA and the USSR attach major importance to preventing the development of situations capable of causing a dangerous exacerbation of their relations. Therefore, they will do their utmost to avoid military confrontations and to prevent the outbreak of nuclear war. They will always exercise restraint in their mutual relations, and will be prepared to negotiate and settle differences by peaceful means. Discussions and negotiations on outstanding issues will be conducted in a spirit of reciprocity, mutual accommodation and mutual benefit.

Both sides recognize that efforts to obtain unilateral advantage at the expense of the other, directly or indirectly, are inconsistent with these objectives. The prerequisites for maintaining and strengthening peaceful relations between the USA and the USSR are the recognition of the security interests of the Parties based on the principle of equality and the renunciation of the use or threat of force.

*Third.* The USA and the USSR have a special responsibility, as do other countries which are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, to do everything in their power so that conflicts or situations will not arise which would serve to increase international tensions. Accordingly, they will seek to promote conditions in which all countries will live in peace and security and will not be subject to outside interference in their internal affairs.

*Fourth.* The USA and the USSR intend to widen the juridical basis of their mutual relations and to exert the necessary efforts so that bilateral agreements which they have concluded and multilateral treaties and agreements to which they are jointly parties are faithfully implemented.

*Fifth.* The USA and the USSR reaffirm their readiness to continue the practice of exchanging views on problems of mutual interest and, when necessary, to conduct such exchanges at the highest level, including meetings between leaders of the two countries.

The two governments welcome and will facilitate an increase in productive contacts between representatives of the legislative bodies of the two countries.

*Sixth.* The Parties will continue their efforts to limit armaments on a bilateral as well as on a multilateral basis. They will continue to make special efforts to limit strategic armaments. Whenever possible, they will conclude concrete agreements aimed at achieving these purposes.

The USA and the USSR regard as the ultimate objective of their efforts the achievement of general and complete disarmament and the establishment of an effective system of international security in accordance with the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

*Seventh.* The USA and the USSR regard commercial and economic ties as an important and necessary element in the strengthening of their bilateral relations and thus will actively promote the growth of such ties. They will facilitate co-operation between the relevant organizations and enterprises of the two countries and the conclusion of appropriate agreements and contracts, including long-term ones.

The two countries will contribute to the improvement of maritime and air communications between them.

*Eighth.* The two sides consider it timely and useful to develop mutual contacts and cooperation in the fields of science and technology. Where suitable, the USA and the USSR will conclude appropriate agreements dealing with concrete cooperation in these fields.

*Ninth.* The two sides reaffirm their intention to deepen cultural ties with one another and to encourage fuller familiarization with each other's cultural values. They will promote improved conditions for cultural exchanges and tourism.

*Tenth.* The USA and the USSR will seek to ensure that their ties and cooperation in all the above-mentioned fields and in any others in their mutual interest are built on a firm and long-term basis. To give a permanent character to these efforts, they will establish in all fields where this is feasible joint commissions or other joint bodies.

*Eleventh.* The USA and the USSR make no claim for themselves and would not recognize the claims of anyone else to any special rights or advantages in world affairs. They recognize the sovereign equality of all states.

The development of U.S.-Soviet relations is not directed against third countries and their interests.

*Twelfth.* The basic principles set forth in this document do not affect any obligations with respect to other countries earlier assumed by the USA and the USSR.