THE OFFICIAL STATEMENT FROM THE 12TH PUGWASH CONFERENCE ON SCIENCE AND WORLD AFFAIRS.

FOR RELEASE

FEBRUARY 1, 1964

The 12th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs was held in Udaipur, India, from January 27 to February 1, 1964. Among the 56 participants from 25 countries, 10 each were from USA and USSR, and 6 each from UK and India. In addition there were 10 observers.

Disarmament and Measures for Collective Security

The Conference has reviewed recent progress in the reduction of tensions and the limitation of armaments. We have noted with satisfaction the agreement between the governments of the USSR and the USA not to orbit objects with nuclear weapons and the decisions of these governments to reduce their military budgets--events which have occurred since our last meeting. Nevertheless, we are still faced with the central problem of achieving concrete and substantial measures of disarmament by the great powers.

We recognize that the Moscow Test Ban Treaty of August 5, 1963, is a significant step towards general and complete disarmament and the course of events since then has justified the hopeful expectations it has created.

We believe that the adoption, in particular by the nuclear powers, of balanced measures requiring no control, by way of the policy of mutual example, would make a valuable contribution to the restriction of the arms race and the improvement of the international atmosphere. Such measures could include the further reduction of military budgets and of armed forces, withdrawals of troops on foreign soil and closings of foreign military bases.

We recommend that an agreement be reached, along the lines of the proposal made in the letter of Chairman Khrushchev of 31 December, 1963 and the response of President Johnson of 20 January, 1964, which would re-affirm the obligations of the UN charter and prohibit the use of force in settling any territorial dispute or question of frontiers.

The Moscow Test Ban Treaty has made the acquisition of nuclear weapons capability by other nations less likely. At the same time it places on the two major nuclear powers, who continue to maintain nuclear weapons, a heavy responsibility to give ever increasing content to the policy of peaceful coexistence so that they may with full effect make their contribution to safeguarding international security. It is therefore essential to strengthen the U.N. system for safeguarding the security of weaker nations by cooperation of the U.S. and U.S.S.R. who should assume special responsibility for this

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purpose within the framework of the U.N. To the extent that such a guar-
antee of security and territorial integrity of all nations, particularly
of the non-aligned nations, becomes effective, it would stimulate reduc-
tions in the armaments of non-nuclear nations thereby releasing resources
for advancing their economic progress. It would also facilitate further
steps towards general and complete disarmament.

In view of the continuing dangers of the spread of nuclear weapons
and delivery systems, we believe the following additional measures to be
necessary: (1) all nations presently possessing nuclear weapons should
jointly undertake not to transfer these weapons or technical information
relating to them to any other state or group of states; (2) all nations
not possessing nuclear weapons should undertake not to produce such wea-
pons or to acquire them or the special technical information necessary for
their production; and (3) the government of each of the nuclear powers
should take whatever measures may be open to it to prevent its nationals
with experience in the field of nulcear-weapons technology from contributing
to the development of the nuclear-weapons capacity of any foreign power.

The concept of a nuclear umbrella or minimum deterrent force, which
we have been discussing in our conferences since 1960, to be maintained by
the two great nuclear powers during the process of general and complete dis-
armament, is of major importance in providing the necessary guarantee against
aggression by hidden weapons. We welcome the proposal of the U.S.S.R. to ex-
tend it to the end of the disarmament process. We regard the possibility of
agreement on the principles of a nuclear umbrella or minimum deterrent force
to offer one of the most hopeful avenues to reach agreement on comprehensive
disarmament under effective controls.

In the long run we must realize that disarmament will be neither
general nor complete unless all nations, including the People's Republic of
China, adhere to the agreements. Wholehearted adherence of the People's Re-
public of China will be made more likely if she is brought into the disarm-
ament deliberations soon. In view of this, we urge that steps be taken which
will make it possible for her to participate in the discussions and to take
her place as a member of the United Nations family.

The Relation Between the Economic Problems of
Developing Nations and World Security

The conference also discussed the relation between the economic prob-
lems of the developing nations and world security. The two greatest problems
facing mankind today are the achievement of disarmament and the elimination
of poverty. Both are of special concern to scientists. It is the advance of
science which has opened up the vast possibilities of destruction and produc-
tion that lie before us today. Both require for their solution a new sense
of international responsibility; members of each nation must acknowledge by
action that their fate is bound up with the security and prosperity of the
members of all other nations.

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The conclusion of an agreement on general and complete disarmament would make it possible for advanced nations to divert large resources to the development of developing nations. For example, an increase in aid by an amount equivalent to even one-fourth or one-fifth of the total saving in military expenditure, as a consequence of general and complete disarmament, could, if accompanied by good planning and implementation of programmes for development, be expected roughly to double the present rate of economic growth of the underdeveloped countries.

But the promise of more aid at the time of disarmament must not be an excuse for not giving more aid now. In the light of recent events, when some cuts in military expenditure were not accompanied by increased aid, we strongly feel that it would help to remove misapprehensions and provide reassurance, if the leaders of the advanced nations were to reaffirm now their intention to divert to the under-developed countries as high a proportion as possible of the resources released by disarmament. Economic aid should not be linked to military and political conditions.

Disarmament in the developing countries themselves would release resources for development. The armed forces of the developing nations, like those of the advanced nations, would be reduced to the minimum level necessary to maintain law and order.

There are several ways in which a start might be made upon greater international co-operation now. The advanced nations may contribute jointly to capital funds, they may work jointly on major projects (e.g. dams) in the developing nations, and they may send joint teams of experts. We urge that these teams, wherever practically advisable, should have a truly international composition not only in the top administration, but also in the field.

The trading position of the developing countries has suffered grave-
ly from the deterioration in their terms of trade over the past decade. More-
over as they develop they will require increasing markets in the advanced
countries for semi-manufactures and finished manufactures, which they will be
able to supply in addition to primary products. The advanced countries can
greatly help the developing countries through trade. We welcome the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development, which is going to tackle these
problems, and we hope that participation will be open to all nations regard-
less whether or not they are members of the United Nations. We particularly
welcome any measures which promote trade and economic co-operation between
East and West.

Science and Technology for Developing Countries

Modern science and technology have provided the instruments that could
lead to a brilliant future for mankind. But the brutal fact is that half the
human race lives in misery and degradation. The economic gap between the ad-
vanced and the developing countries is widening. If this gap is allowed to
grow, as it must in the absence of substantial aid, it is bound to threaten
world peace and security.

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The hope of solving the problems of poverty depends, above all, on
men learning to work together. How shall we make wise international invest-
ments for the creation of a better world? How can we produce in the poor
countries a sufficient and growing number of well qualified scientists and
engineers? How can we improve education at all levels? What is the best
way to prevent the loss of scientists from the poor countries to the rich
ones?

Assistance by the more prosperous countries to the developing nations
is an investment in a better world. To be effective, it needs to be long con-
tinued and maintained at a much higher level than at present. Allocations for
assistance should be independent of any measure of disarmament, but it is ma-
nifest that substantial progress in disarmament could release great resources,
a considerable fraction of which could be devoted to raising the productive
capacities of the newly developing countries. This would be a modern version
of beating swords into ploughshares.

Generally, we would like to see an ever widening degree of interna-
tionalism in economic relations, including co-operative planning for the de-
velopment of the world's resources.

In the common interest of all nations, aid to developing countries
must be removed from the context of the cold war. There are two principal
means of doing this and we urge statesmen to explore both. One is through
the multilateral agencies (though we believe both bilateral and multilater-
al aid will continue to be needed), the other is through common enterprises
in which East and West collaborate in carrying out large development pro-
jects--for example, a joint attack on the salinity problem in the Punjab.

Advances in science and technology are even now opening up new sour-
ces of wealth outside the jurisdiction of national states. We suggest that
now, while the situation is still in flux, the question be explored of giv-
ing the U.N. jurisdiction over outer space, the oceans outside recognized
national jurisdiction, and Antarctica, this jurisdiction to include exclu-
sive rights to regulate activities in these areas, for the benefit of the
developing countries.

All past experience in the advanced countries shows that the return
on investments in research, both pure and applied, can be very high, indeed
higher than in almost any other areas.

We believe that similar investments in the developing countries will
yield similar returns. Such investments should be limited only by the avail-
ability of persons competent to undertake the work, and these investments
should be rapidly increased year by year until they reach the order of 2-3
percent of the gross national product.

Each nation should undertake those kinds of research which are most
important for its development and which it can best do. Each region of the
world offers particular opportunities and every nation can contribute to
world science. For the most part, research in developing nations, as in
others, should be applied. Local problems involving the economic develop-
ment of the nation should be identified and explored. These problems will
range from those of basic geology and geophysics to plant physiology and

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genetics, and from the economics of development to the sociology and bio-
logy of human reproduction.

Developing nations, like the more advanced ones, are faced with the
double task of engaging in research necessary for their economic growth and
at the same time of training expanding numbers of competent research workers.
Research institutes formed for the purpose of expediting research in specia-
lized areas should be closely connected with the universities. The leading
research personnel should teach in the universities, and graduate students
should be encouraged to conduct their research in the institutes.

Universities anywhere, but especially in developing countries, can-
not hope to be excellent in all fields. Initially, each university in a
developing country should concentrate on a few areas for research, and train-
ing in research, which are particularly important to that country. Inter-
change of staff and research students with universities in the advanced coun-
tries should be encouraged by every possible means. To be truly effective,
such cooperation between universities must go far beyond what has happened
in the past. The developing countries have great opportunities to become
leaders in many fields of the social and natural sciences, where they can
offer unique facilities for research.

Scientists and engineers of East and West, North and South, can work
together on scientific and technical problems of development. For example,
research is required on soil-salinity control in the Indus plains of India
and Pakistan. Soil scientists from the U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. could gain val-
uable insights and mutual understanding by working together on this critical
problem.

Means must particularly be sought through the international scientific unions, and in other ways, to help individual scientists from the rich and poor countries to work together.

The formation of international youth teams, possibly under the aus-
pices of the United Nations, in which young specialists and technicians from
East and West, North and South, could work together on specific projects un-
der the supervision of senior experts could also be useful. Possible examples
are health teams and geological survey teams.

The disparity in the conditions of work, in status, and in salaries,
between scientists in the developing and the advanced countries must be re-
duced. This would be the best way to avoid the tragic loss of many of the
ablest and best trained young men from the poor countries.

A scientific attitude must pervade the whole of the educational pro-
cess in the schools. The methods of teaching science in the developing coun-
tries can be greatly improved by the use of new teaching techniques and by
continued research in ways of better teaching.

In the development process, the stage of identifying and analyzing
the major problems of a country or region will almost always involve a mul-
ti-disciplinary approach, in which engineers, agronomists, operational ana-
lysts, natural scientists, sociologists, economists, specialists in public
administration, and humanists concerned with the traditions and the values

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of the people, must all work together. A good analysis is the least expensive step in the development process; yet it can multiply manifold the effectiveness of large development expenditures. If the analysis is to be acceptable to the developing country, its representatives must participate in organizing the analysis. For these and other reasons, the stage of analysis is one in which the U.N. agencies can play an essential role.

We recommend the establishment within the United Nations family of a semi-autonomous institute or commission for resources analyses. Its members would be those nations which wish to cooperate in making or using multidisciplinary analyses of development problems. Its programmes would be worked out and approved by conferences of the member states. But the work would be paid for by the countries in which the analytical teams were situated and by other countries interested in the problem. Thus, the budget of the institution itself could be relatively small. One of its essential functions would be the training of teams from the developing countries on the methods of analyses and data interpretation.

We suggest that UNESCO should play an important role in establishing and sponsoring the new organization, but other specialized agencies of the United Nations should also be intimately involved.

To strengthen UNESCO for its newly assumed tasks of helping to apply science and technology for development, the National Commissions for UNESCO in each member country should contain many more natural and social scientists and engineers. National liaison agencies with UNESCO should include those concerned with science and technology as well as the ministries of education.

We believe that a semi-autonomous world health research centre under the sponsorship of the World Health Organization could be useful to the developing countries if its field operations included support of and collaboration with existing research laboratories in those countries, and the establishment of regional laboratories for specific needs such as the study of tropical communicable diseases.

The developing countries have experienced great difficulties in obtaining trustworthy and sufficiently complete technical information on industrial processes and the design of machinery and plants for industry. We urge the U.N. and the specialized agencies to do much more towards developing industrial consulting services, reference--collections of technological information, and a central exchange to publicise the needs in the developing countries for specific technical and industrial knowledge.

Studies on an international scale should be undertaken on the problems of population growth and its impact on economic development

Attached are letters from President L. B. Johnson, Nikita Khrushchev, and Jawaharlal Nehru.

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TEXT OF PRESIDENT L. B. JOHNSON'S LETTER
TO PUGWASH CONFERENCE IN INDIA

"I am pleased to extend my greetings to another Conference on Science and World Affairs. You have addressed yourself to the problems of disarmament and a stable peace. I share with you the belief that these are the central issues of our time.

During the past year, we have made a start towards the goal of a peaceful, disarmed world in which all the nations can feel secure and can develop their own way of life.

My predecessor, John F. Kennedy, worked very hard for the Limited Test Ban Treaty which most nations of the world have now signed. He had my full support in this -- we both believed our most important task is to learn to live together in peace. Reducing the possibilities of nuclear destruction is essential to that task. The Treaty was an important first step and must be followed by others.

During the coming fiscal year, the United States will cut back the production of enriched uranium by 25 per cent and will shut down four plutonium production reactors. We have also made other significant cuts in our projected military budget. It is my hope that similar measures will be adopted by other nations and that such national actions be followed by international agreement on disarmament measures. I am confident that these agreements would help to decrease the fear and mistrust between nations.

I have followed the proceedings of your earlier conferences. They are a serious attempt to achieve new solutions to old problems. I look forward to new ideas in this field. In your last meeting, a suggestion was made to exchange officers between the military establishments in certain areas of Europe. Let me assure you that this suggestion as well as any other new ideas will be studied thoroughly by me and by this Government in our continued effort to achieve workable disarmament.

We also appreciate the important responsibility which we and other economically advanced nations have in assisting the less developed nations in their efforts to abolish poverty. We recognize that failure to advance toward this goal is also a hazard to world peace. It is entirely appropriate that this conference should take place in India, where so much has been accomplished toward contributing to world peace.

My Government is working hard on these many problems of peace. Their solution will require the collective wisdom of men from many countries. In that spirit, I wish you every success for your conference."

TEXT OF NIKITA KHRUSHCHEV'S LETTER TO
PUGWASH CONFERENCE IN INDIA

"On behalf of the Soviet Government and personally I extend heartfelt greetings to the participants in the 12th Pugwash Conference who have assembled to discuss problems of disarmament and international security. These are complex and important problems affecting the destinies of all the peoples of the world. The settlement of these problems can no longer be left entirely to statesmen and diplomats. The scientists of the world who possess the treasure of scientific knowledge and who are cognisant of their responsibility to mankind are in a position to make a constructive contribution to the struggle for ensuring a lasting peace.

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The past year has given the people a new hope of a relaxation of the war danger. Tangible results have been achieved in the struggle for peace, and, worthy of particular mentioning, is the conclusion of the Moscow Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water. These, however, are but initial steps. There is a long road ahead, before mankind is delivered from the nightmare of a thermo-nuclear catastrophe: the build up of lethal armaments should be stopped, practical measures should be achieved in the field of general and complete disarmament, conditions should be created in the world under which no disputes among states, including territorial and frontier claims were settled by the force of weapons. Huge resources which are now squandered in the flames of war preparations should be turned to the service of society and should be used first of all to struggle against poverty and privations of peoples who suffer from the aftermath of colonialism.

Certainly, all this won't come by itself. Life demands from all the peoples of good will and from scientists in particular to be more active, more insistent and to display more courage in the struggle for stronger peace, for general and complete disarmament.

I wish to assure you that the Soviet Government, for its part, will do everything it can, to facilitate the attainment of these lofty objectives. May I refer, for example's sake, to a measure like the recent Soviet reduction of allocations from defence and to the plan of another reduction of the armed forces of the Soviet Union.

May I express the hope that the results of your conference would promote the settlement of the problem of disarmament and the strengthening of international security. With all my heart, I wish all of you every success in this dignified endeavor."

## TEXT OF JAWAHARLAL NEHRU'S LETTER TO PUGWASH CONFERENCE IN INDIA

"I have great pleasure in extending my cordial greetings to the participants to the 12th Session of the Pugwash Conference in Science and World Affairs. I was looking forward to meeting you in Udaipur during your deliberations, but, unfortunately, my current indisposition has denied me that privilege.

As you know, the first in the series of these highly important conferences was to be held in India in January 1957. The present session being held in Udaipur this month is, therefore, the fulfillment of a long-cherished desire of the Government of India and myself.

During the last seven years or so, the Pugwash Movement has, under the able leadership of its Continuing Committee, made noteworthy contribution to the efforts of the international community to find solutions to the difficult problems which it faces today. I am happy to see, therefore, that the Udaipur session has selected the two most urgent and vital aspects of the basic problem of world security and peace, namely, disarmament and development. It is the progress achieved in man's efforts towards general and complete disarmament and towards improvement in the living standards of the people, particularly of the developing nations, of the world that will determine humanity's future on this planet of ours.

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The Pugwash scientists have played a significant and positive role in this endeavour. Many of the ideas put forward by them have helped the statesmen of the world to arrive at some welcome understandings on the issues of arms control and reduction of international tension. We, in India, in common with the rest of mankind, particularly welcome the partial Test Ban Treaty which has now been subscribed to by over a hundred nations. Certain steps taken recently towards demilitarization of outer space are yet another step forward. I trust the participants at the Udaipur Conference will, in their deliberations, devote their talents and their wisdom to suggest further ideas on development of international understanding and building of mutual confidence.

I am particularly glad to note that the Udaipur Session is devoting special attention to the economic problems of developing nations and of the application of science and technology in dealing with these problems. The scientists of the world have a special responsibility in this field and the contribution they can make in providing positive guidelines for the international community in general and the developed nations in particular will be of great benefit to the people of the developing countries and to humanity as a whole.

I wish the Udaipur Session all success in their deliberations."

12 February 1964

To: Academy Committee on P-COSWA

From: B. T. Feld

Re: Report on Udaipur Conference

1. UDAIPUR

The 12th Pugwash Conference in Udaipur, India, Jan. 27 - Feb. 1, took place in surroundings of splendor and elegance. The Conference had two main themes: disarmament and development. Of the four working groups, two were concerned with each of these subjects.

As may be concluded from the enclosed reports of the working groups, the groups on development produced a great deal more, both in quantity and quality, than did those concerned with disarmament. There are a number of reasons: first, too little time had elapsed since the last discussions at Dubrovnik for much new to develop; second, the Russian group was largely new (its leader, Millionschikov, was attending his first Pugwash) and correspondingly tended to be cautious and conservative; third, a large part of the discussions were devoted to attempts at education and clarification -- mainly of the effects of ABM deployment on stability of the arms race and on the nature of the nuclear umbrella -- without attempting to achieve a consensus; the report of Group I hardly reflects the length and depth of these discussions. (Incidentally, although there is a tendency on the part of some of our group to interpret the rather negative attitude of the Russian group to our proposal of an uninspected moratorium on ABM, as indicating that the Russians are in process of deploying an ABM system, I do not believe that there is any evidence yet, one way or another, that this decision has been taken by the Soviet authorities; it seems more likely to me that the group at Udaipur was simply neither knowledgeable nor influential enough to feel it could commit itself to anything like so sophisticated a position as we were urging upon them.) What we did achieve was the beginnings of a useful discussion which, provided we circulate sufficient good material sufficiently well in advance of the next conference, could be fruitfully carried forward next September in Czechoslovakia.

Since the working group reports were only presented to the Conference for acceptance (rather than for adoption) there was relatively little friction in accepting them (with the exception of one section of the Group II report which, apparently, went rather further ahead of current Soviet policy than their group as a whole was willing to go).

The difficulties arose in the discussion of a Conference press release, of which a draft, prepared by a small committee appointed at the start of the Conference, was presented after lunch of the last day. The wrangling over words and phrases was long and at times acrimonious, lasting until about 9 p.m. at which point a long and silly discussion took place over a paragraph about China, and it was finally decided to leave the adoption of a summary of the Group IV report to the Continuing Committee. (Actually, this last summary, an accurate reflection of the content of the Group IV report, except for some emasculation of the section on population control, was adopted on the next day by the Continuing Committee without any difficulty.)

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A copy of the final press release will be sent to you under separate cover by Ruth Adams.

One of the results of this session was the agreement by the Continuing Committee that there would be no release from the Conference as a whole at the next Conference.

The Continuing Committee met before and after the Conference. There follows a brief summary of some of its main conclusions.

## 2. NEXT CONFERENCE - Czechoslovakia, Sept 9 - 19, 1964.

At the suggestion of the American group, the next conference will be both longer and larger than previous ones on the disarmament theme. This should give an opportunity for testing the possibility of more thorough preparation and deeper discussions. Details are given in the enclosed summary of plans for this Conference.

## 3. FUTURE CONFERENCES

It is suggested that the following Conference be in Bellagio, Italy (on Lake Como) on April 11-16, 1965. The place is contingent on obtaining the use of the Rockefeller Foundation's villa for this occasion. The date is contingent on it not conflicting with the annual Washington meetings of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Physical Society.

An invitation was extended by Prof. Infeld, and accepted in principle by the Continuing Committee, to hold the 15th Conference in Warsaw, Poland, in September 1966.

Following this, there is considerable sentiment for holding another pair of conferences in the US and the USSR.

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## 4. FINANCES

Despite all our best efforts, both our American group and the London office are still in dire financial straits. Of all our applications, we have only succeeded in obtaining $10,000 per year ($5,000 each from the Reynolds and Stern Foundations) for four years. We still have three applications pending: one with the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, one with the Ford Foundation (both for $15,000 per year) and one with the American Academy's Committee on Research Funds for a special grant to enable adequate preparation for Karlovy Vary.

Almost all of the funds available for 1964 have been used up on travel expenses to Udaipur. We are in arrears in our share of the London office budget by $2,000 for 1963 (we contributed around $3,000) and the full $8,000 for 1964.

In addition to the normal expenses of travel to Karlovy Vary ($5,000) and expenses we must incur in order to prepare adequately ($3-5,000), we have a moral obligation to help the London office to defray any expenses in Czechoslovakia over and above those provided for by the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences (their original invitation was for 60 people for 6 days), especially in view of the fact that we proposed and pressed for the enlargement of the Conference. This additional cost is estimated at $2,500. So we need, for the rest of 1964, approximately $20,000.

<table><tr><td>London office</td><td>$10,000</td></tr><tr><td>Karlovy Vary</td><td>12,500</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>22,500</td></tr><tr><td>funds on hand</td><td>2,500</td></tr></table>

Having myself run out of ideas on where to go in further fund raising attempts, I can only appeal to the rest of you to take up this problem and find some answers. It seems completely incredible to me that there should not be, somewhere within the American foundation system, an additional source of around $20,000 per year for this activity.

PRIVATE

NOT FOR PUBLICATION

12th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, Udaipur

27th January - 1st February 1964

Report of Working Group I: Organization for Collective Security

## 1. Test Ban Treaty

The principles and provisions of the Moscow Treaty should continue to be re-affirmed by the U.N. and should form part of a declaration governing international relations. Violation of these principles and provisions should be condemned and dealt with in the same manner as violation of the provisions of the U.N. Charter.

We attach great importance to the need for observance of the Moscow Treaty by countries who have not acceded to it so far and to the prevention of proliferation of nuclear weapons. We suggest that this could be encouraged by the Big Powers adopting certain measures which should be applied to all countries, like denial of technical know-how and equipment as well as denial of assistance and facilities which may lead nations to acquire the capacity to undertake nuclear weapons testing.

## 2. Collective Security

We considered the proposal made in the letter of Chairman Khruschev and the response of President Johnson for an agreement to prohibit the use of force in settlement of territorial disputes and question of frontiers. The participants recommended that an agreement be reached along such lines which would re-affirm the obligations of the U.N. Charter and prohibit the use of force in settling any border or territorial differences. Settlement of such differences should be reached by peaceful procedures.

It was recognized that the Moscow Test Ban Treaty made the acquisition of nuclear weapons capability by other nations more unlikely. The conclusion of the Treaty demonstrated the conviction of the international community that proliferation of nuclear weapons was not conducive to international security. At the same time, the two major powers who continue to maintain nuclear weapons, have heavy responsibility for safeguarding international security. It is essential therefore to strengthen the U.N. system of safeguarding the security of weaker nations by the cooperation of the U.S. and U.S.S.R., assuming special responsibility for that purpose within the framework of the U.N. To the extent that such a guarantee of security and territorial integrity of all nations, particularly of the non-aligned nations, becomes effective, it would stimulate reductions in the armaments of non-nuclear nations thereby releasing resources for advancing their economic progress. It would also facilitate further steps towards general and complete disarmament. In this context, it was suggested by some participants that such a guarantee could be helpful to achieve a gradual withering away of the existing military alliances.

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### 3. Prohibition of use of nuclear weapons

We considered the desirability of prohibiting the use of nuclear weapons. Many of us felt that adoption of the declaration on the prohibition of the use of these weapons and holding of a conference for the purpose of signing a convention in that regard as contained in the relevant resolutions of the U.N. General Assembly was helpful. The opinion was expressed by others that such a convention in the absence of means of control or measures of disarmament would not be useful at the present time.

### 4. Relief of Tension by Policy of Mutual Example

It is with profound concern that the members of the group note that the arms race is still going on, that most destructive weapons are being continuously developed and that their stock-piling is assuming dangerous proportions. Unless this arms race is checked, it will not only impede an agreement on disarmament but may lead to disastrous consequences to all mankind. At present, when a G.C.D. agreement has not yet been reached, we welcome any steps aimed at the reduction of this disastrous arms race and the creation of conditions favourable to reaching the disarmament agreement. We note with satisfaction that agreement between the governments of the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. not to orbit objects with nuclear weapons and the decision of each of these governments to reduce their military budgets serve these purposes.

We believe that the adoption, in particular by the nuclear powers, of equivalent measures requiring no control, by way of the policy of mutual example would make a valuable contribution to the restriction of the arms race and the improvement of the international atmosphere. In our opinion, such measures could include:

* The reduction of military budgets and of armed forces, withdrawals or reductions of troops on foreign soil, and closings of foreign military bases.

A discussion took place whether one could effect a cessation of further production and deployment of strategic weapons, by the policy of mutual example. This discussion was not conclusive.

The group also discussed the possibility of renunciation by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., by way of mutual example, of the anti-ballistic missile defense of cities. No agreement was reached on the possibility or desirability of this step.

It is proposed to return to the discussion of the last two problems at the next conference.

### 5. Nuclear Umbrella or Minimum Deterrent Proposal

We agreed that the concept of a nuclear umbrella or minimum deterrent force, to be maintained by the two great nuclear powers during the process of general and complete disarmament, is of major importance in providing the necessary guarantees against aggression by means of hidden weapons. We welcomed the proposal of the U.S.S.R. to extend it to the end of the disarmament process. We regard the possibility of agreement on the principle of a nuclear umbrella or minimum deterrent force to offer one of the most hopeful avenues to reach agreement on general and comprehensive disarmament under effective control.

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## 6. Demilitarisation of Space

In discussing the demilitarisation of space, the Group welcomed as a major advance the resolution passed by the General Assembly of the United Nations calling upon States to refrain from placing in orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kind of weapons of mass destruction, installing such weapons on celestial bodies or stationing such weapons in outer space. The Group also welcomed the declaration approved by the United Nations General Assembly for the control of space, but felt that the scope of the declaration should be extended to provide for:

(a) a procedure for seeking the opinion of the COSPAR Consultative Group on Potentially Harmful Effects of Space Experiments along the lines suggested in the draft proposed by several members of the sub-committee of the U.N. Outer Space Committee in Geneva on 24th May 1963, and

(b) consultation of the Group whenever experiments are proposed which although they may not interfere with the other peaceful uses of outer space, may still modify the environment of the earth or impede the collection of important scientific information.

The Group welcomes the implicit recognition in the U.N. declaration that outer space in distinction to air space is not subject to national jurisdiction and considers that the boundary between the two spaces should now be clearly defined.

The Group felt that programmes involving international collaboration in the peaceful uses of outer space would be appropriate and desirable.

The desirability of a treaty covering exploration of celestial bodies was recognised, but the group was unable to consider this question.

**Report of Working Group II: Implications for Disarmament and World Security of a wider dispersal of military power**

Unless steps are taken in the direction of disarmament, new nations will be led to develop their own nuclear weapons.

The dangers of the spread of nuclear weapons are widely acknowledged. Any spread of these weapons is likely to accelerate their further spread. The likelihood of the employment of the weapons by nations other than the major powers increases with the number of States possessing them. While the chance that this will lead to the involvement of the great powers in a major nuclear war may be small, it is quite clearly a chance that we dare not take.

For this reason we should seek by all means to inhibit the acquisition of even small numbers of nuclear weapons by nations not now possessing them. Even if we are only successful in delaying the date when new nations acquire these weapons, we shall have achieved something worthwhile. This should be coupled with steps in the direction of a relaxation of international tensions, and comprehensive disarmament.

The signing of a partial test-ban treaty in August of 1963, placed some obstacles in the way of the spread of nuclear weapons. However, there remains, for a number of reasons, a real danger of the further proliferation of nuclear weapons:

LW

(1) The treaty has not been signed by all states.

(2) The treaty does not extend to underground tests.

(3) The treaty does not place any impediment in the way of the production of untested nuclear weapons.

(4) The treaty does not prevent the transfer of nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons technology from a nuclear power to a non-nuclear power.

In regard to (3), though we think it improbable today that a nation having agreed not to test, would nonetheless embark upon the elaborate and costly program necessary for atomic bomb production, we can conceive of circumstances where this might no longer be the case. A number of nations are at present moving from the research-reactor stage of development into the large-power-reactor stage. These nations will soon have fairly easy access to plutonium.

If a nation is able to obtain, directly, or indirectly through the cooperation of experienced personnel, assistance in the design of detonation mechanisms, it might take the step of providing itself with a nuclear arsenal. This type of development would be encouraged and made more significant if the same nations had previously been or were subsequently provided with effective means for the delivery of atomic weapons.

In view, then, of the continuing dangers of the spread of nuclear weapons and delivery systems, we believe the following measures to be necessary:

(1) All nations presently possessing nuclear weapons should jointly undertake not to transfer these weapons or technical information relating to them to any other state or group of states.

The group views with concern the proposed establishment of a European multilateral force, while noting that another point of view was expressed. There exists a serious danger that such a force will make permanent the already undesirable dispersal of nuclear weapons in Europe.

(2) The Government of each of the nuclear powers should take whatever measures may be open to it to discourage its nationals with experience in the field of nuclear-weapons technology from contributing to the development of the nuclear weapons capacity of any foreign power.

(3) States which abstain from manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons should have their territorial boundaries guaranteed by the United Nations. The United States and the U.S.S.R. should recognize a special responsibility for cooperation to make this guarantee effective. In individual cases, special measures may be necessary. It might, for example, be necessary, with the consent of the countries concerned, to station United Nations forces along disputed boundaries and perhaps also within the country or countries involved, in order to provide for an immediate response to any violation.

If a guarantee of this sort is to be acceptable to recipients as a substitute for the possession of nuclear forces under their own command, the two great powers must continue to demonstrate that they have a strong common interest in avoiding threats to the peace.

(4) We consider it desirable that the Governments of nuclear powers, in order to encourage the policy of mutual example, should seek to limit the nuclear arms race by refusing to accumulate further atomic bombs and nuclear warheads even before the agreement on general and complete disarmament has been reached.

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(5) The scientists of nations which do not possess nuclear weapons have the possibility and responsibility of warning their Governments and their countrymen of the dangers arising from the further spread of nuclear weapons.

(6) The possibility of controls over the transfer of offensive conventional weapons (particularly those designed for or adaptable to the delivery of nuclear weapons) was discussed. It was agreed that it would not be practicable to differentiate these weapons from defensive ones. However, the possibility of a world-wide agreement to regulate all traffic in conventional weapons perhaps does merit careful re-examination in the light of the new relationship among states. Consideration should also be given to measures which might be adopted by Governments to discourage their nationals from contributing to the development of advanced military capabilities of other countries.

### Report of Working Group III: The Relation Between the Economic Problems of Developing Nations and World Security

The two greatest problems facing mankind today are the achievement of disarmament and the elimination of poverty. Both are of special concern to scientists: it is the advance of science which has opened up the vast possibilities of destruction and production that lie before us today. Both require for their solution a new sense of international responsibility; members of each nation must acknowledge by action that their fate is bound up with the security and prosperity of the members of all other nations.

The tasks of disarmament and the elimination of poverty are interconnected in various ways.

## Background

So far the progress of the underdeveloped countries has been slow and halting; the gap between them and the advanced nations is still increasing.

In the underdeveloped countries total military expenditure appears to have been about $7 to 8 billion a year in 1959 (1). It has risen since. In most of these countries it represents about 2 to 5 per cent of the gross domestic product. This expenditure usually has a high proportion of imports; it also absorbs scarce qualified manpower - technicians, administrators and leaders; it does not yet absorb much research and development.

In the advanced countries of the world, total military expenditure amounts to more than $100 billion a year. In these countries, the average proportion of the gross domestic product devoted to military expenditure is nearly twice as high as in the underdeveloped countries.

The total flow of non-military loans and aid to underdeveloped countries is about $4 billion - about 1/3rd of one per cent of the total domestic products of the advanced countries.

## The Contribution of Disarmament to Economic Development

Disarmament and the creation of better collective security arrangements are the responsibility of all nations, developed and underdeveloped. There is no reason why all disarmament and collective security measures amongst the underdeveloped nations should wait upon the progress of the advanced nations, or vice

(1) Figures (which do not include China) from the U.N. Report on the Economic and Social Consequences of Disarmament.

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versa. Both can contribute to world security and to economic development by disarmament.

In some countries the military establishment is among the factors preventing social change, and its gradual reduction will by itself speed up economic development. There are also instances where substantial cuts in military expenditure can hardly be expected unless nations cease to regard large military establishments, rather than farsighted development programmes, as important symbols of nationhood. Thus we wish that nations would refrain from the use of military parades and military symbols for prestigious and ceremonial purposes.

The conclusion of an agreement on general and complete disarmament would make it possible for advanced nations to divert large resources to the development of underdeveloped nations. For example, an increase in aid by an amount equivalent to even one-fourth or one-fifth of the total saving in military expenditure, as a consequence of general and complete disarmament, could, if accompanied by good planning and implementation of programmes for development, be expected roughly to double the present rate of economic growth of the under-developed countries.

But the promise of more aid at the time of disarmament must not be an excuse for not giving more aid now. Moreover, while many people have discussed the possibility of giving more aid at the time of disarmament, no nation, to the best of our knowledge, has yet committed itself to this action. In the light of recent events, when some cuts in military expenditure were not accompanied by increased aid, we fear that such action may not be forthcoming. We, therefore, call upon the leaders of the advanced nations to declare now their intention to divert to the underdeveloped countries as high a proportion as possible of the resources released by disarmament.

Disarmament in the underdeveloped countries themselves would release resources for development. The armed forces of the developing nations, like those of the advanced nations, should be reduced to the minimum level necessary to maintain law and order. Altogether, the total cut in military expenditure amongst underdeveloped nations probably might be about $3 or 4 billion.

## The Contribution of Development to World Security

Poverty and extreme inequalities in wealth are among the causes of international tension. Tension of this kind may increase, if the rising expectations of the underdeveloped countries are not satisfied and the gap between them and the advanced nations continues to widen.

There is an urgent need now for increased aid in many forms to help accelerate the economic growth of the underdeveloped countries. Increased aid could be an important element in a general movement towards improved international relations and a reduction of tension. Greater co-operation between the advanced countries of East and West in the granting of aid is one way in which relations between these nations may be improved. At present most aid is given bilaterally, often in a spirit of rivalry. We recognize the value of existing forms of aid - whose very variety is some insurance against political pressures.

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We believe that economic aid to underdeveloped countries should be rendered in different forms and through different channels. The determination of the form most useful in each instance depends equally on the contributing countries and organizations and on the countries receiving the aid. In the longer run, as general disarmament is approached and achieved, we would like to see an increase in the proportion of aid given internationally.

But there are several ways in which a start might be made upon greater international co-operation now. The advanced nations may contribute jointly to capital funds, they may work jointly on major projects (e.g. dams) in the developing nations, and they may send joint teams of experts. We urge that these teams, wherever practically advisable, should have a truly international composition not only in the top administration, but also in the field.

We also propose the formation of International Youth Teams, possibly under the auspices of the United Nations, in which young specialists and technicians from East and West, North and South, could work together on specific projects under the supervision of senior experts. Possible examples are health teams and geological survey teams. It is proposed that members of the Pugwash Movement volunteer their services in their field of speciality to such International Youth Teams or similar international organizations devoted to the problems of the developing nations.

Generally, we would like to see an ever widening degree of internationalism in economic relations, including co-operative planning for the development of the world's resources. In a true world community, where the requirements of equity and welfare were acknowledged, as they are within many nations today, it would be recognized that national incomes should be redistributed between countries by measures comparable to progressive taxation; transfers of this kind would be regarded as a matter of social responsibility, not of charity.

## Problems of Development

In the course of our discussions, we were impressed by a number of problems of the underdeveloped countries which will pose serious difficulties regardless of when disarmament is achieved.

The trading position of the underdeveloped countries has suffered gravely from the deterioration in their terms of trade over the past decade. Moreover as they develop they will require increasing markets in the advanced countries for semi-manufactures and finished manufactures, which they will be able to supply in addition to primary products. The advanced countries can greatly help the underdeveloped countries through trade. The Working Group, therefore, welcomes the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, which is going to tackle these problems, and hopes that participation will be open to all nations regardless whether or not they are members of the United Nations. We believe that economic sanctions and embargoes should be applied only where they have been approved by the United Nations. We particularly welcome any measures which promote trade and economic co-operation between East and West.

The world will become a more secure place to live in if the nations really depend on each other for development and welfare. For that reason economic development should take place in such a way as to increase exchanges and trade between nations.

We also feel that the magnitude of the task of accelerating development in the underdeveloped countries has still scarcely been explored. A great increase in aid and technical assistance is certainly required. But for such resources to be effectively used it may first be necessary to undertake much more research into the problems of development in the physical and cultural conditions of the underdeveloped countries. The problems need to be tackled from many sides, by natural and social scientists and others, and the experience of one developing nation needs to be passed on to others.

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Report of Working Group IV: Science and Technology in Development

(Note: This is a draft. The Conference voted for the release and wide dissemination of this report after some careful editing by the original drafting committee.)

General Introduction:

Science and technology have added a new dimension to human life. As a result, the gap between the so called "developed" and "developing" nations is widening rapidly, whilst at the same time the world is physically growing closer together. If the gap is allowed to continue growing, as it must in the absence of massive aid from the developed to developing nations, it is bound to lead to a situation of great instability and to constitute a threat to world peace and security. Now is the time to institute a massive aid programme; the longer it is delayed the larger the investment that will be needed. To be effective in preventing the widening of the economic gap, the amount of aid needs to be more than a critical value.

From the stand point of economic growth, a fundamental characteristic that distinguishes the more developed countries from the less developed ones is the extent to which society is able to control nature. An integral component of this capability is intimate knowledge of nature coupled with a built-in competence for obtaining new knowledge. This requires the creation of competence in scientific and technological research.

The problems of economic and social development are a major concern of all men every where. The hope of solving these problems rests above all on men working together. The issue we face is to find the best means to increase the effectiveness of co-operative work between human beings from different parts of the world. We believe that all existing institutions for co-operation are useful, but that many of them can be strengthened and improved. Some new mechanisms of co-operations are also needed.

It is with these problems in mind, that of international investment in
development to create a better world, in education to generate an adequate
number of well qualified scientists, technologists and technicians and the
co-operative aspects of development that this working group has been concerned,
and we make the following recommendations.

Education

Investment in man is vital to all development. It is especially
important to prepare adequate numbers of well qualified scientists, technologists
and technicians, for their availability essentially limits the pace of economic
and social development.

The education of such men must be given an over-riding priority in any
developing country. This proposition has been generally accepted, but
differences of opinion exist as to the best mode of its implementation and
mistakes have been made by all countries. We have discussed both what should be
done in the developing countries and also what can be done by the more highly
developed countries to assist them. We believe that the following points should
receive special attention.

Education in Schools

The importance of science and technology and the scientific attitude must pervade the whole of the educational process in the schools. All children must be made to appreciate the importance of science and technology for the

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welfare of their country, even though many of them will find their careers in other fields. Care must be taken to emphasize the importance of applied as well as pure science. A proper balance should be encouraged between numbers of students becoming technologists and technicians and those going into academic science. It must be remembered that research, development, and industrialization cannot be carried out without sufficient technical staff, and adequate provisions must, therefore, be made for technical schools.

In order to staff the schools with teachers of the right quality, the social and financial status of the school teachers must be raised to an adequate level in comparison with other professions.

The methods of teaching science (and consequently the training of science teachers) in the developing countries could be greatly improved by taking advantage of the new techniques now being investigated in the more highly developed countries. The work of UNESCO on text books for the less developed countries is very commendable and ought to be extended.

## Education in Universities, Technical Colleges and Research Institutes

Although the proportion of those given education in science and technology beyond the school level in developing countries must eventually be raised to levels comparable with those in the more advanced states, attention at the post graduate level should initially be concentrated on a limited number of disciplines which are of vital importance for any particular country. Thus if universities and research institutes specializing in particular fields are vital to the progress of the country, the selection and training of the people who will staff these institutes must be part of the educational plan.

Universities everywhere, but especially in developing countries, cannot hope to be excellent in all fields. Initially, each university should concentrate on a few areas for research and training in research. In those chosen areas (which should, of course, be related to national needs) interchange of staff (and even research students) with universities in the more advanced countries should be encouraged by every possible means.

To be truly effective such co-operation must go far beyond what has happened in the past. In many fields, opportunities for research in the under-developed countries are so great that individual professors accompanied by their research students could profitably spend a few years in the universities of a developing country transporting equipment and key technicians to establish working laboratories in which students and technicians can be trained. Faculty members and students from the developing country would make extended visits to universities in advanced countries not only to gain experience in special training but also to enrich the teaching and research in that university. The developing countries have great opportunities here to become leaders in fields where they can offer unique facilities for research.

The developing countries must also create first rate institutes for research in the fields of agriculture, medicine, natural resources, social sciences and special technologies appropriate to their industrial development. Care must be taken that a proper balance is maintained between the proportion of first class men in these institutes and in the universities. Close co-operation rather than competition must exist between research institutes and the corresponding departments in the universities. This can best be achieved by careful siting of the institutes near universities, joint appointments and exchange of staff and research students. The close integration of the research institutes with the universities is vital. Just as research is an essential

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adjunct to good teaching in a university, so is teaching and the contact
with fresh young minds essential to prevent research institutes from becoming
sterile.

The corresponding research institutes in the more advanced countries
can help the developing countries by taking men for periods of a few months
(training in a new technique) to one or two years (completion of a research
project). This is one of the easiest and the most profitable ways of stepping
up the potential of the research institutes in the developing countries.

The danger of developing countries losing many of their able scientists
(who go abroad for training in research) by emigration to the more highly
developed countries is not inconsiderable. While it may be possible to stop
this by legislation, we believe that the following actions are preferable:

(a) Scientists should be sent abroad for training in a specific field which is important for their country; and should be guaranteed a suitable position on return.

(b) Fashions in research in the more highly developed countries should not unduly influence countries with limited resources.

(c) The gap in the conditions of work between the scientists in the two types of countries must be reduced, especially for the really outstanding young men.

## Role of International Organizations

The role of international governmental and non-governmental organizations
should be to initiate, develop and co-ordinate the educational efforts of
individual countries and to serve as an intermediary, safe-guarding the
disinterestedness of all aid and assistance which is channeled through them.

One of the primary tasks of UNESCO should be to maintain a systematic
survey of the known and presumed educational needs of the developing countries
and of the existing and potential educational resources of the more highly
developed countries.

The "International University" scheme of UNESCO is to be commended and
encouraged. Much greater participation in this scheme by the highly developed
countries could yield a rich reward to the developed as well as the developing
countries.

## Status of Scientists and Technologists

We would again emphasize the importance and urgency of raising the
status of scientists, technologists and technicians in the less developed
countries. The rewards to these men and women through higher prestige and
improved social and financial recognition of their work must be sufficient to
attract an adequate proportion of the ablest people in the country. The leading
scientists and technologists must be brought into the highest councils of
state in planning the future development of the country.

## International Co-operation

### The Need for Analyses

International co-operation is essential for all stages of development
but different mechanisms of co-operation are most useful for different stages.
In particular, the stage of identifying and analyzing the major problems in a
country or region is one in which the United Nations agencies can play a central

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role. Such analyses will almost always involve a multi-disciplinary approach in which engineers, agronomists, operational analysts, natural scientists, sociologists, economists, specialists in public administration, and humanists concerned with the traditions and values of the people, must all work together.

For concreteness we may cite two examples of problems requiring such multi-disciplinary analyses.

In the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin of India and East Pakistan, some 140 million people, 5% of the world's population, are crowded together on two tenths of one percent of the earth's land area. More than 90% of the people live off the land. Yet crops are grown only during the summer monsoon, when rainfall is very heavy and the great rivers pour a flood of water. During the remainder of the year, the country is dry and the people unemployed. Poverty and malnutrition are the common lot. Recommendations have been made for an extensive irrigation system which would enable a second, and perhaps a third, crop to be grown during the dry season. Although at first sight this seems attractive, it is by no means obvious that it is the correct solution to the problems. If farming continues to be the principal means of subsistence, continuing rapid population growth will mean severe overcrowding of the rural areas. A better way may be to use most of the available development capital to promote industrial development and to improve transportation. But the correct solution requires an intensive mature and sophisticated analysis by many kinds of specialists working continuously together.

A second example comes from the Maghreb countries of North Africa - Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Here the greatest possible development of water supplies for agriculture may still be inadequate to allow these countries to be self-sustaining in food production. The available water might be better used for industrial development where the yield from water can be very much greater than in agriculture. Again only a multidisciplinary analysis will point the way to the best solution.

If such analyses are to be acceptable to the developing countries, their representatives must participate in organizing them. A good analysis is the least expensive step in the development process, yet it can multiply many-fold the effectiveness of even very large developmental expenditures. It is therefore one of the best ways of using the relatively small funds available for development coming through the United Nations.

Many of the United Nations agencies and institutions supported by them now perform limited analyses of one or another aspect of the problems of developing countries; but so far as we are aware, no agency now undertakes the multidisciplinary and integrated analyses which many of these problems demand.

## An Institution for Resources Analysis

We recommend the establishment within the United Nations family of a semi-autonomous commission or institute for resources-analyses. Its members would be those nations which wish to co-operate in making or using multi-disciplinary analyses of development problems within particular countries or regions. The institute or commission would have a relatively small but highly paid and highly qualified staff, employed on a rotating basis, of specialists in all the necessary fields. The tasks of these specialists would be:

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(1) To identify problems for analysis under the sponsorship of the Institute;

(2) To find competent groups within universities or research organizations of the member states, to undertake the analyses;

(3) To ensure the completeness of the analyses and to make recommendations for necessary action by the countries concerned;

(4) To arrange for training of teams from the developing countries in the methods of analysis and data-interpretation.

The programme of the institute or commission would be worked out and approved by conferences of the member states. But the work would be paid for by the countries in which the analytical teams were situated and by other countries interested in the problem. Thus, the budget of the institution itself could be relatively small (about $500,000 per annum). Most of the problems selected for analysis would be those requiring the elaboration of analytical methods, of such complexity and difficulty as to be beyond the scope of the regional economic commissions of the United Nations.

Such problems would inevitably involve a great many of the disciplines found in a modern university. Of all the United Nations agencies, UNESCO most approaches a university in the breadth of its concerns and the scope of its activities, and it has the closest relations with the universities. We, therefore, suggest that UNESCO should play an important part in establishing and sponsoring the institution; but other specialized agencies of the United Nations should also be intimately involved.

## Strengthening UNESCO

To strengthen UNESCO for this and other tasks in the application of science and technology to the problems of development, we recommend that the National Commissions for UNESCO in each member country should contain many more natural and social scientists and engineers than is at present the case. We also suggest that national liaison agencies with UNESCO should include those concerned with science and technology as well as those responsible for education.

## A World Health Research Centre

One of the results of an analytical approach to national or regional problems will be the recognition of the needs for more accurate and more pertinent data, better and more complete surveys, and research on unknown or imperfectly understood relationships. The United Nations Special Fund and the Specialized Agencies have already given valuable service in helping the developing countries to establish research centres, systematic survey methods and data collecting machinery. But much remains to be done. The programme envisaged for the World Health Research Centre forcibly emphasizes the needs for research on the problems of collection, communication and interpretation of data, on the social and economic aspects of public health, the influence of environment and nutrition on disease, and the effects on man of the manmade changes in the environment. We believe this centre could play an invaluable role in facilitating international co-operation.

Preventable diseases and malnutrition take a large toll in human misery and economic loss. Profound changes have been and can be brought about by the application of scientific knowledge on communicable diseases and malnutrition.

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Large gaps, however, exist in our knowledge of conditions affecting human health and well-being. Extensive demographic and epidemological studies must be carried out before the relative importance of specific diseases and of other health needs can be adequately assessed.

The most urgent needs for health planning are, first, fact-finding to get more accurate data on the scope and extent of the actual disease situation, and on social, environmental and other factors involved; and, secondly, the incorporation of such information into overall plans for economic development to ensure a balanced and systematic effort. Unfortunately, the scientific methodology and tools are lacking for many important aspects of demographic and epidemological studies. In addition there is an absence of the necessary research resources in countries where the problems exist. To remedy these deficiencies is a major aim of the World Health Research Centre whose establishment is now under study by the World Health Organization. This centre would undertake research on major health problems of world-wide concern which cannot be effectively studied by local or national efforts. Its field operations would include support of and collaboration with existing research laboratories, and the establishment of regional laboratories for specific needs, such as the study of certain tropical communicable diseases.

Studies on an international scale should be undertaken on the problem of population growth and its impact on economic development. This problem has to be attacked not only through biological and social studies but also through education. Any measures taken should be based upon the fullest respect for human dignity and freedom of choice. We recommend that the World Health Research Centre should initiate and encourage research on the biology of reproduction concerning which there is much ignorance.

## Transfer of Technological Information

The developing countries have experienced great difficulties in obtaining trustworthy and sufficiently complete technical information on industrial processes and the design of machinery and plants for industry. Such information has been frequently hard to obtain from industrial concerns in advanced countries. We can suggest no easy solution to this problem, but we believe that the recent action of the U.N. in establishing an Industrial Development Centre is a step in the right direction; but we urge that the U.N. and the specialized agencies do much more towards developing industrial consulting services, reference collections of technological information, and a central exchange to publicise the needs in the developing countries for specific technical and industrial knowledge. In some developing countries, national consulting services for industrial technology have been established and more should be. These should be able to draw on the U.N. services and also on assistance from individual advanced countries.

## Co-operation between East and West

Co-operation in research on scientific and technical problems of development presents an outstanding opportunity for direct collaboration between scientists and engineers of the eastern and western countries. For example, research is required on soil-salinity control in the Indus plains of India and Pakistan. A great deal of knowledge concerning similar problems has been obtained by agricultural scientists in the semi-arid regions of the USSR and the USA. Some of these scientists in both countries could gain valuable experience

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and mutual understanding and confidence by working together to apply their knowledge to this critical problem. Many other examples could be cited of opportunities for co-operation in research which would be mutually beneficial.

## The Role of Scientific Unions

One of the important means of fostering co-operation between individual scientist in the advanced and the developing countries is through the International Scientific Unions and their co-ordinating body the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). We welcome the initiatives recently taken by ICSU to increase its activities in the developing countries, and by UNESCO to place greater reliance on advice from the Scientific Unions in planning and guiding its activities. National and international support of ICSU and the Unions ought to be strengthened if these initial steps are to lead to effective results.

## Co-operative Research

A new technique of co-operation between individual scientists has recently been used successfully in France, and might well be applicable on an international scale. A fairly large size scientific problem is selected by a scientific committee from among a series of problems suggested by competent scientists. The selected problem may require three to five years and a variety of techniques for its solution. A convenor is nominated who asks selected scientists to join a working group, and no pressure is applied. In a sense this working group forms a decentralized institute, each participant doing the research in his own laboratory. The group as a whole decides on the programme and the distribution of tasks and meets regularly twice a year for progress reports and detailed planning of activities for the next six months.

Except for the small funds required the scheme depends almost entirely on the scientific community and does not require governmental agreement.

## International Investment for a Better World

We regard assistance by the more prosperous countries to the developing nations as an investment in a better world. In the past, international assistance to the development of science and technology in new countries has been sporadic and intermittent. We would emphasize that if aid is to be effective, it needs to be continuous and maintained at a much higher level than before. The urgency of the problem is very great. Sufficient funds should be allocated to secure quick action. Each developed country might be expected to contribute about 1% of its gross national product per annum, and of this allocation perhaps 5% should be devoted to the advance of science and technology in the developing countries, including training.

This allocation should be independent of any measure of disarmament, but it is manifest that substantial progress in disarmament could release great resources, a considerable fraction of which should be devoted to raising the productive capacities of the newly developing countries. This would represent the modern version of beatingswords into ploughshares.

All forms of assistance are required; bilateral, (direct aid by an advanced country to a developing country) and multilateral, (through the U.N. and its specialized agencies, or through regional and other multilateral agencies).

Effective aid in the strengthening of science and technology in the developing countries requires more than financial resources. It is also dependent

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on the availability of competent people. The scientific communities in the
developed countries should pay attention to this need through their societies,
so that a feeling of personal responsibility amongst scientists and educators
will be engendered. The scientific societies should be urged to set up
committees to advise and assist the various national and international agencies
which are concerned particularly in the recruitment of personnel. All countries,
in planning their training programmes for scientists and technologists, should
also include an extra quota, where feasible, so that they can make personnel
available to help other countries.

Today the assistance which the U.N. and its specialized agencies can
give to developing nations is limited by the extent of financial contributions
from member states. As a long term aim it is desirable to add to such contributions
new resources obtained by finding independent direct sources of revenue for the
U.N. Advances in science and technology are even now opening up certain new sources
of wealth that are largely outside the jurisdiction of national states and have
thus far not been preempted by national taxing authorities. We have in mind
particularly space traffic and space communications, the resources of the oceans
outside the limits of national jurisdictions (including minerals on the ocean
bottom) and the potential resources of Antarctica. We suggest that now, while
the situation is still in flux, the question be explored of giving the U.N., by
treaty, jurisdiction over outer-space, the oceans outside recognized national
jurisdiction, and Antarctica, this jurisdiction to include exclusive rights to
regulate and to tax wealth-producing activities in these areas.

It is in the common interest of all nations to remove aid to developing
countries from the context of the cold war. There are two principal means of
doing this and we urge statesmen to explore both. One is by an agreement to
put an increasing share of development aid through the multilateral agencies
(though we believe both bilateral and multilateral aid will continue to be needed).
The other is through common enterprises in which both East and West collaborate
in carrying out large development projects - for example, a joint attack on the
salinity problem in the Panjab.

A basis for co-operation between east and west in development could be
built on certain agreed principles. First, it should be recognized by all that
there is more than one feasible road to development, and that the choice of ways
can and should be left to each developing country, acting through its own
political processes without imposition, coercion (military, political or economic)
or undue interference from outside. Second, assistance must be on the basis
which promotes the political, economic, and cultural independence of the
recipient countries.

## Importance of Research in Developing Countries

All past experience shows that the return on investment in research,
both pure and applied, can be very high, indeed higher than in almost every other
area. For example, recent studies suggest that in Japan the return on investment
in agricultural research and education has been at least 35 percent per annum for
a period of several decades, and that in the United States it has been even higher.

We believe that substantial investment in the creation of indigenous
research and development capabilities in the developing countries will yield
similar returns. Indeed, it would appear that the expenditures on indigenous
research and development, including the support of current research, the creation
new institutions and facilities, and the training of expanding cadres of scientists
and engineers, should be limited only by the availability of persons competent to

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undertake the work. Such persons are at present few in number and their abilities should be utilized with the maximum effect. Their social standing, conditions of work, and salary should be high enough to attract and retain the most competent people of the country, and should make it possible for them to devote their full time to teaching and research. They should be adequately provided with tools of their trade, such as laboratory, office and library facilities, equipment, and funds for travel to national and international scientific meetings.

Resources allocated to research and development and to graduate education should be increased each year - again by an amount limited only by the availability of adequately trained manpower. The rate of increase of expenditure will vary from country to country, but it should be noted that the USSR has been doubling her expenditure every four years, and Japan every two. We believe that rapid rates of increase should be maintained until the expenditures on research, development and graduate education reach the order of 2 - 3 percent of the gross national product.

Developing nations, like those more advanced, are faced with the double task of engaging in research important for the progress of the economy and at the same time training expanding numbers of competent research workers. This implies that a substantial fraction of the research should be conducted within the universities. If research institutes are formed for the purpose of expediting research in specialized areas, they should be closely connected with the universities. The leading research personnel should teach in the universities and graduate students should be encouraged to conduct their research in the institutes.

The research and development programme of a developing nation requires a substantial amount of central guidance in the form of a Research Council or Academy empowered to allocate funds for research purposes. It is important that this central body be guided primarily by scientists and engineers rather than by persons who are unfamiliar with scientific research and the conditions in which it is best conducted.

Each nation should undertake those kinds of research which are most important for its development and which it can best do. Each region of the world offers particular opportunities and every nation can contribute to world science. For the most part, research in developing nations, as in others, should be applied. Local problems involving the economic development of the nation should be identified and explored. It is important, however, that basic research which is not aimed at the solution of any immediate practical problems should be given adequate emphasis. While the fraction of the total effort spent upon basic research will vary from country to country, it should in general be maintained at a level of about 20% of the total research expenditures, excluding development.

In a country's research effort, a broad spectrum of problems must be considered. In the early stages of development, a substantial fraction of the effort should be devoted to the surveying of natural resources and to the analysis of problems involving their efficient exploitation. Problems will range from those of basic geology and geophysics to plant physiology and genetics, and from the economics of development to the sociology and biology of human reproduction. All areas of knowledge must be explored. None should be excluded. However, research in areas which require a very large capital expenditure for equipment and a large number of highly qualified scientific personnel should be undertaken only if it can be pursued without greatly hampering the research effort in other fields.