- 21 -

THE DUBROVNIK CONFERENCE

The Eleventh Pugwash Conference, held at Dubrovnik from 20th to 25th September, 1963, was on all accounts a great success. The discussions were amiable and constructive, and the Working Groups presented reports containing many valuable suggestions. The venue of the Conference, in the spacious and beautifully designed rooms of the Umjetnicka Galerija (Art Gallery), as well as the unique grace and loveliness of Dubrovnik itself, have contributed to the creation of the right atmosphere. To a very large measure the Conference owes its success to the tremendous effort put in by the Yugoslav Organizing Committee which consisted of I. Supek

D. Kanazir, E. Kos, L. Josifovic, M. Lazanski and V. Knapp, particularly the last two who were responsible for the administration of the Conference.

It is hoped to publish in the next issue of the Newsletter impressions from several participants in the Dubrovnik Conference. The Proceedings of the Conference will be prepared as soon as the Central Office acquires the necessary secretariat. In the meantime we give below the text of the Press Statement issued by the Continuing Committee, as well as a list of participants.

PRESS STATEMENT

Issued by the Continuing Committee of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

The 11th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs was held in Dubrovnik from 20 to 25 September 1963. These conferences bring together distinguished scientists from East and West for frank and informal discussions on important problems of common interest; particularly those related to the threat of nuclear war, the problem of achieving general and complete disarmament, and ways of ensuring the widespread application of science for peaceful purposes.

The Dubrovnik Conference was organized by the Continuing Committee of the Pugwash Conferences, of which the Secretary-General is Professor Joseph Rotblat of London, together with a Yugoslav Organizing Committee under the chairmanship of Professor Ivan Supek. The Conference was sponsored by the

Council of Yugoslav Academies. Among the 64 participants from 24 countries there were 13 from the U.S.A., 11 from the U.S.S.R., and 7 from the U.K. In addition there were 14 observers.

The main theme of the Conference was "Current Problems of Disarmament and World Security", and five Working Groups were formed to consider the following topics:-

1. Problems of General Disarmament.

2. Consequences of the Spread of Nuclear Weapons.

3. Denuclearized zones, especially in Central Europe and the Balkans.

4. Role of Non-Aligned Nations in Disarmament and World Security.

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5. The Partial Test-ban, the
   Problems of Detection, and
   the Next Steps.

The timing of the meeting, follow-
ing so closely on the successful negotia-
tion of a Nuclear Test-ban Treaty, was
fortunate, and the friendly, co-operative
and hopeful atmosphere of the discus-
sions was immediately apparent to the
participants. The reports of the Work-
ing Groups were substantial and showed
that much progress had been made in
reaching a common understanding on
important practical issues, in giving con-
sideration to clarifying different points
of view, and in raising novel suggestions
which can be studied and given further
consideration at subsequent conferences.

Prevention of Surprise Attack

In Working Group 1, two important proposals were made relating to the prevention of surprise attack in Central Europe, where NATO and Warsaw Pact countries face each other. It is essential that both sides should assure themselves against surprise attack since this would make possible a mutual reduction of conventional defence forces, and eventually of nuclear forces also. It could thus greatly help in the creation of atom-free zones in Central Europe.

Firstly, it was suggested that
rapid agreement might be obtained for
establishing control posts at major
transportation centres within agreed
areas of Central Europe. These posts
would give warning of any surprise at-
tack which required the massing and
transport of large numbers of conven-
tional arms and forces. The control
posts would be equipped with all neces-
sary facilities for access and com-
munication.

Secondly, it was suggested that
military officers from each side would
be stationed and should reside with the
troops of the other side within the
agreed areas. These officers would
have adequate means of communication
with their own governments. It was
suggested that the details should be
worked out by military experts of the
countries concerned.

Minimum Deterrent Force

The Group also discussed as a
first step in disarmament the destruc-
tion of all nuclear delivery vehicles
whatsoever, except for the creation of
a minimum deterrent, or "umbrella",
force which would be sufficient to
deter, but not sufficient to allow an
aggressor to wage a major thermo-
nuclear war. It was thought that a
very substantial number of vehicles
could be eliminated in less than a year.

The Group agreed that during
the period of disarmament, world se-
curity would have to be guaranteed by
the umbrella forces of the U.S.A. and
U.S.S.R. alone. Most participants
thought, however, that the adoption of
a substantial measure of nuclear dis-
armament by these two major powers
might be sufficient to persuade the
other nuclear powers to forego their
nuclear forces altogether, and so
make it very difficult for any further
country to enter the nuclear arms
race.

Control and Inspection

The Group agreed that control
and inspection of the process of dis-
armament should be effected by a per-
manent International Disarmament
Organization enjoying all necessary
privileges and powers. They state

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[L]

that the possibility that any power could
cheat by evading inspection has been
grossly exaggerated, but that the inspec-
tion system has not only to maintain se-
curity and prevent cheating, but also has
to alleviate the fears that cheating might
occur. Since no inspection system can
be perfect, greater efforts might profit-
ably be made to devise machinery to
deal openly with the doubts and fears
which must inevitably arise from time
to time. Inspection would also be eased
if short-range tactical weapons could be
drawn back from an atom-free zone be-
tween East and West.

Limiting the Spread of Nuclear Weapons

In Working Group 2 several valu-
able contributions were made. First,
that since the development of nuclear re-
actors in many countries might lead to
a proliferation of nuclear weapons, con-
trol of fissile materials should be made
more effective, and the major powers
should transfer their fissile materials
through the International Atomic Energy
Agency rather than, as is often now the
case, through bilateral agreements; and
that the IAEA should assume full control
of such transfers. Further, to avoid
the waste of manpower and resources
by many small nations which would fol-
low from the development of their own
nuclear technology, international
centres for peaceful nuclear technology,
especially power-production, should
be set up and should be organized along
the lines of the present successful
international centres for pure research.
In such centres, all nations would be
able to contribute and gain experience
and skills on a common, open basis.
The second contribution was an appraisal
of the argument sometimes used to justi-
fy atomic bomb construction - that import-
ant scientific and technical forces are

thus created for the strengthening of the
industrial and economic capacity of a
country. It was concluded that further
bomb-production in our present circum-
stances, would be a grossly inefficient
way of securing such technical and sci-
entific advantages. They can be ob-
tained much more economically by
other methods.

As further steps for the preven-
tion of the spread of nuclear weapons,
the Group recommended that the secur-
ity of countries which forego the con-
struction of nuclear weapons should be
guaranteed by the strengthening of the
system of collective security, and that
the Great Powers should accept a spe-
cial responsibility for this within the
framework of the U.N. Such countries
should also be supported by making
available to them the scientific and
technical knowledge which they might
have gained from the production of
nuclear weapons. The Group also
agreed that some form of sanctions
should be established against any
power which undertakes the testing or
production of atomic weapons, after
a complete test-ban has been signed
and a substantial measure of disarma-
ment achieved.

Atom-free Zones

In Working Group 3 there was
a fruitful discussion about atom-free
zones, and two specific recommenda-
tions were made. The first, to all
governments directly concerned in
Central Europe, suggested that they
should enter into negotiations leading
to the lessening of tensions in the
area and to the establishment of a de-
nuclearized Central Europe. The
second proposed that the governments
of the Balkans, Africa and Latin

- 24 -

America should conclude a treaty banning nuclear weapons from that part of the world and conforming to the U. N. Charter, with arrangements for international inspection.

## Non-Aligned Nations

**Working Group 4** stressed the contribution which could be made by non-aligned nations by their renunciation of nuclear weapons, and by establishing atom-free zones as a contribution towards complete disarmament. The Group also suggested that the non-aligned nations, either individually or collectively, should set up institutes or groups for the study of the military, strategic and technological problems met in disarmament. Such institutes should maintain close contact with the various disarmament officials of individual states, and with the U. N. and its special agencies. Such action could allow the creation, in good time, of a competent body of personnel for the support of an International Disarmament Organization.

## Extending the Test-Ban

**Working Group 5** stressed the importance of early progress towards general disarmament in order that the international confidence generated by the Moscow Conference may be maintained. Even steps with no great military significance should be sympathetically considered since they may help in improving the political climate. The Group suggested that scientists should take every opportunity to influence public opinion so that the Test-ban Treaty shall be adhered to by all nations (including France and the People's Republic of China). It expressed the opinion that any further tests in the atmosphere, water, or outer space would not only increase radioactive fallout, but could also contribute to the

breakdown of the Test-ban Treaty and to a further escalatory series of atomic tests.

To assist in extending the test-ban to include underground tests, the Group suggested that not only should the work of individual states on underground explosion and earthquake detection be continued and intensified; but also that international collaboration in this field should be established. A coordinated seismological programme, with full interchange of records of explosions and earthquakes, should be begun by the U. S. A., U. S. S. R. and U. K., with other nations contributing later. Improved methods of detection would diminish the ambiguities in the interpretation of the seismic records and increase the precision with which the origins of such events can be established. In addition, an international seismological station, manned by specialists from different countries, could be established in a politically suitable and seismologically quiet area. Another recommended step which would have the effect of increasing international confidence was that a ban on orbiting nuclear weapons should be negotiated between the major powers.

## International Scientific Co-operation

Many of the proposals for international scientific co-operation made at the Seventh Pugwash Conference (Stowe, Vermont, in September 1961) have already been agreed or formally proposed. They include various forms of co-operation in space, plans for a world medical and biological research centre, a broadening of the U. S. - U. S. S. R. exchange of scientists, and projects to drill deep into the Earth's crust, such as the Mohole project.

- 26 -

United Kingdom

Prof. P. M. S. Blackett

Sir John Cockcroft

Prof. B. H. Flowers

Mr. P. J. Noel-Baker

Sir Nevill Mott

Prof. C. F. Powell

Prof. J. Rotblat

United States

Prof. H. Brown

Prof. P. Doty

Prof. B. T. Feld

Prof. R. Fisher

Prof. D. A. Glaser

Prof. H. B. Glass

Prof. F. A. Long

Prof. M. Meselson

Prof. I. I. Rabi

Prof. E. Rabinowitch

Prof. A. Rich

Prof. M. Shulman

Prof. L. Szilard

U. S. S. R.

Acad. L. A. Artsimovitch

Acad. A. A. Arzumanjan

Acad. A. A. Blagonravov

Acad. N. N. Bogolubov

Prof. V. M. Khvostov

Acad. V. A. Kirillin

Mr. V. P. Pavlichenko

Prof. N. A. Talensky

Acad. A. N. Tupolev

Acad. A. P. Vinogradov

Prof. B. M. Vul

Yugoslavia

Acad. M. Bartos

Acad. D. Kanazir

Acad. A. Kuhelj

Mr. L. Mates

Acad. I. Supek

B. OBSERVERS

Czechoslovakia

Mr. T. Nemec

Denmark

Prof. O. Maaløe

France

Mr. P. Genevey

German Democratic Republic

Dr. P. Hess

German Federal Republic

Prof. G. Burkhardt

Dr. E. Heimendahl

United Kingdom

Mr. B. T. Price

United States

Mrs. Ruth Adams

Prof. H. Kissinger

Mr. D. Lang

Yugoslavia

Prof. A. Moljk

UNESCO

Mr. W. A. Mills

Prof. Tha Hla

W. H. O.

Dr. M. Kaplan

- 27 -

Professor O. Haxel

KRYPTON-85 IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The processing of burnt-up fuel ele-
ments from uranium reactors is associa-
ted with the production of gaseous radio-
active products which, for technical
reasons (extraction and storage difficult-
ies), are usually released into the atmos-
phere. The most important nuclide of
this group is krypton-85, which is also
formed during explosions of fission bombs.

By the end of 1962 the concentration
of krypton-85 amounted to 7 picocuries per
cubic metre of air at standard temperature
and pressure. This krypton-85 comes
predominantly from nuclear industrial
plants¹; the contribution from nuclear
tests is only about 10% of the total amount.
The predominant origin from nuclear
industrial plants is borne out, in the first
place, by the fact that the krypton-85 con-
centration in the troposphere has been in-
creasing continuously, unlike the nuclides
produced by bombs, which either disclose
a correlation with bomb testing or, if they
have passed through the stratosphere into
the troposphere, show seasonal fluctua-
tions².

The amount of krypton-85 present
in the atmosphere at the end of 1962 cor-
responds to 65 metric tons of fissioned
uranium-235; this is based on the assump-
tion that the fission yield for krypton-85 is
0.3% (about 0.3% of U-235 atoms under-
going fission result in the production of
krypton-85 atoms). If we compare this
figure with the published data about re-
actors for civilian purposes, and the
amount of U-235 which has undergone fis-

sion in them up to the end of 1961, we
obtain at the most 10 metric tons. This
is true even if it is assumed that these
reactors have been operated continuously
as full load and that the whole uranium
has been processed, which is certainly
not true. In this calculation the amount
of uranium fissioned up to the end of
1961 was compared with the amount of
krypton-85 present at the end of 1962,
since a fuel element usually remains for
one year in the reactor and then is stored
for about three months for cooling down.

We have, therefore, a remainder of
more than 40 metric tons of fissioned and
processed uranium, which must obvious-
ly originate from reactors used for mili-
tary purposes. These might be reactors
in which plutonium and other products for
the weapon industry are manufactured.

In view of these facts the following
recommendations are suggested:

1. Setting up of a world-wide net-work of inert-gas sampling stations, to detect and control the sources of production of krypton-85.

2. Taking measures to limit the purely military use of uranium fission.

3. Development of methods for the
   storage of krypton-85 resulting
   from the use of nuclear energy
   for civilian purposes.

4. Initiation of research to determine the maximum permissible concentration of krypton-85.

1 O. Griesser and A. Sittkus, Z. Naturforschung 16a, 620, 1961.

2 D. Ehhalt, K. O. Münnich, W. Roether, J. Schülch and W. Stich, Journal of Geophysical Research, **68** (13), 3817, 1963.

- 28 -

With respect to 3 and 4 it should be pointed out that the concentration of krypton-85 is at present 7 pc/m³ of air. The concentration of radium emanation (radon) is about 200 pc/m³ of air. Thus, an increase by a factor of 30 would make the concentration of krypton-85 equal to that of radon. This would result in an additional contribution to the radiation burden of lung tissues, and we lack at present definite information about its harmlessness or otherwise. In view of

the rapid increase of the civilian use of nuclear energy, this thirty-fold rise in the concentration of krypton-85 may be expected to occur within a decade, if the present rate of development of nuclear energy is maintained. It would be then necessary to have at one's disposal practicable methods for the prevention of any further increase of the concentration of krypton-85, or else it must be shown beyond any doubt that such higher concentrations have no harmful consequences.

COMMENT ON PROFESSOR HAXEL'S PAPER

by Sir John Cockcroft

The International Commission on Radiological Protection has fixed the maximum permissible level of krypton-85 as $3 \times 10^6$ pc/m³ for occupational workers. The basis of this is to limit the dose to the gonads to 5 rad/year.

A useful criterion would be to limit the genetic effects on the world population to about 1% of the natural background and that is about 1 mr/year. This would be produced by a krypton-85 concentration of about 600 pc/m³. The present krypton-85 level could, therefore, be increased by a factor of about 100 before control measures became really necessary. This factor of 100 is not very different from the factor of 30 suggested by Professor Haxel. It

will, however, be many years before the nuclear power development gives rise to such concentrations.

The krypton-85 can be removed from effluent at any time by appropriate chemical engineering methods. It is the responsibility of Ministries in individual countries to take action well before the maximum permissible level of civil operations is reached.

I do not think that Professor Haxel's comparison of krypton-85 with radon is biologically valid since the critical biological effect with radon is likely to be carcinoma of the bronchus. This is unlikely to happen in the case of krypton.

- 29 -

Professor F. A. Long*

THE UNITED STATES ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT AGENCY

This is a most appropriate time to summarize the organization and accomplishments of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (hereafter called ACDA), since the agency is celebrating its second birthday this month. When in the fall of 1961 a law was passed by both of the houses of the U.S. Congress establishing this Agency, the action was considered something of a political miracle. There had been strong support for the need of increased work in the field of disarmament, it is true. The problem had been to decide on the most appropriate mechanism. There were, for example, strong proponents of the idea that the proper place to do disarmament studies was in the State Department. However, the people who supported the idea of a permanent agency apparently presented the most persuasive case to Congress and ACDA became a reality.

Public Law 87-297 which established the Agency gave it the following primary functions:

1. to conduct and co-ordinate research for arms control and disarmament policy formation;

2. to prepare for and manage United States participation in international negotiations in the arms control and disarmament field;

3. to co-ordinate and disseminate public information about arms control and disarmament;

4. to prepare for and operate any control systems which may become part of the U.S. arms control and disarmament activities.

The Bill provided that the Agency was to have a director, a deputy director and up to four assistant directors, all to be appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. Roughly, the director was to have approximate rank of under-secretary, and the assistant directors were to have rank equivalent to assistant secretaries in the State Department.

The reporting responsibilities of the ACDA director are, under the Act, somewhat complicated. As a Presidential appointee he is clearly responsible to the President. However, the Act also states that in carrying out his duties the director shall have primary responsibility "under the direction of the Secretary of State". In a sense, this dual reporting responsibility is only a recognition of the political realities, since a Disarmament Agency most clearly cannot publicly proceed in directions which are either independent of, or in conflict with, State Department policies.

The current organization of ACDA involves four bureaus, each headed by one of the assistant directors. These are the bureaus of: International Relations; Economics; Weapons Evaluation and Control; Science and Technology. In addition to these principal divisions, the Agency has an Office of the General Counsel and a Disarmament Advisory Staff. The Agency itself is overseen by a general advisory committee appointed by the President. All this constitutes a fairly complex organization for what is still a rather small Agency. However, the very fact that the Agency is small has made it possible to operate efficiently in spite of the apparent complexity.

* Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

- 30 -

Perhaps the most significant authorization given to ACDA is to conduct research in the broad field of arms control and disarmament, and the enabling Act, in fact, spells out in considerable detail areas in which research may be conducted. This emphasis on the research function originated in the strong belief of the proponents of ACDA that the United States generally, and its disarmament negotiators in particular, needed much more intensive exposure to the prospects, possibilities and procedures for Arms Control and Disarmament and its interrelation with other components of U.S. foreign policy. In this view, the overall U.S. understanding of these problems could be improved and hence the capability and effectiveness of U.S. negotiators could also be improved if they were backed up by a sizable and continuing research programme in the area. Because of this basic proposition, and because of the consequent spelling out of the research function in the enabling Act, discussions of the research activities have played a large role in consideration of the Agency.

In spite of this emphasis on the need for long range research, ACDA actually became rapidly involved in the short range problems of disarmament negotiations. Following closely after the McCloy-Zorin agreement of September 1961, the U.N. called for, and eventually set up, an 18-Nation Disarmament Conference to be convened in Geneva in early 1962. Once this was finally agreed to, it followed that ACDA needed to act quickly to help develop U.S. policy and proposals for these negotiations. When the 18-Nation Conference convened in March 1962, the results of ACDA's winter's work were apparent. First, there was an able negotiating team

headed by Ambassador Arthur Dean. Second, a U.S. Draft Treaty for General and Complete Disarmament was available for the Conference soon after it assembled. Third, there was a modestly revised U.S.-U.K. proposal for a comprehensive nuclear test-ban treaty, based essentially on the U.S.-U.K. draft treaty of spring 1961. ACDA's responsibility for conduct of the Geneva negotiations inevitably caused it to spend substantial amounts of time on the studies and analyses needed to support the negotiating team. Much the same thing can be said about the test-ban negotiations which occurred both at Geneva and New York, and which culminated in the agreement reached in Moscow in the summer of '63. The Bureau of Science and Technology was particularly active in studying the basic problems involved in a comprehensive ban on nuclear tests and in searching for new and technically satisfactory procedures for detection and verification.

In spite of these pressures on ACDA from its responsibilities to the U.S. negotiations, the Agency quickly managed to become involved in its research function. It soon appeared that this research was to be done in two somewhat different ways. In the first place, full time employees of the Agency became themselves involved in research ("study" would perhaps be a better word) into a wide range of topics in the general area of arms control and disarmament. The other mechanism used by ACDA to get its research done was to contract for it to both private and public agencies. The first contract for research with an outside agency was to the Bendix Corporation, and called for a study of techniques for monitoring the production of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles. This was soon followed by several similar research contracts.

- 31 -

It became clear that there are a num-
ber of outside U.S. groups, both public
and private, who are interested and
knowledgeable in disarmament problems
and who are eager to work with ACDA.

The Agency was particularly
interested in obtaining the participa-
tion and co-operation of university
scholars. In order to encourage this,
it soon announced the adoption of a
Research Grants Programme. The
object was to encourage scholars to
apply to the Agency for grants to sup-
port studies which were of direct inter-
est to the scholar but with long range
applications to the problems of arms
control and disarmament. This
should be a productive and stimulating
programme.

Nineteen-sixty-two, the first
summer of the Agency's life, also saw
an interesting experiment with a sum-
mer study on the broad problem of
verification and control of disarma-
ment agreements. The results of this
study were published and made general-

ly available in the fall of 1962 under the
title "Verification and Response in Dis-
armament Agreements". This study
constitutes a most significant contribu-
tion to our understanding of both the
philosophy and the problems of verifica-
tion and inspection of disarmament
measures. It has contributed greatly
to ACDA's own studies in this field.

As it celebrates its second birth-
day, ACDA can rightly consider itself
an established and accepted U.S.
government agency. It has a staff and
an organization and its people are hard
at work. It can point to a successful,
completed negotiation, the limited
test-ban. Its practical success both
in the negotiation field and in its re-
search programme has been substantial
enough to justify the hopes of its sup-
porters, and to lend substance to the
belief that significant additional dis-
armament measures will be developed
and proposed.

October, 1963

NOTE BY PROFESSOR B. T. FELD,

Chairman of the P-COSWA Committee of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

The above report on the United
States Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency was prepared by Dr. Franklin
A. Long at the request of the Committee
on Pugwash Conferences on Science and
World Affairs of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences. Dr. Long, a
Professor of Chemistry at Cornell
University, was until this past summer
Assistant Director for Science and Tech-
nology of the Agency. In this capacity,
Dr. Long helped to set the tone and
direction of the Agency in its formative
years. It is generally agreed that the
Agency and its present enthusiasm and
spirit owe a great debt to his devotion
and zeal.

To Americans interested in the
cause of disarmament, the creation of
the Agency represented an important
step forward. For although there have
been individuals in various parts of our
government actively interested in dis-
armament and arms control, we now
have a single group with both the "vested
interest" and the mandate to explore and
pursue these goals in a continuous and
concerted fashion. We hope that our
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency
may serve as both inspiration and,
where appropriate, as prototype for
similar expansions of official interest
in disarmament in many other coun-
tries.

- 32 -

P U G W A S H E V E N T S

THE CONTINUING COMMITTEE

Meetings of the Continuing Committee were held in Dubrovnik on the 17, 18, 19, 24 and 25 September. Apart from the immediate problems relating to the organization of the Dubrovnik Conference, the Committee discussed future conferences, as well as a number of other problems.

Sir Nevill Mott is retiring from the Continuing Committee; he will be succeeded by Professor R. E. Peierls.

The Soviet Group recommended that Professor B. M. Vul should be an alternate to Professor V. M. Khvostov on the Continuing Committee.

12th PUGWASH CONFERENCE

UDAIPUR, 27 January-1February, 1964

The title of the Udaipur Conference will be the same as that at Dubrovnik, "Current Problems of Disarmament and World Security", but the programme will include problems relating to developing nations. It is envisaged that there will be four Working Groups on the following topics:

1. Organization for collective security

i. Global

ii. Regional

iii. Non-militarization of space

2. Implications for disarmament and world security of a wider dispersal of military power

3. Relation between the economic problems of developing nations and world security

4. Priorities for science and technology in developing nations

Topic 1. will include discussions on the specific proposals made at the Dubrovnik Conference.

About 60 participants are being invited, in most cases on the recommendations of the National Pugwash Groups. The participation will be made up roughly as follows: 9 each from U. S. A. and U. S. S. R.; 6 from India; 5 from U. K.; 3 each from China and France; 2 each from Ceylon, Japan and Pakistan; one each from Australia, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Greece, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Malaya, Mexico, Netherlands, Outer Mongolia, Poland, South Africa, Sweden, Uganda, U. A. R., West Germany, and Yugoslavia. Scientists from several other developing nations may be invited if vacancies occur.

The Conference is being organized by the Indian Pugwash Committee consisting of Dr. H. J. Bhabha, Professor D. S. Kothari, Professor P. C. Mahalanobis, Professor V. A. Sarabhai and Dr. S. H. Zaheer, with the co-operation of Professor M. G. K. Menon.

- 33 -

13th PUGWASH CONFERENCE

KARLOVY VARY, 5-11 September, 1964

The Committee accepted an invita-
tion from the Czechoslovak Pugwash
Group to hold the 13th Conference in
Czechoslovakia. The Conference will
be held in the Moskwa Hotel in Karlovy
Vary (Karlsbad) from 5 to 11 September
1964. The title of the Conference will
be "Disarmament and Peaceful Col-
laboration among Nations" and there

will be 60-70 participants. The Con-
ference will be sponsored by the Czecho-
slovak Academy of Sciences.

A decision about the programme
and topics for Study Groups will be made
by the Continuing Committee when it
meets in Delhi prior to the Udaipur
Conference.

UNESCO-PUGWASH STUDY GROUP

"Long-term consequences of disarmament on the development of science, and on the applications of science and technology for the benefit of the underdeveloped countries"

Arising from the discussions at
the 10th Pugwash Conference, and the
subsequent visit to UNESCO by the
Secretary-General, the Director-
General of UNESCO is planning to set
up a Study Group under the above title.
The Study Group will consist of a num-

ber of scientists selected in consulta-
tion between UNESCO and the Pugwash
Continuing Committee. It is hoped
that the Group will be able to make a
preliminary report to the Udaipur
Conference.

## CONFERENCES ON RESEARCH ON INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY

A Conference of social and other
scientists concerned with peace research
was held at Clarens, Switzerland, from
16 to 20 August, 1963, under the spon-
sorship of the American Friends Serv-
ice Committee and the Friends Service
Council (Quakers). The resolutions
unanimously adopted by the Conference
included the following:

(a) That a series of internation-
al conferences on research on Inter-
national Peace and Security be insti-
tuted along the pattern of Pugwash
Conferences, without constitution or
stated procedures in the first instance,
and managed by a Continuing Committee
of nine members, one of whom would
be the Secretary-General.

- 34 -

(b) That the main activity of the Continuing Committee be to convene international conferences of a scientific nature.

(c) That the first such international conference be held in the summer of 1964, in Clarens if possible, and the theme of this conference be "The Contribution of Social Sciences to the Establishment of Stable Peace", with the additional special objective of preparing for the 1965 International Cooperation Year sponsored by the United Nations.

(d) That the Continuing Committee, in addition to its primary function of convening conferences, consider other suggestions made at this Conference, including its detailed administrative arrangements and its status; the compilation of a list of existing research groups concerned with Peace Studies, their publications and special interests; the making of abstracts in collaboration with the Canadian Peace Research Institute; liaison with research workers

in Peace Research groups; the establishment of a scientific association of persons concerned with Peace Research; the publication of a Year Book, Newsletters, or other means of communication; exploration of means of communication with decision-makers and the public; and other matters which the Continuing Committee might decide upon.

(e) That the Continuing Committee establish a close working relationship with the Continuing Committee of Pugwash, and that Pugwash be asked to appoint an observer to it, and to receive an observer from it, and to consider the possibility of joint and/or simultaneous conferences on matters of common interest.

Dr. John Burton from Australia, who is now at University College, London, was elected the Secretary-General of the new Organization. The other eight members of the Continuing Committee will be from Africa, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, U.S.S.R. and U.S.A.

## RAISING FUNDS FOR THE CENTRAL OFFICE

At its meeting in Dubrovnik the Continuing Committee discussed the vexing problem of providing adequate funds for the Central Office in London so as to enable it to function properly. The following recommendations were made:

(a) The contributions from the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. National Groups should be increased to the equivalent of $8,000 per annum each.

(b) All participants of Pugwash should be asked to make a personal annual contribution of $25 (those who

have paid their own expenses in attending a conference should have been deemed to have made such a contribution).

(c) An appeal should be made to the National Groups to make annual contributions of $500-1,000, unless they are already contributing more.

(d) That "Friends of Pugwash" Organizations be set up in various countries with membership fees of $15 or more, and that two-thirds of the income of these organizations be passed on to the Central Office.

- 35 -

(e) That there should be a subscription fee for the Newsletter and the Proceedings of the Conferences.

(f) That a popular book on Pugwash scientists be published which would include contributions from scientists from a number of countries.

(g) Each National Group should designate a person who would be responsible for approaching firms, rich individuals and foundations for contributions; and that a report of the

results of these approaches be given at the Udaipur Conference.

Arising out of these recommendations, the Committee has decided that in order to cover the cost of production there will be a nominal charge for the Newsletter of 1/6d. (25 cents, or 20 kopeks) per issue. Non-participants of the Pugwash Conferences will be asked in future to make a contribution of $10 per copy of the Proceedings of the Conferences.

## NOBEL PEACE PRIZE - PROFESSOR LINUS PAULING

The news of the award of the Nobel Peace Prize for 1962 to Professor Linus Pauling will have been received by Pugwash members with great satisfaction. In congratulating him on this well-deserved

recognition of his relentless efforts in the cause of peace, we wish him many more years of fruitful work in his own field of science as well as in the field of international relations.

## HOW OTHERS SEE US

### IS PUGWASH BECOMING STERILE?

The Dubrovnik Conference has provoked an exchange of views on Pugwash in the British weekly magazine, the "New Scientist". In the 3 October issue there was a leading article under the title "Advice from Dubrovnik", containing a summary of the press statement on the Dubrovnik Conference released by the Continuing Committee. In the next issue (10 October) Geminus, who writes a weekly column in the "New Scientist", made the following comments:

"By all accounts the Eleventh Pugwash Conference at Dubrovnik was a great success, in the sense that Russians and Americans were more willing to talk to each other than they have ever been. In these circumstances it is no criticism of Pugwash, but rather the opposite,

to say that the statement issued afterwards was a mixed blessing - at the best. What seems to have happened is that Pugwash is the victim of its own success in stimulating interest in the problems of disarmament and peacekeeping.

- 36 -

With the best will in the world it
is extremely difficult to hail any of the
ideas in the final communique as an
original contribution to the problem of
knowing what should be done in dis-
armament. The notion that there
should be forward inspection posts in
Central Europe, for example, is by no
means new. Even the diplomatists
have heard of it. (It is irrelevant,
I know, but in my opinion control
posts are not likely to make an effect-
ive contribution to the stability of the
world at large).

Much the same can be said of the
somewhat unspecific plea for the crea-
tion of nuclear-free zones, disengage-
ment in Europe, and the like. I know
that it is significant that Russians have
actually put their names to these propo-
sals, and I know that the Russians con-
cerned are most influential. But even
this fact only reinforces what I con-
sider to be the correct assessment of
the present condition of Pugwash - that
it has become much more valuable as
an unofficial channel of communication
between East and West than as a source
of novel ideas on disarmament.

The reasons for this are interest-
ing and important. In the last five
years or so the serious study of mili-
tary strategy and of disarmament - the
other side of the same coin - has become
widespread. Institutes and universities
all over the world are turning their at-
tention to it. Parkinsonism is rampant,
to be sure, and too much money is chas-
ing too few ideas, but the result is a
spate of serious studies of the practical-
ities of disarmament. From being an
occupation for amateurs, disarmament
has become a matter for the profes-
sionals. This is one of the things that
Pugwash set out to ensure. Since its
meetings are attended mostly by ama-
teurs, however, it is not surprising
that its original contributions are less
striking than they used to be.

What is to be done? The organ-
ization seems well aware of the need for
more serious and continuous study of the
problems, and that should yield tangible
benefits in the long run. There is less
certain promise that Pugwash will come,
as I think it should, to regard its formal
meetings more frankly as the enlight-
ened talking shops they have become".

The Secretary-General replied to these comments in the following letter which was published in the issue of 17 October under the title "The Future of Pugwash":

"The critique of Pugwash by Gem-
inus (10 October) is well taken. But
one or two of his points call for com-
ment. Geminus asserts that Pugwash
is running out of original ideas on dis-
armament. A similar criticism was
made recently in "The Guardian" by
John Maddox who, by way of example,
pointed out that even the famous "black
box" project was not an original Pug-
wash idea. My old professor used to
tell us, whenever we came up with a
novel idea, that if we searched the liter-
ature carefully enough, we would prob-

ably find that someone else had already
published it. Often, however, the im-
portance of a new idea depends on where,
when, and by whom it was suggested. If
this may be true of science, it is cer-
tainly true of the political problems with
which Pugwash is concerned. The
"black box" scheme may have been put
forward earlier but it was only when it
was taken up at a Pugwash Conference,
in a joint paper by eminent American
and Soviet scientists, that it became an
important issue which has helped to
reduce significantly the gap between the

- 37 -

official proposals on a test-ban
treaty. This exemplifies one valu-
able aspect of the Pugwash discus-
sions.

Having said this in defence of re-
hashed ideas, I must hasten to add that,
as a veteran Pugwashite, I failed to de-
tect any sign of deterioration in the rate
of production of novel ideas. By the
very nature of the Pugwash Conferences,
the public statements are hardly a fair
measure of their achievements, although
even in this respect the "press release"
from the Dubrovnik Conference is much
less platitudinous and contains more
specific suggestions than many a state-
ment from the previous Conferences.
But it is in the unpublished informal dis-
cussions in the working groups, or at the
even more informal talks at meals, or
during a swim in the sea, that the new
ideas emerge. In this respect the
stimulating and fertilizing effect of East-
West discussions was as evident at
Dubrovnik as ever before. Some of the
ideas were quite original; for example,
the suggestion concerning on-site inspec-
tions, to allow a larger number than the
agreed minimum, of say three inspec-
tions per year, but that a country demand-
ing an extra inspection would have to de-
posit a large sum (say $100 million)
which it would forfeit if the request for
inspection turned out to be unjustified.

Geminus states correctly that dis-
armament problems are now being tackled
in a professional way by many institutes
all over the world and that Pugwash is
attended mostly by amateurs. But he
missed a vital point: all these institutes
are either in the West or in the East, and
the contributions they make, however

valuable, lack the effectiveness which
can only come from a direct confronta-
tion and ironing out of the different points
of view, as takes place at Pugwash Con-
ferences. Until such institutes or study
groups are established on a truly inter-
national basis (it is likely that one will
materialise in the near future) the Pug-
wash amateurs will still have an import-
ant role to play. But even then there
will be plenty left for Pugwash to do.
We are faced with the problem of China,
which is at least as difficult as the
reaching of an understanding between
Western and Soviet scientists was when
"Pugwash" was conceived in 1955. Dis-
armament and World Security do not
mean only working out of techniques for
the effective elimination of nuclear wea-
pons and their means of delivery; they
involve all the other means of destruction,
including those which are still to be in-
vented; they involve a whole host of prob-
lems of security in a world dominated by
the tremendous progress of science,
problems which have hardly been touched.

Far from falling victim of its own
success and becoming complacent and
sterile, Pugwash is seething with new
ideas and increasing its scope of activi-
ties. This is chiefly because of the
acute realization that the success it has
had so far is infinitesimal compared
with the problems that still lie ahead.
The original purpose of Pugwash, to
make scientists all over the world con-
scious of their social responsibility and
to induce them to take an active part in
tackling the grave issues which have
resulted from the progress in science
and technology, is as urgent, as compel-
ling, and as valid now as it was in 1955.

J. Rotblat

- 38 -

NATIONAL PUGWASH GROUPS

AMERICAN COMMITTEE ON PUGWASH CONFERENCES ON
SCIENCE AND WORLD AFFAIRS (P-COSWA)

Until this year the participation of
the U.S. scientists in Pugwash Confer-
ences has been organized by the Ameri-
can members of the International Con-
tinuing Committee, i. e. Professors
Harrison Brown, Bentley Glass and
Eugene Rabinowitch. In this task they
have been aided by the Committee on
Public Responsibility of Scientists of
the American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences, through its Subcommittees on
International Conferences. These groups
have raised funds for American participa-
tion in the Conferences held in Moscow in
1960 and in England in 1962. The Amer-
ican Academy, together with the National
Academy of Science, sponsored the Stowe
Conferences in 1961, which were largely
supported by the Ford Foundation.

On 23 March, 1963, the Council
of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences agreed to assume respons-

ibility for the organization of future
American participation in P-COSWA
activities. This decision of the
Academy to assume the role of the
American sponsoring organization for
P-COSWA, was undertaken at the re-
quest of the American members of the
International Continuing Committee.
To carry out this role, the Academy
has appointed a Committee on P-COSWA
to which it has delegated responsibility
for organization of American participa-
tion in this unique channel of effective
international communication. The
membership of this Committee is as
follows:

Chairman: Prof. B. T. Feld

Vice-Chairman: Prof. E. Rabinowitch

Members: Mrs. Ruth Adams, Prof.

H. Brown, Prof. P. Doty, Prof.

J. T. Edsall, Prof. B. Glass, Prof.

A. Rich, Prof. C.H. Townes and

Dr. A. M. Weinberg.

NEW PUGWASH GROUP IN THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

On the basis of a decision taken
by the Presidium of the German Academy
of Sciences, Berlin, the General-
Secretary of the Academy, Academician
Günther Rien Häcker invited a number of
G. D. R. scientists to consider the set-
ting up of a National Pugwash Group of
the German Democratic Republic. The
meeting took place on 19 September,
1963. Having heard and discussed a
report on the history, character and
future activities of the Pugwash Move-
ment, the participants, desiring to pro-
mote the efforts of the Pugwash Move-
ment to secure a peaceful world, agreed
to set up a Pugwash Group and to give it
their active support.

The Group consists of the follow-
ing scientists: Academicians Günther
Rien Häcker (Chairman), Walter Fried-
rich, Walter Hertz, Jürgen Kuczynski,
Max Steenbeck, Leo Stern and Karl-
Friedrich Alexander; Professors
Heinz Barwich, Hermann Budzislawski,
Artur Lüsche, and Heinz Pose; Dr.
Georg Sitzlack and Dr. Peter Hess
(Secretary).

The Pugwash Group adopted
statutes and elected a working commit-
tee consisting of Academicians
G. Rienacker and M. Steenbeck, and
Dr. P. Hess.

- 39 -

PERIODICALS

WHICH PUBLISH ARTICLES OF INTEREST TO PUGWASH

(This is a first list covering only some countries. It is incomplete;
any additions or amendments will be gratefully received by the Editor)
Subscription rates where quoted are per annum.

Australia

Australian Outlook. Three times
a year. 25/-. Australian Institute
of International Affairs,
252 Swanston Street, Melbourne.

Canada

International Journal. Quarterly.
9/6. Canadian Institute of Inter-
national Affairs, 230 Bloor Street,
W. Toronto 5.

Our Generation Against Nuclear War
Quarterly. $3.00. 911 St. James
Street West, Montreal 3, Quebec.

France

Revue de defense nationale. Monthly.
(in English, French and German).
38.50 fr. 5 Rue Auguste Conte,
Paris 6.

Germany

Atomzeitalter. Monthly. 10 DM.
Elbest 46, Frankfurt-an-Main.

Europa Archiv

Straumberg-Lippe-Strasse 6,
Bonn/Rhein.

Rundbrief der Vereningung Deutscher
Wissenschaftler. Geesthacht/Elbe,
Kronsberg 31.

India

Foreign Affairs Record. Monthly.
India Council of World Affairs,
Sapru House, Barakhamba Road,
New Delhi.

India and World Affairs. Quarterly.
12/-. Hindustan Publications Ltd.,
50 Lake Place, Calcutta.

Netherlands

De militaire spectator. Monthly.
22.50 H. Fl. Moorman's Periodieke
Pers., N. W., Zwarteweg, 1.

Pakistan

Pakistan Horizon. Quarterly.
Pakistan Institute of International
Affairs, Karachi.

Switzerland

Interavia. World Review of Aviation
and Astronautics. Monthly (in
English). 52/6.
6 Colvaterie, Geneva, 11.

United Kingdom

Anglo-Russian News Bulletin. Monthly.
The Anglo-Russian Parliamentary
Committee, 6 Buckingham Street,
Adelphi, London, W. C. 2.

China Quarterly. Quarterly. 20/-.
Information Bulletin Ltd.,
133 Oxford Street, London, W. 1.

Disarmament and Arms Control
quarterly. 40/-. (for individual sub-
scribers). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

International Affairs. Quarterly.

27/6. Royal Institute of International
Affairs, Chatham House, London.

Journal of the Royal United Services

Institute. Quarterly. 42/-.  
Whitehall, London, S. W. 1.

King-Hall Newsletter. Weekly. 20/-. 162 Buckingham Palace Road, London, S. W. 1.

Minerva. Quarterly. 20/-. Com-
mittee on Science and Freedom,
133-5 Oxford Street, London, W. 1.

- 40 -

New Scientist. Weekly. 60/-.

Harrison, Raison & Co., Cromwell
House, Fulwood Place, High Hol-
born, London, W. C. 1.

New World. Monthly. 6/6.

United Nations Association,
25 Charles Street, London, W. 1.

Scientific World. Quarterly. 10/-.

World Federation of Scientific
Workers, 40 Goodge Street,
London, W.C. 1.

Soviet Studies. Quarterly. 42/-.

Basil Blackwell and Mott Ltd.,
49 Broad Street, Oxford.

Survival. Bimonthly. 28/-.

Institute for Strategic Studies,
18 Adam Street, London, W. C. 2.

War and Peace. Quarterly. 16/-.

C. N. D., 2 Carthusian Street,
London, E. C. 1.

World Today. Monthly. 30/-.

World Affairs. Bimonthly. 8/-.

Federal Union Ltd., 10 Wyndham
Place, London, N. W. 1.

U.S.A.

Air Force and Space Digest. Monthly.

Mills Building, Washington 6, D. C.

Aviation Week and Space Technology

Weekly. $20.00. McGraw-Hill,
330 W. 42nd Street, N. Y. 36,
New York.

Bulletin of Atomic Scientists. Monthly.

$6.00. Educational Foundation for
Nuclear Science, 935 E. 60th Street,
Chicago 37, Illinois.

Council for Correspondence. Monthly.

Emerson Hall, 324, Harvard
University, Cambridge, 38, Mass.

Council for a Livable World

1346 Connecticut Avenue,
Washington, D. C.

Daedalus Quarterly. American Academy
of Arts and Science, 280 Newton Street,
Boston 46, Mass.

Foreign Affairs. Quarterly. $6.00

Committee on Foreign Relations,
58E 68 St., N. Y. 21, New York.

Journal of Conflict Resolution. Quarterly.

$5.50. Centre for Research on conflict resolution, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Journal of Arms Control. Quarterly.

$7.50. Institute for Arms Control and Peace Research, P. O. Box 1106, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

International Newsletter on Peace

Research. Quarterly. 820 E. Washington Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Missiles and Rockets. Monthly. $15.00.

American Aviation Publications,
1001 Vermont Avenue, Washington 5,
D. C.

Nuclear Information. 10 times a year.

$5.00. Greater St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information, 6504 Delmar, St. Louis 30, Mo.

Scientific American. Monthly. $6.00.

415 Madison Avenue, New York 17,
N. Y.

S.S.R.S. Newsletter. Monthly. (Free).

Society for Social Responsibility in
Science, Gambier, Ohio.

War/Peace Report. Monthly. $5.00.

305 West 18th Street, N. Y., New York.

U.S.S.R.

International Affairs. Monthly.

(in Russian and in English). 14/-.
14 Gorohovsky Pevenlock, Moscow.

P U G W A S H N E W S L E T T E R

Volume 2

Number 1

July 1964

Editor: Prof. J. ROTBLAT

8, Asmara Road,
London, N. W. 2, England

CONTENTS

Page

<table><tbody><tr><td>John Maddox:<br>What Future for the Conference of Eighteen?</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>B. Landheer:<br>What Can Social Scientists Contribute to Pugwash?</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Pugwash Events</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Leo Szilard</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Reports from National Groups</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Australian Pugwash Activities</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>The Czechoslovak Pugwash Committee</td><td>16</td></tr><tr><td>F. Sorm:<br>In Thermis Caroli IV</td><td>16</td></tr></tbody></table>

John Maddox

WHAT FUTURE FOR THE CONFERENCE OF EIGHTEEN?

It is now more than two years since
the Eighteen-Nation Conference on
Disarmament first met at Geneva on
March 14th, 1962. By now it has become
one of the apparently permanent
occupants of space in the Palais des
Nations, though its presence at Geneva
does not yet rival in length and continuity
that of the U.N. Committee on the Test-
Ban Treaty, which held 353 sessions in
the three and a half years of negotiations
which finished in January 1963. It is
not a token of discontent with the work
of the disarmament conference, but
rather the opposite, to suggest - or
even hope - that a great many years will
go by before the delegations relinquish
their bookings in the Geneva hotels,
and before the interpreters and other
UN functionaries who dance attendance
on the work of the conference will have
to learn a new vocabulary, and learn
to serve some other international
gathering.

As yet, however, there is very
little to show for all the discussion
that has taken place. Towards the end
of 1962, it is true, the conference kept
the test-ban talks alive when they might
otherwise have collapsed. There is
also good reason to believe that the
agreement for the hot-line between
Washington and Moscow would not have
come about if it had not been for the
initiative and the discussions of the
conference. But these are not the
world-shaking achievements that were
looked for, in some quarters at least,
when the first meetings of the confer-
ence were convened. The presence
of eight non-aligned states at a disarm-
ament conference-table has not, after

all, been sufficient to force or to shame
the great powers into an agreement with
each other.

Indeed, it is true that the conference
has so far failed to make good some of the
obvious defects in its own constitution.
Though it is called the eighteen-nation
conference, the representatives of France
have not yet put in an appearance at
Geneva. Though the question of the rep-
resentation of China has frequently been
raised, and though it is technically
possible for this conference to invite
representatives of China to Geneva with-
out thereby begging the question of Chinese
membership of the United Nations (for the
conference is not a UN sub-committee
but the result of an agreement between
the governments concerned), no serious
study of this question has been made. But
without France and China, no conference
on disarmament can carry real conviction.

None of this, however, has dulled the
sense of pragmatic optimism that surrounds
the work of the conference, especially in
the last few months. The intention is that
the conference should present some kind
of a report to the Nineteenth UN Assembly
in December. Though there is no prospect
that this report will demonstrate a solution
of the obstacles to the comprehensive
disarmament treaties which have been
discussed at the conference throughout its
life, there does appear to be some hope
of progress with some of the collateral
measures of arms control which have been
conspicuous on the agenda during 1964.

As things are, the conference holds
two sessions a week, one of which is
concerned with the proposals on

- 2 -

[c]

comprehensive disarmament, and the
other with the detailed collateral meas-
ures. These are two sides of the same
coin, but necessarily the discussions
have very different flavours. Compre-
hensive disarmament has been prom-
inent at the conference ever since the
Soviet Union tabled a detailed treaty
for comprehensive disarmament at
the beginning of the conference. This
was quickly followed by an American
draft treaty, and much of the work of
the conference since 1962 has been
designed to find some bridge between
the two sets of proposals. The course
of these negotiations has often been
taken up at Pugwash conferences,
notably by Professor Blackett at
Cambridge in 1962 and by Philip Noel-
Baker at Dubrovnik in 1963. There is
little doubt that this part of the work
of the conference inspired the Soviet
proposal, put formally by Mr. Gromyko
at the United Nations in 1962, of the
minimum deterrent as an intermediate
stage in comprehensive disarmament.
In this connection, it is noteworthy
that there has been a close correspond-
ence between concepts discussed at
Pugwash conferences and at the Geneva
conference.

In previous years particular
measures of arms control, such as the
test-ban treaty, have been discussed
by sub-committees of the conference.
At the beginning of 1964, however, the
whole group of seventeen nations was
confronted by two sets of proposals on
collateral measures of arms control
which have since been discussed by the
conference as a whole. It is from
among these two shopping lists, one
from the East and one from the West,
that there may soon emerge proposals
for further tangible agreements between
the major power blocs.

Though some of the proposals made

in January 1964 appear on both shopping
lists, long-standing political obstacles
have impeded progress. Thus an
extension of the test-ban treaty to include
underground tests was proposed by both
sides, yet agreement remains out of reach
because of the failure to agree on the
necessity or otherwise of inspection as
a means of detecting the smaller under-
ground explosions. Given that there has
been no dramatic progress in the techniques
of seismological detection at a distance
since the signing of the partial test-ban
treaty in the spring of 1963, it is not
perhaps surprising that there should have
been no decided shift in the positions
taken by the major nuclear powers.

Proposals for freezing the numbers of
weapons of particular kinds have met with
varying success at Geneva. In January
the United States put forward a suggestion
of a "verified freeze of the number and
characteristics of strategic nuclear
offensive and defensive vehicles". The
Russian response to this has been lukewarm,
to say the least of it, though that is no
great surprise. The position is that the
Soviet Government has asked for further
information of what the Americans have
in mind, though there is no question that
the United States is asking not merely for
a cessation of the deployment of further
strategic weapons, including anti-missile
missiles. From the Russian point of view,
of course, one consequence of this would
be to perpetuate what seems to be the
present disparity of strategic strength
between East and West. Thus the proposal
of a freeze is yet another reason for
thinking that, in the search for mutually
acceptable measures of arms control,
package deals involving numbers of separate
proposals linked together are likely to be
the most successful,

The Gomulka Plan for a freeze on the
deployment of nuclear weapons in Europe
is in a different category, and it is not

- 3 -

clear to what extent this may or may
not have been inspired by the work of
the conference at Geneva. Ostensibly
the proposal is a further revision of
the Rapacki plan. Its political virtues
are that it offers to the East some kind
of an assurance that West Germany
would remain without nuclear weapons,
while the military arguments in the
West for the deployment of tactical
nuclear weapons in Europe have recent-
ly been muted. Whatever the origins
of the Gomulka proposal, however, its
formulation does illustrate how the
Geneva Conference now serves as a
valuable sounding board for testing
the reality of various particular
proposals for arms control and disarm-
ament.

Yet another proposal for a freeze -
this time of military budgets - has so
far met with little response at Geneva.
This is a proposal to, which the Soviet
Union has traditionally given a great
deal of attention. At Geneva in the last
few months Russian delegates have
complained fiercely of the way in which
the United Kingdom defence budget was
increased in April 1964, thus prejudicing
agreement along the lines suggested.
So far, however, the West has been
flatly unsympathetic to the Russian
proposal, chiefly because it argues
that there is no basis for comparison
between the budgets of the different
powers.

There does seem, however, to have
been a better response to the Russian
proposal for a destruction of bombing
aircraft even if, as some cynics argue,
this is because the major powers now
have no further need of the fleets of
strategic aircraft created during the
fifties. One version of the proposal
now being discussed is that B47 and
Badger aircraft should each be destroyed,

in some verifiable way, at a rate of
twenty every month. Among those who
try to divine which of the many proposals
at Geneva are likely to be agreed upon in
the near future, this so-called "bomber
bonfire" is considered to be a likely
candidate.

Proposals on the siting of control
posts in Central Europe also seem to be
high on the list of potential agreements
at Geneva. Such measures of arms
control have, of course, been conspicuous
at conferences on disarmament ever since
the early fifties. Among Western
delegations, at least, doubts centre on
the effectiveness of control posts as means
of reducing the risks of surprise attack in
Central Europe. A fixed post, of the kind
now favoured at Geneva, can often be by-
passed by a sufficiently energetic and
resourceful military force. Yet it seems
to be agreed that anything that helps to
make Central Europe safer is to be
welcomed.

On the control of nuclear weapons,
the Geneva conference has had one
conspicuous success, and one conspicuous
failure, since the beginning of 1964. For
it does seem that the unilateral but co-
ordinated declaration by the United States
and the Soviet Union of the diversion of
substantial amounts of nuclear explosives
to peaceful uses, was inspired by the
discussions at Geneva. On the other hand,
the discussions of measures for the
inhibition of the spread of nuclear
weapons seems now to be held up by
the proposal that the West German
Government should be invited to join in
the work of the NATO mixed-manned
multilateral force. This proposal has
not yet taken its final form within the
NATO community, but already it is clear
that it will be a serious impediment to the
work of the Geneva conference.

- 4 -

The extent to which disagreement at Geneva on this issue will sour the work of the whole conference is not yet apparent, but at least there is a danger. If it were not for this, there seems no doubt that the conference would, in the next few months, produce some tangible agreements of a very limited character that would nevertheless go some way to maintain the slow progress towards arms control begun by the partial test-ban treaty.

A number of general questions suggested by the work of the Geneva Conference in the last two years remain to be answered. The utilitarian scepticism that leads some to ask what use there can be in such a time-consuming method of arriving at timorous agreements between the great powers is easily answered. The Eighteen-Nation conference has not proved to be the powerful instrument for forcing agreements on the major powers which some of its creators hoped for, but it has turned out to be at once a sensitive sounding board for distinguishing potentially successful proposals on arms control from the great multitude which can be suggested on paper, and a means of educating diplomatic opinion in the practical political difficulties of making any progress towards disarmament. As such, of course, its existence cannot be despised without folly.

One over-riding and absorbing issue is the part which has been played at Geneva by the eight non-aligned nations which are members of the conference. The presence of these was suggested after the collapse of the ten-nation disarmament conference in 1960, and after it began to seem as if the will of the Great Powers to reach some workable agreement among themselves

would be strengthened immeasurably if they were to be reminded, by the presence of delegations from "independent" nations, that the world is not just a playground for the great powers. In other words, it was argued that the non-aligned nations at Geneva might shame the Great Powers into agreement by their mere presence, and not only by their greater capacity to see the problems of disarmament from a more objective point of view.

How have these expectations been fulfilled? Here, too, perhaps, the chief benefits are educational. Bravely but reluctantly the non-aligned nations seem to have become reconciled to the practical difficulties of disarmament. Mr. Arthur Lall, the Indian delegate at Geneva for several months, has explained in some detail (Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 1964) how the non-aligned nations at the conference have been obliged by circumstances to match their proposals carefully to the political temper of the dialogue between the Great Powers. Evidently the Eighteen-Nation conference is no place for an over-zealous delegation.

This does not, however, imply that the work of the conference is one long frustration. On the contrary, the conference has a record of modest achievement, and it has grown into a special kind of international forum at which it is possible for Powers, great and otherwise, to hold frank discussions of the difficulties of particular steps towards arms control and disarmament. As such, its value to the world of the sixties is enormous. As yet there is no clear picture of the form in which the Geneva conference will continue after the Nineteenth Assembly of the United Nations, but that it should continue in some form or another is not in question.

- 5 -

B. Landheer

WHAT CAN SOCIAL SCIENTISTS CONTRIBUTE TO PUGWASH?

In order to give an initial simple
answer to a complex question, it could
be said that it would be the task of
social scientists in the Pugwash Move-
ment to formulate as many alternatives
for better international co-ordination as
seems scientifically possible. The
natural scientist may not always be
aware of the full range of social alter-
natives, and in this respect the social
scientists can provide additional per-
spectives which might be of importance.

On the other hand, there would
be a considerable difference of opinion
among the social scientists themselves
in regard to the formulation of possi-
bilities for better international co-
ordination, and especially in regard to
the road which leads from the reality
of the present to projected situations.

The international jurist, for
instance, is on the whole committed
to the idea of an international legal
order as the most desirable solution.
The degree of efficacy of international
law he is often tempted to leave out of
consideration as not being "legal" in
nature.

The sociologist, on the other
hand, would make his starting point
the reality of international society -
its "power-structure"; he would analyse
the aspects of the formal structure and
ask in what way formal and power
structures interact. The result is a
more complex image than that of the
jurist; in addition, while social change
is a focal point of sociological analysis
it is an aspect which presents great
difficulties to the jurist.

The economist operates more upon a
general value-system than the sociologist.
The underlying philosophy of the econo-
mist is that an equitable distribution of the
world's wealth and the utilization of the
world's resources by modern technology
would create a functioning world-society.
Although this may sound plausible to many,
it is a theoretical assumption which also
suffers from the fact that the situation of
the past fifty years or so shows increasing
rather than diminishing differentiation.
In addition, there is no convincing evi-
dence that economic affluence can be a
lasting condition for the majority of man-
kind, nor that such a condition would put
an end to social conflicts. On the con-
trary, the analysis of wars has shown
that wars are waged by wealthy nations
rather than by poor ones.

The psychologist and psycho-
analyst take their starting point in the
individual. They often agree that only
if the complex and interlinked system of
human drives finds a controlled and
fairly adequate outlet can there be the question
of a reasonably "peaceful" individual.
The necessary conditions which they en-
visage are, however, far more complex
than those which prevail in economic
thinking, where factors like sexual
frustration, innate aggressiveness,
status frustration, lack of emotional and
psychic balance, frustration of the imagi-
nation, lack of natural rhythm play a much
smaller role.

Finally, one should mention the
most modern sciences like behaviourism,
the theory of international relations,
irenology, polemology, conflictology, etc.,
all represented nowadays in numerous

- 6 -

[lc]

publications and many periodicals. A number of sub-divisions of these sciences, like those dealing with disarmament and arms-control, could also be referred to.

In view of this brief inventory of some of the social sciences, the question arises whether they may not add to the prevailing confusion in our thinking rather than reduce it.

This possibility is indeed not imaginary, as the law of increasing numbers undoubtedly operates in the social sciences, and not with exclusively positive results, though this may seem to be the case if one applies only a quantitative yardstick. There are, however, some points on which the thinking of the social sciences shows important deviations from the more general modes of thought of modern society.

As examples of such points one could mention: the matter of the relative centralization and decentralization of a functioning world-society; the levels of social control in world-society and their interrelations; the necessary means of physical coercion at various social levels; and finally, the structural changes in world-society and their impact on its organizational structure.

A few remarks will be made on each of these points, obviously without the pretence of summarizing the findings of the social sciences in a few sentences, but more as a way of illustrating where useful contributions of the social sciences might lie, and in what way they might indicate preferential alternatives.

The subject of the relative centralization and decentralization

is of considerable interest. From the nineteenth century we inherited the idea that social order is dependent upon a centralized control mechanism, operating with means of physical coercion. This theory seemed to be confirmed by the operation of the dominant social group, viz. the state, and in analogy it was applied to world-society. There are essential differences, however, between the national state and world-society, and, consequently, also in the control mechanisms which they need.

The state has a twofold function: inner order and outer defence, while world-society has only one: inner order. The twofold function of the state has led to a centralization of power and to the building up of centralized military systems in order to safeguard and protect state stability. As the latter factor seemed to increase with state capability, centralization appeared as the most effective means of building up state power, in the twofold aspect of centralized administrative control as well as centralized military power.

Modern technology and modern industry also profit, up to a certain limit at least, from centralization. As a result, politico-military and economic-industrial centralization have had a cumulative effect on one another, and this has often led to the uncritical assumption that centralization is a positive goal in itself.

In regard to world society, however, this assumption has to be critically re-examined. World-society consists of social groups which have grown from certain focal points. The present processes of social growth operate in such a way that the more complex industrial societies show a predominantly vertical social growth, while horizontal expansion in terms of conquest and

- 7 -

[Lc]

domination involves increasing risks with the growing complexity of modern society. Nevertheless, modern industrial society shows a number of definite focal points, and even with the spreading across the globe of this type of society, it must be assumed that the result will be a highly differentiated society, in terms of concretely stated factors like territory, size of population, resources, technological level, social and political structure, cultural value-system, etc.

It would be illogical to assume that such a complex and differentiated world-society could operate under a centralized control mechanism, comparable to that of the much simpler national states of the nineteenth century, functioning predominantly by means of physical coercion.

This idea not only contradicts the emerging structures of world-society, but it is also in conflict with the inner structure of the most complex industrial societies which operate more by compromise and by complex give-and-take mechanisms. Such a society would be severely disrupted by the use of exclusively physical coercion, and those methods do not belong to the control mechanism of modern society.

This argument is valid for world-society. As a result, the question of essential control mechanisms for world-society should be posed as a new question and not as one that can be solved by analogy with the national state. The question is rather what control mechanisms are essential at the global, regional, national and sub-national levels, and what physical means of coercion are operationally essential

at these various levels. The problem can only be stated in relation to the possession of the various physical means of coercion at the various social levels. The question whether or not they will be used is a non-scientific question, since the use depends upon challenges which are not predictable or foreseeable in a scientific manner.

Man, as a tool-using animal, makes tools with a specific use in view. If he does not anticipate the use, he should not make the tools.

This reduces the problem to the question what social control mechanisms are functionally essential at the various social levels, and in how far and to what extent do they need means of physical coercion in order to fulfil their function. As Man lives in territorial social groups, it seems a foregone conclusion that for a long time to come the state will remain the most important social level from the functional point of view. The state controls the family, the social mechanism of Man's propagation; the state controls the economy, the mechanism of Man's need-fulfillment; the state controls education as the adjustment-process of Man to society; the state controls the uses to which Man puts his intellectual and imaginative capabilities. If the state aims at co-ordination with other states, because expansion by physical means of violence has become dysfunctional, this does not mean that the only solution lies in transferring dominant military power to an international organization.

The problem has much deeper roots, and centres on the question what functions must be transferred to the global levels in order to make the state functional in its relation to world-society. Among such functions social scientists have mentioned the problems of world-population,

- 8 -

world-resources, and world health for which international organizations already exist or have been suggested (cp. the Proceedings of the Twelfth Pugwash Conference). There is also agreement about improvement in the global terms of trade, as well as about the necessity of a United Nations Military Force, not as the dominant global military establishment, but as a mechanism of adjustment and isolation of opposing forces in conflict areas.

What seems less clear is the relational aspect of those matters. If global military forces are created in addition to, rather instead of, national forces, there is no real improvement in the total situation. If national military expenditures are reduced by X million dollars and a global force is created at the cost of Y million dollars, the situation becomes only more positive if Y is considerably smaller than X, provided at least that we agree that there is a situation of an extreme hypertrophy of the physical means of coercion. In relation to the world as a whole, there is reduction in some, but increase in many other cases.

Relationally and structurally speaking, the problem becomes a quantitative one: how many physical means of coercion and of what types are essential at the various social levels. The answer must be related to the significance of the social control levels as a whole. The use of physical means of coercion cannot be isolated from the total function of a social control-level. More concretely, this question could be asked in relation to the global level, to regional organizations, to the national state, and to sub-state groups.

It is obviously quite impossible to enter into the substance of this problem, but it is intended to point out that the relational perspective of the social scientist might lead to the formulation of meaningful questions which do not of necessity lead to the same answers that are given in the political realm. In fact, by making the question conform to the complexity of modern society, it might be possible to arrive at the formulation of useful alternatives.

The same relational structure has been pointed out in relation to military expenditures and the amounts available for international aid. If the first ones can be reduced and the second increased, there is real improvement. If both are increased, it is possible that tensions increase rather than decrease.

In this respect also the social sciences could make a very significant contribution, as it is possible to present those relationships in mathematical models which carry a high degree of conviction for the contemporary world. Also noteworthy is the idea that development aid and military expenditures could be made relational, in terms of the donor as well as the recipient, or in regard to both. In this way, decrease of political tensions and increase in economic development could be achieved simultaneously. The overall expansion-rate of the donor-country would be less, however, than in the case of military expenditures plus development aid, and this may be one of the reasons why the idea mentioned does not enjoy great popularity, nor receive much publicity.

Finally, a few words may be said about the factor "social change" in terms of the contemporary social sciences.

- 9 -

[LC]

Neither political, nor legal thinking give much room to the factor of social change, as they both regard the state as a given, and more or less, absolute entity. By doing this, they lack a perspective on the more distant future, as the position of the state in relation to the economic system, in relation to international agencies and, last but not least, in relation to the individual, is definitely undergoing change while, obviously, the interstate structure is also subject to changes which often manifest themselves at a much later date if they are kept out of more conscious forms of thinking.

The apparent hardheaded realism of political thinking can for this reason be very misleading, because it ignores the changing position of the state in relation to other social groups, as well as the factors of natural growth which do not immediately manifest themselves in the power structure, because the power structure operates in terms of the outer manifestations of state-power rather than in terms of latent capability. As all states consist of territorial social groups which are constant neither numerically, nor in regard to their capability, the creation of a functioning world-society depends upon our ability to foresee natural developments and in adjustment to them. The prevailing opinion that power depends exclusively upon human volition is philosophically untenable as well as politically dangerous.

Even within the rigidly controlled national states, governments cannot prevent shifting relationships between social sub-groups, like classes or social pressure groups. In world-society, the shifting relation-

ship between the sub-groups, i. e. national states, must be not only foreseen, but given expression in the formal structure of world-society, if this superstructure is to gain a more acceptable degree of function.

If one accepts the idea that the industrial society is the guiding image of the modern world, this would mean that we must examine the innate attributes of this society and the conditions for its realization, not purely as a matter of human volition, but in terms of given natural facts. The spreading of this society across the globe will redefine the functions of the political society which can never remain the traditional ones. Resistance against these natural processes of social evolution will create increasingly dangerous tensions if we do not seek to become aware of the natural aspects of this evolution which encompasses all of Mankind.

The industrial society must be seen as a social system in terms of the component individuals, but not as a techno-political system which is linked to outdated political forms.

The industrial society has not reached as yet the state of a functioning and permanent social system because it is interpreted from the economic and technical angle rather than from the human one. In this way, it is prevented from becoming functional because it cannot follow its own innate trends, and because it cannot develop its own control mechanism, aimed at ultimate permanence and stability. The stability of the dominant industrial societies is the condition *sine qua non* for a stable and permanent world-society.

The social sciences, and particu-

- 10 -

larly sociology and social philosophy, can render a great service, by creating a scientifically reliable image of the world-evolution towards an industrial society, and by emphasizing the diminishing and changing function of the political institutions of the past. The components of world-society are the individual countries, and there can be no stability and permanence in world-society unless those concepts become the goal of national societies within a reasonable interpretation and acceptance

of their normal capabilities.

It should be added, however, that it is necessary for the social sciences to free themselves from national and civilizational biases, if they want to make an important contribution to the future of Mankind. In this way, they can only profit from the example of the exact sciences, and the interaction between the two within the framework of the Pugwash Movement is of the greatest significance.

## PUGWASH EVENTS

### CONTINUING COMMITTEE

Acad. V. A. Kirillin has resigned from the Committee, owing to pressure of work. His place on the Committee has been taken by Acad. M. D. Millionshchikov who has also been elected Chairman of the Soviet Pugwash Group.

Acad. Millionshchikov attended the 12th Pugwash Conference at Udaipur and, more recently, led the Soviet team in the Joint U. S. /U. S. S. R. Study Group on Disarmament (see below).

## MEETING OF EUROPEAN PUGWASH GROUPS

A meeting of European Pugwash representatives was held in Geneva on 4th and 5th April, 1964. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss the preparation of papers for the 13th Pugwash Conference in Karlovy Vary, and to nominate conveners from European countries for that Conference.

The meeting was attended by

Mr. T. Nemec (Czechoslovakia),
M. Jules Moch (France), Mr. H. Afheldt
(Western Germany), Dr. G. Jona-Lasinio (Italy), Prof. B. V. A. Röling
(Netherlands), Prof. J. Galtung (Norway),
Prof. L. Infeld (Poland), Prof. A.
Engström (Sweden) and Dr. V. Knapp
(Yugoslavia). The Central Office was
represented by Dr. P. J. Lindop and
Prof. J. Rotblat. Dr. Martin Kaplan

- 11 -

and Mr. James Wise were hosts.

M. Jules Moch presented a draft of a paper on "Measures for Reducing Tensions and Dangers of War especially in Central Europe." There was a considerable discussion on this paper and it was agreed that a revised version would be circulated by M. Moch to all other members of the group before the final version was prepared for the Conference. Prof. Infeld undertook to write a paper on "The Berlin Problem."

Other papers to be prepared were:

a. On Technical Aspects of Underground Tests and the Prevention of Spread of Nuclear Weapons and Weapons Technology (by the Swedish Group).

b. On Mutual Inspection Systems for Bacteriological Weapons in Europe (by a number of people with Martin Kaplan as co-ordinator).

c. On Bilateral Contacts between Small Nations of the East/West bloc (by Prof. J. Galtung).

## KARLOVY VARY CONFERENCE

The following were nominated conveners of the Working Groups for the 13th Pugwash Conference.

**Working Group 1** - Measures for reducing tensions and the dangers of war, especially in Central Europe.

Prof. B. Glass
Prof. W. S. Emelyanov
M. Jules Moch

**Working Group 2** - Current status of proposals for arms limitation.

Acad. L. A. Artsimovitch
Prof. A. Engström
Prof. B. T. Feld

**Working Group 3** - Progress towards comprehensive disarmament.

Prof. B. H. Flowers
Prof. F. A. Long
Prof. N. A. Talensky

**Working Group 4** - Problems of collective security

Prof. V. M. Khvostov
Prof. R. E. Peierls
Prof. J. B. Wiesner

**Working Group 5** - Aims and methods for peaceful collaboration among nations.

Acad. I. Malek
Prof. C. F. Powell
Prof. E. Rabinowitch
Prof. M. Rubinstein

## 14TH PUGWASH CONFERENCE

The 14th Conference, which is to be held in April 1965, will take place in Isola S. Giorgio, Venice. The Conference

will be sponsored by the Accademia dei Lincei and Fondazione Cini.

- 12 -

JOINT U.S./U.S.S.R. STUDY GROUP ON DISARMAMENT

The first meeting of the Study Group on Disarmament and Arms Control, consisting of Soviet and American scholars and held under the sponsorship of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, took place from 8th to 19th June, 1964. Meetings were held first at Endicott House, Dedham, and then at Holyoke Centre, Harvard University. Arrangements for the conference were worked out by the Academy's Committee on International Studies of Arms Control, supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation.

The Soviet participants were
Acads. M. D. Millionshchikov, V. A.
Emelyanov and L. I. Sedov, Prof. M. A.
Talensky and Mr. V. P. Pavlichenko.
The American participants were Prof.
Paul Doty, Dr. D. Brennan, Profs. D.
Frisch, M. Shulman, L. Sohn, H.
Kissinger, G. Kistiakowsky, C. Kaysen
and Mrs. B. Lall. Five other partici-
pants (F. Long, J. Wiesner, F.
Fletcher, I Rabi and J. Ruina) attended

for shorter periods.

The meeting provided an oppor-
tunity for an intensive examination of
problems primarily of a technological
nature.

The co-chairmen of the meetings
were Acad. M. D. Millionshchikov, Vice
President of the Academy of Sciences of
Moscow, and Prof. Paul Doty of Harvard
University. They expressed their satis-
faction with the accomplishment of the
meeting, stressing that a much better
understanding had been reached on a
number of issues and that some promising
areas for further study had been agreed
upon.

The conference itself was private
but the occasion provided an opportunity
for the Soviet participants to meet with
colleagues in the Boston area as well as
in New York and Washington.

PUGWASH GROUP IN POLAND

A Polish Pugwash Group was set up at an inaugural meeting which was held in Warsaw on 27th June, 1964, and which was attended by the Secretary-General. The meeting was organized under the auspices of the Polish Academy of Sciences and those present included Heads of Universities and other leaders of Polish science. Prof. L. Infeld was elected Honorary President of the Group.

The Chairman of the Group is
Prof. I. Malecki, Assistant Secretary of
the Polish Academy of Sciences. The
Secretary is Prof. Karol Lapter.

One of the main tasks of the Group
will be the organization of a Pugwash
Conference which will probably be held in
Poland in 1965 or 1966.

- 13 -

LEO SZILARD

(1898 - 1964)

It was with profound sadness and regret that we learned of the death of Leo Szilard on May 30th, 1964. He died at the age of sixty-six from a heart attack which came on during his sleep. This marked the end of a career which has had a profound effect both in the world of science and the world of human relations. Leo Szilard was very well known among the participants of Pugwash Meetings, since he attended most of these Conferences. He was one of the few men whose actions have earned him the distinction of being known as a man of wisdom both among scientists and in the public at large.

Szilard was born in Budapest in 1898 and after first studying engineering, he shifted later to theoretical physics. He received a Ph. D. degree from the University of Berlin in 1922, and remained associated with the University and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for the next ten years. During this period, Szilard was regarded as a very whimsical and imaginative young man. He lived very much on his wit. As one friend has said, "When Szilard found that his income was inadequate, he simply turned his mind to making a new invention and selling it, so that he could continue his research work." During this period, Szilard worked on the statistical behaviour of physical systems and the utilization of information. Much of his work is of fundamental importance in the later development of cybernetics.

In 1933 when Hitler came into power, Szilard accurately foresaw the nature of the Nazi government and left Germany first for Vienna and, later that year, for London. He started work in nuclear physics in 1934 at St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College and there he

evolved a new principle of isotope separation of artificial radioactive elements. He continued this work at the Clarendon Laboratories at Oxford University and finally in 1938 he left for the United States where he became a citizen. In 1939, working at Columbia University, he performed some of the first experiments which indicated that neutrons are emitted in the fission of uranium. After watching the fluorescent screen for flashes of light which signified the success of the experiment, Szilard wrote, "We turned the switch, we saw the flashes and we watched them for about ten minutes, and then we switched everything off and went home. That night, I knew the world was headed for sorrow." In that same year, Szilard was instrumental in drafting a letter which Einstein signed and sent to President Roosevelt, urging research on the development of the atomic bomb. Late in 1942, Szilard and Enrico Fermi performed the famous experiments which led to the development of man's first sustained nuclear chain reaction.

When the development of the atomic bomb was largely completed, Szilard turned in his activities from seeking ways to develop the weapon to an attempt to control it. He tried unsuccessfully to prevent the use of the atomic bombs on Japan at the end of World War II. At that time, he was instrumental in organizing the Emergency Committee of the Atomic Scientists who tried to create a system for the international control of atomic energy. The most striking characteristic of Szilard's activities was the fact that he could see well in advance of most of his contemporaries the major problems which society would face with the development

- 14 -

of nuclear weapons and with the even-
tual formation of the great powers
stalemate. He was very active in organ-
izing efforts which were directed toward
educating the public regarding the nature
of atomic weapons and the effect that
they have on relations between nations
and, most of all, the absolute necessity
for effective international control over
them. He founded the Council for a
Livable World, an organization designed
to operate in the American political
system for the express purpose of
educating and influencing members of
Congress about the importance of nuclear
weapons and disarmament.

During the last twenty years,
Szilard's scientific efforts were concerned
almost entirely with the newly develop-
ing field of molecular biology. He made
substantial contributions especially in
his discussions of various types of feed-
back mechanisms responsible for
regulating cellular metabolism. At the
time of his death he was actively
engaged in developing a new theory of
the biochemical basis of learning and
memory.

In 1959, Szilard was stricken with
cancer and he went through a long and
trying process before it became
apparent that the cancer had been con-
trolled by radiation therapy. Nonethe-
less it was characteristic of him that
his spirits remained high and his
productivity was unaffected. During
this period, he published "The Voice of
the Dolphins", a political and philo-
sophical book which used science fiction
as a vehicle for ideas.

Szilard was one of the rare
scientists who had close contacts with
high governmental officials of both the
East and the West. When Premier
Khrushchev visited New York, Szilard
spoke with him and again visited him
and many other high officials in Moscow

in 1960. During the past three years
Szilard lived largely in Washington and
was a frequent visitor to many high
officials in the United States administration.
In all these contacts, Szilard was contin-
uously attempting to generate new ideas
and to explain clearly to governmental
officials the consequences of various
courses of action. He remained a tire-
less campaigner in his attempts to create
a stable system of international order.

Szilard's activities at the Pugwash
Conferences were very well known. At
these meetings, he provided a mixture
of logic and good humour which did a
great deal to enliven the discussions and
to point out to the participants various
facets of their deliberations. At these
conferences, Szilard was listened to
carefully by participants from all
countries since it was clear to everyone
that his efforts were directed towards
the benefit of humanity in general.

Szilard's impact was on a much
wider circle than the scientific community
alone. On his death, the New York Times
wrote an editorial about him in which they
pointed out that he has "dedicated his great
heart and brilliant mind to seeing to it that
no community ever suffers the fate that
destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki". Life
magazine published a warm account of
Szilard and his efforts on behalf of peace.
On the floor of the United States Senate
two senators placed very glowing tributes
to Szilard in the Congressional Record
pointing out his considerable contributions
and his unfailing advocacy of complete
disarmament under world law.

Thus it is that Leo Szilard's
passing leaves us all saddened consider-
ably. The scientific community and the
world at large mourn his passing.

Alex Rich.

- 15 -

REPORTS FROM NATIONAL GROUPS

AUSTRALIAN PUGWASH ACTIVITIES

The first Pugwash Conference was attended by the world-renowned nuclear physicist, Professor Sir Mark Oliphant, of the Research School of Physical Sciences of the Australian National University, Canberra. Since this time Sir Mark has acted as patron for Pugwash activities in Australia. These activities have taken, in the main, a twofold form:

(a) attendance and reporting back on international conferences,

(b) formation of Pugwash Groups amongst social and natural scientists.

In addition to the initial conference, Sir Mark has attended the second, third, eighth, ninth and tenth, as well as the recent 12th conference in India. Dr. J. Burton of Canberra attended the 6th, 10th and 11th, Dr. W. Boas of Melbourne attended the Oslo conference convened by Linus Pauling and Sir John Crawford of Canberra attended the seventh congress. Australia was not represented at the fourth and fifth conferences.

Pugwash Groups are active in Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne and Adelaide and contact has been maintained with interested people in Brisbane and Newcastle, and recently with New Zealand.

Initially the activity of the Groups centred mainly around regular meetings with symposia and discussions on subjects associated with Pugwash ideals and aims. Recently, in Sydney and Melbourne, activity has tended to centre

around study groups. The Sydney Group has prepared a report on the present state of detection of underground tests, which it is hoped will be published. An active Melbourne group has been studying "Attitudes to War". In addition the Melbourne group, which has 80 formal members (subscription 10/- per annum), is publishing a newsletter.

Meetings of students have been addressed in Sydney and Melbourne, by invitation, and the ideals of Pugwash have been received enthusiastically.

Activities in Canberra have tended to centre around meetings on special topics and seminars have been based on studies of aid to underdeveloped countries. Aid to underdeveloped countries is the subject of active research in the School of Pacific Studies of the Australian National University, under its Director, Sir John Crawford. The group has also had the co-operation of the Department of International Relations, headed by Professor J. D. B. Miller.

At a meeting of 30 members of Australian Pugwash Groups held in January in conjunction with the Australian and New Zealand Science Congress (A. N. Z. A. A. S.) in Canberra, it was decided to set up an Australasian Committee made up of the Chairmen of the Australian Groups, with a Secretariat of three Canberra members. The Secretariat is now taking active steps to initiate the activity of the Australasian Committee.

J. H. Dickins.

- 16 -

THE CZECHOSLOVAK PUGWASH COMMITTEE

The Czechoslovak Pugwash Committee consists at present of 19 members. The Chairman is Academician F. Sorm, Chairman of the Academy of Sciences. The Secretary is Mr. T. Nemec. The Pugwash Committee is closely linked with the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences and funds for the activities of the Pugwash Committee are provided by the Academy. The Pugwash Committee has its own office in the centre of Prague.

Since the 11th Pugwash Conference, two public meetings have been held in Prague during which Czechoslovak scientists were informed of the results of the Dubrovnik and Udaipur Conferences. The Statement and the Report of the 4th Working Group of the 12th Conference were printed and 2,000 copies were distributed to individual scientists, scientific institutes, universities and libraries.

Both the 11th and 12th Pugwash Conferences were fully reported in the Bulletin of the Czechoslovak Academy

of Sciences and nine articles dealing with these two Conferences appeared in scientific and other journals. Four articles were published explaining the aims of the Pugwash Movement as a preparation for the 13th Conference.

A great deal of work is now directed towards the organization of the next Conference, which is to be held in Prague and Karlovy Vary in September. The first formal step was a Press Conference held on 18th May under the Chairmanship of Academician F. Sorm. Some 80 leading journalists, foreign and Czechoslovakian, participated and all main Czechoslovak daily papers carried favourable articles, and Prague radio and television also commented on the Conference.

Several study groups have been set up within the Pugwash Committee to prepare papers for the 13th Conference.

T. Nemec.

Academician F. Sorm
Chairman, Czechoslovak Pugwash Committee

IN THERMIS CAROLI IV

The venue of the 13th Pugwash Conference, to be held in September 1964, will be Karlovy Vary, Czechoslovakia. Its name is well known in different parts of the world as a spa. Yet at a time when civilization was still deprived of the blessings of modern publicity Bohuslav Hasistejnsky of Lobkovic (1460-1510) a man of

letters and a poet of renown, wrote an ode to Karlovy Vary which was translated into 28 languages! He wrote that perhaps the healing warmth of the spa's sources was due to the flames of volvanoes, perhaps to Lucifer himself, but its effect was such that nothing could compare.

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In a way the poet has, unknowingly of course, traced the geological history of the Karlovy Vary hot springs and their volcanic nature. Their history goes back to the Tertiary. At that time, some 15 million years ago, the earth's crust broke and the hot salty geysers gushed out from a depth of some 2,000 meters. And here we find them even today.

As early as in the Thirteenth Century the spot was known as Vary, i. e. the hot springs. Romantic legend attributes the name "Karlovy" to Charles the Great, whose troops passed through the area in 805 in their march to the east against the Slavs. The records, however, show that Vary was founded as a city by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia, the son of Jan Luxembourg and Eliska Premyslovna. In 1385 he had a hunting lodge built here. Its walls still form a part of the walls of the tower on Crown Hill. Charles granted the town a coat of arms depicting the two-tailed lion that is Czechoslovakia's national emblem even today, and three wavelets to symbolize the three streams flowing in the locality - the Tepla, the Ohre and Vridlo. Undoubtedly it is in this period that Karlovy Vary began to develop as a city and as a spa. Yet legend tells us that the springs were discovered by Charles (in one version Charles the Great, in another Charles IV), when he was hunting deer and his favourite hunting dog fell into a pool of hot spring water. It is at any rate a historical fact that Charles IV made frequent use of the beneficial sources and sought treatment here against rheumatism and the wounds he suffered at the battle of Crecy.

To recount the other crowned

heads who followed the founder of the spa and visited them for a cure of different ills might tell us something of the glitter and festivity of the Karlovy Vary season, but would be of little historical or cultural interest. Yet it might be well in this context to recall the visits of Peter the Great, who even here showed that boundless energy recorded for us by the annalists who tell of his ride on a saddle-less horse right to the peak of the Deer's Jump; of the incident when he took up trowel and spade and joined the masons building the "Peacock's House"; or of the interest he took in the medical and technical aspects of the waters, knowledge which he used well on returning to Russia. Otherwise there are but rare instances of the stay of prominent personalities in the spa that had any political import. And those that had are not remembered for what they did for the renown of the spa, or for the common weal, but rather for their evil deeds. Thus Albrecht of Waldstein, a condottiere in the Thirty Years' War, who stayed here four years before he was assassinated in nearby Cheb, entered the annals of history for the rule of spoil and robbery that he set up in the three provinces of the area to keep himself and his vast retinue in luxury and pleasure during their stay to "take the cure". The conference held in Karlovy Vary in 1819 under Metternich is known for the rigid and reactionary instructions issued by him in order to suppress the ferment of national and political awakening that marked this period of Czech history. And the "Karlovy Vary Demands" issued here at a time when the menace of annexation was already hanging over its people, were the first clear signals of Nazi aggression against democratic Czechoslovakia.

Of much greater value for cultural

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history are the names of those who won
renown in the arts and sciences, than
those who acted in politics. There is
nothing to remind visitors of the
gestures or words of the rulers of state
or of the men of war. Yet on the House
of the Golden Key we will find a tablet
that tells us that Karl Marx lived there
from 1874 to 1876 writing the second
part of "Das Kapital". The stories and
anecdotes about Goethe's visits to
Karlovy Vary and his own bon mots,
are legion. Here Schiller drew
inspiration for a series of dramas
centring around Waldstein. In
different places we will find reminders
of Adam Mickiewicz, who influenced
George Sand to write her novels about
Czech history "Jean Hus" and 'Jean
Zizka". Dvorak's "Symphony of the
New World" was played for the first
time in Europe in 1894 in the Courtyard
of the Post-House. Cultural historians
often have found facets of the works of
the Great Masters that had the
pleasant beauty of Karlovy Vary as
a source of inspiration. This is true
not only of Czech authors and artists
but of Bach, Beethoven, Brahms,
Gogol, Grieg, Chopin, Liszt, Paganini,
Turgenyev, Wagner and others,
including those of our own times.

Architecturally, we may also say
that the spa was fashioned by masters,
even if the pattern of spa lay-out
characterizing the turn of the century
predominates. Thus it is well worth
viewing the Church of St. Mary
Magdalen, built in 1732-36 by the
architect of Prague Baroque,
Diezenhofer. Josef Zitek, the creator
of the Prague National Theatre also
built the Mill Colonade. The Panel
overhanging the Mill Spring, with
the words of Lobkovic's ode "In
Thermis Caroli IV" engraved, comes

from the studio of Vaclav Prachner. The
Chateau Colonade was built by the
architect Ohmann. Similarly the
buildings and lay-out of Spa I, covering
an area of 4,000 square meters and the
Karl Marx Sanatorium on Crown Hill,
are worthy of note. Of the hotels,
the Imperial, on the hill, the Richmond
enclosed by gardens, and the largest
Moskva-Pupp with its 320 rooms and
apartments, are worth looking at. They
are the work of architects Fellner and
Helmer, who also built the City Theatre
in 1886. The Post-House Courtyard,
built in the 18th Century, has been
witness to many moments of great music
in Karlovy Vary. Behind it there is a
vast modern summer cinema with a
seating capacity of 3,500. The Karlovy
Vary Museum and Picture Gallery
surpass the confines of local interest.
The Orthodox Church is architecturally
interesting in the same way as the
Anglican Church of St. Lucas. St.
Andrews, a small church, used to have
a cemetery, where David Becher, the
first to determine the physical and
chemical qualities of the Karlovy Vary
waters, lies buried, Jean de Carro, the
builder Gigly, the son of Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart, etc.

Of the sculptures commemorating
important guests, reference should be
made to Otakar Svec's plastic of Charles IV
in the Fucik Park, the memorial to
Beethoven by Hugon Uher near the
Richmond Hotel and viz a viz to it
Wagner's sculpture of Bedrich Smetena,
that of Schiller in Pushkin's alley, which
also is lined by panels in which patients
express their gratitude for having
regained their health. Not far from
Spa IV the visitor will find Bretislav
Werner's statue of Adam Mickiewicz
and a memorial to the Red Army by
Abis Sopr in front of the post-office.

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[LC]

A torso of Karl Marx by Karel Kunes is placed in the small park near the Vridlo spring.

Of quite another architectural genre is Dorothea's Pavilion, built to honour the beauty of Dorothy Kuronska, the mother of "My Lady" in the great Czech classic work by Bozena Nemcova. The tin statue of the chamois standing on top of the rock of the Deer's Jump has in a way become the town's emblem.

Karlovy Vary is also known for its industries. Millions of bottles are annually filled from the Mill Spring and are exported to different parts of the world, in the same way as the salts from the hot springs. Natural carbonic oxide is put into containers and used industrially. Aragonite that is found in the area of the geysers is cut and polished and fashioned into keep-sakes. The minerals from the springs are also used for sintering. The Karlovy Vary Wafers and a liqueur made there of herbs called "Becherovka" are exported to many countries.

But what has made Karlovy Vary known in the business world is its porcelaine and crystal glass. At the International Congress in Copenhagen in 1924 the clay from Karlovy Vary was declared the purest in the world, thus giving due merit to a tradition of more than 150 years' manufacture. The porcelaine Museum in Klasterec on the Ohre displays the best of Karlovy Vary porcelaine made in the past as well as in the last few years. Its glass is known by the Moser Trade Mark, established a hundred years ago. It is manufactured in Karlovy Vary-Dvory. The Moser glass is Bohemian crystal, cut, engraved, painted and gilded. By adding rare clays the glass achieves the appear-

ance of being two-coloured, with very fine shadings and nuances of colour and tone, possible only with high-quality glass. The Dvorska plant also has a permanent exhibit of its products.

In Western Bohemia there are several other spas - Marianske Lazne, Frantiskovy Lazne, Teplice and Jachymov- among which Karlovy Vary has its own special place. It lies in the valley of the Tepla River, at an altitude of 380 meters with a mild and pleasant climate.

Today the spa has 12 active thermal alcalic-salanic-muriatic springs (another 14 "see the light of day" in different cellars of the city). Chemically speaking, in addition to minerals, notably sodium, calcium and magnesium, ions of carbonic, sulphuric and chloric acid predominate. The Vridlo spring is the warmest and has the greatest water supply, since 2,000 litres of water at a temperature of 72 degrees centigrade gush out to a height of 12 meters above the surface per minute. The Mill, Rock, Knight Vaclav's and the Garden Springs are also strong ones.

The spas, i. e. all springs and balneological sources were nationalized in 1948. They are considered a natural and essential factor of prophylaxy and treatment. The former hotels, catering for those who made it a habit not to miss the season, have become specialized treatment units. A complex system of spa treatment, based on first-class scientific standards, has been introduced for every patient. Pavlov's teachings have introduced many new elements to this complex approach. The Karlovy Vary City National Committee is directly responsible to the Government. In providing treatment, recreation and culture and every possible modern comfort of a spa stay, no dis-

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[Lc]

tinction is made between Czech, Slovak, and foreign visitors.

The mineral waters are used for treatment both orally and in baths. The spring waters are used for maladies of the intestines, for under-water massage for many disorders, and for massages of the gums in the treatment of paradentosis. Depending on the diagnosis, patients are prescribed carbonic, oxygen, radon, mud baths or diathermy. The People's state devotes maximum care to the standards of spa treatment, the qualification of the scientific personnel and all staff, the equipment of the sanatoria and laboratories, etc. The Karlovy Vary treatment is indicated primarily for gastric diseases, gastric and duodenal ulcers, post-operative complications, notably resections, disturbances of gastric secretion and acidity, intestinal diseases, notably colitis and enteritis, spastic constipation, affections of the gall bladder and ducts, stones and follow-up treatment after surgery, liver affections, neuroses, disorders due to jaundice, diseases of pancreas, metabolic disorders, diabetes, gout and obesity.

At the present time there are 7 hotels, 80 pensions and sanatoria available to guests, 2 recreation centres, a tourist hostel and some 300 beds that can be rented in private homes. The capacity is about 6,000 beds. In four balneotherapeutic institutes and other smaller centres, 1,180 baths and 1,690 other treatment procedures are provided daily. In the last pre-war year some 40,000 guests sought treatment in Karlovy

Vary and there were another 29,000 visitors. This figure dropped to 3,900 in the first post-war year, but in 1957 it had risen to almost 50,000 patients and to more than 100,000 additional guests from 54 countries, and this figure has gone on increasing.

This has naturally an effect on the social life in the spa. An important event in this respect over the past few years have been the Karlovy Vary International Film Festivals, which differ from other festivals in particular in that their juries do not only judge the films shown in the light of their artistic value, but also, and even primarily, from their social content and purpose, their contribution to human progress and peaceful co-operation among nations.

These ideas have also inspired the important international conferences that have been held here. We welcome for this reason also the choice of Karlovy Vary as the venue of the Thirteenth Pugwash Conference. These new sources that serve to create a special climate, perhaps for the treatment of other diseases of mankind than those provided by the hot springs have created a tradition which we hope will be further promoted by our Meeting. It is in this spirit that we welcome you to Karlovy Vary, that we wish every possible success to the 13th Pugwash Conference and to your noble mission, as well as a very pleasant stay in this beautiful spot of Western Bohemia.

Volume 4

Numbers 1 and 2

July - October 1966

Editor: Prof. J. ROTBLAT

CONTENTS

Page

<table><tr><td>The 16th Pugwash Conference</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Press Statement</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>List of Participants and Observers</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Report of Working Group 1</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Report of Working Group 2</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Report of Working Group 3</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>Report of Working Group 4</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>Pugwash Events</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</td><td>37</td></tr><tr><td>Conference on International Penal Law</td><td>39</td></tr><tr><td>Dutch Committee Against the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</td><td>40</td></tr></table>

- 1 -

THE 16th PUGWASH CONFERENCE

After the excursion to another continent and a different topic at the 15th Conference, Pugwash returned to Europe and to its main problem, disarmament and world security, at the 16th Conference in Sopot. Security in Europe was an obvious topic for a Conference held in Poland, and this was also a good opportunity to receive the report of the Study Group on European Security which had been working for nearly a year. Two of the Working Groups at the Conference were specifically concerned with disarmament and political settlement in Europe. The remaining two Working Groups dealt with the wider problem of G. C. D. and specific measures for arms limitation. This division of areas of discussion among different Working Groups is somewhat artificial, and as usual there was a good deal of crosslinking between the various Groups.

It was inevitable that the war in Vietnam should be discussed at the Conference. Indeed, it would have been inconceivable for a Pugwash Conference to ignore the terrible tragedy of the Vietnamese people, and the threat of the escalation of the conflict. In order to give all participants an opportunity to discuss this problem, a special plenary session was held one evening. Participants did not mince words in expressing horror and indignation at the happenings in Vietnam, but of course such a large gathering could not get down to a detailed analysis and to methods of

solving the problem. This was left to Working Group 3, which has devoted several of its sessions to this issue; its conclusions are contained in the report from that Group. In this respect the discussion on Vietnam served a useful purpose, even though there is not much evidence of this in the public statement issued by the Continuing Committee.

The Conference was sponsored by the Polish Academy of Sciences, and the hosts did not spare any effort or expense to make the gathering a success. All participants were accommodated in the Grand Hotel, one of the largest in Poland, with its own beach; and the weather was kind enough to allow participants to enjoy a swim in the Baltic. The hospitality was magnificent, and a full social programme enabled participants to see something of the country, so rich in historical landmarks, as well as of its cultural and industrial achievements. The Conference has evoked much interest among the Poles, in governmental and scientific circles, as well as the population at large. A special Pugwash date-stamp for franking letters was used by the Post Office during the Conference, and was very popular not only among participants, but also the local population. This is just one example of the thoroughness with which the Polish organizers of the Conference, under their Chairman Professor I. Malecki, have prepared the Conference, and which has in a large measure contributed to its success.

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STATEMENT

on the 16th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs

The 16th Pugwash Conference was held in Sopot from the 11th to 16th September 1966. The theme of the Conference was "Disarmament and World Security, Especially in Europe". Under this heading a number of controversial problems of current interest were discussed, including the situation in Vietnam. As in past Pugwash Conferences the discussions aimed at analysing the problems by the scientific approach rather than at finding complete solutions. The discussions have been frank and stimulating and, despite divergence of opinion on some problems, have resulted in better understanding on many of the complex issues of the day and in a number of specific proposals.

The work of the Conference was carried out in four Working Groups, the membership of each Group consisting of scientists from both East and West. Two of these Working Groups, dealing with problems in Europe, have profited from the work carried out during the past year by the Pugwash Group on European Security. The other two Groups were concerned with various aspects of disarmament.

This statement has been drawn up by the Continuing Committee

on the basis of the reports from the Working Groups. In addition, the Conference received a report from the Pugwash Study Group on Biological Warfare, and a summary of this report is included in the statement.

1. Disarmament in Europe

(a) Freeze of Nuclear Weapons. The Group discussed all aspects of the proposed controlled freeze of nuclear weapons in Central Europe, including the freezing of existing stockpiles and of their ownership, as well as the controlled prevention of military application of the nuclear industries in the area under consideration - i. e. the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Poland and Czechoslovakia. It was stressed that the freeze, if achieved, could lead to further steps toward reduction of tensions in Europe.

In the discussion on the control and verification of the freeze, the technical difficulties of controlling the movements of small nuclear weapons and smaller components of their delivery systems were stressed.

Some members of the Group pointed to the fact that the current

- 3 -

differences between the U. S. and
the U. S. S. R. proposals for a world-
wide non-proliferation agreement
would also be a stumbling-block
for agreement on a freeze in
Europe, and that the conclusion of
a non-proliferation treaty would
increase the chances of an agree-
ment on a freeze. Other members
of the Group stressed the difference
between the freeze and the non-
proliferation treaty and suggested
independent pursuit of both steps
for the reduction of tensions in
Europe.

(b) Military Forces and Conventional Weapons. In view of the reduction of tension which has already taken place in Europe in recent years, it was agreed that an appreciable reduction in the number of troops could and should be undertaken - including a substantial withdrawal of foreign troops to their countries and the corresponding dismantling of their bases. It was agreed that the governments concerned are in a position to satisfy themselves regarding the verification of such a withdrawal without any special control machinery.

Measures should be taken to
prevent the withdrawal of foreign
troops from being accompanied by
an increase in the number of national
troops on the part of the European
nations affected by the withdrawal.

(c) A Non-Aggression Pact.
The values of a non-aggression pact
between the NATO and the Warsaw
Treaty powers were discussed at a

joint session of Working Groups
1 and 2.

Most participants stressed
the value of a non-aggression or
mutual security pact, particularly
for progress towards German re-
unification. They observed that
such a pact might develop into part
of a wider agreement between East
and West. Other participants were
of the opinion that a non-aggression
pact should be a part of a wider
political agreement, including real
progress towards German reunifi-
cation. The view was expressed
that the difficulty arising from non-
recognition of the G. D. R. by the
NATO-states can be overcome in a
manner similar to that used at the
signing of the Moscow Test Ban
Treaty, or even in simpler ways.

(d) Observation Posts. An additional measure, discussed at earlier Conferences, and designed to give a greater sense of confidence, would be to set up some simple inspection procedures based upon mutually agreed observation posts at major transport centres in Europe. Such posts would be of value not only in giving some warning of surprise attack, but also in connection with any substantial troop withdrawals and with the implementation of any non-aggression pact which might follow.

2. Reduction of Tensions and Political Settlements in Europe

The Group considered the
reduction of tensions in Europe and

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the problems of political settle-
ment there. Certain needs for
European security can immediate-
ly be pointed out, such as recog-
nition of the existing frontiers be-
ween the European states; normal-
ization of relations between states
with different social systems;
peaceful settlement of the German
question; and establishment of a
lasting system of security based on
guarantees by all European countries.

In order to bring about a
peaceful settlement of the German
question and reunification of that
country, in addition to recognition
of the existing frontiers between the
European states, certain other
specific steps should be undertaken:

(1) Relations between the states of the Warsaw Treaty and the Federal Republic of Germany should move toward normalization and mutual confidence;

(2) Without raising the issues of recognition, the governments of both German states should encourage mutual co-operation in economic, scientific, cultural, and religious fields through existing or new methods or organizations, and should examine ways of unofficial co-operation in joint external humanitarian operations and in co-ordinating aid to developing countries. They should also take steps to ease individual contacts between persons living in the separated parts of Germany.

The Group agreed that the eventual reunification of Germany is a necessary part of any lasting system of security in Europe; that it must be achieved by peaceful means and with the full consent of the German people; that a reunified Germany should not represent a threat to European security; and that reunification is likely to be a long and difficult process.

There was also full agree-
ment about the value of larger and
freer trade relations between all
European states.

Tensions in Europe are related to world tensions, and the war in Vietnam may influence the European situation. Its existence should not prevent continued efforts toward a relaxation of European tensions.

The widening disparity in
living standards between the
"developed" and the "developing"
parts of the world may endanger
world security and calls for greatly
increased assistance to the developing
nations in the technical, educational,
and economic fields. Co-operation
to this end among all countries,
particularly through the United
Nations and other international
organizations, may contribute sub-
stantially to a relaxation of tensions,
including those in Europe.

The future organization and
development of Europe was a major
area of study and discussion. It was

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recognized that many processes of
a scientific, industrial, or techno-
logical nature extend across the
frontiers of the European nations.

In the areas of economic
and industrial co-operation, prob-
lems which clearly extend beyond
the borders of many European
states include: development of
natural resources; exchange of
technical knowledge on decontami-
nation of water; methods of control
of sources of fresh water for inter-
national rivers and lakes; flood
control; power development; air
pollution; energy policy (coal, oil,
nuclear energy, natural gas);
weather and climate control; tech-
nical standardization; patents;
science planning (including scienti-
fic and technical exchange); indust-
rial co-production; transportation.

Because many of these
problems are highly technical and
require the close collaboration of
engineers, natural and social
scientists, it is recommended that
one or more permanent European
agencies be set up to deal with them,
or that existing agencies be extended,
with perhaps a European Conference
of specialists on these issues.

New projects of European
economic planning, and better co-
operation among existing organi-
zations, are required. These,
however, should avoid creating
such barriers as would produce a
still greater gap between the pros-
perity of Europe and of the develop-
ing nations.

B

Specific proposals for
scientific, cultural and political
co-operation include: greater
participation of the smaller
European nations in the many
existing international non-govern-
mental organizations; co-operation
in education extended and directed
toward common textbooks in inter-
national relations, international law,
etc.; co-operation for exchange of
scientists and technical information;
exchange of newspaper columns
among nations (East-West) and
exchange of suitable TV-broadcasts;
more participation by countries of
Eastern and Western Europe in
round table discussions, like those
recently held by Poland-Britain and
Poland-Denmark; co-operation in
projects of technical assistance to
the developing countries; inter-
national co-operative volunteer
services; reduction of travel
formalities; abolition of visas, at
least between many smaller Euro-
pean nations.

3. Main Problems of Progress
towards General and Complete
Disarmament (G. C. D.)

The Working Group has
considered at length the main prob-
lems of progress towards G. C. D.;
it has examined some of the obstac-
les which exist and possible con-
structive approaches towards a
solution.

Different means of strengthening the peacekeeping machinery of the U. N. were discussed. There was, however, a general feeling

- 6 -

that most plans proposed would be unrealistic unless the problems of strengthening the U. N. organization were themselves tackled, for it was the conferring of real power on that organization which was generally at the root of the matter. Where great powers or non-members of the U. N. are involved difficulties are at present often intractable within the U. N. framework. A revival of the original spirit of the U. N. - in particular as it affects the Security Council - was advocated.

In the context of obstacles to G. C. D. particular consideration was given to the problem of the liquidation of foreign bases and the withdrawal of foreign troops from the soil of other nations. The problem was felt to be so complex that it may be desirable to set up an international working group to investigate the transitional difficulties between the present situation and the situation when G. C. D. becomes effective. The Group also recognized the need for the ending of colonialism in all its forms. The Group reasserted its belief that G. C. D. is in the interest of all nations and felt that significant obstacles could be overcome if a progressive liquidation of foreign bases could be achieved.

The proposed International Disarmament Conference in 1967 was welcomed by the Group with the hope that it would give impetus to the work of existing U. N. Committees and of the Geneva

Disarmament Conference in this field. The Group was unanimous that the entry of the Chinese People's Republic into the United Nations was vital to future developments in all areas, including disarmament discussions.

The Group also discussed the problem of Vietnam. The attitude of the Conference to this problem is indicated in section 5.

## 4. Measures for Arms Limitation

### (a) Extension of the Test Ban Treaty.
The Group concerned itself with a number of measures for arms limitation. The first one considered was an extension of the nuclear test ban treaty to cover underground tests, the ultimate objective being a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. There was general agreement that the status of the technical procedures for detecting, identifying and locating underground seismic events is improving, and general belief that the major obstacles to an agreement are political rather than technical.

Since the problem of on-site inspection appears to remain a major one in negotiations, the Group spent much time in considering possible solutions or arrangements which might be more negotiable, and hence lead promptly to an extension of the present partial test ban. In developing possible alternatives, it was generally assumed that seismic detection systems would be national

- 7 -

with, however, provisions for co-
operation and data exchange be-
tween nations.

Beyond this the variants
were:

1. A threshold treaty with provisions for gradually lowering the threshold.

2. A threshold treaty with additional commitments by the signatory states to refrain from any testing of nuclear weapons.

3. A threshold treaty with additional commitments by the signatory states:

(a) to refrain from any test-
ing of nuclear weapons,

(b) to co-operate in techni-
cal studies aimed at
improving the identifi-
cation capability and at
lowering the threshold,

(c) to supply whenever re-
quested by any signatory
state all feasible inform-
ation and explanations on
unidentified seismic
events occurring in its
territory.

4. A comprehensive treaty with a provision for locating unmanned seismic stations in the territory of the two or three largest nations, e. g. the U. S. A. and the U. S. S. R., either for validating data from national networks or

for additional help in identi-
fying earthquakes.

5. Provision in a comprehensive treaty of procedures for obtaining more information, including possible on-site inspection of unidentified seismic events, utilizing the "request and invitation" procedure of requesting clarification.

6. As a preliminary to a treaty agreement among the nuclear powers, a limited duration trial period of no testing with provision for the above "request and invitation" procedure.

In the view of the Group the
most interesting of the above are
variants 3 and 4.

The Group was greatly
interested in the proposed establish-
ment of a "Detection Club", to make
high quality seismic data available
on a broad basis, as an item of
possible use to several of the alter-
native proposals. It hopes the
establishment of this organization
will proceed rapidly, but it also
urges that its establishment not
stand in the way of prompt negot-
iation of an extended treaty; a
treaty which, it should be noted,
could be of great assistance in
preventing the proliferation of
nuclear weapons.

(b) <u>Non-proliferation</u>, Non-
proliferation of nuclear weapons

- 8 -

remains an urgent matter, and
there was consensus that it is of
the utmost importance to obtain
prompt agreement on a treaty to
prevent proliferation, as this would
be an important step toward nuclear
disarmament. A treaty to accom-
plish this should be a simple one,
in which the nuclear nations agree
not to transfer nuclear weapons to
other states, and the non-nuclear
nations agree not to manufacture or
acquire them on either an individual
or a collective basis. The Group
felt that additional steps would be
needed, in which the nuclear powers
took positive actions of restraint,
and toward decreasing their
reliance on nuclear weapons. The
problem of guarantees to non-
nuclear nations was discussed,
but no proposals were developed
which seemed likely to find the
necessary acceptance. However,
the suggestion was generally
approved that the nuclear powers
should formally agree not to use
weapons on nations which do not
have such weapons, and on whose
territory nuclear weapons are not
located.

(c) Nuclear-Free Zones
and Regional Disarmament Measures.

Recognizing that any conflict,
however small, contains in it the
germs of world-wide war, there
was discussion of a number of
measures which might help in
minimizing or eliminating regional
conflicts. One especially useful
agreement would be the prompt
establishment of nuclear-free zones
in different areas of the world.
Particular note was taken of the

activities of the Polish Govern-
ment in developing proposals for
denuclearization and for a "nuclear
freeze" for Central Europe (the
Rapacki and Gomulka plans), which
could not only be helpful in the
development of acceptable plans
for Central Europe, but could also
be a useful spur to other nations
in other areas to develop plans,
for their own nuclear-free zones,
as for example in South America,
and in Africa and the Middle East.

In connection with the
general problem of arms races
among developing nations, the
value of limitations on the supplying
of arms by industrial nations to
others, and the importance of
regional arms limitation agreements
of various types, in addition to
nuclear-free zones, were pointed
out by some participants.

(d) Nuclear Freeze Proposals.

The topic of possible world-wide
freeze agreements was discussed
in the particular context of the
likely development and deployment
of antiballistic missile systems
(ABM). At least three types of
such freezes were considered:

(i) a freeze on the deploy-
ment of ABM systems;

(ii) a freeze on the numbers
of offensive nuclear
delivery systems, espec-
ially missiles;

(iii) a freeze on total number
of nuclear delivery systems.

No general agreement was
reached on any one of these.

- 9 -

(e) **Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy.** In the context of the clearly desirable expanded development and peaceful utilization of atomic energy, it is very important to have adequate and uniform control arrangements to ensure that fissionable nuclear materials are used as scheduled for peaceful purposes. A single international system for this control is clearly desirable, and the Group recommended the universal support and use of the currently available international system, that of the International Atomic Energy Agency.

5. <u>Vietnam</u>

The problem of Vietnam
was discussed in detail at a
plenary session specially devoted
to this subject, as well as in
Working Group 3. While there
was an extensive and frank ex-
change of views among the parti-
cipants, the Conference was un-
able to arrive at any agreed con-
clusions on the causes and nature
of the war and on possible ways
for bringing to an end this danger-
ous and tragic conflict.

6. Problems of Biological
Warfare

Progress has been reported
by the Pugwash Study Group on
Biological Warfare, part of whose
work has now been taken over by
the Stockholm International Peace
Research Institute (SIPRI). At the
last meeting of the Study Group,
held in Stockholm 4-6 September,
attention was given to technical
possibilities for the development
of rapid detection methods for
microbiological agents (including
viruses and toxins). Specific
research was defined in this field,
to be undertaken by a group of
scientists from Eastern, Western
and non-aligned countries, and to
be carried out under the auspices
of SIPRI. The meeting in Stockholm
also examined the results of four
trial inspections of microbiological
laboratories in Austria, Sweden,
Denmark and Czechoslovakia,
carried out during the spring and
summer of 1966.

Both these activities of the
Biological Warfare Study Group
represent a useful contribution to
the problem of biological weapons
disarmament and their control.

Abstracts of the papers presented at the Sopot Conference
will be printed in the next issue.

c

- 11 -

REPORT OF WORKING GROUP 1

DISARMAMENT IN EUROPE

The main topic for the
Working Group was <u>Disarmament</u>
<u>and Collateral Measures in Europe.</u>
This was discussed according to
the following agenda:

1. Freeze, non-proliferation, reduction and elimination of nuclear weapons in Europe.

2. Freeze and a denuclearized zone specifically in Central Europe.

3. Reduction of military forces and conventional weapons.

4. Non-aggression pact
between the NATO and
the Warsaw Treaty coun-
tries.

5. Elimination of risks of surprise attack.

The first two items were
taken together during our discuss-
ions.

1. <u>Freeze</u>

The Group discussed in
detail the proposals for a controlled
freeze of nuclear weapons in Central
Europe. All forms of such a freeze
were scrutinized: the freezing of
existing stockpiles and the owner-

Some of the discussion
pertained to the problem of control
and verification related to the
creation of the freeze zone. Espec-
ially the technical difficulties of
controlling the movements of small
nuclear charges and smaller com-
ponents of their delivery systems
were stressed. Furthermore,
some members of the Group pointed
to the fact that the seemingly only
remaining difference between the
U. S. and the U. S. S. R. proposals
for a world-wide non-proliferation
agreement would also be a stumbling-
block for agreement on a freeze in
Europe. Thus, the non-proliferation
of nuclear weapons would be more
easily achieved through such a direct
approach. Furthermore, these mem-
bers of the Group were of the opinion
that the conclusion of a non-prolifer-
ation treaty would increase the
chances of an agreement on a freeze
zone.

Other members of the Group
stressed the differences between the

- 12 -

freeze and the non-proliferation
treaty in Central Europe, and the
value of both steps for the reduct-
ion of tensions in Europe.

2. <u>Non-Proliferation</u>

After only a short dis-
cussion the Group confirmed its
support for the earliest possible
agreement on non-proliferation.
The question of control and veri-
fication in connection with such a
treaty was considered to be relative-
ly easy to solve, although no dis-
cussion on this subject took place,
since it was understood that this
matter would be treated by Working
Group 4. At the moment diver-
gencies between East and West in
this matter are apparently centred
on European problems only. Should
it, however, transpire, as negotia-
tions proceed, that the present
European difficulties disappear,
while difficulties arise in other
parts of the world, then there
would be a particular value in pro-
ceeding directly to a purely Euro-
pean non-proliferation treaty in
the first instance, although such
an European treaty should not
include any clause which might
impede progress towards a global
non-proliferation treaty.

3. De-nuclearization
---

Various proposals for the
creation of a de-nuclearized zone
in Europe were discussed in very
great detail, but it was not possible
to reach agreement.

4. Military Forces and Conventional Weapons

Several aspects of the prob-
lem related to disarmament and
collateral measures regarding
conventional weapons were discussed.

Due to the reduction of
tensions, which has already taken
place in Europe in recent years, it
was agreed that a tangible reduction
in the number of troops could and
should be undertaken - including a
substantial withdrawal of foreign
troops to their countries and the
corresponding dismantling of their
bases. It was agreed that the
governments concerned are in a
position to satisfy themselves regard-
ing the verification of such a with-
d withdrawal without any special control
machinery. In the case of additional
withdrawal of foreign troops, special
control measures should be devised.

Collateral measures should
be undertaken in order to prevent
the withdrawal of foreign troops
from being accompanied by an
increase in the number of national
troops on the part of the European
nations affected by the withdrawal.

A brief discussion on such
measures took place with special
attention to the possible consequent
reduction of military budgets.

5. The Non-Aggression Pact
---

The values of a non-aggression
pact between the NATO and the War-

- 13 -

saw Treaty powers were discussed
in some detail at a joint session of
Working Groups 1 and 2.

Most participants stressed
the value of a non-aggression or
collateral security pact and express-
ed their opinion that it could be of
real value for the progress towards
German reunification. At the same
time they observed that such a pact
might form a part of a wider agree-
ment between East and West.

Other participants were of
the opinion that a non-aggression
pact should form part of a wider
political agreement including real
progress towards German reunifi-
cation.

The members of the Group
from the two parts of Germany
expressed the view that such an
European non-aggression Pact

would be an important step towards
German reunification. Even the
difficulty of non-recognition of the
G. D. R. by the NATO-states can be
overcome in the same way as was
done at the signing of the Moscow
Test Ban Treaty, or even in simpler
ways.

6. <u>Observation Posts</u>

An additional measure,
discussed at earlier conferences,
and designed to give a greater
sense of confidence, would be to
set up some simple inspection pro-
cedures based upon mutually agreed
observation posts at major transport
centres in Europe. Such posts would
be of value not only in giving some
warning of surprise attack, but also
in connection with any substantial
troop withdrawals and with the imple-
mentation of any non-aggression pact
which might follow.

REPORT OF WORKING GROUP 2

REDUCTION OF TENSIONS AND POLITICAL

SETTLEMENTS IN EUROPE

1. <u>Problems of European</u>
   <u>Security</u>

In accordance with the
draft agenda, the Group discussed,
under point 1, problems of European
security. First, European security
needs have been considered. This

discussion was the continuation of
considerations at previous Pugwash
Conferences. Agreement was
reached that some objective and
common needs for European security
can already be established, as for
instance the recognition of the exist-
ing frontiers between the European

D

- 14 -

states; normalization of relations
between the European states with
different social systems; peaceful
settlement of the German question;
and the promotion of a lasting
system of security in Europe based
on the guarantees of all European
countries. Special security needs
felt by some nations or important
groups of populations cannot be
identified without further research
in this field, including polls of
public opinion. It is recommended
that the Pugwash Study Group on
European Security include this
point in the programme of its
future activities.

Recognizing the importance
of a peaceful settlement of the
German question, including the
reunification of Germany, the
Working Group expressed the view
that this process can be helped
by some measures aiming at the
recognition of the existing frontiers
between the European States, and
at a lessening of the severity of the
division of Germany. Concrete
measures to be taken have been
discussed, and the following suggest-
ions for steps that could be taken in
the near future have been agreed:

(1) Relations between the States of the Warsaw Treaty and the Federal German Republic should move toward normalization and mutual confidence.

(2) The Governments of both German
States, without raising the issues
of recognition, should encourage
mutual co-operation in the econ-

omic, scientific, cultural and
religious fields, through the
operation of already existing and
new methods and organizations;
and should examine ways of un-
official co-operation in joint
external humanitarian operations,
and in co-ordinating aid to devel-
oping countries. The two Govern-
ments should take steps to ease
individual contacts between per-
sons living in both the existing
parts of Germany.

The utility of the normal-
ization of relations between the
F. G. R. and the Socialist states in
Central and Eastern Europe was
generally recognized, as well as the
fact that it is most probable that
this process of normalization will
develop step by step. Some partici-
pants strongly opposed the idea that
the German Democratic Republic
should be included in this process
on the same level as the other Central
and Eastern European states; other
members expressed the view that
there can be no lasting settlement in
Europe without the recognition of the
G. D. R.

The reunification of Germany
was accepted by all members of the
Group as a necessary part of any
lasting system of security in Europe,
and the fact was stressed that this
process must be fulfilled only by
peaceful means and with the full
consent of the German people, and
that the reunified Germany should in
no way represent a threat to Euro-
pean security. It was generally
agreed that the reunification is likely

- 15 -

Complete agreement was reached about the utility of larger and freer trade relations between all European states, and a recommendation is made to the Study Group on European Security to study this problem.

In the discussion on interrelations between world tensions and tensions in Europe, the fear was expressed of the bad influence exercised by the war in Vietnam on further development of the security in Europe. There was a difference of opinion as to the extent of the influence of this war on the European situation. The Group agreed that it should not prevent continued attempts towards relaxation of European tension.

A grave new danger to security of all nations arises from the widening disparity in living standards between the "developed" and the "developing" parts of the world. This confronts all developed nations with a common challenge and calls for greatly increased efforts in assistance to the developing nations in the technical, educational and economic fields. Co-operation in these fields among all developed countries, particularly through the United Nations and other international organizations, may contribute substantially to the relaxation of tensions between them.

The Working Group considers it to be necessary for the

Study Group on European Security to continue its work. It recommends that the Study Group should consider co-opting representatives of the great powers.

## 2. Problems of the Future Development of Europe

The Group discussed problems of the future organization of Europe on the basis of the reports of the Pugwash Study Group on European Security and of other contributions to the Conference. It was felt that many integrational processes extend beyond the frontiers of the present European nations, are inherent in the nature of modern science, technology and industry, and should therefore be promoted in spite of differences in the social systems in Eastern and Western Europe. It was suggested that an increase in communication and co-operation between Eastern and Western Europe may lead to a lessening of tensions. Contacts seem to lead to an effective lessening of tensions, when they consist of co-operation satisfying the following conditions:
(a) equality exists between the parties;
(b) it is a lasting and functional co-operation;
(c) the co-operating parties obtain results which they could not get otherwise.

A number of concrete recommendations were made concerning increasing collaboration in
(a) the economic and industrial fields
(b) scientific, cultural and political relations.

- 16 -

2.1. **Economic and industrial co-operation.** The discussion has shown that, especially in the following fields, problems exist which extend beyond the borders of many European nations:

(1) development of natural resources;

(2) exchange of technical knowledge on decontamination of water; methods of control of sources of fresh water for international rivers and lakes; flood control; power development;

(3) air pollution;

(4) energy policy (coal, oil, nuclear energy, natural gas);

(5) weather and climate control;

(6) technical standardization; patents;

(7) science planning (including scientific and technical exchange);

(8) industrial co-production;

(9) transportation.

Many of these problems are highly technical and require the close collaboration of engineers, natural and social scientists. It seems useful that one or more

permanent European Agencies be set up to deal with these topics (or be extended where certain international bodies already exist). It was proposed that the European Pugwash Study Group should make more detailed proposals, which may lead to a European Conference of specialists on these issues.

One may also propose new projects of European economic planning, and better co-operation among such existing organizations as European Economic Community (EEC), Council for Mutual Economic Aid (Comecon), and European Free Trade Association (EFTA). However, one should avoid creating such barriers between Europe and developing nations that the gap in prosperity between them is thereby increased.

2.2. **Scientific, cultural and political co-operation.** The following specific suggestions have been made in these fields:

(1) The importance of many international non-governmental organizations was stressed; much scientific collaboration already exists. It is important that also the smaller European nations participate greatly in these relations.

(2) Co-operation in education could be further extended and should include work directed towards common textbooks in international

- 18 -

only be valid if the arrangements
were universal and embraced all
nations. It was with these consider-
ations in mind that the Group con-
sidered the main points of its deli-
berations.

2. <u>Current Conflicts - Vietnam</u>

The Working Group gave
separate and special consideration
to the problem of Vietnam.

There was considerable
discussion about the causes of the
war: some wished to condemn
what they called the American
aggression, others wished to con-
demn the attack on South Vietnam
by what they called North Vietnam-
ese guerillas and main force units.
All agreed that an end of the tragic
destruction of human life was the
first consideration. Great dismay
was expressed at the escalation of
the war and in particular at the
use of new types of chemical weap-
ons including those for the destruct-
ion of agricultural crops. Some
felt that Vietnam was being used as
a proving ground for such weapons.

Detailed procedures for
ending the war were discussed and
the Group heard views about the
history of the relations of the Viet-
nam people with China. Some felt
that negotiations could start on
the basis of the so-called "Four
and Five Points" Conditions. Other
possibilities were also put forward.
It was felt, however, that the basis
for a solution was the Geneva Agree-
ment of 1954. A section of partici-

pants felt that there should be
continued appeals to all countries
to bring the belligerents to the
conference table including the
major powers, the co-chairmen
of the 1954 Geneva Conference and
the countries of the International
Control Commission of Vietnam.
Some members of the Group have
expressed a view that in order to
avert danger of a new world war it
is vitally necessary that the U.S.
Government should stop bombing
the Democratic Republic of Viet-
nam and areas of Laos, withdraw
all its troops as well as the troops
of U.S. allies from Vietnam and
put an end to the intervention.
Others emphasized the importance
of stopping the intervention from
the North. A substantial part of
the Group suggested action involving
a call for an immediate cessation
of hostilities, based on the following
conditions: a standstill order for
all combatants, no firing except in
self-defence (that is when fired upon),
subject to supervision by the inter-
national commission and with a view
to convening a conference for negot-
iation, with all combating groups
represented. Members of the Group
thought that contact between scientists
in the rest of the world and those of
Vietnam might help to the discovery
of a solution and also to assist that
country in the process of civilian
reconstruction.

Consensus was reached in
the following areas:

The Working Group views
with the gravest disquiet the con-

- 19 -

tinuing escalation of the war in Vietnam, which may lead to a third world war and has already brought the world into a new phase of the arms race. While there were fundamental disagreements about the actual causes of this bitter conflict, there was complete support for urgent steps to be taken to bring it to an end.

The Group regrets the violent death of so many people, both combatant and non-combatant, due mostly to the indiscriminate nature of warfare. Scientists of the whole world must be concerned about the increasing use of science for the destruction of human lives and vital resources.

The only possible way out of this disastrous situation is a negotiated settlement on the basis of the 1954-62 Geneva Agreements including the withdrawal of troops foreign to South Vietnam and the cessation of any foreign intervention which is contrary to the terms of those agreements. The Vietnamese people North and South of the provisional demarcation line should be free to settle their own affairs without war and violence and without outside interference as stipulated in those agreements.

The Working Group recommends an appeal to all scientists in the world to make every effort towards this solution of the Vietnam conflict.

The disastrous situation in

Vietnam is a reminder that the role of science in world affairs has not been effective in preventing war. Science has in fact become an increasingly effective tool in the conduct of war. The Group urges that a world-wide effort be made to turn science into a more effective tool of peace and development.

The Group recommends to the Continuing Committee its urgent attention to the question of setting up a Study Group on Vietnam. The Study Group composed of eminent scientists from neutral countries, should be asked to undertake a profound scientific analysis of all possible ways and means of stopping the escalation of the conflict and ending the war.

### 3. Means of Strengthening the Peacekeeping Machinery of the U. N.

3.1. Attention was drawn to the financial obstacles in the way of effective peacekeeping action and to the need for formalized agreements between the U. N. Security Council and individual countries to place forces at the disposal of the U. N. Such agreements should reflect the differing abilities of nations to finance their contribution of armed forces to the U. N. for peacekeeping operations. The financial difficulties of the U. N. are real but it was recognized that financial problems can be solved more easily as solutions are found to more substantive issues.

3.2. There was considerable

- 20 -

support for the notion that treaties of non-intervention by major and minor powers should be encouraged with U. N. guarantees and the provision for U. N. mixed teams to investigate automatically complaints by a country of outside military intervention including shipment of arms, other military assistance and infiltration and training of armed agents. It was felt that there were areas like Africa, Latin America and possibly Asia where a start could be made with a reasonable chance of success and the hope that such a system might become world-wide.

3.3. There was, however, a general feeling that most plans of this and similar nature would be unrealistic unless the problems of strengthening the U. N. organization were themselves tackled, for it was the conferring of real power on that organization which was generally at the root of the matter. Where great powers or non-members of the U. N. were involved difficulties were at present often intractable within the U. N. framework. A revival of the original spirit of the U. N. - in particular as it affected the Security Council - was advocated. There was support for a number of steps including the followi ng:

3.3.1. The encourage-
ment of the govern-
ments of major powers
to recognize their joint
obligations to the cause
of peace.

3.3.2. Consideration of the possibility of a kind of mandatory right to membership of the U. N. on the basis of certain predetermined criteria by which the existence or not of a state could be assessed. In this way perhaps steps could be taken towards the resolution of the Chinese representation and other membership questions.

4. The Liquidation of Foreign Bases and Other Obstacles to G. C. D.

Consideration was given to
the problems implicit in the exist-
ence of foreign bases and the stat-
ioning of foreign troops on the soil
of other nations which may give rise
to dangerous situations. Many parti-
cipants saw this questions as one
closely related to the development
of the peacekeeping functions of
U. N. Instances which were not
simply a survival from the period
of imperial rule often arose because
states sought unilateral assistance
because of the indeterminate and
slow nature of the relevant U. N.
procedures. Until real reliance was
placed on these, countries would be
tempted to seek military assistance
from particular sources in order to
secure their own frontiers and
generally to maintain stability as
they defined it. It was agreed that
G. C. D. ought eventually to make
this unnecessary and that the real
problems lay in the intermediate
period. It was felt by some that

- 21 -

during this period foreign bases
might provide a measure of local
stability and even be seen as an
alternative to nuclear escalation
in the general strategic context;
others regarded such bases as
altogether undesirable and in-
variably a source of instability.
The proposed withdrawal of
British troops from Aden was
cited as a measure in the interests
of the stability of South Arabia.
Interesting distinctions were drawn
between different categories of
foreign military involvement on
the soil of another state, varying
from that of long historical stand-
ing which was a total anachronism,
to cases where assistance had been
enlisted for the purposes of self-
defence. The whole problem was
felt to be so complex that the
Group agreed to recommend to
the Continuing Committee the sett-
ing up of an international working
group along the lines of those which
have considered European Security
and biological warfare to investi-
gate the transitional difficulties
between the present system and
the situation when G.C.D. becomes
effective. It was felt that parti-
cular attention should be given to
the types of situation which could
arise between two adjoining states
and to procedures whereby the
intervention of other powers,
whether solicited or otherwise,
could be obviated. The possibility
of an informal understanding be-
tween major powers about the use
of the veto was felt to be a relevant
issue for investigation.

The Group agreed to assert
its belief in the principle of G.C.D.
as being in the interest of all
nations and felt that significant
obstacles could be overcome if a
progressive liquidation of foreign
bases could be achieved. The Group
also recognized the need for the
ending of colonialism in all its forms.

5. The Position of China

The Group was unanimous in
recognizing that the Chinese People's
Republic's entry into the United
Nations was vital to future develop-
ments in all areas including disarma-
ment discussions. While the view
was expressed that this might be
best approached by China's involve-
ment in the specialized agencies of
the U.N., many thought that only a
standing invitation to membership
with a seat on the Security Council
and at the 18-Nation Disarmament
Conference at Geneva may have a
chance of acceptance.

It was felt that the absence of
China from Pugwash Conferences was
regrettable not only from the point
of view of disarmament discussions
but because of the relevance of the
Chinese attitude to peace and social
change particularly in the developing
countries. They, therefore, wish
strongly to recommend renewed
attempts to get Chinese represent-
ation at conferences, if necessary by
sending a small mission led by the
Secretary-General to China. They
also felt that urgent consideration
should be given in detail to the re-

- 22 -

solution of the difficulties existing over Chinese representation at the U.N.

## 6. The Projected International Disarmament Conference in 1967

The notion of this proposed conference was welcomed by the Group with the hope that it would give an impetus to the work of existing U.N. Committees and of the Geneva Disarmament Conference in this field.

With regard to the general prospects for disarmament, the question was raised to what extent economic interests could still constitute an obstacle to its achievement: it was widely appreciated that some risk to national security on the part of certain powers might occur on the road to disarmament but that in any case few countries could any longer rely on military strength - as opposed to an improved international environment - for their safety.

The Group was particularly concerned that a thorough examination should be made of the causes of, and international responses to local conflict situations, particularly in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Some participants pointed out the necessity for the time being of "ad hoc" agreements on the supply and limitation of arms with guarantees of non-intervention and non-aggression agreements. This was felt to be a proper and important element

of the detailed study proposed in para. 4 above. The chances of an initiative from groups of developing countries anxious to avoid the consequences of an arms race were thought in this connection to be reasonable, but like a number of other questions discussed this did bring to mind the obvious need to invite substantial representation of African, Asian and Latin American countries to future Pugwash Conferences; there was felt to be a certain unreality and indeed danger in discussions on such questions without the presence of some of those most immediately affected.

## 7. Fields for Further Investigations

The Group's attention was drawn to the need for more detailed expert knowledge in a number of fields and consideration was given to the means by which this could be assembled. There were a number of areas apart from that already mentioned where research was an urgent prerequisite for further worthwhile discussions. Some had been mentioned in papers submitted for discussion by participants in the Conference; of these the problem of control, the question of a nuclear umbrella in connection with plans for G. C. D. and the economic and social consequences of arms and disarmament seemed to the Group to be so important that they wished strongly to recommend Pugwash International Study of these in the next year in preparation for the 17th Conference. Whether this could be arranged or not it was strongly

- 23 -

advocated that Pugwash should
endeavour to encourage investi-
gation by Pugwash Study Groups
in particular countries and re-

search by appropriate institutes
and individuals into some of the
vital aspects of international
peace and disarmament.

REPORT OF WORKING GROUP 4
MEASURES FOR ARMS LIMITATION

Working Group 4 concerned
itself with a number of measures
for arms limitation. Although
these are discussed separately
below, the Group is conscious that
they are in fact interrelated in
many ways and must often be con-
sidered for their utility in quite
different areas than the ones in
which they are principally dis-
cussed. Most of them also have
a double interest; they are both
useful for their own sake and use-
ful as preliminary steps along the
path toward true disarmament.

1. Extension of the Test Ban
Treaty

An important measure for
arms limitation is a Comprehen-
sive Ban on Nuclear Weapons
Tests. This long-sought-after
measure is particularly import-
ant today because it offers major
assistance to the problem of non-
proliferation of nuclear weapons.

The technical questions
involved are those of detecting,
locating and identifying under-
ground seismic events. Progress

continues to be made in these tech-
nical areas, and the Group took
note of the recent U. K. report*
which concludes that a high quality
world-wide system of seismic
array detection stations should
detect and identify over 90 per cent
of earthquakes of magnitude 4 and
larger. It was further agreed by
all participants that, because of the
multiplication of statistical prob-
abilities for a series of several
tests taking place in the same region,
a series of tests would be enormously
more difficult to hide than a single
test. Thus, there is an improved
technical basis for obtaining an agree-
ment to extend the prohibition of
nuclear explosions to include under-
ground tests, and the Group believes
that the major existing obstacles to
an agreement are rather of a political
than a technical nature.

United Kingdom report of Dec. 1965, "On the Detection and Identification of Underground Nuclear Explosions". See also the article by Bullard in the July 1966 issue of Scientific American, pages 19 to 29.

- 24 -

The Group took note that in the discussions and negotiations on these questions it has been argued that a treaty banning underground tests must provide for on-site inspection, to give as much assurance as possible that small seismic events, detected but not identified, are in fact of natural origin. The counter-argument which was advanced by some participants is that the existing means of detection and identification are adequate and that, therefore, there is no real need for on-site inspection. It is in this area that some resolution appears to be needed.

The Group considered a number of possible solutions or arrangements which might permit the obtaining of a full test ban. Although no one of the ways was without some difficulty or objection all were of some interest and merit further study. Most of them assumed that the seismic detection systems would be nationally operated, with, however, provisions for co-operation and data exchange among nations.

(1) A threshold treaty with provisions for gradually lowering the threshold.

(2) A threshold treaty with additional commitments by the signatory states to refrain from any testing of nuclear weapons.

(3) A threshold treaty with additional commitments by the signatory states:

a) to refrain from any testing of nuclear weapons,

b) to co-operate in technical studies aimed at improving the identification capability and at lowering the threshold,

c) to supply whenever requested by any signatory state all feasible information and explanations on unidentified seismic events occurring in its territory.

(4) A comprehensive treaty with a provision for locating unmanned seismic stations in the territory of the two or three largest nations, e. g. the U. S. A. and the U. S. S. R., either for validating data from national net-works or for additional help in identifying earthquakes.

(5) Provision in a comprehensive treaty of procedures for obtaining more information, including possible on-site inspection of unidentified seismic events, utilizing the "request and invitation" procedure of requesting clarification.

- 25 -

(6) As a preliminary to a treaty agreement among the nuclear powers a limited duration trial period of no testing with provision for the above "request and invitation" procedure.

In the view of the Group the most interesting of the above are variants (3) and (4).

As further items which should accelerate the obtaining of a comprehensive ban, the Group was greatly interested in the proposal for the establishment of a "Detection Club" by interested nations, the objective being to make high quality seismic data available on a broad basis. It also noted that the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute may be receptive to the suggestion that it undertake a further study and analysis of the technical problems and possibilities for further improvement of capabilities with a view to advancing the obtaining of a comprehensive test ban treaty.

## 2. Non-proliferation

Non-proliferation of nuclear weapons remains an urgent matter and there was a consensus that it is of the utmost importance to obtain prompt agreement on a treaty to prevent proliferation. This would be an important step toward nuclear disarmament. In the Group's view a treaty to accomplish

this should be a simple one in which the nuclear powers agree not to transfer nuclear weapons to other powers and the non-nuclear powers agree not to manufacture or acquire them on either an individual or a collective basis. There do not appear to be any insuperable barriers to the obtaining of such a treaty, and the Group urges continuous and vigorous negotiations to this end.

While generally agreeing to the desirability of a simple treaty, the Group felt that additional steps would be needed in which the nuclear powers took positive actions toward restraint and toward decreasing their reliance on nuclear weapons. Some participants emphasized the need for co-operative arrangements to give positive assistance in meeting the security needs of countries which agree to deny themselves nuclear weapons. Discussion on possible forms of such guarantees did not, however, bring out any solutions likely to obtain the necessary acceptance. A specific proposal which met with much approval, was that the nuclear powers formally agree not to use nuclear weapons on nations which do not have such weapons, excepting, however, those non-nuclear nations on whose territory are located nuclear weapons.

## 3. Nuclear-free Zones and Regional Disarmament Measures

Recognizing that any conflict, however small, contains in it the germs of world wide war, the Group

- 26 -

discussed a number of measures
which might help in minimizing
or eliminating regional conflicts.

One especially useful
agreement would be the prompt
establishment of nuclear-free
zones in different areas of the
world. In connection with nuclear-
free zones, the Group took parti-
cular note of the activity of the
Polish government in developing
proposals for denuclearization and
for a "nuclear freeze" for Central
Europe. The study and concern
which led to the development and
presentation of the Rapacki and
Gomulka plans should be helpful
in developing acceptable plans for
Central Europe and should also be
a useful spur to other nations in
other areas to develop plans for
their own nuclear-free zones. Hope
was specifically expressed that
nuclear-free zones be agreed to in
South America, and Africa and the
Middle East.

In connection with the prob-
lem of arms races among develop-
ing nations, some participants
stressed the importance of limit-
ations on the supplying of arms by
industrial nations to others, and
the importance of regional arms
limitation agreements of various
types in addition to nuclear-free
zones. Some members of the Group
felt that the proposal of the delegate
from Malta to the U. N., that there
should be compiled and published an
annual inventory of the transfer and
sale of conventional armaments,
would represent a useful first step

towards the limitation of the
traffic in such arms, but others
argued that this would have no
practical utility.

4. Nuclear Freeze Proposals

The topic of nuclear-free
zones leads naturally to the question
of possible world-wide freeze agree-
ments and these were discussed in
the particular context of the likely
development and deployment of anti-
ballistic missile systems. Indivi-
dual participants spoke on the poss-
ible utility of at least three types
of nuclear freezes:

a) a freeze on the deployment
of ABM systems;

b) a freeze on the numbers
of offensive nuclear
delivery systems, espec-
ially missiles;

There was no general agree-
ment on any one of these. In the
discussions it was, however, agreed
that in this connection self-restraint
on the part of the nuclear powers in
their nuclear weapons activities
could serve a very useful purpose.
Such restraint, along with other re-
lated measures, would constitute
both a desirable measure of arms
limitation in its own right, and also
an aid in obtaining a non-proliferation
treaty.

5. <u>Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy</u>

The positive side of the prob-
lem of atomic energy is that of peace-

- 27 -

ful uses, and the Group urged
full vigour in their development
and application. All nations
with substantial nuclear capabi-
lity and technical knowledge have
a special responsibility to assist
other nations in the rapid devel-
opment of their own peaceful
programmes.

An important component
of these peaceful programmes is
an adequate control system to
ensure that all the fissionable
materials are accounted for and
are used as scheduled for peace-
ful purposes*. In view of the

*


The Group is aware that the con-
clusion of a Comprehensive Test
Ban Treaty would, without further
arrangements, exclude the possibi-
lity of any programmes of peaceful
nuclear explosions.

rapidly developing use of nuclear
power plants and the consequent
large production of plutonium, it
is of particular importance to have
available and to utilize a satisfact-
ory and uniform control arrangement.
The available international system
is the International Atomic Energy
Agency, and the Group recommends
its full support. Some of the Group
also noted their belief that the
practice in some bilateral agree-
ments for peaceful applications, and
especially the Euratom practice of
substituting their separate control
systems for that of the IAEA, has
significantly weakened the latter
control system. The Group re-
commends that there should be only
one international control system
covering peaceful atomic applications -
that of the IAEA.

PUGWASH EVENTS

CONTINUING COMMITTEE

Meetings of the Continuing
Committee were held in Jablonna,
Poland, on 7th and 8th September,
and in Sopot on 16th and 17th
September 1966. Much of the
agenda was concerned with the
detailed planning of the Sopot Con-
ference and with the preliminary
programme for the 17th Pugwash
Conference in Sweden. The Com-
mittee also received reports from
its various Study Groups, and made
decisions concerning the organization

and programmes of work of these
Study Groups.

In connection with the Ronne-
by Conference, there was a general
discussion on the future of Pugwash;
a sub-committee was set up to draft
a programme for future activities for
presentation to the Conference. To
help participants in assessing the work
carried out up to now, the Committee
decided that a revised edition of the
History of Pugwash be prepared.

- 28 -

17th PUGWASH CONFERENCE, RONNEBY, SWEDEN
SEPTEMBER, 1967

The 17th Pugwash Conference will be held in Ronneby (south Sweden) from September 3rd to 8th, 1967.

At that time ten years will have passed since the first Pugwash Conference, and five years since the 10th Conference in London, when the present Continuing Committee was elected. The Committee felt that another large Conference should be convened, in which those who have participated in the past Pugwash Conferences should be given an opportunity to discuss the Pugwash activities up to now, and to decide about future activities.

The title of the Conference will be the same as that of the London Conference, i. e. "The Scientist and World Affairs". Apart from receiving a report of past activities and making decisions about the future programme and organization, including the election of a Continuing Committee, the programme will contain symposia on disarmament problems and on global co-operation in science and technology.

The Conference will be organized by the Swedish Pugwash Group with the co-operation of SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute).

## SCIENCE IN ARGENTINA

At its recent meeting the Continuing Committee considered the plight of scientists in Argentina after recent events, and decided to send the following letter to the President of the Argentinian Republic:

The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, of which 16 have been held to date, and which bring together eminent scientists from all parts of the world, are based on the conviction that science plays, in our time, a key role not only in war, but also in the peaceful development of nations.

Our Conference on Science in Aid of Developing Countries

which was held in Addis Ababa, in January 1966, and which was attended by scientists from all parts of the world, including Latin America, agreed unanimously that the future of countries in the process of industrialization depends on rapid advancement of science and technology. We are, therefore, particularly distressed by the events which took place recently in Argentina and which led to the loss to Argentina of many of its outstanding and internationally known teachers, scientists and technologists. We most emphatically appeal to the Argentina Government to adopt policies which would avoid this disaster to their own country, and stimulate vigorous growth of science and technology in Argentina.

- 29 -

PUGWASH STUDY GROUP ON BIOLOGICAL WARFARE

The Pugwash Study Group on Biological Warfare met in Stockholm from the 4 - 6 September on the initiative of the Swedish Pugwash Group and with the financial support of SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute). The following took part: Mr. O. Berner (SIPRI); Dr. R. Björnerstedt (SIPRI); Prof. T. Caspersson (Sweden); Dr. G. Edsall (U. S. A. ); Prof. C. G. Heden (Sweden); Dr. I. F. Ph. Hers (Netherlands); Acad. A. Imshenetsky (U. S. S. R. ); Dr. M. Kaplan (U. S. A. ); Prof. A. Kirn (France); Dr. J. Leerhøy (Denmark); Dr. Patricia Lindop (Pugwash Continuing Committee); Prof. M. Meselson (U. S. A. ); Prof. R. C. Nairn (Australia); Dr. J. Riha (Czechoslovakia); Dr. M. Ritzen (Sweden); Prof. J. Rotblat (Pugwash Continuing Committee); Dr. L. Tammelin (Sweden); Dr. C. E. D. Taylor (U. K. ), and Dr. B. Zacharias (Sweden).

The main purpose of the
meeting was to discuss and
assess the methods of rapid
detection of microbiological
agents (including viruses and
toxins) which might be used in
biological warfare. In addition
the meeting discussed other
relevant problems, such as the
control of biological weapons by
voluntary inspection, and the
conditions for a ban on testing of

biological weapons.

The Study Group has
learned with satisfaction that
SIPRI is willing to sponsor and to
consider financing some of the
projects described below. For
this reason the recommendations
made here are mainly directed to
the Board of Governors of SIPRI.
However, some of the problems
are of a nature requiring action by
a wider scientific body, and there-
fore some of the recommendations
in this report are directed to the
Pugwash Continuing Committee.

I. <u>A Study of Rapid Detection</u>
<u>Methods</u>

(A) Reasons for the study

This particular study is
considered to be of importance
because:

1. East-West collaboration of scientists would be achieved on a problem important both for defence and public health.

2. The work would foster the principle of open research and thus help to decelerate and eventually stop research and development of biological weapons.

3. World-wide agreement would be encouraged with the prospect of inhibiting preparation for biological warfare.

4. Successful efforts would result

- 30 -

in important advances in
public health and medical
practice.

(B) Technical aspects of the
project

The meeting discussed
many methods of detection,
focusing on particle discrimi-
nation, nucleic acid recogn-
nition by acridine orange
staining, and immunofluores-
cence. Consideration was also
given to the possible future
developments such as annealing
procedures for nucleic acids,
ultramicrodeterminations of
compounds characteristic of
bacteria, e. g. d-alanine, gas
chromatography, mass spectro-
scopy and microcalorimetry.

The immunofluores-
cence technique was discussed
at length and the following con-
clusions were reached.

1. It could play a useful part in a system of early (1-4 hours) detection of airborne microbes which might be used in biological warfare. Specific identification could be obtained within 24 hours.

2. Before such techniques could be usefully applied, a considerable amount of technical development would be required, although many items of the equipment may be already commercially available. There are so far no complete assemblies,

which should comprise non-
specific and specific methods
incorporating:

a) Sample collector

b) Particle analyser

c) Transport system with
plastic tape (polypropy-
lene etc.)

d) Nucleic acid detector e. g.
by acridine orange

e) Specific detection by
immunofluorescence

f) Microscopy, scanning
and recording

g) Computing

4. It is very difficult at this pre-
liminary stage to estimate the
cost of developing a complete
assembly including equipment
and personnel but it is thought
that the cost would be of the
order £100,000. It would
probably take about 5 years to
produce a working system and
efforts should be made to start
the project quickly with a view
to completion in such a specified
period. However, important
savings in money and time could
result from using pre-existing
and donated equipment. Valuable
technical information would be
generated even during the early
stages of the work.

5. At the same time as the equipment is being designed and constructed, development of reagents could take place as a separate exercise. Testing of these would not in the first instance require very elaborate equipment. The development of group-specific antisera and polyvalent serum mixtures

should be started imme-
 Riately.

6. A consultative group of experts should be formed to advise on the development of prototype equipment and of the necessary reagents.

7. Consideration should be given to:

i) the need to incorpor-
ate rapid automatic
culture for viruses;

ii) verification methods
requiring:

a) amplification of
antigenic mass
(growth in media
and tissue culture,
animal inoculation)

b) appropriate group-
ings of specific anti-
sera for sequential
differentiation of
specific microorgan-
isms

c) automatic microtech-
niques for serological
procedures e. g. com-
plement fixation,
haemagglutination,
precipitation

d) automatic colony
identification.

(C) <u>Recommendations</u>

From the above tech-
nical discussions it was con-
cluded that the following re-
commendations would help to
implement the project:

1. A research team should be formed consisting of young scientists from East, West, and non-aligned nations, e. g. Czechoslovakia, Denmark, and Sweden, under guidance of a consultative group of experts.

2. The research team should be constituted under the auspices of SIPRI.

3. The work should be carried out in an already established laboratory willing to make available its facilities and technical resources.

4. It would be greatly desirable if the research activities could be carried out in laboratories associated with the Ministry of Defence, for instance the Defence Research Laboratory in Sweden or the Microbiological Research Establishment at Porton in the U. K. This would have a great impact on the ultimate aim to abolish secrecy of all work connected with biological warfare.

II. <u>Inspection Experiment</u>

The meeting received a
report from the group headed by
Professor Heden, which had been
charged with carrying out the first
stage of the voluntary inspection
scheme.

This experiment was based
on an agreement between the heads
of four laboratories and with the
knowledge of relevant authorities.
The laboratories represented different

- 32 -

areas of specialization (large scale facilities for pathogens, public health responsibility, general microbiology) as well as different political situations:

1. The Medical Research Council Group for Bacteriological Bioengineering, Stockholm, Sweden (a neutral country)

2. The State Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark (a country belonging to NATO)

3. The Institute of Hygiene, Vienna, Austria (a country bound by treaty not to produce biological weapons)

4. The Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechoslovakia (a country belonging to the Warsaw Pact).

The inspection team consisted of Professor Heden (Sweden), Academician Malek (Czechoslovakia), Dr. Leerhøy (Denmark) and Professor Můse (Austria). The first visit (Stockholm, May 4-5th) was preceded by an independent consultation with specialists from the Western European Union. They did not participate in the Pugwash activity and carried out their visit independently, at the private invitation of the head of the laboratory in question. The members of the Pugwash team

could however start their work on the basis of a very useful demonstration. The problem was approached in a stepwise fashion over the next two inspections (Copenhagen, May 5-6th; Vienna, May 9-10th) and was simplified by a conference with the inspectors of the International Atomic Agency in Vienna. The round of visits was concluded in Czechoslovakia (August 25-26th) where not only the laboratory in Prague was visited, but also an affiliated germ-free animal research facility 200 km. away from the city.

The meeting appreciated the importance of such inspection schemes, as one of the efforts to reduce secrecy in the biological weapons field, and as a stepwise approach in a control and inspection system.

The meeting concurred with the recommendation of the inspection team that a working group be set up under the auspices of SIPRI to elaborate plans for a control and inspection agency in such detail that they can be submitted for consideration by governments. The meeting also received a document setting out in detail proposals for the non-production control of biological weapons and the organization of such control.

### III. Study of the Possibility of a Test Ban on Biological Warfare

It is likely that the development of operational biological weapons of the aerosol type would entail extensive large scale field trials for the determination of the

- 33 -

physical, meteorological and
biological behaviour of various
agent clouds.

The possibility exists
that, under certain circum-
stances, the occurrence of
such a test might be detected
at distances remote from the
test site.

For these reasons a
preliminary study should be
undertaken to determine
whether or not such detection
is sufficiently within the realm
of feasibility to justify more
detailed technical investigation,
possibly including a certain
amount of actual experiment-
ation.

As for the arms control
applications of a possible
biological weapons test detect-
ion capability, two rather differ-
ent cases can be imagined.

a) The feasibility of
developing a highly efficient
detection system might justify
consideration of some sort of
Test Ban treaty, possibly along
the lines of the Partial Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty.

b) The availability of a
system of lower efficiency, but
with still a significant probab-
ility of detecting unusual con-
centrations of potential biological
warfare agents, may nevertheless
make it possible to obtain sub-
stantial arms control benefits.
For example, if a group of states
were to co-operate in maintain-
ing such detection facilities the

following beneficial effects may
result:

i) it would provide some re-
assurance that none of the
participating states them-
selves were engaged in
biological weapons field
testing;

ii) it would concretely demon-
strate to other states the
serious concern of the parti-
cipating states that biological
weapons not be developed or
used;

iii) it would introduce a
serious possibility that
actual tests would be de-
tected. Even in the absence
of a biological weapons test
ban agreement, this might
seriously inhibit non-parti-
cipating states from con-
ducting large scale biological
weapons tests.

All three of the above effects
would help to maintain and reinforce
the widespread agreement that bio-
logical weapons are not legitimate
instruments of war.

The meeting recommends
that:

a) One or two qualified
persons should be asked to prepare
a preliminary technical study.

b) The above study should be
presented in the form of a report to
a meeting of the Pugwash Biological
Warfare Study Group for discussion
and further recommendations. Parti-
cipants in this meeting should be

- 34 -

asked to prepare themselves
to discuss the report which
should be submitted to them
well in advance of the meeting.

#### IV. Relations with Other Organizations

The meeting learned
of proposals: (a) to establish
co-operation with the Inter-
national Association of Micro-
biological Societies in the
setting up of an Open Labor-
atories Club, as well as on the
issue of the ethics of applied
microbiology; (b) to co-operate
with relevant international
organizations in calling a large
conference on the peaceful uses
of microbiology.

Whilst time did not
permit a detailed discussion of
these proposals, the meeting was

in general sympathy with the idea
of establishing contact with
international scientific organi-
zations, and recommends these
proposals for consideration by the
Pugwash Continuing Committee.

#### V. General Recommendation

It is recommended that
another meeting of the Biological
Warfare Study Group should be
scheduled to receive the interim
reports of the various projects in
order to assess their results and
to recommend subsequent steps.

While projects requiring
continuing studies should be spon-
sored by SIPRI it is felt important
for the Study Group to retain its
direct connection with the Pugwash
Continuing Committee because of
the political aims to be achieved
by the work.

## STUDY GROUP ON EUROPEAN SECURITY

The third meeting of the
Study Group on European Security
was held in Geneva on 21st to 24th
May. The following took part:
D. J. Adler (Denmark); H. Afheldt
(F. G. R.); R. Björnerstedt (Sweden);
G. Bluhm (F. G. R.); J. Delbrück
(F. G. R.); P. Freydenberg (Norway);
V. Hajdu (Czechoslovakia); P. Hess
(G. D. R.); I. Højme (Denmark);
K. Lapter (Poland); R. Leclercq
(Belgium); L. Liska (Czechoslovakia);
S. Lundgren (Sweden); I. Malecki
(Poland); L. Mates (Yugoslavia);
T. Opsahl (Norway); J. Peck (G. D. R.);
L. Reczei (Hungary); M. Saeter (Nor-

way); R. Sexl (Austria); A. Snej-
darek (Czechoslovakia); A. Sparring
(Sweden); P. Stroot (Belgium);
I. Supek (Yugoslavia); H. Tolhoek
(Netherlands); J. Wilhjelm (Den-
mark), and H. Wünsche (G. D. R.).
Academician Khvostov and the
Secretary-General took part as
observers on behalf of the Continu-
ing Committee.

The following papers were
presented:

D. J. Adler. "Integrational Processes"
H. Afheldt and G. Bluhm. "Security
in Europe"

- 35 -

The Danish Pugwash Group. "On
Denuclearized Zones"

V. Hajdu and E. Menzel. "The Problem of a Peace Treaty with Germany and a European Security System"

P. Hess and S. Lundgren. "Notes on Economic Co-operation between East and West"

E. Menzel. "Addendum to the Paper
The Problem of a Peace
Treaty with Germany and a
European Security System"

K. Lapter. "Poland's Security and the German Question"

L. Reczei. "Proposals on German Reunification and European Security"

L. Liska and A. Snejdarek. "Security in Europe and More Extensive Co-operation of European Countries"

H. Thirring. "The Classic Idea of Security"

Sub-group of Lawyers (V. Hajdu,
E. Menzel, T. Opsahl,
J. Peck, L. Reczei,
J. Wilhjelm and H. Wünsche).
"Report on the Question of
a Peace Treaty with Germany"

R. U. Sexl. "Austrian Security Needs"
I. Højme. "Danish Security Needs"
The Norwegian Group. "Norwegian
Security Needs"

The papers were discussed
at the Plenary Sessions as well as in
four groups as follows:

(a) Lawyers group on a Peace
Treaty with Germany

(b) Group on problems connected
with the reunification of Germany

(c) Working Group on Security

(d) Working Group on Integrational
processes and co-operation
between European States.

It was agreed that the find-
ings of the meeting will be sum-
marized in a report to be pre-
sented to the 16th Conference. The
Co-Chairmen, Adler and Snejdarek,
were asked to prepare a draft
report. This was discussed at the
fourth meeting of the Group, which
was held in Jablonna on the 7th
and 8th September, just before the
Sopot Conference.

SUMMER SCHOOL ON DISARMAMENT

The Italian Pugwash Group
organized on June 13th to 25th,
1966, an International Summer
School on Disarmament and Arms
Control. It was held at the Villa
Falconieri in Frascati, near
Rome. The main lectures were
given by G. Arangio Ruiz (Padova),
R. Björnerstedt (Stockholm),
W. Epstein (U. N.), K. Lapter

(Warsaw), M. Marcovic (Belgrade),
B. V. Röling (Groningen),
T. Stonier (New York) and
P. Sylos Labini (Rome). Additional
lectures were given by E. Burkhardt
(UNESCO), F. Cavalletti (head of
the Italian delegation at the ENDC
in Geneva) and W. Grayson (member
of the American delegation at the
ENDC in Geneva).

- 36 -

The 22 students came from 9 countries (Czechoslovakia, Denmark, German Federal Republic, India, Great Britain, Italy, Poland, United States and Yugoslavia). There were also some 10 observers.

Lectures and discussions centred on various aspects of disarmament and arms control, especially on the effects of a nuclear war; the political and strategic aspects of the nuclear age; the history of disarmament negotiations; problems of controls and safeguards; peacekeeping in a disarmed world; economic aspects of armament and disarmament; and sociological and psychological problems of the nuclear arms race.

There were also some round table discussions on civil defence and on European security.

The discussions were on a fairly high level, as the students (with very few exceptions) have done their homework properly. Throughout there was a very friendly and cordial atmosphere, and the informal discussions sometimes continued for many hours after the formal closing.

The Italian press reported the seminars at length. This has

helped in educating public opinion in Italy on the dangers of atomic warfare. The Pugwash Movement itself received much publicity in this connection.

Professor E. Amaldi, director of the School, gave the following reason for arranging the Summer School:

At the beginning of the Pugwash Movement the scientists played the most important role, especially those connected with nuclear physics; at that time the most urgent problems were those concerned with solutions that demanded technical understanding. At present, however, political and sociological aspects of disarmament are coming to the foreground. This demands the development of other forms and methods, in addition to the Conferences which are held every 9-12 months. In this respect the Frascati School is an experiment in new methods of achieving Pugwash goals.

The Frascati School experiment was certainly successful; it should stimulate similar experiments in other countries, especially those directly or indirectly involved in the nuclear arms race.

(K. L.)

## SOUTH EAST ASIA REGIONAL PUGWASH CONFERENCE

On the initiative of the Australian Pugwash Group a Regional Conference is being organized in Melbourne on 23rd to 27th January 1967. The theme

of the Conference will be "Scientific, Technological and Industrial Development in South East Asia". A number of scientists from South East Asian countries are being invited.

- 37 -

STOCKHOLM INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

The International Institute for Peace and Conflict Research, in Sweden (abbreviated name: SIPRI - (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute)) came into being on July 1st, 1966. The first meeting of the Board of Governors was held in Stockholm on 27th and 28th August.

The Institute will be international in the scope of its studies, in its research staff and governing bodies. It shall be entirely independent in the conduct of its studies and the publication of its results. When recruiting personnel the Institute will give foremost attention to scientific ability and research performance. It will try to establish gatherings of scholars, at which different social and economic systems will be represented, and where peace and conflict research problems and disarma-ment questions will be studied under genuinely international aspects.

The Swedish Government has allocated about 1 million Swedish Crowns (200,000 US$) for its first year of activity. It is foreseen that this contribution will gradually increase as the research activities are expanded.

It is envisaged that the pace of the development of the Institute will be such that at the end of the initial five year period some 15-25 persons will be employed on the research staff. This staff will

comprise scholars of recognized high standing, as well as post-graduate workers appointed as research assistants.

The following are the governing bodies of the Institute:

(a) A Scientific Council consisting of 24 members selected from among highly qualified scholars, politicians and international civil servants. The Council shall have consultative functions in the planning of the research programmes and in their evaluation.

(b) A Governing Board with eight members which will have the responsibility for the more important decisions about the programme of the Institute and its management.

(c) A Director whose tasks will be to organize the Institute and guide its activities.

The Swedish Government has appointed the members of the Governing Board and two thirds of the members of the Scientific Council. The Council itself will be responsible for the selection of the last third of its membership, as well as for selection of scholars to replace retiring members.

The following are the members of the Board of Governors appointed so far:

Ambassador Alva Myrdal,
temporary Chairman

- 38 -

Professor Hilding Eek,
Professor of International
Law, Stockholm University

Academician I. Malek,
Prague, Czechoslovakia

Professor J. Rotblat,
Secretary-General, Pugwash
Conferences on Science and
World Affairs, London

Professor B. V. A. Röling,
Secretary-General, Internat-
ional Peace Research Associ-
ation, Groningen, Holland

Professor J. Sanness,
Director of the Institute of
International Relations, Oslo

The geographical distribution
of the Council will be considerably
broader than that of the Board, and
will include representatives from
other continents, as well as from
Europe. A Director will be appoint-
ed later. Two temporary assistant
directors have been appointed to
launch the Institute and to prepare
the programme for the initial period.

Below is an outline of the
research projects which were
considered by the Board.

(a) Study project on biological
means of war.

This project aims at study-
ing the means of preventing further
development of biological weapons
before they get operationally use-
ful and universally available.

The Board decided that a
project of this kind should be
started at the Institute. Studies
should be undertaken on the feasi-
bility of an international control

system of the production of means
of biological warfare. Political,
legal and technical problems would
have to be considered, including
verification techniques, both in
relation to production and to
detection of use.

As part of this project the
Institute participated in a meeting
of the study group, held in Stockholm
on 4 - 6 September, and arranged
by the Swedish Pugwash Group.
This meeting was particularly con-
cerned with rapid detection tech-
niques.

(b) The Board considered various
projects in the disarmament field.
It decided to ask the Secretariat to
prepare for forthcoming meetings
plans of projects on different prob-
lems relating to disarmament, e.g.
active defence against nuclear
weapons (ABM), as well as passive
defence measures.

(c) The Board discussed some
projects in the field of social
science. It was decided that the
Secretariat should prepare plans
of projects relating to the role of
mass media in the development of
certain localized conflicts.

(d) The Board expressed con-
siderable interest in problems of
how the international community
could benefit from natural resources
being made accessible e. g. the sub-
soil of the high seas, as well as the
utilization of satellites, particularly
for communications purposes.

(e) The Board learnt of the possi-
bility of conferences being held in
Stockholm in 1967 by the Pugwash

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Conferences on Science and World Affairs and the International Peace Research Association. Scholars from all over the world working in fields related to the Institute's

activities will participate in these conferences. The Board welcomed the opportunity to co-operate in the preparation of these meetings.

## CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL PENAL LAW

A Conference on International Penal Law is being organized by the French Resistance Organizations (Le Comité d'Action de la Resistance, le Comité d'Action de la Resistance Judiciaire, l'Association des Anciens Deportés et Prisonniers de la Famille Judiciaire et le Reseau du Souvenir) and will be held in Paris on 27th to 29th April 1967.

The Conference aims to study crimes against humanity and peace, and to investigate the conditions for the setting up of an International Penal Court.

The study of crime against humanity will include the physical suppression of groups of human beings or individuals, not only for racial or national reasons but also for political ones. The crime against peace will be studied under all aspects, but mostly with respect to nuclear weapons.

The establishing of an International Penal Court is associated with the setting up of an International Department of Public Prosecution, which will be empowered to nominate inspectors, among them scientists; it is intended that the staff will be independent of national interests. This Court might

provide preventive jurisdiction for international crimes.

Participants at the Conference will be lawyers from various countries, selected because of their knowledge of the subject. In addition, it is planned to invite scientists as experts on aspects relevant to their particular field. Travel expenses and accommodation will be provided by the organizers.

A total of about 100 participants is expected, including 10-20 scientists. It is anticipated that the work will be carried out by working groups, which will prepare reports similar to the procedure at the Pugwash Conferences.

This Conference will probably be the first of a series, although the number and frequency have not yet been determined. It is hoped that a Continuing Committee will be elected at the first Conference.

The discussions and reports of the working groups will be private; participants would represent only themselves. A summary of the reports may be issued at the end of the Conference by a drafting Committee.

More details can be obtained from Dr. H. Marcovich, Institut du Radium, Rue d'Ulm 26, Paris 5, France.

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DUTCH COMMITTEE AGAINST THE PROLIFERATION
OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

A Committee against the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was set up in the Netherlands at the end of 1965. In the opinion of the members of the Committee attempts to reach a balance of powers between nations by means of weapons of mass-destruction constitutes one of the greatest dangers threatening the survival of mankind. A particularly dangerous situation is developing at present because of the increasing spread of nuclear weapons. For this reason the Committee considers opposition to the spread of nuclear weapons to be a matter of the highest priority. The Committee is anxious to stimulate discussions on this subject in the Netherlands and has suggested the following points as a basis for such discussions:

1. The extension of the Moscow Nuclear Test Ban Treaty to all nuclear tests.

2. The realization of a treaty against the spread of nuclear weapons, in which nuclear nations, as well as non-nuclear nations, would participate.

3. A freezing of the situation regarding nuclear weapons in Central Europe. It would follow from this that West Germany should be denied access to nuclear weapons in any form, and that the plans for MLF, ANF etc. be not carried out.

4. The establishment of nuclear-

free zones in Central Europe, as well as in other parts of the world, e. g. Latin America and Africa.

The Committee felt that an important contribution to the achievement of one of its objectives, to inform public opinion of the dangers of the spread of nuclear weapons, would be to publish a pamphlet on this subject. This pamphlet was prepared jointly by Miss Fenna van den Burg, Mr. Laurens ten Cate and Professor H. A. Tolhoek.

After an introduction stating the purpose of the publication, the pamphlet explains the concept of proliferation of nuclear weapons, traces the history of negotiations on a non-proliferation treaty, and points out the various difficulties in reaching such an agreement in the light of recent attempts at other international agreements. Some methods of checking the spread of nuclear weapons, even in the absence of an agreement on non-proliferation, are then discussed. The pamphlet ends with a list of recommendations about the main points which a treaty on non-proliferation should contain, and the specific tasks for the Netherlands in this respect.

Further information about the Committee and the pamphlet can be obtained from the Committee's Secretariat, R. R. Eijbersen, Maasstraat 61, Amsterdam-Z, Netherlands.