## Political Structure and Democracy in the
Second Republic

K. D. Bracher

Introductory remarks 1

I. **Burdens of History** (historical perspectives) 2

The First Republic 4

The Nazi Experience 8

II. **The Institutional Structure** 13

Old Problems and New Forms 13

Stability and Modified Democracy 17

Federal Germany: illusion and reality 21

III. **Government and the Social Forces** 28

Chancellor Democracy 28

Parties as Institutions 33

A"New Party": the CDU 38

An Old Party in Change: the SPD 44

Two-party System and Third Parties 52

Trends to "**_Verbändedemokratie_**" 62

IV. **Between Stability and Change** 71

Constitutional Court, Emergency Powers, Bundeswehr 71

Democratic Institutions and Political Attitudes 77

K.D. Bracher

# Politics and Democracy in the Second German Republic
(Outline)

It has often been pointed out that Germany never has experienced the course and the consequence of a successful revolution, and that this was largely responsible for the failure of her efforts towards a democratic system. Indeed the emergence of modern society and the establishment of a national state in Germany occured under the impact partly of a "revolution from above" (as after 1812 and after 1848), partly of a "revolution by defeat" (as 1918 and again 1945). Both types of pseudo-revolutionary transformation (Revolutions-Ersatz) seemed to prove that it was not possible to reconcile the peculiar traditions and conditions of modern Germany with the postulates of liberal democracy as developed since the great revolutions in the West.

Any discussion of the new German democracy, confronted as it is from the very beginning with the failure of the first post-war democracy of Weimar, culminates in the question how valid that basic assumption of 19th and 20th century German self-interpretation may be. While it is true that in 1945 the conditions of German politics were deeply changed, it cannot be denied that this was again a consequence of external events. But this time their impact proved much stronger than in 1918. The completeness of defeat, occupation policy, economic recovery, and a period of political preparation preceding the reestablishment of German statehood, while again preventing the experience of a successful revolution, yet provided for a new start and a period of consolidation which for the first time allowed the experience of a working democratic system. This is of course the outside picture. What, then, is the real character and the inside substance of that system, behind the surprising stability of its democratic structure?

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# I. The Historical Dilemma

## 1. Impediments of democratic development

Tremendous impact of World War II on Germany - how far revolutionary effects, how far under new conditions continuity of forces and problems dating from the 19th century?

The main issue had been the dilemma between

(a) a liberal-constitutional solution of the German question

(b) the establishment, and integration, of a national state

(c) the economic and social emancipation, and its meaning for an expansionism aiming at a hegemonial and world power status for Germany

These issues were competing and conflicting, but with different strength at different periods:

(a) first half of 19th century - reaction to French revolution and Napoleon; conflict between constitutional liberalism and national unification; attempt to solve it fails 1848 with the strength of conservative-reactionary powers

(b) to 1890 - Bismarck solution from above, impedes accord between social, political and constitutional development; parliament and parties remain subjected to semi-absolutistic power structure

(c) to 1918 - domestic tensions deflected to foreign politics and imperialism; stirrings of prefascist movements; impact of war

(d) to 1933 - failure of first democratic experiment

(e) to 1945 - exaggeration and exhaustion of national imperialism and its anti-democratic dynamics (foundations)

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## 2. Reasons for the failure of Weimar (resume)

(a) Reaction to defeat and Versailles treaty

(b) Peculiar character of the (pseudo) revolution

(c) Constitutional problems: eclectical perfectionism and liberal weaknesses, but at the same time elements of Obrigkeitsstaat preserved

(d) Continuity of authoritarian-bureaucratic structure, with a peculiar Beamtenideologie of anti-party (neutral) and widely anti-democratic character

(e) Deep ideological and social cleavages of a strongly split party system, resulting in permanent coalition crises

(f) Tendency towards non-party presidential cabinets (Ersatz monarchy)

(g) Radical anti-parliamentary opposition instead of constructive opposition within the system

(h) Militarizing forces, reactionary and revolutionary, within the society

(i) "Unpolitical" army precedes (and supersedes) the Republic, which is considered merely a transient emergency solution

(k) Influence of anti-democratic ideologies and legal philosophies

(l) Economic and social threat, especially to the middle classes

(m) Attractiveness of dictatorial solutions to class struggle and the disturbing complexity of modern society and politics

(n) Use and misuse of modern methods of mass communication, persuasion, manipulation

(o) Role of persons: Ebert, Rathenau, Stresemann - Hindenburg, Bruening, Papen, Hugenberg - Nazi leadership

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3. Impact of the Nazi regime and its defeat

(a) How deeply was that "movement" rooted in German traditions and attitudes?

(b) The terror aspect of the Third Reich - momentous intimidation or lasting effects on population?

(c) Propaganda and persuasion aspect: resulting in mistrust, scepticism, depolitization

(d) Nationalism and war: exhaustion by total exploitation and ensuing total defeat

(e) Nivellizing of class structure and emergence of open society is quickened by totalitarian politics of mass mobilization; in addition the effects of mass movements of refugees

(f) In summa: one dominant conception of state and politics is by its totalitarian consequences led to absurdity; liberal and democratic traditions can come to the fore; though quest for security (and how to combine it with freedom) remains as urgent as before

4. Post-war origins of the West German Republic

(a) Zero hour, end of German history? Question of break and continuity, as compared with 1918

(b) Psychological situation and political attitudes: apathy, disturbance, concentration on the immediate necessities of life, differences between generations

(c) The impact of information about the Nazi regime; the problem of the war crime trials, of denazification and re-education

(d) Stages of occupation policies; economic and social conditions; regional beginnings of German politics