tempted.

in the light of Kant's critical philosophy has been at-
ethical implications, an interpretation of his doctrine
**Note:** Though Locke did not agree himself primarily to

Ronson - Society Contract

Locke - Of Civil Government

Lingay - The Modern Democratic State

Bibliography

1.

I. The Democratic Problem

The problem of the relation between politics and
ethics has always been difficult. It has been compounded
in modern times by the emphasis on scientific thinking,
with the correct method conceived as the key to sure
analysis and yielding incontrovertible arguments to all
rational beings. In those terms political theory is fre-
quently reduced to a mere study of political institutions.
No political theory has yet been possible, however, which
was not in the final analysis determined by the author's
view on human nature. And if a view of human nature implies
a concept of human capabilities as well as a standard of
action, then an ethical foundation - leaving apart the
question of correctness - exists. It is noteworthy that
even Marx, whose deductions are allegedly scientifically
self-evident, is both a reaction to the moral sentiments
of his period, as well as containing within him very defin-
ite concepts of human nature. For, after all, the class-
less and state-less society conceived by Marx is a testimony
to his faith in the inherent goodness, or at least, harmony
of men. This is not an occasion to discuss the incompatibil-
ity of Marx, the exponent of the economic interpretation
of history, with Marx the prophet of the essential goodness
of human nature (for what else would insure that the

of human nature (for what else would insure that the
of history, with Marx the prophet of the essential goodness
ity of Marx, the exponents of the economic interpretation
of men. This is not occasion to diacuse the incompatibility
the
to his faith in the inherent goodness, or at least, harmony
less and state-less society conceived by Marx is a testimony
the concepts of human nature. For, after all, the class-
ot his period, as well as containing within him very delin-
self-evident, is both a reaction to the moral sentiments
even Marx, whose deductions are allegedly scientifically
question of correctness - exists. It is noteworthy that
action, then an ethical transformation - leaving apart the
a concept of human capabilities as well as a standard of
view on human nature. And it a view of human nature implies
was not in the final analysis determined by the author's
No political theory has yet been possible, however, which
direction reduced to a mere study of political institutions.
rational being. In those terms political theory is tre-
sanalgies and fielding incontrovertible arguments to all
with the correct method conceived as the key to ame
in modern times by the emphasis on scientific thinking,
ethics has always been difficult. It has been compounded
the problem of the relation between politics and

I. The Democratic Problem

f.

2.

class-less society would not again degenerate into levels
of oppressors and oppressed). The point at issue is, that
no philosopher - and two previous papers have dealt with
the problem at length - has achieved a separation of his
philosophy either from the moral sentiments of his period,
or did not have at the root of his theory, a definite con-
cept of human nature.

Ethics has been crudely defined as a concept of the
abilities and goals of man. But it involves further an
element of comparability and in this sense any ethical
doctrine is essentially democratic. But while equality is
relatively easy to reconcile with an ethical doctrine, the
companion attribute of democracy, liberty, has lent itself
less easily to ethics, conceived as a description of the
content of good. For if there is a standard of Absolute
right, obtained by revelation or by approximation of a Law
of Nature (and Aquinas combined both), then indeed individ-
ual freedom is meaningless and man's salvation is achieved
by the degree to which he approaches this absolute standard.
(In this connection grace is disregarded, for it too implies
an Absolute, in some ways more formidable because of its
admitted unattainability). Law was merely the expression
of the already existing standard and was thus a positive
force for morality.

It required the emergence of Protestantism in the

It required the emergence of protestantism in the
force for morality.

of the already existing standard and was thus a positive
assumed mutatis mutandis). Law was merely the expression
of an Absolute, in some ways more formidable because of its
(In this connection Grace is disregarded, for it too implies
by the degree to which he approaches this absolute standard,
and freedom is meaningless and man's salvation is achieved
of Nature (and Adkins combined both), then indeed individ-
ual, obtained by revelation or by approximation of a law
content of good. For it there is a standard of Absolute
less easily to ethics conceived as a description of the
combination attribute of democracy, flexibility, has lent itself
relatively easily to reconcile with an ethical doctrine, the
doctrine is essentially democratic. But while equality is
element of comparability and in this sense any ethical
aparties and goals of man. But it involves further an
Ethics has been crudely defined as a concept of the
cept of human nature.

or did not have at the root of his theory, a definite con-
bution by either from the moral sentiments of his period,
the problem at length - has achieved a separation of his
no bifurcator - and two previous bakers have dealt with
of obsequious and obsequious). The point at issue is, that
class-less society would not again degenerate into levels
of

[H]

3.

16th century to make intelligible a concept of human liberty which was based on the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. This exalts the role of the individual conscience and makes compulsory goodness a contradiction in terms. In this connection it is well to point out that the philosophical conflict was not peculiar to the 16th century, that the controversy has been pervasive in political theory since Greek times and probably finds its best expression in Christ's attack on the Pharisees, the conflict of the man of essential goodness with the man of strict interpretation of law.

The admission of human liberty, by itself merely introduced a complete relativism, however. On the other hand, the human felt need for ethics expresses itself in terms of absolute relevency, so strong and pervasive that Kant postulates immortality from it. This new morality could no longer be formulated in a code of law. It was expressed by Rousseau as the problem "in which each while joining himself to all, may still obey himself alone and remain as free as before."

Bound up with the belief in human liberty is the concept of the inherent value of the individual expressed in the recognition of tolerance as an ethical standard. For tolerance can not be considered an absolute moral norm in any context. If compulsory goodness is meaningless to

in any context. It is compulsory goodness is meaningless to
for tolerance can not be considered an absolute moral norm
in the recognition of tolerance as an ethical standard.
concept of the inherent value of the individual expressed
Bourdieu with the pepeït in human liberty is the
tree as before."

himself to self, may still oped himself alone and remain as
by homases as the problem "in which each while joining
no longer be tomulated in a code of law. It was expressed
Kant postulates immortality from it. This new morality conq
terms of absolute reference, so strong and pervasive that
hand, the human felt need for ethics expresses itself in
introduced a complete relativism, however. On the other
The adulation of human liberty, by itself merely
tation of law.

man of essential goodness with the man of strict interbre-
in Christ's attack on the burdens, the conflict of the
since Greek times and properly tinges its beat expression
due controversy has been bensive in political theory
broad conflict was not beneficial to the least centry, that
in this connection it is well to point out that the buffer-
science and makescompulsory goodness a contradiction in terms.
bellevens. This exists the role of the individual con-
which was based on the doctrine of the breastmilk of self
least centry to make inefficible a concept of human liberty

3.

4.

Protestantism, so is recognized tolerance to the medieval
doctrine of Absolute. But tolerance presents problems even
to democratic theory. What are its limits? How, if there
is an ethical standard, even if expressed only as a guide
to right action as in Kant's categorical imperative, can
one allow in good conscience the flouting of that standard?
What indeed is the limit of freedom, for without limit the
freedom of one is the serfdom of the other? What is law
and its role in the democratic state?

This is the nature of the democratic dilemma. At
present it has particular relevancy through the emergence
of another system of Absolutes embodied in detailed regula-
tions, which makes conformity and not conviction the
criterion. The next chapter will deal with attempted
solutions of the democratic problem by Kant in an ethical
formulation and by Locke, Rousseau and Lindsay in an in-
stitutionalized context.