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convincing by the singular charm of his voice and manner. He was always distinguished by the simplicity of his dress and the entire freedom from the pretension and love of show characteristic of most Asiatics, and at the zenith of his power he was only a soldier occupying a palace. Such was the commander of the expedition of the Khoja Buzurg Khan, who set out in 1864 to conquer a kingdom.

We have stated before that the Mahommedan inhabitants of Kashgar were known under the name of Tungani or Dungans, while the Buddhist Chinese are spoken of as Khitay. A bitter enmity, though slumbering at times, had always existed between the two races. In 1862 riots broke out in several places. The Tungani had risen and massacred the unfortunate Khitay. The Mahommedan priests seized all governing power and set their followers the example of unscrupulous ferocity. Before 1862 a Tungan government was established in Kansuh. The events happening in Kansuh were naturally of interest to all the Tungani in the country, and the example was followed by Hamil, Turfan, Urumtsi and other cities, and thus the movement spread with irresistible impetus to Karashar, Kucha and Aksu, and it was not long before the firebrand of civil war and anarchy lighted up once again the length and breadth of Altyshahr. By the end of 1863 the Chinese power was completely subverted in every part of the country. A complete state of anarchy prevailed during 1864, and in January, 1865, Buzurg Khan, with his commander, Yakoob Beg, and only sixty-eight followers, crossed the Khokand frontier into Eastern Turkestan, and after a short career of unparalleled success, due to the unscrupulous, daring genius of Yakoob Beg, the incapable, effeminate, utterly worthless Buzurg Khan was placed by his powerful lieutenant on the throne of his ancestors. The Khirgiz chief, Sadic Beg, who had joined in expelling the Chinese, seeing that he played but a secondary part under Yakoob Beg, revolted against the new ruler, but was completely crushed. An ambitiousventurer like Yakoob Beg could not long be subject to a puppet ruler of Buzurg Khan's character, the typical *roi fainéant*. In less than a year's time the latter was deposed by his ambitious maire de palais, and after a slight resistance was placed in a state of honorable confinement. Being suspected of having engaged himself in a conspiracy to murder Yakoob Beg, he was banished to Thibet. After wandering about for many

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years he found his way back to Khokand, where he is believed to be still living with his family. With the deposition of Buzurg Khan and the defeat of the Kirghiz chief, Sadic Beg, the first part of the enterprise begun in the latter days of 1864 was brought to a close. In his later operations we shall perceive the effects of his success upon this ambitious man, who until his late years never realized the strength of the Russians, and who flattered himself with the idea that he could retard the progress of the great northern power. It was this idea that urged him on to the construction of what he believed would be a formidable military power. As a ruler of Kashgar he could do nothing, and was only a vassal of the Khan of Khokand; as monarch of Eastern Turkestan he might treat with the Czar of Russia and the Emperor of China on terms of equality—an ambitious and wild dream, not unworthy of Yakoob Beg, the Athalik Ghazi—"Champion Father."

The Tungani revolt, which was the immediate cause of the downfall of the Chinese power in Kashgar, was not entirely suppressed in its effects, and in 1867 Yakoob Beg thought the time had come to crush the disjointed but allied Tungan States on his north and east. His first attempt was directed against the Tungan rulers of Aksu and Kucha. The resistance of the Tungans and Khojas was desperate, but in a decisive battle they were completely overcome, and Kucha and Aksu fell into the hands of the conqueror, and all other cities followed soon after. But now an event occurred which began seriously to occupy the thoughts of the victorious Badaulet. It was the steady advance of the Russians both in Khokand and in the Kuldja region, and the endeavor of the Russian Government to arrive at an exact understanding of the new state to which they were rapidly approaching in their career of conquest. This commencement of foreign interest in his actions naturally imposed some restrictions on the hitherto almost unrestrained ambition of Yakoob Beg. But in the meantime, and awaiting events, he made the best use of his splendid victories. All the cities were fortified, and every possible means taken for the safety of his realm. His first encounter on the field of diplomacy with the Russian government took place in 1871, about the acquisition of Kuldja by the Russians, which happened in this way: Disturbances had arisen between the Tungani and Tarantchis,

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and Kuldja must have fallen an easy prey into the hands of the Athalik Ghazi had he been permitted to advance. But the Russians marched into Kuldja in 1871, saying that they had merely come there to restore order, and would hold it in trust for the rightful owners, to whom they would restore it so soon as they should be able to keep permanent possession of it.

The chief claim of Yakoob Beg to consideration among rulers and conquerors is that he gave a settled government to a large portion of Central Asia, and that, however vicious his external policy may have been in critical moments, his internal administration was founded on a practical and fair basis. In capacity for administration he far surpassed his contemporaries, and whatever his ideas were, they had the merit of being put into force with remarkable vigor and perseverance. The great secret of his power was that he had constituted himself the champion of Islam in Central Asia. The rulers of Bokhara and Afghanistan might forget their allegiance to the true faith and listen to the promises and inducements offered by Russia, for worldly considerations; but he, the Athalik Ghazi—the true Champion Father—he could not stop to that.

In conclusion, it remains to consider Yakoob Beg's policy towards Russia and England, a policy which, based upon his strong convictions, he firmly maintained until his death. In 1866 the attention of the ruler of Kashgar was first directed to the movements of his old antagonists in Khokand, and whose next victim in their career of aggrandizement he considered himself to be. Russia refused for a long time to acknowledge the government of Yakoob Beg. Her friendly relations with China could not permit her to enter into friendly intercourse with a usurper who had overthrown Chinese supremacy in Kashgar. When on future occasions it was thought in the interest of Russian diplomacy to make overtures to the ruler of Eastern Turkestan, Yakoob Beg refrained from any intercourse with them, or interference in their affairs with remarkable firmness and perspicuity. and, until his death, proved to be the boldest and most consistent opponent to Russian advancement in Central Asia.

Yakoob Beg's relations with England were of a less difficult and complicated nature than with Russia. England could maintain friendly relations with the Athalik Ghazi because

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he was willing to grant commercial concessions, which he refused to Russia. England tried to convince him that she was determined not to interfere beyond the Karakoram. The Indian government was always anxious to maintain a kindly feeling between the two countries, and could not help admiring bravery and courtesy in a man who possessed these qualities in no mean degree, but it felt that it would be championing an unrecognized cause in supporting Yakoob Beg against all comers. England and Kashgar were friends because they had no reason to be enemies; there was never an alliance in the true sense, and when Yakoob Beg trusted to English support in his defiance of Russia, he was leaning on a broken reed, and this chapter of English policy in Central Asia may be closed as speedily as possible for England's glory.

We now arrive at the last great event in the life of this remarkable man: his last war with China. In 1876, in September, tidings of grave nature reached the city of Kashgar: the Chinese had appeared north of the Tian Shan; their army was represented to number a hundred thousand men, armed with all the improvements Western science could supply. They had sacked Urumtsi and were laying siege to Manas. Manas fell after a bloody struggle. The news reached Yakoob Beg in November, and if the Athalik Ghazi's stout heart did not sink at these tidings, it was not through any light estimate of the gravity of the situation, and he made immediate preparation to protect his Northeastern frontier. At Turfan he was caught between two armies, advancing respectively from Urumtsi and Pidjam. He was completely defeated by these tremendous odds. His army, completely demoralized, fled in wild despair to Kashgar or went over to the enemy. But even under these overwhelming circumstances the great soldier's courage did not fail. He once more made a stand at Toksoun, forty miles south of Turfan, and when again defeated withdrew to Kashgar to withstand the moving army. In this hour of extreme need he sent to Tashkent to invoke the aid of Russia, but he received no satisfaction. But now a silent friend stepped in—a friend far more powerful than the legions of the Czar or the armies of the Chinese Emperor—a friend far more reliable than princes and governors, who relieved the brave soldier from all anxiety and heartache. Death came and took the mighty Athalik Ghazi, the Badaulet, to realms of eternal peace and rest. There are various

HOW THE PRESIDENT IS CHOSEN.

245

accounts of the manner of his death. It is most probable
that he was murdered on the 1st of May, 1877, in Korla, by a
band of conspirators headed by Hakim Khan Torah, a nephew
of the unfortunate Buzurg Khan.

Whatever opinion may be formed of this man, there can
be few that will deny that he was possessed of many great
qualities, a singular firmness of character, an indomitable
courage, and an indifference to good or adverse fortune, that,
had he been born and lived in another country, might have
raised him to the highest rank of power and fame, and per-
haps made him the founder of a dynasty. He was by far the
most remarkable man whom Central Asia has produced in
our generation. With little means, without the prestige of
noble birth, he accomplished tasks which ordinary men, born
to power and splendor, and destined to rule over civilized and
prosperous nations, have failed to do.

The subsequent reconquest of Kashgar by the Chinese;
the important influence they begin to exercise in Central Asia;
their relations and policy towards the English and Russian
Governments, will form the subject of an article in a subsę-
quent number.

HOW THE PRESIDENT IS CHOSEN.

BY WM. HENRY FORMAN.

SOME of the political arrangements in the United States
even intelligent persons in Europe find hard to understand.
In commenting on questions arising out of our politics lead-
ing English journals sometimes make ludicrous mistakes, and
on the continent dissimilarity of language renders the risk of
mistake still greater. One of the questions about which Eu-
ropeans are often puzzled is, by whom the President of the
United States is elected. On the one hand they find it pro-
vided by the Constitution that the President shall be chosen
by certain electors to be appointed in each State in such
manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, and for aught
that appears these electors are free to choose for President any
one whom they may think proper. On the other hand, it is
observed that no one in the United States ever seems to trou-

246 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

ble himself about these electors or to be at all concerned about the way they may vote. What appears to be their great power is wholly ignored by all the newspapers in the country, and of all the functionaries in the United States the most unimportant, to judge from what is going on, are the persons who choose a Chief Magistrate, who, for four years, is invested with almost royal prerogatives. It is suggested that in a periodical, of which one of the objects is to make the people of Russia and the United States better acquainted with each other, an explanation of this seeming inconsistency would not be unacceptable to readers on the other side of the Atlantic, although in this country the information to be given will be trite and elementary. The present time, moreover, seems opportune for such explanation, as next year we shall have a presidential election.

In the convention which framed the Constitution of the United States, it was at one time proposed that the President should be elected directly by the people. It was supposed, however, that grave evils would attend such a mode of election, and after long and mature discussion it was decided to have the President chosen by electors, of which each State should have as many as it had Senators and Representatives, these electors to be appointed in each State in such a manner as the Legislature thereof might direct. It was assumed that the electors chosen for such an exalted purpose would be men of high character and standing, and that in the exercise of their mature judgment the citizen best fitted to discharge the office of President would be more likely to be selected than if it were left to popular vote. It was not intended that these electors should be trammeled in any way in the performance of their duties. They would be free to choose whom they saw fit. The Legislatures of the several States enacted that they would appoint these electors. Thus the people's influence over the choice of a President was remote. The popular vote elected the Legislature, the Legislature appointed the electors, and the electors chose the President.

The first two presidential elections took place, and the wisdom of this provision of the Constitution seemed fully demonstrated. The electors in both elections made the best possible choice, and Washington was chosen for President. But before the expiration of his second term two political parties were formed in the country, and the struggle between

HOW THE PRESIDENT IS CHOSEN.

247

them became intense during the terms of the succeeding Pres-
didents, Adams and Jefferson. To get possession of the Presi-
dency was the aim of each political party, and to bring the
popular vote to bear upon a presidential election was a mat-
ter of the first importance. Efforts were made to have the
Constitution amended, but those efforts failed. It was per-
ceived that another course must be taken, and the shrewd
political managers of that day saw that there must be a dif-
ferent mode of choosing the electors. To get the law of each
State altered in that respect all the energies of the party of
which Jefferson was the chief were bent, and the efforts were
entirely successful. In all the States but one or two the law
was changed, and it was provided that the electors, instead of
being appointed by the Legislature, should be elected by the
popular vote, and that, moreover, all the voters of the State
should vote for all the electors to which that State was enti-
tled; that is to say, that the election should be by general
ticket. When this change had been made in the law of each
State the intentions of the framers of the Constitution of the
United States were substantially defeated, and what followed
was a matter-of-course. The presidential electors were nom-
inated by each party in a political convention which declared
its preference for a certain individual for President, and the
electors accepted the nomination upon the agreement, ex-
press or implied, that they would choose for President the
individual named by the convention. To choose any other
person would be dishonorable and be considered in the light
of a fraud. Thus it has come to pass that the electors are
mere machines, who formally meet and vote as every one
knows they will vote beforehand. Hence it is that in the
long discussions which precede a presidential election no one
ever gives a thought as to how the electors will vote. And
thus, while the forms of law provided by the Constitution
have been exactly preserved, party management has reversed
its spirit. The Constitutional provisions were intended to
obviate the evils which it was supposed would attend the
election of the President by the popular vote, and yet for fifty
years it has been the popular vote which has elected the
President.

248 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

HOLY BAPTISM.

[Below will be found the Baptismal Service of the Orthodox
Oriental Church.]

(a) *Prayers with a Woman on the first Day after her Delivery.*

PRIEST: Blessed be our God always; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

Glory be to Thee, O our God, glory be to Thee.

Heavenly King, Comforter, Thou Spirit of Truth, omnipotent and filling all things, Treasure of Goodness and Giver of Life, come and make Thine abode in us, Thou gracious One, purify us from every stain and save our souls.

*Then the Trisagion:* O Holy God, Holy (and) Mighty, Holy (and) Immortal, have mercy upon us. (*Thrice.*)

Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Most Holy Trinity, have mercy upon us; purify us, O Lord, from our sins; forgive us, O Master, our transgressions; visit our infirmities, O Holy One, and heal them for Thy Name's sake.

Lord, have mercy. (*Thrice.*)

Glory be to the Father, *etc.*

Our Father, Who art in Heaven, *etc.*

PRIEST: For Thine is the Kingdom, *etc.*

READER: Amen.

*After the Trisagion the Dismissal—Troparion of the day; and then:*

For the sake of the intercessions of all Saints and of the Mother of God, grant us, O Lord, Thy Peace, and have mercy upon us, as the only gracious One.

PRIEST: Let us pray to the Lord.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

FIRST PRAYER.

PRIEST: Master and Lord Almighty, Who healest every disease and every infirmity, heal also this Thine hand-

HOLY BAPTISM.

249

maid N., delivered this day, and raise her up from the bed on
which she lies; for, as the Prophet David saith, we are con-
ceived in sin and are all polluted before Thee. Preserve her
and the babe she hath borne; cover them with the shadow of
Thy wings from this day unto the end of their life, for the
sake of the intercessions of the all-spotless Mother of God
and all Saints, because Thou art highly praised from ages to
ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

SECOND PRAYER.

PRIEST: O Lord and Master, our God, Who wert born of
our all-spotless Lady, the Mother of God and ever-Virgin
Mary, wert laid as a Babe in a manger and carried about in
the arms as a Child, have mercy on this, Thine handmaid.
who to-day hath borne this child, and forgive her all her
errors, both intentional and undesigned, and guard her against
every vexation of the devil; preserve the babe born of her
from all poison, from all violence, from every assault of the
adversary, from the evil spirits of the day and the night;
preserve her by Thy mighty hand, and grant that she soon
may arise; cleanse her from impurity; heal her pains; give her
strength and health in body and soul; surround her with the
shining angels of light, and preserve her from every surprise
of the spirits of darkness—yea, Lord, from every disease and
weakness, from envy and jealousy, from the evil glance of
the eye, and have mercy upon her and her child according to
Thy great mercy. Purify her from her bodily uncleanness,
and from every inner grief which may come upon her, and
lead her by Thy speedy grace, so that, recovering from the
weakness of her body, she may soon be restored. Grant that
the babe born of her may enter the earthly house of God,
which Thou hast prepared for the praise of Thy Holy name;
for to Thee are due all praise, honor and worship, together
with the Father and Thy Holy Spirit, now and ever, and to
ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

HOLY BAPTISM.

251

Blessed be our God always, etc.

READER: Amen.

Glory be to Thee, etc.—Heavenly King, etc.

Then the Trisagion: Holy God, etc. After: Our Father, etc.; the Dismissal—Troparion of the day, or of the Saint of that church.

Then the Priest signs the forehead, mouth and breast of the babe, and says the following prayer:

Let us pray to the Lord.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: O Lord, our God, we pray Thee and call upon Thee. Show the light of Thy countenance on this Thy servant (handmaid) N.N., and sign the Cross of Thine Only-Begotten Son in his (her) breast and in his (her) heart, in his (her) spirit, that he (she) may flee from the vanity of the world and all evil devices of the enemy, and may follow Thine ordinances. Grant, O Lord, that Thy holy name may remain forever upon him (her), when at the proper time he (she) is incorporated into Thy Holy Church, and made perfect through the terrible Mysteries of Thy Christ: so that he (she), living according to Thy commandments and preserving the Seal unbroken, may attain unto the blessedness of Thine elect in Thy Kingdom: through the grace and mercy of Thine Only-Begotten Son, with whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all-holy, and good, and life-giving Spirit; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Then the Priest takes the infant into his hands, remains standing before the entrance of the church, or before the picture of the Most Holy Mother of God, makes with it the sign of the Cross, and says: Exult, highly favored Virgin, Mother of God; for from Thee arose the Sun of Righteousness, Christ our God, enlightening those who sat in darkness. Rejoice, also, thou just old man, thou who hast borne in thy arms the Redeemer of our souls, who hath given unto us the Resurrection.

Then the Benediction, etc.

(c) Prayers with a Mother on the Fortieth Day after Her Delivery.

On the fortieth day the child is brought again to the church,

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in order to be received into the Church, i. e., to commence attendance at church. It is brought by the mother immediately after her purification, in the presence of the future sponsors.

The PRIEST begins: Blessed be our God always, etc.

READER: Amen. Glory be to Thee, etc., Heavenly King, etc. Then the Trisagion, Holy God, etc. After: Our Father follows the Dismissal, Troparion of the day, or of the appointed Saint, and then:

Glory be to the Father, etc.

For the sake of the intercessions, etc.

The mother with the child in her arms then bows her head, and the Priest makes the sign of the Cross over the child; and then lays his hand upon the head of the child and says the following prayer:

Let us pray to the Lord.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

## THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: O Lord God Almighty, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hast formed all creatures, rational and irrational, by Thy Word, and hast called all things out of nothingness into being, we pray Thee and call upon Thee: purify this Thy handmaid N.N., whom Thou hast restored again according to Thy will (and who now comes to Thy church), from all her sins and from every spot, that she may be made worthy, without judgment to partake of Thy holy sacraments.

*(If the child be already dead, then follows immediately the conclusion: For Thou art a good and gracious God, etc. But if it be alive the Priest continues :)*

Bless also the infant born of her; suffer it to grow up; sanctify it and make it wise, intelligent, chaste, noble-minded, well-disposed; and because Thou hast brought it into existence, and caused it to see the light of Nature, grant that in Thine own good time spiritual light may also be given to it, and it may be numbered with Thy holy flock through Thine Only Begotten Son, with whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all-holy, good and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

READER: And to Thy Spirit.

HOLY BAPTISM.

253

PRIEST: Bow your heads before the Lord.

READER: To Thee, O Lord.

*The Priest reads the prayer for the mother of the child.*

O Lord, our God, who didst come for the salvation of the human race, come now also to this Thine handmaid N., and make her worthy, through Thy venerable Priesthood, of an entrance into the temple of Thy worship; wash her clean from her bodily stain, and from the defilement of the soul in the period of the forty days; make her worthy to partake of Thy precious Body and Blood; for most holy and highly praised is Thy most honored and exalted Name with the Father and the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

*The Priest blesses the child and says over it the following prayer for the child:*

O Lord, our God, who as a child wast brought on the fortieth day to Thine appointed temple by Mary, Thy Holy Mother, who knew no man, and wert borne in the arms of the just Simeon, bless, O Almighty Ruler, also this infant, brought hither for presentation before Thee, the Creator of all things, and may it grow up for all works, good and well-pleasing unto Thee; drive away from it every hostile power by the sign of Thy Cross (for Thou, O Lord, art the protector of children), so that it, made worthy of Holy Baptism, may receive its portion with the elect in Thy Kingdom, preserved with us by the grace of the holy, consubstantial and undivided Trinity. For to Thee, together with Thine Eternal Father, and the all-holy, and good, and life-giving Spirit, are due all praise, and thanksgiving, and worship; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

READER: And to Thy Spirit.

READER: To Thee, O Lord.

## THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: O God and Father Almighty, who, through the noblest of the prophets, Isaiah, hast announced to us the incar- nation of Thine Only Begotten Son, and our God, of the Vir-

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gin, who also, according to Thy good pleasure, and through
the co-operation of the Holy Ghost, in order to save us men
according to Thy infinite mercy in the latter days, didst will
to become a child by her, and, according to the custom of Thy
holy law, after the days of purification were accomplished,
didst permit Thyself, the true law giver, to be presented in the
sanctuary, and to be borne in the arms of the just Simeon, a
type of which mystery we acknowledge in the vision of the
same prophet when he saw a live coal taken with the tongs
from off the altar; the imitation of which, according to grace,
we faithfully preserve. Do Thou now, O Lord, who protect-
est infants, bless also this child, together with its parents and
sponsors, and grant that at the proper time it may be born
again of water and the Spirit; number it in Thy holy flock of
reasonable sheep, which is called after the name of Thy
Christ, for Thou art He who dwellest on high and beholdest
the lowly, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy
Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and forever, and to
ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

*If the child be not yet baptised, the following order of the presentation is postponed until after its baptism; but if already baptised, the presentation takes place in the following manner:*

*The Priest takes the child, makes with it the sign of the Cross before the church door, and says: The servant (hand-maid) of God, N., is received into the Church in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.*

READER: Amen.

*Then he brings it into the church and says: It will enter into Thine house, and will worship toward Thy holy temple.*

*Then he comes into the middle of the church and says: The servant (handmaid), etc.*

READER: Amen.

PRIEST: In the midst of the temple will he (she) praise Thee.

*Then he carries the child to the door of the sanctuary and says: The servant (handmaid), etc.*

READER: Amen.

*If the child be of the male sex, the Priest carries it into the sanctuary; but if female, only to the royal doors, and says:*

HOLY BAPTISM.

255

Now lettest Thou, Lord, Thy servant depart in peace, according to Thy Word; for mine eyes have seen Thy salvation, which Thou hast prepared before the face of all peoples, a Light to lighten the Gentiles, and a Glory of Thy people Israel.

*Then the Priest lays the child down before the royal doors, and the godfather bows three times, takes the child up and departs after hearing the Benediction of Dismissal.*

*(d) Prayer with a Woman who has suffered a Miscarriage.*

THE PRIEST BEGINS: Blessed be our God, etc.

READER: Amen. Glory be to Thee, etc. Heavenly King, etc.

*Then the Trisagion: Holy God, etc. After: Our Father follows the Dismissal Troparion of the day; and then:*

READER: Lord, have mercy.

## THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: Lord and Master, our God, who wert born of the Holy Mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, and laid as a Babe in the manger, have mercy according to Thy great mercy upon this Thy handmaid N., who, taken in sins intentional or undesigned, has fallen into condemnation, since she has lost that which was conceived in her; forgive her errors, intentional and unintentional, and preserve her from all diabolical arts; purify her from pollution; heal her pains; grant her, O gracious One, strength and health of body and soul, and defend her by the angel of light from every surprise of the spirits of darkness; yea, Lord, and from every disease and weakness; purify her from her bodily defilement and the various inner griefs which have come upon her; lead her out of them by Thy great mercy, that she may recover from the weakness of her body, and raise her from the bed on which she lies. Because we are conceived in sins and in transgressions, and we are all defiled before Thee, O Lord, we cry out in fear and say: Look down from heaven and behold the weakness of us condemned sinners. Pardon this Thine handmaid N., who, taken in sins intentional or undesigned, has fallen into condemnation and has lost that which was conceived in her; have mercy also upon those who assist and care for her, and pardon them according to Thy great mercy, as the good God and rich in grace; for Thou alone hast the power to forgive sins and transgressions, through the intercessions

256 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

of Thine All Holy Mother and all Saints. For to Thee, with
the Father and Thy Holy Spirit are due all praise, honor and
worship; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*Then follows the Benediction of Dismissal.*

(e) *Prayers at the Reception of the Catechumens.*

*The Priest looses the girdle of the one coming for illumination, disrobes him, takes off his shoes and turns him towards the east in plain dress, without girdle, without covering for the head, barefoot and with arms hanging down, breathes thrice in his face, crosses him thrice on the forehead and the breast, lays his hand upon his head, and says:*

Let us pray to the Lord.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

## THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: In Thy Name, O Lord God of Truth, and in the Name of Thine Only Begotten Son and of Thy Holy Spirit, I lay my hand upon Thy servant (handmaid) N., who is made worthy to flee unto Thy holy Name, and to be protected under the shadow of Thy wings. Remove far from him (her) that ancient deceit, and fill him (her) with Faith in Thee, with Hope of Thee, and with Love to Thee, so that he (she) may acknowledge that Thou only art the true God, and Thine Only Begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, and Thy Holy Spirit. May he (she) walk according to all Thy commandments, and do what is well-pleasing unto Thee; for whosoever doeth this shall find therein his Life. Write him (her) down in Thy Book of Life; unite him (her) to the flock of Thine inheritance, so that in him (her) may be glorified Thy holy Name, and that of Thy well-beloved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, and of Thy life-giving Spirit. May Thine eyes ever be graciously turned toward him (her), and Thine ears to hear the voice of his (her) prayers. Let him (her) find joy in the works of his (her) hands and in all his (her) generation: so that he (she) may worship Thee, praise Thy great and glorious exalted Name, and magnify Thee always through all the days of his (her) life. For all heavenly powers sing Thy praise, and Thine is the Glory of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

HOLY BAPTISM.

257

THE FIRST EXORCISM.

PRIEST: Satan, the Lord conjures thee; He, Who came into the world and dwelt among men, that He might destroy thy tyranny and deliver mankind from it; Who on the Cross triumphed over the adverse powers, when the sun was darkened, and the earth trembled, and the graves were opened, and the bodies of the saints arose; Who by death destroyed death and took away the strength of him who had the power of death, that is of thee, Satan. I conjure thee by God, Who kept the way of the Tree of Life, and set over it the Cherubim and the flaming sword, turning hither and thither to guard it. Thou art conjured! for I conjure thee by Him, Who walked over the waves of the sea as on dry land, and subdued the stormy wind; at Whose look the depths of the sea are dried up, and at Whose reproof the mountains melt. He it is Who also now conjures thee by us: tremble, depart, get thee away from this creature; return not back again; hide not thyself in him, encounter him not, work not upon him, neither by night nor by day, neither in the morning nor at noontide; but depart into thy hell until the great Day of the Judgment, which is already prepared. Fear before God, Who sitteth upon Cherubim and looketh into the abysses, before Whom tremble angels, archangels, thrones, lordships, princes, powers, dominions, the many-eyed Cherubim and the six-winged Seraphim; before Whom tremble the heaven and the earth, and the sea and all that therein is. Depart, and get thyself away from the sealed and newly-elected soldier of Christ, our God; for I conjure thee by Him, Who rideth upon the wings of the wind, and maketh His angels a flame of fire. Depart and get thee out of this creature with all thy power and all thine angels. For glorious is the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

SECOND EXORCISM.

PRIEST: God the holy, the terrible and all glorious, incomprehensible and unsearchable in all His works and His power, hath ordained to thee, Satan, the 'punishment of eternal tor-

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ments, and He commandeth thee and every power working with thee, by us, his unworthy servants, to depart from this person, signed with the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, the true God. I conjure thee, thou depraved, unclean, polluted, abominable and hostile spirit, by the might of Jesus Christ, who hath all power in heaven, and on earth, who commanded the deaf and dumb devil: Depart out of the man, and enter not into him again. So get thee away, acknowledge that thy might is vain, since thou hast not power even over the swine; remember Him who once granted thy petition that thou mightest enter into the herd of swine. Fear before God, at whose command the earth and the waters stand fast; who hath formed the heavens; who hath established the mountains by weight and the valleys by measure; who hath set the sand as the bounds of the sea, and hath made a sure way through the stormy waters; who toucheth the mountains and they smoke; who clotheth Himself with light as with a garment; who hath spread out the heavens as a curtain; who frameth in the waters His chambers, and hath established the earth on its sure foundation that it shall not be moved forever and ever; who calleth the water of the sea and poureth it forth over the face of the whole earth. Depart and get thee away from this person, who is prepared for the holy illumination. I conjure thee by the saving passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, by His precious body and blood, and by his terrible second advent; for He will come and not delay to judge the whole earth, and will torment thee and the powers working with thee in the fire of hell, giving thee over to the outer darkness, whose worm dieth not, and whose fire is unquenchable, for the power is of Christ, our God, and of the Father, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

### THIRD EXORCISM.

PRIEST: Lord of Sabaoth, God of Israel, Who healest all diseases and all infirmities, look down upon thy servant (handmaid), search and prove him (her) and drive from him (her) all operations of the devil; conjure the unclean spirits and drive them out, and purify the works of Thy hands; ex-

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259

ert Thy powerful might and beat down Satan speedily under
the feet of Thy servant (handmaid); give him (her) victory over
him and his unclean spirits, so that he (she) may receive Thy
grace; be worthy of Thy immortal and heavenly sacraments,
and offer up praise to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the
Holy Ghost: now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: Lord and Master, who hast created man after Thine
image and Thy likeness, and hast given him fitness for eternal
life; and who, after that he had fallen into sin, hast not des-
pised him, but hast brought about, through the Incarnation of
Thy Christ, the salvation of the world; redeem now also
this Thy creature from the bondage of the enemy, and receive
him into Thy Kingdom of Heaven; open the eyes of his (her)
understanding, so that the light of Thy gospel may shine
clearly upon him (her); join to him (her) through life the Angel
of Light to rescue him (her) from all snares of the adversary,
from diabolical encounters, from the evil spirit of the noon-
day, and from diabolical apparitions.

*Then the priest breathes upon the mouth, the forehead and the breast of the Catechumen, and says:*

Drive out of him (her) all evil and unclean spirits that have
hidden and concealed themselves in his (her) heart (*thrice*):
the spirit of deceit, the spirit of wickedness, the spirit of idol-
atry, and all covetousness, avarice, the spirit of falsehood and
all uncleanness, which worketh after the teaching of the
devil. Make him (her) an acceptable sheep of the holy
flock of Thy Christ, a worthy member of Thy Church, a
son (daughter) and heir of Thy Kingdom, that he (she) may
live according to Thy commandments, preserve the seal un-
broken, keep the garment spotless and attain to the blessed-
ness of the saints in Thy Kingdom, through the grace and
compassion and mercy of Thine Only Begotten Son, with
whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all holy,
and good, and life-giving Spirit; now and ever, and to ages of
ages.

READER: Amen.

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Then the priest turns the candidate towards the west, disrobed, barefoot and holding up his hands, and says: Dost thou renounce Satan and all his works, all his angels, all his pride, and all his pomp?

THE CATECHUMEN, or if the candidate be a pagan or a child, instead of him the god-father: Yes, I renounce them.

The same question and answer are repeated the second and third time.

Then the priest asks the candidate: Hast thou renounced Satan?

THE CANDIDATE OR HIS SPONSOR: Yes, I have renounced him.

And after this has been three times said, the Priest says to the candidate: Then blow and spit on him.

After this done, the candidate drops his arms, is turned towards the east and the Priest says to him: Dost thou adhere to Christ?

THE CATECHUMEN OR HIS SPONSOR: Yes, I adhere to Christ.

This is also three times said; then the Priest: Hast thou adhered to Christ?

THE CATECHUMEN OR HIS SPONSOR: Yes, I have adhered to Him.

PRIEST: And dost thou believe in Him?

ANSWER: Yes, I believe in Him, as the King and God—and then says the Confession of Faith (Creed):

I believe in One God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in One Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Only-Begotten, Begotten of the Father before all ages: Light of Light, True God of True God; Begotten, not made; Consubstantial with the Father, by Whom all things were made; Who for us men and for our Salvation came down from the heavens, and was Incarnate of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, and became Man; and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried; and rose again the third day according to the Scriptures; and ascended into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again with glory to judge both the living and the dead; of Whose Kingdom there shall be no end. And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Life-giver; Who proceedeth from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; Who spake by the Prophets, and

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in One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge One Baptism for the Remission of Sins; I look for the Re-surrection of the dead, and the Life of the Age to come. Amen.

*After the declaration of this Creed the Priest says again to the Catechumen: Hast thou adhered to Christ?*

ANSWER: Yes, I have adhered to Him.

ANSWER: Yes, I believe in Him, as the King and God.
*And then says again the Creed: I believe in one God, the Father, etc.*

*After the Catechumen has said the Creed through a second time, the Priest asks him the third time: Hast thou adhered to Christ?*

ANSWER: Yes, I believe in Him, as the King and God.
*And then says the third time the Creed: I believe in one God, the Father, etc.*

*When the Catechumen has confessed the Creed fully for the third time, the Priest asks him: Hast thou adhered to Christ?*

*After this question and answer have been given three times, the Priest says: Then fall down before Him.*

*The Catechumen falls down before Him and says: I fall down before the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, the consubstantial and undivided Trinity.*

PRIEST: Blessed be God, Who willeth that all men should be saved, and come to the knowledge of the truth; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

READER: Lord, have mercy.

THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: O Lord and Master, our God, call this Thy servant (handmaid) N. unto holy illumination in Thee, and make him (her) worthy of the great grace of Thy Holy Baptism; put off from him (her) the old man, and renew him (her) unto eternal Life; fill him (her) with the power of Thy Holy Spirit unto union with Thy Christ; so that he (she) may not be a

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child of the flesh, but a child of Thy Kingdom: through the good-will and grace of Thine Only-Begotten Son, with whom Thou art highly praised, together with thine all-holy, and good and life-giving Spirit; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

READER: Amen.

(f) *The Administration of Baptism.*

The priest puts on his vestments while all the lights are lit; takes the censer, walks to the font, censes around it, then gives up the censer and bows.

READER: Master, give the Blessing.

PRIEST: Blessed be the Kingdom of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

READER: In Peace let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

For the Peace from above and for the Salvation of our souls, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy (and so after each sentence of the *Ektene*).

For the Peace of the whole world, for the prosperity of the holy Churches of God, and for the unity of all, let us pray to the Lord.

For this holy House, and for those who, with faith, piety and fear of God enter into it, let us pray to the Lord.

For the most Holy Governing Synod, for the Metropolitan, for the Honorable Presbytery, for the Diaconate in Christ, and for all the clergy and the laity, let us pray to the Lord.

For our most pious and God-protected Sovereign and family, all their court and army, let us pray to the Lord.

That this water may be hallowed with power and virtue, and with the Presence of the Holy Ghost, let us pray to the Lord.

That there may be sent down upon it the gracious gift of Redemption, the Blessing of Jordan, let us pray to the Lord.

That there may come upon this water the purifying virtue of the supersubstantial Trinity, let us pray to the Lord.

That we may be enlightened with the light of knowledge and piety by the Presence of the Holy Ghost, let us pray to the Lord.

That this water may drive away all snares of visible and invisible enemies, let us pray to the Lord.

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263

That he (she) who is to be baptized therein, may be made worthy of the Kingdom, which passeth not away, let us pray to the Lord.

For him (her) now coming to the holy illumination, and for his (her) salvation, let us pray to the Lord.

That he (she) may become a son (daughter) of the light,
and heir of the eternal blessings, let us pray to the Lord.

That he (she) may be planted together with, and partake
of, the death and the resurrection of Christ, our God, let us
pray to the Lord.

That he (she) may preserve the robe of Baptism and the
earnest of the Spirit undefiled and spotless unto the terrible
day of Christ, our God, let us pray to the Lord.

That to him (her) this water may become the laver of regeneration, for the remission of sins and the vesture of incorruption, let us pray to the Lord.

That God, the Lord, may hear the voice of our supplica-
tions, let us pray to the Lord.

That he (she) and we may be delivered from all affliction,
wrath, danger and necessity, let us pray to the Lord.

Help, save, have mercy and guard us, O God, by Thy
grace.

Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most blessed and
glorious Lady, the Mother of God, and ever-Virgin Mary,
with all the Saints, let us commend ourselves and each other.
and all our life to Christ, our God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*While the Deacon is saying this, the Priest prays in a low
voice the following prayer:*

O merciful and gracious God, Who triest the hearts and
the reins and alone knowest the secrets of men, because
nothing is invisible to Thee, but all is naked and open before
Thine eyes, Thou Who knowest what is within me: despise
me not and turn not Thy face from me, but forgive me in
this hour my transgressions, O Thou Who hast regard to men
in their sins, that they may be converted; wash away the un-
cleanness of my body and the defilement of my soul, and
sanctify me wholly with Thine invisible, all-perfect power and
spiritual rectitude so that I, proclaiming freedom to others
and offering it to them in perfect trust on Thine unspeakable
grace, may not myself, as a servant of sin, be found repro-
bate.

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Nay, O Master, alone good and gracious, let me not be put
to shame, but send me power from above, and strengthen me
for the administration of Thy great and heavenly Sacrament,
which is even now to be completed. Form Thy Christ in him
(her) who is to be born again through my humility; build
him (her) upon the foundation of Thine Apostles and Proph-
ets, and cast him (her) not down; plant him (her) as a plant of
truth in Thy Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church, and pluck
him (her) not up; so that he (she) increasing in piety may
glorify Thine all-holy Name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

At the close of the Ektene the Priest says aloud the follow-
ing prayer:

Great art Thou, O Lord, and wonderful are Thy works;
there is no word that can express Thy wonders, for by Thine
own will Thou hast brought all things out of nothingness
into being, by Thy power Thou upholdest the creation, and
by Thy providence Thou rulest the world. From four ele-
ments hast Thou made the creation, and crowned the circle of
the year with four seasons. All spiritual powers tremble be-
fore Thee; the sun sings Thy praise; the moon blesses Thee;
the ministering stars surround Thee; the light obeys Thee;
before Thee tremble the abysses; the fountains stand at Thy
command. Thou hast spread forth the heaven as a curtain;
Thou hast established the earth above the waters; Thou hast
bounded the sea with a wall of sand; Thou hast poured forth
the air to breathe. The powers of the angels serve Thee;
the choirs of the archangels bow down before Thee; the
many-eyed Cherubim and the six-winged Seraphim, standing
and flying about Thee, cover themselves through fear of Thine
inaccessible glory. For Thou art an ineffable, eternal and
unspeakable God, Who didst come to earth, take the form of
a servant, and become like other men; for Thou, O Master, on
account of the goodness of Thy grace, wert not able to look
upon the race of men, tormented by the devil, but didst
come, and hast redeemed us. We acknowledge Thy grace,
proclaim Thy mercy and hide not Thy loving-kindness.

Thou hast delivered the human race, and hallowed the
Virgin's womb by Thy birth. The whole creation praiseth
Thee, the manifested One; for Thou, our God, hast appeared
upon earth and dwelt with men; Thou, too, hast hal-

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lowed the streams of Jordan, in that Thou hast sent down
from Heaven Thy Holy Spirit and bruised the heads of the
serpents, which had hidden themselves there. Come, now,
also, Thyself, O King full of grace, in the visitation of Thy
Holy Spirit, and sanctify this water (thrice); and give it the
gracious gift of Redemption, and the blessing of Jordan;
make it a fount of incorruption and a gift of sanctification, for
the relief of sins, the healing of diseases, the destruction of
evil spirits, unapproachable by hostile powers, filled with an-
gelic strength: so that the plotters against Thy creation may
flee away from it, for I have called upon Thy Name, O Lord,
wonderful, highly exalted, and so terrible to the adversaries.

*After this the Priest crosses the water thrice, dipping his finger into it, breathes upon it, and says:*

Under the sign of the form of Thy Cross let all hostile
powers be destroyed (thrice).

Let all invisible idols of the air be removed from us, and
no evil spirit of darkness hide itself in this water; also let
there not descend with the candidate, we pray Thee, O Lord,
any evil spirit, which may bring with it darkness of thoughts
and confusion of the mind; but O Thou Ruler of all, make
this water, the water of Redemption, the water of sanctifica-
tion, the purification of the body and the spirit, the loosening
of bonds, the forgiveness of transgressions, the illumination
of souls, the laver of regeneration, the renewal of the spirit,
the gracious gift of adoption, the vesture of incorruption, the
fountain of life. For Thou, O Lord, hast said: Wash you
and be clean, put away the evil-doings from your souls: and
thou hast given us the new birth by water and the Spirit
from above. Come then upon this water, O Lord, and grant
that he (she) to be baptized therein may be changed to the
putting off of the old man, which is corrupted by deceitful
lusts, and to the putting on of the new man, which is renewed
after the image of its Maker; so that he (she) being planted
through Baptism in the likeness of Thy death, may also be a
partaker of Thy resurrection, and, preserving the gift of the
Holy Ghost and increasing the pledge of grace, may receive
the honorable prize of the calling on high, and be numbered
with the first-born who are written in Heaven with Thee,
our Lord and God, Jesus Christ. For to Thee, together with
Thine eternal Father, and the all-holy, good and life-giving
Spirit are due the glory, and the power, now and ever, and to
ages of ages.

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CHOIR: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to Thy Spirit.

READER: Bow your heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*After this the Priest breathes thrice upon the oil-vessel, which is held by the Deacon, and crosses thrice the oil.*

READER: Let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

*The prayer for the consecration of the oil:*

PRIEST: Lord and Master, God of our fathers, Who didst send to those in Noah's Ark the dove, which bore in its beak the olive-branch as a sign of reconciliation and deliverance from the deluge, and Who didst thereby foreshadow the mystery of grace, and didst appoint the fruit of the olive tree for the fulfillment of Thy mysteries; Who hast by the same filled those who were under the law with the Holy Ghost, but makest perfect those who are in grace, bless also this oil with power and efficacy, and with the visitation of Thy Holy Spirit, so that it may be the anointing for incorruption, the weapon of righteousness, the renewal of the soul and the body, the defense against all diabolical influences, the healing of all evil for those who are anointed in faith, or partake of it, to the glory of Thee and Thine Only Begotten Son, and Thine all-holy, good and life-giving Spirit; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

READER: Let us attend.

*The Priest sings now the Hallelujah thrice with the people, pours the oil into the water, so as to make with it three signs of the Cross, and then says aloud:* Blessed be God, Who enlighteneth and sanctifieth every man coming into the world; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

*The candidate is now brought forward, and the Priest takes some of the oil with two fingers and makes the sign of the cross on the candidate's forehead, breast, and between the shoulder-blades, and says:* The servant (handmaid) of God, N. N., is anointed with the oil of gladness in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*Signing the breast, he says:* For the healing of the soul and the body.

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267

*Signing the ears:* So that he (she) may hear the faith.

*Signing the hands:* Thy hands have made and fashioned me.

*Signing the feet:* So that he (she) may walk in the path of Thy commandments.

*And after he has anointed the whole body the Priest bap- tizes the candidate, held erect, and looking toward the east, and says:* The servant (handmaid) of God, N., is baptized in the name of the Father. Amen; and of the Son, Amen; and of the Holy Ghost, Amen; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*At each invocation he immerses the candidate and raises him again. After that the Priest washes his hands and sings with the people the Psalm:*

Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is the man to whom the Lord imputeth not sin, neither is there guile in his mouth; for I was silent, my bones grew old through my crying all the day; for day and night Thy hand was heavy upon me; I was turned into misery, pierced by the thorn. I acknowledged my sin, and hid not mine iniquity. I said I will confess mine iniquity to the Lord, and Thou forgavest the wickedness of my heart. For this shall every one that is godly pray unto Thee in a fitting time; but in a deluge of many waters they shall not come nigh Him. Thou art a refuge from affliction that surroundeth me; my joy, delivering me from those compassing me about. I will inform thee and teach thee in the way wherein thou shall go; I will cause mine eyes to rest upon Thee. Be not as horse and mule, in whom is no understanding; with bit and bridle thou must hold their cheeks that they shall not draw nigh thee. Many are the pains of the sinner, but he who trusteth in the Lord mercy shall surround him. Be glad in the Lord, and rejoice, ye righteous, and exult all ye true of heart.

*Then the Priest clothes the candidate, and says:* The servant (handmaid) of God, N., is clothed with the robe of righteousness, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*After this is sung the following Troparion:* Give me the robe of light, Thou who clothest Thyself with light as with a garment, O merciful Christ, our God.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

From the large number of notices which THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE has received from both the secular and religious Press, we select the following:

A novel addition to periodical literature is THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE, edited by Rev. Nicholas Bjerring, to illustrate the principles, explain the ritual, and advance the interests of the Greek Church. The progress of the Magazine will be followed with interest. Its temper is excellent, and may serve a good purpose in informing American readers concerning the faith and the condition of the 85,000,000 of adherents of the Greek Church.—*Boston Journal*.

The purpose of THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE is to lay before English speaking readers a fair statement of the tenets and progress of the Greek Church, and in conducting it the Rev. Father Bjerring will be assisted by able writers in St. Petersburg, Constantinople, Athens, and other European cities. We can see no reason, in the nature of things why this ancient Christian Church should not be introduced among Western nations; and there is not so much Christianity to be found in this country, that any living organization of it earnestly preaching, illustrating and propagating its doctrines of religion and morality should not be most cordially welcomed among us.—N. Y. *Sun*.

It is evident that the MAGAZINE, besides being an exponent of the views of the Oriental Church, means to be a vigorous defender of Russia. * * * The account we have given of the new Quarterly will show how vigorous, outspoken and instructive it is, and betokens that it is likely to cultivate the field it has undertaken to till in a way to make it a welcome guest with all readers of reflection and intelligence everywhere.—N. Y. *Evening Mail*.

This feature (publication of the Liturgies) will render the present publication particularly acceptable to American churchmen, who will be no less pleased with the excellent spirit in which the learned editor performs his task.—*Church Journal*.

Unpretentious as THE ORIENTAL MAGAZINE is, it shows ability as well as much taste in the selection of matter, and while Russian in tone, it is broadly liberal.—N. Y. *Star*.

The second number of this publication (THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE) is an improvement on the first excellent number.—N. Y. *Commercial Advertiser*.

THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE is at hand with an interesting and varied "Table of Contents."—*Churchman*.

THE
ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

DECEMBER, 1879.

ENGLISH RULE IN CYPRUS.

I.

WHILE the plenipotentiaries of the great powers of Europe were framing the Berlin Treaty, in the month of June, 1878, disposing of the remnants of the Turkish Empire in Europe, Lord Beaconsfield was working quietly his own game at Constantinople, through Sir H. Austin Layard, British Ambassador to the Porte, and by a sort of political legerdemain, for which his lordship has acquired so great a reputation, the Island of Cyprus, one of the largest islands of Turkey, was transferred, under some nominal restrictions, to Her Gracious Majesty, the Queen of England, in conformity, without doubt, with the favorite axiom of his lordship, viz.: "The integrity and the independence of the Turkish Empire."

It is not our purpose to examine here how the spoliation of the Sultan of one of his finest possessions in the Mediterranean can be understood to mean the "integrity" of the Turkish Empire; but English diplomatists have a logic of their own in affairs of this nature.

In his Manchester speech, on the 17th October, 1879, Lord Salisbury coolly informed his hearers that the possession of Cyprus was nothing else than the continuation of the traditional policy of England. "When the interest of Europe," his lordship went on to say, "was centered in the conflicts that were waged in Spain, England occupied Gibraltar. When the interest of Europe was centered in the conflicts that were being waged in Italy, England occupied Malta; and now, that there is a chance that the interests of Europe will be centered in Asia Minor or Egypt, England has occupied Cyprus."

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Cyprus, therefore, was declared to be necessary to England, that she might keep a sharp watch of the assumed inroads of Russia in Asia Minor, and the English proposed to make the latter country a sort of promised land by introducing salutary reforms of British pattern. Two months later they took formal possession of Cyprus with great pomp, brought thither from India a regiment of Sepoys, by way of astonishing the natives with the magnitude of the resources of the British Empire, and sent General Sir Garnet Wolseley to administer the island as Lord High Commissioner, with a salary of $25,000 a year, to be paid, of course, from the taxes levied on Her Majesty's new subjects.

The advent of the new masters was hailed with great rejoicings by the inhabitants. Addresses of welcome were pouring on the English officials, both from Christians and Turks, and everything seemed to go on famously, but for a little incident, insignificant in appearance, but pregnant with great meaning. It was the address of welcome by the Greek Archbishop to Sir Garnet Wolseley, in which His Eminence said that the Greeks of Cyprus (who form three-fourths of the population) hoped that the generous action of the English in ceding the Ionian Islands to Greece, after some years of protectorate, would be repeated once more in the case of Cyprus, by annexing the island to the Hellenic Kingdom.

This address may not have been politic on the part of the Greeks; but in their simplicity they thought that since the Turkish Empire was being dismembered, and they were to change masters, what more natural than that they should join their brethren of the Greek Kingdom, and have thus their national aspirations realized? What business had England in the Greek island of Cyprus, unless to occupy it for the time being in trust, and then transfer it to the Hellenic Kingdom with the advent of peace?

When the news of this unexpected way of welcoming the English in Cyprus reached England, it created a profound sensation in Government circles. Was it possible that these ignorant islanders dared to have national aspirations, and to go as far as to petition the British Government to that effect? This feeling must be crushed and put down by all means, and it is now evident that a policy to that effect has been adopted by Lord Beaconsfield, and faithfully carried out by Sir Garnet Wolseley and his successors, as the few pages which follow will clearly demonstrate.

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271

We do not propose to enter here minutely into ethno-
graphical questions to prove that the 150,000 Christians who
inhabit Cyprus are Greeks, with the exception of 5,000 Arme-
nians and Levantine Roman Catholics. And yet, some Eng-
lish writers, at the head of whom stands Mr. Hepworth
Dixon, have been trying all their ingenuity to accumulate an
amount of literary trash, in order to show that, with the ex-
ception of the 50,000 Turks, the rest of the population of
Cyprus is a mixed race, without anything Grecian about
them, but omitting to state whether they consider them as
Hottentots or Zulus. "The Cypriotes," says this Mr.
Dixon, "are now, what they were in old times, negligent, in-
dolent mimics, without the Turkish prowess or the Grecian
good taste. They have neither bodily beauty nor elevation of
character. They lack pride as to their origin, and have no
national aspirations. They live simply because they must
live. The domestic life of the Greeks in Cyprus is that of the
harem, like the Turks. The harems are a Grecian institu-
tion, which the Turks inherited from the Greeks!"

II.

Cyprus was well known in the antiquity, and during the
middle ages it became conspicuous, and, in some sort, the
apple of discord between the East and the West. Long before
Venus was installed at Paphos, the Phœnicians had possession
of the island. Citium, its capital, was the commercial center
of three continents. Merchants from Syria flocked thither to
buy its products and to work its copper mines. The famous
sovereign of Assyria, Semiramide, had invited naval archi-
tects from Cyprus on the borders of the Euphrates. Rafts,
handled by Cypriotes, were carrying the products of India to
the palaces of the Kings of Asia. The Phœnicians established
in Cyprus the worship of the Syrian Goddess Astarte, and
erected altars in her honor at Paphos, Amathune and
Idalium. The island was devoted to the ever-producing and
mercilessly all-devouring goddess. But when the Semitic
Phœnicians advanced more towards the West and the North-
west, they met a serious rival of the Arian race, equally en-
terprising and daring, and withal, far more intelligent—the
Greeks.

The Phœnician settlements were now frequented by the

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Greeks, and Greek vessels often visited Cyprus and the adjacent country. For a long time these two nations disputed for the supremacy of the sea and land trade, but finally the victory remained with the Greeks. Their scattered commercial settlements became cities, and the language of the new-comers was mixed with the Phœnician and the Hebrew, and eventually absorbed them both. With the advent of Greek art, the worship of Astarte was gradually abandoned, and replaced by that of Venus. During the long years that this strife between the Phœnicians and the Greeks lasted, the island often changed masters. As long as the Phœnicians had an independent kingdom on the shores of Asia Minor, the strong city of Tyre was mistress of Cyprus. In the year 720 B. C., a great insurrection broke out, and the island was divided into small kingdoms, like that of Paphos, Citium and Salamis, which for two centuries were constantly fighting among themselves. This weakened them gradually to such an extent that, in the year 550, the island was captured by Amasis, King of the Egyptians, who annexed it to his kingdom. The Egyptian yoke was terribly oppressive, and when Cambyses, King of Persia, entered in triumph the land of the Pyramids and the Sphinxes, the Cypriotes became Persian subjects and remained so until the year 477 B. C. It was mostly on Cyprionate ships that Xerxes crossed the Hellespont to punish the Greeks.

After the victories of Platea and Salamis, the Greeks had the upper hand again. A Greek fleet laid siege to Byzantium and another started for the islands of Asia Minor and Cyprus, and many bloody engagements between the Greeks and the Persians took place. The victory of Kimon at Salamis was a crushing one, and the Persians were forced to abandon Cyprus. But this victory did not last long, for the Persians attacked it with larger forces later on, and notwithstanding the assistance received from the Athenians, under the leadership of Thrasybulus, the victory remained with the former and the island was annexed again to the Persian crown. The Greeks, greatly oppressed by the Persians, took refuge in the mountains and began an irregular warfare, which lasted for many decades, but notwithstanding considerable injury done to the oppressors, they were unable to recover their liberty. Finally, when Alexander the Great started on his expedition to Persia, and Darius recalled his soldiers from Cyprus, the

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brave islanders revolted once more, and after the battle of
Granicus, succeeded in freeing themselves from the yoke of
Persia, and were of great assistance to the Macedonian hero,
by sending him men and ships. It was principally by
Cypriote vessels that Alexander was able to humiliate the
proud city of Tyre, and naval constructors from Cyprus fol-
lowed him to Persia and India, and were the chief builders of
the fleet with which Nearchus brought back the fatigued
warriors to Babylon, through the Persian Gulf and the
Euphrates.

The Macedonian Empire fell almost with the death of its
brilliant founder, and his successors had to fight bloody and
tedious wars. Many engagements took place near the shores
of Cyprus, the inhabitants of which leaned sometimes towards
one and sometimes towards the other of these potentates.
Ptolemy, surnamed the Saviour, took possession of it for some
time, but, later on, the armies of Antigonus and Demetrius
Poliorcetes landed at Salamis. The Egyptians were forced to
leave, but at the battle of Ipsos Antigonus was defeated, and
Ptolemy reconquered the island. Thus, to the Phœnician,
Greek and Persian periods, we must add now the Egyptian,
which lasted two centuries. It is true that the Ptolemies
confirmed in their places all the small local potentates, but
they exercised a sort of general supervision, and sent a Gov-
ernor-General to assert their authority. At the same time
they continued to oppress the islanders in various ways,
plundered them unmercifully, imposed heavy taxes in men,
vessels and money, and the Greeks saw that they were only
tools in the hands of the sovereign of Egypt. Before the ad-
vent of the latter, the Greek priests used to stand proudly on
the steps of the Temple of Venus at Paphos, watching the
flying of the doves, in order to augur whether the crops
would be abundant or not. If the doves took a westerly
direction, it was a bad omen, and the priests covered their
faces; if they fled towards the south, the omen was good, and
the people decorated their temples and houses with flowers.
All this was changed now, and instead of watching for the
omens, the inhabitants were forced by the Egyptians to the
degrading labor of working the mines and cutting of timber.

But the hour was approaching when the worship of Venus,
who sprung from the foam of the sea, would be revived in
the worship of the Cyprian Aphrodite. The invincible Ro-

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mans, as soon as they conquered Italy and razed Carthage, their rival, to the ground, turned their attention to the kings of Asia, where Hannibal had taken refuge. Antiochus, the Syrian, was humiliated, the Ptolemies were shut in their fortresses and finally abandoned Cyprus, and in the year 57 B. C., Cato became master of the island and annexed it to Rome. With the establishment of peace, the Roman jurisprudence was put in full operation and commerce and industry began to thrive, the Romans having made great improvements by opening roads and building harbors. In the year 37 Anthony presented Cyprus to the beautiful Cleopatra, but Rome took possession of it soon after, and many young Cypriotes went there to obtain a higher education, while their country was growing wealthier every year by commerce, agriculture, mining and the export of wine. In the 40th year of the Christian era Paul the Apostle went to Cyprus and converted many to the Christian faith, but the worship of Venus was by no means abandoned, and eventually became confused with that of the Virgin Mary, and many Cypriotes to this day call the latter, Mary the Aphroditissa. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, Christianity made rapid progress in the island, which was finally divided into thirteen bishoprics, and had the honor of furnishing some saints to the Christian calendar.

During three centuries nothing particular occurred, and the rich Romans used to go and spend the winter in Cyprus, on account of the mildness of its climate. In the year 395 A. D., on the division of the Roman empire, Cyprus came of course under the power of the Emperor of Byzantium, and enjoyed a long peace, until the seventh century. At this epoch, with the arrival of the Arabs in Syria, a long strife for its possession began between the latter and the Greeks and lasted over three hundred years (644-976). It was captured and recaptured several times, and finally was reunited to Byzantium. In the year 1184 Isaac Comnenos a member of the Imperial family, settled there and proclaimed himself Emperor. But he oppressed his subjects with heavy and cruel taxes, closed his ports to the crusaders and forbade the export of provisions.

The Holy Land was in the possession of the Latins for over ninety years, but their power was on the wane and it was through the exhortations of the papacy that Philip Augustus

ENGLISH RULE IN CYPRUS.

275

and Richard the Lion-Hearted undertook the third crusade. The fleet of the English crusaders met with a violent tempest near the shores of Cyprus and three of the ships were completely wrecked, and the crews maltreated by the inhabitants. Richard arrived at Limassol and asked for supplies, which were insolently refused by Comnenos. The former landed part of his troops at once and occupied the city without resistance. Then he marched on Nicosia, defeated the army of the Emperor, conquered Famagosta and became master of the largest part of the island, and after having established a sort of government, left for the Holy Land. But either on account of pecuniary embarrassments or the difficulty of keeping his new possession, he sold it later on to the Knights Templar. Their administration, however, was so execrable that a formidable insurrection broke out and the Knights came very nearly being massacred, and in the year 1192 were obliged to break their contract with Richard. At this time Guy de Lusignan, who for some time had been King of Jerusalem, offered himself to Richard as a substitute for the Knights. The proposition was accepted and Lusignan became sovereign of Cyprus and founded the Lusignan dynasty. At the end of the thirteenth century the island was described as being in a most flourishing condition, and Famagosta disputed the supremacy of the commerce of the east with Constantiniople, Alexandria, Venice and Genoa.

The Lusignan dynasty lasted up to the year 1489, when the island was captured alternately by the Turks and the Venetians, and eventually remained in the possession of the latter. But they did not keep it over ninety-two years. The successors of Mahomet II. were determined to become its masters, and on the first of July, 1570, a large Turkish fleet landed 100,000 men at Limassol, under the command of Lala Mustapha. The Venetians offered but a feeble resistance and retreated behind the walls of Nicosia, defended only by 10,000 men. The defense was desperate, but on the 9th of September the Turks carried it by assault and during eight days it was given to pillage; forty thousand persons were massacred and fifteen thousand more carried to slavery. In the spring of 1571 the Turks laid siege to Famagosta, and although the Phoenician Governor, Bragadino, made a heroic resistance for six weeks, he was forced to capitulate for want of food. Lala Mustapha violated his pledge and Bragadino was put to

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death by being flayed alive. His courage, however, did not desert him for a moment and it is said that he died reciting the *Miserere*.

Venice did not take advantage of her victory at Lepanto to make herself once more mistress of Cyprus, and it has remained in the possession of the Turks ever since. In the height of its prosperity Cyprus had a population of three millions, and at the time of its conquest by the Venetians had, probably, one million of people. But the brutal administration of the Turks, the various oppressions, and the unbearable taxes depopulated it by degrees, and two hundred years later (1760-1770) the population was reduced to 40,000. Under the influence of the Greek clergy, which from that time acquired some prominence, the island regained vitality and the population continued to increase up to this day. The late events in the East changed abruptly the destinies of Cyprus, and on the 4th of June, 1878, a treaty was signed at Constantinople transferring the sovereignty of the island to the Queen of England.

### III.

Cyprus has now a population of about 200,000 inhabitants, of which 150,000 are Greeks, speaking the Greek language, 45,000 Mahomedans, and 5,000 Roman Catholics and Armenians. The Greek spoken in Cyprus has preserved many types of the Doric and Æolian idioms, and many of the Turks, who live in the same villages with the Greeks, speak the language of the latter.

As a general thing, the Turks and the Greeks of Cyprus live apart. The Greeks dwell mostly in the cities and the mountainous villages, while the Turks occupy the plains. But many of the so-called Mahometans are really Christians, being the descendants of Greeks who have been forced, on the capture of the island by the Turks, to embrace Islamism in order to save both their heads and their property. This species of Turks live with the Greeks in the mountainous villages, and have preserved many of the old manners and customs, as well as the old traditions of their race.

The real Turks of Cyprus are chiefly emigrants from Asia. Protected by the conquerors, they took possession of the most fertile plains, and gradually drove the Greek population to the mountains. These Turks have preserved intact their Asiatic

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277

origin and their primitive manners and customs. They are chiefly occupied with manual labor; the better class embrace the military profession, while the lower classes are the "hamals" or carriers of heavy weights; few of them are either agriculturists, skilled laborers or merchants, the latter profession being in the hands of the Greeks. Only a small percentage of the Turks, who live in towns, can read and write. In the few schools which they possess nothing else is taught but reading the Koran and writing. In the three principal towns of the island, viz., Nicosia, Limassol, and Larnaca, there are about fifteen thousand Turks, and yet scarcely two hundred Turkish children frequent the schools. In the Turkish villages not a single school exists, and very few Turks can read, and still fewer write. Thus, out of a Turkish population of 45,000, only four in one thousand can read and write.

Of the Greek inhabitants of Cyprus, about twenty thousand live in the three aforesaid towns, and of that number thirty-three per cent. read and write. Some of them have been educated in the University of Athens as physicians, lawyers or teachers. The population of Nicosia, the capital of the island, is about 17,000 souls, half of which are Greeks, possessing two thousand houses. They support four schools, of which three are for boys, attended by 360 pupils, and one for girls, attended by 120. Thus, of the Greek population of Nicosia, 5 out of 100 go to school, while among the Turks the proportion is 4 in 1,000.

Nicosia is the place of residence of the Greek Archbishop of Cyprus, who with the three other Bishops of Citium, Paphos and Kerinia, form the ecclesiastical government of Cyprus. The expenses for maintaining the schools of Nicosia are paid for by the bishoprics of the last-named city and of those of Paphos and Kerinia.

The town of Larnaca is built on the ruins of ancient Citium, at a short distance from the sea shore. It is reached from Nicosia in about four hours' drive by the only carriage-road which exists on the island. On the sea shore there is the town of Scala, almost joining Larnaca, and this is the principal port for the import and export trade. The inhabitants of Larnaca and Scala number about 9,000, of which 6,000 are Greek, 2,000 Mahometans and 1,000 Roman Catholics from the Levant. Here is also the site of the Greek

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Metropolitan of Citium. The Greeks possess in these two towns three schools, attended by two hundred boys, and two other schools for girls, with one hundred and forty pupils. Thus, out of a population of 6,000 Greeks, three hundred and eighty go to school, or in the proportion of 6 in 100.

Limassol is the third important town, possessing a population of 5,000 souls. Although the smallest of the three, it has many natural advantages and is well situated for foreign trade. The Greeks, numbering here three thousand, maintain three schools, with two hundred and twenty pupils, of which twenty are girls. The proportion here is still better, showing that seven in one hundred go to school. One of these schools possesses a good library.

Besides these three cities or towns Cyprus has six hundred and twelve villages, and yet in all that number there are but twenty schools, and the proportion of those who can read and write does not exceed five per cent.

The circumference of Cyprus is about three hundred and eighty miles. Its arable land is 5,000,900 acres, of which scarcely 2,000,000 are under cultivation. The principal products are breadstuffs, cotton, silk, wine, fruit, oil, rosin and sugar cane. The Turks expect to receive from the English at least £100,000 a year from the surplus revenue. But it must be taken into consideration that the taxes of the Cypriotes have been doubled during the late Russo-Turkish war, and continue on the same scale to this day.

#### IV.

With the exception of a royal decree, signed by the Queen of England, defining the duties of the Lord High Commissioner and those of his subordinates, the English authorities of Cyprus merely confirmed the existing Turkish laws and retained all the Turkish employés in their respective positions. The native Christian element remained in the minority in the General Council, the Greek language was discarded and the Turkish was proclaimed the official language of the island. A petition of the Metropolitan of Citium was returned to that prelate by Sir Garnet Wolseley, for the reason of its being written in Greek. The Metropolitan replied at once, stating pointedly that "for centuries past, the Turkish authorities always accepted the petitions of the Greek ecclesiastical authorities in the Greek language, and he thought that the English would

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279

not be less gracious than the Turks." Moreover, the new rulers accepted fully the Turkish code of justice and confirmed indiscriminately all the sentences of the Cadi, based on the religious law of the Sheri. They interfered with the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Greek Metropolitan, which had always been respected by the Turks, granting civil divorces, imprisoning Greek priests in the fortresses for slight offenses, and subjecting the Christians to compulsory labor, without any compensation whatever.

It was but natural that these arbitrary measures would raise a cry of indignation and dispel completely the illusions of the Cypriotes that a new and prosperous era was to dawn on them with the advent of their new masters. The persecution of the Greek element had begun in dead earnest, and was systematically carried out. Heavy fines were imposed and rigidly collected for the slightest offenses, and this was carried to such an extent, that many of the natives have left the island and settled in Egypt. A letter from Mr. Paleologos, President of the reading-room and library of Limassol, characterizes the conduct of the English in Cyprus as worse than that of the Turks, and adds that the authorities are flattering the Turkish element and discard the Greeks. Two educated gentlemen, Messrs. Peristiani and Themistocles, who were appointed by the Archbishop as fit members of the local Executive Council, were not accepted by Sir Garnet Wolseley, for the sole reason that they were Greeks.

When the news of these crying abuses and arbitrary acts reached England, they were made the subject of an interpolation in the British Parliament by the Liberals. Lord Salisbury promised to make proper inquiries and to submit the papers to Parliament in due time. This was done later on, but the explanations of Sir Garnet Wolseley were lame and unsatisfactory. He denies that the English authorities resorted to compulsory labor and flogging and that he forbade the circulation of Greek newspapers. He denounced Mr. Paleologos as a Greek enthusiast, who was trying to create revolutionary movements in favor of Greece, and denounced the Metropolitan of Citium also, who, he says, having been educated in Athens, is the focus of the revolutionary element. According to his Excellency's statement, few Cypriotes came forward to enlist in the native police force, hence he had to employ native Turks, who, as he remarks with complacency,

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are superior to the Greeks. Finally he exonerated his English subordinates completely, and represented his administration in Cyprus as near perfection as it could be under the circumstances.

But scarcely was this inquiry closed, when another incident came to light which aroused the indignation of the Christian population to the highest degree; and demonstrated to the world the iron rule of the British in Cyprus and their contempt of their newly-acquired subjects.

The English Governor of Famagosta arrested and imprisoned two Greek priests (one of them seventy years old), for the only reason that one of them did not sign the summons to come to court (though he was present at the appointed hour), and the other because he cut some branches from a tree of his own garden, contrary to the regulations of that district. And not only this, but he ordered that the beard and moustaches of the priests should be shaved, and their long hair (which the priests of the Eastern Orthodox Church generally wear) be cut very close, in regular convict fashion. It is well known that the shaving of the beard and the close cutting of the hair of a Greek priest is tantamount to stamping him with degradation, and the news of such an odious punishment and contempt for the Greek religion, spread like wildfire through the island. Telegrams were at once sent to prominent parties in England, telling of this desecration, petitions were numerously signed and committees appointed to wait on the Archbishop and insist on satisfaction for such an outrage. The Archbishop sent at once to Sir Garnet Wolseley the following spirited protest:

**YOUR EXCELLENCY**—The unexpected odious punishment, inflicted by the Governor of Famagosta on two orthodox priests for some trifling offence, has produced feelings of alarm and anxiety in every Christian heart. The priest Kyriako, from Rizocarpa, seventy years old, was punished without judgment, for the only reason that his son cut a piece of rotten and useless wood, according to the testimony of the wood guardian. The priest Antonios, from Xylofago, sixty years old, was also punished for disobeying the Mudir of Famagosta, who, in an arbitrary way, and contrary to law, ordered the Municipal Council of the village to furnish food and quarters gratuitously to the zaptiehs and their horses. This extraordinary, unheard-of and contemptible act

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has caused a painful impression on the law-abiding Cypriotes, who consider it as an outrage on their clergy and an insult to their religion.

The people are indignant, and with reason, for they cannot imagine that the English would inflict such an odious punishment on ministers of the Gospel, who were begging for death rather than be stamped with such an infamy, in having their beards and moustaches shaved and their hair cut like felons. I ask your Excellency, have you not in your code of laws any lighter punishments? Is there such a punishment prescribed by your criminal code? By what right has the Governor of Famagosta inflicted such an infamous punishment, to which even the Turks for centuries past had never resorted? The Lord High Commissioner, in landing in Cyprus, proclaimed that the habits and customs of the people would be respected; and yet ten months later, British officials are guilty of acts like the above. In our *berats*, which are actually conventions between the Ottoman Government and the spiritual heads of the Christian communities, and which were granted by Mahomet the Conqueror and confirmed by his successors, it is stipulated that whenever a priest commits a misdemeanor, the archbishop must be notified at once (Article 35 of the berat). Four years ago Nazik Pacha, the Governor of Cyprus, disputed this privilege. We had the question submitted to Constantinople, and the answer came that the privilege as confirmed by the berats, must be respected. Are these conventions no longer in force? By what law or treaty do English Governors trespass on our rights? If the actual legislation is no longer in force, why is not another substituted, so that everybody may know how he stands? The people seem to have now duties only, but no rights. I admit that the present form of government is imperfect, but I am not going to discuss that question at present. I can only say that the people have been wounded to the quick, in the insult offered to their clergy, in the trampling under foot of cherished customs, and in the application of unknown laws. The people are complaining in sadness that they do not know by what laws they are governed. Is it the Nizam, the Sheii, the Legislative Council, the English judges, or the will of the local governors? Will you please inform me which is our civil code now? All laws must be in conformity with the intellectual

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development and the manners and customs of the people. But here we have a perfect labyrinth of laws without a fixed system. Is this right, I ask your Excellency? Is it in the interest of the people and of the Government? Is it in accordance with the traditions of an enlightened Government like that of England? I beg to inclose a petition of the inhabitants of Barrosis relative to the sad event, and respectfully call your attention to its contents. Satisfaction should be given to the righteous indignation of the people, and in case of non-compliance, I shall be obliged to appeal directly to our respected Sovereign, the Queen. I beg your Excellency to excuse the freedom with which I have expressed myself, but it is imposed on me by the gravity of the circumstances and the indignation of the people, who are clamorous for satisfaction. I am, etc.,

THE ARCHBISHOP OF CYPRUS,

‡ SOPHRONISUS.

This news created much sensation in England, and Sir Charles Dilke interpellated the Government on the subject, and severely censured it for allowing its subordinates to wound the Cypriotes in their most cherished traditions. Lord Salisbury promised again to make an official inquiry, and lay the papers before Parliament. This was done in the month of August, and from a perusal of the official documents the culpability of the Governor of Famagosta, in regard to the two poor Greek priests, is proved beyond question. Colonel Greves wrote to Lord Salisbury that "the two priests were condemned to imprisonment—one for seven and the other for twenty-eight days. Their heads and beards were shaved against the regulations, which forbids such a punishment unless the sentence for imprisonment exceeds the term of three months. The explanations of the sub-Governor of Famagosta, I am sorry to say," he adds, "are unsatisfactory. Having ordered the shaving of the beard and of the hair of the priests, he acted against his orders."

The sequel of these measures was sad indeed. Four months after the above stated punishment, Father Kyriako, the elder of the priests, died of grief.

It is over a year now, since the English have taken possession of Cyprus, but there is hardly any improvement in its condition. Whether the English consider their possession as a temporary one or for other reasons, the fact remains that they

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283

have thus far done nothing. With the exception of repairing
the road from Nicosia to Larnaca, and that by forced labor,
no other public work has been undertaken. They have pro-
claimed the Turkish the official language, although they
know perfectly well that three-fourths of the inhabitants
do not understand it. The abominable Turkish rule, the
Turkish law and Turkish jurisdiction have full sway. All
the Cadis still maintain their places and dispense justice in
the most approved Turkish fashion. In the minor courts, the
Turks are always in large majority, although nominally these
courts are composed of two Turks and two Greeks, but the
presiding judge is the Cadi, whose vote is worth the other
four. In Nicosia, besides the Cadi, a Caimacam is main-
tained now whose functions consist solely in spying and de-
nouncing the Greeks and in discovering all sorts of conspira-
cies against the English rule. Never were the taxes of the
island heavier or more harshly collected than now.

People are summarily exiled without trial on the mere sus-
picion of trying to overthrow the British authority. No trans-
fer of landed property is permitted, unless it be to a British
or a Turkish subject, which is contrary to the old established
customs, and it may be said that the Cypriotes actually live un-
der some sort of martial law, although it has not been officially
proclaimed. For the first time in the annals of justice, the Eng-
lish Governor of Limassol changed arbitrarily a written sent-
ence of the local court, in the case of a Christian, by increas-
ing the time of imprisonment to six months, on the plea that
the three months which the court had passed was not suffi-
cient punishment. The municipal authorities exist only in
name, the English officials meddling in the most trifling local
affairs, and fines are imposed for the slightest offense. The
sacred right of property is ignored in most cases, and bar-
racks and storehouses have been erected on private property,
without the smallest regard to the rights of the owners, whose
consent they consider as perfectly useless. A Maltese mer-
chant, named Despot, was condemned to be flogged and was
fined 40 for having landed his merchandise at a landing
other than the one fixed on by the Custom House authorities,
and a Greek named Simvoulakis was publicly slapped in the
face by Mr. Bury, Governor of Limassol.

These are, of course, a few incidents taken at random,
and therefore it is not to be wondered that the Cypriotes, mal-

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treated and persecuted in various ways—in their language, in their religion and the right of property—are asking themselves where is the so loudly proclaimed civilization of the English? They do not know that the English have two weights and two measures, and that the English in the colonies are different from the English at home. “The rapacious system of the English,” says the Vienna Presse, “far more rigorous than that of the Turks, has at least one good point, and that is, that it gives them the means of governing the island, without spending a shilling of their own.” The Gazette de Frankfort says that the English employés in Cyprus invent constantly new taxes, and take from the poor islanders the very last farthing which has been left to them by the Turks. They confiscate indiscriminately landed and movable property as if it were public, and to sum up they take all they can without doing the least thing for the island. The London Daily News remarks as follows: “We understand that Sir H. Austin Layard wrote to London that the Cypriotes are satisfied with the British rule. We believe that he may have sent such a dispatch, but we are loth to understand the reasons of the contentment of the Cypriotes. The benefits which they have received from the English, so far, are the establishment of compulsory labor, the suppression of the liberty of the press, the banishment of the Greek language from the official correspondence, although it is spoken by four-fifths of the inhabitants, the prohibition of owning landed property, unless they be British or Turkish subjects, the exile of any person at the mere will of the Lord High Commissioner, the confirmation of slavery and the contempt for the Greek religion.” A correspondent from Cyprus asks what has become of the British constitution, which proclaims the rights of individuals and the equality before the law. The Cypriotes begin to understand that this state of things is unquestionably a well-matured plan for crushing the Greek element and its national aspirations completely, but the English forget that the Cypriotes, like the Cretans, have maintained their nationality for centuries and can repeat the famous verse of Alfieri:

> *Schiavi siam, si, ma schiavi ognor frementi.*

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

285

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

BY A RUSSIAN.

II.

THE "KUPTZY" (MERCHANTS).

IF an intelligent observer, bent upon studying the character-
istics of the commercial life in Russia, should direct his
footsteps to the fashionable quarters and streets of the Rus-
sian capital, he would not be likely to perceive anything which
might in any way seem to him novel or original. Elegant
stores would meet his eye, at the show-windows of which all
that the most exuberant fancy can imagine, all that European
art and industry combined can produce, is piled up. But in
these exhibitions there is nothing originally national, nothing
which might not be exhibited just in the same manner on the
Boulevards, on Regent street, or on Broadway. The industry
which is represented here is international, as are the wants
and habits of those higher classes of society to whose use
that industry is subservient.

To find the center of the genuine Russian commerce, to
study the manners and life—which in many respects are ex-
tremely characteristic—of the Russian merchant class, we
must pay a visit to one of the great market halls of the cap-
ital—the *Gostinoi Dvor*, the *Apraxin* and *Stchukin Rynok*—
all three being disposed on both sides the Sadovaia street,
which I have already mentioned in my previous sketch
as one of the most characteristic thoroughfares of the city for
studying the various phases of popular life.

The *Gostinoi Dvor* is a huge bazar covering an area of
over one square mile. It consists of a row of two-storied
brick buildings, disposed in a square, with an open arcade run-
ning all around the square. Both floors are exclusively occu-
pied with stores—the upper floor for wholesale, the lower for
retail commerce. It is especially the latter which is of interest
for a foreign observer.

We enter the gallery about two or three o'clock, on a
bright winter afternoon. The bustle of buyers and venders
is at its highest. Before every store there stands a young sales-

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man, clad in a blue cloth *kaftan*, shouting, at the top of his
voice, the different wares which can be found in his store.

"Here, my nice gentleman!" shouts one little fellow, tak-
ing off his cap and flourishing it before our face; "come in
here! Look at your boots; they are old boots—none of the
new fashion; they are Russian work—bad work. In our
store you will find none but German work (nemetzkaia
rabota)!”

It is an extraordinary peculiarity of the genuine Russian retail merchant that he generally professes the profoundest contempt for "Russian work." Everything which he desires to place in a particularly favorable light is termed by him "German work," and in this, on the part of the Russian merchant, certainly very curious *naïveté*, there is, and especially there *was*, a good deal of truth.

Russian retail wares are mostly of a rather ephemerous
quality. If, following the invitation of the little salesman, we
enter his store and let ourselves be tempted to purchase a pair
of boots, it is more than probable that we will regret our im-
prudence on the very first rainy day. Of course exceptions
to this rule may easily be found. There are, even in the
Gostinoi Dvor, commercial firms of old established fame and
respectability, who sell the very best wares which can be
manufactured out of home material. But, as a rule, the Rus-
sian merchant is liable to a deplorable habit of cheating his
customer. "Without a little bit of cheating there is no true
commerce," says a Russian commercial proverb. "Cheating
is no sin," an experienced merchant is apt to answer, if you
reproach him with selling untrustworthy goods. "I give the
goods as they are. The customer must have his eyes and his
wits about him as well as I. And then, how could I give the
goods for so low a price if they were all first rate?"

The latter remark is to a certain degree true. All the
ordinary necessaries of life may be had at the Gostinoi Dvor
for an extremely low price. They are not solid, and require to
be renovated rather often, and in the long run they prove
more expensive than other articles of double the price and
double the durability.

The manner in which the bargain is concluded is in itself
highly amusing. The Russian merchant is, generally speak-
ing, a jolly, smooth-tongued, good-humored chap, with whom
a quarter of an hour's conversation is always amusing, even

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287

if the price thereof should be the purchase of some object of
more than doubtful value.

Let us step into this shoe and boot store. It is a narrow,
somewhat dingy place. A flaring gas-light in the back-
ground, and a window of stained glass, entirely covered with
a thick crust of ice, shed a dubious light on the long row of
engagingly shining boots and shoes disposed in order on the
shelves.

As soon as we have entered the shop the proprietor him-
self, or the *prikastchik* (head clerk), according to the im-
portance of the shop, comes to meet us with obsequious bows,
holding his cap in his hand, and begins, with wonderful volu-
bility, to recite the usual welcoming address.

"You wish a pair of boots, your honor? Please take a
seat. Oh, what a beautiful little foot you have got! For
such a foot you must have the best boot you can find in the
market. Here is a pair; it costs only ten roubles. But you
can wear them at least two years. Too much, you say? God
bless you, they cost myself more! Of course, if you like,
you can go to my neighbor, Sidoroff; he will sell you a pair
for five roubles, but after the first rainy day you shall have to
throw it away."

While the man is speaking his small brown eyes glean
shrewdly from under the brushy brows, and seem to devour
you. His tongue is not quiet for a moment. While he is
trying the boots on you he keeps up a lively conversation
about the weather, which, in St. Petersburg, as in all cities
blessed with a horrid and most variable climate, forms one of
the favorite topics of entertainment. If the boots suit
you, then the most troublesome and difficult part of the
transaction—the bargaining—begins. The genuine Russian
merchant no more thinks of charging you from the
very first the true price for his wares than the Russian
customer thinks of paying the price asked for. If the
first price named is acceded to by the customer, the latter is
sure to be put down by the merchant as a "greenhorn,"
unworthy of any consideration, and the harder you bargain
the higher respect the merchant feels for you.

This practice is not confined to the retail commerce in Rus-
sia. Strangely enough, the same principle pervades the com-
mercial transactions in which millions are involved. The
genuine Russian wholesale merchant is never happier than

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when he has succeeded in cheating his customer. If, in purchasing a transport of grain, of wool, or of some Asiatic wares, the buyer neglects to investigate each piece of it, he is almost sure to find ten, or at least five per cent. of the goods unfit for use. Nor is this feature in any way surprising if we take into consideration the manner and conditions in which the Russian commerce has developed itself.

Like all the other functions of Russian national life, so has Russian commerce labored under the curse of the Mongol yoke. Severed from all intercourse with Western Europe by the paralyzing influence of that great historical calamity, Russia's commercial and political development naturally assumed an Asiatic character. And as the Russian Czar of old differed but little in his way of governing from the Tartar Khans, so did the Russian merchant gradually adopt the customs, manners, and views of the Asiatic trader—the only one with whom he came in contact. Thus cunning and the peculiar form of “smartness” which especially distinguishes the Tartar, Persian and Armenian races, became the guiding principle of Russian commerce, and in a short time the pupil surpassed his master in Asiatic craftiness.

May, however, the reader not infer from this that the Russian merchant is by nature a rogue, and that dishonesty is the ruling spirit of Russian trade. Quite the contrary is the case. In their business transactions and in money matters the Russian merchant observes most scrupulous exactness. His word is as good as a regular note of Rothschild's bank; indeed it very seldom happens in Russian commercial life that any transactions concerning the inland or Asiatic commerce are put on paper. A verbal order suffices. I have myself witnessed some transactions at the great annual fair of Nijni Novgorod, by which hundreds of thousands passed from hand to hand for goods which were either not yet delivered or else promised for a certain term.

“So you promise me, Anton Antonovitch,” says the buyer, on giving the money, “that I shall be in receipt of the goods at Razan on September 11th.”

“There is my hand, Sidor Sidorovitch; I promise.”

“And here is the money,” responds the other; “let us go and drink a glass of tea together.”

And, with their breast-pockets stuffed with greasy hundred-rouble bills, the two bearded fellows enter the nearest

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

289

tavern and swallow glass after glass of the steaming beverage, until their fat, red faces are glowing and shining with perspiration. And Sidor Sidorovitch may be sure that on rising from his featherbed in Kazan on the morning of September 11th he shall find his *prikastchik* (chief clerk) waiting with the report that at daybreak the *prikastchik* of Anton Antonovitch had landed with the "Samolet" steamer, bearing his master's compliments and having in charge so and so many thousands of *pouds* consigned to Sidor Sidorovitch.

This custom of transacting business verbally was, and in a great measure is still, rather a necessity than a virtue, the great mass of the Russian commercial class being nearly as illiterate as the peasant class. Indeed many of the richest tradesmen themselves formerly belonged to the working class, and have acquired their fortunes sometimes by industry and natural commercial ability, mostly by heartless usury and deceit practiced on their fellow-workingmen. Before the Emancipation Act of 1861 it not unfrequently occurred that some of the leading tradesmen and manufacturers in the empire were *de jure* considered to be serfs of some *pomestchik* (land owner), and had to pay the latter a nominal yearly tax (*obrok*) for their personal independence. Thus the town of Ivanovo, in the province of Kostroma, not undeservedly surnamed the "Russian Manchester," the center of the cotton and silk manufactory, is still owned by the Count Sherémetyeff, one of the richest magnates of Russia; and the proprietors of the Ivanovo Mills, some of whom are fully as rich as the Sherémetyeff family itself, were, till 1861, not more than serfs, belonging personally, like heads of cattle, to their *pomestchik*.

These peculiar historical difficulties under which the Russian merchant class have constantly labored have imprinted on the personal character of its representatives a peculiar and not by any means pleasing stamp. The thirst of gain is in most cases their only ruling passion, as the hoarding of money and the brutal power the coffer confers are the only pleasures which they are able to realize and to understand.

A peculiarity which is sure to strike at first glance even a superficial observer is the utter incapacity on the part of the richest Russian merchant of really enjoying his wealth. It often appears incomprehensible how a man who has striven hardly all his life for riches can, when he has at length at-

290 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

tained his purpose, be so utterly incapable of enjoying the
fruits of it. I do not mean by this only intellectual enjoy-
ment, which, as a rule, is for a Russian merchant a terra in-
cognita, but even the purely material satisfaction comfort
and luxury afford rarely exist in the feelings of a genuine
Russian "kupetz." The only sentiment which seems alive
in him and liable of being flattered and wounded, is vanity—
the coarse vanity of wealth. He builds a beautiful mansion
and adorns it with all possible luxury; he places a Pleyel, a
Becker or a Steinway in his sumptuous parlor, but he never
uses either. He buys all these things, "because slava Bogu!
(thank God!) we can afford it;" but only for show, not for
use.

I remember how amazed I was on finding in the parlor of
one of the richest manufacturers of Ivanovo a Steinway grand
piano. On my expressing my astonishment, the worthy
tradesman answered, complacently stroking his long beard:

"I have bought that thing two years ago in St. Petersburg from a man who had just arrived with it from America. A prince wanted to have it and bade one thousand roubles for it. I doubled the sum, bought the instrument, and brought it here. Since then, not a finger has touched it and it has not once been opened.

On my asking the favor of trying the piano, the "kupetz"
fetched the key and after a good deal of trouble he succeeded
in opening the rusty lock. As might have been expected, the
beautiful instrument was utterly spoiled, had lost its sound,
and the first discordant notes I struck seemed to wail over the
sad fate which had befallen it.

As the piano, so had the mansion in which it stood remained unused and uninhabited. The rich manufacturer to whom half of the town of Ivanovo belonged, who employed in his factories over six thousand workmen, lived in a dingy wooden izba, situated in the court of his own deserted mansion!

This intellectual barrenness and coarseness of taste naturally
imprints its own character on the private and family life of
the Russian kupetz. Here an Asiatic despotism in its most
repulsive form still subsists. The will, the passing fancy of
the "kupetz" is here the only law, before which the whole
family has to bow in slavish obedience. Woman is considered
an inferior being, a thing to be adorned with jewels in public,

PICTURES OF RUSSIAN LIFE.

291

for the gratification of the father's or the husband's vanity,
and to be beaten and ill-treated at home.

It is scarcely possible to speak of the customs and ways of
life of the Russian merchants without mentioning, at least, the
celebrated dramatist, Ostrovsky, who, in a series of vivid,
realistic and highly poetical dramatic pictures, has given us
a true and striking representation of this "Dark Realm," as he
calls it, of the types and characters it engenders. How heavily
the curse of family despotism and of ignorance weighs on the
life of the Russian commercial class is depicted by Ostrovsky
in a series of plain stories, showing how even the best and
noblest natures must perish in that narrow, pent-up atmos-
phere where the will of an ignorant, brutal despot is para-
mount.

The dramas entitled: "From Sin and Sorrow no Man is
Safe," and "A Thunderstorm" are perhaps the most pow-
erful productions of this gifted portrayer of manners and men.
The first shows how an honest man, forced by his parents
into a marriage with a woman he does not love, ultimately
becomes a criminal—the murderer of his wife. The second
("A Thunderstorm") is a touching, pathetic story of a young
girl who expiates by a suicide the crime of loving a man her
parents do not approve of. These sombre, melancholy pic-
tures are drawn by Ostrovsky with masterly art, and the pro-
duction of his dramas, which have become very popular in
Russia, has contributed a great deal towards shedding a ray
of light in that "Dark Realm" of the Russian merchant's
life to the description of which the poet has pledged his pow-
erful pen.

Like all other branches of Russian social life, the commer-
cial class has, too, of late felt the influence of the dawning of
civilization and liberty. In the new generation of merchants
a process of reaction against the old barbarous customs has
begun. Commercial schools have been established in St. Pe-
tersburgh, Moscow and other great cities. Many young mer-
chants pass a regular course of studies at one of the universi-
ties before embracing their commercial career, and their in-
fluence, as well as that of the new ideas, new forms and cus-
toms of life they bring with them, is felt throughout the
whole class.

As may have been expected, this reformatory process pos-
sesses many comical features. Numerous specimens of the

292 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Russian "kupetz" may now-a-days be found who, on the one hand, are as ignorant as were their forefathers centuries ago; while, on the other, their whole ambition is concentrated on the desire not to appear a "kupetz," but a thoroughly refined European "gentleman." Such pretensions generally lead to very ludicrous consequences. The "gentleman likeness" of these worthies generally confines itself to the drinking of champagne instead of tea and "kvass," and to generous bounties in the shape of jewels, furs, trotters and the like, conferred on some French actress or dancer—these enterprising ladies considering a Russian "kupetz" a far more substantial, though less elegant and brilliant prey, than a "Russian prince."

In attempting to give a short sketch of the life and manners of the Russian merchant class, we have touched one of the darkest spots of Russian social life in general. In this class, the curse which the Tartar yoke has laid on Russian history is still the most keenly felt, and it will require many years of hard, civilizing work to bring the light of knowledge and humanity into that "Dark Realm."

ENGLAND AND RUSSIA IN CENTRAL ASIA.*

MR. BOULGER has followed his interesting biography of Yakoob Beg, of which we gave a full account in our last number, by a work of higher ambition and larger dimensions. In tracing the life of the Ameer of Kashgar, the great question of Central Asian politics merely served as a background of the stage, on which the ambitious and unscrupulous soldier of fortune played a prominent though ephemeral part. In his present volumes the author attempts to grapple with the far more important issues that arise from the rivalry, extending over nearly a century, between the two great powers of Russia and England.

The author candidly states in his preface that his work was commenced at a time when this rivalry seemed to have reached its climax, and when war between the two countries

* ENGLAND AND RUSSIA IN CENTRAL ASIA. By Demetrius Chas Boulger. 2 vols., 8vo.: London, 1879.

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293

seemed to be inevitable. A Russian officer had been received at Cabul as representative of his sovereign, the Czar, while an English envoy, sent by the Viceroy of India, had been refused to enter the capital of Afghanistan. By sheer force of arms England compelled the Ameer to receive her ambassador; the Russian government, anxious to avoid a conflict, recalled her agent. With ill-disguised feelings of exultation over what he considers a defeat of Russian diplomacy, Mr. Boulger sneers at the "huge mistake" of General Stoletoff's mission, and rejoices over the triumph England has gained. The pith of the whole question, he considers, is to be found in the fact that England is "now strong enough to solve the Central Asian question entirely in her favor." "Are we to put off action," Mr. Boulger asks, "until the tables are turned, and Russia is more prepared than she is at present, while we may have grown less strong, or shall we finish the business out of hand?"

Fortunately for England wiser and more moderate counsels prevailed among her statesmen, in spite of all apparent bluster. Lord Beaconsfield evidently remembered, what our hot-headed author seems to forget, that the question of Central Asian supremacy is not a "business" that can be "finished out of hand." Only six months after Mr. Boulger wrote this Quixotic flourish, the world was startled by the news of a terrible catastrophe that had occurred in Afghanistan. Early in September Major Cavagnari and the entire English embassy were murdered in Cabul, under circumstances of peculiar atrocity. With what ominous reality the fulfillment of the Duke of Wellington's all-significant and prophetic words must have come home to the English government: "You may triumph," said this great warrior and statesman to the war party against Afghanistan, in 1839, "you can rely, as I do, upon the bravery of our soldiers; but when, thanks to this bravery, victory is yours, then only will your difficulties begin."

A book written at such a crisis as Mr. Boulger states in his preface, can *à priori* not be taken as a fair statement of facts, circumstances and events. He writes as an Englishman would write, to whom the interests of his country are dearer than the requirements of political justice; moreover, his work was begun, as we have said, at a time when political passions ran high in England, and when a strong Conservative party

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did all in their power to rekindle the spirit of wildest animosity against Russia that prevailed there during the Crimean war. The book does credit to the author's heart as a patriot and to his literary ability, for it is written in a brilliant and vigorous style. We will now try to examine whether he is entitled to an equally high rank among historians.

The term "Central Asia," geographically speaking, has an entirely different meaning when applied to the great political issue known as the "Central Asia Question." The events which now chiefly agitate the public mind, and which are treated of in the volumes before us, have really taken place in Western Asia. But as it would be pedantic and useless to attempt to change the phraseology of the subject, it will be necessary first to decide what is "Central Asia." The simplest explanation of the term would be to apply it to that portion of Asia which lies between the English and Russian frontiers, where they are at this moment, and wherever they may be in the future. According to this idea, Bokhara, Khiva, the whole of Turkestan, Afghanistan, Persia and the Pamir Khanates constitute that portion of the great continent of Asia known in political language as Central Asia. The future of these countries, whether they shall remain independent or become part of the great power of Northern Asia, Russia, or be incorporated in the vast realm of the Empress of India, that in reality is the Central Asia question.

The science of geography is intimately connected with that of history, ancient, modern and contemporary, and Mr. Boulger's opening chapter gives an interesting, though by no means fair account of recent Russian explorations in Central Asia. While fully acknowledging the great services to science by such travelers as Potanin, Prejewalsky and Kuropatkine, the author thinks that the invaluable work done by these fearless explorers has only been performed with a view of furthering Russia's ambitious aims of conquest, and refuses to acknowledge that they have conferred any service on mankind in general. If Mr. Boulger will only take the trouble of looking through the publications of any of the geographical societies of the world during the last ten years he will find in almost every number accounts of the distinguished services of Russian explorers in nearly every part of the world. That the attention of the government is chiefly directed to the vast unexplored areas of the empire is per-

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fectly natural and needs no more apology than the fact that the Government of the United States devotes annually large sums of money to the exploration of Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico, instead of sending Dr. Hayden and Mr. Clarence King and Lieut. Wheeler to discover the sources of the Nile or the Oxus, or survey the plateau of Tibet and measure the highest peak of the Bolivian Andes. The Russian Geographical Society spends annually more money and receives a more liberal subsidy from the government than any society of the same class in the world, and it can hardly be said that M. de Mielucho-Maclay's explorations in New Guinea; Dr. Woeikoff's travels in Central Japan; the survey of the Caspian Sea by the engineers of the military government of Orenburg; Latkin's journeys in the Lena basin, the geographical researches of Mushketoff on the Alai plateau; the astronomical and barometrical observations of Dr. Fritsche, the distinguished director of the Imperial Russian observatory, which have thrown an entirely new light on the climatological conditions of Eastern Asia; the eminent services of Russian explorers in the Arctic regions, have all been made with a view to further Russia's ambition of military conquest, and that these fearless and distinguished men are merely scouts of General Kaufmann's battalions.

Russia's military strength in Central Asia and the principal routes from the Russian frontier to India are the two points of greatest importance to those Englishmen whose interest in Russia's operations and movements is occasioned by what they believe to be the menacing position which the great Northern power has assumed in Central Asia with regard to India. For Englishmen who take this *chauvinist* view, the question which transcends all others in importance is, how many men can Russia send across the Amou Darya? What troops can be conveyed by the Caspian to the Atrek? and what reinforcements can be pushed forward by the armies of the Caucasus and of Orenburg to support an invading army?

The Amou Darya, familiar to most readers under its ancient name, Oxus, is a very broad river and also a very rapid one. At Charjui, the post on the main road from Bokhara to Merv, the river is very deep and rapid, and about six hundred and fifty yards wide. At Kerkhi, which is the next stage higher up, it is about one thousand yards wide. At Khoja Salih, the extreme northwestern point of Afghan soil,

236 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

it is nearly eighteen hundred yards across; but it is very shallow and the current is much slower. Another ferry still higher up at Kilif has not yet been used by Europeans; it is said to be only eight hundred yards wide and is of great importance as leading directly to the road to Balkh. These are the principal ferries across the Oxus which are in daily use; but the miserable boats, which serve for the conveyance of passengers, would be of no avail for the transport of an army. Since the time when Alexander the Great crossed on inflated skins, Genghis Khan and Tamerlane have ferried their armed hordes across the Oxus in the boats of the fishermen and carriers, and these boats are still to be found there and very much the same in all essentials. According to Mr. Boulger there are about three hundred vessels forming an "Oxus fleet." The average tonnage of these vessels is twenty tons and each would be able to carry one hundred and fifty foot soldiers. They are strong enough to convey artillery, horses and heavy baggage. The steamers composing the Aral fleet might form the nucleus of the force and the native Oxus fleet the bulk. One of the great natural obstacles that intervene between the Russian and Indian frontiers would thus be considerably reduced in importance.

In giving a statement of the Russian military forces in Central Asia, we have no official data to rely upon. The Russian government keeps a perfectly justified reserve on this point.

In 1873 the Russian army under General Kaufmann's immediate orders numbered about thirty-six thousand men. That was before the Khiva campaign, and the larger and more important additions required by the Khokand war in 1875. Mr. Boulger vaguely speaks of a "trustworthy semi-official statement" which gives the Russian forces in Turkestan at fifty-five thousand men. Supposing this figure to be approximately correct, and deducting the number of men required for garrison duty in the newly annexed territories, the fighting army under General Kaufmann's command would scarcely exceed twenty thousand men.

In addition to this there is the Bokharan army, which would, in case of a forward movement, be controlled by Russia. The Ameer of Bokhara is said to have promised that in case of an emergency he could place twenty thousand men at the disposal of the Russian commander.

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Khiva, too, would furnish a contingent, which would at least provide guides for the Kara Kum desert and laborers for the construction of roads.

The military government of Orenburg must be considered the reserve corps of the army of Central Asia. This army is said to consist of fifty thousand men.

Another and important base from which troops and supplies would be furnished is the Caspian Sea. The newly-formed government of Trans-Caspiana contains an army of one hundred and fifty thousand men. The governor, General Lomakine, is perhaps one of the most distinguished soldiers and diplomatists in the service of the Czar. During the five years that he has been at the head of this district Russian authority is acknowledged by a steadily increasing belt of territory beyond the Caspian. Behind the army of the Caspian stands the army of the Caucasus; behind the Caucasus stands the army of Europe. In case of a conflict between the two great powers, the bulk of an invading army would move from this direction. Having thus given an idea of Russia's military forces, let us next consider by what roads her armies could move in approaching the Indian frontier.

The Russian frontier in Asia is drawn in a line from the frontiers of Manchooria, along the Chinese dominions to the Pamir; it there crosses the Oxus, which it follows into Khiva; beyond the river it strikes across Kara Kum to Kizil Arvat, whence by the Sumbur and Atrek rivers it reaches Chikishlar on the Caspian Sea.

In taking the most eastern route, Russia could not advance without the connivance of China, which holds all the country leading to the gateways to India north or east of Cashmere. There is an easy road from Osh, in Russian territory, by the Zerek Pass to Kashgar and Yarkand. The next quarter whence it would be possible to advance towards the British frontier would be from the Pamir. In this direction the great river Panja, the upper course of the Oxus, would serve as a line along which troops might be able to advance.

To Balkh there is a greater number of roads, as we have stated above when speaking of the Oxus ferries. The Khoja Salih is one of the most used along the Oxus, and is the most northwesterly point of Afghan territory; it was by this way that General Stoletoff's mission reached Cabul. The Charjui

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ferry is on the direct road from Bokhara to Merv, one of the chief trade routes of Central Asia, and the only place from which Merv could be attacked on the north. Charjui is about seven days march from Merv. Two hundred miles south of Merv is Herat, the point of all importance to be considered; and from Herat to Candahar, the most vital point on the front tier—the Metz of India, as Mr. Boulger calls it—is three hundred and fifty miles. Whenever the day will come that Russia may be compelled to advance towards India her road will lie from the Caspian to Candahar, where nature has not raised a single obstacle. The only barrier they would encounter would be the ramparts of Herat. Herat is five hundred and eighty miles from the Caspian, and between these two points there are thirty-seven stations or halting places. Mr. Boulger gives a very elaborate and detailed description of many other roads. The point to be remembered must be that the main object of the advancing army would be to reach Herat, which can be done within about one hundred and fifty miles without violating any existing treaty stipulations.

Russia's relations with her immediate neighbors, the Khans of Khiva and Khokand, the Ameer of Bokhara and the Shah of Persia, must play a most important part in her future movements in Central Asia.

Khiva and Khokand are, for all practical purposes, vassals of the Czar. Russia's relations with Khiva are of old standing. So long ago as 1620 political relations are said to have existed between the two countries. Peter the Great sent an ambassador to Khiva, without achieving any practical results. For more than two centuries Khiva defied Russia's power; enslaved her subjects when they did not massacre them. No civilized government can permit itself to be treated in this way by a semi-barbarous neighbor, and when in 1869 the Khan of Khiva refused to surrender the Russian captives, the day of just retribution came at last. During the years 1871 and 1872 great preparations were made for another Khivan campaign, and early in the spring of 1873 General Kaufmann received orders to advance. On the 28th of May the army arrived on the banks of the Amou, and on the 3d of June the whole force was across the river. A division under General Verefkin encamped only three miles from Khiva, and on the 9th General Scobelef took one of the gates of the capital by storm, and Khiva was then in the hands of the Russian army.

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The Khan of Khiva still enjoys a certain authority, but he is wisely aware that his only safety exists in a faithful allegiance to his great northern neighbor.

Bokhara has for many years been in close intercourse with Russia, by means of the caravan trade that is carried on between the two countries, and Russia need not fear any hostile movements from that quarter.

For practical purposes, Russia and Persia came first into contact with each other during the reign of Peter the Great. The first Russian embassy arrived in the capital in the year 1722, when an Afghan prince, Mir Mahmoud, was seated upon the throne of Ispahan. The feeling of sympathy and good understanding existing between Russia and Persia is a thorn in England's side. One of her most prominent Indian statesmen quite recently said in public that the alliance between Russia and Persia must be broken *coûte que coûte*. The surrender of the Armenian fortresses and the harbor of Batoum, by the treaty of Berlin, has brought the two neighbors and allies still nearer together.

Before following Mr. Boulger in his statement as to the relative position of Russia and England in Central Asia, we must take into consideration the most important factor in this great issue—one which, during the last two years, has been brought most prominently before the world, namely, Afghanistan.

A short sketch of the history of this country during the last three hundred years will not be considered out of place, as the present crisis can hardly be understood without some insight into the life of these warlike mountaineers.

In the year 1506, Baber, driven out of his kingdom of Ferghana by his own subjects, crossed the Hindoo Koosh, at the head of a band of adventurers, which could hardly be honored with the name of an army, and advanced against the City of Cabul. Before the year 1511 he had conquered Afghanistan as far south as Candahar. In 1525 a war broke out between him and Ibrahim Lodi, an Afghan Chief, reigning at that time in Delhi, which resulted in the triumph of Baber and the flight of Ibrahim.

On Baber's death in 1530, his son Humayoun succeeded him, but only for a short time. The intrigues of his uncle, Kamran, and of the Vizier Shere Khan of the Lodi tribe, forced him to retreat into Persia. In 1541, Humayoun, with

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the assistance of a Persian army, succeeded in reconquering
the kingdom of which Lodi had deprived him, and upon his
death in 1555, he left to his son, not only the Afghan posses-
sions, but the sovereignty of Northern India.

Until 1609 the whole of Afghanistan, from the Suleiman to
the Helmund, remained under the rule of the Moguls; but in
that year Abbas the Great, of Persia, succeeded in wresting
Candahar from the successors of Humayoun. After the death
of Abbas, Jehangir, Emperor of India, reconquered it from his
successor, Shah Sofi, and united it once more with his Indian
possessions, until in 1648 it was once again conquered by a
great-grandson of Abbas the Great, Shah Abbas the Second.

In the year 1702 the Shah of Persia, Hoosein, sent as Gov-
ernor to Candahar a Georgian prince, by the name of Shah
Naway Khan, better known as Goorgeen Khan. He came
there with the avowed intention of subduing the Ghiljies, a
warlike tribe inhabiting the debatab'e land between the
fortresses of Ghizni and Candahar; that is to say, between the
advanced posts of the Mogul and the Shah of Persia. The
result of this policy was that after years of intrigue and blood-
shed Goorgeen was murdered in the palace of Mir Vais, the
leader of the Ghiljies party, the Persian garrison annihilated
and Mir Vais chosen sovereign prince. The Shah sent three
different armies to dethrone the usurper, but without avail,
and finally Shah Hoosein had to abandon all attempts at re-
covering his lost province. Mir Vais died in 1715, but the
government which he had fouuded survived him. He may
be considered as the founder of Afghanistan's political exist-
ence—the Bruce or the William Tell of his country.

His successors even attempted now to establish Afghan
rule in Persia, and were foiled in this only by a man of su-
perior genius and power to any that Asia had seen for centu-
ries—by Nadir Kuli, afterwards the celebrated Nadir Shah.

In 1737 Nadir, with an army estimated at from seventy
thousand to one hundred thousand men, advanced to Canda-
har, where a younger son of Mir Vais, Mir Hoosein was then
ruling. Candahar was bravely defended and only capitulated
after a siege of more than a year and a half.

We can only allude here to the last overthrow of Persian
supremacy, which took place in 1747, soon after Nadir's
death, when Ahmed, chief of the Abdali clan, defying the
great Shah's feeble successor at Teheran, set up an independ-

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301

ent government at Candahar. He gave a new title to his
dynasty, under which it is known in history, the Durani,
"Pearl of the Age." Ahmed's son, Timour, removed the
capital from Candahar to Cabul, where it has remained ever
since. We cannot enter here into the details of intrigues,
conspiracies and bloodshed which, in tedious and terrible
monotony, constitute the history of most of these Eastern
rulers, and arrive now at the reign of a ruler whose life and
government are matters of contemporary history, Dost Ma-
homed Khan, of the Baruksye family, who in 1838 ruled over
the whole of Afghan with the exception of Herat, where
Kamran, a prince of the Sudosye family, was still in power.

The history of this remarkable man is a thoroughly Eastern romance. He was the youngest of twenty-one brothers. His eldest brother was Futteh Ali Khan, the vizier of the ruling Prince Mahmoud. Dost Mahomed made his début in public life by killing, in the open street, when only fourteen years old, one of his brother's most powerful enemies, and when his brother was murdered, in the most cruel manner, by the order of Kamran, who, with his own hands, put his prisoner's eyes out with the point of his dagger, Dost Mahomed's revenge was as swift as it was terrible, and in a short time he succeeded in overthrowing the tottering and corrupt Sudosye dynasty founded by Ahmed in 1747. The reign of this great ruler leads us to the celebrated invasion of Afghan territory by the British in 1839. Without any cause for this aggressive policy, and for no other reason than to maintain friendly relations with their powerful Sikh neighbor, the famous Ranjeet Singh, the Maharajah of Lahore, whose interest it was to restore the fugitive Sudosye Prince Shuja to the throne of his fathers, the English invaded the territory of a neighboring people with whom they had no possible, personal or justifiable reason for quarrelling. This is the first instance of English interference in Afghan affairs. The fatal events that followed this invasion have lately been so often told in connection with the present Afghan crisis that it is unnecessary to retrace here the follies that were committed, the weakness and want of foresight on the part of the English officers that led to the disasters of January, 1842. For about two years English troops occupied the principal strongholds of the country. Then, in November, 1841, those disturbances broke out which resulted in the loss of every place held by the English, and finally led to

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the fatal retreat through the Khoord Pass, in January, 1842, which cost England four thousand of her best soldiers. The virtual extermination of the British force in Cabul was a terrible blow to English prestige in India. Shah Soojah was murdered soon after the English were driven from Afghanistan, and Dost Mahomed was restored to his throne in 1842.

Dost Mahomed reigned for over twenty years after the close of the first war with England. He died in 1863, when nearly eighty years old, and was succeeded by his fifth son, Shere Ali, who was the ruling Ameer when, in August, 1878, General Stoletoff arrived in Cabul on a special mission from his sovereign. We have thus brought down the history of Afghanistan to the events of to-day. England's protest against the residence of a Russian embassy in Cabul, the subsequent refusal of the Ameer to let an English mission cross the frontier, led to the war of last November, during which Shere Ali died, and which, after a few months' fighting, ended in the complete submission of his son and heir, Yacoob Khan, to English authority. England is virtually mistress of Afghanistan, which has ceased to be an independent country, and now the question what is to be done with this newly conquered territory forms at this moment the vital point in the great Central Asian question.

England cannot solve this question by simply annexing the whole of Afghanistan, including Herat, to her Indian Empire. Russia could not permit this. The Czar and his advisers do not desire war, but should England take so decisive and aggressive a step, without consulting the interests of the great Northern power in her mission of civilization in Asia, the Russian government will resort to every fair and honorable means, and will not shrink from any sacrifice to uphold her prestige and her honor. It would indeed be an evil day for Russia's power in Central Asia, when, before the eyes of the barbarous and fanatical nations who inhabit those regions, she would display any evidence of weakness. England's experience in Afghanistan during the last two months must have taught her once more that she cannot rely upon treaties with savage tribes, who know of no other law than that of bloodshed and massacre, and to whom international compacts are of no more value than a shred of paper, and who acknowledge no higher arbitrator than the sword.

Around the name of Herat more interest has accumulated

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303

than is the case with any other part of Central Asia, and a
glance at the map will show that it fully deserves the impor-
tance that is bestowed upon it—an importance which is not
of recent date, but which has existed in active force in all
ages and at all periods.

The history of Herat is lost in the dimness of remote an-
tiquity. It is not within the purpose of this article to sketch
the chronicle of this Asiatic town, which, under a different
name, existed already when Alexander the Great conquered
Persia. For centuries past it has been the great point of con-
tention between Persia and Afghanistan. Whenever a weak
and disunited government existed in one of the two countries
the other tried to establish her supremacy in this invaluable
stronghold. No other city in those regions has suffered so
much from sieges, revolutions and bloodshed as Herat. It is
now within Afghan territory, and England having possession
of that country, it is of more importance and of greater pol-
itical interest than it has ever been before. Persia's aspira-
tions with regard to the city are only dormant. Under Af-
ghan rule she might have hoped to obtain again possession of
it; with an English garrison in it, such a hope is but an idle
dream. Herat possesses natural advantages of unusual im-
portance. It is connected by high roads with the capitals of
all the surrounding countries; with Cabul through the Haz-
areh Hills, with Balkh and Bokhara through Meymeneh, with
Khiva and Mesched, with Yezd and Ispahan, with Seistan
and Candahar. In all probability the climax of the Central
Asian question will be reached when the fate of Herat is to
be decided.

We have now considered the various questions that will
arise whenever the relative position of England and Russia
in Central Asia will have to be definitely settled. The two
powers are now brought face to face in the Afghan crisis,
and it depends upon the wisdom and moderation prevailing
among the councils of the Czar and the Queen of England
whether the solution will be a peaceable one and worthy of
two civilized nations and of the spirit of the nineteenth cen-
tury.

Mr. Boulger's advice is very simple in its admirable can-
dor. An English garrison in Herat, an agent at Merv, a
statesman with complete powers at Teheran, a Persian army
commanded by English officers, would secure in his opinion
the satisfactory solution.

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Can Mr. Boulger imagine for one moment that Russia would accept such a programme?

Russia rules over about one-third of the whole continent of Asia, her stake in those countries is, to say the least, as great as that of England and, she can never consent to England settling this question, wholly in her favor. Only by a cordial and frank understanding between the two powers, by uniting in their mission of civilization and peace, can a satisfactory and lasting solution be secured. When political passions and prejudices, such as Mr. Boulger's mischievous book are likely to arouse, are appeased, then only we may look forward to a final and secure settlement of the great "Central Asian Question."

Since the above went to press we have received a pamphlet, written by Professor F. Martens, of the University of St. Petersburg, entitled "Russia and England in Central Asia."

This masterly essay on the relative position of the two powers has caused great sensation in political circles, and must be considered to be of more than ordinary importance. The author is Professor of Jurisprudence and International Law at the Imperial University of St. Petersburg, and it is therefore not unlikely that the opinions set forth by the learned author, if not entirely, are to a large extent, those of the Russian Cabinet.

Prof. Martens' essay begins with a review of the relations between the two governments at the close of the Berlin Congress. The fears of a collision between England and Russia, on account of their policy with regard to Turkey, had scarcely been appeased, when again threatening clouds arose on the political horizon. This time they came from Central Asia, from whence news spread all over Europe that a Russian mission had arrived in Cabul, for the purpose of concluding a defensive and offensive alliance between the government of St. Petersburg and the Ameer of Afghanistan. The English Parliament asked Lord Beaconsfield for explanation about what was taking place in Central Asia, and the English press reopened their campaign against these fresh proofs of Russian "intrigues" and Russian "perfidy."

It seems never to have struck these gentlemen that if a Russian mission was permitted to enter Cabul, and was re-

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305

ceived with open arms by Shere Ali, whilst Major Cavagnari was not permitted to cross the frontier, that it was nothing else but the policy pursued by the Viceroy of India which forced the Ameer to prefer an alliance with the "White Czar" to one with the government which Lord Lytton represented. In their opinion, England or Russia must rule supreme in Central Asia, and they thought the moment had come when this question could be decided entirely in England's favor. Russia had just concluded a long war, at an immense cost of blood and money, and, in their opinion at least, she would not be able to offer any continued or formidable resistance.

In our review of Mr. Boulger's book we have stated what immediate events led to the conquest of Afghanistan by England, in consequence of which it has ceased to be an independent country, and its ruler is placed in the same position with other Indian princes, who, with a certain show of authority, are nothing but subsidized vassals of the English crown.

The English province of Afghanistan has brought the Russian possessions in Asia into immediate contact with British India, and this immediate contact between the two powers, which most Englishmen have dreamed as the greatest danger to their Indian possessions, has thus become an accomplished fact through the instrumentality of their own government.

But is it really true that a conflict between Russia and England, on the banks of the Indus, is a question of dire necessity and thus decreed by an implacable fate? Are these two great civilized powers really compelled to give the barbarous Asiatic tribes the sorrowful satisfaction of a bloody and pitiless war? Will they arouse the brutal instincts of those wild hordes, and take advantage of the fierce hatred which these savages nourish against all Christian and civilized nations?

It is sufficient to look earnestly and honestly at these questions to arrive at the conclusion that a war between England and Russia would be a most terrible calamity for both countries? "The more we have studied the state of affairs in Asia," says Prof. Martens, "the more we have followed the progress of English and Russian conquests in those regions, the deeper we have tried to fathom the motives of Russian

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policy and the aspirations of the Russian people, the more firmly we are convinced that the conquest of India has never been the actual and original aim of Russian policy; that a war between the two countries would be a misfortune of in calculable bearings, of which the wild native races alone would draw any advantage."

In a learned and masterly sketch, Prof. Martens reviews the events in Central Asia during the last six years in the light of international law. We cannot here follow the author in the intricate speculations on this subject, and will merely give in conclusion his views as to the relative position of the two powers as it is at this moment, or rather two months ago, before the atrocious murder of Major Cavagnari and the whole of the English mission.

The author is satisfied that the actual contact between the two powers, which has now taken place, must have a beneficial influence on the relations of the two countries, both in Asia and in Europe. The creation of a "neutral territory" or an "intermediate zone" has evidently proved fruitless, and in the immediate contact between the powers the only sensible and practical basis of a complete understanding between them is to be found. Both England and Russia should be convinced that a war between them would be "the beginning of the end" of their supremacy in those regions. The day on which Russia defeats England in Central Asia will be the signal of her own rule there; and British India will be half way on the road to recover her independence from English rule on the day that England vanquishes Russia.

In case England declares war against Russia and selects Central Asia as a basis of her military operations, the bulk of her army would consist of native forces. The Indian princes would be invited to take part in the expedition, which, no doubt, would be undertaken on an immense scale. In case of victory, the Asiatic contingent would claim the best part of the glory, they would consider themselves the real conquerors of the Russian army and become aware of England's weakness as a military power. Under these circumstances the first consequence of English victory in Asia would be the awaking of self-consciousness of the Indian nations, in which the two hundred million people governed by the English Viceroy have hitherto been wanting. When this heavy, torpid mass has once acquired this knowledge of its own strength,

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307

and of the weakness of its masters, the end of British rule in
India is merely a question of time.

Supposing the case to be reversed, that Russia sends an
invading army into British India, that England's army is de-
feated, the frontiers crossed, Hindostan invaded, and her
vast population in fearful masses aroused against the hated
foreign ruler. In case of a Russian attack on British India,
a rising of the nations would certainly form an essential point
in the basis of military operations. Supposing England is
overthrown and the last prestige of her power in Central
Asia wiped out. What then? What could Russia do with
these two hundred million people who hate and fear and be-
tray England and Russia alike? Could Russia occupy the
place vacated by England? Could she ever hope to impose
her authority on these two hundred million souls, who only
from motives of fear and habit obey the detested English
rule? What advantage could it be to Russia to push her
frontiers into these far-distant regions?

There is no possible advantage for either power in trying
to settle this important question by the sword. Russia un-
doubtedly prefers the existence of a civilized government in
Calcutta to the establishment of numerous petty native rulers,
which would be the inevitable consequence of the extinction
of British rule in India.

The Asiatic governments are fully aware of the antago-
nism existing between England and Russia, and try already
to take advantage of this hostile feeling. General Kaufmann,
in a dispatch dated as far back as June 29, 1870, drew the
attention of Prince Gortchakoff to this circumstance. "There
is every reason to suppose," writes the Governor-General of
Turkestan, "that the excitement prevailing at this moment
in the Central Asian Khanates, is in a great measure due to
the conviction entertained by the people, particularly by the
Afghans, that thanks to an implacable hatred between Russia
and England, these two powers must, sooner or later, come
into armed conflict in Asia."

Only the bitterest enemies of Russia and England could
desire such a fearful calamity.

Prof. Martens' resumé of his arguments is given in such
admirable and precise form that we give an exact transla-
tion of the concluding passage of his essay:

"Our study is finished. The motive which induced us to

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publish it is known to our readers. It is an immovable and long-cherished conviction, that the interests of England and Russia in Central Asia are essentially concurrent. The two great powers should never lose sight of the fact, that the mission of civilization in which they are engaged in these half-barbarous countries is not a chimera, but a reality which imposes upon them a task worthy of their rank.

"May Russia and England always be faithful to this mission! May their relations in future not be based upon distrust and enmity, but upon mutual confidence, open and honest explanations and loyal respects for accomplished facts and the legitimate aspirations of each other."

"The plains and highlands of Central Asia offer sufficient space for the full development of the material and intellectual strength of both countries. Let them shake hands there; let them prove to the Asiatic people by mutual confidence and mutual respect that the object they seek is the progress of civilization against barbarism."

"When the evil passions and prejudices of the past have been forgotten the English and Russian people will prove that true civilization is based upon coöoperation for a common and noble purpose, worthy of the spirit of the nineteenth century."

We, in common with the entire body of intelligent Americans, concur most heartily in the sentiments thus expressed by the learned Russian. As distant and impartial observers of events which have transpired, or which are taking place, between Russia and England, in Central Asia, we believe that their efforts there ought to be identical and solely in the interest of humanity and civilization. In this grand work there is room enough and ample opportunity for each nation to fulfill its mission. But pernicious and dangerous for Russia as well as for England is the impression that a conflict between those great powers is unavoidable and only a question of time.

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THE MORMONS AT BAY.

BY WILLIAM B. PHILLIPS.

MORMONISM has existed fifty years, for it was in 1829 that Joe Smith, the founder, claimed to have been ordained prophet and priest of the new religion. He said, that he and Oliver Cowdery being together, John the Baptist appeared to them and ordained both in the Aaronic priesthood, after which they baptized each other.

Within this period of half a century the little band of Mormons, composed originally of a few humble and visionary countrymen, in the State of New York, has increased to a compact and flourishing community of a hundred thousand souls, or upwards, occupying the Territory of Utah. And now, on account of the peculiar social views and habits of the Mormons, which are repugnant to the sentiments of the American people and laws of the United States, the federal government has to decide the perplexing question, what is to be done with these people ?

Like many others who cross the continent by the Pacific railroad, the writer had the curiosity to see Salt Lake City and the Mormons at home. This was at the time, last summer, when the United States authorities were manifesting unusual vigor to make the Mormons respect the laws, to suppress polygamy, and to check Mormon immigration. Three of the chiefs, Cannon, the Territorial Delegate in Congress, Carrington, and Brigham Young, son of the deceased "prophet," who are the trustees of Brigham Young's estate, were in prison, having been placed there by one of the federal judges for contempt of court, in refusing to furnish evidence relative to the property they held in trust. There was, at the same time, another prominent Mormon in jail under sentence of the federal court for the crime of bigamy. Then, too, the "saints" had just heard of the circular of the Secretary of State, Mr. Evarts, to American representative abroad and foreign governments, urging the restriction, if possible, of the emigration of Mormons, on the ground that these people embark for this country with the purpose of violating its laws. But there was no apparent excitement, although the

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Mormons openly complained of what they termed arbitrary action and unjust persecution. Some ventured to denounce the government in strong terms. The greater part pretended to ridicule, or treat with indifference, the conduct of the federal authorities, particularly that of Mr. Evarts. They laughed at the circular; said it was simply a political manoeuvre, and would have little or no effect, arguing that foreign governments generally would take no notice of it, and that if they should, any attempted restriction on emigration could be easily evaded by Mormons embarking as other emigrants, without avowing their religion or ultimate destination. Still, it was evident there was beneath all this bravado a feeling of disquietude and gloomy apprehension in the Mormon leaders as to the course of the government then and hereafter.

The Mormons contend that the federal authorities are interfering with their religion, and persecuting them on account of it. But it is well known the government does not and cannot constitutionally interfere with the religious views or practices of any citizen, as long as the laws are not violated under the pretext of religious freedom. The Mormons claim that bigamy or polygamy is a part of their religion, "that the principle is sound and the practice divinely commanded, and that upon the acceptance of this tenet their salvation mainly, if not entirely, depends." Mr. Cannon said recently, "the polygamist alone reaches the highest degree of glory, for there are different degrees of salvation or exaltation." And he, let it be remembered, has the privilege of a seat in the Congress of the United States, as the Delegate from Utah. The law of the Territory of Utah makes bigamy or polygamy a crime, and so do the laws of every State in the Union. To say nothing of the universal sentiment of the American people, and of all civilized Christian nations being against polygamy, and in favor of the practice of monogamy—of there being, in fact, everywhere laws against bigamy—the Mormons live in open violation of the law of their own Territory. It is this, and not the otherwise peculiar religious notions and practices of the Mormons, that caused the United States government to act.

For some time past the Mormons have been hoping to get Utah admitted as a State, because that would make them more independent of the federal government with regard to social and local matters. As the several States make their

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own marriage laws, and the penalties for the violation of
them, the Mormons, if Utah were to be made a State, could
practice polygamy and snap their fingers at the United States
authorities. While they are under a territorial government,
Congress can make or modify the laws for them, and exer-
cise directly both executive and judicial power in local affairs,
which could not be if Utah were a State. As a matter of
course they advocate strongly, and to the extreme, the
doctrine of States rights, and they claim even that a
Territory with sufficient population has a right to be ad-
mitted.

Looking at the population of Utah, variously estimated
from 100,000 to 130,000, and at the precedents established by
Congress in admitting Territories with much less population
to be States, the Mormons on this ground have a good argu-
ment in their claim to be recognized with a State govern-
ment. Nevada has not, probably, to-day half the population
of Utah, yet it was admitted some time ago. It certainly
had not half the number of people when admitted. Utah
has, undoubtedly, all the elements and progressive develop-
ment, as well as the population, to constitute a State. In
view, however, of the existence of polygamy in violation of
the law, and of the hostile attitude of the Mormons at dif-
ferent times to the people and government of the United
States, Congress could not venture to give them a State gov-
ernment. To do so would arouse the indignation of the
American people, and wreck any party introducing and
forcing the measure in opposition to public sentiment. The
inference is, then, the Mormons must either abandon polyg-
amy, and give a guarantee not to tolerate it under a State
constitution and State laws, or remain in a Territorial con-
dition.

A despotic government, or really any centralized govern-
ment, even if it were that of a constitutional monarchy, as
in England, could have settled such a question without
much difficulty. Mormonism, with its polygamous teaching
and practices, would not have been permitted to grow as it
has grown here under free institutions and a federative sys-
tem of government. Imagine what the British people and
government would say and do if a large community were to
start up in one of the counties of England teaching and
practising polygamy! It would soon be suppressed. Nor

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would Mormonism have been tolerated in any of the settled
States of the Union. In fact, the Mormons were driven from
Missouri and Illinois, when they were few in number com-
paratively, as will be noticed further on in directing attention
to their early history.

At one time the Mormon question was a serious one, and
threatened to involve the country in a costly civil war, and
now even the solution of it is surrounded with difficulties.
It is not likely the Mormons will openly defy the govern-
ment, as they did once, for they are now surrounded by
settlements, and the railroads would enable the President to
send an overwhelming military force. Utah is no longer the
isolated and impenetrable region it was formerly. The
greatest difficulty is in carrying out the law against bigamy.
Trial must be by jury, and as nine-tenths of the population,
or thereabout, are Mormons, who would not convict their
brethren, the crime can hardly be reached. A jury of
"Gentiles," or of those not Mormons, could not, under the
American form and theory of Government, be packed with
a view to conviction. In the case of the one Mormon,
Reynolds, being convicted of bigamy, it is well understood at
Salt Lake City that this was permitted by the Mormons as a
test case, and to see how far the federal authorities would
go. It will, as was said, be difficult to convict any other.
The obligation of one Mormon to protect or save another in
such a matter would have, probably, more power over the
conscience than a juror's oath. Then, it is not easy to
prove an illegal marriage, as the Mormons may say that
"sealing their women," and having "spiritual wives," as
they call it, is not marriage according to "Gentile" or
Territorial law. While it is notorious that they have many
wives, in the generally accepted sense of the term, and dif-
ferent families by them, the officers of the government
cannot very well invade their private houses or get at records
to show the violation of law.

Still the steady and persistent pressure of the Government
and public sentiment may in time break up polygamy. Not-
withstanding the Mormons pretend to cling to the system as
a part of their religion, there are indications that they may
abandon it. Were it not for the Mormon immigration of
ignorant foreigners from England, Scandinavia, and other
parts of the world, polygamy would die a natural death in the

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course of a few years. Most of the Mormon young women who have been born in this country, and particularly those who have been educated and are in comfortable circumstances, feel a repugnance to the domestic slavery involved in polygamy, and to sharing the affections and attentions of a husband with a number of other women. No one who has visited Salt Lake City would fail to see among this class that they feel their degradation. It is apparent in their subdued and crushed looks. To say nothing of the natural pride and elevation of character a woman feels when she is the only wife of a man, educated people must see that polygamy is contrary to the law of nature as well as to the Christian religion. By some unknown natural law the sexes are born about equal in all countries. This implies there is one woman for one man. But if a Mormon chief takes five, ten, or more women, where is the poor man of the sect to obtain a wife or be blessed with a family? It is a luxurious system for the rich and ruling Mormon men, but degrading to all the rest. It erects, in fact, the worst kind of aristocracy and despotic hierarchy, and goes back from the enlightened civilization of the nineteenth century to the semi-barbarism and sensualism of parts of Asia.

In all controversies with the Mormons, and in their conversation with "Gentiles," they never fail to talk favorably of their industry, and what they have accomplished in turning the wilderness into a garden, in building a handsome city, towns, villages and railroads, and in their material progress generally. And of these things they have reason to be proud. Thirty-five years ago the Territory of Utah was almost a terra incognita, except to the Indian tribes, which held undisputed sway over the whole region from the Rocky Mountains to the Sierra Nevada.

The Mormons, driven out of Illinois and Missouri, commenced their journey to the far west in 1846. In April, 1847, Brigham Young was leading the vanguard beyond the Missouri river and up the valley of the Platte. It was said the whole body of refugees numbered about sixteen thousand. Their destination, it appears, was California, which then belonged to Mexico. But learning soon after of the annexation of that country by the United States, and striking on their journey the beautiful valley of Salt Lake, they halted there. It was in July, 1847, that the ad-

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vance company passed through Emigration Cañon, in the Wasatch mountains, and entered the Jordan or Salt Lake valley. They resolved to settle here. Early in 1849, after nearly all the sect had been gathered to this spot, and the Mormons thought they were far beyond the reach of the United States, though Utah then belonged to this country, they held a convention and "ordained and established a free and independent government, by the name of the State of Deseret." But the discovery of gold in California led swarms of people from the different States overland to the new El Dorado, and the Mormons soon found they were not as isolated as they supposed. In 1850 Congress passed an act to organize the Territory of Utah; and, strange to say, President Filmore appointed Brigham Young the Governor.

In the course of thirty-two years the industrious and thrifty Mormons have built Salt Lake City, containing twenty thousand inhabitants, besides many other flourishing towns and villages, and have made the Territory rich in agriculture and all the elements of material progress. They have made over four hundred miles of railroad, without mentioning the Pacific railroad, which runs through Utah, and which they aided greatly in constructing.

The Mormon capital was admirably planned. It has wide streets, at right angles, with shade-trees on each side, and it slopes down gently from the base of the mountains to the river Jordan, which empties into Salt Lake about two miles distant. Towering mountains are seen all round. Almost every house looks neat and comfortable, and many show wealth and luxury. There are hardly any that have not pretty gardens and shrubbery about them. Downright poverty appears to be unknown. The only peculiarity in the dwellings, different to what is seen in cities elsewhere, is in the doubling or extensions of these buildings to accommodate the several wives and families of the owners. Some of the rich and leading Mormons have several residences for their different families. Brigham Young, who had eighteen wives and fifty children, or more, besides occupying a very large dwelling, which, in connection with the tithing-house, printing and business offices pertaining to the church, covered a large square or block, had other residences, and just before his death was erecting a superb mansion.

There are two mercantile establishments that do an im-

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315

mense business, the annual sales exceeding 5,000,000 of dollars. One is the Zion Cooperative Store, 318 feet long, and built of iron, stone and glass, over which is the motto, "Holiness to the Lord," and beneath that a large cut representing an eye, which the "Gentiles" call the "Bull's Eye." The other is the firm of Walker Bros. Besides these, most of the other stores belong to the Mormons. But there are a number of "Gentile" business establishments, and the principal hotels are conducted by "Gentiles." In fact, the "Gentile" stores, while laboring under some disadvantages, are increasing and pushing their way vigorously.

The Tabernacle, where the Mormons worship, is a vast oblong structure, 250 feet long and 150 wide, covered by a domed-shaped roof, which is supported by 46 cut sandstone columns. It is said this is the largest roof between the supports in the United States, except that of the Vanderbilt Grand Union Railroad Depot in New York. The Tabernacle has seating accommodation for 8,000 people.

The Temple, which is now being built in the same large inclosure as the Tabernacle, and the walls of which are well up, will be a much more costly structure. It is 150 feet in length and 99 in breadth. The appearance, when finished, will not be much unlike some of the abbey churches in England, only not so ornate in architectural finish. Here the mysteries of the Mormon religion are to be celebrated, and not the ordinary public services, for there is a sort of mystic freemasonry both in the wife endowment ceremony and in the gradation from one degree of eminence or glory in the church to another. Great care is taken to prevent the outside world from knowing anything about these things, as about the inner domestic life of Mormons.

While not more than a tenth of the population of Utah are so-called Gentiles, there are congregations of Methodists, Episcopalians, Catholics and other religious bodies, with excellent church buildings. Nuns may be seen walking in the streets of Salt Lake City. In spite of the Mormons, the number of christians of these different denominations is steadily increasing. In time they will do much to solve the Mormon problem. And should miners pour into the Territory to develop the mineral wealth there, which is not surpassed, probably, by that of California or any other section of the country, Mormonism would soon be overwhelmed. Be-

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sides the influence this tempting mineral wealth may have, the inviting climate and rich valleys of a region larger than the State of New York are likely soon to attract other adventurers and settlers. Although the valleys are more than 4,000 feet above the sea level, the winters are mild and the summers never oppressive. In every way, as far as natural advantages go, it is a desirable country, and the Mormons showed sagacity in locating there.

To understand well the character of the Mormons and the influence their religion has over them, it will be necessary to look at their early history. The details of their fanaticism, suffering, endurance, heroism, and cruelty, and of the strange vicissitudes of their career, would read like a romance, but here the principle features of the story can only be noticed, and these will be taken from the most reliable authorities.

Joe Smith, the founder of Mormonism, was born in 1805, at Sharon, Vermont. His parents were poor and illiterate, and their neighbors represented them as superstitious, indolent, and unreliable. He appeared to inherit these qualities, and to excel all the family in low cunning and the faculty of invention. When he was ten years old the family removed to Palmyra, Wayne County, New York. Here, while a youth, he began to practice upon the credulity of simple-minded people. He became what was called a "Water Witch;" that is, he wandered about the country, with a forked stick or hazel rod in his hand, to determine the spot where a spring of water lay near the surface of the ground. He claimed that this stick, or rod, when held in a particular manner, and without any effort on his part, would indicate by its deflection the spring sought for. His father had followed the same business. The belief in a "divining rod" was common among an uneducated class of the rural population, and some people, even at this day, believe the superstition. It was not long before young Joseph extended his magical operations. He began to divine, by means of a "peep-stone" placed in his hat, the locality where stolen things or hidden treasure lay. After a residence of ten years in Wayne County, the Smith family removed to Ontario County, and there, Joe, while following the employment of a well-digger, found the round, white stone, which afterwards became famous among his followers as the particular magical "peep-stone."

Looking at Smith's mental and moral peculiarities it will

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not be difficult to understand how this man developed into a fanatic and an impostor. He was, doubtless, visionary, credulous, and an enthusiast, almost to the verge of insanity, and yet he was very cunning, inventive, dishonest, bold, and ambitious. It is possible he believed in the end that some of the inventions of his own imagination were actual facts or a divine inspiration, Brigham Young, his successor, acknowledged that the Mormon prophet was of mean birth, intemperate, wild, and even dishonest and tricky in his youth; but said, "that was nothing against his mission, for God can and does make use of the vilest instruments: the religion is all in all."

The progress of strange religious sentiment or fancy in Smith, from the first touch of youthful fervor till he fully developed the system of Mormonism, is described by himself. He said that at the age of fifteen he became concerned for the salvation of his soul. At that time there was a great revival of religion throughout the western part of the State of New York. He professed to be converted, and he and his mother, sister and brothers joined the church. When the revival ceased the ministers of the various denominations contended with one another in their eagerness to secure the most converts. Joseph was sorely perplexed and in doubt as to where he should go. In this state of mind he opened the Bible, and his eye fell on the text: "If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not." Thereupon he went to a secluded thicket near and knelt in prayer, supplicating the Lord to know which one of all the sects was really right. While praying, he said, the entire wood was illuminated with a great light. He was enveloped in the midst of it and caught up in a heavenly vision. He saw two glorious persons, and was told his sins were forgiven. He learned, also, that not one of the sects was quite right, and that God had chosen him to restore the true priesthood upon earth.

But Joseph was weak, and in his narrative he goes on to say, he doubted and fell again into youthful sins. However, in September, 1823, when he was eighteen years of age, God, in answer to his prayers, again sent heavenly messengers to tell him his sins were forgiven. After that an angel visited him from time to time, instructing him in his duties, and finally informed him that in "the hill Cumorah," not far from

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Manchester, Ontario County, certain golden plates were buried, containing an account of the settlement of America before Christ. After several preliminary visits, the golden plates were taken up from the hill on the 22d of September, 1826, "with a mighty display of celestial machinery," and delivered by the angel to Joseph. At the same time, his vision being cleared, he saw a great concourse of devils struggling with angels to prevent the work.

He continues: "The plates were of the thickness of tin, bound together like a book, fastened at one side by three rings, which run through the whole, forming a volume about six inches thick. The record was engraved on the plates in reformed Egyptian characters, consisting of the language of the Jews and the writing of the Egyptians. In the same box with the plates were found two stones, transparent and clear as crystal, the Urim and Thummim, used by seers in ancient times, the instruments of revelations of things present, past, and future."

It is said that when the news of this discovery spread abroad "the prophet was the sport of lies, slanders, and mobs, and that vain attempts were made to rob him of his plates."

Smith soon found witnesses. Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and Martin Harris testified as follows: "We have seen the plates which contain the records; they were translated by the gift and power of God, for His voice hath declared it unto us, wherefore we know of a surety that the work is true; and we declare, with words of soberness, that an angel of God came down from heaven, and brought and laid before our eyes, that we beheld and saw the plates and the engravings thereon."

This testimony is prefixed to the "Book of Mormon," and published with it.

Afterwards eight others, four of the Smith family, three Whitmers, and another, testified to seeing the plates and handling them, with the translation, and seeing also the engravings thereon, "which had the appearance of ancient work and curious workmanship."

These pretended plates, translated, constitute the "Book of Mormon," which was published first in 1830.

The curious speculations and theories that have been put forth by ethnologists regarding the origin of the North

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American Indians afforded Smith and his coadjutors the cue for the story of the book, particularly the theory entertained by some that the Indians are the lost tribes of Israel. But in working up this jumble of scripture history and extravagant invention Smith was aided by a man better educated than himself. This man was Oliver Cowdery, a vagrant school teacher and pretty good writer. He, it is said, assisted in translating the inscriptions on the plates. Years after his active participation in establishing Mormonism he was expelled from the church in Missouri for "lying, counterfeiting and immorality."

The story is, that in the reign of Zedekiah, 600 years before Christ, an Israelite family journeyed eastward in search of a land of promise, reached the sea, and, directed by the Lord, built a boat, sailed, and landed in America. After the family increased, one, by the name of Laman, refused to obey the priesthood, and was cut off, cursed, and condemned to be the father of a savage people having dark skins. These Lamanites are the Indians, which spread over North and South America. It was foretold, however, that in time the curse should be removed from a remnant, which should "blossom as a rose under the teaching of the Latter Day Saints."

After lengthy details of the history of the numerous descendants of the Israelitish settlers in America, in poor imitation of the style of Scripture, the story comes down to a terrible battle, fought about A. D. 430, between the Lamanites and the Nephites, at the Hill Cumorah, in Ontario County, in which 230,000 were slain. Of the little remnant that was captured by the victors only two persons escaped. These were Mormon and his son, Moroni. Mormon then collected in one volume the record of the various kings and priests of the people, and added a book composed by himself, all of which he gave to his son. This is the work miraculously preserved in the Hill Cumorah, and after fourteen centuries revealed to Joe Smith, as the prophet of the Latter Day Saints.

But it has been said Smith is not entitled to the credit of inventing the whole of the story, and that it is a close imitation of a historical romance called "The Manuscript Found," written by the Rev. Solomon Spaulding and offered for publication to Mr. Patterson, of Philadelphia, in 1812, to which was a preface giving an imaginary account of the work having

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been taken from plates dug up in Ohio. It appears that Sidney Rigdon, one of the first Mormon chiefs with Smith, was at that time employed in the printing establishment of Mr. Patterson, and that the copies of Spaulding's work were lost. Those who saw it alleged that there was no great difference between it and the subsequent story of the Book of Mormon.

Soon after people began to join the new sect, the Mormons took the name of "The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints." They have always professed to be Christians, and have adopted some of the orthodox views of salvation, conversion and spiritual life, although they have mixed up with these certain old Israelitish and ancient customs, such as the order of priesthood and prophets, and the payment of tithes, besides polygamy, for which they allege they have a precedent in the practice of the patriarchs, as well as a command from God by direct revelation.

The first Mormon society was organized at Manchester, in the State of New York, April, 1830, with six members, Joe Smith being at the head of it. Branches were established in the neighborhood, and by October the number increased to seventy or eighty. Led by one Parley P. Pratt, a convert, who had been previously a Campbellite Baptist preacher, a mission was organized and sent forth to the Western country to convert the Indians. He and his coadjutors founded a numerous society at Kirtland, Ohio. In January, 1831, Joe Smith, his family, and about fifty Mormon families, left Manchester for Kirtland, and here the brethren received "a revelation" that this place was to be the eastern border of the promised land, which was to extend westward to the Pacific ocean. It was declared, too, that the New Jerusalem, the City of Refuge, should be erected here. Converts increased with surprising rapidity. In the meantime Cowdery and other missionaries went further west, and reaching Missouri, they took up winter quarters at Independence, a village then on the extreme border of the territory of the United States. A commandment was published at the headquarters, Kirtland, that the elders should follow to Missouri. With others, the prophet Smith went. They bought land in Jackson County, in which Independence was situated, and there again laid the corner-stone of the City of Zion.

The Missourians manifesting hostility to their queer neighbors, the prophet and his people looked with less ardor upon

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their Zion scheme in Jackson County, and, as a consequence, Kirtland, or "Shinahar," as they called it, continued to be the rallying point of the saints. The building of the "Temple of the Lord" in this place was continued and finished in 1835. The deed of this property, which cost 40,000 dollars, was secured to the prophet and his successors. Joe Smith had already found Mormonism very profitable in acquiring a considerable revenue. But debts having been contracted in Kirtland, in the construction of the temple and otherwise, which the Mormons either could not or would not pay, and other troubles arising with the citizens, the prophet and his proselytes ultimately abandoned the place and resolved to settle in Missouri.

Greater troubles, however, arose at their new home. The Mormons began to make war on the Missourians and to seize their land upon the pretence that the land belonged to the Lord, and that it had been given to them by him. The Missourians rose in their fury, burned Mormon buildings, and tarred and feathered one Partridge, the "Bishop of Zion." A prolonged and sometimes bloody feud was the consequence. It lasted for several years. Finally, the Mormons were expelled from Missouri, but not before Joe Smith and others were put in jail. In 1839 they escaped and fled to Illinois. Here, on the opposite side of the Mississippi river to Missouri, at Quincy, the Mormons gathered together. The people of Illinois, thinking the Mormons had been persecuted, partly from sympathy and partly with a view to sell their lands and to improve the country, encouraged the settlement of the fugitives. Always active and industrious, the saints immediately laid out the city of Nauvoo, and built there a large temple. The city rose rapidly, and in the course of eighteen months contained 2,000 dwellings. It is said the number of Mormons at that time was 12,000. The Legislature of Illinois granted them several charters, one of which was for a city government for Nauvoo. The politicians favored them to obtain their votes. Soon Joe Smith was elected Mayor of Nauvoo, and became Lieutenant-General of militia. During all these events the Mormons were sending missionaries abroad and increasing in number and wealth. Still, they held that Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri, was to be the ultimate gathering place of the saints.

Through the pride, assumption, and offensive fanaticism

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and practices of the Mormons similar troubles to those in
Missouri arose in the course of a few years with their neigh-
bors of Illinois. Polygamy, in its worst aspects, was prac-
ticed and preached as a part of the new religion, and the ter-
rible Danite Band, a sort of police and body guard to the
prophet, was re-instituted. In short, the citizens of Illinois
could not endure the presence of these people, and after
some bloody conflicts, in one of which, in 1845, Joe Smith
was shot, the Mormons were compelled to leave. In 1846,
therefore, the second or third hegira took place. It was in
May of this year, that, under the direction of Brigham Young,
who had succeeded Joe Smith, 16,000 Mormons, with 12,000
wagons, crossed the Mississippi river on their long and painful
journey to the far west beyond the Rocky Mountains.

Of the sufferings these people endured, on what a writer
has called their via dolorosa; of their subsequent rebellious
conduct to the United States after they reached Utah; of
the horrible Mountain Meadow massacre of a train of 132
emigrants in 1848, and other murders, with which they, no
doubt, have been justly charged; of the destruction of the
Government supplies to General Sidney Albert Johnston's
army, well-nigh starving to death thousands of United States
soldiers; of their savage defiance of the Government then and
on different occasions, and of other remarkable facts and
events in their career, the details cannot be given within the
limits of a magazine article. Enough has been presented to
show the character of the people and their religion, the main
features of the rise and history of Mormonism, the nature of
the country the Mormons occupy, the difficulties in the way
of dealing with them by the government, and the fate, prob-
ably, of their peculiar and illegal system of polygamy. It is,
as it was intended to be, a concentrated view of the whole
Mormon question, which begins again to loom up and to de-
mand a final solution.

The federal government is forbearing, and moves slowly
in matters that might involve serious trouble, or, possibly,
civil war, although its power to deal effectively with the
Mormons, or any others who defy the law, is unquestioned.
It has, perhaps, been too slow in not taking more active
measures to suppress polygamy, for by its apparent tolerance
this crime has greatly extended. With the religion of the
Mormons, apart from the violation of law in the practice of

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polygamy, the government does not and will not interfere, for all religions are free in the United States. But the time has come when the law must be vindicated. To defer action would only increase the difficulties involved in this question. The government will now move, probably, as a prudent general does against the strong works of an enemy, by sapping and mining the bulwarks of Mormonism. The process has commenced, as was noticed in the beginning of this article, through the federal judiciary, and other measures will be taken, no doubt to accomplish the object. The government, as well as the people, of the United States wish to avoid unnecessary harshness, or an armed conflict, but the fiat has gone forth that the polygamous feature of Mormonism must no longer be tolerated. Both the law and public sentiment demand its suppression.

## FOUNDATION STONES OF AMERICAN LITERATURE.*

BY E. VALE BLAKE.

THE United States of America stand unique among the nations in having had no mental infancy; no mythical or obscure past. The youthful nation which sprang into being on the eastern shore of North America was born, Minerva-like, armed and helmeted with all the intellectual power of adult Europe. Hence it has no crude, infantile literature like the rest of Christendom. Nothing comparable to the Greek mythology nor the Northern Sagas; it has no Nibelungen Lied; no Lorliës; no magical metamorphoses to relate, nor tales of fairies and enchanted castles; no semi-fabulous knights of the Round Table; no giant Svyatogor; no Skazka; no Rusalka in even its most charming streams. No semi-chivalrous poem like the march of Igor,† or even a child's story which could match the Well-and-Wise-Walking Khan. Here everything was adventured for a reason, in the full light of day, and all tendencies to exaggeration or hyperbole, did they exist, would speedily have been brought to anchor by registers, dates and figures.

* "A History of American Literature. Third Edition. By MOSES COIT TYLER, Vols. I and II; Comprising the Period 1607-1706."

†This, like the story of the Cid, is semi-historical, and relates to the march of Igor Svyatoslavitch, hereditary Prince of Novgorod-Severski, against the Polonese.

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Thus the early literature of the country bears no resemblance to the early productions of other nations; but it has its peculiarities—the characteristics are sharply defined, not only as varying from European standards, but sectionally as between the different colonies. Give us a book with the date 1630–1700 we can tell by a glance at its pages whether it was written in Massachusetts or Virginia. The trade-mark, as it were, of the different localities is impressed both on the phraseology and the paramount ideas. True, the earliest settlers and the first writers had been educated in England, the classicisms of Oxford and Cambridge would crop out in their writings; the shackles of the old world’s thought were by no means broken, but they were badly wrenched from their former stolidity; and the new scenes and circumstances had broadened the mind, increased the powers of observation, and infused the clearer climatic atmosphere of a wholly new life into the most pedantic of scholars.

There are authors on American literature who speak of all the early writers in America as imitators of the English. We find it difficult to believe that these critics have really read the books they so flippantly stigmatise; for with all that superficial adherence to form of expression which they inherited with their mother-tongue there is certainly a freshness and raciness pervading the pages of many of these writers which it would be difficult to match with those of the same period in England. Many of the first settlers brought with them all the culture of the schools, with an experience of statesmanship acquired in the brilliant and adventurous court of the last of the Tudors, and the first of the Stuarts; here they came, Cavalier and Roundhead, fortunately selecting different parallels of latitude in which to pursue their special cults, but near enough to fuse, when need arose, for a common object.

Mr. Tyler has very judiciously divided his description of these, and others, into three main sections—that of New England, that of Virginia, and lastly the Middle States of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, &c.—and it will be found that, as the main objects of these different colonists varied, so did their literature; and though a single broad distinction might be made, by stating that those who settled in what are now the New England States, or, we may say, north of the 41st degree parallel, and east of the Hudson River, came for conscience sake—or for liberty to establish unhin-

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dered their peculiar Theocracy--while those south of it were
mainly influenced by less spiritual considerations; yet this
division, though strikingly true, is necessarily too broad to do
justice to many individual exceptions on both sides of the
barrier. As conscientious and true men went to Virginia as
to Massachusetts; but there was not so many of them, in
comparison to the total number of emigrants. Some lax
livers, or otherwise unworthy persons, crept into the New
England colony, but they were soon expelled or took them-
selves away.

Mr. Tyler commences his account, as earliest in date,
with the colony of Jamestown in Virginia; but we think it
more just in a History of Literature to give precedence to
that colony whose literary work was not only the ablest and
vastly the most prolific, but that also which has had by far
the greatest influence in molding the thought of the nation
—and this undoubtedly was the colony of Massachusetts
Bay. Had we the whole of the author's projected work be-
fore us, instead of the two earliest volumes only, this could
be made to appear more plainly; yet, even with these, the
proof is ample.

The most peculiar and striking feature in this period of
American authorship is the great preponderance of clerical
writers. Indeed, one can scarcely understand how to account
for the nature of much of this early literature, if not aware
of the fact that the Massachusetts Bay Colony was com-
menced as a pure Theocracy. When the Pilgrim emigrants
arrived at Plymouth in 1620, before debarking from their lit-
tle vessel, they agreed together, *pro tem.*, to be ruled by the
laws of God deduced from the Bible until they had time to
frame a code suitable to their new circumstances; or, as
some one has wittily said, "to make better." But they did
not desire to make better, and though in process of time laws
of local adaptation were enacted, the spirit of them for three-
quarters of a century remained essentially the same; the
Hebraic moral law being the foundation, but very slightly
tempered by the beneficent spirit of the later evangel. It
was natural then that the literature of the period should be
highly tinctured with the theology of the time, which was most
intensely Calvanistic; some of the most popular writers be-
ing those which set forth these severe dogmas in the most
emphatic and lurid style.

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The earliest writers, though much given to theological polemics, did by no means restrict themselves to these topics. In a new country, surrounded by strange scenes, inhabited by a savage race of aborigines, there was much in the nature of their circumstances to call forth the descriptive and narrative powers, and, as we shall subsequently see, the poetical impulse was not altogether wanting. Of course, among the many who came to New England, were some with inordinate expectations; and others who were mentally or physically unfitted for the perils and discomforts of a pioneer life in an absolutely unknown land; these, one by one returning to Europe, to excuse their own effeminacy, spread evil reports of the colony, and did not scruple to calumniate the leaders, who had little tolerance for idle gentlemen, or even weaker brethren; and instances of this kind brought out a goodly number of argumentative replies of a very able and trenchant character. Many pamphlets and not a few books were written by the more enduring sort, in defence of the country and the management of the colony.

This argumentative talent, thus early developed, was greatly augmented and intensified by the supposed necessary defense of their cherished Calvinism against the new sects which were not long in springing up on the soil which they vainly hoped to keep intact for "the Lord's elect."

Of historians, Mr. Tyler finds six in this early period worthy of introduction into his history. Of these, may well be placed at the head, William Bradford, who was for many years Governor of the colony. He left in manuscript an elaborate "History of Plymouth Plantation," which was copied piecemeal and plagiarized from to an unlimited extent by his nephew, Nathaniel Morton, in his "New England's Memorial," published in 1669; and afterwards by Thos. Prince, who used it freely in preparing his "History of Massachusetts Bay." Bradford's MSS. had a perilous and curious history. After having been dissected and its very heart eaten out by these literary pirates (who, however, had the grace not to destroy it), it happened that when Boston was occupied by the British troops in 1775-6, this MSS. was still in Prince's library, which he then kept in the tower of "The Old South Church." This library was plundered and much of it destroyed by the soldiers, and it was for long feared that Bradford's History was irretrievably lost, and was "mourned

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over" as such by American scholars for nearly a century. But in 1855, it was found in the Fulham library, belonging to the Bishop of London, who permitted it to be copied, and it has since been published by the Massachusetts Historical Society. Gov. Bradford was an accomplished linguist and had the peculiar mental qualifications for a successful historian; his work is clear, orderly arranged, most of the facts narrated having passed under his own eyes. He was not content with describing the mere outward facts, but went back, as he himself says, "to the very root and rise of the same." In his old age he was still a student, having in early life acquired a knowledge of the Latin, Greek, Dutch and French languages. He says in one of his works, "though I am now aged, yet I have had a longing to see with mine own eyes, something of that most ancient language (Hebrew) and holy tongue, in which the law and oracles of God were writ, and in which God and angels spake to the holy patriarchs of old time." Summing up the trials which had beset the first projects of emigration, he gives us a clear insight into the motives of the first band of Pilgrims which left Leyden for the shores of the new world; he says, "So they left that good and pleasant city which had been their resting place near twelve years; but they knew they were pilgrims and looked not much on those things, but lift up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits." Some of the company, after their arrival in New England, having written home that they were troubled with mosquitos, he writes of them: "They are too delicate and unfit to begin new plantations and colonies that cannot endure the biting of a mosquito; we should wish such to keep at home." Yet he was by no means insensible to the real perils of their position. In describing the first landing of the colonists, he gives a very vivid picture of the desolation which surrounded them. He says:

"Having thus passed the vast ocean, I cannot but stay and make a pause at this poor peoples' present condition. * * They had now no friends to welcome them, nor inns to entertain or refresh their weather-beaten bodies; no houses or much less towns to repair to, to seek for succor. It is recorded in Scripture as a mercy to the Apostle and his shipwrecked company that the barbarians showed them no small kindness; but these savage barbarians, when they met with

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them, were readier to fill their sides with arrows than otherwise. And for the season, it was winter, and they that knew the winters of that country, knew them to be sharp and violent, and subject to cruel and fierce storms, dangerous to travel to known places—much more to search an unknown coast. Besides what could they see but a hideous and desolate wilderness, full of wild beasts and wild men; and what multitudes there might be of them they knew not. Neither could they go up, as it were, to the top of Pisgah to view from this wilderness a more goodly country to feed their hopes—save upward to the heavens. They could have little solace or content in respect to any outward objects, for summer being done, all things stand upon them with a weather-beaten face; and the whole country full of woods and thickets represented a wild and savage hue. If they looked behind them there was the mighty ocean which they had passed, and was now as a main bar and gulf to separate them from all the civil parts of the earth. What could now sustain them but the spirit of God and His grace."

So the history proceeds in a sort of chronological narration for nearly forty years, during which time the author was annually chosen Governor, till his death in 1657.

Among the classical scholars and devout Christians who abandoned comfortable, even luxurious homes, in England to establish a commonwealth on purer principles in this land, perhaps the Winthrops stand, as intellectual forces, at the head of the colony—there was two among the original settlers—one John, remaining in Massachusetts, the other, also John and a kinsman, making his home in Connecticut. Both became Governors of their respective provinces. The former, while upon his tedious voyage of eight weeks hitherward, wrote an essay entitled: "A Model of Christian Charity." This he prepared for circulation among the colonists, and the object of which was to urge all the members of the new commonwealth to sink personal preferences and ambitions, and to keep the *general good* of the infant colony as the first and main object of all their endeavors. He also subsequently wrote a "History of New England"—like Bradford—"writing history as fast as they made it;" and this he continued to do for twenty years. Some of his pages are written with the brevity of a ship's log, while other parts are expanded into an almost poetical license of imagery, the pressure of public business being the measure of his retraction and expansion.

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In 1645, Winthrop was charged, in the General Court (a primitive substitute for a Parliament), with having exceeded his authority as Deputy-Governor. In his speech in reply to this charge he gives his definition of true liberty thus: "The great questions that have troubled the country are about the authority of the magistrates and the liberty of the people.

* * * Concerning liberty I observe a great mistake in the country about that. There is a twofold liberty—natural, and civil or federal. The first is common to man with beasts and other creatures. By this, man, as he stands in relation to man simply, hath liberty to do what he lists; it is a liberty to evil as well as to good. This liberty is incompatible and inconsistent with authority, and cannot endure the least restraint of the most just authority. The exercise and maintaining of this liberty makes men grow more evil and in time to be worse than the brute beasts—*omnes sumus licentia deteriores*. This is that great enemy of truth and peace, that wild beast which all the ordinances of God are bent against, to restrain and subdue it. The other kind of liberty, I call civil or federal. It may also be termed moral, in reference to the covenant between God and man in the moral law, and the public covenants and constitutions among men themselves. This liberty is the proper end and object of authority, and cannot subsist without it, and is a liberty to that only which is just and honest," &c., &c.

It was a very natural result of the situation of the colonists that they early came into collision with the native nomadic Indian tribes, with whose conversion from paganism they had first charged themselves. With a few zealous persons, this had been an added motive to their emigration; the enmities awakened between the races were, perhaps, inevitable—it was certainly inevitable that New Englanders should write books about them. Omitting any mention of the lighter quarrels and skirmishes, which have all a place in the various general histories of the period, we can mention only one or two of this class. The work of Captain John Mason has told, in plain but graphic language, of the serious war with the Pequot tribe. He admits himself to be more of a soldier than an author, and says, in extenuation of its style: "I never had thought that this should come to the press" (it was originally written as a report for the information of the General Court of Connecti-

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cut; "if I had, I should have endeavored to put a little
more varnish upon it." The narration covers a space of
five years, from 1632-7. In May of the latter year the
crisis approached which threatened the annihilation of the
whites, whose small army was gathered in two bands—one
under our author, Capt. Mason, and the other under Capt.
John Underhill. The Indians occupied an inclosure, dignified
by the name of a fort, at Mystic, and the whites cautiously
approached it under cover of darkness. Mason says: "There
we lay down much wearied with hard travel, keeping great
silence; the rocks were our pillows, yet rest was pleasant. We
appointed our guards and placed our sentinels at some dis-
tance who heard the enemy singing at the fort, who contin-
ued that strain until midnight, with great insulting and re-
joicing." By daybreak, the Indians having sunk into a deep
sleep, the whites awoke, crept up to the fort, forced their way
into it, and "got the savages within their grip." Plying
sword and musket they found the work of destruction too
slow, and so these sons of the church militant decided, "that
we never should kill them after that manner, we must burn
them, and immediately stepping into the wigwam brought
out a firebrand, and putting it into the mats with which they
were covered set the wigwams on fire. When it was thor-
oughly kindled, the Indians ran as men most dreadfully
amazed; and indeed such a dreadful terror did the Almighty
let fall upon their spirits, that they would fly from us and run
into the very flames. * * When the fort was thoroughly fired,
command was given that all should fall off and surround the
fort. The fire did swiftly overcome the fort, to the extreme
amazement of the enemy, some of them climbing to the top
of the palisado, and many of them gathering to windward,
lay pelting at us with their arrows, and we repaid them with
our small shot. Others of the stoutest issued forth, as we did
guess, to the number of forty, who perished by the sword.
* * Thus were the stout hearted spoiled, having slept their
last sleep; and thus did the Lord judge among the heathen,
filling the place with dead bodies. In little more than one
hour's space was their impregnable fort, with themselves, ut-
terly destroyed, to the number of six or seven hundred. There
were only seven taken captive, and about seven escaped."
This encounter so nearly blotted out the Pequot tribe that
they never rallied again for war.

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In 1677 another book relating to Indian wars was written, but the manuscript was sent to England to be printed, was mislaid, and never recovered till about forty years ago, when it was sent back to this country, and was published by the American Antiquarian Society. Its author was Daniel Gooken. It related to King Philip's war, that last struggle with the savages, that gave the final supremacy to the white man in New England.

A recent compiler of American Literature, F. H. Underwood, in his preliminary remarks, takes occasion to say that the colonists were too much occupied with necessary labor to cultivate literature; that all their energies were exhausted in felling trees, procuring food, and defending themselves against the savages: "There was no cessation from toil, no respite from danger. The grand scenery of the unbroken forests created no sentiment of admiration in the minds of the colonists. They were not landscapes to be mused upon in poetic reverie, but so many acres of stubborn woods to be chopped down and burned." Than this judgment of the early colonists nothing could be more unjust, more void of truth; had the author read no other book than Mr. Tyler's, he would have learned the very opposite of this statement; did he read the books as they first emanated from the colonial press, he could scarcely avoid wondering at the descriptive powers and rich imaginations of the cultured men of those times, whom he thus, with a stroke of the pen, attempts to consign to the unlovely region of hard materialism.

Let us look at a paragraph from the pen of Francis Higginson, author of "New England Plantation," and other works. Here is a description of the vicinity of Cape Ann, as seen from off shore: "By noon we were within three leagues of Cape Ann, and as we sailed along the coasts we saw every hill and dale, and every island full of gay woods and high trees. The nearer we came to the shore the more flowers in abundance, sometimes scattered abroad, sometimes joined in sheets nine or ten yards long, which we supposed to be brought from the low meadows by the tide. Now, what, with fine woods and green trees by land, and those yellow flowers painting the sea, made us all desirous to see our new Paradise of New England, where we saw such forerunning signals of fertility afar off." Later he writes: "A sup of New England air is better than a whole draught of Old England ale." We might multiply

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passages of this kind indefinitely, from the many writers who seem never to weary in describing the novelties of the climate and its productions. Undoubtedly for the first thirty years of the settlement, much of the literary talent of the country was consumed in sermon writing; volumes upon volumes of sermons were published. But we must not misunderstand this. Though many of them were merely metaphysical or dogmatic rhetoric, yet a large portion were far more; for these fathers of the nation took a direct and influential interest in all the affairs of the country, and venturing beyond the spiritual sphere, plunged boldly into the politics of the country, and discussed all public questions, often more as statesmen than clergymen. Particularly was this true of the "Election" and "Thanksgiving" sermons; the former being an annual address before the General Court, on the day previous to the annual elections, and the latter was delivered on the morning of their only holiday. We may safely say that if all the other literature was lost, and the sermons of the first fifty years of the settlement preserved, there would be found in them a thorough discussion of all the momentous events constituting an interesting history of nearly every thing worth knowing about the condition of that community.

But the most remarkable success which attended the publication of any book during this period was that horrible theological poem by Michael Wigglesworth entitled "The Day of Doom," of date 1691. It consists of a description of the last judgment with a minutia of detail almost equal to Dante's, but certainly not expressed in that fine idealized spirit of the unequaled Florentine. In its first decade it passed through four editions, and by an estimate of the then population and the number of copies sold, it was found that at least one person in every thirty-five must have bought the book, so that we may safely conclude that absolutely every one of adult age read it; which probably cannot be truly said of any other book in any age or country.

Had we space we should like to give several extracts, but must content ourselves with a few lines. The author commences his narration by a fling at the custom of so many poets of his time, who were wont to invoke the aid of the Muses, which he condemns as a pagan custom, and he appeals to Christ alone to inspire his thoughts; he then goes on to describe a lovely moonlight night in which the inhabitants

AMERICAN LITERATURE.

333

of earth are calmly reposing, unthinking of any danger;
when suddenly all are awakened by the winged messengers
of justice flying through the air, and with trumpet tones
summoning great and small, the quick and dead, to judgment;
then follows the ineffectual attempts of the consciously guilty
to hide themselves, and a very materialistic scene is given of
the compulsory gathering and forcing of all before the judg-
ment seat of Christ; next some pages are taken up in por-
traying the different classes of sinners, and the excuses they
make for their crimes, or faults; at last he reaches the young
children and infants. These poor little ones, "breaking from
the muteness of their horror," attempt to argue that they
have committed no actual sin, and to plead against being
judged for that of Adam (who, by the way, is represented as
comfortably seated among the justified). But the inexorable
judge cuts their pleadings short, with this sentence :

"You sinners are, and such a share
As sinners may expect;
Such you shall have; for I do save
None but my own elect.
Yet to compare your sin with theirs
Who lived a longer time,
I do confess your's is much less,
Though every sin 's a crime.
A crime it is; therefore, in bliss
You may not hope to dwell,
But unto you I shall allow
The easiest place in hell!"

After dilating *ad nauseam* upon all this mass of human
misery, the concluding verses are devoted to describing the
felicity of the saints, "who rejoice to see justice executed
upon the wicked!" And this, as James Russell Lowell has
said, "was the *solace* of every fireside for many a winter even-
ing following its publication. Well may we say, with the
late Nathaniel Hawthorne, "I am glad to have descended from
such a race as the Puritans; I am also thankful that the
Puritans have not descended to us."

A more elaborate and erudite poet was Mrs. Anne Brad-
street, that "peerless gentlewoman," who not only wrote
historical, philosophical and other poems, particularly on the
various aspects of Nature, but was the cause of poesy break-
ing out in others. Some of the best lyrical and sentimental
poems of the period were "Addresses" to the much ad-
mired and greatly honored Mistress Bradstreet. This lady, it

334 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

may interest some of our readers to know, is the common
ancestress of several eminent writers of the present time—the
Channings, the Buckminsters, the authoress Eliza B. Lee, the
Danas, Wendell Phillips, and lastly, that versatile genius, Dr.
Oliver Wendell Holmes. She wrote several historical and
philosophical poems, and also several descriptive of the scenery
surrounding her dwelling. One called "Contemplation"
suggests irresistibly the famous poem of Bryant's—" Thana-
topsis "—and may even unconsciously have inspired it. Mrs.
Bradstreet's verses end thus :

"O Time ! the fatal wrack of mortal things,
That draws oblivion's curtain over kings;
Their sumptuous monuments, men know them not,
Their names without a record, are forgot;
Their parts, their ports, their pomps all laid in th' dust;
Nor wit, nor gold, nor buildings 'scape Time's rust,
But he whose name is graved in the white stone
Shall last and shine, when all of these are gone."

The colony at Jamestown, in Virginia, was in many respects
the antithesis of the Puritan settlement; and their literature,
what little there was of it, was of an entirely different stamp
(except that which was descriptive of natural scenery). The
first English settlers made their home on the banks of the
James River fourteen years before the Mayflower landed its
staid and sober passengers on Plymouth Rock. The first book
written in Virginia was that of Captain John Smith, entitled
a "True Relation of Virginia;" it was sent to England to be
printed in 1608. Mr. Tyler speaks of Smith as "perhaps the
last professional knight-errant that the world saw—a free lance
who could not hear of a fight going on anywhere in the world
without hastening to have a hand in it." This book is taken
up with a description of his own travels about the country, his
intercourse with the Indians ruled over by Powhatan, the con-
dition of the colonists, many of whom he describes as idle and
worthless, expecting to find the luxuries and conveniences of
their old homes in the wilderness of a newly discovered
country.

A few years later, Mr. Wm. Strachey wrote a descriptive
work on the country, which might well have suggested to
Shakspeare his picturesque and fantastic drama of the
"Tempest." This little book was written in 1610, and the
"Tempest" was not produced, at the very earliest, before 1611,
and probably not until three years later. That the suggestive

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335

matter was in Strachey's book is certain, as will be admitted
by any one who reads it; that it was used by the all-assimil-
ating poet is highly probable, but the portions referred to are
too long for insertion here, and we should but mar the har-
mony of the picture by making short excerpts. Mr. Tyler
gives enough (pp. 43-45, vol. 1) to convey some idea of its
beauty and power.

In following the career of the strongest and best men which
the history of this early literature brings before us, it is sur-
prising to see how soon they became Americanized and in love
with the new world. Among the most outspoken of these
was John Hammond, who came to Virginia in 1635, and who,
returning to make a visit in England some years later, thus
spoke of America in a fictitious dialogue, in a book which he
published, called " Leah and Rachel: " "It is not long since I
came from thence (America), nor do I intend, by God's assist-
ance, to be long out of it again." Mr. Hammond had even
then taken special note of the overcrowding and mean way of
living of the poorer classes in England, particularly in Lon-
don.

He says, "I saw a man heavily laden with a burden of fag-
ots on his back, crying, 'Dry fagots! Dry fagots!' He
traveled much ground, bawled frequently, and sweat with his
burden; but I saw none buy. Near three hours I followed
him, in which time he rested. I entered into discourse with
him. * * * I inquired what he got by such burden,
when sold. He answered me, 'threepence.' I further asked
him what he usually got a day. He replied, 'some days
nothing, some days sixpence; sometimes more, but seldom.'
Methought it was a pitiful life, and I admired* how he could
live on it; therefore I will speak out the truth about Virginia
and Maryland, and stop those black-mouthed babblers, who,
abusing God's great blessing in adding to England so flourish-
ing a branch, wickedly persuade many souls rather to follow
miserable and desperate courses in England than to engage in
so honorable an undertaking as to travel there."

Ten years later, the young colony of Maryland produced its
own author and poet--George Alsop. He was an intense loyal-
ist, and on the restoration of Charles II., gave vent to his pleas-
ure in verse, of which the desecration of Cromwell's grave was
one topic much to his taste, as may be judged by the following
lines:

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"Noll's old brazen head,
Which on the top of Westminster's high lead,
Stands on a pole, erected to the sky,
As a grand trophy to his memory."

Virginia society more nearly resembled that of Old England than did the other settlements. The gentlemen were of the cavalier stamp, and ostentatiously good churchmen, large landholders and sportsmen. The laboring population was made up in great measure of persons transported thither for crime. This is a well-known fact; but in placing it conspicuously in his book, we think Mr. Tyler would have done well to explain that small misdemeanors were at that era very harshly punished in England, and that many an unfortunate person there, was sentenced to "be transported to the plantations in America," for no greater crime than killing for food a rabbit which was running wild on some immense, half-cultivated estate. But that many of the colonists in this region were of a hopelessly bad caste, is admitted by one of their own historians, Robert Beverly, writing so late as towards the close of the seventeenth century. He thus speaks of the condition of Virginia:

"I confess I am ashamed to say anything of its improvements, because I must at the same time reproach my countrymen with a laziness which is unpardonable. They are such abominable ill husbands that, though this country be overrun with wood, yet they have all their wooden-ware from England—their cabinets, chairs, tables, stools, chests, boxes, cart-wheels and all other things, even so much as their bowls and birchen brooms, to the eternal reproach of their laziness. * * * They sponge upon the blessings of a warm sun and a fruitful soil, and almost grudge the pains of gathering in the bounties of the earth."

No college was organized in Virginia till 1699, and the first school was but eleven years earlier. While in New England they had scarcely dried their clothes from the spray of their ocean voyage before provision was made for the elementary instruction of every child in the colony, and very shortly after for a Latin and high school; and in 1638 Harvard University was founded.

Between the extremes of Massachusetts culture and Virginia indifference, lay the middle States of New York, Penn-

*This word is an American localism, as thus used.

AMERICAN LITERATURE.

337

sylvania and New Jersey. Of the Dutch literature of New
Amsterdam, which was settled by emigrants from Holland
two years after the planting of the colony of Plymouth, it is
not necessary to enlarge, for though it was not without some
able historians, theologians and poets, yet, as they wrote in
their mother tongue or in Latin, their writings scarcely come
under the denomination of American literature, though writ-
ten in America. American literature belongs essentially to
the English language. But even in that early period of Dutch
supremacy—which continued only about forty years, from
1623 to 1664—New York had acquired the incipient features
of a metropolitan city, unlike any other locality settled by
Europeans on the American coast. It was already the great
merchant mart of the western hemisphere. As early as 1643
eighteen different languages were spoken within its limits,
which then extended only to the present site of Wall street on
the north; otherwise bounded by the East and Hudson Rivers
and the Bay. When this small but thriving Dutch town
was captured by the Duke of York, rechristened with his
title, and English rule set up, there was not lacking an his-
torian to set forth its attractions. In 1670 Daniel Denton, a
native of Connecticut, came to the province of New York and
published a book entitled "A Brief Description of New York,"
which he concludes in this fashion: "If there be any terres-
trial happiness to be had by people of all ranks, especially of an
inferior rank, it must certainly be here. Here any one may fur-
nish himself with land and live rent free; yea, with such a quan-
tity of land that he may weary himself with walking over his
fields of corn and all sorts of grain. * * * Here those
which fortune hath frowned upon in England—to deny them
an inheritance among their brethren—or such as by their
utmost labors can scarcely procure a living, may procure here
inheritance of lands and possessions, stock themselves with
all sorts of cattle, enjoy the benefit of them whilst they live,
and leave them to the benefit of their children when they
die."

Verily, Master Denton makes one almost wish to have been
born two centuries earlier, to have had a share in these mar-
velous blessings—now, alas! departed forever.

Lewis Morris, whose family gave the name to Morristown,
in New Jersey, and Morrisania, in the State of New York,
was an author of spirit, including a humorous element.

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Equally able was Cadwalader Colden, who first settled in Philadelphia, but afterwards took up his residence here. He wrote an elaborate history of the "Five Indian Nations," which Mr. Tyler takes occasion to decry; not for its lack of style or accuracy, but, in a totally unhistoric spirit, he declares it "impossible for him to redeem his book from the curse of being a history of what deserves no history." This judgment of values will be a surprise to that daily increasing number of students of ethnology, to whom every scrap of authentic history of the races which are passing away, is of more intense interest than even the unearthing of King Priam's riches on the plains of Troy, and its revelations of a race long since extinct. As an exceptional evidence of prejudice, this is one of the few flaws in a really valuable work; but there is one other curious statement which is of a different nature, and which it would be well for the author to correct in a future edition. It is this (to be found on p. 94, vol. 1): Having given the population of New England, at the period of which he was speaking, as twenty-one thousand, he makes this remarkable comment: "From that primal community of twenty-one thousand persons have descended the three and a half millions who compose the present population of New England. Since the year 1640, the New England race has not received any notable addition to its original stock, and to-day their Anglican blood is as genuine and *unmixed as that of any county in England.*" The italics are ours, and so are the following statistics, just received from Mr. Tillinghast, the State Librarian in Boston. The facts are taken from the census of Massachusetts for 1870-5, and give the enumeration of the population of that single State as follows:

Native born, 1,104,032; foreign born, 353,319; having one or both parents foreign, 626,211. In the City of Boston, total population, 250,526; foreign born, 87,986. In the last census of 1875, the foreign born in the State had increased to 418,904, and in Boston alone to 117,005! Nearly all the seaport towns have more or less of foreign blood; also the manufacturing towns, and not a few of the agricultural townships, have a considerable sprinkling of French Canadians.

It would give us pleasure to follow Mr. Tyler's pleasant description of the growth of native literature in the peaceful Quaker colony of Pennsylvania, and the more distant provinces, and we shall look forward with interest to the succeeding

AMERICAN LITERATURE.

339

ing volumes, which will necessarily contain matter of more
general interest to most readers than these early reminiscences,
which have, however, an especial value for the historical stu-
dent; but the greater variety of matter and style, and the ac-
knowledged ability of the brilliant galaxy of historians, poets,
writers on art, science and public polity, now living, promise
a rich feast of good things should Mr. Tyler happily complete
the remaining volumes of his projected work down to our own
times.

THE ADMINISTERING OF THE HOLY CHRISM.*

(a) *The anointing of the baptized.*

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

THE PRAYER.

PRIEST: Blessed art Thou, Lord God Almighty, fountain of all goodness, Sun of righteousness, Who causeth the light of salvation to rise on those who wandered in darkness through the manifestation of Thine only-begotten Son, and our God; who hast granted us, unworthy as we are, in the holy water a blessed purification, and in the life-giving Chrism a divine sanctification; Who hast also now vouchsafed to Thy servant (handmaid), of late illuminated, to be newly born of water and the Spirit, and hast granted him (her) the remission of voluntary and involuntary sins. Merciful Master and King over all, bestow on him (her) also the seal of the gift of Thy holy and omnipotent and adorable Spirit, and to partake of the holy body and precious blood of Thy Christ; keep him (her) in Thy sanctification; confirm him (her) in the orthodox faith; deliver him (her) from the evil one, and all his devices, and preserve his (her) soul by the saving fear of Thee in innocence and righteousness, so that he (she) may please Thee in every deed and word, and become a son (daughter) and heir of Thy heavenly kingdom, for Thou art our God, a God of mercy and salvation, and to Thee we offer up praise and glory, to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

* This sacrament follows, in the Oriental Church, according to the custom of the earliest ages of Christianity, immediately after the baptism.

340 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

CHOIR: Amen.

After this prayer the Priest anoints the candidate in the form of a cross with the Chrism on the forehead, the eyes, the nostrils, the mouth, both ears, the breast, the hands and the feet, and says each time: The seal of the gift of the Holy Ghost. Amen.

Then the Priest walks with the sponsor and the candidate around the font thrice, and sings with the choir: As many of you as are baptized into Christ, have put on Christ; hallelujah.

PRIEST: Wisdom.

READER: (The Prokimenon Psalm, xxvii: 1.) The Lord is my illumination and my Savior; whom shall I fear?

CHOIR: The Lord is my light and my salvation; before whom shall I be afraid?

READER: The Lord is a defense of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?

READER: The Lord is my illumination.

CHOIR: And my salvation; before whom shall I be afraid?

PRIEST: Wisdom.

READER: The reading from the epistle of St. Paul to the Romans (vi: 3-12).

PRIEST: Let us attend.

READER: Brethren, so many of us as were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into His death. Therefore we were buried with Him by baptism into the death; that, like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of the Father, so also we should walk in newness of life. For, if we have been planted together in the likeness of His death, so also shall we be of the resurrection; knowing this that our old man was crucified with Him, that the body of sin might be destroyed, that we no longer should serve sin. For he, who is dead, has been justified from sin. Now, if we died with Christ, we believe that also we shall live with Him, knowing that Christ raised from the dead dieth no more; death no longer ruleth over Him; for in that He died, He died unto sin once; but in that He liveth, He liveth unto God. So also count yourselves dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto God, in Christ Jesus our Lord.

PRIEST: Peace to thee.

ADMINISTERING OF THE HOLY CHRISM. 341

READER: And to thy spirit.

PRIEST: Wisdom, let us attend.

READER: Hallelujah. (Thrice.)

PRIEST: Wisdom! Upright; let us hear the holy gospel.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to thy spirit.

PRIEST: The reading from the holy evangelist, Matthew.
(Chap. xxviii: 16 to the end.)

CHOIR: Glory be to Thee, O Lord; glory be to Thee.

PRIEST: Let us attend.

PRIEST: At that time the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, unto a mountain where Jesus had appointed them. And as they saw Him they worshipped Him; but some doubted. And Jesus came and spake to them, saying: All power is given to Me in heaven and on earth. Therefore, go and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you all days, unto the end of the world. Amen.

PRIEST: Have mercy upon us, O God, according to Thy great mercy; we pray Thee hear, and have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord have mercy. (Thrice; so also after each sentence of the Ektene.)

PRIEST: Again, we pray for strength, victory, long and sole rule, health and salvation of the most pious and God-protected sovereign, —, and we most earnestly beseech the Lord, our God, to prosper him in all things, and put under his feet all who hate and oppose him.

Again, we pray for the most holy governing synod, for our metropolitan, and for all our brethren in Christ.

Again, we pray for mercy, life, peace, health, salvation, protection, forgiveness and remission of sins of the servants of God, N. N. (the sponsors.)

Again, we pray for the newly baptized servant (hand-maid) of God, N. N., that he (she) may be preserved in the faith of the pure confession in all piety and fulfilment of the commands of Christ through all the days of his (her) life.

PRIEST: For Thou art a gracious and merciful God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

num; board, about $240; total, $315. At the present time they have a little over four hundred pupils. At the last Commencement, in June, the oration of a young lady graduated on "The Spirit of Modern Scientific Invention," was conceded to be the most attractive feature of the occasion. The one omission in the curriculum of Cornell is in the absence of any regular musical course, for which, as yet, no provision is made. On the contrary, the Boston University, while teaching all the usual curriculum, pays its special attention to the musical course, which is laid out for five years and for which the very highest talent in the way of professors and teachers is provided. The whole corps of instructors and lecturers for the university, including its technical and medical schools, is ninety-six; seventeen of these take charge of the students in music. The Faculty claim that it is the only institution of its kind and degree in the country, carrying forward pupils "who have graduated from the best conservatories in America." This claim means much, for New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and other cities are by no means without good schools for music—not to mention that of Smith College, in Massachusetts, and the New England Conservatory, in Boston. The university courses of music are specialized, as for vocalists, pianists, organists and orchestral performers.

Boston University has a medical course open to young women, three of the professors of which and one anatomical demonstrator are ladies—all having worthily earned the degree of M. D. A College of Liberal Arts is one of the features, and among its valuable collections is a very rare one of Egyptian antiquities. The university is non-sectarian, but holds regular devotional exercises every morning, conducted by members of the Faculty, at which all students are required to be present. Pupils who are able to live at home can here secure tuition for their entire college course of four years for $500. If obliged to pay for board, that expense must be added; but the Massachusetts "Society for the University Education of Women" maintains a number of free scholarships for the benefit of young women of slender means.

The University of Michigan forms part of the public system of education of that progressive State, the constitution of which provides for the perpetuation of the Board of Re-

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301

gents, and pupils from the High schools are admitted on
producing certificates of proficiency. But not these alone.
The University is open to all applicants of good moral char-
acter, if sufficiently advanced in preparatory studies, without
regard to nativity or sex. Natives of the State have only
the advantage of reduced fees. It has departments in Lite-
rature, Science, Arts, Medicine and Pharmacy. It possesses
a library of over 36,000 volumes and a reading-room in
which are taken one hundred and twelve papers and sixty
magazines, including the best foreign. Connected with the
Scientific College is a well-equipped astronomical observa-
tory; its large refracting telescope has an object glass of
thirteen inches; there is also an equatorial and all other nec-
essary apparatus for practical work. In the Museum is an
uncommonly fine collection in the Geological Department;
and in that of fossils, some 41,000 specimens, with 3,000
animal, 2,000 mollusca, 25,000 entomological, 15,000 shells,
8,000 birds, etc. In the Botanical Department there are
255,000 specimens. In the Arts school there is an excellent
collection of casts illustrating epochs in art history, also
anatomical models, etc. The selection of studies is largely
optional, with the advice and consent of the Faculty. Be-
sides the ordinary college courses in the classics, science and
literature, there are lectures on psychology, rational cosmol-
ogy and theology; also on the science and art of teaching.

The benefits of this noble university are given almost
gratuitously to residents of Michigan, the matriculation fee
being only $10; non-residents, $25; annual dues, $20; non-
residents, $25; the graduation fee is $10 to all alike. The
medical course of instruction for women here given, though
the same in all respects as for other students, is, for the most
part, given separately, except in general chemistry and
clinics. Ample provision is made for women in the matter
of lecture and dissecting rooms, etc. There are in the uni-
versity about two hundred female students. Its President
says of the experiment of educating both sexes together:
"After our nine years' experience in co-education we have
become so accustomed to see women take up any kind of
university work, carry it on successfully, graduate in good
health, cause no embarrassment in the administration of the
institution and awaken no special solicitude in the minds of
their friends or teachers, that many of the theoretical discus-

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sions about co-education—by those who have had no opportunity to observe its practical workings—read strangely to us here on the ground.”*

The only State without a college or institute for the superior education of women is that of Florida; but we anticipate the disappearance of this anomaly before long, since the State authorities have at last taken measures to secure the Congressional land grant for agricultural colleges, which, when established, will probably share its privileges with women.

The culminating achievement in the way of obtaining the very best training in the classics for young women is believed, at least by the friends of that movement, to have been secured in the "Harvard examinations" (on the plan of the Oxford and Cambridge examinations in England). This privilege, which the active friends of education prize exceedingly, perhaps the more because it seemed so difficult to obtain, has now been for some years an accomplished fact. The eighth examination of young women in the usual studies of Harvard University will take place, not only at Cambridge, Mass., but by authorized local committees in New York, Philadelphia and Cincinnati, next June. The examinations will be identical with those for the admission of male students. Certificates bearing the signature of the President, and specifying the subjects in which the candidate has

* NOTE.—Nor is it in college experience alone that this effect is felt; the experienced and able Prof. T. G. Taylor, A. M., Ph. D., principal of a remarkably successful academy, the "Adelphia," of Brooklyn, N. Y., says in his Report for 1880: "Both sexes are admitted to all grades of study. We find the presence of the opposite sex makes students more circumspect in deportment, more polite in manner, and more ambitious for excellence." In a very recent Report on the Public Grammar Schools of the City of New York, in which twelve of the schools were made co-educational as an experiment, the Superintendent says: "The union of boys and girls in one school the Superintendent looks on with special favor. The testimony of the principals of the schools in which it has been tried being uniformly favorable as to its beneficial influences." The Report of the Superintendent of Schools in the District of Columbia says of those in the city of Washington: "Where, for special reasons, it has been found expedient to put boys and girls together, good results have followed. The boys have grown more respectful and are more easily governed; the girls have lost nothing in lady-like deportment and have gained somewhat in self-reliance. Better conduct on the streets have been noticed by citizens and pointed out to the members of the Board." We have sought industriously for opposite testimony on co-education, but have found none.

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passed, will be given. The fee for the first examination will be, as usual, $10; and for the second, $5. For young ladies coming from a distance to these centers for examination, board and lodgings will be provided at moderate cost; and those in narrow circumstances will be aided in meeting these expenses by the Woman's Education Society of Boston. The examinations take up, in Latin, four books of Cæsar's Gallic War, Virgil's Eclogues and Æneid; in Greek, Xenophon, four books of the Anabasis, and grammar; ancient history and geography; mathematics, the metric system, quadratic equations, plane geometry; physics; English composition; translations of French and German prose. This new system of outside examinations of young women for Harvard University studies has been somewhat irreverently called "the Harvard Annex." The practicability of these long-coveted examinations originated in the minds of certain ladies and gentlemen of Cambridge, Mass., prominent among whom was Mrs. Prof. Louis Agassiz, Prof. Greenough and wife, Mrs. Arthur Gilman, a daughter of Prof. Horsford, and Miss Alice Longfellow, daughter of the poet. They quietly brought one and another of the Faculty to assist in the movement, which is now thoroughly organized, and gives promise of spreading and growing in strength until Harvard shall spontaneously open her doors as freely to the daughters of the land as she has hitherto done to its sons.

In the central cities named above, instruction will be given during the academic year, of thirty-five weeks, under the direction of the local committees. The fee for the full course is $200. In Cambridge, the apartments occupied by the young ladies' classes are at some little distance from the college, and a keen observer on the spot says: "They have been altogether absorbed in their work, and so little disposed to court or invite notice that their presence in Cambridge has hardly been recognized, except in their boarding-houses and by their teachers." The address of the local committee in New York is No. 60 Fifth avenue.

But Boston, which has always led in educational matters, was not yet content. One of her representative daughters, with the historic and literary name of Ticknor, some few years since started a "Society to Encourage Study at Home." This is now in successful operation. Its scope is broad as the continent, for members may reside anywhere in

the United States. The first condition of membership places the age as not less than seventeen; all members agree to systematically devote a portion of each day to study, from the 1st of October to the 1st of June. A fee of $2 annually is required in aid of the current expenses of the society. Courses of reading and programmes of study are made up by the officers and issued in circular form to the members, with directions and advice, all being subsequently invited to send to Boston written essays for examination; these may be in either English, French or German, and on self-chosen subjects. "Certificates of Progress" are issued to such as show improvement in thought or style.

This society has found imitators in distant Milwaukee, in the State of Wisconsin, where also between three and four hundred female pupils are under instruction in the college situated in that city. The "Home Study Association" here shows even greater local vigor than that of Boston. Over three years ago they opened a hall in which recitations were heard, when desired, and where lectures are also delivered. The society provides a general curriculum in history, English and German literature, on political science, mathematics and ancient languages, psychology, physics, biology, sociology, &c. The Milwaukee society is not, like that in Boston, exclusively for women; they admit indifferently either sex to membership.

There seems to be something broadening and bracing in the vast expanses of the West, which impels to scorn the old limitations, so long cherished in the Atlantic States.

Thus, with a few specimen institutions as samples, we have traced the possible education of the American girl from the elementary public school up to, and through the highest and broadest curriculum known in any university course, without even mentioning the numerous private schools which, to some extent, offer similar, though probably less thorough, courses of study. Naturally but a comparatively small number out of the millions which go to make up the national census have either the means or the desire to spend five or six years of adult age in the pursuit of the higher branches of learning; but the number is daily growing greater since educational institutions have learned that students have bodies to be cared for as well as brains to be developed. Nowhere has hygienic reform been so securely

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seated as in our female colleges, in many of which over-
study is practically banned, and every facility is provided for
sound physical development, which enables the students to
go through successfully with harder mental work, without
injurious nervous tension, such as was common twenty years
ago, or even less.

But here the question may probably arise whether, in this
accumulation of book knowledge and of scientific expertness,
there is any room left for the cultivation of the domestic
qualities so highly prized by at least one-half of the commu-
nity? We admit that very few of the schools, high or low,
in the United States, provide any direct instruction in house-
hold affairs. There are a few which do. Of this number is
one of the earliest and best female schools in the country—
Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, at South Hadley, Mass.—
in which all the pupils aid to some extent—about one hour
or less per day—in the household work of the institution.
This has always been its policy; not so much to save the
expense of numerous servants as for the exercise it affords,
and because its founders believed that this systematic partici-
pation in family work secured important results in the devel-
opment of character and furnished a young lady with addi-
tional motives to be faithful in this important duty whenever
called upon by circumstances to perform it. Mount Holyoke,
we may add, bears a high Christian character in all of its in-
ternal arrangements.

Even high-toned and artistic Wellesley requires all the
students who board in the college to aid in some of the
lighter domestic work. The management says: "The expe-
rience of teachers in the well-known institutions in which
this course has been pursued, has proved that the discipline
of this domestic work, which unites all in one family as
帮 ers for the common good, is invaluable in its influence
upon the moral nature and its preparation for social life.
We believe most of the Catholic convent schools teach vari-
ous forms of neede-work, mostly fancy; their curriculum, as
a general rule, is largely devoted to music, French and the
lighter accomplishments calculated to insure social success;
but we look in vain through their catalogues for any high
standard of mental or scientific work.

The famous old Moravian Seminary, now in the one hundred
and thirty-first year of its existence, situated in Bethle-

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hem, Pa., requires the young ladies to keep their own wardrobes in repair and to spend some hours every week in plain sewing or other needle-work. But for anything like complete instruction in household affairs, we have discovered but one first-class institution which even professes to do anything of the kind. This is Laselle Seminary, founded under Methodist auspices, at Auburndale, Mass., ten miles from Boston. Laselle claims the unique distinction of "educating young women as women, not as young men," and "while giving them opportunities to attain any intellectual height, to do so by such steps and under such careful oversight that their physical development may be promoted and not retarded." This latter is rather a superfluous boast, for as we have elsewhere stated, every well-conducted institution now does the same.

One point, however, about Laselle is worth noting, which is, that in the construction of the building the sensible founders had it so placed, as regards the points of the compass, that each room occupied by pupils receives at some part of the day the direct rays of the sun. Laselle maintains the regular classic division of classes into Freshmen, Sophomore, Junior and Senior, with their appropriate studies; also a musical course, vocal and instrumental, divided into five grades, apparently very thorough. It has also its special courses in science, literature and art, but it adds to all these what is termed "the Handiwork Department," under which head is included "dress cutting after approved methods, millinery, china painting and art needlework, and cooking." As a scientifically prepared *cuisine* is that branch of domestic duties which appeals most strongly to the soul of the average man, we will devote a few lines to the plan of teaching it adopted by the instructress at Laselle, the well-known lecturer and expert, Miss Parloa.

The time appropriated for these lessons is either Saturday afternoon or some period which will not interfere with study hours. Nor is the general order of the house interfered with. On a low platform in a lecture-room is a cooking-stove of the best modern pattern. Near it is the demonstrat-ing table, implements and material; the utensils are of the best, and the provisions from the general marketing. Miss Parloa prefaces her work with reading one or more recipes, which are copied in the note-books of the class; then proceeding

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to business, she explains each succeeding process as she goes on, giving no place to guess-work in her exact and uniform methods. The soup keeps on that verge of boiling which is essential to perfect flavor, while vegetables are timed according to their various qualities; fowls are dressed, stuffed, trussed and committed, with other roasts, to the oven. *En-trés* are prepared, and dainty desserts; creams frozen, coffee roasted, ground and made—a drink for the immortals. Complete courses for a dinner are prepared at each lesson, varying on each different occasion.

At other times there are "practice classes," in which the pupils do the work under the guidance of the teacher. At the last exhibition of the present year the Junior class "received" in dresses cut and made by themselves, and after the musical and literary entertainment was over, invited the guests to the supper-room, in which was a table bountifully spread and elegantly arranged, in which every article had been prepared by their own hands.

Probably the best result of the "Handiwork Department" will be in the effect it has upon the minds of the pupils on their return to home life, the duties of which often seem like a burdensome drudgery to young ladies who have been four or five years totally excluded from all share in them. To the graduates of Laselle they will at least have some flavor of their *alma mater* about them.

Of the number of young ladies taking instruction in purely business or commercial colleges we have no statistics. In the grammar classes and High schools, as well as many other institutions, more or less instruction in business forms is attempted; but it falls far short of the purely business college course, in which alone that thorough practice can be attained which really resembles the practical business of real life. Such schools as Packard's Business College of New York enables students to acquire such a knowledge of business routine as can be put to practical use. In schools of this class not only is book-keeping and other business forms taught theoretically, but banking, clearing-house and custom-house management is practically gone through with. There is a bank, with all the formal arrangements, instituted in one of the college rooms; telegraph lines and telephonic apparatus connect this branch with commercial colleges elsewhere; and orders are transmitted, bills collected and dis-

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counted, checks paid and protested, through pupils representing bank president, cashier, paying teller, etc., who may be in communication with Chicago, St. Louis, Boston, or any place which has a commercial college with which they have an understanding. Actual orders, and small packages representing merchandise, are forwarded and received. A model custom-house is also in operation on the same realistic plan, in which are taught the processes of that department in an equally practical way. Phonography and telegraphy are taught by dictation and practice. In fact, it is scarcely possible to mention any regular form of business in which a graduate of Packard's, or any first-class school of the same kind, will be found ignorant. Modern languages, particularly French, German and Spanish, form part of the regular course of study, as well as commercial law and the science of political economy.

An interesting feature of Packard's is the daily morning meeting in the large assembly-room. For these occasions a certain number of students are appointed to give a report of the most interesting events of the previous twenty-four hours. The pupils successively stand up in their place and give the items in their own way—foreign or domestic news, new discoveries in science or inventions, etc. Attempts at oratory are not encouraged, but what is demanded is clear and distinct utterance, a proper use of suitable language, and an intelligent statement of the facts or ideas brought forward. All the students are required to take their turn in this exercise. The faculties of attention and memory are cultivated in the following way: One morning of each week selections from some book are read to the scholars, who are not permitted to take notes, but after leaving the room are expected to write down the author's statements or sentiments as nearly as possible in the language and order in which they were read.

Quite a large class of young ladies may always be found in this business college, and presumably in other schools of a similar nature; but in comparison with the female students in any commercial college, it is surprising to find the far larger numbers which have already graduated and are still pursuing the study of oratory and elocution.

Taking as one of the best examples of this class of institutions the "National School of Elocution and Oratory," in

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Philadelphia, we find they graduated last year thirty-seven
ladies and thirty gentlemen, while at the present time
there are one hundred and twelve lady students to one
hundred and seven gentlemen. Over three thousand have
passed through this institution since its establishment four-
teen years ago. Probably the Boston School of Oratory
could make an equally good report, and show a similar pro-
portion of female students. What is rather surprising is the
fact that among the names in the catalogues of the alumni, or
students, we do not find one of any prominent actress or
that of any lady lecturer or "strong-minded" female re-
former, so that we are forced to the conclusion that at least
a considerable number of ladies are cultivating purity of tone
and the vocal organs generally, without the intention of
making any public use of them.

The course of study is arranged for two years into Junior
and Senior classes, with post-graduate studies for such as
choose to continue them. The Junior year course comprises
elocution, bible-reading, conversation, lectures and weekly
practice, composition, rhetoric, literature, history, critical
Shakespeare, and parliamentary usage. For the Senior
year, dramatic recitations, spontaneous and prepared dis-
courses, conversation practice, philological study of the
English language, literary composition, general criticism,
critical Shakespeare, logic, mental science, moral philosophy,
with lectures on cognate subjects before both classes. The
fees are $200 for each term of thirty-six weeks, and $10 grad-
uation fee. At the close of each year there is a grand prize
contest in oratory.

This physical advantage and pleasing æsthetic results of a
careful cultivation of the voice, can scarcely be over-rated. We
hold this especially needful for Americans, on account of the
habitual dryness of the atmosphere, with sudden changes,
which are apt to give a sharpness and asperity to the voice
very undesirable for ladies. One's ears are perpetually as-
sailed with discordant tones by ladies who have cultivated
almost every other accomplishment except the artistic con-
trol of their vocal organs. There is, perhaps, no single trait
more charming in woman than a distinct, musical, refined in-
tonation of voice, especially when this is allied to the intelli-
gence necessary to vary and adapt such tones to the subject-
matter of social converse.

The governing principle of nearly every institution, the printed reports of which we have examined (and this embraces the most prominent in every State of the Union), is, we are happy to say, founded on the moral sense and intelligence of the student. It would surprise many of the old-time pedagogues to see how few rules young American ladies need to comport themselves with discretion when put upon their honor. The one surprising exception to this rule we regret to find applied to the Normal School of the city of New York, in the manual of which, for 1879, we find no less than thirty-six by-laws, or rules, for the governance of adult females, many of whom have been teachers for years, with an addition of thirteen other rules for their guidance "in case of an alarm of fire!" We venture to say that this absurd overplus of direction stands alone in its minuteness, and that these rules have never been enforced since this astonishing little manual left the printer's hands.

In closing this article we feel it entirely safe to assert that a young lady can receive in the United States as thorough an education as anywhere in Europe if she will seek the best institutions, and, beyond what the public system supplies, can afford to pay moderate tuition fees; and there is little risk in adding that any young lady of special aptitude and strong desire to reach the highest grade of learning, would find either institutions or individuals ready to aid her if unable to meet the pecuniary requirements of university life.

## THE GREEK FRONTIER QUESTION.

BY D. N. B.

THE return of the King of the Hellenes at Athens, after a five months' tour in the principal capitals of Europe, and the important speech which he delivered at the opening of the Chamber on the 21st of October, may be considered as the beginning of a new act—unfortunately not the last one—of that endless Eastern Question.

"I ask your coöoperation," said the King, "in the accomplishment of my duties towards the country. These duties are now more serious than ever; but, however great the task

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to be performed, the sentiments animating the nation are
equal to the circumstances and afford a solid support to our
effort. I must express my gratitude towards the States I
have just visited. The decision come to by them, assembled
in conference, accords the kingdom a new frontier, rendering
it stronger and extending the blessings of national existence
enjoyed by us to members of the Hellenic family, who con-
tributed to its liberation. The Powers who have signed this
decision are now engaged in carrying it out. The certainty
of that realization imposes on ourselves measures, which will
be the chief object of your discussions and decisions during
this session. * * * The charges the country has accepted are
very heavy, for the whole army, in view of circumstances, will
have to remain under colors till the establishment of the
new order of things in the provinces which have been ad-
judged to us."

It will be remembered that at the Berlin Conference a clause
was inserted in Protocol No. 13, at the sitting of July 5, 1878,
on the proposition of the first Plenipotentiary of France,
which reads as follows:

"The Congress invites the Sublime Porte to arrange with
Greece for a rectification of the frontiers in Epirus and Thes-
saly, and is of opinion that this rectification might follow the
Valley of the Salamyrias (the ancient Peneus) on the side of
the Ægean Sea and that of the Kalamas on the side of the
Ionian Sea.

"The Congress feels confident that the interested parties
will succeed in coming to an agreement. At the same time
to facilitate the success of the negotiations, the Powers are
prepared to offer their direct mediation to the two parties."

This mediation of the Powers on the Greek frontier ques-
tion was embodied in Article XXIV. of the Treaty of Berlin.

In pursuance of this decision the Greek Government inti-
mated to the Porte in July, 1878, that it was ready to open
negotiations for the settlement of this question, viz.: the rec-
tification of the Græco-Turkish frontier.

After two months' delay the Porte answered that it was
ready to discuss the question and that it had fixed the village
of Anino as the place of the proposed conference.

But there was no such name on any map, and the Greek
Commissioners were in a dilemma where to go. After much
correspondence with Constantinople and a further delay of

some weeks, the Porte answered that *a mistake* had been made, and indicated the town of Prevesa, on the Gulf of Arta, as the future place of the conference.

The Greek Commissioners started at once for Prevesa on board a Government steamer; but on its entrance to the gulf the steamer was fired at from the Turkish fortress and was forced to retire to Corfu. Explanations were asked, and the Porte replied that the firing was *by mistake*. The Greek Plenipotentiaries landed finally at Prevesa.

After a delay of two or three weeks Moukhtar Pasha arrived at Prevesa, as the first Plenipotentiary of Turkey. Many compliments were mutually expressed at the first sitting, according to Oriental custom, but no business was transacted. At the second sitting Moukhtar Pasha had not yet received his instructions; at the third, his assistant had not arrived; at the fourth, he declared he had asked for fresh instructions from Constantinople; at the fifth, the instructions had not yet arrived, and so on. After two months of this absurd comedy the Greek Plenipotentiaries wrote to Athens, asking to be relieved of their functions, their further stay at Prevesa being worse than useless.

Nearly a year passed in these common-place subterfuges of the Porte. France pressed Turkey very hard to come to some understanding with Greece, and succeeded, to have the negotiations reopened at Constantinople. The Greek Plenipotentiaries went thither reluctantly. They knew in advance the cunning of the Turks and that the game practised at Prevesa would be repeated over again. It was but too true. After three months of fruitless efforts the Greek Commissioners had to return once more to Athens without having approached any sort of solution of the object they had in view.

The Greek Government appealed now to the great Powers, pointing out that the circumstance provided by Article XXIV. of the Berlin Treaty had arrived. Most of the powers replied that they were ready for mediation, but Lord Beaconsfield was then at the head of the English Government, and the latter showed great reluctance to reopen the Eastern Question. The Turks, with their usual cunning, perceived at once that they had nothing to fear as long as the Tory Ministry were in power, and knew perfectly well that, without England's support, the other powers would not press the subject.

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This view turned out to be correct. In the mean time the Greeks began to be convinced that if they wanted to have the question settled they must bestir themselves and prepare for a conflict with Turkey. Heavy loans were negotiated within the kingdom, an immense quantity of war material was imported, the small fleet of ironclads was repaired in all haste and cavalry officers were dispatched to Hungary to buy horses.

About this time a great event, having an important bearing on the Greek cause, took place in England. The Tories were defeated in the general elections (May, 1880), the Liberals came into power and the great friend of the Greeks, the Hon. W. E. Gladstone, became the Premier. When this news reached Greece the people went wild with joy, as the Liberals in general and Mr. Gladstone in particular were pledged to uphold the Greek cause.

In this they were not mistaken. Immediately on resuming office in the beginning of June, Lord Granville, H. B. M. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, invited the Great Powers to instruct their representatives in Berlin to meet in that city June 16th, 1880, in order to confer upon the question of the frontiers of Greece and Turkey, as provided by Article XXIV. of the Treaty of Berlin.

The conference took place in conformity with this invitation, and the plenipotentiaries have had several sittings, the last of which was held July 1. The result of their deliberations was the unanimous adoption of the following declaration:

> "The negotiations between Greece and Turkey for the rectification of their frontier not having come to any result, the undersigned Plenipotentiaries of the Powers, called by the provisions of the Act of July 13, 1878, to exert their mediation between the two countries, have assembled in conference at Berlin, in conformity with the instructions of their Governments, and after mature deliberation and guided also by the spirit and the terms of Protocol No. 13 of the Berlin Congress, have adopted unanimously the following line of demarcation:

> "The frontier will follow the thalweg of Kalamas from the mouth of this river in the Ionian Sea up to its source, in the neighborhood of Han Kalabaki, then the summits which form the dividing line between the basins.

"On the north, of the Voioussa, the Haliacmon Mavroneri and their tributaries.

"On the south, of the Kalamas, Arta, Aspropotamos and Salamyrias (the ancient Peneus) and their tributaries.

"To terminate in Mount Olympus, the line of which will follow the summit to its eastern extremity in the Aegean Sea.

"This line leaves to the south the Lake of Janina, with all its affluents, as well as Metzovo, which will be acquired by Greece.

"All these tracings have been made on the basis of the map made by the Austrian staff.

"The undersigned have the honor to submit to the Powers, whose representatives and mandatories they are, the decision they have arrived at, so that it may be approved and notified to the parties who are interested."

In the month of July this decision was officially communicated to the Greek Government by a collective note, signed by the representatives of the six Great Powers in Athens. The Greek Government replied at once that it accepted this decision of the Powers.

It was simultaneously communicated to Turkey by the respective ambassadors at Constantinople. After considerable delay the Porte replied by a circular note, refuting the decision of the Powers as arbitrary and unjust and offering to reopen negotiations at Constantinople "on a more equitable basis." But the Powers replied promptly that on no account could they accede to such a demand, and declared that they had arrived at the decision regarding the Greek frontier after the most mature deliberation.

In reply to this note the Porte sent troops to Volo, Salonica and Larissa, strengthened the fortified places in Thessaly, excited the Albanians of Epirus, and said, in other words, that if the Greeks wanted these two provinces they must conquer them by arms.

This stubbornness of the Porte brought out the proposition of the English Government for a naval demonstration by all the Powers on the coast of the Adriatic, to force the Porte to settle the three pending questions of the Berlin Treaty, viz.:

1. The Montenegrin question.

2. The Greek frontier question, and

3. The reforms in Armenia.

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315

The Dulcigno affair is of a too recent date to need here
any extensive mention. The world contemplated the
strange spectacle of the fleets of the Great Powers massed
together for the surrender of a miserable village of 400 mud
houses. The usual, but common-place, policy of the Turks
to promise but never to do what they have promised is practised openly in the most bare-faced manner, and the Powers
are submitting to it meekly, for no other reason than that
they are jealous of each other and each of them is afraid to
inaugurate a more vigorous policy for fear of being isolated.
The Turks are aware of this perfectly well, and of course
profit by it for the time being.

They tried assiduously to break up the European compact
and have the naval demonstration abandoned. If they have
not succeeded entirely, they have done so in a measure.
Seeing that France and England meant to uphold sincerely
the cause of Greece, and having nothing to hope from Russia
on account of her pro-Slav proclivities, they turned their
attention to Germany. A direct appeal to the Emperor remained fruitless but a demand for German officers, financiers and legal advisers was promptly met by Prince Bismarck, and a German is now actually Turkey's Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs. This clever move of the Porte created at once an alarm in Paris. They saw Germany take the upper hand in Turkish affairs. Who "knows what the iron man projects against France, and why should we make an enemy of Turkey out of a classic love for Greece?" This was the general cry for the last month or so, and it required the greatest exertions on the part of the English Government to prevent the recall of the French war ships from Ragusa and break thus the European coalition, which is actually a misnomer, since it is well understood that no power is disposed single-handed to force the Porte to fulfil the unexecuted clauses of the Berlin Treaty.

The important question arises now: What will the Powers
do if Turkey refuses to yield? Will the fleets of the most
powerful nations of Europe retreat ignominiously before the
stubbornness of a rotten government, which has broken its
written pledges and avoids, by artful dodges, its most solemn
obligations? England and Russia are the only nations
which desire sincerely the solution of this question, but are
reluctant to operate alone. Italy is lukewarm, on account of

her designs in Albania. Austria has an eye on Salonica and aspires to extend her dominion to the Aegean Sea, while Germany gives her a helping hand to do so, trying to round her southwestern frontier at the expense of one or two Austrian provinces. Chivalrous France, notwithstanding her strong sympathies with Greece, hesitates to move, not only on account of her interior dissensions and the late clerical agitation, but also because she must avoid being entangled in the intricacies of the Eastern question, as long as Bismarck does not show his hand.

In view of all these conflicting interests, what is the position of poor abandoned Greece? Its friends advise it to have patience and not to precipitate a conflict. The London *Times* hopes that "the Greeks will have the self-control to submit to the moderate delay which may be necessary for the convenience and for the peace of Europe." But this is not so easy as it appears. The die is cast almost as effectively as if the first shots had been exchanged, and to withdraw without having exchanged these shots will be more ruinous than defeat. The war preparations have been as extensive as it was possible for Greece to do. The expense has been for the country almost ruinous, if it accomplishes nothing, quite so; and no disaster likely to follow war could so crush and humiliate the nation as being obliged to do nothing. The moral influence of Greece through the whole Levant would be irretrievably ruined by withdrawal. The position of Greece in this respect is exceedingly critical, and apart from its relation to the Porte there are hostile agencies at work all round it, which it must make haste to meet; failing in which, it must disarm, not merely for the moment, but in all human probability for ever; and not merely before the Turks, who will pass, but before other enemies, who are coming on. The Greeks fully realize that their moral influence in the Levant, which is of more importance to their future than any present annexation, is dependent on their action at this moment, and that, however much they may regret not to follow the counsels of prudent and uninterested Europe, they must risk the throw.

But whose fault is it that things have reached such a critical point? There is no doubt that in the beginning of 1878

* October 28, 1880.

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Lord Derby, then Foreign Secretary of England, was restraining Greece from participation in the war, promising that the British Government would secure attention to Hellenic interests in precisely the same manner as if the Greeks had appealed to arms. He engaged that the English Government would do all that lay in its power not merely to obtain a hearing for the Government of King George at the anticipated Congress, but also to procure for the Greek subjects of the Sultan in the border provinces every advantage and administrative reform which might be granted to the clients of Russia as a result of their alliance with the conquering power. These promises were made on behalf of the English Government in the most solemn, direct and explicit manner, and their repetition had the effect of calling back the Greek army, which had actually crossed the Turkish frontier. Now, these written covenants have not been fulfilled, nor can they be fulfilled to the letter until, at all events, a part of Thessaly and Epirus is severed from the Sultan's dominion.

So far as the present administration of England is concerned, it may be taken for granted that they regard their pledges to Greece as among the most solemn of all the pledges which they have taken both before and since their accession to power. More than one of them, in or out of the Cabinet, put forward the case of Greece at the last appeal to the constituencies in such a manner that it would be barely possible for them to retain office without a public protest if the Cabinet were not prepared to do more for the Greeks than has been done for the Montenegrins.*

An intelligent American, † extremely well versed in Eastern affairs, puts the question in a still stronger light: "It is useless to urge," he observes, "that things should not have been allowed to come to that pitch; whether through hot-headedness and imprudence, or through too confident counsels and too inconsidered promises of any of the Powers whom Greece has a right to receive counsel and promise from, that the course taken has been decided on, it is too late. That promises of support have been actually made, I cannot say; that I know that at Athens they are positively believed in both by Government and people, and that, without such a belief, none of the steps taken would have been taken. If those

* L. Sergeant, *London Times*, October 28, 1880.

† W. J. Stillman.

promises have been misunderstood, or if they seem now to those
who made them incapable of fulfillment, so much the worse
for Greece; but she must try their value. I believe she will
come out of the struggle with greater respect on the part of
Europe, however it may result."

THE ECCLESIASTICAL ACADEMY OF ST. PETERSBURG.

BY A. P. LOPUCHIN.

GENIUS works wonders. Its marvelous touch makes the
wilderness blossom as a rose and turns dreary marsh-
lands into splendid cities. Less than two centuries ago the
banks of the Neva were still a dreary waste on which a few
fishermen's huts were scattered here and there. In summer
the solitude was enlivened only by the sad monotonous song
of the dull-minded Finns; in winter the only sounds were the
roaring of the snow-storm and the weird howling of hungry
wolves. But lo! there appeared a great Russian genius in
the person of Peter the Great, who struck with his magic
wand the barren wilderness and there sprung up on it a
splendid capital abounding with wealth, graced with fairy-
like palaces and huge marble churches, a central point toward
which Russian genius, science, literature and art were power-
fully attracted.

Its principal street, Nevsky Prospect by name, is by gen-
eral acknowledgment of travelers the most beautiful in the
world. Of noble width and extending throughout the whole
city, its length is lined by large private palaces and enlivened
by a motley swarm of vehicles, the gorgeous and gilded cars
of the Czar's Court, as well as the poorer telimovnills' old and
shaky drosky, rolling inaudibly along the smooth wooden
pavement, and imparting a lively appearance to the grand
thoroughfare. At its eastern end it grows narrower and is
closed up by a square, which is faced on the opposite side by
a group of large white stone buildings and towers, surrounded
by a solid wall.

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This is the celebrated monastery Nevsky Lavra, and, to one who had traveled in Italy, it would seem as if this lovely structure had been transplanted from that sunny land to decorate the cold Queen of the North. It was erected in memory of the great national hero, Prince Alexander Nevsky, who in the XIII. century was the first to proclaim the glory of the Russian people from the marshy banks of the Neva, as though foreseeing the advent of his greatest successor, who appeared on these same banks five centuries afterwards. Behind the Lavra, and at the very end of the capital, there glimmers from the midst of a group of tall pines and birches a white building of excellent proportions and impressive surroundings, bearing the mark of the master hand that erected the beautiful and far-famed Winter Palace.

Silently and thoughtfully it looks down through the trees on the suburban villages and extensive turf fields that stretch out beyond it, suggesting the idea that thus must look the birth-place of learning. And, indeed, it is a temple of learning, of higher theological science in Russia—the Ecclesiastical Academy of St. Petersburg.

The Western Christian world has no acquaintance whatever with Russian theological science, and, owing to old general prejudice, created and earnestly upheld by Papacy and its servants, no desire to acknowledge its very existence even. However, theological science in Russia stands high enough to be considered an equal though younger sister in the family of theological sciences of other nations, and rests on a level with the general intellectual development of the nation, being in some respects even higher.

There is no doubt that the Western World would read with interest many works on different branches of theological knowledge, particularly such that treat of the religious history and culture of the far East and the great Slavonic race, if they but understood the Russian language and could conquer ancient prejudice.

The highest nurseries for this science in Russia are the four ecclesiastical academies in its four principal centres of intelligence, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff and Kasan. The first mentioned is a model of the rest, and a sketch of its innermost life and workings will give an idea of the higher theological education in general of Russia.

The academy at St. Petersburg is a boarding-school, as

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are the others also, and is supported by the ecclesiastical
government, giving free education and means of maintenance
to all young men coming from the intermediate colleges or
seminaries, of which there are fifty-two in Russia. There
is scarcely any difference in Russia between the seminaries
and the secular colleges or gymnasiums. They impart a good
middle-class education in history, mathematics and literature,
and only differ in so far that the Holy Scriptures are not so
thoroughly studied and philosophical science is altogether
neglected. The advantage is undoubtedly with the semina-
ries, and more than half the students at the monasteries come
from these clerical colleges. What makes theological schools
of the seminaries are two supplementary classes that are
added to the general educational course, and have a special
theological character.

These two classes are not obligatory on all students
and are only taken by those who wish to become members of
the clergy and desire to pursue a higher theological course.
A few of the best students in these classes are selected every
year by the faculty of the seminary and sent to the Academy
for the completion of their theological education. After a
successfully passed examination they are registered as stu-
dents of the Academy and given free lodging, board and
clothing, the only care left them being to devote themselves
entirely to study.

The course of academical education comprises four years
and embraces a long list of scientific studies. This, however,
is not compulsory to all the students, and is divided into
special departments containing but one that is specifically
theological. Corresponding to three general divisions, called
theoretical, historical and practical, there are three called
*theological*, historical and practical, which may be chosen at
will by the student on entering. Of the latter, the first con-
tains, so to say, the purest cream of theological knowledge:
*dogmatics*, as the speculative science of Christian thought
and belief; *ethics*, the practical side of the same science;
*po-lemics*, the critical examination of the theological system of
other churches and denominations; and Hebrew, the linguis-
tical foundation of all biblical knowledge. The *historical* de-
partment embraces the secular and religious history of the
whole world and of Russia in particular, in ancient and modern
times. The *practical* department treats of the study of the

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practices of the Church and comprises canonical law, ritual,
the literature of the pulpit, and literature in general.

As may be seen from this brief report, the students of the
three departments are engaged with different branches of
study, and, after finishing their course, are specialists in differ-
ent departments of science, though graduates of the same
academy and having the same fundamental education.

Besides these special branches, all the students are engaged
in pursuing one general course, the philosophical one, which
over and above exegetics and classics, embraces philosophy in
its several forms, to-wit: the history of ancient and modern
philosophy, metaphysics, logic, psychology, pedagogics and
fundamental or apologetical theology. This course imparts
the deepest philosophical coloring to the entire institution
and gives the Ecclesiastical Academy the highest rank among
schools in Russia, which are very much lacking in this re-
spect. Among many other similarities to Americans, the
Russians resemble them in their low esteem of the queen of
sciences, philosophy.

However, while in Americans this lack of sense for the
philosophical finds ample compensation in the practical side
of their nature, it leaves an unfilled space in the character of
the Russian and brings about some most deplorable results.
It has caused that most horrible confusion of thought and
belief that characterizes the history of modern Russian
society, and found its worst expression in that wild and
brutal movement called Nihilism. As regards the general
and philosophical training of the mind, the students of the
Academy are greatly superior to those of the University.

They are the most seriously studious in St. Petersburg
and produce the best philosophical thinkers, historians and
literary critics. This fact is generally acknowledged, and it
is not uncommon for students of the University who have
passed their scientific course to enter the Academies for one
or two years, there to complete their philosophical education.

One of the greatest modern Russian philosophers, M. Solovieff, after finishing the University course, completed his philosophical studies in the Academy of Moscow, and the professors of philosophy at the St. Petersburg Academy are the most thoroughly acquainted with German and English philosophy in Russia.

Its broad philosophical foundation makes theology truly
scientific and thorough.

It is far from being that narrow, mere denominational
theology which obstinately confines itself to the circle of old
traditional beliefs, and is deaf to all new and fresh develop-
ments of human thought, such as the Papal and Protestant
West are accustomed to represent it. It grants full freedom
to private thought and scientific progress, but at the same
time believes that the highest development of theological
thought was already attained in the golden centuries of
Christendom, in the time of S. Chrysostom and the Seven Ecu-
menical Councils, and that the following development is only
private and not substantial, in detail and not in essence.

It is this peculiarity which causes it to differ, and advan-
tageously so, from Roman Catholic and Protestant theology,
because of its full acknowledgement of the right of human
thought. Russian theology never stood in opposition to
scientific progress, and knows no such thing as a history of
the "Conflicts of Religion and Science" as was the case with
Roman Catholic theology, so graphically painted by Prof.
Draper, who himself makes note of this fact. On the other
hand, the high esteem in which it holds the old treasure of
Christian faith gives it a firm stand against the temptations
of light reasoning concerning holy things, and preserves it
from that slippery path down which Protestant theology im-
perceptibly glides into the dreadful abyss of rationalism.

In 1872, during the wedding festivities at St. Petersburg,
consequent on the marriage of the Grand Duchess Mary Alex-
androwna to His Highness Prince Albert of Edinburg,
Dean Stanley visited the Ecclesiastical Academy and admired
both the system of theological education and high scientific
attainments of the students, being surprised at receiving the
most ready, correct answers to several theological questions.
If the surprise of the celebrated English divine was an echo
of unintentional prejudice, so the excellent answers were only
a slight expression of the entire system of Russian theology,
and a good protest against prejudice.

Although the four academies have the same scientific
character and shape, yet at the same time each has its own
local coloring consequent on its position in a different center
of the historical life of the country. The Academy of St.
Petersburg, standing at the very window to Europe, hewn by
Peter the Great, pursues as its principal purpose the cultiva-
tion of general theological and philosophical science, being the

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principal mediator between Western and Russian theology, and the Moscow Academy, situated in the very heart of Russia, is earnestly engaged in the development of real national, religious and philosophical thought, taking as its inexhaustible source the immortal works of the ancient Fathers of the Church.

The Kieff Academy, the largest one in the country, standing on the Western edge of the country, on the boundary line between the two largest denominations of the world, is by this very position called upon to be the guardian of the interests of the Orthodox Church and the repulser of insolent attacks on the part of servants of Papacy, and thus it is that polemics against Roman Catholicism form the chief part of its work and life up to the present time. The Kasan Academy, on the other hand, situated as it is on the extreme eastern end of the country, on the border of Asia, is earnestly engaged in the missionary work of introducing Christianity among the Tartars and establishing the Orthodox Church among the many sects on the banks of the Volga River.

During the first two years the students merely attend the professors' lectures, but in the third year they begin independent work—the writing of scientific works as necessary condition for obtaining the degree of candidate in the fourth year of the academical course. This last is the most important and interesting of academical life. The students for the first time are requested to give a test of their literary and scholarly acquirements, and hence, devote themselves to their work with the greatest seriousness and energy. The subjects are chosen at will from a large list presented by the professors. Having selected one in accordance with his taste and ability, the student devotes himself to his work for the entire year. He buries himself in the heaps of books taken from the large academical library, which contains about fifty thousand of the best books in ancient and modern languages, and visits besides the famous book treasuries of the Imperial Public Library and of other scientific institutions. The professors kindly and attentively direct the progress of the student's work, and the relations between tutor and pupil are friendly and sympathetic. The works thus written are generally very capacious, containing from 200 to 400 pages, and the subjects are highly interesting and instructive, being such as these: "The Truth of God's Being from the Point of View

of Kant.” “Examination of Origen’s Doctrine of Trinity,”
“The Relations of the Eastern and Western Church in the
Century of Thomas Aquinas.” “The Public Penitence of the
Ancient Church.” “Nihilism as a Moral Doctrine,” &c., &c.
Some of these works are printed and published, but most of
them are simply preserved in the academical archives, and re-
present the most valuable material for the history of the theo-
logical thought of the century. Every year the Academies
produce more than a hundred of these works, which bestow
on their authors the degree of candidate. The highest degrees
are those of Master and Doctor, to obtain which new works
must be written whose merits are judged of by public dis-
cussion in the presence of a numerous assembly of the re-
presentatives of Russian science and of general society.

The professors of the Academy are highly educated men
bearing the degree of Master or Doctor. They are graduates
of the same Academies. After graduation the best students
are retained at the Academy and prepared for professorship.
They study special sciences and are then sent abroad, mostly
to German Universities, where they become acquainted with
the most advanced methods and progress of Western science.
On their return they make a report of their scientific observa-
tions, write the dissertation for the obtaining of a Master’s
degree and are then made professors of the lower grades,
docents and extraordinary professors. The highest rank is
that of ordinary professor and is attainable only after the
conferring of the highly-esteemed and hard-to-be-gained de-
gree of Doctor. Of the latter there are only six in the Acad-
emy; the entire number of professors comprising thirty-five.

All the professors of the St. Petersburg Academy are men
of profound learning, and many of them are brilliant writers
and contributors to scientific magazines, literary journals and
daily papers, both *religious* and *secular*. The rector of the
Academy, the Rev. I. L. Yanysheff, is one of the best rep-
resentatives of Russian theologians. He speaks several Euro-
pean languages, possesses the largest amount of knowledge
of Russian and Western theological literature, and is a brill-
liant teacher of Christian ethics. He is at the same time the
greatest church orator in Russia. His sermons are always
great events in the northern capital and his mighty words
have often drawn tears from the numerous and brilliant as-
semblages contained within the marble walls of the St. Isaac
Cathedral.

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The Academy publishes two papers, a bi-monthly magazine, "The Christian Reading," and a weekly called "The Church Messenger." They are the best model Russian theological publications, and fairly represent the progress of theological thought and church life in the country.

Under the able and experienced direction of one of the best professors of the Academy, Prof. Predtetchensky, they have in the last five years attained the largest circulation of any religious paper in a country where even the daily secular papers still suffer from a lack of readers.

Another private professor of the Academy, M. Popovitsky, is the editor of a pretty largely circulated paper, "The Church and Society Messenger."

This last is the principal organ of that Church party which claims to be the liberal one, and energetically, if not always seriously, does its work.

Daily life in the Academy is an idyl like which there are not many in Russia.

The students get up at half-past six o'clock, listen to the morning prayer, take breakfast, consisting of bread and tea, and then resort to study until two o'clock, when dinner, consisting of three courses and including the national soup, *shtchi*, and the national table-drink, *kwas*, is served.

After dinner they are free to do as they please. Some go into the city, others walk along the beautiful avenues of birches and pines that adorn the Academy grounds, play croquet, practice gymnastics or read interesting books and the latest issues of magazines and journals, both secular and religious, Russian and foreign. Most of the students are from twenty to twenty-five years old, and many wear the thick broad beards which characterize the Russian race. In all they are about 250 in number.

From five to nine o'clock they are engaged in study; then comes supper, after which an hour is spent in music, etc. At ten, evening prayers are read, and eleven is the hour of retiring. The students enjoy a good deal of freedom and are only held strictly to the observance of general rules. On Sundays, service is held in the Academy chapel, the students singing in the choir. The Academy exercises a great moral influence and implants indelible impressions on its students. Throughout all the various conditions of their future life they preserve a tender love for

their Alma Mater, take an eager interest in its existence and progress and make liberal contributions to it, not only by products of their literary powers, but by donations of money, especially for the support of such poor students who, because of the increased number of applicants for theological education, could not all be provided for by Government subsidies. Many of its former students now occupy the highest positions in Church and State, and one of its oldest students is His Eminence the Metropolitan Isidore, first member of the Holy Governing Synod of Russia and the beloved protector of the Ecclesiastical Academy.

## THE CARAVAN ROAD FROM EGYPT TO SYRIA.

BY CARL V. SCHERZER.

IN the spring of 1875, during the term of my official capacity at Smyrna, the arrival of a stranger was one day announced to me. He called himself Ludwig Neudorf; was traveling through the Orient for purposes of scientific study, and had the intention of spending several days on the classic banks of the Hermes. I had been previously informed by a friend that this unpretending name served to conceal a princely personage who was desirous of maintaining a strict incognito. In truth, he was no less than an Austrian archduke, Ludwig Salvator of Tuscany, at that time already made famous, even in the scientific world, by his excellent work on the Balars. The happy result of my intercourse with him was that in the future the illustrious author distinguished me by sending me all his publications. These always follow up a scientific and often a practical purpose. Thus, for instance, a trip to the United States gives the no less philanthropical than learned traveler occasion for a small work on California, in which he, in a wholly original manner, regards emigration more from a sanitary than a national economical point of view. Although the little book just alluded to is not the subject of the present review, I cannot desist from quoting a few extracts, as they are characteristic of the keynote that sounds through all the distinguished author's

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writings, and at the same time show that he conducts his researches not only with the scientist's eye, but also with the philanthropist's view of gaining good therefrom for his fellow men.

Each year when winter approaches, and his breast is filled with longing for the sunny South, he thinks in loving pitifulness of those "whose means do not permit this annual flitting like that of the birds, who must see with sorrow how wife and children fade away in their cold, inhospitable country."

According to the author's opinion, there is one energetic means at the disposal of such—emigration to warmer latitudes, in order to find health and mayhap riches there. "For such a purpose, no country offers greater advantages nor is more adapted for European emigration than California. It is a country which combines fertility of soil and facilities for any industrial culture with healthiness of climate; a country where the harshness of winter as well as the heat of summer are equally unknown."

Most recently efforts have been directed "from many sides against emigration to America; and in truth, many emigrants who confined themselves to the already thickly-populated Eastern States, and had gone thither poor and frequently almost unwillingly, came back bitterly disappointed. Nevertheless, a wide field still lies open in the far West. It is true that, above all, love for work and a ready good will must be brought along; for in America these are in greater demand than in our countries. Provided with these qualities, however, it is far easier to gain a good subsistence, and with a little capital added thereto the chances to grow rich are undeniably greater than in Europe."

In the preface to the above-mentioned work the author says: "It was my design in this sketch of the blessed country of California to represent the possibility, nay, the facility, of gain there, and I would be satisfied if by this means I had helped some to the founding of a pleasant and happy home."

Scarce returned from North America, we again meet the distinguished traveler on his way to Egypt, there to pass the winter.

Here it is the land connection between Egypt and Syria that above all occupies the imagination of our author, so alive to all great plans and enterprises. In the preface to his

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newest literary work he writes: "Who can linger long in this land, in which the greatest undertakings of our century have been completed before our eyes without thinking of projects?"

The archduke wished to journey along the old caravan road over Wadi El Harish, the former Torrens Aegytii, in order, by personal inspection, to convince himself in how far it was possible to construct a railway for the convenience of both countries on this shortest and straightest line, a project repeatedly urged on account of the bad and dangerous ports of southern Palestine, a country extremely rich in products.

Since the opening of the Suez Canal this caravan road, which once kept up so lively an intercourse between Syria and Egypt, has almost sunk into forgetfulness. It is now used only by a few camel drivers and cattle dealers—sand even by the latter only in a small way, as the exportation of cattle out of Palestine is for the greatest part carried on by the steamers plying between Jaffa and Alexandria. The author of the book under discussion likewise found it best to summon a caravan of horses and mules from Jaffa, which overtook him at El Kantara, on the Suez Canal, whence the journey through the desert began. Every evening in his tent the events of the day were written down, and thus originated those interesting descriptions of an arduous caravan journey from El Kantara over Katia El Harish and Khanyounis to Ghaza, the most noteworthy of which we propose to impart to the reader, all the more as only a few copies of the book were issued, which, indeed, were intended merely for the author's friends.

On his entrance into the desert, the nature-loving author cries out in gratification:

"How soothing is the feeling of freedom which can here be enjoyed: the soul satiates itself with solitude and imagination paints the most varied pictures on the distant waver-ing horizon. Only life on the ocean, with its imperishable charm, can be compared with it, and in such a moment man feels that, after all, he is born a nomad!"

The caravan road stretches along those high poles that bid defiance to even the sand of the desert—the bearers of the electric wires which now connect the desert with the most distant and busiest of the world's marts. Halt was made

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before a cottage of telegraph inspectors, who came out in friendly greeting. These are Arabs who live with their families in this solitude of sand. Their most important furniture consists of a small stock of wire and insulating bottles, with which to keep the telegraph conduction in good condition. Each inspector has a considerable distance under his care. These good people complained principally of the sirocco chamsin, which frequently threatens to destroy and bury their dwellings, but were otherwise perfectly contented. But then, how little is necessary to render a frugal and God-fearing Arab satisfied!

Next to the sirocco, it is principally the scarcity of drinking water that, with the prevailing intense heat, is a cause of torture to the traveler in the desert. The instinct of self-preservation makes him even cruel to his fellow-men.

"As the wind came from the South, the air was burning, and I feared the chamsin was coming," relates the princely traveler. "We erected our tent in a hollow where rushes grew, and we were somewhat protected from the wind, and partook of breakfast. All that we ate was covered with the fine sand that filled the air. Wandering Bedouins, whom we had come across a little while previously as they were partaking of a scanty repast, journeyed past. An old woman came to us and begged for some water. How gladly would we have given to her from our stock; how heartless it was to send away the poor creature, and yet foresight demanded it. Had we given her water, the entire horde would have descended on us and our whole stock been soon exhausted. A young fellow likewise came up to us and asked for a little tobacco, which we readily gave him; but when he also asked for water, the answer had to be a cruel 'No!'

"We now came to a mountainous region of the desert, known as El Bredj, and dreaded by the Bedouins as a completely waterless and difficult part of the road. The wind still blew from the South and with ever-increasing strength. We encountered a troop of Bedouins exhausted from heat and thirst, who begged for water. It was heartrending to see the children drag themselves painfully along and implore their parents for a drop of water. Methinks I still hear their plaintive cries, as one after the other vainly sought to gain another drop from the empty clay bottles. I remember one family with particular distinctness; it consisted of an old man

with three small children and a lean donkey. The donkey laboriously climbed up a sandy elevation, the old man panted in the rear, holding the hand of the oldest child, a bronze-colored, attenuated boy, while the two smaller children clung to the back of the exhausted animal, their hollow eyes staring fixedly towards the distant goal. Suddenly the donkey fell groaning to the ground, on which the poor little ones now rolled. What now? I can never forget the old man's look. 'Allah! Allah!' he cried and raised his eyes to heaven. He now also sat down in the sand, drew the children towards him and allowed the poor brute to rest. But we were obliged to pass on. Allah helped him, I hope!

"We next passed a spot where a wandering Hindoo had perished four years before. A few steps further on we came across our kitchen-boy, who was unable to go on. All our people were so exhausted that they had mounted the pack mules, and the poor boy, the humblest of them all, was forced to march on alone in the deep sand. He implored our *moukre* to let him ride, but in vain. Each cared for himself only. I ordered some bread, meat and water to be given to the boy, and we were then forced to leave him to his fate; it was midnight when he reached our camp."

At last the desert is happily passed. An elevated and joyful mood takes possession of the travelers. They have arrived at the castle of El Harish, the last, most eastern outpost of Egyptian dominion. They are in sight of the forest of palms, of whose glories the camel drivers had so often spoken.

"And in truth," cries the author, "what more alluring picture can be present to the imagination of an Arab journeying beneath a burning sun on the fickle sand of the desert than a plantation of palms abounding with springs on the shore of the refreshing ocean."

A special chapter is devoted to the stay in El Harish, whose population, consisting of 2,800 souls, mostly camel drivers, gain a livelihood by means of the caravan trade. This village is situated at about half-an-hour's distance from the ocean, on the border of the desert, which, spreading from day to day, threatens to bury the settlement, many houses on the southwest side having in fact already met with this fate.

The climate of El Harish is salubrious. There is no

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snow whatever; hail falls sometimes and rain very frequently; to the greatest degree in February. After the chamsin, which lasts fifty days, the weather is warmest. The great heat lasts about four months. The garrison consists of sixty soldiers, among them ten artillerymen, who receive their orders from the Governor of the fort and whose principal task is to keep the neighboring Bedouin tribes in check. And indeed the latter greatly fear the military, for so soon as a sheik seems in the least suspicious he is taken prisoner and sent to Cairo. Since the opening of the Suez Canal El Harish has lost nearly all its significance for the caravan trade, as on account of the short distance between Port Saïd and Jaffa all the traffic between southern Syria and Egypt is effected by sea. From Harish itself no wares are exported on camels, with the exception of dates, which are sometimes brought to Ghaza. There are no boats in Harish, as the shore is bad and full of reefs. Sometimes vessels from Jaffa bring cereals and fruit; more rarely wood for building purposes, as the latter mostly comes from Wadi. The number of ships, however, which in the course of a year weigh anchor at El Harish scarcely exceeds sixteen or seventeen.

The stay in El Harish offers opportunity for many an interesting episode. One day a visit is paid to the cemetery, whence an excellent view may be had of the settlement as well as of the palm forest which stretches out towards the ocean. The author relates: "While I was sketching, an old man, who was looking at the graves of some children, per chance of his, approached me. He asked me if I had chil dren. When I answered in the negative, he said to me, with an expression of the deepest pity, 'Poor man!' It may be perceived how highly these people rate family life. 'But what is to be done?' he went on to say; 'one must be re signed; God willed it so.' I soberly continued my sketching."

In Khanyounis the travelers reached the last settlement of Syria on the way to Egypt, the last outpost of the direct might of the Porte, such as El Harish is to Egyptian power. Between these lies that part of the desert in which the Rafah pillars form the ideal boundary, where the Bedouin, however, wanders at will, careless under whose dominion he stands. Like the castle in El Harish, in Khanyounis the 850-years- old kali or fort forms the kernel of the cheerful settlement,

around which the other dwellings were built one after another. Agriculture and cattle breeding are the occupations of the population, which formerly numbered 1,800, but is now reduced to 1,000, through the frequent depredatory invasions of the Tarabin Bedouins, who repeatedly set fire to the grain of the poor inhabitants.

From Khanyounis a broad sandy road leads to Ghaza, whose numerous minarets and palm trees wave a welcome to the travelers, all the more cheerful as they betoken the goal of their journey. The camels are now left behind, and it is not without a feeling of sorrow that the author presses the hand of the brave *dand* who had been faithfully at his side from El Kantara to Ghaza. All needless baggage is set aside, for the travelers are now in "the promised land—the land of plenty and wealth."

But the stay in Ghaza is of short duration, and the illustrious author takes leave of the reader only to start on a third trip to Jerusalem.

The book before us is not only of great literary, but also of national interest. The observations and experiences noted therein wholly refute the ever-recurring project that a railway along the old caravan road would be the most convenient means of communication between Syria and Egypt. During his journey the author convinced himself of the entire impracticableness of such a road, which would be constantly exposed to sand-drifts, and for this reason require an enormous outlay to be kept in order.

At the same time the thought of an old *ideal* arose with more vividness than ever in the author's fancy, to-wit: *the building of a suitable harbor in Beireuth and the construction of two great railways, one to pass through the south of Syria, so rich in cereal products, the other through the Jordan Valley, thus conducting the entire commerce of Syria to Beireuth.*

The works in the harbor would be far easier to carry out and connected with less expense than those at Jaffa. Further advocates in favor of Beireuth are the wealthy trading-firms already established there, its important connection with Damascus and large inland trade. The wish expressed in reference to this by the distinguished traveler will no doubt find a loud echo in all friends of the Orient and of progress, that "this so highly important undertaking to Syria may soon come to realization and be effectually supported by the interested powers."

THE FRENCH EXPEDITION.

333

THE FRENCH EXPEDITION FROM SENEGAL TO THE
NIGER.

THE French expedition under Captain Gallieni, which was intrusted with the preliminary work for the projected railway between Senegal and the Niger, encountered serious difficulties on its way to Segon-Sikoro, the capital of the friendly inclined Sultan Ahmadu.

Dr. Bayol, a member of the expedition, reports to the
Geographical Society of Paris, as follows:

“Regardful of the connection about to be established be-
tween the French settlement and the Niger, a fort was built
last year in Bafulabé, some seventy miles outside of the old
boundaries of the French territory, and a sum of 1,300,000
francs voted by the French Chamber for the erection of a
second fort at Kita, which lies 155 miles further off, to the
end of pushing forward the French possessions a distance of
150 miles towards the Niger. Captain Gallieni's expedition
was connected with this project, and was in the first place to
establish friendly relations with the tribes along the route,
and in especial with the mighty chief Ahmadu, for whom it
carried valuable presents.

“The expedition consisted of Captain Gallieni, Lieutenants Pietri and Vaillères, Dr. Bayol and the surgeon Sautain.

“Dr. Bayol was to remain as political agent at Bamaku,
on the Niger, which was considered as an important post. The
expedition, which started from Saint Louis on the 30th of
January, arrived at Bakel towards the end of February.
Here the caravan was finally organized, and thenceforward
consisted of 21 Senegal soldiers, 7 native servants, 12 mule-
drivers, 60 donkey-drivers, with 20 horses, 12 mules and 200
donkeys.

“On the 7th of March the caravan set out, leaving the Sen-
egal River at Bakel and journeying inland towards the Niger.

“Medina was reached on March 17, and on the 30th Bafu-
labé, at the junction of the Bafing and Bakhoy, where the
French garrison was found busy with the erection of the for-
tifications; thence to Kita, where the expedition arrived on
the 21st of April. Nothing noteworthy occurred. The coun-

try is described as very lovely, but wholly depopulated by the
wars of Hadji Omar.

"The Chief of Kita proved to be very friendly, and the requisite concessions for the erection of a fort were unhesitatingly granted.

"The situation of the fort is reported as very picturesque and strategically of great importance, as it forms the junction of all the roads leading from the upper Niger to the Kingdom of Segon.

"From Kita Lieutenant Vaillères was sent with a detachment to Murgula, a village belonging to Ahmadu, and here the hostile sentiment of the natives for the first time became apparent.

"When it became known that the Europeans carried valuable presents to the mortal enemy of the neighboring chiefs, the latter resolved to attack the expedition, and the result was a perfect battle in the vicinity of the village Dio, about thirty miles from Bamaku, on the 30th of March. Led by a treacherous guide the whole company came near entering a thicket where the whole Beledugu army, numbering 2,700 men, lay concealed. The treason was discovered just in the nick of time, and the guide shot.

"Captain Gallieni with his thirty men fought their way through to Bamaku. During this fight more than half of the native members of the expedition lost their lives, while the beasts of burden, with their freight to the value of 150,000 francs, fell into the hands of the enemy. A large number of the horses were drowned and only 5,000 francs in money rescued. On their arrival in Bamaku they found it to be an unimportant village numbering 700 or 800 inhabitants, all entertaining friendly feelings towards the strangers.

"Lieutenant Vaillères joined the rest of the expedition, and the march was continued along the left bank of the Niger as far as Nafadié. There Dr. Bayol, whose establishment in Bamaku proved unsuitable, parted from his companions, and almost entirely without money and provisions set out on the troublesome return journey to Senegal. He went over Manding, which he describes as a rich and beautiful country; passed through Bouré, known for its gold mines; visited several gold mines in Kumakhana and reached Bafulabé on the 30th of May."

On August 6th the news reached Paris that Captain Gal-

A MUSEUM IN SIBERIA.

335

lieni had crossed the Niger with his men on the 17th of May, and reached Segou-Sikobo in safety. The geographical results of the expedition are designated as considerable. The valleys of the Ba-ulé and Bakhoy were carefully explored and new rich districts visited. Important corrections were made on Mr. Mage's map, among these an especial one concerning the course of the Ba-ulé, a mighty stream in the vicinity of Bamaku, connected during the rainy season with the Niger by extensive marshes or lagoons.

A MUSEUM IN SIBERIA.

IN the far east, hard by the Mongolian border and separated from China only by the Altai range, lies the District of Minussinsk, with its capital of the same name on the Yenissei. Though almost unknown and unmentioned by the rest of the world, it is yet a highly interesting bit of our earth, this small part of the gigantic Siberian Empire, rich in hidden treasures, of which we have scarcely any inkling. There, where we fancy wildernesses devoid of all civilization, cultivation blossoms apace. The tract of land in which the city of Minussinsk lies became subject to the Russians as early as the seventeenth century. The report of its natural treasures and interesting antiquities soon attracted the attention of the Government and the eyes of the learned world. It was still in the last century that the Government began the working of the metal mines along the rivers Lugawka and Irba, and two factories for the gaining of copper and iron were erected. Among the scientific men who explored this district, Gmelin and Pallas deserve especial mention; they visited it twice, for the second time in 1772. Their achievements soon became known, and other scientists, such as Spaski, Stepanoff, Pestoff, Paisen, Kasten, Schwarz and Radloff, followed in their track.

All without exception gave, and still give, preference to the District of Minussinsk over all the others of Siberia. The topography of the region, its rich natural products, the historical monuments which are still preserved in their original condition, the interesting inscriptions on the rock-

336 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

graves in the many caves which still await decipherers, all
these combine to make it a most interesting bit of earth.
The various customs, dress and songs of the colonists offer a
rich store of material for future explorers. The assiduously
conducted exploration of the mountains and the flourishing
state of the settlements and factories hold out great prom-
ises to the future experienced projector.

By his unceasing zeal and tireless energy M. Nicolas
Martianoff, who came to Minussinsk in 1874, and immediately
recognized the importance of the place, succeeded in found-
ing a museum, aided thereto by voluntary contributions of
citizens and the support of the *Duma* (community representa-
tives) and in gaining its recognizance by the chief of the Gov-
ernment.

Like in all Siberian towns, the majority of houses are
built of wood, and therefore the large, handsome and con-
veniently-situated stone school-house was fixed upon for the
reception of the museum. Three large and several me-
dium-sized rooms are for the present devoted to it. Thus it
at once gained an official situation and the *Duma* appointed
for it a permanent committee, from whose midst M. Mar-
tianoff was elected as executive member.

The costs of arrangement and maintenance are defrayed
by the subscription price of 300 roubles paid by the public for
books lent from the library, an annual allowance of 200 rou-
bles paid by the city, and finally by voluntary contributions,
which, in the year 1879 alone, comprised the sum of 800 rou-
bles, an amount which bears witness of the high intelligence
of the town's inhabitants, whose number is but 5,000.

Besides the library connected with it, the museum con-
sists of a natural historical, a technological, an agricultural,
a historical and an anthropological-ethnographical depart-
ment.

DRAMATIC READING.

337

DRAMATIC READING.

BY EDWARD S. GOULD.

“I prithee, deliver thyself like a man of this world.”

IF the art of dramatic reading has not been carried by its “professors,” to the very pinnacle of perfection in New York, and if their audiences have not become expert judges of the art, the reason for the several short-comings must be sought elsewhere than in the number of professional and amateur performances, in the numbers of the people who listen to them and in the sum total of the practice and experience of both classes. The truth of the old adage, “practice makes perfect,” depends on circumstances. Practice accompanied by knowledge, or under the training and teaching of knowledge, may lead toward perfection; but any other practice leads another way. Those remarks are mere truisms in regard to sculpture, painting and music. No person expects to attain excellence in any of those arts without patient trial, study and practice. But the only requisites to success in dramatic reading seem to be, that the aspirant shall have been an unsuccessful actor on the stage, or shall have seen and heard that unsuccessful actor on the platform and have taken it into his or her head that he or she can “read” quite as well as the said actor—in which assumption the would-be “reader” is not far wrong. He might easily act on the suggestion of *Peter Quince*, in “Mid-Summer Night’s Dream,” where *Peter* is assigning to the actors their several parts in the tragedy of “Pyramus and Thisby.” He gives the part of the *Lion* to *Snug*, the joiner, and when *Snug* asks for time to study his part, *Quince* replies: “You may do it extempore; for it is nothing but roaring.”

It would be difficult to imagine anything worse—anything farther removed from the simplicity and truth of art, properly so called—than the style of dramatic reading which is now inflicted upon and accepted by that portion of the public who enjoy that kind of entertainment. Pip's description of Mr. Waldengarver's acting in “Hamlet” (see “Great Expectations”) applies very felicitously to the style of our dramatic readers:

“I laughed in spite of myself all the time, the whole thing was so droll; and yet I had a latent impression that there was something decidedly fine in his elocution. It was very slow, very dreary, very up-hill and down-hill, and very unlike any way in which any man or woman in any natural circumstances of life or death ever expressed himself or herself about anything on the earth or over the earth or under the earth.”

There would, perhaps, be slight ground of objection to all that, if the result of dramatic reading was mere recreation on the part of an audience and profit on the part of the reader. But the experience of the auditors involves more or less of instruction; and if the reading is bad, the instruction will be bad. If bad reading is praised by critics and applauded by friendly auditors, it will be accepted and imitated; the bad style will be mistaken for a good style, and the instruction will become instruction in error. And that is not the worst of it. The readers, having been accepted as readers, go into the business of direct and affirmative instruction. They advertise themselves as teachers of elocution. They obtain pupils, and they teach them what is called elocution; but what is the teachers’ own affected, unnatural, “up-hill and down-hill” declamation. There is in it nothing of nature, simplicity nor truth.

What may be called the history of dramatic reading in New York is soon told. It had its day of small things in precedent years, but it was, so to speak, “inaugurated” by the great English tragedian, Macready, in the autumn of 1848, at what was then known as the Stuyvesant Institute, in Broadway, opposite Bond street. Macready gave there two readings, “Macbeth” and “Hamlet;” and whoever was there to see and hear, and is now alive to remember those two entertainments, may well exclaim with *Ophelia*:

“Oh, woe is me,
To have seen what I have seen; see what I see!”

After Edmund Kean, Macready was the only really great actor the last half century. He was a highly cultivated and accomplished gentleman; he was received in the best English society, and his death closed the list of that galaxy of English “stars,” of which Garrick was the first and probably the greatest. As a dramatic reader, Macready did what no subsequent reader seems to have thought of doing: He gave to the

DRAMATIC READING.

339

subordinate characters of Shakespeare the same careful study as he gave to the more important personages; he acted each part in its turn, just as if he was acting it, and it only, on the stage; and he did not descend to that poor affectation of most other readers—changing his voice to fit and identify the several characters of the play. He made his audiences understand who the successive speakers were, by changing his manner and not his voice, according to the exigencies of the scene; and it may be truly added that those two evenings at the Stuyvesant Institute were the only two instances where a New York audience ever heard or saw all the characters of "Macbeth" and "Hamlet" represented in a manner that at least approximated perfection.

Mrs. Kemble was, chronologically, next to Macready, but "next" in no other respect. She was followed by Howes, Brown, Vanderhoff, and no tongue can tell how many others; the entire crowd being composed of unsuccessful actors and their ambitious imitators outside of the theatrical profession. But, as they were all formed on one model, and as their several styles all ran in one "groove," it would be very difficult to say which was the best or which the worst of them. The word "stagy" describes them all.

Charlotte Cushman, who took and kept a high rank as an actress, appeared—parenthetically, as one might say—among the host of dramatic readers; but her success on the stage was so uniform and sustained, that she devoted comparatively little time to reading. She was "next" to Macready in merit.

Mrs. Kemble stood at the head of the remainder of the long list, both in merit and pecuniary success; but she had many faults, some peculiar to herself and some common to the fraternity. The primary defect with her, as with all her successors, was the lack of histrionic genius, without which no person can attain true greatness as a dramatic reader. She introduced the style of reading which Betty Higden admired. Betty said to the Boffins:

"And I do love a newspaper. You mightn't think it, but Sloppy is a beautiful reader of the newspaper. He do the police in different voices."

Mrs. Kemble undertook to "do" the parts of Shakespeare's plays in different voices, which, no doubt, pleased those whom Hamlet calls "the unskilful," and her bad example

was followed by all her successors. Then, she carried to the
reading platform her professional contempt for stage "super-
numeraries"—that is, the people who assume the subordi-
nate characters in a play—and she would not deign to give
proper attention to such parts in reading, although Shake-
speare gave some of his finest lines to those characters. Her
whole style of reading was pompous, affected, unnatural;
and the instances in which she mistook the meaning of
Shakespeare's lines—at least, in which she misrepresented by
falsely emphasizing them—were surprisingly numerous. It
is perhaps unnecessary to say that all her faults are carefully
imitated and industriously multiplied by her followers in the
"art;" and it is easy to see what a "spot of work" they
make of it on the platform, to say nothing of their labors as
teachers of elocution. The precept, or petition, quoted at the
head of this article, is applicable to every one of them. By no
chance do they "deliver themselves like men (or women) of
this world." They utter their words as if they were set
speeches, learned by heart, and not as colloquial utterances
which come spontaneously from the heart. They always
"speak;" they never talk.* A stilted mannerism prevades all
they say. A common remark among the auditors is: "It is
very fine, but I should like it better if it was more natural,"

* The writer of these comments was once requested to give some hints on reading and elocution to a young lady who wished to undertake dramatic reading as a profession. An interview took place, and the following dialogue will show its result:

"What plays are you familiar with?"

"Well, for instance, 'Much Ado About Nothing.'"

The young lady, being requested to read the first scene, began in the true professional style:

"I le-a-rr-n in this le-t-t-e-r, that Don Pe-d-r-o of Ar-ra-g-o-n comes this
ni-gh-t to Mes-s-i-i-n-a."

"Stop one moment. Suppose you read that more easily, more naturally, with less effort—or read it thus: I learn in this letter that Don Pedro of Ara-comes this night to Messina."

"Oh, my dear sir! that is talking. That is not reading."

"But don't you think Shakespeare intended that *Leonato* should talk?"

"I suppose he did; but that style of yours would never do on the platform. I have heard all the dramatic readers, and not one of them reads in that way," etc.

The young lady was right, and her remark was a sharp, though unintentional, criticism on "all the dramatic readers." Not one of them reads in a simple, natural, unaffected style. They never, as *Marc Antony* says, "speak right on," and their speaking, as *Hamlet* says, is an "abominable imitation of humanity." In real life, nobody ever speaks in that way.

DRAMATIC READING.

341

which is another form of saying: "It would be very good, if it was not very bad."

Nevertheless, those well meaning people seem to be wholly unconscious of this cardinal fact, that the full scope and development of dramatic reading is an art superior to that of the actor; it involves all that the actor can accomplish, and a great deal of which few, even of the best, actors are capable. Of course, poor actors and their imitators among the "laity" can deserve no standing at all as dramatic readers.

The ability to read in an audible voice from a printed book the words of Shakespeare, and to repeat some of the words without reference to the book, although indispensable to dramatic reading, are very far from constituting the sum total of that art; yet they are the sum total of the qualifications for that art possessed by most of those who undertake it. They bear the same relation to dramatic reading that the ability to write English words on paper bears to dramatic writing. The school-boy who has just acquired penmanship can write plays equal to Shakespeare's if he has Shakespeare's genius, and the same boy can read Shakespeare as well as Macready if he has Macready's genius. The dramatic reader of our day is not unaptly typified by that school-boy. His only defect is a total lack of the *de quoi*; and his reading, compared with Macready's, would be greatly overestimated by being called a charcoal-sketch in imitation of a master-piece by Raphael or Titian.

However, no reader should be denounced because he cannot be another Macready; and all that the critic has a right to demand is, that the reader shall drop his mouthing, his mannerism, his theatrical extravagance and be simply natural; be content to repudiate the conventionalities of the stage and to "deliver himself like a man of this world." And let him, as *Hamlet* says:

"Leave thy damnable faces."

For face-making is one of the grand resources of poor actors and poor readers; and it, like mouthing and ranting and tearing a passion to tatters, is at least as old as the age of Shakespeare, since he condemns them all.

The art of the actor on the stage is facilitated by the stage accessories. He sustains a single part, and, his individuality being thus secured for himself and his audience, the task of the full development of the part is relieved from complexity.

342 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

He is so far acted upon by the other actors, that abstraction
from his real life is easy; and by merely letting himself move
with the current of his surroundings, he often finds his
assumed character playing itself. But the task of the dra-
matic reader is quite another thing. He has none of the
actor's adventitious aids. He must sustain all the parts of
the play, and he must not only preserve in his own mind, but
he must make manifest to his audience, all the individualities
of the play, while every transition from one part to another
interferes with and impedes the full development of any one
character. Besides, so far from being acted upon by other
actors, he is forced to the peculiar task of himself acting on
the others—those others being to him merely imaginary per-
sons—in order that they may reciprocally act upon him.
Hence, the abstraction from the surrounding realities—so
essential to the actor and so easily attained by the actor—be-
come almost impossible for the reader; although, neverthe-
less, that abstraction is indispensable to him. The task of
the reader, therefore, is, by so much, more difficult than the
task of the actor; and, in the same proportion, his art ranks
higher than the actor's. "Who can attain unto it?" is an-
other question.

But, in a business point of view, the reader has his own
advantages. He can be his own manager, he has to pay no
orchestra, he has neither to pay nor to be annoyed nor con-
trolled by a theatrical company, and his "receipts" are not
liable to subdivision. Moreover, while a large portion of the
intelligent public avoid the theatre from conscientious scru-
ples, very few people have any scruple about attending the
reader's "theatre." Clergymen and the most rigid of church-
goers can listen to his delineations of Shakespeare; and, in-
deed, the reader furnishes them with the only opportunity
they can have for that enjoyment. But not the less on that
account—rather, all the more on that account—let the reader
remember, "I prithee, deliver thyself like a man of this
world." Perhaps it would be well for him also to remember
Hamlet's advice: "Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pro-
nounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue; but if you
mouth it as some of your players do, I had as lief the town
crier spoke my lines," etc., etc. It is amusing to observe
with what function the Hamlets and the readers of "Hamlet"
repeat those immortal "instructions," and how incontinently

DRAMATIC READING.

343

they set them at naught by renewed mouthing and ranting; as if, after "speaking the speech," their next duty is to forget it.

The general tone of New York newspaper criticism of dramatic readers, is laudatory. Now and then, one of them departs from the beaten track; and a recent instance is so just, and so appropriate as a conclusion to his article, that it is here quoted in an abridged form:

"The lady entertained a large audience last evening, if laughter and applause are evidences of their being entertained, which goes to prove that the particular auditory was made up of folk easily amused; whose knowledge of and whose taste for the dramatic art, are infantile. The lady's manner of pleasing seems to be governed by one principle; namely, to do things in an extraordinary style; but what she does is governed by no method. In attempting to personate all the characters in one of Shakespeare's plays, she does, indeed, use a somewhat mannish pitch and intonation of voice when uttering the words set down for men, and a high-pitched treble when disclaiming the women's words; but beyond that, the auditor can perceive no distinction. Benedick, in one scene, appears to be a churlish, soured and rather brutal person; in another, he has the fashion of a servile coxcomb or an ordinary buffoon. The reader shows no definite conception of his or of any other character. In giving dramatic readings this lady, like many other persons, attempts to achieve things impossible to such as they. Men and women who cannot properly impersonate any one character on the stage, with all the aids furnished by other actors and the illusions of the scene, undertake to give an entire representation of all the personages in a tragedy. To do that, a great and vivid imagination is requisite, with an intellectual power to form distinct conceptions of each character, and to preserve such conceptions, individual and unchanged, till the whole play has been rehearsed, and to use such an entire mastery of histrionic skill as shall be necessary to present those various persons in their individuality. But the audiences of this lady are largely made up of people who, from certain scruples, never go to a theatre and who have no knowledge of dramatic art; any kind of theatrical display has for them the charm of novelty, and they are delighted by such vagaries as this lady exhibits, especially when the reader is a beautiful woman."

344 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

That is sound criticism. It is a just, though brief, view
of the whole case; and all of our dramatic readers would do
well to give heed to it. Their wiser course would be to avoid
Shakespeare altogether, to confine their efforts to miscella-
neous selections from the poets and prose writers; to abandon
the whole category of theatrical mannerism, affectation, con-
ventionality and extravagance; to bring their entire delivery
down to the colloquial utterances of real life, and, if they will
go into the business of teaching elocution, to remember the
precept and reiterate it to their pupils: "I prithee, deliver
thyself like a man of this world," and not like a ranting
actor.

THE RUSSIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY OF NEW YORK.

AS long ago as September, 1874, the editor addressed to
the Russian press of St. Petersburg a communication,
in which he said:

"Scarcely a week passes without my receiving from Rus-
sians residing in the United States applications for work or
pecuniary assistance sufficient to save them from misery and
hunger. On similar occasions all applicants are unanimous
in declaring that they have been greatly deceived in their
hopes of a better life in the New World, and that they sin-
cerely regret having left their own country. These are the
reasons which prompt me to address myself to the Russian
press, requesting all its organs to advise most earnestly all
Russians not to emigrate to America."

Nearly six years after, this warning had been so little
heeded, that the *editor* thought it necessary to repeat it in
the number of this magazine issued in March last, emphasizing
that warning by pointing out specifically the extreme difficulties
which stood in the way of poor Russians earning
their bread in the United States. Among the almost insuperable
difficulties were mentioned the facts that in this country
only those who have been thoroughly and carefully in-

RUSSIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY.

345

structed in the different specialties of trade, art or science
can expect to find employment, and the supply of such per-
sons exceeds the demand; that, while the chances of success
for an immigrant workman or tradesman are very small, for
a person who has received simply a so-called "general edu-
cation," there is literally no chance whatever, and that even
the extraordinary facilities constantly offered for purchasing
and establishing a farm in the "Far West," are for the most
part a delusion and a snare.

As, notwithstanding this friendly caution, Russian immi-
grants continued to come, and proved the wisdom of the ad-
vice given them by soon falling into want and misery; it was
necessary to do something for their assistance, and in Janu-
ary of this year the Russian Consul-General, P. de Kart-
chewsky, and the Rev. N. Bjerring, in conjunction with
some Russian residents of the city of New York, organized
"The Russian Benevolent Society." Its object is to render
pecuniary assistance and advice to Russians in need, to find
work for them, to place those who are sick in a hospital and
to send back to Russia those who desire to return thither. A
subscription to the funds of the society was made and the
following sums have been received:

<table><tbody><tr><td>N. P. de Shishkin</td><td>$50 00</td></tr><tr><td>P. de Kartchewsky</td><td>25 00</td></tr><tr><td>E. Stern</td><td>25 00</td></tr><tr><td>Collected by P. de Kartchewsky</td><td>52 50</td></tr><tr><td>N. Bjerring</td><td>10 00</td></tr><tr><td>F. Seeger</td><td>10 00</td></tr><tr><td>A. Mikhailovsky</td><td>5 00</td></tr><tr><td>B. Zarcin</td><td>2 00</td></tr><tr><td>I. Iünsdrel</td><td>1 00</td></tr><tr><td>I. Beliakoff</td><td>1 00</td></tr><tr><td>P. Popoff</td><td>1 00</td></tr></tbody></table>

Total $182 50

Out of this fund twenty-one Russians have received dur-
ing the year pecuniary assistance in sums varying from $1
to $5 each, and to eight persons have been loaned amounts
from $5 to $25. Of the money loaned, $30 has been returned.
At present the society has $47.15 left in its treasury.

346 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

Besides pecuniary assistance, a number of Russians have been provided with work and six sick persons have been treated gratuitously at a hospital. Upon the recommendation of the society the Russian Consulate-General has provided six persons with tickets to enable them to return to Russia.

"The New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor" has empowered the Rev. N. Bjerring to send to that society worthy poor Russians who may be in need of provisions, clothes and the like. There have been several occasions to apply for help to that society.

The small balance of funds remaining to the society will soon be exhausted, even with the most careful and economical distribution. And it is certain that the society will have calls on it for aid by Russians worthy of assistance much beyond its ability to meet. It is proposed, therefore, this month to raise a new subscription for the purpose of supplying pressing wants, and the society will be deeply grateful to all who will be kind enough to help it in its benevolent work. Subscribers can rely on their contributions being very carefully administered, and the details of the administration can be had at any time upon application to the President of the society, Rev. N. Bjerring. Subscriptions can be sent to either the Russian Consulate-General of the City of New York or to the Russian Orthodox Chapel of the same city, at 951 Second avenue.

LITERARY NOTES.

347

LITERARY NOTES.

KASHGAR: Historical-Geographical sketch of the country, by A. N. Kuropatkin, Member of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, St. Petersburg.

Until the year 1876, very little was known in Russia concerning Kashgar, a country of Central Asia, situated between 43° and 35° north latitude, and 72° to 90° east longitude.

This was not all. Prevailing opinion ascribed far more power to Jakub Beg, the ruler of Kashgar, than he actually possessed, and overestimated the importance of the Kingdom founded by him. Kashgar was generally thought of as a powerful Mohammedan State, which, forming, so to say, a central point, might exercise a dangerous attraction, not only on neighboring, weaker and still independent territories, with a prominent Mussulman population, but on such as had already entered into the possession of Russia.

However, this over estimation may be easily explained. It was a consequence of the attempts of England to draw Kashgar over to its side, in order to gain in this manner a new market for its manufactures, as well as to incorporate it with that neutral belt of land which separates the Russian possessions from India.

The immense success of Jakub Beg, who, from a dancer, raised himself to the position of unlimited ruler of a great country, lent to his personality a glory not altogether deserved. Indeed, many saw in him a new Tamerlane.

This was the state of matters in 1876, when the Governor-General of Tashkend, General Kaufman, in May, 1876, sent an expedition to Kashgar, with the task, among others, of finding out Jakub Beg's means and power, and to judge of their importance.

This expedition had still another purpose—one which may be designated as its principal one.

In 1876, the Khanate of Khokand had passed into the hands of Russia, after the youthful General Skobelew had marched triumphantly into the capital of that country. The Khanate was turned into a Russian province, and even received another name—Ferghana Territory—into which the same national military system of government that had proved

348 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

so eminently successful in Turkestan, was introduced, and crowned with like success. The only trouble was caused by the nomadizing population of the former Khanate, which held full play in the mountains of the Thian Shan range. This-- and in especial the Kara-Kirghiz horde--was not willing to acknowledge Russian supremacy. Of course these rebels were subdued and forced into peace and obedience, but it soon proved that not only single individuals, but whole families of them, successfully eluded Russian pursuit by passing over the Thian Shan mountains to Kashgar, where they were joyfully received.

Thus the necessity became apparent to determine upon a fixed and exact boundary between Kashgar and Ferghana Territory. Owing to the weakness of Chudjar, the Khan of Khokand, the original boundary had not been properly respected by Jakub Beg, who had greatly extended his kingdom among the mountains to the north.

To effect this boundary regulation was the principal task of the above mentioned expedition.

It may be interesting to our readers to mention the names of the Europeans who visited Kashgar, during the last twenty years.

In 1857 Adolph Schlagintweit became the victim of the fanaticism of the ruler at that time, Chadshi-Walichan-Tjuri.

In 1859 Lieutenant Walichanow succeeded, in the disguise of a merchant, in penetrating from Wernoje to Kashgar.

In 1859, Johnson, who was engaged in typographical studies on the boundary of Cashmere, came as far as Chotan, where he was received in a very friendly manner 'by Chabbi-bulla-Chodsha.

Three years later Mr. Shaw brought wares from India to Kashgar, and was accorded a gracious reception by Jakub Beg. In the same year Highroad, who was afterwards murdered in Sassin, came to Kashgar and there met our first embassy under Captain Reinthal.

In 1870 occurred the first embassy of Forsyth. Messrs. Henderson and Shaw were members thereof. They went as far as Yarkend.

In 1872 Baron Kaulbars went to Kashgar. Among his suite were Captain Scharnhorst, Lieutenants Starzew and Kolokolzew and M. Tschanyschew.

In the course of the years 1873-74, the second embassy of Forsyth came into the country.

LITERARY NOTES.

349

In the following year Colonel Reinthal went, for the second time, to Kashgar. Jakub Beg, on his part, sent legations to Russia in the years 1868 and 1875; to the Viceroy of India and the Sultan of Turkey in 1869 and 1872.

The above mentioned Russian and Indian embassies had explored the southern and southwestern parts of Kashgar; they also traveled over the cities of Yarkend, Kashgar and Chotaw. However, a considerable tract of land, extending eastward from Kashgar to the city of Kunya Turfan and the Lob Nor, was still unknown. The merit of exploring this territory belongs specially to Colonel Kuropatkin, who journeyed from Tashkend over Osh and Kashgar to Ak-ssu, Kutsha, Bal and Kureya, until he reached Fort Karashar and the Bagratsh-Kul.

Almost simultaneously with Kuropatkin, the well known explorer, Prshewalski, accomplished his journey from Kuldsha over Kurlya to the Lob Nor.

Among Kuropatkin's followers were his brother, Artillery Captain N. Kuropatkin; Captains N. Starzew and A. Ssunagrulow, and a convoy of Cossacks to the number of fifteen men. The latter were subsequently increased by ten men. In the autumn, Dr. Oehren and the natural scientist, Wilkins, joined the embassy. Including the servants, the embassy numbered sixty men. In addition, we must mention the 104 riding and pack-horses, which contributed to give the train a stately appearance.

Tashkend was left in May and Osh reached in July. Between Osh and Fort Guldsha, on the way to the latter place, on the 17th of July, the embassy was suddenly attacked by a superior force of Kara-Kirghiz. N. Kuropatkin succeeded in gaining the victory for us by killing the leader of the band. A. Kuropatkin was wounded. The return to Osh became necessary, and a new start was not made until the following 7th of October.

The expedition met with no more bloody encounters. On December 10th it arrived in Ak-ssu, and a month later in Kurlya, where Jakub Beg was at the time. From Osh to Kurlya, 1,296 versts had been traversed on horseback. Here the embassy remained until the 7th of February, and after a journey of fifty-one days, arrived in Osh again on March 28th.

The work under review contains, fundamentally, the Col-

350 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

onel's report to his chief; but, enriched by several new chap-
ters and supplements, offers much more that is interesting.
The author regrets that he could not give more; that his sub-
ject is not everywhere treated with like completeness and
exactness. His task was rendered difficult, on the one hand,
by the distrust of the indigenous population; on the other, by
his official position. It was hardly possible to make any
excursions to the right or left of the way taken by the expe-
dition. Still, the work offers much that is interesting and
worth knowing, and the Russian Geographical Society
has earned new credit in the cause of science by the publica-
tion of this valuable contribution to the knowledge of Central
Asia.

We shall now seek to characterize in brief the contents of
the book.

In the introduction, M. Kuropatkin explains to us the pur-
pose of his embassy, and gives a review of the events attend-
ing it. Eight chapters, covering 204 pages, then give a com-
prehensive sketch of the conditions of the country, past and
present. Chapter I. gives a geographical account of Kash-
gar, describes its hydrographic character, its natural
riches, modes of intercourse, its land and people, its cus-
toms, religion, &c. The second chapter acquaints us with
its system of government and taxation, and the administra-
tive division of the country. The third chapter is of great
interest and importance. It offers a review of the commer-
cial relations of Kashgar, with special reference to its com-
merce with Russia. In this chapter we find the words of the
commercial treaty concluded by Colonel Kaulbars with Jakub
Beg in 1872. As we will see later on, a comprehensive sup-
plement completes this chapter. Chapters IV. to VI.
contain a history of Kashgar, dating from before the
birth of Christ up to the present time. The latest phase
of this history, the account of Jakub Beg and his reign,
is treated with particular completeness. The biography of
this ruler, which Kuropatkin relates in a vivid and elaborate
manner, has an addition in the shape of an essay by A. J.
Makschejew, who, between the years 1850-60, devoted much
attention to the elevation of Jakub Beg. This essay forms
an appendix to the sixth chapter, and corrects several errors
in Kuropatkin's representation. Chapter VII. treats very
thoroughly of Kashgar's military force and organization.

LITERARY NOTES.

351

The eighth and concluding chapter gives an account of events since 1877, relates the death of Jakub Beg, the subsequent disturbances, and the interference of the Chinese with the country's affairs.

However, what we have designated above constitutes only one-half of the volume. The other half is filled up with supplements.

Thus, Supplements 1-5 contain a detailed account of the marching route of the expedition. As a completion of Chapter III., Supplement 6 shows several tables characterizing the commercial disturbance between Russia and Kashgar, in 1876. Supplement 7 gives a review of the sources that were used in the construction of the map of the northern part of East Turkestan, which map forms the 8th and last supplement.

Not all contributions to the book are by M. Kuropatkin himself. Thus, for instance, the representation of the way taken from Ak-ssu to Karakal is by Captain Ssunargalow, and the description of Karashar and Lake Bagratsh, contained in Supplement 4, by the naturalist, Wilkins. Furthermore, during the whole journey, Captain N. P. Starzew, one of the most skillful topographers from the staff at Tashkend, daily noted down the route taken, in the scale of five inches to one verst. N. N. Kuropatkin took part in this last work.

Besides all these plans and notes, Russian as well as English, ample cartographical material added its share to the success of the map's delineation.

From all the facts mentioned above, it may be plainly seen that we have to do here with a work based on very careful and thorough observation, and as comprehensive as is possible at the present day.

All correspondence in reference to the Editorial Department must be addressed to Rev. Nicholas Bjerring, No. 951 Second Avenue, New York City.

Subscription and all other business correspondence must be addressed to The American News Company, Publisher's Agents, 39 and 41 Chambers Street, New York City.

Mr. H. Schmitzdorf' (K. Rottger), Bookseller to the Emperor, Newski-Prospect, No. 5, St. Petersburg, is the sole agent for Russia.

THE
ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

MARCH, 1881.

ALEXANDER THE SECOND.

WHEN, on the afternoon of Sunday, March 1 (13), news of the sacrilegious deed which had just been committed in St. Petersburg reached the United States, the first thought of the Russians residing here, after they had recovered from the stunning effects of the awful intelligence, was to seek those consolations which the Holy Orthodox Church provides for her children. Accordingly, by order of His Excellency, Mr. De Bartholomei, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in the United States, Mr. De Weletsky, the Russian Consul-General at New York, and the Rev. Father Bjerring proceeded to Washington, where, on Tuesday, March 3 (15), at the Imperial Russian Legation in that city, a mortuary service for the repose of the soul of the dead Emperor was celebrated. The house of the Russian Minister was transformed into a mortuary chapel. There were present at the service the Russian Minister, Mr. Bartholomei, Mrs. Bartholomei, Mr. Blaine, the Secretary of State, who attended as the representative of the President of the United States; Mr. Lincoln, the Secretary of War; all the members of the diplomatic corps residing in Washington, their wives and families, and Mr. De Weletsky, Consul-General of Russia at New York.

On Sunday, March 8 (20), at the Russian Chapel in the City of New York, after the Holy Liturgy, a second mortuary service was celebrated, at which were present Mr. De Weletsky; Mr. Stern, the Russian Vice-Consul; all the foreign

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consuls in the City of New York; Hon. E. W. Stoughton,
late Minister of the United States in Russia, and Mrs.
Stoughton; all the Russians in the City of New York, and a
large number of Americans.

On Sunday, March 15 (27), at the Russian Chapel in
the City of New York, after the Holy Liturgy a Te Deum
was sung for His Majesty, the Emperor Alexander the Third,
and Her Majesty, the Empress Maria Feodorovna.

The manifestations of grief by the Russians for their
dead Emperor were shared by Americans throughout
the United States. It recalled the sad days when President
Lincoln fell by the hand of an assassin. All the journals
made haste to pay their tribute of respect to the Monarch
who had been so cruelly and ungratefully treated, and to ex-
press their sympathy with the Imperial Family and the Rus-
sian people. In these journals, as well as in private circles,
were recalled the great benefits Alexander the Second had
conferred on Russia. The noble decree by which he emanci-
pated the serfs was dwelt upon as one evidence of his wisdom
and liberalism. It was remembered what great obligations
the American Union was under to the late Emperor during the
Civil War in this country, when he remained the firm and
sincere friend of the United States, sending Russian fleets to
American harbors as an indication that he refused to take
part in any interference by other powers of Europe in the
contest going on in this country. The military glories which
have rendered the reign of Alexander the Second illustrious
were recounted, and the numerous evidences of his states-
manship were set forth at length. Many Americans who
had been in Russia testified to the expressions of affection they
had heard there for the late Emperor, and a few Americans
who had been admitted to the honor of being presented to
him told of his benignant presence, and of the kindness and
good will he had expressed towards the United States, its
Government, and its people.

May His remembrance endure forever.

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

3

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

A sketch of the Eighth Persecution of the Christians under Valerian and Gallienus.

BY EUGÉNIE.

## CHAPTER I.

IT was a scene of unequalled loveliness that the hot rays of a summer sun illuminated, as its golden glory tipped the sparkling waves of the Bay of Carthage, and brightened the lofty pinnacles of the city and its outlying villas.

Beautiful, indeed, to the outward eyes shone the palaces, the baths, the circus and the quiet gardens, secluded and pleasant for retirement after the busy life of the city; cool and inviting near the glittering fountains to recline, shaded from the heat of the sun by the overhanging bushes, and yet—they were deserted—no figure broke the monotony of the winding paths, no sound of mirth varied the stillness; that dread silence—the silence of pestilence and death—wherein hundreds fell hourly before the unsparing hand of the plague.

The city, so beautiful from a distance, wore a terrible aspect in the streets and houses. The dead and dying lay on doorsteps or in the paths; the helpless moans for the assistance that never came; the wails of children left to perish alone rose pitifully on the fever-laden air and died away unanswered. On the broad marble steps of a nobleman's house a couple of emaciated children crouched waiting, longing for the sound of some human step, some kind voice to cheer their orphaned hearts, some kind hand to give them a drop of cold water. At length steps were heard approaching; the elder, a girl of some nine summers, raised her weary head, and stretching out her thin hands towards the newcomer, besought piteously for help. But the newcomer drew his toga closer round him, and, with a shudder of apprehension and aversion, sped on. The girl's head sank once more on her breast, as she wound her arms round the sleeping child on her knees, too weary to weep, too weary and sick to think. "If only I could get one drop of water," she sighed,

as the fierce rays of the sun fell scorchingly on her wasted figure and aching head; "at least I will shelter Penelope," and with weak, trembling fingers she endeavored to draw part of her own ragged clothing over her little sister, but in vain; the nerveless hand fell powerless by her side, and her lips murmured weakly, "I can only die." Still her eyes wandered feverishly around in search of help; then suddenly brightened with hope, as the flutter of a toga denoted the approach of a newcomer. "Water! water!" she cried, beseechingly. "Oh! do not pass us by! every one shuns us, they fear the fever! Surely you will not deny us one little drop of water—one little drop of water!"

The newcomer paused and looked kindly down into the girl's face.

"Poor child!" he murmured, stroking the damp hair off the white face, "you shall have water and a softer couch than this."

"But where? we are orphans."

"Not orphans as long as Cyprianus lives," replied the other.

"You are Cyprianus! the bishop of the Lucifugæ!" cried the child, in astonished awe, "and we are but slaves; do you care to save us?"

"Ay, my poor child, I care little whether it be a Pagan or a Christian, a prince or a slave, so long as I can serve him," said Cyprianus; "come, drink from this phial, and I will call my brethren to lend me their help."

The girl drained the phial eagerly, while Cyprianus went a few paces onwards, and returned followed by some six or seven men.

"Lift the little one gently, she is asleep," said Cyprianus to one who had already knelt down beside them. "Pontius, I give them in your charge; Dionysius will help you. We," he continued, addressing the rest, "must continue our search for other sufferers."

The deacon, Pontius, and Dionysius lifted the children gently from the palace steps, and conveyed them to a house not far off, where they tended them with all the gentleness of women, and sought to allay their suffering.

Meanwhile Cyprianus and his followers continued on their errand of mercy, tending the sick, comforting the dying, and shedding peace wherever they went. Wherever Cyprian and

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

5

his priests found a dying Christian, besides attending to his
bodily wants, they heard his confession, administered to him
the Holy Communion as a comforting viaticum, and the Sac-
rament of the Unction of the Sick. Those whom their near-
est friends and relations had forsaken were ministered unto
by the Christians; some who, but a few short years before,
had raised their voices among the loudest during the Seventh
Persecution under Decius, and cried fiercely, "*Cyprianus ad
leones!*" were the first to cry to him for help, a help which
never failed; widows, orphans, helpless old men and women,
Roman and barbarian, Pagan and Christian—all felt the
mercy of Cyprian and his devoted followers, and looked to
him for support in the fearful time when every one else
thought only of fleeing from the fatal city, and shunning the
streets that were strewn, not alone with the dead and dying,
but also with skeletons and whitening bones. Cyprianus and
his followers strode on past the baths, that scene of fashion-
able life in every form, but now they were deserted, even the
forum was empty; but before night many more sufferers had,
like the two little sisters, been rescued from death, either
from the scorching rays of the sun, or the cold, damp, infec-
tious night air of a fever-laden city.

Day after day, week after week, Cyprianus and the other
Christians, of whom he was the leader, continued their chari-
ties; they took no heed that they themselves fell preys to the
fearful disease, a disease that lamed, disfigured, or blinded
them; but in spite of all continued their works of mercy,
tending the sick by day, burying the dead by night, till at
length the plague left the city, and their labors ceased; but
what a difference that grim forerunner of death had made in
the inhabitants of Carthage, thinning their numbers so that
the bishop wondered that so many of his flock, as well as
himself, should have been spared! No longer strong-limbed
youths repaired to the forum to practice rhetoric, but figures,
bent prematurely with suffering, which gave the semblance
of age, walked slowly and painfully abroad; maidens with
pale faces peeped into the sunshine, and withdrew unable to
bear the fresh air.

And Cyprianus, Bishop of Carthage, attended by his dea-
con Pontius, walked up and down the forum, the only ones
untouched by the surrounding pestilence, yet the only ones
who had not shunned it.

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"Alas!" said the deacon, sighing, "what grievous ill such a fever does; there are scarce one-third of the number of citizens here that there used to be. And yet, holy father, had it not been for you, many of these even would be no more."

"Nay, Pontius," replied Cyprianus gently, "we are but the instruments of a great Power; we must not pride ourselves on that which was our duty; rather thank God that we have been spared the agonies of these poor sufferers."

And so the plague passed away; gradually the people grew stronger, till Carthage once more wore the look of life; the baths were opened, the forum was crowded, the magistrates held justice in the basilica again, and, above all, the games were recommenced in the circus and amphitheatre, and if their own gladiators were still not strong enough to fight, the Carthaginians borrowed them from other cities.

## CHAPTER II.

For above a year after the plague, Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, Bishop of Carthage, lived in peace among his brethren; his charity during the pestilence had led many to join the Church, but the greater number forgot their benefactor when the danger was past, and looked upon him with contempt as the priest of Lucifugæ.

The Emperor Valerian, at the commencement of his reign, had been very lenient towards the Christians, and they enjoyed peace and rest for some years. Indeed, some said he leaned that way himself; for, as Eusebius, quoting Dionysius, tells us, "all his houses were filled with the pious, and resembled a congregation of the Faithful." However that may have been, cannot be justly said; for, unhappily, he fell under the influence of one Macrianus, the prætorian prefect, and master and chief ruler of the Magi, who used every artifice to induce him to renew the persecutions. The heathen priests added their persuasions; every earthquake, pestilence, or other misfortune—and just then calamities were frequent—they interpreted as a sign of the divine anger against those who tolerated the Atheists of Lucifugæ, as they termed the Christians.

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

7

To those numerous persuasions Valerian yielded at last,
and in 257, about a year and a half after the plague, the
eighth persecution began.

It might have been expected that Cyprian, after all he had
done for the Carthaginians, could look for the slightest sign
of gratitude; but had he thought of looking for that which
he knew he would not find, it would have been in vain;
for no sooner had the persecution commenced, than he was
seized and carried before the proconsul, Paternus. Here he
defended himself with courage and firmness, and was sen-
tenced to banishment to Curubis, a town twelve leagues from
Carthage, situated on the sea coast.

Pontius, his deacon, and some other Christians, followed
him as voluntary exiles into the beautiful spot where the town
of Curubis lies, and it is from him that we hear of the strange
vision that visited the exiled bishop on the first night he passed
in Curubis.

"There appeared to me," said Cyprian, "ere yet I was sunk
in the repose of slumber, a young man of unusual stature,
who, as it were, led me to the pratorium, where I seemed to
myself to be led before the tribunal of the proconsul, then
sitting. When he looked upon me, he began at once to note
down a sentence on his tablet which I knew not, for he had
asked nothing of me with the accustomed interrogation. But
the youth, who was standing at his back, very anxiously read
what had been noted down; and because he could not then de-
clare it in words, he showed me by an intelligible sign what was
contained in the writing of that tablet. For, with one hand
expanded and flattened like a blade, he imitated the stroke of
the accustomed punishment, and expressed what he wished
to be understood as clearly as by speech. I understood the
future sentence of my passion. I began to beg and ask im-
mediately that a delay of at least one day should be accorded
me, until I should have arranged my property in some reason-
able order. And when I had urgently repeated my entreaty,
he began again to note down, I knew not what, on his tablet.
But I perceived from the calmness of his countenance that
the judge's mind was moved by my petition, as being a just
one. Moreover, the youth, who had already disclosed to me
the intelligence of my passion by gesture rather than by
words, hastened to signify repeatedly by secret signal that the
delay was granted which had been asked for until the mor-

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row, twisting his fingers one behind the other. And I, although the sentence had not been read, although I rejoiced with very glad heart with joy at the delay accorded, yet trembled so with fear of the uncertainty of the interpretation, that the remains of fear still set my exulting heart beating with excessive agitation."

The life that Cyprian led at Curubis was quiet and happy. Many of his followers visited him, and together they wandered through the verdant country, talking of the concerns of the Church and the glorious spread of Christianity. "How fare our brethren at Carthage?" asked the bishop of his companion, a slender boy of wonderful beauty. They were walking by the sea coast, and the boy, Eteocles, would return to Carthage the same evening.

"The persecution becomes more and more severe, father," replied the boy. "Celsius and Antoninus were sacrificed but a few days since—Celsius by fire, Antoninus by a tiger during the games in the amphitheatre. We fled from our last abode, and now sometimes we are obliged to hide in sheds all night."

"Hadrian tells me that you yourself have been put to torture, Eteocles," said the bishop.

"Yes," replied the boy quietly.

"And wherefore? What would they know of you?" asked Cyprianus.

"We had hidden the property of our church, and they would have it," replied Eteocles. "They left me to starve in a dungeon, and for three days I was without food; but the centurion was fond of wine, and I escaped while he was snoring outside my door; he had forgotten to draw the bolts, and at night I fled away and joined the brethren."

"And you kept your secret well, my son," said the bishop kindly. "You are young for such fortitude under suffering."

"Ah, father! many times I was sorely tempted, for I was well nigh famished," replied the boy meekly; "but I loved the Church too well, and looked beyond my time of suffering to the Crown that will be given to those who deserve it, as you have taught me, father; and Faith gave me strength to bear it."

"Ay, my son," said the bishop solemnly; "and if you endure to the end, God will surely give you your reward."

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

9

He laid his hand on the boy's bent head, and murmured a blessing.

Just then the sun blazed forth in all its glory before de-
parture, and illumined the two figures—the tall, venerable
form of the white-haired bishop, and the slender figure of the
boy, lingering around them as if loath to leave the hallowed
spot where the exile and his young follower stood. Presently
the figure of a robust man in the prime of life approached the
group, and paid his obeisance to the bishop.

"Ah, Hadrian," said Cyprianus, "how comes it that you have followed us; methought you were resting after your late exertions?"

"It was even so, most holy father," replied Hadrian; "but our guide tells me that a storm is gathering, and we must e'en start before nightfall."

"A storm?" repeated the bishop, gazing at the clear blue
sky, with the few fluffy white clouds tinted delicately by the
crimson glow of the sunset, in astonishment.

"I meant not the storm of the heavens, father," replied Hadrian; "but the Carthaginians have heard that Eteocles is here, and, in a maze of fury at his escape, have followed us."

"But which is safer, to flee into their very arms, or stay with me?" asked the bishop, looking down at the boy.

"Oh, to stay with thee, holy father," cried Eteocles,
quickly.

"Nay, Eteocles," said Hadrian, gravely; "to stay here
would be to bring danger to father Cyprianus. Would you
rather that he or you suffered?"

"I—I!" exclaimed the boy. "We cannot yet spare our
earthly father, and I can make but little difference. I will
go, and at once."

"Nay, my son, my doom is already sealed," said Cyprian,
kindly; "it will be delayed, but not averted, even should I
wish to hinder that, for which I thank God every hour."

"Time presses, father," said Hadrian, respectfully, yet im-
patiently; "even now I hear the sounds of pursuit."

"God bless thee, my son," said the bishop, extending his
hands over the head of the kneeling boy; and before either of
them could turn, a rough hand secured the arm of the fugi-
tive, and surrounded by his pursuers, Eteocles was once more
a captive. He did not shrink or tremble after the first start

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of surprise and terror, but with a parting glance at Hadrian and a low obeisance to the bishop, was led unresist-
ingly away.

"Your time will come next," shouted one of the captors,
laughing derisively in the bishop's face.

Cyprianus merely bent his head, murmuring, "Thy will be done," while his eyes followed the slender figure of Eteocles.

"He shall pay for the trouble he has cost me," said the
captor aforementioned, with an oath.

"I didn't wake to find him gone for nothing, and it won't be my fault if he does not appear in the games next time; ha! ha!"

### CHAPTER III.

An unusual stir appeared in the streets of Carthage some
days after the events related in the last chapter. Citizens
hurried hither and thither as if in preparation for some
coming event; but as morning gave place to noon their
steps were all bent in the same direction. We will follow
them, and in doing so we will reach the doors of the amphitheatre.

The podium is nearly full, and the rich togas of the sena-
tors, magistrates, vestal virgins, foreign ambassadors, and
other distinguished persons, vie with each other. Here
is a toga of the rich, celebrated Tyrian dye, worked
thickly with gold, and glistening with precious gems;
there a crimson toga gleaming with thickly-wrought silver
devices; near the crimson, a pure white, then a scarlet, and
so forth.

The common citizens are seated behind the podium in tiers
ranging upwards, and the designators have hard work to get
them all seated before the games begin; while the locarii are
bartering for the highest prices for which they will sell the
seats they have retained by being there from sunrise, before
the crush commenced.

At last every seat is full, and shouts proclaim the impatience of the assembled crowd. Then a door on one side of the arena, under the seats of the podium, opens, and two gladiators, armed with the cestus, enter the arena and com-

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

11

mence fighting. The people evince but little interest in the sport they deem tame, and are chiefly bent upon their betting-books, or speculating upon the courage of the "Atheist" who is to be sacrificed to-day.

"They say it is but a mere child," said one of the senators, addressing his neighbor. "I would lay anything that Valerain does not know of it; he was angry enough when he heard of the games we had with the two who fell, so stubbornly—Antoninus had been in good favor with him once."

"So I heard," replied the other. "Valerian does not want to proceed so far as all this; and yet, trust me, if Macrianus continues in his present position we shall have the times of Maximin over again."

"Hush! not so loud," whispered the other; "see, here comes a lion—we shall have some sport."

The games had now truly begun, and all sorts of combats succeeded one another, till at last the Christian was led into the arena. One long deafening shout rent the air, and when it died away, Eteocles, pale but collected, looked up for a moment at the assembly and then at the door of the cage, which, being opened, emitted the cat-like form of a handsome leopard. At first nothing but blank terror was depicted on the beautiful features of the boy, but as he watched the animal creeping round and round the arena, life returned to his figure; he devoutly crossed himself, and his lips moved as if in prayer. Slowly, stealthily, the leopard crept round his prey, and had it not been for the keen glassy eye that never moved for a single second from the boy, it would have seemed that he had forgotten, or feared his victim.

Breathlessly the audience awaited the spring that was so long coming, and in the interval many commented on the youth and beauty of the boy, some with pity, some with scorn and some with admiration.

It came at last; one lightning dash at the throat of his victim, and Eteocles lay lifeless on the sanded floor of the arena, while the shouts of the assembly echoed again and again through the building. Then an ass was led in with two hooks hanging behind, which they fastened in the tunic of the martyr, and so dragged him away from the scene of his suffering and his glory.

When the games were over, and every one had left the

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amphitheatre, a small band of Christians bought the body of
the martyr-boy from the Pagans, and in the dead of the night
buried him in the catacombs with all the honors paid to a
martyr by the Church.

## CHAPTER IV.

Cyprian lived quietly on at Curubis; he had heard of the
heroic death of Eteocles, and awaited for the fulfilment of
the vision he had seen on the first night he had spent in
exile.

"It seems my turn has not yet come," said the bishop
one evening to his deacon; "and though I feel a disappointment in it, yet I am happy that the persecutions have
so far ceased that our brethren need no more sleep in the
open air."

"I rejoice also, father, that you are spared a little longer
to us," replied Pontius. "The glory of our last martyr, boy
though he was. seemed the winding-up of the Pagans' anger
against us. How long may it be before we see Carthage once
more?"

"We have been here now nine months," said the bishop.

"Yes, it may be, father, that the day you asked for in
your dream may mean a year."

"However long it may be," rejoined Cyprianus, "I have
now had time to settle my ecclesiastic affairs, and am ready
for whenever I am desired to go."

At this moment one of the bishop's household entered the
tablinum where this conversation had taken place, and requested that Cyprian would lend him his attention for a couple
of moments.

"What would you?" asked the bishop.

"I have news from Carthage, father," replied the other.
"The proconsul Paternus is dead."

"Dead!" exclaimed the bishop and deacon in a breath.

"Yes, father, and Galerius Maximus is appointed his successor."

"Galerius Maximus is leniently inclined toward us," said
the deacon; "more so than Paternus."

"Besides which, I have heard also, father," continued the

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

13

newsbearer, "that the persecutions have nearly if not entirely ceased."

"Then, perhaps, we shall bid farewell to Curubis sooner
than we supposed," said Pontius.

"Perhaps," replied the bishop; "who can tell?"

About two months after this conversation, the bishop and
Pontius were walking slowly through the verdant woods and
valleys of Curubis.

"It is strange how everything happens so as we would
almost have expected," said Cyprianus musingly; "we have
been here eleven months, and now we are recalled to
Carthage by Galerius Maximus."

"Not alone recalled," said Pontius, "but the gardens
which you sold at the beginning of your conversion for the
benefit of the poor, father, are restored to you by the liber-
rality of your friends."

"Which I would gladly restore to the poor did I not wish
to avoid offending my friends," replied the bishop. "This
beautiful spot, where we have lived so happily, has become
dear to me, and yet I long to see our flock again."

They watched the sun drop behind the horizon, as it had
done so gloriously when Eteocles stood there, and then re-
turned home to pass their last night of exile.

## CHAPTER V.

It was on a bright day in August, 258, that Thascius
Cæcilius Cyprianus walked in his gardens at Carthage, sur-
rounded by many of the faithful. The lull in the persecution
appeared a source of rejoicing with some; but to many it
seemed a treacherous calm preceding an outburst of still
greater fury than the danger that was passed.

"Now the danger is over, father," said one of the younger
of his followers, "we may look forward to peace again."

"Nay, my son," said Cyprianus, smiling, "the danger is
not past; even now I am waiting for the executioner to appear
and summon me; it is not many days since I received a mes-
senger from Xystus to tell me of my coming death."

"And so, in daily expectation of dying, every day was
to him as if the crown might be attributed to each." Mean-

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while, many friends, some of rank and most eminent people, visited him and besought him to withdraw; they even went so far in their urgency as to offer him places whither he could retire, but he refused all; he felt his martyrdom drawing nearer day by day, and determined to leave Carthage no more. So the days passed in quietude till the second and severer edict of Valerian was issued, and Cyprian prepared for the worst that man could inflict. This persecution was far more cruel and unsparing than the one just passed, and the tortures that the Christians underwent more terrible. Men, women, children—it mattered little of what age, sex, or rank, so long as they belonged to the Lucifugæ—all suffered alike, and the amphitheatre was often the scene of their glory. Some were scourged to death, some torn by wild beasts, some burnt or roasted alive, some let inch by inch into caldrons of boiling oil or pitch; in short, the cruelty of the pagans knew no bounds.

Fearing that he might be carried to Utica during the temporary absence of the proconsul, Cyprianus hid himself, but on the return of Galerius Maximus he reappeared in his gardens as usual. Many were the means and places of escape offered him, but he withstood all entreaties or arguments, and would not save himself by flight.

"It would be of no use," he said calmly. "I know and feel that my martyrdom draws near, and whithersoever I flee it matters little; for it will overtake me as surely as if I remain here."

It was totally in vain that every temptation was offered; Cyprianus remained firm in his intentions, and would not leave Carthage; so at length his friends ceased to persuade him, and left him in peace.

The thirteenth of September, A. D. 258, dawned clear and beautiful; Cyprianus, after having celebrated the Eucharistic sacrifice, was as usual wandering in his gardens, when suddenly an officer, attended by a band of soldiers, presented himself before him.

"We come to arrest you in the name of Galerius Maximus," said the officer sternly but not disrespectfully.

"Lead on," replied Cyprian, quietly. "I am prepared;" and with a lofty mien and courageous heart he submitted himself to his guards.

He was treated with singular respect by the soldiers, for

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

15

there was not one who had not heard of his benevolence
during the great plague; and thus he was carried to Sexti, a
small town some six miles from Carthage, whither the pro-
consul had gone on account of his health; and directly taken
to the prætorium; but being delayed till the morrow, he re-
turned with the officer who had him in charge to his house.
There he passed the night in prayer and a few hours of un-
troubled sleep; fears he had none, for he knew his martyrdom
was drawing nigh, and welcomed it with joy.

## CHAPTER VI.

A scattered rumor had spread itself throughout Carthage
that Cyprian had been led forth; whom none did not know,
either for his illustrious fame in the honorable opinion of all,
or on account of the recollection of his most renowned work.
On all sides men flocked together to see him, and the custody
in which he was not being strict, his friends were allowed to
be in his company as usual during the remainder of the day
after he had left the prætorium; and at night, so fearful were
they that some harm might be done him, that they kept
watch outside the door of the officer's house. The next day,
as he came forth to proceed once more to the prætorium, he
was directly hemmed in with a multitude of men, women
and children—an army so numerous that it was with diffi-
culty that he could proceed. When he reached the prætorium,
however, Galerius Maximus had not yet come forth, and a
place of retirement was offered him. As he sat there fatigued
and greatly heated, so much so indeed that his clothes were
damp, Tesserarius, one of the officers, who had formerly been
a Christian, offered him his clothes, as if he might change his
moistened garments for dry ones.

"We apply medicines to annoyances which probably to-day will exist no longer," replied Cyprianus.

He had scarcely finished speaking when an officer came to
summon him to the presence of the proconsul. Without a
moment's hesitation he arose and followed him.

Galerius Maximus was seated at the upper end of the
prætorium, surrounded by his twelve lictors and many other

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of the council. Cyprian approached him fearlessly, and calmly awaited the usual interrogation.

"What is thy name?" asked the proconsul.

"Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus," replied the bishop.

"What is thy vocation?"

"Bishop of Carthage."

Galerius Maximus took up a leaf of parchment and read therefrom—

"Hereby do we accuse thee, Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, Bishop of Carthage, of heresy, of being the standard-bearer of an heretical sect, and an enemy of the gods."

Cyprianus remained silent when his accusation was read, and the proconsul addressed him:

"Sacrifice to the gods, Cæcilius Cyprianus; sacrifice, and all may go well with thee yet."

Cyprian stood quietly before the proconsul, but made no reply, not even so much as the slightest movement of the head; it was in vain that he urged him repeatedly and earnestly; the bishop was immovable, and at length Maximus slowly and unwillingly pronounced his doom.

"In the names of the Emperors Valerian and Gallienus, I command that thou, Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, have thy head struck from thy body."

Cyprian bowed his head in meek, nay, joyful, acquiescence; but the crowd of Christians who had followed him into the prætorium raised a sudden cry, "Let us also die with him! let us also die with him!"

The bishop was then surrounded by his guard and carried away from the presence of the proconsul. As he left the doors of the prætorium a crowd of soldiery accompanied him, and on all sides he was guarded by centurions and tribunes. With a light step and cheerful countenance, he went to the place of execution.

The spot they had chosen was a broad level sweep of green sward surrounded by trees on all sides, and as the martyr reached it the sun in all its glory shone out and illuminated the figure of the venerable bishop in his simple toga, surrounded by armed soldiers, centurions and tribunes; their weapons flashing in the sun; and around these the multitude of Christians, pressing eagerly forward for a view of the martyr. But the space was not large enough to hold them all, and many climbed up into the trees to catch a

THASCIUS CÆCILIUS CYPRIANUS.

17

glimpse of him; so many, indeed, filled their branches that the boughs gave way beneath them, and they were once more brought to the earth. The soldiery retreated a few paces from the bishop when he had reached the middle of the green sward, and left him alone with the executioner. Looking once all round up at his devoted followers with a face full of joy, Cyprian then knelt down, and in the midst of an involuntary hush prayed earnestly for a short time. Then he rose slowly from his knees, and began to divest himself of his upper garment.

Meanwhile the cries and the lamentations of the assembled crowd rose loudly on the air. "What can we do without our father?" cried some. "What will the Church do without her bishop?" lamented others. But the cry that mostly rent the air was, "Let us also die with him! let us also die with him!"

Even the soldiers themselves were moved by the spectacle of the lamenting crowd; the wails of the children, the tears of the women, the groans of the men; and from them they turned to the venerable form of the white-haired bishop.

Standing bareheaded in the very rays of the hot September sun, without an emotion crossing his calm face, wherein there was alone expressed joy unutterable and prayer, he took off his toga and laid it aside, then, turning to his executioner, he said quietly, "Come hither."

The soldier approached at the bishop's bidding, and stood with downcast eyes before him.

"Here are twenty-five gold pieces," he said, counting them into his hand; take them, and do thy office quickly.

The headsman took the gold reluctantly, and Cyprian looked once more at his people. The wails and groans, the tears and sighs increased for a moment, but no one could look on his peaceful face without borrowing some of its cheerfulness, and as the bishop looked slowly round for the last time on earth, the lamentations became more subdued, lessened, and at last wholly ceased. Here and there, where the boughs of the trees had been broken, and had made gaps in the foliage, the soft undulations of the fields could be seen ripened for the harvest, some already gathered, others ploughed again after the gathering. Nature seemed to have donned her most beautiful aspect on this auspicious day, and the eyes of the bishop rested lingeringly upon the landscape. But it was his last

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farewell; then he knelt down once more, covered his face with his hands, and awaited the fatal stroke. But the headsman faltered; his cheek paled, his eye wandered, and his hand refused to deal the blow. And the bishop knelt calmly still; then suddenly, gathering together his scattered senses, the soldier grasped his sword firmly in his hand, raised it, the bright steel flashed in the sun; one stroke, a heavy fall, and Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, Bishop of Carthage, had gained the Crown of Martyrdom.

## THE LITURGY OF THE PRE-SANCTIFIED.

THE Liturgy of the Pre-sanctified is used on every Wednesday and Friday in Lent, and on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday in the Holy Week. The holy gifts were consecrated on the Sunday before, and in the following way:

When the Priest in the Proskomidie prepares the holy Agnus, he prepares at the same time and in the same way the other Agni, saying over each of them the same words which he said over the first: In remembrance of our Lord, and God, and Saviour Jesus Christ. (Thrice). He was as a lamb, etc. The Lamb of God, that taketh away the sin, etc. Then the Priest, as usual, pours wine and water into the holy chalice, covers all with the holy coverings and the Aër, and, as he censes all says the Prayer of the Offering: O God, our God, who has sent our Saviour, etc.

At the Holy Liturgy on the same Sunday, when the Priest consecrates the holy gifts, he says over all the leaves as over one: "And make this bread the precious Body of Thy CHRIST," not: "Make these leaves," because Christ is One. At the offering the Priest takes all together, but divides only the one, which was selected for the Liturgy of that Sunday; the others he takes in his left hand, and moistens each with the Holy Blood, touching each with the spoon dipped in the Holy Blood in form of a cross on the soft side of the seal; lays each on the ciborium and places them upon the holy table.

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On the day when the Liturgy of the Pre-sanctified is used, the Priest and the Deacon put on their holy vestments, sign them with the cross and kiss them, saying these words: Let us pray to the Lord.

The Deacon, after he has received the Priest's blessing, goes out, takes his place opposite the holy doors, bows devoutly three times, and says: Speak the blessing, my Master.

The Priest standing before the holy table: Blessed be the Kingdom of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

READER: O come, let us worship before God, our King.

O come, let us worship and fall down before Christ, our God and King.

O come, let us worship and fall down before Christ Him-
self, our King and God.

(Psalm 103.) After the psalm: Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost; now, and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen. Hallelujah. (Thrice.) Glory be to Thee, O God. (Thrice.)

While this is read, the Priest says silently the following
prayers:

FIRST PRAYER.

O Thou, who art glorified with never-ending hymns of
praise and ceaseless thanksgivings by the holy powers, fill
our mouth with Thy glory, that we may magnify Thy holy
name, and give us part and inheritance with all, who in
truth fear Thee and keep Thy commandments; through the
intercessions of the Holy Mother of God and all Thy Saints.
For to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost are
due all glory, honor and worship; now, and ever, and to ages
of ages. Amen.

SECOND PRAYER.

O Lord God, who holdest all things in Thy holy hand,
who art long-suffering towards us all, and grievest over our
evil deeds; remember Thy compassion and Thy mercy; visit
us in Thy goodness; let us through Thy grace escape for the
remainder of this day the manifold craft of the evil one, and
preserve our life blameless, through the grace of Thine all-
holy Spirit. For the sake of the mercy and the favor of
Thine only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art praised,

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together with Thine all-holy, and good, and life-giving Spirit:
now, and ever, etc.

THIRD PRAYER.

O God, great and wonderful, who rulest all things with
unspeakable goodness and rich providence, who hast also
given us earthly good things, hast assured us of the promised
Kingdom, hast prepared our way through the good things
already given us, and preserved us from every evil through
a portion of this present day: let us complete the remaining
time without sin, that we may praise Thee in Thy holy glory,
as our only good and gracious God. For Thou art our God,
and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost,
we offer up praise and glory; now, and ever, etc.

FOURTH PRAYER.

O great and exalted God, who alone hast immortality and
dwellest in unapproachable light, who has wisely made all
creatures, and hast divided the light from the darkness, and
hast set the sun to rule over the day, and the moon and stars
to rule over the night; who hast made us sinners worthy
also on this day to approach before Thy face with confession,
and to offer to Thee the evening service; do Thou, O gracious
God, direct our prayer before Thee as the incense, and accept
it as a sweet savor. Grant us, that the present evening and
the coming night may be peaceful; clothe us with the armor
of light; preserve us from nocturnal fear and from every evil
thing, which walketh in darkness; and grant that the sleep,
which Thou hast given us for refreshment from fatigue, may
be free from every vision of the devil. Make us, O Giver of
all good gifts, to feel repentance on our couches, by night
also to remember Thine all-holy Name, and, enlightened by
meditation on Thy holy commandments, to arise in the joy
of our souls to the praise of Thy mercy, and to offer prayers
and supplications to Thy compassion for our own sins and for
all Thy people, that Thou mayest visit them with Thy grace
through the intercessions of the Holy Mother of God. For
Thou art a good and gracious God, and to Thee, etc.

*Then the great Ektene:* In peace let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (So also after each suffrage of
the Ektene.)

DEACON: For the peace that is from above, and for the
salvation of our souls, let us pray to the Lord.

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For the peace of the whole world, for the stability of the holy Churches of God, and for the union of all, let us pray to the Lord.

For this holy temple, and for those, who in faith, piety, and the fear of God enter into it, let us pray to the Lord.

For the most holy Governing Synod, for the Metropolitan, for the honorable Presbytery, for the Diaconate in Christ and for all the clergy and laity, let us pray to the Lord.

For our most pious and divinely preserved Sovereign and family, and all their court and army, let us pray to the Lord:

That He would fight on their side, and subdue under their feet every enemy and adversary, let us pray to the Lord.

For this city, for every city and country, and for the faithful, who inhabit them, let us pray to the Lord.

For healthfulness of air, for plentiful fruits of the earth, and for peaceful times, let us pray to the Lord.

For those who voyage, who journey, who are sick, who labor, who are in bonds, and for their salvation, let us pray to the Lord.

For deliverance from all affliction, passion, danger and necessity let us pray to the Lord.

Defend, save, have mercy and guard us, O God, by Thy grace.

Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God, and ever Virgin Mary, with all the saints; let us commend ourselves, and each other, and all our life to Christ, our God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

PRIEST (aloud): For all glory, honor and worship are due to Thee, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost; now, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then the Reader begins to read the following Psalms:
*Psalms 119, 120, 121, 122 and 123. Then: Glory be to the Father, etc. Hallelujah! (Thrice.) Glory be to Thee, O God. (Thrice.)*

The little Ektene:

Again and again, in peace, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Defend, save, have mercy and guard us, O God, by Thy grace.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

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DEACON: Commemorating our all-holy, spotless, most
blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God, and ever Vir-
gin Mary, with all the saints; let us commend ourselves, and
each other, and all our life to Christ, our God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*During this Ektene the following prayer is said silently by*
*the Priest:*

## PRAYER OF THE FIRST ANTIPHON.

O Lord, merciful and gracious, long suffering and of great
goodness, hear our supplication, and receive the voice of our
prayer; show us a token for good; lead us in the way, that
we may walk in Thy truth; make glad our hearts, that we
may fear Thy holy Name; for Thou art great and doest won-
drous things; Thou only art God and there is none like Thee
among the Gods, strong in mercy and gracious in power, to
help, and to comfort, and to deliver all, who hope in Thy
holy Name.

*After the Ektene the Priest aloud:* For Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

*Then the Reader begins to read the following Psalms:* Psalms 124, 125, 126, 127, 128. Glory be to the Father, etc.
Hallelujah! (Thrice.) Glory be to Thee, O God. (Thrice.)

*Then the little Ektene: Again and again, etc.*

*The Priest prays silently.*

## PRAYER OF THE SECOND ANTIPHON.

O Lord, rebuke us not in Thy wrath; neither chasten us in
Thy hot displeasure, but deal with us according to Thy mercy;
for Thou art the Physician who healest our souls. Oh! lead
us into the harbor of Thy will; enlighten the eyes of our
hearts to the knowledge of Thy truth; grant that we may
live the remainder of this day peacefully and without sin, and
so, also, through all our life, through the intercession of the
holy Mother of God, and all Thy saints.

*After the Ektene the Priest aloud:* For Thou art a good
and gracious God, and we offer up praise and glory to Thee,
the Father, etc.

CHOIR: Amen.

23

Then the Reader reads Psalms 129, 130, 131, 132, 133.
Glory be to the Father, etc. Hallelujah! etc.

The little Ektene: Again and again, etc.

The Priest reads silently the following prayer:

## PRAYER OF THE THIRD ANTIPHON.

O Lord, our God, remember us, Thy sinful and unprofitable servants, while we call upon Thy holy and adorable Name, and let us not be put to shame since we trust in Thy grace, but give unto us, O Lord, all that we ask for our welfare; and grant that we may love and fear Thee with our whole heart, and in all things do Thy holy will.

After the Ektene the Priest aloud: For Thou art our God, the God of mercy and salvation, and we offer up, etc.

CHOIR: Amen.

Then the first choir sings, according to the appointed melody, the beginning of Psalm 140: O Lord, I say unto Thee, hear me; hear me, O Lord. O Lord, I say unto Thee, hear me; consider the voice of my prayer, when I say unto Thee, hear me, O Lord.

SECOND CHOIR: Let my prayer come before Thee as in cense; the lifting up of my hands as the evening sacrifice; hear me, O Lord.

Then the Stichiria of the day, with the included verses of Psalms, are sung in the way appointed at the Great Vespers. (See "ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE," Vol. I., No. 1.)

When the choir begins to sing these hymns, the Priest goes with the Deacon to the Prothesis. The Priest takes the pre-sanctified holy gifts from the Ciborium, and lays them with great reverence on the holy Disk; then he pours into the holy Chalice wine and water, takes the censer, censes the Asterisk and Aër, and covers up the holy gifts, without saying even the Prayer of Offering, but only the words: Through the intercessions of our Fathers, O Lord, Jesus Christ, our God, have mercy upon us, because all have been pre-sanctified. Then the Deacon takes the censer from the Priest, and censes before the holy table, in the sanctuary and in the Church, as is customary. When the choir at the end of the Stichiria begins to sing the Glory be to the Father, the Deacon enters the sanctuary, opens the holy doors, and the Little Entrance takes place, as at the Great Vespers, with the censer, if no Gospel is to be read; but with the Gospel, if one is to be read.

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The Priest prays during the Entrance in the following manner:

### PRAYER OF THE ENTRANCE.

At evening, and at morning, and at noon, we praise and bless Thee, we give thanks to Thee and worship Thee, O Ruler of all things; let our prayer come before Thee as a sweet savor, and guard our hearts that they incline not to words and thoughts of evil; but deliver us from all, that lie in wait for our souls; for unto Thee, O Lord God, are our eyes lifted up, and in Thee have we trusted, O our God; let us not be put to shame. For all glory, honor and worship are due to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost; now, and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

Then, when the choir ceases to sing, the Priest and the Deacon bow before the holy doors, and the Deacon says, as he points with the orarion towards the east:

> Bless, my Master, the Holy Entrance.

THE PRIEST: Blessed be the Entrance of Thy Saints, O Lord, always, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

Then the Deacon turns toward the sanctuary and says aloud:

> Wisdom; stand up.

Then the Priest and Deacon go back into the sanctuary, and the choir sings;

> Joyful light of the holy glory of the immortal Father, heavenly, holy, blessed, Jesus Christ; having come to the setting of the sun, having seen the evening light, we praise the Father and Son, and Holy Spirit, God. It is meet at all times to praise Thee with holy voices, O Son of God, Giver of Life; therefore the world glorifies Thee.

DEACON: Let us attend.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

DEACON: Wisdom.

The Reader reads now the first Prokimënon of the day, which the choir repeats thrice.

DEACON: Wisdom.

Then the Reader begins to read the Parëmia, that is, portions from the scriptures of the Old Testament, which are appointed for the day, saying: The Reading from (e. g.) the First Book of Moses (or from some other).

DEACON: Let us attend and then closes the holy doors. The Reader then reads. The Deacon again opens the doors and says:

25

Wisdom.

The Reader reads the second *Prokimenon*, which is thrice repeated by the choir.

DEACON: Command.

Then the Priest takes in both hands burning tapers and the censer, looking towards the east makes with it the sign of the Cross, and says aloud:

Wisdom; stand up.

Then he turns toward the west to the people, and says:

May the Light of Christ enlighten all.

The congregation bow low.

Again the Reader reads a *Paramion*: The reading from the Proverbs of Solomon (or Job, or some other scripture of the Old Testament).

DEACON: Let us attend.

Then the holy doors are closed, and the Reader reads the second *Paramion*. But if the following day is a festival, the *Paramia* of that day are also read. At the close of the *Paræmia* the holy doors are again opened. The Priest says to the Reader:

Peace to thee.

DEACON: Wisdom.

The Reader, or a singer appointed for that purpose, begins to sing in the midst of the church:

Let my prayer come as incense before Thee; the lifting of my hands as an evening sacrifice.

During this anthem the choir's right and left, all the people in the church and all in the sanctuary, except the Priest, (who censes standing before the holy table), kneel and pray. Then the Reader kneels down, the people on the right side stand up with the choir on that side, and the latter sings:

Let my prayer come, etc.

After this the left side, with their choir, stand up, and the Reader with them, and he sings:

O Lord, I say unto Thee, hear me; consider the voice of my prayer, when I cry unto Thee.

Then the Reader, with the people and choir on the right side, kneels down, and the left choir sings:

Let my prayer come, etc.

Then the people and choir on the right side stand up again with the Reader, and he sings:

Set, O Lord, a watch before my mouth, and keep the door of my lips.

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Then the Reader, people and choir on the left side again
kneel down, and the right side sings:

Let my prayer come, etc.

The left choir and people stand up with the Reader, and
he sings:

Incline not mine heart to an evil thing; let me not take
part in the guilt of evil-doers.

The people and choir on the right side kneel down with the
Reader, and the left choir sings:

Let my prayer come, etc.

Then the Priest gives up the censer, kneels down with all
the people and both choirs; the Reader stands up alone and
sings:

Let my prayer come as incense before Thee.

Then all stand up, the Reader goes to his place, and the
choir continues:

The lifting of my hands as an evening sacrifice.

Then all present bow together thrice, the holy doors are
closed and the Deacon begins the Ektene of the earnest Prayer.

(If it be a festival, the Deacon says before the Ektene: Let us attend; the Reader reads the Prokimenton for the Reading from the Apostolic Epistles; then these are read; afterward the Deacon reads the Gospel for the day, as in the Liturgy of S. Chrysostom (see "ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE," Vol. I, No. 2), and then follows the Ektene.)

DEACON: Let us say with our whole soul; and with our
whole mind, let us say:

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Almighty Lord, God of our fathers, we pray
Thee, hear us and have mercy upon us.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: O God, have mercy upon us, according to Thy
great mercy; we pray Thee, hear us and have mercy upon us.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (Thrice, so after each suffrage
of the Ektene.)

DEACON: Again we pray for our most pious, divinely pres
erved Sovereign, for strength, victory, long and sole rule,
health and salvation; and we most earnestly beseech the
Lord, our God, to prosper him in all things, and subdue un-
der his feet every enemy and adversary.

Again we pray for the most holy governing Synod, and
for our Metropolitan.

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Again we pray for our brethren, the Priests, Deacons, Monks, and all our brotherhood in Christ.

Again we pray for the Orthodox Patriarchs; for their Majesties, Kings and Queens; for the blessed and ever-memorable founders of this holy abode; for our fathers and brethren that have fallen asleep before us; and for the Orthodox departed everywhere.

Again we pray for those who bring forth fruits: and do good deeds in this holy and all-venerable temple; who labor and sing; and for the people standing there, and expecting from Thee Thy great and rich mercy.

*During this the Priest prays silently:*

### FERVENT PRAYER.

Receive, O Lord, our God, this fervent prayer of Thy servants, and have mercy upon us according to the multitude of Thy mercies; send down Thy gifts of compassion upon us and upon all Thy people, who expect rich mercy from Thee.

*(Aloud)* For Thou art a gracious and merciful God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

*Then follows the Ektene of the Catechumens, in which the Deacon begins:*

Catechumens, pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy *(So after each suffrage of the Ektene)*.

DEACON: Let us, the faithful, pray for the Catechumens.

That the Lord may have mercy upon them.

That He may teach them the Word of truth.

That He may reveal to them the Gospel of righteousness.

That He may unite them to His Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church.

Save, have mercy, defend and guard them, O God, by Thy grace.

Catechumens, bow your heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*The Priest, during this Ektene, spreads the antiminion over the holy table and prays silently:*

### PRAYER FOR THE CATECHUMENS.

O God, our God, who hast created and formed all things, and willest that all men should be saved and come to the

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knowledge of the truth; look down upon Thy servants, the Catechumens, and deliver them from the ancient deceit and craft of the adversary; call them to everlasting life through the enlightenment of their souls and bodies, that they may be added to Thy restorable flock, over which Thy holy name has been called.

(Aloud) That they also with us may praise Thine all-honorable and most glorious name, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

DEACON: All, who are Catechumens, depart; let none of the Catechumens remain.

*Here from Wednesday in the midst of Lent until Wednesday before Good Friday the following Ektene is introduced for those who are to be enlightened:*

Ye, who are preparing yourselves for enlightenment, pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy. (So after each suffrage of the Ektene.)

DEACON: For the brethren who are preparing themselves for holy enlightenment and for their salvation, let us, the faithful, pray to the Lord.

That the Lord, our God, may strengthen and confirm them.

That He may enlighten them with the light of knowledge and piety.

That, at the fitting time, He may make them worthy of the lover of regeneration, of the forgiveness of sins and the clothing of incorruption.

That they may be born again of the water and Spirit.

That He may grant them the perfection of Faith.

That he may add them to His holy and elect flock.

Defend, save, have mercy and guard them, O God, by Thy grace.

Ye, who are to be enlightened, bow your heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*The Priest prays silently:*

*The prayer for the holy enlightenment of those who are preparing themselves.*

Cause Thy face to shine, O Master, over these who are preparing themselves for holy enlightenment, and who wish

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to put away the stain of sin from themselves; enlighten their minds, build them up in the Faith, strengthen them in Hope, make them perfect in Love, and make them worthy members of Thy Christ, who gave Himself for the redemption of our souls.

(Aloud) For Thou art our enlightenment, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

DEACON: Ye, who are to be enlightened, depart.

Ye, who are faithful, again and again in peace let us pray to the Lord.

## EKTENE OF THE FAITHFUL.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Wisdom.

The Priest prays silently:

## THE FIRST PRAYER OF THE FAITHFUL.

O God, great and highly praised, who by the life-giving death of Thy Christ hast brought us from corruption to in-corruption, do Thou also set free all our senses from their death through evil passions, place within them Thy Spirit as a good guide, that the eye may not look upon anything evil, the hearing may be closed to every unprofitable word, and the tongue remain pure from evil speech. Cleanse our lips, O Lord, that they may glorify Thee; restrain our hands from evil deeds, and make them diligent and active in things pleas-ing unto Thee; strengthen all our members and our mind by Thy grace.

(Aloud): For all glory, honor and worship are due to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost; now and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

DEACON (the Second Ektene of the Faithful): Again and again let us pray to the Lord.

DEACON: For the peace from above, and for the salvation of our souls, let us pray to the Lord.

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For the peace of the whole world; for the stability of the holy churches of God, and for the union of all, let us pray to the Lord.

For this holy temple; and for those who in faith, piety and the fear of God enter into it, let us pray to the Lord.

For delivery from all affliction, passion, danger and necessity, let us pray to the Lord.

### DEACON: Wisdom.

*The Priest meanwhile prays silently:*

## THE SECOND PRAYER OF THE FAITHFUL.

O holy and most excellent Master, we implore Thee, who art rich in grace, be gracious to us sinners, and make us worthy to receive Thine only-begotten Son, our God, the King of glory. For behold, borne by the heavenly hosts in an invisible manner, comes Thine undefiled Body and life-giving Blood at this hour, and is to be presented in this mystical Supper. Let us, then, so blamelessly partake of it, that, enlightened in our spiritual eyes, we may become children of the light and of the day.

(Aloud): Through the gift of Thy Christ, with whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all-holy and good and life-giving Spirit, now and ever, etc.

### CHOIR: Amen.

(Then the Choir sings): Heavenly powers serve now invisibly with us; for behold, the completed mystical sacrifice is borne about.

While this is sung the Deacon goes through the north door into the sanctuary, opens the holy doors, censes before the holy table, about the holy gifts and before the Priest, before the holy Eikons and the people, who are present, then bows before the holy table with the Priest, and both say thrice: Heavenly Powers, etc, and bow thrice; then they go to the holy Prothesis, and the Priest takes the holy Aër and places it upon the left shoulder of the Deacon; the holy disk he takes himself, upon his head, but the chalice, with the wine, he holds with his right hand on his breast, and they go in perfect silence after the lights borne before them, while the people bow to the ground, and the Deacon continues to cense out through the north door, and again through the holy doors to the holy

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table, and thus make the great entrance. As the Priest and Deacon enter the sanctuary, the people arise, and the choir continues:

Let us enter in faith and love, that we may be partakers of eternal Life. Hallelujah (thrice).

During this the Priest places the holy gifts upon the holy table, takes off the coverings, covers with the Aër and censes them, without speaking. The Deacon closes the holy doors, receives the blessing from the Priest, goes to his usual place, and says the following Ektene:

Let us complete our evening prayer to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For the offered, pre-sanctified, precious gifts, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That our God, the lover of men, would receive them on His holy, heavenly and spiritual altar, for the odor of a spiritual sweet savor, and would send down upon us His Divine grace and the gift of the Holy Ghost, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: For deliverance from all affliction, passion, danger and necessity, let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: Defend, save, have mercy, and guard us, O God, by Thy grace.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

DEACON: That we may live this whole evening holy, in peace and without sin, let us ask the Lord.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

DEACON: For the angel of peace, the faithful guide, guardian of our souls and bodies, let us ask the Lord.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

DEACON: For the pardon and remission of our sins and transgressions, let us ask the Lord.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

DEACON: For all things that are good and profitable to our souls, and for the peace of the world, let us ask the Lord.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

DEACON: That we may complete the remainder of our lives in peace and penitence, let us ask the Lord.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

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DEACON: That the end of our lives may be Christian, pain-
less, without shame, and in peace, and that we may at last
be able to give a good account before the dreadful judgment
seat of Christ, let us ask the Lord.

CHOIR: Grant, O Lord.

DEACON: Having prayed for the unity of the faith and the
communion of the Holy Ghost, let us commend ourselves,
and each other, and all our life to Christ and God.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*The Priest prays silently:*

O God of ineffable and invisible mysteries, with whom are
hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge, and who
hast revealed unto us the performance of this service, and
hast appointed us, sinners, according to Thy great mercy, to
offer gifts and sacrifices unto Thee for our sins and for the
ignorance of the people; do Thou, O Invisible King, who
doest things great and unsearchable, glorious and wonderful,
without number, look down Thyself upon us, Thine un-
worthy servants, who stand as though at Thy cherubic
throne; by this Thy holy table, on which Thine only-begotten
Son and our God, rests in the awful sacrament now lying be-
fore us, and make us all Thy faithful people, free from im-
purity; sanctify all our souls and bodies with a holiness
which cannot be taken away, that with a good conscience, a
countenance free from shame, and an enlightened heart we
may take part in these divine mysteries and, made living
through Thee, be united to Thy Christ Himself, our true God,
who hath said: He that eateth My flesh, and drinketh My
blood, dwelleth in Me and I in Him; that so, because Thy
word, O Lord, dwelleth and moveth within us, we may be-
come a temple of Thine all-holy and adorable spirit; redeemed
from all the devices and works of the devil in deed, or word,
or thought; and may also obtain the good things promised
unto us with all Thy saints, who have pleased Thee from all
ages.

(*Aloul*): And make us, O Master, worthy with confidence
and without judgment, to dare to call upon Thee, our God
and Heavenly Father, and to say:

THE PEOPLE: Our Father, who art in the Heavens; hal-
lowed be Thy name; Thy Kingdom come; Thy will be done
as in Heaven, so on the earth; give us this day our daily
bread; and forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who

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trespass against us; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from the evil.

PRIEST (aloud): For Thine is the Kingdom, and the power, and the glory of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

PRIEST: Peace to all.

CHOIR: And to Thy spirit.

DEACON: Let us bow our heads before the Lord.

CHOIR: To Thee, O Lord.

*The Priest also bows and says silently:*

## THE PRAYER.

O God, who only art good and merciful, who dwelleth on high and looketh down upon the lowly, look down with condescending eye upon all Thy people; guard them, and make us all worthy without judgment to partake of this Thy life-giving sacrament; for we have bowed our heads before Thee, and expect of Thee rich grace.

(Aloud): Through the grace, and compassions, and mercy of Thine only-begotten Son, with whom Thou art highly praised, together with Thine all-holy, and good, and life-giving spirit; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

## THE PRAYER.

*The Priest silently praying:* Hear us, O Lord Jesus Christ, our God, out of Thy holy habitation, and from the throne of glory in Thy Kingdom, and come to sanctify us, who sitteth on high with the Father, and art here below invisibly present with us; make us worthy by Thy mighty hand to give unto ourselves Thy holy body and Thy precious blood, and by us to all the people.

*While this prayer is said, the Deacon stands before the holy doors, and girds himself cross-wise with the Orarion over both shoulders. Then the Priest and the Deacon standing in his place, bow three times and say:*

O God, purify me, a sinner, and have mercy upon me.

*Then the Priest lays his hand on the covered holy gifts and touches the life-giving bread; the Deacon says:*

Let us attend.

THE PRIEST (Aloud): The pre-sanctified HOLY for the Holy.

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CHOIR: One is Holy; one Lord Jesus Christ, in the glory of God the Father. Amen.

*Then the Koinonikon:* Taste and see that the Lord is good. Hallelujah; Hallelujah; Hallelujah.

*The Priest lifts up the holy Aër, the Deacon goes into the sanctuary, and says as he places himself near the Priest:*

Break the holy bread, my Master.

*The Priest carefully and devoutly breaks the holy bread into four pieces and says:*

The lamb of God is broken and distributed; is broken and undivided, ever eaten and never consumed; but sanctifying those who partake.

*The Priest then puts the part I. H. C. into the holy chalice without saying anything; the Deacon also, without speaking, pours in warm water, then places himself at some distance, and the Priest says:*

Approach, my Deacon.

*The Deacon draws nigh with great reverence, bows and says:*

Behold, I draw nigh unto the immortal King. *Then:* Give me, Master, the precious and holy Body and Blood of our Lord, and God, and Saviour Jesus Christ.

*The Priest now takes of the portion X. C. of the holy Gifts, gives it to the Deacon and says:*

To the Deacon N. N. is given the precious and holy and most pure Body and Blood of our Lord, and God, and Saviour Jesus Christ, for the forgiveness of his sins, and for eternal life.

*Then the Deacon kisses the hand of the Priest, goes back behind the holy table, and stands with bowed head. In the same manner the Priest also takes of the portion X. C. of the holy Bread into his hands and says:*

The precious and all-holy Body and Blood of our Lord, and God, and Saviour Jesus Christ is given to me, Priest N. N., for the forgiveness of my sins and for eternal life.

*Then he bows his head and prays together with the Deacon, while they both say:*

I believe, Lord, and confess, that Thou art the true Christ, etc.

Receive me to-day, O Son of God, etc.

Let not this communion, etc. (*See the Liturgy of Saint Chrysostom, ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE Vol. I., No. 2).

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Then they receive in the fear of God and with devotion the holy Gifts.

Then the Priest takes the sponge, wipes the palm of his hand, on which the portion of the holy Bread was laid, and says: Glory be to Thee, O God! (thrice) kisses the sponge, and lays it in its place.

Then he takes the holy chalice in both hands and drinks out of it without saying anything; wipes with the covering which he holds in his hand his lips and the chalice, kisses and places it upon the holy table, then takes a portion of the Anaphora, washes his hands and lips and says the following prayer:

THANKSGIVING.

We thank Thee, O God, the Saviour of all, for all the good things which Thou hast given unto us, and also for the Communion of the Holy Body and Blood of Thy Christ; and we pray Thee, merciful Master, keep us under the shadow of Thy wings, and grant that we may worthily receive Thy Sacrament to our last breath, for the transfiguration of our souls and bodies and for the inheritance of Thy heavenly kingdom.

If the Priest without a Deacon celebrates the holy Liturgy, he does not drink immediately (as indicated above, when a Deacon serves with him), out of the holy chalice; but first after the completion of the Liturgy, and after the reception of the remaining portion of the holy gifts; and this because the wine here is indeed hallowed by the introduction of the holy Bread, but is not changed into the Blood of the Lord, and the Priest, in this way, before the next reception of the Holy Body, would receive something, which is not in itself holy. But the Deacon drinks now in no case out of the holy chalice, but first after the prayer behind the Ambo, and after he has received the remaining portions of the holy gifts.

If communicants are present the Deacon divides the two remaining portions, N. I. and K. A., into as many portions as there are communicants, lifts the disk over the chalice, puts the portions into it and covers it with the covering, without saying anything. Then he bows thrice, opens the holy doors, receives the chalice from the Priest, and, turning to the people, says:

Draw near in the fear of God and Faith and in Love.

CHOIR: I will praise the Lord at all times; His praise shall

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ever be in my mouth. Taste the Bread of Heaven and the Cup of Life, and see that the Lord is good. Hallelujah! (Thrice.)

If there be communicants, they then approach and receive the Holy Communion as appointed in the Liturgy of Saint Chrysostom. Afterwards the Priest and Deacon go back into the sanctuary, place the holy gifts upon the holy table; the Priest turns towards the people, blesses them and says:

> O God! bless Thy people and save Thine inheritance.

> Then, when the Priest has censed the holy gifts he gives the censer to the Deacon, takes the holy disk and places it upon the Deacon's head. The Deacon looks out of the holy doors, goes silently away; at the same time the Priest takes the chalice, looks towards the people, and says, silently:

> Blessed be our God! (Then aloud):

> Always, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

> And so they bear the holy gifts back to the Prothesus, while the choir sings: Amen.

Let our mouth be filled with Thy praise, O Lord! that we may sing of Thy glory; because Thou hast made us worthy to partake of Thy holy, divine, immortal and life-giving Sacraments; preserve us in Thy holiness the whole day, that we may learn Thy righteousness. Hallelujah! (Thrice.)

> The Deacon goes out of the north door, takes his usual place, and says:

> Let us stand up and worthily thank the Lord, for having received the divine, holy, pure, immortal, heavenly, life-giving and terrible Sacrament of Christ.

> CHOIR: Lord have mercy.

> DEACON: Defend, save, have mercy and guard us O, God! by Thy grace.

> DEACON: Asking that we may complete this whole evening in holiness, peace and without sin, let us commend ourselves, and each other, and all our life to Christ, our God.

> CHOIR: To Thee, O, Lord!

> The Priest folds the Antimission, makes over it with the Gospel the sign of the Cross, and says aloud:

> For Thou art our sanctification, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

> CHOIR: Amen.

> PRIEST: Let us depart in peace.

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CHOIR: In the name of the Lord.

DEACON: Let us pray to the Lord.

CHOIR: Lord, have mercy.

*The Priest then goes behind the Ambo and says with a loud voice:*

THE PRAYER.

O, Master, who rulest over all, who hast wisely formed all creatures, and, according to Thine unspeakable Providence and great goodness has brought us to these most precious days for the purification of our souls and bodies, the restraint of passions, and hope of the Resurrection; who, after fortydays, didst give to thy servant Moses the divinely-written fables of the law; grant us, O, gracious One, to fight a good fight, to finish the course of Lent, to keep the Faith unharmed, to trample on the heads of the invisible serpents, to become conquerors over sin, and blamelessly to attain to the glory of a holy Resurrection. That Thy most glorious and exalted name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost may be highly praised and glorified; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

Blessed be the name of the Lord from henceforth and to all ages. (Thrice).

*The Deacon stands meanwhile on the right side of the sanctuary before the Eikon of the Redeemer, with bowed head, and holds the Orarion in his hand while the Priest is saying the above prayer; then he goes with the Priest to the Prothesis, and both say with devotion:*

THE PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, who hast brought us to these most hallowed days, and hast made us partakers of Thy dreadful mysteries, unite us to Thy chosen flock, and make us heirs of Thy Kingdom; now, and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*Then, while the Deacon with devotion tastes of the holy gifts at the Prothesis, the Priest goes out and distributes the Antidoron, while the Reader reads Psalms 33 and 144.*

*After the reading of these Psalms and the distribution of the Antidoron the Priest blesses the people and says:*

The blessing of the Lord be upon you through His grace and mercy; now, and ever, and to ages of ages.

CHOIR: Amen.

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PRIEST: Glory be to Thee, O, Christ, our God and hope,
glory be to Thee.

CHOIR: Glory be to the father, etc.

Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

(Give the Benediction.)

PRIEST: Christ, our true God, through the intercessions of
His pure Mother, and through the power of his precious and
life-giving Cross, of our holy Father N. (whose day it is), of
Saint Gregory Dialogus, and of all the Saints, have mercy
upon us and save us, for He is good and gracious.

(In the Holy Week the following is prefixed to the final
Benediction: Christ, who for our salvation, came to volun-
tary sufferings, etc.).

CHOIR: Amen.

The Priest holds to the people the holy Cross to be kissed,
returns to the sanctuary, when the holy doors are closed and
the people have withdrawn, disrobes himself while thanksgiv-
ings for the Communion are read, and then says:

Now lettest Thou Thy servant depart, O Lord, according
to Thy word, in peace: For mine eyes have seen Thy sal-
vation, which Thou hast prepared before the face of all the
people, a light to lighten the gentiles, and a glory of Thy
people Israel.

THE TRISAGION: O Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immor-
tal, have mercy upon us. (Thrice).

Glory be to the Father, etc.

All holy Trinity, etc.

Lord, have mercy. (Thrice.)

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Our Father, who art, etc.

Then the following Troparion:

The righteousness of Thy works has made Thee for Thy
flock a rule of faith, a pattern of meekness, and a teacher of
continence: therefore hast thou won exhaltation from low
estate and riches from poverty, O Father Gregory; offer
then intercessions to Christ, our God, to redeem our souls.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Glorious representative of Christian people, undeceived in-
tercessor with the Creator, despise not the prayer of sinners,
but come to us as the gracious One, because, trusting in Thy
help, we invoke Thee; hasten to our prayer, and make speed
as intercessor and eternal representative of those who honor

FEW FACTS ABOUT THE TCHUKTCHIS.

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Thee, O Mother of God. And the rest as in the Liturgy of S. Chrysostom.

A FEW FACTS ABOUT THE TCHUKTCHIS.

AFTER O. A. NORDQUIST.

THE Tchuktchis are classified, according to their way of life, as the *nomadising* or Reindeer Tchuktchis, and the *settled* Tchuktchis, or those addicted to fishing and hunting.

The *settled* or stationary Tchuktchis dwell along the shore of the Polar Sea, from Cape Shelag to Cape East, and thence on the shore of Behring's Strait as far as Anadyr bay. During the winter we had communication only with those who were settled between Cape Shelag and Cape East. These told us of another tribe dwelling south of Cape East, which they called *Aigvan*, and whose language they did not understand. Evidently they meant that tribe which *Wrangel* calls *Onkilon*, *Treuman Ang-Kali*, or stationary Tchuktchis, and *Maydell*, *Aigvan*, *Dall*, and *Tchukluk*. When we had left our winter anchorage, and gone to the shores of St. Lawrence Bay, I was enabled to convince myself that the Tchuktchis who were settled here completely resembled those I had seen during the winter. It is true that a few of them inclined a little more to the Esquimaux type than to the purely Tchuktchi, but their language, dress, manner of tattooing, their tents (called *yaranga*), are all identical. On the heights surrounding the Bay of St. Lawrence are stone graves, two hundred to three hundred years old, and resembling Esquimaux graves. According to the report of Dr. Stuxberg, the recent graves found here are exactly like the Tchuktchis' graves at Ninrethen, where the "Vega" passed the winter.

The Tchuktchis at St. Lawrence and Koniyam Bays, to the north of Providence Bay, did *not* know the name of *Aigvan*, or at least did not wish to show that they knew it. At all events, the Tchuktchis of St. Lawrence Bay are not as superstitious as the Polar Sea Tchuktchis. There are, besides,

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several other little differences. But now, why do not the Polar Tchuktchis wish to acknowledge the Behring Tchuktchis as members of the same tribe? It appears that the Tchuktchis between Cape East and Cape Tschubotsky are a mixed race, springing from Tchuktchis and Esquimaux, and having assumed the language and customs of the Tchuktchis. It may be that this is the reason why the other Tchuktchis will not acknowledge these as belonging to their tribe.

The relations between the Polar Sea and the Behring Tchuktchis are of a very limited kind. The latter appeared but twice at the wintering place of the "Vega," while the Polar Sea Tchuktchis visited it almost daily. As we lingered only a very short while south of Cape East, I could gain no information of the Tchuktchis dwelling there. The remarks set down here concern, therefore, only the Polar Sea Tchuktchis settled between Capes Shelag and East.

However, the Tchuktchis dwelling in the above designated territory cannot be arbitrarily called "settled," or "stationary." When a scarcity of provisions occurs at any one place, it often happens, even in winter, that another place of abode is sought. Thus, for instance, all the inhabitants of the settlement *Pitlekar*, which was near our winter anchorage, moved during the winter to the larger eastern settlement, *Naitchkai*, as here many fish were caught. Besides this, we often saw Tchuktchis with their families and *yaranga* (tents) move from place to place. However, Tchuktchi families rarely live alone, and are to be found mostly in company, forming some settlement.

In order to find out as nearly as possible the number of the Tchuktchis, I gathered information from various individual statements as to the number of tents in the various settlements, and drew the mean therefrom. The result was 432; and assuming that on the average each tent is inhabited by five persons, the number of *Tchuktchis living on the shores of the Polar Sea* amounts to 2,160, or, in round numbers, 2,000 individuals.

The density of the population is not the same everywhere. The tract from the Island of Kolyutchin to Cape East has about eight times as many inhabitants as the tract from Cape Shelag to the Island of Kolyutchin, although the latter territory is twice as long as the former. It must further be mentioned that the shore of Kolyutchin Bay is uninhabited.

41

during the greater part of the year; besides the settlement on the small Island of Kolyutchin, at the entrance of the bay of the same name, there is only another small one, consisting of four tents and called *Pidlin*, on the eastern shore of the bay, near its mouth. After this the Tchuktchis call Kolyutchin Bay by the name of *Pidlin* Bay. Maydell's statement that Tchuktchis were settled only on Kolyutchin Bay is not quite correct. During the summer, however, many Reindeer-Tchuktchis repair thither for the purpose of fishing. During the winter fish are not found in the bay itself. The inhabitants of Pidlin catch various kinds of fish in a lagoon (marsh) on the eastern shore of the bay, and the islanders on Kolyutchin in a small river on the island. Fish are caught with nets in the bay during the summer only. The Tchuktchis designate the fish caught here as "ankauna," that is, ocean-fish (anka, ocean, and une, or, in this connection, una, fish), and distinguish two kinds, which they call *mynno* and *ütsch*. As we left the place before the summer fishing began we could not inform ourselves as to the exact species; according to the description it is a sort of salmon that is caught here.

The reason why the shores of Kolyutchin Bay are almost uninhabited during the winter is because at this season very few seals as well as fish are to be found there. On the other hand again, the density of population on the tract between Kolyutchin Island and Behring's Strait is easily explained by the circumstance that the inhabitants here find plenty of the food they like. They catch a sort of seal (phoca fœtida) and various fish, according to the season of the year: in the autumn the northern haddock, in the winter a multitude of another variety of this fish, caught by means of the fishing-hook, besides a certain kind of smelt; in the spring, at first two species of cod, and later on, in June, flounders. In the summer salmon-trout are found, especially at the mouths of rivers.

The Tchuktchis also hunt the walrus, the principal articles of trade with the Americans being walrus tusks. The hide of the walrus is used in the construction of boats. Of the vegetable kingdom the Tchuktchis use only a few roots and leaves as articles of food.

The Tchuktchis consider that period of winter most favorable for the hunting of seal in which cracks form in the

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THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

ice and free water appears here and there. Severe tem-
pests often effect this on the eastern shore; on the western
it never happens. During our winter there we saw from the
"Vega," at a few sea miles distance, open water after a heavy
south wind.

As we had north winds during almost the entire winter
we did not often see free water, and that only in more or less
wide fissures, beyond which the unbroken ice stretched out
again to the horizon. Almost each time the Tchuktchis
made use of the opportunity for the seal-hunt. And this is
another reason why the eastern shore is more populated than
the western.

Still another reason for the greater population of the
coast from Kolyutchin to Enmittau lies in the circumstance
that this region is particularly rich in fish.

To the east of Enmittau lies Uedle, the largest of all the
Tchuktchi settlements on the north shore. At Uedle there
is a lagoon in which the Tchuktchis catch *wutchumkkh* and
*ankanna*. A little river, very rich in fish, flows past the
settlement of Tcheyttun. Between the settlements of Uetty
and Uedle there are 230 tents, with about 1,100 to 1,200
inhabitants; it is clear that the moderately large lagoon and
the small river cannot furnish food for the entire population.
That, in spite of this, the region is comparatively well popu-
lated is to be referred to the fact already mentioned that
there is opportunity offered here for the capture of seals, and
to the circumstance that American vessels have a predilection
for visiting this part of the coast. Here, then, the Tchuktchis
get tobacco, brandy, rifles, powder, lead, &c., articles much
prized by them. Some influence must also be ascribed to the
vicinity of Behring's Straits, on whose American side the
Tchuktchis trade fur and other articles.

The Tchuktchis stand in active commercial relations with
the Americans. The latter send vessels to these regions for
the catching of whales and walruses, and the purpose of
trading with the natives. According to the tales of the
Tchuktchis the whalers are vessels of three masts, while the
traders have two. The Tchuktchis complain very much of
the former, as they kill their whales and walruses, and they
suffer want in consequence. However, the number of wal-
ruses must be immense, to judge by the quantity of tusks
offered for sale. The trading vessels are very much praised

43

and valued by the Tchuktchis. In exchange for walrus tusks and fox skins they get from the Americans tobacco, brandy, guns, powder, lead, gaily-colored shirts, &c. I gained positive proof of the fact that the Americans furnished the Tchuktchis with brandy in this manner. When, in October, I, in the company of Lieutenant Ch., undertook a trip to the Reindeer Tchuktchis, who dwelt about fifty versts to the south of our wintering place, our host offered us brandy in a silver-plated cup. On the cup was the inscription: *Captain Ravens, Brig Trinandra, 1878*. Our host at the same time told us that he had got the cup on the same vessel where he had procured his brandy.

The Tchuktchis further have commercial dealings with the Esquimaux who inhabit the eastern shores of Behring's Straits. These Esquimaux are generally called *Kiumi* or *Yekirganly* by the Tchuktchis. The root of the latter designation is evidently to be found in the word *yekirgin*, meaning mouth, as the Esquimaux thrust pieces of glass or wood into the corners of their mouths. The Tchuktchis sell reindeer skins and Russian tobacco to the Esquimaux, and buy from them furs and brandy. In the winter we often encountered intoxicated Tchuktchis; to the inquiry whence they had their brandy they answered: From *Peek* (East Cape), or from the *Myrki*, that is Americans.

The relations between Russia and the Tchuktchis are of the smallest kind. The majority of Tchuktchis know no more than that in Russia there is a place called *Kolyuma* (Kolymsk), another called *Markoma* (Markovo), and still another very far off, *Yakutska*, and that in the two first-named places there are mighty men called "inspravnika." A very few know that there is a place called "Irkutska," and that here as well as in Yakutsk, there are still more powerful *Ermat* (plural of *erem*, leader, commander) than the *Ispravnik* (governor) in Nishni Kolymsk. This is all the knowledge of Russia that the Tchuktchis have. Even *Vassily Menka*, according to the papers shown us by himself, the senior (starosta) of all the Cape Tchuktchis, had not the slightest idea of the Emperor of Russia and of St. Petersburg.

A *yassak* (tax) is paid only by those Tchuktchis who journey to the market at Nishni Kolymsk. They are not allowed to trade before they have paid the *yassak*.

# STATE EXPENDTURES.

## I.

### *Customary Expenditures.*

1. State Debt :

(a) Loan .................................... 141,413,957 Rbl.

(b) Railroad Bonds .......................... 51,924,727 "

2. Highest Government Authorities......... 1,656,876 "

3. Department of the Holy Synod......... 10,321,265 "

#### Ministries :

4. Of the Imperial House.................. 9,154,658 "

5. Foreign Affairs......................... 3,645,225 "

6. War.................................... 206,718,302 "

7. Marine.................................. 28,903,132 "

8. Finances.............................. 83,741,500 "

9. Imperial Domains..................... 19,152,183 "

10. Interior.............................. 37,999,917 "

11. Public Instruction.................. 17,358,296 "

12. Road Connections................... 11,586,594 "

13. Courts................................. 16,554,596 "

14. Mail and Telegraph.................. 21,602,712 "

15. Department of the Affairs of Foreign Confessions.................. 1,800,173 "

16. State Control....................... 2,190,788 "

17. State Stud .......................... 842,413 "

18. Civil Government of Trans-Canucasia.................. 8,158,326 "

Amount of Customary State Expenditures.. 674,725,624 Rbl.

## II.

19. For ultimate tax omission............ 4,000,000 Rbl.

## III.

20. General Expenditure.................. 24,953,551 Rbl.

Altogether.................. 703,679,191 Rbl.

## IV.

21. Extraordinary Expenditure for account of Railroad Appropriations............ 13,782,418 Rbl.

Total amount of State Expenditure. 717,461,609 Rbl.

THE

ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

JUNE, 1881.

PASTORAL LETTER OF THE HOLY GOVERNING SYNOD OF RUSSIA.

ACCORDING to the ukase of His Imperial Majesty, The Most Holy and Governing Synod, in deep sorrow for the hard trial sent by God to Russia, and in its solicitude to protect the children of the Orthodox Russian Church from temptation, has ordered, together with the printed ukases to send to all the diocesan bishops, and also to the synodal offices and to the chief priests of the guards and grenadiers of the army and navy, the annexed letter of The Most Holy Synod, which must be read in all the churches after liturgy, before the largest possible congregation of the worshippers:

APRIL 5, 1881.

*The Most Holy and Governing Synod, to the in the Lord beloved children of the Holy, Orthodox and Apostolic Russian Church, pastors and parishioners:*

Grace unto you, and peace, be multiplied (1 Peter, i., 2)! By God's allowance there came to us an inexpressibly dreadful calamity. Our most pious Sovereign and Emperor Alexander Nicholaivitch perished at the hands of apostate and perfidious murderers. Russia is suffering from a great and deep sorrow, is stricken with awe and covered with shame. To the true sons of the country our most beloved Monarch-father has always been sacred and pure. The Russian people saw in him the born and legal sovereign, bowed to him as to the elected one of God, and revered the seal of the Holy Ghost on his forehead; all those whose minds were not obscured and whose hearts were not corrupted, lovingly venerated the high qualities of his great and pure soul. But among the

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THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

many millions of people loyal to their emperor there are found, like chaff amidst wheat, unworthy and morally corrupted persons, of whom lately there were formed, though small in number, but to the last degree hardened, bands of treasonable conspirators, ready for every evil. These ventured to raise their sacrilegious hands against God's anointed sovereign, benefactor of his people. These regicides are alien to the national life; they defy the faith and the law; they have lost the human mind and feeling. Satanic pride, boundless corruption, beastly malice, audacious rapacity, mad atheism—such are the qualities of their pernicious life. A perpetual disturbance, anarchy, a perfect destruction and annihilation of everything dear to the man and citizen—that is the aim of their evil efforts and undertakings. They call themselves human beings; but the whole world, with indignation and disgust, turns itself away from them. They call themselves Russians; but Russia, awe-stricken, repudiates them; several of them bear the name of orthodox; but the orthodox church pronounces anathema against such persons.

Our sorrow puts the question, Why the Lord's shield, which so many times miraculously protected the sacred head of our sovereign, was turned away from it? There is a plain answer—because we, sinners, by our lawless deeds, deserved this awful wrath of God. Many times the Lord saved for us the most precious life of our beloved monarch, in order to bring us, by his unusual grace, to repentance and to a correct life. But we not only did not repent, but still more and more excited wrath in the Supreme Being by our new sins. And so he struck us with the greatest calamity; he suddenly took and called to Himself our august father and benefactor of Russia, finding him worthy, by his great deeds, to die the death of a martyr. Therefore, let us increase our feelings of repentance, and let us address the Lord with the loud exclamation: *We sinned. O Lord, we sinned, and deserved that Thou shall turn Thy face from us!*

Indeed, sins and the lawless deeds grow and multiply in the Russian country, among us who bear the name of Christ and call ourselves the orthodox. The holy creed is assaulted and weakened, the commands of piety are not fulfilled, fidelity to the church statutes and orders is violated; good customs are not observed, and the traditions of our fathers counted of naught. In the family and matrimonial life entered discord

PASTORAL LETTER.

49

and disaster in the education of children; and weakness and indulgence in the state service and the public service; neglect and self-interest in science; unbridled libertinism in the soul of everybody, pride, cupidity, thirst of pleasure, intemperance and envy. When the men slept, the enemy came and sowed weeds. In the same way, during our neglect, giddiness and corruption sprang up, disobedience to the authorities, and atheistical sedition. Let us, then, clean ourselves from every filthiness of body and soul by doing what is holy in God's fear.

Pastors and religious teachers! To you we address our word first of all. Feed the flock of God which is among you, taking the oversight thereof, not by constraint, but willingly; not for filthy lucre, but of a ready mind (1 Peter, v., 2). Inspire yourselves with a holy and spiritual zeal, teach the flock intrusted to you the truths of the faith and the Lord's commandments. Preach the word; be instant in season, out of season; reprove, rebuke, exhort, with all long-suffering and doctrine (2 Tim., iv., 2). Teach everybody holily to venerate the emperor's authority established by God, suggesting and explaining that in fidelity and loyalty to the emperor there lies the national prosperity. Be thou an example of the believers in word, in conversation, in charity, in spirit, in faith, in purity (1 Tim., iv., 12). Protect your spiritual sheep from rapacious wolves who come in the sheep's skin, remembering that you shall answer before the Lord for each soul lost through your neglect.

Fathers! God has intrusted to you the education of your children. Be careful that they should be safe. Present them in yourselves the living example of God's fear, piety, good morals, fidelity to duty and to oath, obedience to the authorities, temperance and order. Guard them vigilantly from every false sophistry and scandal. In the awful day of judgment, when together with your children you shall appear before the terrible Judge, what answer shall you give for your neglect?

Wives and mothers of families! It is your sacred duty to sow the good seed of future generations. Bring your husbands and your children to a good life and to every virtue by your faith and piety, mildness of character, purity and grace, temperance and wisdom of word. Seek for glory not in the external beauty, not in license of conduct, not in vanity of