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## Arsenal Football Club

*Location:* London, England; *stadium:* Arsenal Stadium (60,000); *colors:* red jerseys with white sleeves, white shorts; *honors:* Fairs Cup winner (1970), English champion (1931, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1938, 1948, 1953, 1971), English Cup winner (1930, 1936, 1950, 1971).

Founded 1886 as Dial Square by munitions employees of the Royal Arsenal installation in Woolwich, South London. It changed its name almost immediately to Royal Arsenal F.C., and in 1891 became the second club in southern England and the first in London to adopt professionalism. In 1893, as Woolwich Arsenal, it was elected to the Second Division, gaining promotion in 1904 and suffering its first and only relegation in 1913. It was also in 1913 that a London Member of Parliament, Henry Norris, invested in the club, putting it on a sound financial footing and underwriting its move to the present location at Highbury, North London. Once at Highbury, it adopted the name Arsenal F.C., and fared only modestly in two remaining seasons before the outbreak of world War I. When The Football League was revived in 1919, Norris persuaded league officials to admit Arsenal to the First Division and it has not been relegated since. Arsenal's longevity in the First Division is an English record.

Herbert Chapman, one of the outstanding managerial figures in the history of the game, took over at Highbury in 1925 after unprecedented success at Huddersfield, and brought Arsenal to the pinnacle of world fame. Chapman was a tactical innovator and a showman, declaring upon his arrival that he was determined to make Arsenal the greatest team in the world; in the end, he succeeded in doing just that. In response to the offside law of 1925, Chapman developed the revolutionary "third back game" and a "W-M" formation to assure its proper execution. With uncanny ability, he sought and found just the right players to fit his scheme, and as a result Arsenal dominated English soccer in no uncertain terms between 1930 and 1938, and created a distinctive aura of inviolability.

In nine years, it won five championships and two cups, and exported (by word of mouth) the W-M to the far corners of the earth, until by the end of the decade it was the standard tactical system for modern teams everywhere. Arsenal and Chapman became household words from Brazil to Turkey, and his leading players became the most famous in the land: mastermind inside forward Alex James, inside forward David Jack, center forward Ted Drake, left winger Cliff Bastin, left back Eddie Hapgood, and others. Though the W-M became known for its defensive capabilities, the Arsenal of Herbert Chapman

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was a goalscoring machine to boot. It won the league title in 1931 with 127 goals (and a league record of 66 points), in 1933 with 118, and in 1935 with 115. When Chapman tragically died after a short illness in 1935, the strength of the team he had built continued unabated with an additional F.A. Cup in 1936 and a league championship in 1939 dedicated to his memory. The Arsenal golden era was brought to an end with the outbreak of war during the 1939-40 season; otherwise it might have continued well into the 1940s.

After World War II, with only a handful of prewar players remaining, Chapman's trainer Tom Whittaker succeeded in guiding the club to championships in 1948 and 1953, as well as an F.A. Cup win in 1950, but the foundation was less solid than it had been before. A 17-year period ensued in which players and managers alike were incapable of living up to the superhuman reputation of "the Gunners" past, and the club languished uneventfully in the First Division, outshined by the growing prestige of their North London archrivals Tottenham Hotspur. Under Bertie Mee in the late 1960s, it moved up the First Division ladder, and in the Fairs Cup of 1969-70, gained its first and only European title to date by eliminating Ajax in the semi-finals and defeating RSC Anderlecht in the final. The following year, Mee led his young team to its historic double/a league championship and F.A. Cup win in the same season/and the future looked bright once again for the big London club. But in the 1970s, it slid down in the First Division, Mee left the organization in an uncertain state, and it was only in 1978 that Arsenal placed well enough to gain a berth in the UEFA Cup.

## Artigas Cup

Copa General Artigas.

A series played irregularly between the national teams of Uruguay and Paraguay, often counting double as part of a second competition, such as the Atlantic Cup. The trophy may only be awarded after home and away legs have been played. It is named for the patriot who gained Uruguayan independence from Brazil and Argentina in the early nineteenth century but was later forced to flee to Paraguay.

(end of tape)

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Asia

See: Asian Football Confederation

Asian Cup

The regional competition for national teams of Asia held every Olympiad year. The Asian cup was launched in 1956, two years after the founding of its organizing body, the Asian Football Confederation. It is held in two phases: a preliminary round in which participating countries are divided into zoned groups (presently four), and a final round contested among the winners and runners-up of each preliminary group. The final round is played over a period of days in a designated city. The first four competitions (1956, 1960, 1964, and 1968) were played under a league system. Participants of the fifth and sixth competitions (1972 and 1976) were divided into two groups with the winners and runners-up advancing to a semi-final and final.

Early editions of the Asian Cup were dominated by nations of the Far East, but since the early seventies, when many Arab countries initiated stepped-up soccer programs, a large number of participants from the Middle East have gone through the final round. The most successful entries from the Middle East, however, have been non-Arab states. In addition, the Indian subcontinent has not figured prominently in the tournament, nor have the Communist-bloc countries of the Far East. As in the case of the Asian Champions' Cup, political considerations have strongly influenced the outcome of the competition. In the Middle East, much of the reason for reluctant Arab participation has been the presence of Israel finalists in the first four tournaments. In the Far East, the China question prevented the People's Republic of China from participating until the most recent edition, when member-states of the Confederation chose to replace the Republic of China with China PR in Asian competitions. FIFA did not bloc China PR's participation, and China PR promptly went through to the semi-finals of the 1976 edition and placed third.

South Korea has gone through to the final round five times, Israel four times, Iran and Hong Kong three times. While South Korea has won the competition twice, Iran has emerged victorious in each of the last three editions. Israel has won the cup once, and has been runner-up twice. Kuwait, South Vietnam, Iraq and China Republic have each been finalists twice.

Winners:

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Asian Football Conference

*Address:* No. 88, Jalan Sultan Idris Shah (Jalan Brewster), P.O. Box 285, Ipoh, Malaysia.

*Members:* Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Burma, China People's Republic, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Jordan, Khmer, Korea Republic, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Saudia Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Yemen PDR. *Affiliated clubs:* 25,026; *registered players:* 565,682 (both figures including China National, Israel, Korea DPR, and Vietnam but excluding Bangladesh and China People's Republic).

Founded in 1954 by Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea republic, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam Republic. China National was admitted in 1955, Israel in 1956, other East and South Asian countries subsequently, and finally the Middle East states during the 1960s and '70s. The first headquarters were located in Hong Kong before moving to their present location in Penang, Malaysia.

The AFC was founded and administered by East and Souteast Asians until the 1970s, when an Arab and socialist bloc emerged to gain a foothold, led ironically by Iran and Hong Kong. In 1975, the AFC Congress voted to expel China national and Israel, and Asian soccer was thrown into a momentous crisis. This effectively politicized the organization in a way seldom seen since the highly charged atmosphere of FIFA in post-World War I Europe. FIFA directed the AFC to reinstate the expelled members, but in late 1977 the world body backed away from their position and suggested various compromises, fearful of losing its Asian membership entirely. The AFC rebuffed the FIFA proposals, and stood their ground. The events came to a boiling point in December 1977 when AFC president, Tengku Abdul Rahman, the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, resigned, bringing to an end the era of moderate leadership. It remained for FIFA to take up the Asian challenge and decide whether or not to assert their authority at the 1978 FIFA Congress.

Meanwhile, the AFC has been responsible for the Asian Cup, the soccer competition of the Asian Games, the Asian Champion Teams' Cup (now in hiatus), the Asian Youth Tournament, an Asian Women's Football Championship (the world's first), and other ambitious programs.

ASIAN F.C.
-
ASTON VILLAGE
1

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## Asian Games, Football Tournament of the

The first international soccer competition for all of Asia, this series is also the showcase of the Asian Games as a whole. Open only to amateur players, the games are held every four years in a host country, midway between each Olympiad. Surprisingly, the soccer tournament has retained much of its significance even today, drawing increasingly greater participation in recent years, despite the introduction of an Asian Cup in 1956. The political embroilments of the Asian region, however, have interfered with the last two editions, and promise to do so in the future. In 1970 and 1974, Arab countries declined to play Israel, resulting in significant defaults, and China National was kept out of the 1974 edition, as China PR made its Asian debut in Taiwan's place.

The first tournament in 1951 included India, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Japan, Iran, and Burma. Prior to the advance of Iran as Asia's leading power in the 1970s, the series was dominated decisively by East and South Asian countries. The Arab states did not enter the competition until 1970. Regional qualification tournaments became an important element in 1970 and 1974. India's successes in the early years have given way to poor showings of late, and South Korea's consistency throughout the series took its first downward turn in the latest edition. Israel, historically one of the strongest soccer nations in Asia, has suffered repeatedly from political considerations, and in many instances did not even enter the tournament.

### Winners:

* 1951 (in New Delhi) India

* 1954 (in Manila) China National

* 1958 (in Tokyo) China National

* 1962 (in Jakarta) India

* 1966 (in Bangkok) Burma

* 1970 (in Bangkok) Burma and Korea Republic

* 1974 (in Tehran) Iran

Tfinal ended in a draw

## assist

In the North American Soccer League, a player whose pass to a teammate has immediately preceded his teammate's scoring a goal, or who has in some other way assisted directly in his teammate's scoring a goal, is credited with an assist. According to NASL goalscoring

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tabulations, which are based on a point system, a player who makes an assist is awarded one point. Assist points are added to the two points awarded for each goal scored to arrive at an individual player's total. The concept of an "assist" is borrowed from statistical procedures in professional basketball and ice hockey, and is not sanctioned by the International Football Association Board, nor is it found in senior competition outside the United States and Canada.

## association football

3

The traditional term, now more literary than collaquial, for the game of soccer. It is commonly understood in the United Kingdom, Eire, and the British Commonwealth, but had increasingly fallen out of general usage in recent decades, except in formal designations, e.g., Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), which translates as International Federation of Association Football. Originating in the 1860s, the game administered by The Football Association in London came to be known as association football, as distinct from the game based on handling codes, which came to be known as *rugby* football. The term "soccer" is derived from the second syllable of the word "association."

The only non-British country to acquire the term on a widespread basis has been France.

## Aston Villa Football Club

*Location:* Birmingham, England; *stadium:* Villa Park (53,000); *colors:* claret jerseys with light blue sleeves and collar, white shorts; *honors:* English champion (1894, 1896, 1897, 1899, 1900, 1910), English Cup winner (1887, 1895, 1897, 1905, 1913, 1920, 1957), English league cup winner (1961, 1975, 1977).

Founded 1874 by young members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel in the North Birmingham suburb of Aston. Aided by two Scottish immigrants who had played for Queen's Park Glasglow, the founding members were cricket players looking for a winter game to occupy themselves. As Methodist church members, their crosstown rivalry with Small Health Alliance (founded 1897 by members of an Anglican church, later renamed Birmingham City) became on of the country's first interdenominational rivalries.

Aston Villa, one of England's best supported clubs, has won more major domestic honors than any other club in The Football League—13 in all. Its phenomenal success between 1887 and 1913 brought it to the front ranks of the English game, and introduced a

tradition of club loyalty that is still felt today. Since World War I, the club's honors have been few and far between, but the name of Aston Villa remains one of the most respected in England, and Villa's attendance figures are still among the top five in the country. In the early 1970s, Villa ended a brief stay in the Third Division by breaking divisional point and attendance records.

Its first major honor was an F.A. Cup victory in 1887, against its second crosstown rival, West Bromwich Albion. In 1888, Villa became on of the original 12 members of The Football League, gaining second place in its first season, though a distant 11 points behind undefeated Preston North End. After mixed results for four years, it won the title itself in 1894, and entered its golden era as the first club to dominate the league. Four more championships followed before the turn of the century, and it won two additional F.A. Cups during the same period.

In 1897, it won the league-cup double with an 11 point margin in the league and a famous 3-2 win over Everton in the cup final. Today Villa remains one of only four English clubs to win the double. Before the outbreak of World War I, it captured another league championship and cup victory, and as runnerup in the league five times.

The backbone of this great team included attacking center half James Cowan, fullback Howard Spencer, left half Jimmy Crabtree, and after 1904, goalscoring center forward Harold Hampton. The effort was directed by the club secretary, George Ramsay, a Scot who was actually the manager as well, and he remained in this post from 1884-1926. Villa never won another league championship after 1910, though it won the F.a. Cup again in 1920 and 1957, the latter against a 10-player Manchester United side. But in 1930-31 the club broke the First Division scoring record with 128 goals (the record still hands), only to finish second behind Arsenal.

There were brief sojourns in the Second Division during the late 1930s and late 1950s, and in 1967 Villa began an eight-year slump in both the Second and Third Divisions, its worst period ever. Between 1972 and 1975, the club moved rapidly back to the First Division, resolved to keep its rightful place in the top flight. Villa's inconsistencies during the 1960s and 70s have been punctuated by victories in the newly established Football League Cup, England's second cup competition, and its three wins in this series is a record.

## attendances

The range of attendances for international matches is illustrated by the qualification rounds of the 1970 World Cup, in which the highest was 183,341 (Maracana Stadium, Rio de Janeiro, for Brazil vs. Paraguay in 1969), and the lowest was 500 (Municipal Stadium, Kansas City, Missouri, for USA vs. Bermuda in 1968).

World attendance record: 199,850 (Brazil vs. Uruguay in World Cup final round, July 16, 1950, Maracana Stadium, Rio de Janeiro).

European attendance record: 149,547 (Scotland vs. England in Home International Championship, April 17, 1937, Hampden Park, Glasgow).

world club attendance record: 177,656 (Flamengo vs. Fluminense in Rio de Janeiro league match in August 1963, maracana Stadium, Rio de Janeiro).

European club attendance record: 146,433 (Celtic vs. Aberdeen in Scottish Cup Final, April 24, 1937, Hampden Park, Glasgow).

North American attendance record: 77,691 (Cosmos vs. Fort Lauderdale in NASL divisional championship play-off, August 14, 1977, Giants Stadium, Meadowlands, New Jersey).

The unofficial African attendance record of 100,000 has been achieved more than once at both the Nasser Stadium, Cairo, and the Stade Ahmadou-Ahidjo, Yaoundé.

The earliest attendance of 100,000 was achieved at the English F.A. Cup Final of 1901 at the Crystal Palace ground, London, Tottenham Hotspur vs. Sheffield United. The actual figure was 110,820, and the game ended in a draw to force a replay at Sheffield.

## Australia

Australian Soccer Federation
36-38 Clarence Street
1st Floor
Sydney, N.S.W. 2000

Founded: 1961

FIFA: 1963

OFC: 1966

*Affiliated clubs:* 1,100; *registered players:* 165,000 (5,000 non-amateur); *national stadium:* Olympic Park, Melbourne (48,500); *largest stadium:* Olympic Park; *colors:* amber with green trimmed jerseys, white shorts; *season:* March to October; *honors:* none.

Soccer in Australia has suffered mightily from intense competition with three other types of football—Rugby Union, Rugby League, and Australian Rules—all of which have a stronger tradition than soccer in most parts of the country. To make matters more difficult, all four seasons run simultaneously during the

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winter months. A second major obstacle has been Australia's geographical location. With 10,500 miles between Melbourne and London, and 8200 miles between Melbourne and Rio de Janeiro, much of the world's best soccer has been out of reach. Geographical dilemmas have extended even to its own region, as the Australian Soccer Federation has sought to establish ties with Asia at the expense of its own Oceania Football Confederation. Australia's attempted defection has caused insoluble problems for Oceania, and it has become unwittingly entangled in the bitter political disputes in Asia over China and Israel. In spite of all this, Australia emerged as a regional power beyond the confines of Australasia when it qualified to represent Asia and Oceania at the World Cup in 1974.

Soccer was brought to Australia by British coal miners as early as 1870. By 1881, there were at least five clubs in New South Wales, and the first association, the New South Wales Football Association, was founded in 1882. The first organized competition was the Rainsford Trophy, a knockout tournament introduced in 1885 and first won by Granville FC by Sydney. Though some interest in the game was kindled in certain parts of New South Wales, it took an immediate back seat to Rugby League in Queensland, to Australian Rules in South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Australia, and to Rugby Union almost everywhere.

In 1904, a New South Wales selection visited New Zealand and met eight teams over a one-month period, including a New Zeland representative side, winning five games, drawing two, and losing two. The New South Wales-New Zeland scores were 1-0 and 3-3. The visit was returned one year later by a New Zealand selection, which played eleven games, including three against a New South Wales representative side. Australian teams in this series won three, drew two, and lost six. The New South Wales-New Zeland results this time were 4-6, 2-0, and 1-1.

An Australian Soccer Association (ASA), operating almost exclusively in New South Wales, was finally established in 1921, and became affiliated with The Football Association in London. A year later, the first officially sanctioned national team was put on the field, though the ASA's nonindependent status precluded its team's recognition as a full international side. In 1925, an amateur team representing the London F.A. toured Australia and defeated selections from Brisbane, Sydney, Maitland, and Melbourne in succession.

Other than the numerous homogeneous ethnic communities in Sydney, interest in soccer grew most rapidly around the coalfields of New South Wales, with Newcastle emerging as the focal point between 1900 and 1920. The ASA, in fact, was based in Newcastle rather than Sydney. Eventually, hotly contested rivalries grew between Cessnock and

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3

West Wallsend near Newcastle, and between Balmain, Fernleigh, Gladesville, and Metters in Sydney. The ASA formed a limited company in 1945, but in 1957 the New South Wales Federation of Soccer Clubs was found-ed, and within a few years had ousted the old association from its official position. This led to the formation of the Australian Soccer Federation (ASF) in 1961, which in turn was recognized by FIFA two years later. The time had come for Australia to enter the inter-national arena outside the British Com-monwealth. An attractive inducement to expand its interests now existed in the 1966 World Cup, scheduled to be held in England. FIFA allotted on berth to Asia-Oceania, which was sought by only two countries, North Korea and Australia. The Koreans won both qualifying matches in Phnom Penh (6-1 and 3-1).

Australia's second organizational effort during the 1960s was to help create a confederation for the South Pacific region. In 1966, FIFA authorized the formation of the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC). Australia was its chief instigator and ultimate-ly its most important component, though there were only four charter and two provisional members. Increasingly, however, the ASF sought to establish ties with East and Southeast Asian countries in an effort to improve their level of opposition in inter-national competition. In 1967, the "Socceroos" experienced its first significant breakthrough in completing an undefeated 10-match Asian tour, culminating with the winning of the (South) Vietnam In-dependence Day tournament. By 1970, the ASF's rejection of the new confederation had put it in serious jeopardy. The last straw occurred in 1971, when the ASF withdrew from the First Oceania Cup because the host nation, NEW Caledonia, failed to guarantee air fares. A short while later, Australia withdrew from the OFC altogether, and announced its intention to seek affiliation with the Asian Football Confederation.

FIFA, fearing the collapse of the OFC, objected, and new snags were confronted when the Asian Football Confederation voted to expel Taiwan and Israel. The Australia question was relegated to a back seat while FIFA and the Asian body endeavored to resolve the serious problem of what to do with Israel and the two Chinas. Australia's best hope for entry into the Asian confederation subsequently came about when Taiwan offered to trade places, but by 1978 the matter was still not settled and the ASF remained unaffiliated.

Meanwhile, on the playing field, the "Socceroos" continued to improve. In 1970, it missed qualification for the World Cup in Mexico by an own goal against Israel in Tel Aviv. Four years later, it advanced to the World Cup finals for the first time after

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eliminating New Zealand, Iraq, Indonesia, Iran, and South Korea in the Asia-Oceania group. In West Germany, its presence marked a new high point in the history of Australian soccer. Instructed in no uncertain terms to play defensively against its stiff opposition, the Australian's managed to lose to West Germany and East Germany by only 3-0 and 2-0 respectively, and in its best showing, gained a scoreless draw with a Chilean team in poor form. At home, its participation in the World Championship gave the domestic game renewed impetus.

In 1977, the five regional leagues, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Western Australia, gave way to the creation of Australia's first national league. Sponsored by the giant Dutch consortium, philips Industries, the new loop was named the Philips Soccer League. It started with 14 clubs, all but three having strong ethnic backgrounds: Eastern Suburbs (formerly Hakoah Sidney), Marconi Sidney, St. George Sidney (formerly St. George-Budapest), Sidney Olympic (formerly Pan Hellenic), Western Suburbs Sidney, Fitzroy United (formerly Alexander Melbourne), Footscray Melbourne (formerly J.U.S.T.), Mooroolbark Melbourne, South Melbourne (formerly Hellas), Adelaide City (formerly Juventus Adelaide), West Adelaide (formerly Adelaide Hellas), Brisbane City (formerly Brisbane Azzuri), Brisbane Lions (formerly Hollandia), and Canberra City (newly formed). The regional leagues, now without their top teams, continue to exist, and it is planned that after three years they will serve as regional sections of a second division, and will be subject to promotions and relegations. A national cup competition, called the Philips Cup, was also introduced in 1977; it is contested by provincial selections rather than by clubs.

With its international affiliation in limbo, and while awaiting the success or failure of the experimental national league, soccer in Australia is now passing through an unprecedented period of transition. International results since 1974 have been mixed. The Aussies' superior heights and strength has afforded them good results with most of their European Asian opposition (including China PR), but the Middle East countries have often proved to be more advanced in skills and technique. In qualification rounds for the 1978 World Cup, Australia was eliminated by Iran, Kuwait and South Korea. The main thrust of Australian soccer for some time to come will be to shake off its provincial character, and gain as much experience as possible against the leading teams of Europe and South America. Australia's only full-level internationalers against European opposition have been with Greece, yielding quite favorable results (won two, drawn one, and lost one).

**"B" teams** See: International [a]

**back** See: fullback

**back-heel**

A kick taken with the heel of the foot in order to move the ball to the rear of the kicker.

**back door**

The area adjacent to the goalpost on the opposite side of the goalmouth from which a cross or corner kick is being made. A ball well placed at the "back door" is often disadvantageous to the goalkeeper.

**back pass**

A pass directed away from the opponent's goal.

**Bahamas**

Bahamas Football Association Founded: 1967
P.O. Box 3919 FIFA: 1968
Nassau, N.P.

*Affiliated clubs:* 27; *registered players:* 476;
*national stadium:* none; *largest stadiums:*
Clifford Park (5,000), Queen Elizabeth
Sports Centre (5,000); *colors:* royal blue
jerseys, white shorts; *season:* October to
May; *honors:* none

The Bahamas is one of the least active FIFA
members in international competition,
probably since the 200,000 people over the
700 islands are more preoccupied with cricket.
Among British colonies in the Caribbean
region, Bahamas soccer was one of the last to
get off the ground, but a Bahamas F.A. was
formed in 1967. Some interest has now been
expressed in future Olympic tournaments, but
as yet no attempt has been made to qualify for
the World Cup. Since the association lacks
membership in CONCACAF, regional cham-
pionships on both club and national level are
out of reach. In domestic competition, fifteen
clubs play on the senior level with a total of
260 players between them. There is a national
league and a national cup competition, but the

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small number of clubs precludes the possibility
of upper and lower divisions. Recently a fair
number of good Bahaman players have come
to play in the United States.

Bahrain

Bahrain Football Association
P.O. Box 5464
Manama

Founded: 1951

FIFA: 1966

AFC: 1970

*Affiliated clubs:* 36; *registered players:* 2,714; *national stadium:* Isa Town Stadium, Isa Town (16,000); *largest stadium:* Isa Town Stadium; *colors:* white jerseys, red shorts; *season:* October to June; *honors:* none.

Bahrain is one of the Persian (Arabian Gulf states whose rapid economic rise has prompted a concerted effort to advance the level of native soccer. Like neighboring rivals Qatar and United Arab Emirates—they are trying to achieve regional success by the early 1980s by importing the best coaches money can buy. Some progress can be seen, though the Gulf States as a group have a difficult obstacle to overcome in Kuwait, the major power of the region.

Soccer arrived on Bahrain Island after World War II with the influx of British workers who were brought in to develop the fledgling petroleum industry. The Bahrain Football Association, founded in 1951 as the Football Association of Bahrain, was the first national association established in the Trucial States region, and the first in the immediate area to join FIFA and the Union of Arab Football Associations. Some indication of its early standing in Asian competition was a 10-1 thrashing at the hands of Iraq in the Arab Cup of 1966. In 1970, Bahrain played host to the First Arabian Gulf Tournament, the most important competition in the region, and placed well by finishing second to Kuwait and ahead of Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Bahrain defeated Qatar, drew with Saudi Arabia, and lost to Kuwait. In the tournaments of 1972, 1974, and 1976, however, their relative position alongside other small Gulf States became a pattern, as Kuwait continued to dominate the competition.

Bahrain has yet to advance to the final stages of the Asian Cup, and hasn't participated extensively in either the Asian Games or in Olympic qualification rounds. In an attempt to qualify for the 1970 World Cup, Bahrain placed a poor second in it group to runaway winner Kuwait and ahead of Qatar. A comparison of international results with other nations of the Arabian Peninsula reveals that little divides the quality of play among Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates, while Oman, Yemen PDR, and North Yemen lag far behind.

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The Bahrain First Division is composed of six clubs; thirty additional clubs take part in senior competition, which includes both a national championship and annual cup competition. The Asian Champions' Cup ceased operation before Bahrain had a chance to prove itself in international club competition, though the B.F.A. joined the Asian Football Confederation in 1970. The future of soccer in oil-rich Bahrain now rests in the hands of FIFA instructors whose problems start with locating a grass field to play on.

## Balkan Cup

A regional competition among nations of the Balkan peninsula held irregularly since 1929. Like the Scandinavian Championship, the Balkan Cup has not garnered much attention outside the region, but some interesting results have emerged, particularly Albania's only international honor to date, their winning of the seventh Balkan Cup in 1946. The original participants in the competition were Rumania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Bulgaria. Yugoslavia dropped out of the sixth cup in 1936, and Greece was replaced by Albania in 1946, the seventh cup. Turkey was added to the eighth cup in 1975, as well as the return of Greece, while Albania once again declined to participate. In 1976, for the first time, all five Balkan states participated in the same tournament. With the exception of the eighth edition, each competition has been held under a league system, the country accumulating the highest number of points declared the winner.

In 1947, the Balkan Cup was extended to include Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, and went by the name Balkan-Central European Cup. An actual tournament was not held; rather, the results of scheduled international matches between participating countries doubled as cup results. The winner was Hungary and the runner-up Yugoslavia. The Balkan Cup itself did not resurface until 1975.

An attempt is now under way to revive the tournament on an annual basis, but its existence is so tenuous that home and away legs, a feature of the first edition, have not yet been reintroduced. The tradition of holding the competition in one or another capital city over a span of days continues. The biggest wins and losses in the tournament have been Rumania's 8-1 trouncing of Greece at Bucharest in 1930, and Rumania's 8-0 win over Bulgaria in 1933, also at Bucharest. The seventh Balkan Cup, held in Tirana, represents the only example of Albania's hosting of a soccer competition.

The cumulative records for participating countries of the Balkan Cup are as follows:

British International Championship

See: __________

## broadcasting

The first radio broadcast of a soccer game was of a First Division match between Arsenal and Sheffield United on January 22, 1927, from Highbury, North London.

The first television transmission was an extract of the 1937 F.A. Cup Final between Preston North End and Sunderland from Wembley Stadium, London.

To date, some national leagues including those of Great Britain do not permit complete, live coverage of league or cup matches, since league administrators fear that a loss of box office receipts would result. The British Broadcasting Corporation, for example, can only transmit edited 57-minute versions of a given match at some time after the match is completed. In contrast, in the United States, the leagues have vigorously sought to gain air time in an effort to gather revenues from lucrative contracts. Latin American leagues have vacillated despite the central position radio and television broadcasts have played in the lives of supporters.

## Brunei

Brunei Amateur Football Association

P.O. Box 2010

Bandar Seri Begawan

Founded: 1959

FIFA: 1969

AFC: 1970

*Affiliated clubs:* 22; *registered players:* 83; *national stadium:* none; *largest stadium:* »
*colors:* gold jerseys, black shorts; *season:* September to March; *honors:* none.

The rise of soccer in Brunei, a sultanate sandwiched between the Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah on the island of Borneo, is attributable to the strong British influence in its colonial background. It was the influx of workers to develop the petroleum industry after the discovery of onshore oil in 1929 and the start of offshore drilling in the 1950s that introduced the game. The Brunei State Amateur Football Association was founded in 1959, the year of the first national constitution, and affiliation with FIFA was sought in anticipation of full self-government in 1971. Soccer is now played by Malay as well as Chinese natives, most of whom are not officially registered with the national association, but a major impediment has been the social restrictions of Islam, the major religion. One of the priority tasks that lies ahead is to

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construct a suitable stadium for major com-
petitions.

Much of Brunei's international experience
involves teams from neighboring Malaysia.
But in 1975, Brunei entered the Sixth Asian
Nations' Cup. In their opening qualification
round at Hong Kong, they were grouped with
Singapore, Japan, North Korea, People's
Republic of China (unlawfully admitted to the
Asian Football Confederation prior to the
tournament), and Hong Kong. Brunei placed
last in the group, suffering severe defeats at
the hands of Singapore (6-0), China PR (10-
1), and Hong Kong (3-0). Otherwise, little has
been seen of Brunei in either the Asian Games
or the important regional tournaments of
Malaysia, South Vietnam, Thailand, or In-
donesia. Only 12 teams take part in the
national championship, the number of players
is unknown, and the F.A. also sponsors
regional cup competitions. Brunei's great
trump card for the future is its extreme wealth
derived from oil exports. That, combined with
FIFA's coaching program for the developing
countries, could eventually lead to Brunei
teams flung far and wide in Asian competition
and ultimately an attempt to qualify for the
Olympic Games or World Cup.

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Bulgaria

Bulgarska Futbal Federatia

Founded: 1923

Vassil Levski Stadium
Boul, Tolbuhin, 18

FIFA: 1924

Sofia

UEFA: 1954

Sofia

*Affiliated clubs:* 2,307; *registered players:* 109,772; *national stadium:* Vassil Levski Stadium, Sofia (60,000); *largest stadium:* Vassil Levski Stadium; *colors:* white jerseys, green shorts; *season:* August to December, March to June; *honors:* Olympic runner-up (1968), third place (1956), Balkan Cup winner (1932, 1935, 1975).

Since its entry into the international
mainstream at the 1956 Olympics, Bulgaria's
record among European countries is exceeded
only by six of Europe's major powers, USSR,
Germany FR, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Italy, and
Czechoslovakia, yet it has virtually no major
honors. Bulgarians qualified for four
successive World Cups between 1962 and
1974, and failed to move beyond the first
round in any of them. In the European
Football Championship, it has participated in
every edition, but has advanced to the second
round only once. In the Olympic Games, which
since World War II have actually been little
more than a showcase for Eastern European
teams, Bulgaria has achieved a degree of
success, but its overall Olympic record is

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inferior to those of five other Eastern European states. At the club level, its disappointments have been no less consistent on the international cup circuit.

While it is true Bulgarian soccer made important advances during the 1920s and again during the first decade after World War II, it continues to suffer from the legacy left over by defensive tactics introduced after the war by Russian coaches. In addition, it stands as the clearest example in Eastern Europe of the impediments to natural growth that result when state interference becomes heavy-handed and counterproductive. CSKA Sofia, the army club, was so pampered after its formation in 1948 that the rest of the clubs suffered, and it was only in the mid-1970s, despite a general crisis of confidence in the domestic game, that the venerable Levski-Spartak, the country's most popular club, showed signs of leading Bulgaria out of its frustrations.

Soccer was introduced to Bulgaria in 1894, when Georges de Regibus, one of a dozen Swiss athletic instructors hired by the newly independent Kingdom of Bulgaria to establish a sports program taught the game as a warm-up exercise to youth organizations in Varna. The "English game" did not take root, however, and Bulgarian soccer actually received its first impetus from Bulgarian students at universities in Constantinople, Turkey, who in 1909 formed Football Club 13, named for its 13 members. At the end of the academic year, the students returned to Sofia, and the club was relocated in the capital. Shortly thereafter, Sportist Varna was founded, and by 1910 Football Club 13 was joined by Slavia Sofia and Levski Sofia, which remain the oldest clubs in Bulgaria. An unofficial championship was held in Sofia in 1913, won by Slavia over F.C. 13, but before World War I Bulgarian soccer continued to be held back by the political turbulence of the period and the state's inability to organize and administer sports programs.

The first era of concentrated growth occurred immediately after World War I. The Bulgarska Nationalna sportna Federatia (BNSF) was founded in 1923, admitted to FIFA six months later, and in 1924 the first national championship was introduced. Owing to logistical difficulties, it was left incomplete in its first year, but was reintroduced in 1925 as a series of regional leagues in Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, and other major centers, whose winners then competed in a knockout competition to determine the national champion. This format was followed until 1937, when a true national league was established. The new league was made up of 10 clubs, and continued without serious interruption until the change of government in 1944. The first 20 years of the league were dominated by the popular Slavia Sofia and Levski. Sofia, Varna, and Plovdiv emerged as

the nation's major soccer hotbeds.

Only weeks after the founding of the BNSF, Bulgaria made its international debut in Vienna against Austria, one of Europe's most advanced teams, losing by a predictable 6-0. Within a year, Bulgaria entered the Olympic Games in Paris, but again it lost, this time to the Irish Free State by 1-0. It lost its first seven games, and did not win until its 15th game, which took place in 1930 against Rumania in the first Balkan Cup. Other than Austria and the Irish Free State, all of Bulgaria's internationals between 1924 and 1932 (28 in all) were played against neighboring Balkan countries including Turkey. In 1933, the team travelled to Madrid to face Zamora and his strong Spanish side, and lost by the biggest margin of all time, 13-0.

Lacking any experience against the strong national teams of Central and Western Europe, Bulgaria bravely entered the World Championships of 1934 and 1938, and achieved its first honors in winning two editions of the prewar Balkan Cup. In the 1932 Balkan Cup at Belgrade, it was undefeated against Yugoslavia, Rumania, and Greece, though it scored only seven goals in three matches, and in the 1935 edition in its own capital of Sofia, Bulgaria won again with an undefeated record against the same opposition. In its 1934 World Cup qualifying round, however, the team stood little chance against Austria and Hungary, losing three games by an aggregate of 14-3. Four years later, Bulgaria's only opposition in the qualifying round was Czechoslovakia, who had been the losing finalists in 1934, and here the Bulgarians achieved their finest pre-war result, a 1-1 draw in Sofia. In the away leg, however, the Czechs returned to form with a 6-0 win over a disappointed Bulgarian team that had also lost to France by 6-1 in the previous month. The national side's leading player during this period was Levski inside-forward Asen Peschev, who appeared in three-fourths of Bulgaria's 53 prewar internationals and scored 11 goals.

With the birth of the socialist state in 1944, Bulgaria entered a splendid period of growth in all sports, and soccer was one of the primary beneficiaries. The championships of 1945-48 temporarily reverted to a knockout format, but the league revived in 1948 with a national first division. In 1946, the regional cup competitions game way to the national cup, its trophy donated by the Soviet Army, and both the league and the cup were dominated during the immediate postwar years by Levski, which had put together quite the most outstanding team ever seen in Bulgaria. It won the double in 1946, 1947, 1949, and 1950, but its potential was soon to be thwarted by the formation of CDNA Sofia, the Central Army club, in 1948. The reconstituted Supreme Committee for Physical Culture and Sports threw all its weight behind the new showcase club, and

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while this was to be a pattern among Warsaw Pact states, the case of CDNA (later named CSKA) was special. Funds and personnel were channeled to the army club, and in its first 15 years it won the league title 12 times, including 1948, its first year in existence, and nine in a row between 1954 and 1962. Levski continued as the most popular club, winning a well-deserved share of honors (six league and eight cup titles between 1953 and 1977), and in 1969 it was ordered to merge with Spartak Sofia as Levski-Spartak.

After the war, Bulgaria continued its uninterrupted participation in the Balkan Cup, but in 1946 fared poorly against Albania, Rumania, and Yugoslavia. The postwar national teams, which until 1955 played only against Eastern European opposition, were largely unsuccessful even against the weak Albanians, Rumanians, and Poles. Having skipped over the 1948 Olympics in London, as did all of Eastern Europe except Yugoslavia, Bulgaria entered the 1952 games in Helsinki and proved the cumbersome Soviet squad a worthy match in losing after extra time. Its first encouragement in international competition came at the poorly attended 1956 Olympics in Melbourne. After racing past the Great Britain amateurs by 6-1, it faced the USSR once again, and this time lost by an identical result to its win four years earlier. In the Third Place Game, Bulgaria blanked India by a respectable 3-0, and gained a bronze medal, its first major international honor.

Bulgaria's winning the bronze did not represent the birth of a major international power, the presence in Australia of only one genuine world class team (Yugoslavia) relegated the competition to obscurity, but in 1962, after failing in two previous tries, Bulgaria qualified for the World Cup in Chile by eliminating France and Finalnd. At Rancagua, it lost to Argentina and was smothered by the resurgent Hungarians, finishing at the bottom of its group after a debilitating 0-0 draw with England. Though the 1962 World Cup was its first competitive foray outside of Europe, Bulgaria had previously traveled overseas twice, in 1955 to Egypt and Lebanon (losing and winning respectively) and in 1958 to Brazil, where it lost twice in a World Cup warm-up series for the soon-to-be crowned world champions.

The 1956 Olympic Games and the 1962 World Cup was spanned by the career of Bulgaria's first international star, the inside left Ivan Kolev, on whose shoulders fell the distinction of attracting some international attention to the Bulgarian game. The early 1960s saw the emergence of several important Bulgarian players. The most gifted, and probably the greatest Bulgarian player of all time, was Georgi Asparoukhov, the goalscoring center forward for Levski, who injuries sadly kept him at half pace in the 1966 and 1970 World Cup finals. Had Asparoukhov

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been in form, it is difficult to imagine Bulgaria suffering two winless World Cup final rounds in a row. Tragically, in 1971, Bulgarian soccer was dealt a severe blow when Asparoukhov was killed in a car accident. His death signaled a frustrating decline in the Bulgarian game. Four years earlier, his mantle had been taken over by CSKA stars Peter Jekov and Dimiter Yakimov, who helped Bulgaria to a Silver Medal at the 1969 Olympics in Mexico. But in the final of the 1968 games, Bulgaria's physical tendencies were once again predominant, and it had three players sent off in a 4-1 loss to Hungary. In the 1974 World Cup finals, Bulgaria again failed to win a match, and after four tries remained the only country to have played in more than one edition of the final rounds without a victory.

On the international club circuit, Bulgarian teams have failed consistently to achieve the big victories. CSKA Sofia has participated in the European Cup 14 times, more than any club in Europe except for Real Madrid and Benfica, but its highest advance had been to the semi-finals in 1966-67. Both CSKA in the European Cup and Levski-Spartak in the European Cup Winners' Cup have overall winning records, yet their reputation is one of faltering at the finishing line. The results of Bulgarian clubs in the Fairs/UEFA Cup has been much the same story, despite isolated triumphs.

The turn upward in Bulgarian soccer that was experienced after CSKA's hegemony was broken in 1963, resulted in the production of more talented players than had ever been seen before, and Bulgaria's displays in international competition were attractive. It was significant that during this same period—1963-69—six different clubs won the league championship, and Slavia Sofia reemerged as multiple cup winners. In the early 1970s, when CSKA again dominated domestic competition, Bulgarian soccer receded into another crisis. Levski-Spartak's 19-3 aggregate burial of Reipas Lahti of Finland in the 1976-77 European Cup Winners' Cup, as well as its encouraging form in domestic competition since 1976, bodes well for a resurgence of Bulgarian soccer via the venerable Sofia club.

## Champions

1925 Vladislav Varna

1926 Vladislav Varna

1927 no competition

1928 Slavia Sofia

1929 Botev Plovdiv

1930 Slavia Sofia

1931 AS 23 Sofia

1932 Sokol Varna

1933 Levski Sofia

1934 Vladislav Varna

1935 SC Sofia

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# Argentina

Asociacion del Futbol Argentino
Viamonte 1366/76
1053 Buenos Aires

Founded: 1893

FIFA: 1912

CONMEBOL: 1916

Affiliated clubs: 2,647; registered players: 224,166 (2,064 professional, 54,450 non-amateur); national stadium: none; largest stadium: Estadio River Plate, Buenos Aires (100,000); colors: sky blue and white striped jerseys, black shorts; season: March to December; honors: World Cup runner-up (1930), Olympic runner-up (1928), South American Championship winner (1921, 1925, 1927, 1929, 1937, 1941, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1955, 1957, 1959), runner-up, (1916, 1917, 1920, 1923, 1924, 1926, 1935, 1942, 1959, 1967), Independiente, Intercontinental Cup winner (1973), Copa Libertadores winner (1964, 1965, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975), Copa Interamericana winner (1972, 1974, 1976), Estudiantes, Intercontinental Cup winner (1968), Copa Libertadores winner (1968, 1969, 1970), Copa Interamericana winner (1968), Racing Club, Intercontinental Cup winner (1967), Copa Libertadores winner (1967), Boca Juniors, Copa Libertadores winner (1977).

Argentina is the birthplace of soccer in South America, and for 50 years has been on of the world's leading soccer powers. South America's first club, first league competition, and first national governing body were all Argentine. The first international matches played in South America, both at the club and national levels, involved Argentine teams. Argentina, in fact, was the first independent nation outside Europe to fully develop the game. With its long and proud soccer playing heritage, it has consistently produced superbly skilled players since the 1910s, and though many of these have been lost to wealthy clubs abroad, a flood of excellent players has always seemed to take their place.

The national teams of Argentina have dominated South American competition since the beginning, even at the expense of mighty Brazil (one-fourth of all Brazil's losses have been to Argentina), and Argentine clubs have stood out decisively in the Copa Libertadores. Yet, Argentina has repeatedly failed to live up to is potential and win the highest honors in world competition. In the World Cup, it has been an utter disappointment. Indeed, its international reputation for temperamental and intimidating behavior on the playing field has overshadowed its skill and experience.

Soccer was first played in Argentina (and South America for that matter) along the Rio de la Plata by British sailors and maritime workers in the early 1860s, and it was there that the game took root. In 1867, the Buenos Aires Football Club, the first of its kind in Latin America, was founded by members of the five-year old Buenos Aires Cricket Club, most of whom were British railroad workers. Some difficulties arose in securing permission from Cricket Club authorities to organize the team, and further permission had to be granted (again with difficulty) to play on club

ground, but the aspiring footballers prevailed, and members organized games among themselves, one side wearing red caps, the other side white.

By 1880, an active league of British teams was under way in Buenos Aires F.C. alexander Hutton, the director of the English High School, took an active interest in the league, and helped form teams among other British groups and organizations in the area. British railroad workers, who also played a leading role in spreading the game, founded Quilmes F.C. in the Buenos Aires suburb of the same name in 1887, and Rosario Central F.C. in the big Rio Parana city of Rosario in 1889. These two are now the oldest clubs in Argentina.

The cultural homogeneity of Argentine life during this period helped to speed the assimilation of soccer into the activities of the working class, all of which was European in background. This was marked contrast to Brazil's multiracial society, in which Afro-Brazilians confronted racial impediments on the playing field until the 1920s. In Argentina, soccer was relatively free to make its way through all strata of a racially unified society. This process was well under way by the 1880s, despite the domination of organized competition by the British, and accounts for Argentina's early rise to the top of South American soccer. The situation in Uruguay was quite similar.

The presence of the British with their administrative and organizational knowhow was also central to Argentin's rapid development on the playing fields. (The overall British presence in Argentina during the nineteenth Century was more pervasive than in any other noncolonized country in the world.) In 1891, Alexander Hutton founded the Argentine Association Football League, an expanded official version of his Buenos Aires league, but it failed and a championship was not completed. In 1893, the league was reconstituted under Hutton as the Argentine Football Association, and a championship was introduced simultaneously. This was to be the forerunner of Argentina's present first division, the Campeonato Metropolitano, and the first official league competition in South America. It was dominated for 20 years by British Clubs: Lomas academicals won the first six in a row and Alumni F.C., the team of former English High School players and the most popular club of its day, won nine titles beginning in 1901.

Dozens of important clubs were founded in the 1890s and immediately after 1900, including Buenos Aires' "big five": C.A. River Plate (1901), Racing Club (1903), C.A. San Lorenzo. River Plate and Independiente were formed by British players, and Racing Club was founded by French residents and portenos (Argentine-born but of European extraction). Boca Juniors was founded in the main by Italians, and its formation stands out as an

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ARGENTINA

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important harbinger in the history of Argentine soccer. After the turn of the century, British players and officials in the front ranks were gradually replaced by European immigrants who poured into Argentina by the millions. The Italians became especially prominent, and it was largely through the Italian community that Argentine soccer advanced so rapidly between 1900 and 1930.

In 1902, the English baron Sir Thomas Lipton donated a trophy to the Argentine Football Association, and this prompted the introduction in 1905 of the Lipton Cup (Argentina vs. Uruguay), the first regularly scheduled international competition outside the British Isles. The first match in Buenos Aires/resulting in a scoreless draw/was also the international debut of both countries and the beginning of international competition in South America. In 1906, Argentina and Uruguay started a second international series, the Newton Cup, and for almost 25 years these two competitions were played on an annual basis. A third and fourth trophies were added in 1908 (Trophy of the Argentine Ministry of Education) and 1911 (Trophy of the Uruguayan Ministry of Education), but these ceased to exist in 1919 and 1923, respectively. Between 1905 and 1910, Argentina and Uruguay competed 16 times, Argentina winning nine and losing three.

In 1910, Argentina found its second international opponent, Chile, when the Argentine F.A. organized a three-way unofficial South American Championship in Buenos Aires. Argentina was the nominal winner after defeating Uruguay and Chile by an aggregate of 8-1. For the next six years, Argentina's schedule was prolific, but it was again limited to Uruguay. Between 1910 and the first South American Championship in 1916, two countries played against one another 21 times, and the results were an even nine games won for either side, a marked improvement for Uruguay. In 1912, the governing body cast off its anglicized name and became known as the Asociación Argentina de Football (AAF); earlier in the year it had become the first South American association to join FIFA. In the first of many organizational upheavals, an outlaw league was formed in 1912 in the aftermath of the AAF's reformation, but this lasted only three seasons.

A more serious rift occurred in 1919, when a group of important clubs broke away from the AAF to form the Association Amateurs de Football (AAAF) and the great debate over professionalism was launched. Within months, the two associations were reunited as Asociación Amateurs Argentina de Football (AAAF), which remained the recognized governing body, but a second league continued to thrive until 1926. An uneasy peace was kept until 1931. In that year, professionalism was adopted with the formation of a new outlaw league, the Liga Argentina de Football (LAF;

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after a series of ugly scenes that were eventually to become closely identified with Argentine soccer. Throughout the first round in England, the team engaged in deliberate fouls and merciless taunting of opposing players, so much so that it was taken to be part of a concerted tactic to brutalize the enemy. Having reached the quarter-finals, Argentina met England at Wembley, and when captain antonio Rattin was ordered off, he refused to go. It took ten minutes to clear him off the pitch, and at the end of the game (which England finally won 1-0) the Argentine reserves besieged the referee and drew the protective intervention of the police. Argentina's lamentable antics in England illuminated the traditional rivalry between Europe and South America; in fact, it signaled the beginning of a particularly belligerent era in the transoceanic rivalry. In the coming years, Argentina would be feared and ostracized in Europe, and a vicious war of words would detract attention from its genuine skills on the playing field.

The battleground was now moved to the Intercontinental Cup, where Racing Club, Estudiantes, and Independiente successively tore at the limbs of their European opponents from 1967-74. The outcry was particularly vocal against Racing Club in 1967, Estudiantes in all three of its forays, and Independiente in 1972. Several European Cup winners refused to participate in the competition when it was learned that their opponents would be from Argentina. At home, Argentine fans and players were bitter about the clamor, some no doubt recalling FIFA's repeated snubs over World Cup issues and others no doubt motivated by pugnacity. The issue did not begin to diffuse until FIFA awarded the 1978 World Cup to Argentina after a show of confidence from their South American compatriot, Brazilian FIFA President Joao Havelange.

Meanwhile, the national team failed to qualify for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico, and in 1974 in West Germany, placed last in its first round group, which unfortunately consisted of the host country, Holland, and East Germany. Argentina's success in the South American Championship, however, was repeated in no uncertain terms in the Copa Libertadores, the South American club championship. Indeed, Argentina's success in that competition has been phenomenal. After some years of grass roots indifference and official concern over financial losses, Boca Juniors became the first Argentine club to take the tournament seriously, and in 1963 it advanced to the final, losing to Santos and Pelé. In the next 14 years, Argentine clubs won the Copa Libertadores 11 times, including six by the Independiente and three by Estudiantes; Racing and Boca were also winners. Their successes have been due to a combination of factors, including a high level of skill.

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But they have also been known to use brutal tactics and familiar patterns of virulent behavior. That these characteristics are not confined to European opposition or even South American opposition is perhaps demonstrated by the extraordinary number of expulsions seen during the 1977 season of the Campeonato Metropolitano: 186! In the cases of Independiente and Estudiantes, experience in international competition has also been of key importance. In addition, the rise of Argentine clubs in the Copa Libertadores has coincided with the decline of the Uruguayan giants Penarol and Nacional, and the continued disinterest of Brazilian clubs in competing for South American honors.

The Argentine first division, the Campeonato Metropolitano, is a Buenos Aires-based league, and until the late 1970s it was the largest in the world. In 1977 it was reduced from 23 to 22 clubs, in 1978 from 22 to 20, and a further reduction to 20 clubs is scheduled. Aside from Buenos Aires, it draws its members from the port city of La Plata and the historic Rio Parana cities of Rosario and Santa Fe. The second and third division (Premera "A" and Primera "B") are all professional and semiprofessional, and include many clubs from the Federal District and Buenos Aires Province. All three divisions are served by an automatic promotion and relegation system. In 1967, the AFA introduced a national championship, in which the leading clubs of the lower divisions are invited to join the dozen best clubs of the Campeonato Metropolitano in a combination league system and knockout tournament. This has become an intensely attractive competition, and carries added weight because it also determines Argentina's two entrants in the Copa Libertadores. It has so far afforded one non-Buenos Aires club, the venerable Rosario Central, to gain national honors, but it too has been dominated by the big teams from the Federal District. Sponsored by a large tobacco company, it is played out during the second half of the season after the results of the various leagues are known.

ARGENTINA
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regional association for East Pakistan was formed to administer one of Pakistan's four provincial championships, the Dacca League, traditionally held between March and November. The South Asian custom of barefooted play was officially banned in the early 1950s, and at the same time the official duration of league matches was increased from 70 minutes to the standard 90. Prior to independence in 1972, the Dacca regional selection was an important participant in the national championship of Pakistan.

Today, despite strong interest in field hockey throughout South Asia, soccer is unquestionably the national sport of Bangladesh, and since 1974 efforts have been made to enter the mainstream of Asian soccer. In 1976, Bangladesh participated in the twentieth Merdeka football Tournament in Malaysia, South Asia's biggest competition, and the national team also entered the Asian Nations' Cup of 1976. Grouped with Afghanistan, India, Iraq, Jordan, Qatar, and Saudia Arabia, Bangladesh placed poorly, but its participation was hailed as an advancement in itself. One of the first demonstrative signs of political reconciliation with Pakistan following the civil war was Bangladesh's participation in the Quaid-I-Azam Football cup in 1976 at Karachi.

## Barbados

Barbados Football Association

c/o M/S Da Costa & Musson Ltd.

Broad Street

Bridgetown

Founded: 1910

FIFA: 1968

CONCACAF: 1968

*Affiliated clubs:* 43; *registered players:* 950; *national stadium:* Barbados National Stadium, St. Michael (12,000); *stadium of equal size:* Kensington Oval, Bridgetown (12,000); *colors:* royal blue and gold jerseys, gold shorts; *season:* February to May; *honors:* none.

Barbados, has only recently entered international competition on a regular basis, but soccer has been established there for many decades. At first, the game in Barbados was closely linked with cricket, as was the custom in small British colonies, and the formation of the Barbados Amateur Football Society in 1910 occurred about the same time Jamaica and Trinidad started their associations. Indeed, these three got a head start on all the Caribbean colonies. Throughout the colonial period the Barbados Association was affiliated with the Football Association in London. Though full independence from British was achieved by 1961, the Barbados Amateur F.A. did not join FIFA until 1968; unlike the Bahamas and Antigua, however, Barbados did join ranks with CONCACAF and intends to

BALTIC CUP

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petitions.

With such a small number of players at its disposal, Barbados rarely has the opportunity to engage in international friendlies; many of their results are in connection with Olympic and World Cup qualifying rounds. In both cases, Barbados has been eliminated in the first round. In 1975 their run for the Olympics was stopped by neighboring Trinidad in a play-off match after both home and away legs were drawn. In the first qualification round for the 1978 World Cup, Trinidad again eliminated Barbados in a play-off match after home and away legs were split.

In 1972, the government of Barbados proclaimed a "National Football Development Year" in an official effort to foster new enthusiasm for the game and to encourage youth participation. Forty-eight senior teams take part in a national league with a First Division of eight clubs. There is also an annual cup competition. With over 250,000 people lodged in a mere 166 square miles of land, the need for regional leagues has been obviated, and a system of upper and lower divisions in the national league exists instead. There are two major playing fields, but soccer must share a portion of the spotlight with the venerable cricket.

## Barcelona, Futbol Club

*Location:* Barcelona, Spain; *stadium:* Estadio Nou Camp (90,138); *colors:* red and blue striped jerseys, blue shorts; *honors:* Fair Cup winner (1958, 1960, 1966), Latin Cup winner (1949, 1953), Spanish champion (1929, 1945, 1948, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1959, 1960, 1974), Spanish cup winner (1910 unofficial, 1912, 1913 unofficial, 1920, 1922, 1925, 1926, 1928, 1942, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1957, 1959, 1963, 1968, 1971).

Founded 1899 as Foot-ball Club Barcelona by the naturalized Swiss Hans Gamper (also known as Don Juan Gamper), who introduced soccer to the Catalan capital. After playing its first matches against teams of British sailors, it soon found other Spanish opponents, notably Barcelona rivals Espanol and in 1902 it was one of four clubs to participate in the first Spanish Cup, an invitation-only series to celebrate the coronation of Alfonso XIII. Eight years later the club won its first cup, Athletic Bilbao and Madrid F.C. (later Real Madrid) having already won several apiece. By this time, Barcelona had become embroiled in regional organizational squabbles that lasted for four seasons, and two of its cup victories during this time were actually recorded as unofficial. The strength of the club, however, was unquestioned, and by World War I it was one of Spain's major clubs. During the 1920s, it experienced the first of many successful periods, dominating Spanish soccer with five cup wins, and after becoming the first Spanish

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club to turn professional, the first league championship in 1929. Today it is one of the few Spanish clubs that has never been relegated.

Barca has been one of the great clubs of Europe since the late 1940s, and the consistency of its postwar success has lead to an explosive archrivalry with Real Madrid, much to the chagrin of the other Madrid Club, Atlético. Its first world famous team was that of 1947-53, when it won four league championships and three Spanish cups, punctuated by two victories in the Latin Cup, then Europe's premier international club competition. Its Latin Cup trophies were won with victories over Stade de Reims, Sporting Lisbon, Juventus, and OGC Nice. The kingpins of this great team, especially during the early 1950s, were goalkeeper Antonio Ramallets and Hungarian international star Ladislav Kubala, both of whom made the transition to Barca's second great era in the late 1950s.

Though Barcelona thoroughly dominated Spanish soccer in the immediate postwar era, it was unlucky to have its spotlight taken away by the surging Real Madrid, who by 1954 was in the process of putting together the greatest club side in history. Real's accomplishments of the late 1950s has tended to obscure Barcelona's of the same period, for this was quite possibly the finest Barcelona team ever seen. Few other clubs could challenge its claim to being Europe's second best—after Real Madrid. Barca was led through part of this golden era by the naturalized French manager Helenio Herrera, who benefited greatly from the growing international player market.

By the first Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1955-58, Barca had already signed Luis Suarez, who with Francisco Gento ranks as the greatest Spanish-born forward of all time. The club later signed the Hungarian stars Sandor Kocsis and Zoltan Czibor, and won the first two editions of the Fairs Cup. In 1960-61, it became the first club to eliminate Real from the European Cup, losing ultimately to Benfica in the final on an own goal by Ramallets. Barca's extraordinary forward line in this series included Kubala, Kocsis, Evaristo, Suarez, and Czibor. The victory over Real was especially sweet because of Barca's elimination at the hands of Real the year before, after which Herrera was systematically fired. The effort to emulate Real since the late 1950s has earned Barcelona a particularly coarse reputation in its hiring and firing of managers. At one point, there were 11 managers in 10 years.

Additional championships and Spanish cups were won throughout the 1960s, though Barcelona was thwarted each time in the international arena, much the same as Italy's Juventus. It did win a record third Fairs Cup in 1966—defeating other Spanish clubs in two of the latter rounds—but still, no European Cup honors and no European Cup Winners' Cup

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honors. In Barcelona, despite the best overall international club record in Europe, failure or success was, and still is, measured by one yardstick: Real Madrid. With seemingly unlimited wealth, Barca eventually built one of Europe's greatest sporting complexes, and improved existing facilities with religious zeal. Its old Estadio Las Corts, which it had occupied since 1922, was abandoned for the grand new Estadio Nou Camp in 1957, and in 1966 the Nou Camp was enlarged and remodeled into one of the most beautiful grounds in Europe.) The hirings and firings continued, and finally in 1973, Barca secured the services of Ajax Amsterdam manager Rinus Michels, and Europe's greatest star of the 1970s, the Ajax striker Johan Cruyff. Cruyff led Barcelona to one championship in 1974, but by 1978 he too had tired of the pressure and announced his departure.

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Cameroon

Fédération Camérounaise de Football
B.P. 1116
Yaoundé

Founded: 1960

FIFA: 1962

CAF: 1963

*Affiliated clubs:* 200; *registered players:* 796; *national stadium:* Stade Ahmadou Ahidjo, Yaoundé (50,000); *largest stadium:* Stade Ahmadous Ahidjo; *colors:* green jerseys, red shorts; *season:* October to August; *honors:* Oryx de Douala, African Cup of Champion Clubs winner (1964), Canon de Yaoundée, African Cup of Champion Clubs winner (1971), Tonnerre KC, African Cup Winners' Cup winner (1975).

Cameroon (or Cameroun) is the home of two great African clubs, Canon de Yaoundé and Tonnerre Kalara Club Yaoundé, and the location of two of the most modern stadium facilities in sub-Saharan Africa: the national stadium in Yaoundé, the capital, and the Stade Réunification in Douala. It is a rising influence on African soccer in many respects, and now ranks among the top ten countries in international standings.

The game was introduced to Cameroon by German colonists in Buea before World War I, but the French did more to popularize it during their League of Nations mandate between the wars. The biggest surge of interest was seen after World War II, when an organizational structure of sorts rose from the chaos of French Equatorial African soccer. This was the only area in French Africa that was not governed by one of the primary colonial soccer administrations linked to the French Football Federation, thus relegating it to relative obscurity until independence in 1960. French Cameroun had not even been governed politically as part of Equatorial Africa or West Africa, and building a soccer administration was further complicated by the longstanding partition of West (British) and East (French) Cameroun.

Great encouragement was given to *Camerounais* soccer when Oryx de Douala plunged unmericifully through the inaugural African Champions' Cup in 1964, and brought home the first African club trophy. Cameroon clubs were to figure prominently in Africa club championships for years to come. Only the continental powers Zaire, Ghana, and Guinea have fared better in this arena. In 1971, Canon de Yaoundé won the African Champions' Cup after hard fought battles with ASEC Abidjan (Ivory Coast), and Kotoko Kumasi (Ghana) in the final, both leading African clubs. The final was forced into a replay, which fortunately for Canon was held in Yaoundé. Léopard Club advanced to the semi-finals of the Champions' Cup in 1973, but his has been the last hurrah for Cameroon clubs in this competition to date, and, in fact, Cameroon champions did

not even participate in 1974 and 1975. In the first two editions of the African Cup Winners' Cup, however, Tonnerre KC of Yaoundé advanced to the final both times, and in the first year defeated the mighty Stella of Ivory Coast to complete a unique record in African competition: Cameroon clubs have won the first editions of both major African club championships.

On the national level, Cameroon has been less successful. The national side has qualified for the final stages of the African Nation's Cup only twice. In 1970, it was extremely unlucky not to advance beyond the first round, as it finished equal on points with Ivory Coast and Sudan but failed to achieve the necessary goal difference. Two years later, however, when the competition was held in Cameroon, it won its first round group handsomely, but lost to archrival Congo in the semi-final by 1-0 in what has become the most memorable match ever seen in this tropical country. A spirited 5-2 thrashing of Zaire in the third place game provided a modicum of revenge, but the streets of Yaoundé remained in a virtual state of siege of days following. Rumania once visited Yaoundé but managed to gain only a 1-1 draw.

The Premier Division of the Cameroon league is now comprised of 19 clubs, including five from Dousala and three from Yaoundé. The second division of 16 clubs also takes five from Douala, and the third division, the Poule de l'Ouest, whose name indicates the lower stature of West Cameroon clubs, is made up of 16 teams. There is also a national cup competition.

cap

See: international appearance

card system

See: caution and send off

Carlos Dittborn Cup

Copa Carlos Dittborn.

An irregular series between the national teams of Argentina and Chile, played on a home and away basis.

Winners:

1965 Argentina

1968 Argentina

1971 Argentina

1972 Argentina

1974 Argentina

1976 Argentina

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CAMEROON

2

carry

The goalkeeper's holding the ball in his hands as a result of a save or interception, usually in preparation for a punt or throw. Carrying is unlawful outside the goalkeeper's own penalty area. Since a 1967 ruling, the goalkeeper has been required to give up possession of the ball after four paces (usually by bouncing the ball on the ground). Previously, he was required only to release the ball with his hands (with a slight toss in the air) at least once every four paces, and before 1931 once every two paces.

See also: hands, Appendix A (Laws of the Game, XII)

catenaccio

See: tactics

caution

Also known as "booking"

A referee's official warning to a player who has committed certain serious offenses.

To administer a caution the referee must stop play and show the offending player a yellow card. The player is cautioned verbally, and his name is noted in what has become known as the book. All cautions must be reported by the referee to the committee under whose aegis the match is being played.

The Laws of the Game requires that a player be cautioned for the following: 1) Entering or leaving the field of play unlawfully; 2) Persistently infringing the Laws; 3) Dissent from a referee's decision; 4) Ungentlemanly conduct.

The yellow card policy was officially introduced by FIFA at the Olympic Games of 1968.

See also: send off, Appendix A (Laws of the Game, XII)

center

See: cross

center back

A primarily defensive position at the rear of a formation. It differs from center halfback in that it is always deep-lying and may be one of two such positions on a team.

GREAT BRITAIN: Swift (England); Hardwick (England), Hughes (Wales); Macaulay (Scotland), Vernon (Northern Ireland), Burgess (Wales); Matthews (England), Mannion (England), Mannion (England), Lawton (England), Steel (Scotland), Liddell (Scotland).
Selector: Winterbottom (England).

REST OF EUROPE: Da Rui (France); Peterson (Denmark), Steffen (Switzerland); Carey (Eire), Parola (Italy), Ludl (Czechoslovakia); Lembrechts (Belgium), Gren (Sweden), Nordahl (Sweden), Wilkes (Netherlands), Praest (Denmark). Selector: Rappan (Austria).

Goals: 22' Mannion (G.B.), 24' Nordahl (R.E.), 33' Mannion (G.B.) pen, 35' Steel (G.B.), 37' Lawton (G.B.), 74' Parola-Da Rui (R.E.) own goal, 82' Lawton (G.B.)

## WALES REST OF THE UNITED KINGDOM: 3-2

(Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Football Association of Wales)

5 December 1951, Ninian Park, Cardiff.

Attendance: 26,454

WALES: Shortt (Plymouth); Barnes (Arsenal), Sherwood (Cardiff); Paul (Manchester C.), Daniel (Arsenal), Burgess (Tottenham); Foulkes (Newcastle), Morris (Burnley), Ford (Sunderland), Allchurch (Swansea), Clarke (Manchester C.).

REST OF THE UNITED KINGDOM: Cowan (Morton & Scotland); G. Young (Rangers & Scotland), McMichael (Newcastle & Northern Ireland); Docherty (Preston & Scotland), Vernon (West Bromwich & Northern Ireland), Wright (Wolverhampton & England); G. Smith (Hibernain & Scotland), Fleming (East Fife & Scotland), Lofthouse (Bolton & England), Baily (Tottenham & England), Medley (Tottenham & England).

Goals: 15' Allchurch (W.), 23' Ford (W.), 62' Allchurch (W.), 64' Fleming (R.U.K.), 83' Medley (R.U.K.)

## ENGLAND REST OF EUROPE: 4-4

(Ninetieth Anniversary of The Football Association)

21 October 1953, Wembley Stadium, London.

Attendance: 100,000

ENGLAND: Merrick (Birmingham); Ramsey (Tottenham), Eckersley (Blackburn); Wright Mortensen (Blackpool), Lofthouse (Bolton), Quixall (Sheffield Wednesday), Mullen (Wolverhampton). Selector: Winterbottom.

REST OF EUROPE: Zeman (Austria); Navarro (Spain), Hanappi Austria); Cajkovski (Yugoslavia), Posipal (Germany FR), Ocwirk (Austria); Bonperti (Italy), Kubala (Spain), Nordahl (Sweden), Vuka (Yugoslavia), Zebec (Yugoslavia). Substitution: Beara (Yugoslavia) for Zeman. Manager: Lotsy (Netherlands).

Goals: 5' Kubala (R.E.) pen, 7' Mortensen (E.), 14' & 36' Boniperti (R.E.), 42' & 48' Mullen (E.), 63' Kubala (R.E.), 90' Ramsey (E.) pen

## REST OF EUROPE GREAT BRITAIN: 4-1

(Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Irish Football Association)

13 August 1955, Windsor Park, Belfast.

Attendance: 35,000

ENGLAND: Banks (Leicester); Armfield (Blackpool), Wilson (Huddersfield); Milne

(Liverpool), Norman (Tottenham), Moore (West Ham); Paine (Southampton), Greaves (Tottenham), R. Smith (Tottenham), Eastham (Arsenal), R. Charlton (Manchester U).
Selector: Ramsey.

REST OF THE WORLD: First half<sup>8</sup> Yashin (USSR); D. Santos (Brazil), Schnellinger (Germany FR); Pluskal (Czechoslovakia), Popluhar (Czechoslovakia), Masopust (Czechoslovakia); Kopa (France), Law (Scotland), Di Stefano (Spain), Esebio (Portugal), Gento (Spain). Second half<sup>8</sup> Soskic (Yugoslavia); Eizaguirre (Chile), Schnellinger; Pluskal, Popluhar, Baxter (Scotland); Kopa, Law, Di Stefano, Puskas (Spain), Gento. **Substitution:** Seller (Germany FR) for Kopa. **Selector:** Reira (Chile)

Goals: 66' Paine (E.), 82' Law (R.W.), 97' Greaves (E.)

## REST OF EUROPE<sup>8</sup> SCANDINAVIA: 4-2

(Sixtieth Anniversary of the Dansk Boldspil-Union)

20 May 1964, Idraetspark, Copenhagen.

Attendance: 45,000

SCANDINAVIA: S. Anderson (Norway); J. Hansen (Denmark), Rosander (Sweden); B. Hansen (Denmark), A. Johansson (Sweden), Heinonen (Finland); R. Jensen (Norway), Oberg (Sweden), Madsen (Denmark), Bild (Sweden), Peltonen (Finland). **Substitution:** J. Peterson (Denmark) for Peltonen.

REST OF EUROPE: Yashin (USSR); Bomba (czechoslovakia), Wilson (England); Voronin (USSR), Popluhar (Czechoslovakia), Baxter (Scotland); José Augusto (Portugal), Greaves (England), Van Hunst (Belgium), Law (Scotland), R. Charlton (England). **Substitutions:** Tilkowski (Germany FR) for Yashing, Hamilton (Scotland) for Bomba, Eusebio (Portugal) for Van Hunst.

Goals: 4' & 41' Greaves (R.E.), 49' Law (R.E.), 51' Peltonen (S.), 56' Eusebio (R.E.), 75' Bild (S)

## REST OF EUROPE<sup>8</sup> YUGOSLAVIA: 7-2

(Testimonial to the victims of the Skopje earthquake)

23 September 1964, Yugolav National Army

Stadium, Belgrade. Attendance: 20,000

YUGOSLAVIA: Soskic; Belin, Jusufi; Melic, Cop, Vasovic, Samardzic, Zambata, Galic, Kostic, Skoblar. **Substitutions:** Skoric for Soskic, Cebinac for Samardzic. **Selector:** Lovric.

REST OF EUROPE: Yashin (USSR); Lala, (Czechoslovakia), Schnellinger (Germany FR); Voronin (USSR), Meszoly (Hungary), Pluskal (Czechoslovakia); José Augusto (Portugal), Masopust (Czechoslovakia), Seeler (Germany FR), Eusebio (Portugal), Simoes (Portugal). **Substitution:** Sandor (Hungary) for Simoes. **Selector:** Schön (Germany FR).

Goals: 22' Seeler (R.E.), 24' Eusebio (R.E.) pen, 31' Kostic (Y.), 44', 52' & 56' pen Eusebio (R.E.), 62' Galic (Y.), 68' Seeler (R.E.), 72' José Augusto (R.E.)

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CHIP

5

REST OF EUROPE, GREAT BRITAIN: 6-

4

(In honor of Sir Stanley Matthews)

28 April 1965, Victoria Ground, Stoke-on-
Trent. Attendance: 20,000.

GREAT BRITAIN: Waiters (England); Cohen (England), Thomson (England); Haynes (England), Flowers (England), Baxter (Scotland); Matthews (England), Greaves (England), Gilzean (Scotland), B. Douglas (England), C. Jones (Wales). *Substitution:* Ritchie (England) for Gilzean.

REST OF EUROPE: Yashin (USSR); Johannsen (Denmark), Schnellinger (Germany FR); Pluskal (Czechoslovakia), Popluhar (Czechoslovakia), Masopust (Czechoslovakia); Henderson (Scotland), Kubala (Spain), Di Stefano (Spain), Puskas (Spain), Vandeboer (Belgium). *Substitution:* Sörensen (Denmark) for Di Stefano.

Goals: 4' Vandeboer (R.E.), 7' Puskas (R.E.), 12' Douglas (G.B.), 24' Puskas (R.E.), 34' Greaves (G.B.), 43' Masopust (R.E.), 66' Kubala (R.E.), 75' Ritichie (G.B.), 81' Douglas (G.B.), 89' Henderson (R.E.)

Goals: 7' Vanderboer (R.E.), 7' Puskas (R.E.), 12' Douglas (G.B.), 24' Puskas (R.E.), 34' Greaves (G.B.), 43' Masopust (R.E.), 66' Kubala (R.E.), 75' Rithcie (G.B.), 81' Douglas (G.B.), 89' Henderson (R.E.)

INTERNATIONAL SELECTIONSPAIN:

3-0

(In honor of Ricardo Zamora)

27 September 1967, Estadio Bernabéu,
Madrid. Attendance: 35,000

SPAIN: Iribar; Sanchis, De Felipe; Reija, Glaria, Gallego; Ufarte, Grosso, Marcelino, Adelardo, José Maria. *Substitutions:* Bueno for De Felipe, Sadurni for Iribar, Eladio for Sanchis. *Selector:* Balmamya.

INTERNATIONAL SELECTION: Sarti (Italy); Burgnich (Italy), Schnellinger (Germany FR); Cooke (England), Ure (Scotland), Coluna (Portugal); Hamrin (Sweden), Rivera (Italy), Mazzola (Italy), Eusebio (Portugal), Corso (Italy). *Substitutions:* Benitz (Uruguay) for Coluna, Waldo (Brazil) for Hamrin, Goywaert (Belgium) for Eusebio. *Manager:* Herrera (Argentina)

Goals: 23' Mazzola, 30' Eusebio, 88' Goywaert

BRAZILREST OF THE WORLD: 2-1

(Celebration of the Tenth Anniversary of
Brazil's first World Cup victory)

6 November 1968, Maracana Stadium, Rio de
Janeiro. Attendance: 93,000.

BRAZIL: Picasso; Carlos Alberto, Everaldo; Natal, Jurandir, Dias; Jairzinho, Gerson, Pelé, Rivelino, Paulo Cesar. *Substitutions:* Moreira for Carlos Alberto, Paulo Borges for Natal, Tostao for Jairzinho. *Selector:* Moreira (Brazil).

REST OF THE WORLD: First *half*<sub>8</sub> Yashin (USSR); Novak (Czechoslovakia), Marzolini (Argentina); Beckenbauer (Germany FR), Schulz (Germany FR), Shesternev (USSR); Amancio (Spain), Szücs (Hungary), Albert (Hungary), Overath (Germany FR), Dzajic (Yugoslavia). Second *half*<sub>8</sub> Mazurkiewicz (Uruguay); Novak, Perfumo (Argentina); Beckenbauer, Schulz, Shesternev; Metreveli (USSR), Szücs, Rocha (Uruguay), Overath, Farkas (Hungary). *Selector:* Cramer (Germany FR).

MOSCOW SELECTION, REST OF THE WORLD: 2-2

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(In honor of Lev Yashin)

27 May 1971, Lenin Stadium Moscos. Attendance: 90,000

MOSCOW SELECTION: Yashin; Chatov, Zukov; Sabo, Zikov, Sumin; Pusac, Khmelnitzki, Malafeev, Khurts, Sakarov. **Substitutions:** Metreveli for Khmelnitzki, Koslov for Malafeev, Pilgul for Yasin.

REST OF THE WORLD: *First half*<sub>8</sub>Mazurkiewicz (Uruguay); Djorkaeff (France), Facchetti (Italy); Schulz (Germany FR), Mészöly (Hungary), Pena (Mexico); Dumitrache (Rumania), Bonev (Bulgaria), Müller (Germany FR), R Charlton (England), Dzajic (Yugoslavia). *Second half*<sub>8</sub>Viktor (Czechoslovakia); Kuna (Czechoslovakia), Facchetti; Schulz, Mészöly, Anczok (Poland); Dumitrache, Lubanski (Poland), Müller, R. Charlton, Jekov (Bulgaria).

Goals: 7' Khmelnitzki (M.), 10' Sabo (M.), 52' Meszoly (R.W.), 78' Jekov (R.W.)

EUROPEAN SELECTION, HAMBURGER SV: 7-3

(In honor of Uwe Seeler)

1 May 1972, Ozcan; Sandmann, Ripp; Hellfritz, Schulz, Nogly; Björnmose, Zaczyk, Seeler, Hönig, Volkert. **Substitutions:** Kargus for Ozcan, Memering for Sandmann, Winkler for Björnmose, Lübeke for Winkler, Dringelsstein for Zaczyk, Dörfel for Volkert. **Manager:** Ochs.

EUROPEAN SELECTION: *First half*<sub>8</sub>Banks (England); Gemmell (Scotland), Schnellinger (Germany FR); Moore (England), R. Charlton (England); Bene (Hungary), Rivera (Italy), Müller (Germany FR), Hurst (England), Best (Northern Ireland). *Second half*<sub>8</sub>Maier (Germany FR); Gemmell, Höttges (Germany FR); Mészöly (Hungary), Moore, R. Charlton; Bene, Rivera, Eusebio (Portugal), Best, Dzajic (Yugoslavia). **Manager:** Rooco (Italy).

Goals: 15' Hurst (E.), 37' Bene (E.), 40' Beckenbauer (E.), 41' Seeler (H.) pen, 43' Müller (E.), 45' Zaczyk (H.), 55' Mészöly (E.), 71' Best (E.), 79' Eusebio (E.), 84' Seeler (H.)

RED STAR BELGRADE, WORLD SELECTION: 2-2

Tenth Anniversary of SPORT, the Yugoslav daily

9 June 1972, Crvena Zvezda Stadium, Belgrade. Attendance: 50,000.

RED STAR BELGRADE: Dukkovic; Krivokuca, Stepanovic; Pavlovic, Dojcinovski, Jerkovic; Petkovic, Acimovic, Koskic, Sekularac, Dzajic. **Substitution:** Lazarevic for Koskic.

WORLD SELECTION: Maric Yugoslavia; Suurbier (Netherlands), Carlos Alberto (Brazil); Mészöly (Hungary), Holcer (Yugoslavia), Dumitru (Rumania); Albert (Hungary), Muehren (Netherlands), Netzer (Germany FR), Skoblar (Yugoslavia), Cruyff (Netherlands).

Results: 18 Cruyff (W.), 30' Petkovic (R.S.), 42' Netzer (W.), 69' Acimovic (R.S.); Red Star won 6 penalty kicks (7-6)

S. Sori (S.A.), 15' Eusebio (E.), 23' Jairzinho, Pelé, Paulo Cesar.

57' Asensio (E.),

Chuymplaz

In America won on penalty

INTERNATIONAL SELEC-

Honour of Garrincha)

13 December 1973, Maracana Stadium, Rio de Janeiro. Attendance: 131,555.

BRAZIL: Felix; Carlos Alberto, Everaldo; Clodoaldo, Brito, Piazza; Garrincha, Rivelino, Jairzinho, Pelé, Paulo Cesar. *Substitutions*: Leao for Felix, Ze Maria for Carlo Alberto, Luis Pereira for Brito, Zequinha for Garrincha, Ademire for Pelé.

INTERNATIONAL SELECTION: Andrada (Argentina); Forlan (Uruguay), Brunel (Uruguay); Dreyer (Argentina); Alex (Germany FR), Reyes (Paraguay); Houseman (Argentina), Brindisi (Argentina), Doval (Argentina), Rocha (Uruguay), Onishenko (USSR). *Substitutions*: Babington (Argentina) for Houseman, Lovchev for Onishenko.

Goals: 18' Brindisi (1.), 36' Pelé (B.), 66' Luis Pereira (B.)

## RSC ANDERLECHT—REST OF THE WORLD: 8-3

(in honor of Paul van Himst)

26 March 1975, Parc Astrid, Brussels. Attendance: 35,000

RSC ANDERLECHT: Ruiter; van Binst, Broos; van den Daele, Thissen, van der Elst; Andersen, Coeck, Ladinszki, van Himst cap, Rensenbrink. *Substitutions*: Dockx for van den Daele, Verheyen for Coeck, Nicolaes for Ladinszki. *Manager*: Braems.

REST OF THE WORLD: First half—Tomaszewski (Poland); Rijssbergen (Netherlands), van Hanegem (Netherlands); Viera (Uruguay), Katalinski (Yugoslavia), Heredia (Argentina); Amancio (Spain), Eusebio (Portugal), Altafini (Italy), Pelé (Brazil), Cruyff (Netherlands) cap. Second half—Piot (Belgium); Rijssbergen, Delikaris (Greece); Babington (Argentina), Katalinski, Heredia; Jairzinho (Brazil), Rivera (Italy), Sotil (Peru), van Hanegem, Paulo Cesar (Brazil). *Selector*: Michels (Netherlands).

Goals: 3' van Himst (A.) pen, 17' Ladinszki (A.), 30' van der Elst (A.), 31' Altafini (R.W.), 36' Ladinszki (A.), 40' Altafini (R.W.), 48' Andersen (A.), 57' Verheyen (A.), 61' & 70' Nicolaes (A.), 76' Paulo Cesar (R.W.)

Chip through commemorative games

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CHIP

11

and this has been its legacy and an impediment
to winning higher honors.

Soccer was played in Denmark by British
residents in Copehagen and Odense as early as
the 1860s. The oldest club, KB (Kobenhavns
Boldklub), was founded in 1876 and is still the
most famous and successful club in the history
of the Danish game. Most clubs that formed
during these and subsequent years had both
soccer and cricket teams, and some clubs
turned to soccer from other sports, such as
cricket and *langbold*. In 1889, the Dansk
Boldspil-Union (DBU) was founded with a
membership of 21 clubs from Copen hagen
and five from other regions. Most of Den-
mark's leading clubs were started between
1893 and 1910 with the common practice of
including their year of formation in the name,
e.g., Boldklub 93, Boldklub 03, and Boldklub
09.

Although the first official international match on the European continent was Austria vs. Hungary in 1902, a Danish selection is known to have traveled to Athens in 1896 to play a team representing Greece in an exhibition game at the first modern Olympics. The Danes won by an unknown score, and thus may be credited with initiating international competition outside the British Isles. Their association with the Olympic Games was to be long and extraordinarily successful. In 1906, a Danish selection won the soccer competition of the unofficial Intermediate Olympic Games in Athens. Denmark, first FIFA-recognized internationals were played at the 1908 Olympics in London, where a full international team defeated the so-called France "A" and France "B" teams 17-1 and 9-0, respectively. This 17-1 score is still a record for any international match. In the final, Denmark lost to Britain, 2-0, but in so doing, established itself as a frontrunner among soccer nations. Its second place finish was repeated in 1912 at Stockholm when again it lost to Great Britain in the final, this time by 4-2. Despite the fact that Britain did not fields its best team in either of these Olympic tournaments, Denmark's 7-0 defeat of Norway and 4-1 defeat of Holland at Stockholm indicated the relatively high level of play in Denmark during this period. It was, in fact, Denmark's great era.

Excellent British coaching over the
preceding decades had helped to produce an
inordinate number of knowledgable players
and sophisticated teams. In addition, many
Danish players were brought to England to
play in The Football League, none greater than
the famous Nils Middleboe, who played for
Chelsea from 1913 to 1921 and became
captain. The Middleboe family made a great
impact on Danish soccer during its golden era
and beyond. Kristian Middleboe, who along
with Nils was active in the administration of
Danish soccer from the mid-1910's, was
Secretary of the DBU for many years during

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the 1930s and '40s.

After the Olympic Games of 1912, Denmark began its long association with other Scandinavian countries. All but a small handfull of its internationals before 1920 were against Sweden and Norway, including 8-0 and 10-0 defeats of Sweden and 8-1, 8-0, and 12-0 wins over Norway. Denmark's clear superiority over other Scandinavian nations during 1912-30 helped to shape the appearance of its excellent overall international record, and subsequent domination of Finland and Iceland has further enhanced its record. Half of Denmark's 156 international wins have been in competition with Norway, Finland, and Iceland. Other than Sweden, which emerged as the leading Scandinavian power after World War II, Danish teams have maintained their superiority over Scandinavian opponents to this day. The cumulative records to date against Norway (1912-76) are 68-42-9-17-193-87-93; Finland (1925-76), 44-28-6-10-133-51-62; and Iceland (1946-76), 12-10-2-0-51-12-22. It is surprising then to realize that of the three editions of the Scandinavian Championship completed before World War II (1929, 1932, and 1936), Denmark won only the first in 1929. But the Danish team fielded during the 1930s was not up to the usual Danish standard, and in fact, this was probably Denmark's weakest period ever in international competition, coinciding with the rise of Sweden to the front ranks of the European game. Denmark's record against Sweden is divided neatly into two parts. Its pre-World War II record against Sweden (1913-39) was 30-17-3-10-74-76-37, while its postwar record (1946-75) has been 46-8-11-27-64-109-27.

Although Denmark had been one of the founding members of FIFA in 1904, its continental opponents between the wars were restricted to Germany, Poland, and the Benelux. Denmark did not qualify for the final rounds of the Olympics between 1920 and 1948. At the London games, however, it defied the pundits again by defeating Egypt and the Olympic teams of Italy and Great Britain to gain third place. At the Rome games in 1960, Denmark achieved its most impressive success every by reaching the final against Yugoslavia after defeating the full international teams of Poland (2-1) and Hungary (2-0). Its appearance in the final and eventual 3-1 loss to the talented Yugoslavs was a moral victory and one of the great moments in Danish sports history. Having qualified for the final rounds of the Olympic Games at Munich in 1972 the Danish team advanced to the semifinal group of eight, which was dominated by four Eastern European powers, and in the major upset of the tournament, managed a 1-1 draw with Poland, the eventual Gold Medal winner. Denmark's international reputation as spirited amateurs with an old-fashioned will to succeed has been assured for all time

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DA HOMEY

3

with these three postwar Olympic showings.
The World Cup, on the other hand, has eluded
Denmark and Danish teams have failed to
qualify on each occasion. This may change in
years to come. In 1976, the DBU reversed a
previous policy and allowed Danish
professionals under contract to foreign clubs
to be selected for the national team for the first
time. This would help solve the major
problem that has existed for Danish national
managers since Juventus attracted Denmark's
Olympic forward line of 1948, to Turin (Karl
Aage, John Hansen, and Carl Praest), and
Danish clubs were first depleted of all their
best talent.

At the domestic level, Danish clubs have not
done well in any of the European com-
petitions, but the DBU's organization of
league play has been strong since the turn of
the century. In 1903, the four major clubs of
Copenhagen (KB, Boldklub Frem, and
Akademisk Boldklub) formed a loosely knit
group called Staevnet to field a Copehagen
selection and schedule intercity matches.
Staevnet was active into the 1960s when it was
still sponsoring Denmark's representative
team in the Fairs Cup. The first real Danish
league, centered in Copenhagen, got under
way in 1913. A national league was founded in
1929 with two divisions. A third division was
added in 1936. Since the league's founding, KB
and Boldklub 03 are the only clubs that have
never been relegated. Although clubs from
Copenhagen and Odense have historically
dominated the Danish game, regional powers
from smaller towns most notably Esbjerg and
Aarhus GF have come into their own at
various times. The Danish Cup was launched
in 1940 with KB defeating Akademisk (AB) in
the Final 2-0, but the next cup competition
was not held until 1954-55. The success of non-
Copenhagen clubs has been a chief
characteristic of cup competition. The most
successful club in league competition has been
KB with 14 championships, followed by
Boldklub 93 (9), Akademisk (8), and Boldklub
03 (7). Possibly the DBU's recent change of
heart concerning the inclusion of Danish
players abroad on the national team will be the
first step to professionalism in the domestic
game. Meanwhile, Denmark remains one of
Europe's best examples of the traditional
amateur spirit and northern Europe's greatest
exporter of good players.

Champions

1913 Kjobenhavns Boldklub

1914 Kjobenhavns Boldklub

1915 no competition

1916 Boldklub 93

1917 Kjobenhavns Boldklub

1918 Kjobenhavns Boldklub

1919 Akademisk

1920 Boldklub 03

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DAHOMEY

4

on the field. A goal may be disallowed when a player on the attacking side commits an infringement before the ball crosses the goal line.

distribute

After having gained possession, the act of passing or throwing the ball in an effort to initiate or continue an attacking action. The term is commonly applied to goalkeepers, who "distribute" the ball to a teammate after making a save, or halfbacks, who may be described as having well developed "distribution" skills.

Republic of China Football Association
50A Lung-Chiang St.
Taipei, Taiwan

Founded: 1936

FIFA: 1954

AFC: 1955-76

Affiliated clubs: 24; registered players: 4,600; national stadium: Taipei Stadium, Taipei (22,000); largest stadium: Taipei Stadium; colors: blue jerseys, white shorts; season: January to December; honors: none.

The soccer section of the old China National Amateur Athletic Federation, founded in Nanking in 1936, was reestablished in Taipei in the early 1950s as the China National Football Association. Despite the objection of China PR, the Taiwan governing body was admitted to FIFA in 1954, and for four years coexisted in the world organization with the People's Republic. It joined the Asian Football Confederation in 1955. When China PR withdrew from FIFA in 1958, China National happily stayed on, and preceded to establish itself in the international soccer community. Taiwan's international participation, while occasionally thwarted by political snags, continued until the mid-1970s, when its official status was put in serious jeopardy.

With strong competition from baseball and basketball, soccer in the Republic of China has lagged behind that of many Far East nations. A small number of regional and continental honors were won during the 1950s and the '60s, but since the late 1960s, the Republic of China has not been an influential factor in Asian competition. After its admission to FIFA in 1954, there were two consecutive victories in the Football Tournament of the Asian Games (1954 and 1958), South Korea being the losing finalist on both occasions. At the important Merdeka Football Tournament of Malaysia, Taiwan won an outright victory in 1963, again over South Korea, and in 1965 it shared the trophy, yet again with South Korea. It has advanced to the final rounds of the Asian Cup, the continent's most elite competition, twice (1960 and 1968). Its advancing to the highly competitive final rounds in 1968 remains the highest accomplishment of a National Chinese team to date. In 1960, it was one of two Asian countries to qualify for the final rounds of the Olympic tournament in Rome. Grouped with the amateur teams of Italy, Brazil, and Great Britain, it lost to all three, accumulating a 3-12 goal difference.

In 1976, the Asian Football Confederation expelled China National and admitted the People's Republic, setting off a chain of reactions and counterreactions that threatened to split the world soccer community. China National, seeking nations willing to compete on the field, looked to Oceania for opponents and increased its international fixture list with numerous island republics and territories. This new association with Oceania resulted in Taiwan's grouping with Australasia and New Zealand in the qualification rounds for the 1978 World Cup, which resulted in four consecutive losses and a dismal goal difference of 1-17.

In domestic competition, the Republic of China Football Association (present name adopted in the early 1970s) sponsors a senior level league of 24 clubs. There is a national cup competition and lower divisions include numerous regional leagues. The relative level of play of Nationalist Chinese clubs has been untested because they consistently failed to enter the Asian Champion Teams' Cup during that competition's five-year existence. In addition, before the revolution of 1949, the island of Taiwan was little more than a recreational backwater in Chinese sports.

See also: China, People's Republic.

provided the basic human rights of athletes as described in the charter are maintained by the national governing body. Ironically, it is FIFA's steadfastly apolitical stance that has prevented China from being admitted. FIFA has repeatedly declared that it strongly desires China PR's membership. Though it has often applied for membership the stumbling block has always been that China PR would only accept if China National were expelled at the same time. FIFA's policy, as opposed to its private wishes, precludes the expulsion of one member at the expense of another. (FIFA expelled Germany and Japan on political grounds in 1946, but since that exception the world body has rescinded the membership of only two countries: South Africa for its violation of human rights provisions in the FIFA charter and Chad for repeated nonpayment of dues and levies.)

The majority of FIFA's membership agrees with the official position, and it is understood that members would not vote to keep China PR out of the world body if the Chinese would abandon their condition. The fact is, however, that a growing number of members are in favor of China's PR's membership at any cost. In 1976, the matter was thrown into a tailspin that threatened the overall authority of FIFA and the future of Asian soccer, when the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) admitted China PR at the expense of Taiwan. The move was avowedly political in motivation (fostered by Middle Eastern and Communist bloc states), and Israel was also expelled. After much silence and wonderment, FIFA suggested a plan to reverse the expulsions, whereby Israel would join the floundering Oceania Football Confederation in return for the reinstatement of China National in the AFC. FIFA warned that the Asian body itself risked expulsion if this proposal was not agreed upon. In 1978, the AFC rejected the plan out of hand and forced FIFA to consider the possibility of excluding two-thirds of humankind from the official world soccer community.

China PR's membership in the AFC enabled the national team to enter and ultimately qualify for the final rounds of the 1976 Asian Cup, marking China PR's first participation in an officially sponsored international competition. The results were encouraging. It was one of nine countries to advance to the quarter-finals in Iran, and there drew with Malaysia before losing to Kuwait. In the third place game, China PR defeated Iraq to gain its first international honor.

The All-China Athletic Federation remains steadfast in its unique conditions for membership in FIFA and points to growing public opinion in its favor and a similar precedent recently established in the sport of badminton, when the Asian governing body pulled out the world body rather than compromise political viewpoints.

See also: tsu chu

center forward

Also known as "No. 9."

The player positioned in the middle of the
forward line, whose function is primarily to
score goals. This has been the glamor spot on
the field since the early days of the game,
though some modern formations have
supplanted the center forward position with
central strikers or inside forwards. The oddest
function of a center forward may be found in
the archaic "echelon formation," in which the
center forward is positioned at the point of a
"V" setup, with both insides and wingers
playing closer to the goal.

center halfback

Also known as "No. 5" and "the pivot."

The middle position among halfbacks or on
the midfield line. The center halfback is the
most varied of all traditional positions on the
field. Its function is pivotal, in that it can be
both offensive and defensive, and sometimes
encompasses most of the playing area.
Successful center halfbacks tend to possess
unusual reserves of stamina, distribute with
precision, and tackle with authority. Most
formations have now dispensed with the
traditional center half in favor of a deep-lying
center back or midfield lines of two or four
players.

Celtic Football Club

*Location:* Glasgow, Scotland; *stadium:* Celtic Park (80,000); *colors:* green and white
hooped jerseys, white shorts; *honors:* European Cup winner (1967), Scottish
champion (1893, 1894, 1896, 1898, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1914, 1915,
1916, 1917, 1922, 1926, 1936, 1938, 1954, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972,
1973, 1974, 1977), Scottish Cup winner (1892, 1899, 1900, 1904, 1907, 1908, 1911,
1912, 1914, 1923, 1925, 1927, 1931, 1933, 1937, 1951, 1954, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1971,
1972, 1974, 1975, 1977), Scottish league cup winner (1957, 1958, 1966, 1967, 1968,
1969, 1970, 1975).

Founded 1888 by Irish Roman Catholics in the East End of Glasgow to help finance soup kitchens for the neighborhood's poor. Some of the more experienced players in this group had already played for Renton, Dumbarton, and Hibernian. The members' humanitarian ideals were quite genuine, but within a few short years they found their popularity and revenues rising so rapidly that before they knew it the club was a big business. By the end of its first decade, Celtic owned the finest stadium in Europe, and was the wealthiest club in Britain with an annual income of over L15,000. Celtic became a founding member of The Scottish Football League, placing third in the first season, and the year before, it was the losing finalist in its first attempt to capture the Scottish cup. Its archrivalry with the Protestant-based Rangers F.C. commenced almost immediately; in 1893 the first Celtic vs. Rangers cup final took place before 30,000 spectators and was won by Rangers. Celtic's first cup victory occurred in 1892, and its first league championship was won the year of the first Celtic-Rangers cup final.

Celtic has won 30 Scottish league cham-
pionships (Rangers have won 36) and 25
Scottish cups (a record), and have never been
relegated from the Scottish First (later
Premier) Division. The overwhelming
prominence of Celtic and Rangers in Scottish
soccer has led to a belief that the big Glasgow
clubs face token opposition in their domestic
schedule, diminishing their international
importance. But Celtic successfully belied this
old charge in 1967, when it won the European
Cup in its first attempt with a much praised 2-
1 win over Inter Milan at Lisbon, and in so

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doing became the first club to win the European Cup with players from just one country. In that same year, it won the treble at home, and scored a record 111 goals in First Division competition. Three years later Celtic advanced to the finals of the European Cup again, but they were less successful against Feyenoord. Celtic was by now in the midst of its greatest era, winning nine consecutive league championships (a world record) between 1966 and 1974, including five doubles and two trebles. The heroes of this extraordinary side were the solid center half and captain Billy McNeill and the dynamic little wager Jimmy Johnstone.

Celtic fans were keen to point out, however, that at least two other Celtic teams in the past must rank with this record-breaking team. The first was that of 1905-10, which won five consecutive titles and back-to-back doubles in 1907 and 1908, losing only 23 games of a possible 192 and winning 305 points of a maximum 384. The two great goalscorers of this period were "Napoleon" Jimmy McMenemy, who described his shooting as passing "the ball inside the post," and "Iron Man" Jimmy Quinn, whose shot was thought to be the hardest ever seen in Scotland. This team was tactically innovative, and may also be noted for switching from vertical green and white striped jerseys to the present hooped variety in 1906. The second legendary Celtic team was that of the late 1930s, which won successive league and cup honors. This Celtic team was the winning side in the 1937 cup final vs. Aberdeen at Hampden Park, which set a European club attendance record still standing (146,433).

In their 90-year history, Celtic has had only four managers: Billy Maley, who was with the club for 50 years from its inception, overseeing its operations from an office at Celtic Park and building the great pre-Wold War I and interwar teams; Jimmy McStay; Jimmy McGrory (1946-65), who, as a player, set a Scottish league record for scoring 397 goals in 378 appearances for Celtic; and Jock Stein, who took over in 1965 and led the club to world glory, becoming in the meantime the most successful manager in the history of British soccer. Stein's is a living legend and one that continues to this day. Each of the four was a former Celtic player.

Celtic is perhaps most famous for two things: one, its consistent reputation for producing attacking teams that have seldom if ever been prone to defensive tactics; and two, its Roman Catholic background. The foundation for its rivalry with Rangers/the most intense in all of Europe/is, indeed, religious animosity, a rarity in modern European soccer. Celtic's support among the legions of Irish Roman Catholics in Glasgow is complete, and it was only well into this century that non-Roman Catholic players were allowed on its rosters. The "Auld Firm," as the rivalry is known, has bred considerable violence over the years, perhaps the most significant being the 1909 cup final, when a drawn replay caused serious rioting and the cup was withheld altogether.

## Central Africa

Fédération Centrafricaine de Football

B.P. 344

Bangui

Founded: 1937

FIFA: 1963

CAF: 1965

Affiliated clubs: 256; registered players: 7,200 (1,500 non-amateur); national stadium: Barthélemy Boganda, Bangui (35,000); largest stadium: Barthélemy Boganda;

colors: grey-blue jerseys, white shorts; season: October to July; honors: none.

While the domestic game in Central Africa is

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national reputation is similar to that of its foreign policy/unpredictable. It has been characterized by numerous withdrawals from competitions, with the result that soccer in the Central African Empire is virtually an unknown quantity. In the preliminary round of the 1976 African Nation's Cup, Central Africa withdrew from playing Nigeria at the last moment. In an early qualification round for the 1978 World Cup, it withdrew from a scheduled series with Zaire. In 1975, its champion club Fatima entered the African Champions' Cup, won its first match against Mareikho of Sudan 3-0, and in the return leg left the field at halftime, giving up a probable advance to the next round. Withdrawals and forfeits are not without precedent in some parts of the world, but Central Africa's behavior is unusual. Meanwhile, it has not yet qualified for the final rounds of the African Nations' Cup, the continent's major competition, nor has it advanced in Olympic qualification tournaments.

At home, there are over 250 senior clubs participating in the league. The First Division of the national championship is comprised of 12 clubs, and it is supported by a group of regional leagues. There are also national and regional cup competitions. Central Africa is one of only four countries on the continent to employ non-amateur players, though there is little chance of full professionalism being adopted in the near future. About one-third of all senior level players are non-amateur. In the 1974 African Champions' Cup, Real de Bangui advanced beyond the preliminary round by upsetting Simba of Uganda; in the following round, however, the vastly superior Heart of Oaks (Ghana) turned away Real's bid by scoring 9 goals in two games. Tempete, Central Africa's third major club, entered the First African Cup Winners' Cup in 1975 and advanced past Postelsport of Dahomey before succumbing to Jeanne D'Arc of Senegal in the quarter-finals. Thus far, this has been the extent of Central African participation in African club competitions.

The game was introduced in the Ubangi-Chari Territory of French Equatorial Africa after World War I by French colonists and missionaries along the settlements of the Ubangi River. Bangui, Fort de Possel, and Fort Crampel (up-country) were probably the first locations to have organized competitions. The original sports federation of 1937 was established primarily for Europeans, but there were also provisions for "barefooted" leagues, as was the custom in French-speaking colonial Africa.

## Central African Cup

ment of the

See: Central African Games, Football Tourna-

## Central America

Caribe de Fútbol (CONCACAF)

See: Confederacion Norte-Centroamericana y del

## Ceylon

See: Sri Lanka

## charge

Running into or leaning on an opponent with the full weight of one's body. Intentional, violent charges, other than a shoulder charge, are unlawful and draw the penalty of a direct free kick.

shoulder charge, Appen-

Central African Games, Football Tournament of the

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Tournoi de Football des Jeux Centrafricains.

The first edition of the Central African
Games was scheduled to take place in 1976 at
Libreville, Gabon, with a soccer competition
between national teams as a focal point of the
festival. The announced participants were:
Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Central Africa,
Chad, and Zaire. The trophy is descended from
that of the old Central African Cup, which
ceased to exist in 1972 and was itself the
descendant of an earlier trophy representing
the soccer tournament of the defunct Tropical
Games.

Central American Games, Football Tournament of the

Torneo Fútbol de los Juegos Deportivos
Centroamericanos.

The quadrennial Central American Games,
administered by the Organizacion Deportiva
Centroamericana (founded in 1972 in
Guatemala City), are open to the six countries
and territories of Central America: Belize,
Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hon-
duras, and Panama. The games are an all-
amateur competition (15 sports) based on the
Olympic model with a vigorously contested
soccer tournament.

Winners:

1973 (in Guatemala City) Panama

1977 (in San Salvador)

Central American and Caribbean Games, Football Tournament
of the

Torneo Fútbol de los Juegos Deportivos
Centroamericanos y del Caribe.

The Central American and Caribbean
Games were first held in 1930 at Havana, and
were among the first regional offspring of the
Olympic movement. The parent body of the
games, the Organizacion Deportiva Cen-
troamericana y del Caribe (ODCC), founded at
the 1924 Olympics, administered the soccer
tournament with the rest of the events of the
first two editions in 1930 and 1935, but in 1938
the Central American and Caribbean Football
Confederation (CCCF) was founded, and at the
third edition (1938) the CCCF took over the
direct administration of the soccer competi-
tion. The games as a whole were, of course,
open only to amateurs, but the soccer
tournament remained the only one of its kind
in the area until 1941, when the CCCF
organized the Central American and Carib-
bean Championship (Championship of the
CCCF), forerunner of the present-day Cham-
pionship of CONCACAF.

With the introduction of the Central
American and Caribbean Championship, the
importance of the soccer tournament of the
Central American and Caribbean Games
declined. Only the first three winners of the
latter series should be considered regional
champions: Cuba (1930), and Mexico (1935
and 1938). After the war years, the games
were resumed in 1946, and have been held
every four years since. The twelfth edition took
place at Medellin in 1978. The current
participants in the games are: Bahamas,
Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Mexico,
Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama,
Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad & Tobago, and

The countries that participated in the
CCCF Championship or CONCACAF Cham-
pionship before 1973 were: Costa Rica,
Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles), El Salvador,
Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, and Trinidad. In 1972-73
and 1976-77, the following members surfaced:
Antigua, Barbados, Canada, Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Guyana, Jamaica, Puerto Rico,
Surinam, and the USA.

In late 1977, Caribbean members announced the formation of a Caribbean Football federation, which they hoped would lead eventually to CONCACAF splitting into two FIFA-sanctioned confederations.

See also: *North American Confederation, Championship of the Winners:*

(Championship of CCCF)

1941 Costa Rica 1943 El Salvador
1946 Costa Rica 1948 Costa Rica
1951 Panama 1953 Costa Rica
1955 Costa Rica 1957 Haiti
1960 Costa Rica 1961 Costa Rica

(Championship of CONCACAF)

1963 Costa Rica

1965 Mexico

1967 Guatemala

1969 Costa Rica

1973 Haiti

1977 Mexico

CONCACAF Club Champions, Championship of

Campeonato Norte-Centroamericano y del
Caribe de Fubol Mayor de Campeones.

The most erratic of all regional club
championships (except for the Asian Cham-
pions' Cup, suspended for the past several
years). The CONCACAF club championship
is modeled loosely on the Copa Libertadores, is
played annually, and is open to all champions
and runners-up of the CONCACAF
membership. Mexican clubs have won seven
of the 13 competitions.

The generally accepted format is to divide
the participants into three first round groups.
The top clubs from each group advance to a
semi-final round, which is comprised of two
groups of three clubs each. The winners of
these two groups play each other for the
championship. All rounds are played on a
home and away basis.

Unfortunately, is greatest number of
CONCACAF countries to enter the tourna-
ment is 11 (in 1975 and 1976), just over half
the total membership. This lack of
representation—caused by low funds, fear of
financial loss, and schedule conflicts due to
seasonal variations of domestic league
competitions—has rendered the competition
just short of meaningless. Since the formation
of the Northa American Soccer League in
1967, only two NASL champions have entered
the tournament (Rochester Lancers, represen-
ting the USA, in 1971, and Toronto
Metros/Croatia, representing Canada, in
1976). German-American League members
and other semiprofessional clubs have
otherwise filled American and Canada-
openings. The number of participating clubs
has grown gradually from 10 in 1969 to 20 in
1976, but during the same period of time the
number of countries represented has grown
only marginally from nine to 11.

The participants in 1976 were: AS Italia
and Toronto Metros-Croaia (Canada), Aguila
and Alianza (El Salvador), Aurora and
Comunicaciones (Guayemala), Thomas Un-
ited and Christianburg (Guyana), Espana and
Olympia (Honduras), Olympia and Diriangen

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most entrants sent the same team to both regional competitions.

The original membership of the Confederación Centroamericano y del Caribe in 1938 included: Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Curaçao (Curaçao would later become part of the Netherlands Antilles), Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. Colombia and Venezuela subsequently switched their affiliation to CONMEBOL, the South American Confederation.

Meanwhile, Mexico consented to join the United States and Cuba in forming a North American Confederation (NAC) in 1939; a championship for national teams was held in 1947 and 1949. Mexico and Cuba's allegiances, however, were to its Spanish speaking neighbors, and by the 1950s the United States was out in the cold. The NAC faded slowly from view and at the same time, the CCCF practically ground to a halt. Finally, in 1961, FIFA threw its full support behind a merger of North America with Central America and the Caribbean, and CONCACAF was organized in its present form. Its charter members were: Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Netherland Antilles. Fourteen additional members were acquired before the end of the decade.

The former Championship of the CCCF became the biennial Championship of CONCACAF in 1963, and was extended to include the national teams of Mexico, Canada, and the United States, though the latter two showed little interest. In addition, a Championship of CONCACAF Club Champions was established in 1963, held annually ever since. CONCACAF also oversees the regional qualification rounds for the World Cup and Olympic Games. The soccer tournament of the Central American and Caribbean Games is held every four years under the separate aegis of the governing body for amateur sports in the region, with direct supervision by CONCACAF.

## Confederación Panamericana de Football

The Pan American Football Confederation was a short-lived umbrella organization that sought to unite soccer interests throughout the Western Hemisphere and organize a championship of all the Americas. It was founded at Barranquilla, Colombia, in 1946 by the membership of the South American, Central American and Caribbean, and North American football confederations. The charter members were: Cuba, Mexico, USA, Costa Rica, Curaçao, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Peru, and Uruguay. Haiti, Nicaragua, Surinam, and Brazil joined subsequently. Its headquarters was variously locate din Santiago de Chile and Mexico City.

In 1952, it managed to organize the first Pan American Championship (not to be confused with the amateur soccer tournament of the Pan American Games) in Santiago de Chile. Six countries were invited: the current South American champion (Brazil), the current Central American and Caribbean champion (Panama), the host country, and three random members (Uruguay, Peru, and Mexico). Brazil emerged on top of the table with four wins and a scoreless draw with Peru. Runner-up Chile won four of its matches and lost decisively to Brazil. Uruguay and Peru held their own with six and five points respectively, while Mexico managed only to defeat hapless Panama, who went without a point in five attempts. Panama's goal difference was five goals for and 28 against. Several members of Uruguay's world champion team were not given permission by their clubs to play, and the Brazilian CBD, in a manner characteristic of its involvement in

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affiliation was retained until independence. As a result, the leading Brazzaville club, Cercle Athlétique Brazzavillois, won the Pool championship in 1931, 1937, 1941, 1945, and 1949, as well as the Cup de Léopoldville in 1937. Other important Brazzaville clubs were founded in the early days of the Pool league, among them Poto-Poto (1930), the forerunner of C.A.R.A., which is now one of Africa's greatest clubs.

The Fédération Congolaise de Football was founded two years after independence, and joined FIFA the following year and the African Football Confederation in 1966. The Congo's strong, historical interest in soccer was revitalized after a coup in 1963. Then, prophetically, a national selection won the soccer tournament of the 1965 African Games. Since the 1960s, the Congolese game has developed rapidly. After losing all three matches in the final rounds of the 1968 African Nations' Cup to Congo-Kinshasa, Senegal, and Ghana, and failing to qualify for the 1970 edition, a strong Congo national side prevailed against Africa's best selections and won the eighth Nations' Cup in 1972. The Red Devils' route to the top was difficult: In the first round it placed second to Zaire but above Morocco and Sudan, each a continental power, and managed to defeat the hosts, Cameroon, in a semi-final. In the final, it met Mali with its international class striker Salif Keita, and from a goal by the great attacking midfielder, M'Pelé, completed a second upset in three days by winning 3-2. M'Pelé has since become a star with the French club Paris St-Germain. It was a stunning run for the African championship, one that would not soon be forgotten. In 1974, the Congo placed fourth after winning a first round group that included eventual winner Zaire.

On the club level, meanwhile, one club was emerging as dominant in domestic play. C.A.R.A., or Club Athlétique Renaissance Aiglons, had been saved from extinction in 1952, and in subsequent years adopted a policy of recruiting young players from what is known in central Africa as Mwanafoot, the "football fo the roads and rough ground". C.A.R.A. won the national championship five times in succession and the Brazzaville championship eight times in successino during the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1974, it won the African Cup of Club Champions after defeating the Egyptian champions Mehalla in both home and away legs of the final. In 1975, it lost to Hafia of Guinea on penalty kicks in the quarter finals, and in 1976, its withdrawal after gaining the quarter finals cast some doubt on its future in international competition. Congolese clubs have not participated int he African Cup Winners' Cup.

## Corinthian Football Club

*Location:* London, England; *stadium:* Kennington Oval, various grounds at Leyton, Crystal Palace; *colors:* white shirts, blue shorts.

Founded 1882 by N. Lane "Pa" Jackson, Honorary Assistance Secretary of The Football Association. Troubled that England had won only twice in 12 contests against Scotland since the series began in 1872, Jackson set out to organize a group of experienced English players who, if given the opportunity to play together on a regular basis, might provide a base for the England XI and build a challenge to Scotland's dominance. From a tactical viewpoint, Jackson noted that Scotland's success was built on its adoption of the highly effective "passing game" of Queen's Park Glasgow, which had proved superior time and again to England's more antiquated "dribbling game." The Corinthians sought to perfect this style from the outset.

The game mode. Opposing players must play 10 yards from the ball when the kick is taken. A player who receives the ball direct from a corner kick cannot be offside.

Corner kicks were introduced in England by the Football Association in 1872. The 10-yard rule was added in 1914. Until 1924, corner kicks were "indirect."

See also: Appendix A (*Laws of the Game*, xvii)

**cross** Also known as "center."

A pass to the center of the field from either the left or right flank.

crossbar

The horizontal beam that joins the goalposts. The lower edge of the crossbar must be eight feet (2.4 meters) from the ground, and its width and depth cannot exceed five inches (12 cm).

Crossbars were specifically forbidden in the first Laws of the Football Association in 1863. In subsequent years, a tape connecting the posts became prevalent throughout England, especially on public school grounds, but eventually the tapes gave way to crossbars. The rival Sheffield Association required crossbars by the early 1870s. In 1875, the Football Association changed its rules to permit their use, and, in 1882, five years after the two associations merged, crossbard became obligatory among the F. A. members.

See also: Appendix A(Laws of the Game, I)

cup competition

A knockout tournament or series, in which the winning side is the only team to remain undefeated, as distinct from a league competition, in which the winning side is the team that has accumulated the most points and stands at the top of a table. In most countries cup competition allows clubs on all levels to play one another, regardless of divisional standing in the league. A lower division club has the opportunity to knock out a first division club, and it is this possibility that gives a cup competition its dramatic appeal. Cup competitions are played throughout the course of the soccer season on alternating dates with the league schedule.

Cups are relatively uncommon in most team sports, except in play-off series, but its tradition in soccer is almost as old as the modern game itself. This was the original form of competition devised by English organizers after the founding of The Football Association in 1863. The first cup competition, The Football Association Challenge Cup (FV.A., gcup), was launched in 1871, 17 years before the first English league. As the game spread across Europe in the last decades of the nineteenth century, the knockout format was adopted more readily than league competition, though it gave was gradually to the rising popularity of leagues by World War I. Its prestige in the British Isles, however, has always remained high. In England, the F.A. Cup often draws more enthusiastic support than the First Division of the Football League.

In Wales, where a national league does not

exist, the Welsh Cup takes on a significance all its own. Central European countries, on the other hand, have seldom given their national cups more than secondary notice, even though

Asian Champion Teams' Cup

The regional competition for champion clubs of the Asian Football Confederation membership. Introduced in 1967, the cup was discontinued after the fourth edition in 1971, owing to the financial difficulties of long-distance travel and persistent organizational impediments caused by Arab entrants refusing to compete against Israel, the most successful country in the competition. Like the Asian Cup, it was held in two phases: a preliminary round in which participants were divided into zoned groups, and a final round for winners and runners-up of each preliminary group. The final round was played over a period of two weeks in a designated city.

Israeli clubs dominated teh four tournaments. Maccabi Tel Aviv won twice, and Hapoel Tel-Aviv won once and placed second once, losing to the Iranian club Taj Tehran. Maccabi's second win resulted when Police Club Baghdad refused to take the field in the final.

Champion clubs of the Far East, on the other hand, have participated vigorously; Malaysian entrants, Selangor (Kuala Lumpur) and Perak (Ipoh), were state selections, as were India's entrants, Mysore, West Bengal, and Punjab. Isreali, Malaysian, and Thai participants advanced to the final rounds in all four tournaments. South Korea, Indian, and Iranian participants advanced three times. One club, Bangkok Bank (Thailand), advanced to the final rounds three times, a record. Two South Korean clubs, Yangzee and ROK Army, have been losing finalists.

The most successful club in the competition was Maccabi Tel-Aviv (12-10-2-0-27-6-22). The least successful club was Manila Lions Athletic Fraternity (4-0-0-4-1-20-0). Maccabi's 27 goals is a record, and Maccabi shares the record for most number of games played (12) with Bangkok Bank.

A fifth tournament scheduled for Tehran in 1972 proceeded through preliminary rounds, but the final round was cancelled when participants from Kuwait and Lebanon withdrew for political reasons, and Hong Kong's entry withdrew over finances. The champions of Israel, Iran, South Korea, and Thailand remained.

Winners:

1967 Hapoel Tel-Aviv

1968 Maccabi Tel-Aviv

1970 Taj Club

1971 Maccabi Tel-Aviv

Bangkok Bank—Punjab F.A. 2-0

Maccabi Tel-Aviv—Police Club
(Police Club forfeited) 888

ROK Army—Perak A.F.A. 3-0

Taj Club—Bangkok Bank 2-0

Taj Club—Perak A.F.A. 3-0

Al-Arabi S.C.—ROK Army 0-1

Police Club—Punjab F.A. 6-1

Maccabi Tel-Aviv—Bangkok Bank 4-1

### Semi-Finals

Police Club—Taj Club 2-0

Maccabi Tel-Aviv—ROK Army 2-0

### Third Place Game

Taj Club—ROK Army 3-2

### Final

slug-asian champion teams' cup

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ASIAN CUP

4

zud

## Bernardo O'Higgins Cup

Copa Bernardo O'Higgins.

An irregular series between the national teams of Brazil and Chile. It is named for the father of Chilean independence, who was Chilean-Irish. The trophy has not been awarded since the mid-1960s, when crowded international schedules began to cause difficulties in planning two-leg competitions.

### Winners:

1955 Brazil

1957 Chile

1959 Brazil

1961 Brazil

1966 shared

### between the sticks

See: goalkeeper

### bicycle kick

Also known as "overhead volley."

An overhead kick with a scissors movement of the legs. Perhaps the most exciting of all individual skills, it was made famous in Europe during the 1940s by Carlo Parola, the great center halfback of Juventus and Italy. In South America, the bicycle kick was perfected by Leônidas, the incomparable "Rubber Man" of Brazil during the 1930s. In Spanish, the kick is known popularly as *chilena*, in French *retourne*, in Portuguese *bicicleta*.

see also: overhead kick and scissors kick

## Black Sea Cup

A regional competition between selected clubs from the major cities on the Black Sea: Istanbul, Turkey; Odessa, USSR; Varna, Bulgaria; and Constanta, Rumania. The participants in the first edition (1970) were: Farul Constanţa, Fenerbaç Istanbul, Tchernomoretz Odessa.

### block tackle

See: front block tackle

### blue line

See: thirty-five yard line

Boca Juniors, Club Atlético

*Location:* Buenos Aires, Argentina; *stadium:* Estadio Bonbonera (80,000); *colors:* dark blue jerseys with broad yellow hoop, dark blue shorts; *honors:* Copa Libertadores winner (1977), National Championship winner (1969, 1970, 1976), Argentine League champion (1919 AAF, 1920 AAF, 1923 AAF, 1924 AAF, 1926 AAF, 1930, 1931 LAF, 1935, 1940, 1943, 1944, 1954, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1976).

Founded 1905 by an Irishman, Patrick MacCarthy, and Italian immigrants in the predominantly Italian barrio of central Buenos Aires called Boca. Its formation was an important step in the transition from the British domination of Argentine soccer to the Italian influence that would eventually become the backbone of its game. Boca was the first great Italian-based club, joining the First Division in the midst of the league's first organizational conflicts in 1913. When the breakaway league was formed in 1919, Boca stayed with the "regular" league (Asociacion Argentina de Football) and won five of its championships in eight years. In 1925, it became the first Argentine club to make a tour of Europe, and was astonishingly successful with 15 wins and only three losses. After World War II, Boca was bought by Argentine millionaire Alberto Armando.

Boca is Argentina's most popular and successful club. It has won a record 17 First Division titles, and the Campeonato Nacional three times, more than any other club. Its twice-yearly matches (plus more in the Campeonato Nacional) with archrival River Plate are the highlights of the Argentine season, and over the years have resulted in a remarkably even record, Boca winning a total of 42 and losing 40 in 110 outings since professionalism was adopted in 1931. But Boca's stadium, the "Chocolate Box," has been the scene of many bloody struggles as well, as no club in the top flight of Argentine soccer has escaped the stadium's highly charged atmosphere.

Boca entered its golden era just before the formation of the professional league in 1931, winning the last undisputed amateur championship in 1930, the first professional championship in 1931, another in 1934, and the first league title of the reunited First Division in 1935—a total of four championships in six years. Boca's greatest team of all time was that of 1934-35, which bridged the gap between the Liga Argentina de Football and the Asociacion del Football Argentino. In 1934, it scored 101 goals in 39 games, and the next year lost only three games in 34 outings, scoring 100 goals and allowing only 29! boca's great stars of this period were goalscoring aces Francisco Varallo and Robert Cherro, halfback.

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Juan Evaristo, and in 1935 the Brazilian center half Domingos da Guia. In the summer of 1931, their greatest star of all, Luisito Monti of 1930 World Cup fame, left for Juventus in Italy and became the first of many such heart-breaking departures for Boca fans.

Another fine series of championships were won in the early 1940s, but despite the presence of goalscoring forward Jaime Sarlanga, the legendary River Plate team of this era drew more attention—and deservedly so. The second great Boca team was built during the early 1960s, initially under Brazil's 1958 World Cup manager Vicente Feola, but actually winning its three championships under José D'Amico and the former River Plate idol Adolfo Pedernera. This side included the Argentina as well as Boca captain, Antonio Rattin, the attacking center half of 1966 World Cup notoriety; Antonio Roma, the greatest goalkeeper in Argentina since Tesoriero; and the blonde left back, Silvio Marzolini. In 1963, D'Amico's Boca became the first Argentine club to show a serious interest in the Copa Libertadores, and it changed many minds elsewhere in Argentina by advancing to final against mighty Santos, losing by an aggregate of 5-3 but reaping financial rewards as a result.

In 1969, Alfredo Di Stefano took over the club for one season, and caused a furor by releasing Rattin from the team; all was forgiven, however, when he guided them to their first Campeonato Nacional win, losing only one game in 17. Though Di Stefano left Boca fter only one season, the club won a second consecutive Campeonato in 1970 with Roma and Marzolini still in the lineup. In 1976, it won its first double—a First Division (Campeonato Metropolitano) title and a Campeonato Nacional trophy in the same year, and also became the first club to win the Campeonato Nacional three times. After many years of Argentine domination of the Copa Libertadores by other clubs, Boca finally won its first South American club championship in 1977, but only after a violent ride to the final. In the semi-finals, three Boca players were sent off in their home leg against Paraguay's Liberatad, and a variety of off-the-field acts of sabotage caused a bitter and rancorous series with Deportivo Cali of Colombia. In the final, Boca won the trophy from Cruzeiro on penalty kicks after a scoreless rain-soaked replay.

end

is 12,000 feet. The national team has won the South American Championship only once—in 1963 when the competition was held in La Paz—and has never been a runner-up. None of Bolivia's champion clubs has a winning record in the Copa Libertadores, but the relatively even standard of play among top Bolivian clubs is illustrated by the fact that Bolivia has sent more representatives to the South American club championship than any other country.

Soccer was brought to Bolivia via Chile in the 1890s. Leoncio Zuaznabar is credited for having introduced the game, uniforms and all, to Oruro, an important railway and mining center. In 1896, Zuaznabar founded the first Bolivian club, Oruro Royal Club, and became its first captain and treasurer. The game spread to La Paz, Sucre, cochabamba, and other important mining districts, and in 1908, The Strongest, which remains today the senior club of La Paz, was founded in the two-mile high capital. The Stormers, the first important club in Sucre, was formed in 1914; both the Highlands Players in Potosi and Racing in Cochabamba were founded in 1922.

The mid-1920s was a watershed in Bolivian soccer. The Federacion Boliviana de Fut-bol was founded at Cochabamba in 1925, and the national governing body. One year later, the Torneo Nacional was introduced, a knockout tournament for regional selections and the only truly nationwide competition until 1978. The year 1926 also marked Bolivia's official entrance into international competition. The newly formed national team competed in the South American Championship in Santiago, and lost all four matches to Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Chile. It was an inauspicious start, and Bolivia returned the following year only to suffer the same fate. Bolivian officials reacted strongly to a second humiliation, and kept Bolivian teams out of the competition until 1945.

In 1930, the national stadium was built in the center of La Paz and named for the President of Bolivia, Hernando Siles. In the same year, Bolivia entered the first World Cup in Uruguay. Grouped with Yugoslavia, Bolivia's first European opponent, and Brazil, the Bolivians suffered 4-0 losses to both. Bolivia's only subsequent appearance in World Cup final rounds occurred in 1950, when Uruguay, its only first round group opponent, gave the team an 8-0 thrashing. The country's first relative success in the South American Championship was achieved in 1949 with a fourth place finish in a field of eight.

The domestic organization, meanwhile, was bewildered by extraordinary logistical problems caused by alpine terrain and primitive transportation. The La Paz league, formed in 1914, emerged as a kind of national

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Championship, and was officially designated as Bolivia's First Division. It was dominated until the mid-1930s by The Strongest. Bolivar Independiente Unificada was founded in 1927, and La Paz's greatest rivalry (Bolivar vs. The Strongest) was born. Professionalism was introduced in the La Paz league in 1950 (the name of the league was changed to the "Campeonato Professional de Futbol) and in some of the leading provincial clubs in 1954. With the advance of professionalism, new clubs, such as Jorge Wilsterman and Depor- tivo Municipal, arose to challenge the supremacy of The Strongest and Volivar. A handful of professional clubs from outlying areas were invited to join the La Paz league. Many of the amateur regional clubs were and still are affiliated with mines, some composed entirely of miners, perhaps the best known among them being Racing de Llallagua. By the early 1950s, the number of clubs was so great that three divisions were formed: the Campeonato Professional or 5Primera A" (La Paz League), the "Primera B" (with La Paz and regional sections), and regional third divisions.

Bolivia continued without a national league until 1977, a second watershed year for the Bolivian game. Having won their World Cup qualification group from Uruguay and Ven- zuela, Bolivia faced Hungary to earn a berth in the 1978 World Cup. The unprecedented journey to Budapest resulted in a despairing 6-0 defeat, and in the thin air of La Paz one month later, the well-prepared Hungarians managed to win by one goal. The ensuing disappointment was compounded when the leading clubs of La Paz broke away from the Primera A to form their own first division. The mounting frustration of provincial clubs left out of the top level competition forced the national association to act decisively, and for the first time a Major League of 16 clubs, including teams from all the major population centers, was formed. It was hoped that the new league would eventually lead to a general increase in the level of play, and ultimately, Bolivia; entrance into the mainstream of international competition.

Champions

1914 The Strongest

1915 Colegio Militar

1916 The Strongest

1917 The Strongest

1918 no competition

1919 no competition

1920 The Strongest

1921 no competition

1922 no competition

1923 Universitario

1924 The Strongest

Dr. Gero Cup

"Europe Cup".

Also known as "International Cup," "Nations' Cup," and

Dr. Gero-Pokal—Coppa D. Gero] Coppa Internazionale.

The first major European competition between nations outside the United Kingdom, though the Scandinavian Championship had been introduced three years earlier. This was, in effect, the Central European championship, involving four of the continent's front ranks power and eventually a fifth. The participants were Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland. Yugoslavia subsequently entered in the final postwar edition.

Known first as the International Cup, then variously as the Nations' Cup and the Europe Cup, it was organized in 1927 by Hugo Meisl, the guiding force behind Austria's Golden Era of the 1920s and '30s and the founder of the club counterpart to this series, the Mitropa Cup. There were six editions held between 1927-60. The four prewar competitions spanned a period of two years each, but after the war, crowded international schedules stretched the remaining two editions into six-year marathons. All were played on a home and away basis under a league system. The fourth edition (1936-37) was left incomplete after German troops occupied Austria and Sudetenland.

Against a background of postwar political divisions, the fifth edition was not completed until 1953, by which time the Hungarian national team had established its hegemony over all Europe. The series was resumed in 1955, despite further political obstacles, with powerful Yugoslavia added to the list of entrants, and a new name for the competition was adopted in honor of Dr. Josef Gero, the recently deceased President of the Österreichischer Fussball-Bund. The final match was not played until January 1960. The Dr. Gero Cup is noteworthy for its accurate reflection of the relative balances of power on the playing field that existed during the respective editions, and it is interesting also that Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Italy each gained about 50 points from the six competitions, most at the expense of little Switzerland, which finished last on each occasion.

Winners:

1927-29 Italy

1931-32 Austria

1933-35 Italy

1936-37 not completed

1948-53 Hungary

1955-60 Czechoslovakia

Results

(home legs listed first)

1927-29

<table><tr><td>Austria—Czechoslovakia</td><td>0-1, 0-2</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Hungary</td><td>1-1, 0-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Italy</td><td>0-5, 3-4</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Switzerland</td><td>3-2, 3-2</td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Hungary</td><td>5-1, 3-5</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Italy</td><td>2-2, 2-4</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Switzerland</td><td>3-1, 5-4</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Austria</td><td>0-1, 0-3</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Austria</td><td>1-3, 0-2</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Switzerland</td><td>5-0, 4-1</td></tr></table>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>P</th><th>W</th><th>D</th><th>L</th><th>F</th><th>A</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Italy</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>21</td><td>15</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Austria</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>17</td><td>10</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia</td><td>8</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>17</td><td>10</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>8</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>20</td><td>23</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland</td><td>8</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>28</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

1931-32

<table><tr><td>Austria—Czechoslovakia</td><td>2-1, 1-1</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Hungary</td><td>3-3, 1-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Italy</td><td>1-1, 2-3</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Switzerland</td><td>3-0, 1-1</td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Hungary</td><td>0-0, 2-2</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Italy</td><td>2-1, 2-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Switzerland</td><td>6-2, 1-3</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Austria</td><td>2-1, 1-2</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Austria</td><td>1-8, 1-3</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Switzerland</td><td>7-3, 1-5</td></tr></table>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>P</th><th>W</th><th>D</th><th>L</th><th>F</th><th>A</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Austria</td><td>8</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>19</td><td>9</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Italy</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>14</td><td>11</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>17</td><td>15</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>18</td><td>19</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>5</td><td>16</td><td>30</td><td>5</td></tr></tbody></table>

1933-35

<table><tr><td>-2, 0-0</td><td>2-2, 0-1</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Hungary</td><td>0-1, 2-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Italy</td><td>5-2, 3-0</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Switzerland</td><td>0-1, 2-2</td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Hungary</td><td>1-3</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Italy</td><td>2-1, 0-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Switzerland</td><td>3-0, 2-6</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Austria</td><td>2-4, 2-0</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Austria</td><td>2-3, 0-3</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Switzerland</td><td>3-1, 2-2</td></tr></table>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>P</th><th>W</th><th>D</th><th>L</th><th>F</th><th>A</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Italy</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>8</td><td>10 11</td></tr><tr><td>Austria</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>17</td><td>15</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>17</td><td>16</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland</td><td>8</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>6</td><td>13</td><td>24</td><td>3</td></tr></tbody></table>

1936-37

<table><tbody><tr><td>Austria—Czechoslovakia</td><td>1-1, 1-2</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Hungary</td><td>5-2, 3-8</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Italy</td><td>—, 0-2</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Switzerland</td><td>4-2, 2-2</td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Hungary</td><td>1-2, 3-5</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Italy</td><td>0-1, —</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Switzerland</td><td>2-0, 5-1</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Austria</td><td>—, —</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Austria</td><td>1-3, 3-4</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Switzerland</td><td>5-3, 0-4</td></tr></tbody></table>

1948-53

<table><tbody><tr><td>Austria—Czechoslovakia</td><td>3-1, 1-3</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Hungary</td><td>5-2, 1-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Italy</td><td>3-0, 3-0</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Switzerland2-0, 1-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Hungary</td><td>3-2, 1-6</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Italy</td><td>2-0, 0-3</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Switzerland</td><td>7-4, 4-2</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Austria</td><td>3-1, 0-1</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Austria</td><td>1-2, 3-3</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Switzerland</td><td>5-0, 1-1</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>P</th><th>W</th><th>D</th><th>L</th><th>F</th><th>A</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>27</td><td>17</td><td>11</td><td>Czechoslovakia84131812 9</td></tr><tr><td>Austria</td><td>8</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>15</td><td>19</td><td>9</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Italy</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>$0</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland</td><td>8</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>12</td><td>25</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

1955-60

<table><tbody><tr><td>Austria—Czechoslovakia</td><td>2-2, 2-3</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Hungary</td><td>1-3, 4-2</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Italy</td><td>2-0, 1-1</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Switzerland</td><td>3-0, 1-1</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Yugoslavia</td><td>1-5, 0-0</td></tr><tr><td>Yugoslavia—Austria1-1, 1-2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Hungary</td><td>2-2, 1-6</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Italy</td><td>2-1, 1-1</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Switzerland</td><td>8-0, 5-4</td></tr><tr><td>Italy—Yugoslavia</td><td>0-4, 1-6</td></tr><tr><td>Austria—Italy</td><td>3-2, 1-2</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland—Austria</td><td>2-3, 0-4</td></tr><tr><td>Yugoslavia—Czechoslovakia</td><td>1-2, 0-1</td></tr><tr><td>Czechoslovakia—Switzerland</td><td>3-2, 6-1</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary—Yugoslavia</td><td>2-2, 3-1</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>P</th><th>W</th><th>D</th><th>L</th><th>F</th><th>A</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Czechoslovakia</td><td>10</td><td>7</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>25</td><td>15</td><td>16</td></tr><tr><td>Hungary</td><td>10</td><td>6</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>34</td><td>16</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>Austria</td><td>10</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>21</td><td>21</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Yugoslavia</td><td>10</td><td></td><td></td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>21</td><td>13</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Italy</td><td>10</td><td></td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>12</td><td>21</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Switzerland</td><td>10</td><td>0</td><td>2</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>38</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>

Dominican Republic

Federacion Dominicana de Futbol
Apartado de Correos No. 1953
Santo Domingo

Founded: 1953

FIFA: 1958

CONCACAF: 1964

Affiliated clubs: 72; registered players: 5,531; national stadium: Estadio Olimpico-Juan Pablo Duarte, Santo Domingo (22,000); largest stadium: Estadio Olimpico; colors: navy blue jerseys, white shorts; seasons: March to September; honors: none.

The Dominican Republic, an independent nation under either Spanish, French, or American influence since the early nineteenth century, has historically been the least active Spanish-speaking state in the Central America-Caribbean region, and has fallen behind the level of play in British and Dutch former colonies of the Caribbean as well. Participation in CONCACAF tournaments is rare, and it was not until the qualification rounds of the 1978 World Cup that the Dominican Republic participated in the World Championship, losing to Haiti in the first round by 3-0 in both home and away legs. Although the Federacion Dominicana de Futbol was not founded until 1953, the now defunct Central American and Caribbean Confederation accepted "Santo Domingo's" membership after World War II; as it happened, Santo Domingo never participated in the confederations' tournaments.

Twelve senior clubs participate in the Dominican First Division. Most of the major clubs hail from Santo Domingo and Santiago, but San Pedro de Marcoris, La Vega, Moca, Salcedo, and San Cristobal are also centers of much soccer activity. There is an annual cup competition, but no regional leagues or knockout tournaments have yet been introduced.

drop ball

Also known as "bouncing."

The referee's placing of the ball back in play after he has stopped the game without penalizing one side or the other. The referee drops the ball on the ground between two players, one representative from either side, who are positioned face-to-face at a designated spot on the field. The ball must bounce on the ground at least once before being played.

The Laws of the Game require a drop ball for specific infringements: a substitute entering the field before securing permission from the referee; intentional tripping or striking another player while both players are outside the touch line or goal line; during a friendly, when the crossbar is broken or displaced causing the game to be temporarily suspended; an offense committed before a previously dropped ball has touched the ground; interference of a shot on goal by an outside agent, other than at a penalty kick; and, restarting the game after temporary suspension for any reason not mentioned in the Laws.

See also: Appendix A (Laws of the Game, VIII « X)

East African Challenge Cup

An irregular series between the national teams of Ethipia, Kenya, Sudan, and Tanzania. Uganda and Somalia have participated on occasion. It was introduced in 1966 as the Friendship Cup Competition of East Africa, and is organized by the East African Football Confederation, an unofficial body whose function is to promote soccer in the region.

East and Central African Challenge Cup

A biannual series between the national teams of Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, and Zambia. Zanzibar has sometimes entered its own national team, depending on the state of its fluctuating autonomy with Tanzania, and Somalia has also entered irregularly. It is organized by the unofficial East and Central African Football Federation. Zaire, Kenya, and Zambia have dominated the competition.

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## East and Central African Club Cup

An annual competition for the leading clubs of Kenya, Malawi, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and (irregularly) Zanzibar. It was introduced in 1974 by the unofficial East and Central African Football Federation, whose biggest member, Zaire, has not yet participated.

### Winners:

* 1974<sup>8</sup>Simba Club (Tanzania)

* 1975<sup>8</sup>Young Africans (Tanzania)

* 1976<sup>8</sup>Luo Union (Kenya)

## The East and Central African Football Federation

A loose federation of countries, Kenya, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Uganda, Somalia, Zambia, and Malawi, not officially sanctioned by FIFA, but encouraged by the African Football Confederation, much like its west African counterpart. The Federation organizes the biannual East and Central African Challenge Cup between national sides and the annual East and Central African Club Cup.

## dribble

The act of moving the ball protectively and skillfully with one's feet, usually to advance the ball up or down the field or to avoid being tackled.

The art of dribbling has flourished and withered at different times throughout the history of the game. Its classical era was surely the 1870s, when English clubs, led by Wanderers F.C. and its influential captain, C.W. Alcock, put their emphasis staunchly on attack and fielded a seven-man forward line. Dribbling had been primarily a product of the English public schools, from which most of the contemporary players of the day came. Holding onto the ball for as long as possible was encouraged and became a measure of one's skill as a player. Little attempt was made at passing. With only three defenders in Alcock's basic formation, an enterprising forward could often be seen dribbling the ball with cunning down the length of the field to openly challenge a sparse defense.

Among the greatest dribblers was neeeeeeeiaieicupations of dribbling gave way to the virtues of the short pass, which was to become a mainstay of all tactical innovations to come. The prime movers away from the dribbling game were Queen's Park Glasgow, Royal Engineers, and Sheffield, and by the mid-1870s nearly all the leading teams had followed their lead.

Sine then there have been many skillful dribblers from all parts of the world, but with the adoption of more and more defensive tactics, there are probably fewer now than ever before. The 1930s, '40s, and '50s are seen by many observers as a second high plateau in the history of dribbling, as exemplified by the legendary Sir Stanley Matthews. But the dribbling game of halcyon days will never again be duplicated. Its closest equivalent was seen in the freewheeling play of Brazil between the mid-1930s and mid-1950s, prior to its adoption of modern tactical innovations, and only in South America has a consistent reverence for the art of dribbling been maintained.

See also: offside

East Germany

See: German Democratic Republic

Fire

Ireland, Republic of

unique position of Great Britain as the
birthplace of the modern game.

On the playing field, England has watched
with mixed emotion as the major soccer
countries of the world have emulated and
surpassed its own level of expertise, begin-
ning, in fact, with Scotland in the 1870s. From
the middle of the nineteenth century until the
1920s, there was little doubt that the finest
soccer in the world was being played in the
British Isles, but the rise of Uruguay, Austria,
Italy, Hungary, Brazil, and West Germany, in
succession, put an end to England's presump-
tion of superiority. Nevertheless, few would
argue that the qualitative depth of England's
league can be rivaled even to this day and
English teams have certainly won their share
of international honors.

The history of football in England from the
Roman conquest to the industrial revolution is
synonymous with the direct lineage of modern
soccer as a whole, partly as a result of the
evangelism of British colonists and workers
during the nineteenth century. Other areas of
the ancient Roman Empire, such as France,
Italy, and Dalmatia, also fostered games that
were descended from Roman football, but in
the end, these remained mere tangents on the
genealogical tree. Still further removed from
modern football games are the various
indigenous forms that have existed for
centuries in many parts of the world. Their
resemblance to soccer or rugby is purely
coincidental, though of considerable interest.
For a discussion of football from ancient times
to 1863 see: *origins of the game*.

Modern football, before it diverged into two
separate but related games—rugby football
and association football (soccer)/took shape
in the English public schools (private schools
ot North Americans), and eventually made its
way to the universities, particularly Cam-
bridge. Between 1820 -63, dozens of schools
played according to idiosyncratic rules that
were largely dependent on shapes and sizes of
existing playing areas. Among those most
closely associated with the dribbling codes
(thus influencing association football more
than rugby football) were Harrow, Eton,
Charterhouse, Westminster, Aldenham,
Shrewsbury, and Uppingham. All but the last
two were located in or near London. In 1846,
Old Salopians (Shrewsbury graduates) and
Old Etonians started the first Cambridge
University team with rules closely resembling
the dribbling code.

The first football clubs, Sheffield and
Hallam, were founded in Sheffield, Yorkshire,
in 1857, but each developed their own set of
rules and wavered in their allegiance to the
dribbling code. The first club to devote itself
exclusively to the dribbling game was the
Forest Football Club, founded in 1859 at
Snaresbrook in Epping Forest, about two
miles from the present location of Orient FC

[LC]

ENGLAND

2

tapes in 1876; the first electric lights and
whistles appeared in 1878; and shinguards
were sanctioned in 1880.

In 1871, The Football Association
Challenge Cup (F.A. Cup), was introduced as
the world's first organized competition. There
were 15 entrants: Barnes, Civil Service, Crystal
Palace, Clapham Rovers, Donnington School
(Spalding), Hampstead Heathens, Harrow
Chequers, Hitchin, Maidenhead, Marlow,
Queen's Park (Glasgow), Reigate Priory,
Royal Engineers, Upton Park, and Wanderers.
(Only Queen's Park Glasgow is still in
existence today.) All but Donnington and
Queen's Park were from London or other
parts of the Southeast, and eventually Don-
nington, Harrow Chequers, and Reigate
withdrew. The first trophy was won in 1872 by
Wanderers FC (formerly Forest FC), a club of
public school graduates that went on to
become the first dominant team in English
soccer, winning five F.A. Cups between 1872-
78.

The 1870s was the era of the "gentlemen's"
game, in which most of the leading teams were
either named for or consisted of public school
and university graduates (Oxford University,
Old Etonians, Old Carthusians, and
Wanderers). Geographically, their base of
operation was London or the home counties
surrounding the capital. In the 1880s,
however, enormous changes occured that
altered forever the appearance of the game. In
the North and Midlands, clubs sprang up in
vast numbers, most of them connected in
some way or another with parishes, churches,
or chapels. Nearly all were characterized by a
working class membership, and it was this
new social base that provided the impetus for
an unparalleled rise in the popularity of soccer
in England. By 1879, most of the participants
in the F.A. Cub were located in the industrial
regions, and the planners introduced a series
of regional elimination tournaments to
accommodate them.

With the F.A. Cup of 1882-83, a non-
London based club won the cup for the first
time, and the trophy was not to return to the
capital city for another 20 years. Blackburn
Rovers became the first important club from
the industrial North, winning five cups during
the 1880s. The southern clubs of upper-and
upper-middle-class composition fell by the
wayside and eventually receded into amateur
competition as the rising tide of
professionalism swept the country.

International competition, meanwhile, was
introduced in 1870 when representative teams
from England and Scotland met in London and
played to a 1-1 draw. In 1872, the first official
international between England and Scotland
took place in Glasgow, ending with no goals
scored. This archrivalry, the world's oldest,
has since continued on an annual basis. After

Welsh F.A. (1876), and the Irish F.A. (1880), England instigated the formation of an International Football Association Board in 1882 to regulate differences among the four governing bodies and organize an international championship. The introduction of the Home International Championship followed in 1883 between England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.

The meteoric rise of worker-based clubs in the North and Midlands during the 1880s resulted in the formation of The Football League in 1888. The 12 original members were (in the order they finished the first season): Preston North End, Aston Villa, Wolverhampton Wanderers, Blackburn Rovers, Bolton Wanderers, West Bromwich Albion, Accrington Stanley, Everton, Burnley, Derby County, Notts County, and Stoke City. Accrington is the only team no longer in existence (it folded in 1962); the rest are still important members of The Football League. All 12 clubs hailed from Lancashire County or the Midlands, and all emerged from the great debate over professionalism during the 1880s as fully professional clubs. The number of clubs clamoring to gain membership in the league grew steadily, and in 1892 a second division was added (the third and fourth divisions were added in 1920 and 1958, respectively). The first southern member of the league was Royal Arsenal FC (later to become the famous Arsenal FC), elected in 1893.

Preston North End, which won the first league championship without conceding a defeat, also won the F.A. Cup of 1888-89 and the first double. "Proud Preston" must receive credit for launching competitive soccer on its course; in addition to its extraordinary feats of 1888-89, it was the first club to turn professional in 1882, signaling once and for all the demise of the great amateur clubs of the South. The outstanding exception to the trend toward professionalism was Corinthian FC, founded in 1882 by university graduates, which successfully challenged the best professional teams throughout the 1880s and '90s, though it never attempted to join The Football League. Even Blackburn Rovers succumbed to Corinthians by eight goals to one in 1884, and for much of the 1880s and '90s the English national team was composed mainly of Corinthian players. It was the amateurs' last hurrah.

After Preston, the first dominant clubs of The Football League were Aston Villa and Sunderland. Villa won five championships between 1894-1900, including its famous double in 1897. In 1895, the F.A. Cup Final, that most venerable of English soccer institutions, found its first permanent home at Crystal Palace, South London. At the 1901 final, an attendance figure above 100,000 was

reached for the first time when the London club Tottenham Hotspur drew with Sheffield United to force a replay. Soccer as a spectator sport for all people had arrived. After the turn of the century, Newcastle United achieved fame and fortune with the winning of three championships and appearances in five F.A. Cup Finals. Northern and Midlands clubs continued to dominate both league and cup; and the first London-based league champion did not emerge until 1930 (Arsenal).

As the rules and customs of modern soccer developed during the last four decades of the nineteenth century, the English game was exported to all corners of the world. The first tour of an English team abroad was that of Oxford University to Germany in 1875. Association rules were introduced to southern Africa in 1865, Argentina in 1867, Australia in 1870, West Africa around 1880, Russia in 1887, Singapore in 1892, and throughout Europe during the 1870s and '80s. Association rules reached the United States in 1867, though a club playing under similar rules, Oneida FC of Boston, was formed as early as 1862. The first representative team from abroad to visit England was a Canadian selection in 1891. An unofficial English team toured Germany in 1896, and three years later the first official representative team of the F.A. visited Germany and won all four matches.

When FIFA was founded in 1904 (at the urging of France and Holland), the F.A. rebuffed an invitation to join, dismissing the notion of an international governing body as an unobtainable dream. Actually the F.A. was fearful that the new organization would tamper with the authority of its own international Football Association Board, but when it became apparent that the seven charter members of FIFA were serious in their intent, and at the same time respectful of British authority on matters relating to rules and regulations, there was a change of heart. In 1905, the F.A. became affiliated with FIFA, and in 1906, D.B. Woodfall of the F.A. Council was elected President of the world body. The International Football Association Board was acknowledged as the sole authority over the Laws of the Game, and in 1913, FIFA was given two seats on the board. In 1920, England, as well as the other British associations, withdrew from FIFA, flatly declaring that it would not intermingle with its former enemies of the Great War. They rejoined in 1924, but four years later all four withdrew again over FIFA's sanctioning of part-time wages for amateur players at the 1928 Olympic Games. All the British associations were reaffiliated in 1946.

England's first official international against a non-British team was with Austria in 1908, won in Vienna 6-1 and followed within a week by a second win over Austria (11-1), and defeats of Hungary (7-0), and Bohemia (4-0). Prior to World War I, there were only three additional full internationals with non-British teams (against Austria and Hungary), all victorious. Belgium became the first European country to play on English soil at full international level in 1923. Amateur teams representing Great Britain won the soccer tournaments of the 1908 and 1912 Olympic Games, but this was of little consequence in a country now almost entirely professional in its upper ranks.

Between 1919-29, only 18 of England's 50 full-level internationals were played against continental opponents. Its first loss to a foreign team was Spain in 1929 at Madrid (4-3), but Belgium, France, Sweden, and Luxembourg all fell to England's superiority during the 1920s. In the next decade, England lost seven of its 27 matches with European teams (all away), and its claim to inviolability on the playing field was suspect for the first time. Without membership in FIFA, however, England could not participate in the three World Cups of this period, depriving everyone of a chance to know its true strength. England itself was confident that it remained the unrivaled power in its own game, though its strength, as measured against Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil, for example, was wholly untested.

On the domestic front, the dominant clubs between the wars were Huddersfield, which had risen from relative obscurity in the 1920s to league champions three times in succession, and Arsenal. Under Herbert Chapman, who had previously taken Huddersfield to its glory, Arsenal won five championships and two F.A. Cups between 1930-38, and with Chapman's revolutionary third-back game, the W-M formation, its fame spread around the world. The pervasive, influence of this all-conquering team on soccer was everywhere, and from a tactical standpoint helped England retain its position of international leadership. Chapman, meanwhile, wrote a chapter in English soccer annals by creating the only two teams ever to have won a hat trick of league championships. His reputation as the greatest manager in England's history was challenged only once some years later by Sir Matt Busby of Manchester United fame.

England's prophetic losses to seven continental teams during the 1930s were tempered by a hiatus of international competition during the war years, but the realities of the new balance of power on the playing field began to settle in by 1950. England entered the World Cup for the first time in Brazil, and after defeating Chile, its first South American opponent in international competition, England received the greatest shock in its 80-year history—a 1-0 defeat by the United States. To make matters worse, it failed to recover from the trauma, and was eliminated after losing to Spain three days later. The nightmare, however did not end there. Later that year, Yugoslavia became the first non-British country to gain a draw at Wembley, and in 1951, France and Austria managed to attain the same result. In 1953, undefeated Hungary, already touted as the greatest team ever seen, buried the English by 6-3, and became the first foreign country to defeat England at home. The decisiveness of Hungary's victory was sobering. In Budapest seven months later, Hungary crushed England by 7-1, and sealed the end of an era.

Having been toppled from its international throne, England struggled through the remained of the 1950s. Its World Cup results in 1954 and 1958 were a disappointment. In 1954, Uruguay defeated England in the quarterfinals for the second time in two years, displaying superior ball control skills, and in 1958 three draws against Brazil, the USSR, and Austria, followed by a loss to the Russians. further eroded morale. In 1959, England made a disastrous tour of South America, in which it lost to Brazil, Peru, and Mexico by an aggregate score of 2-8, and on its return home, lost at Wembley to Sweden.

The state of England's domestic game, however, was healthy and vibrant. This was an era of exciting, attacking teams in league and