Copy - Dr. Kissinger

7 January 1965

General Curtis E. LeMay
USAF Headquarters
Washington 25, D. C.

Dear Curt,

I could murder those clowns at the APA for not
letting me know about the reception they gave in your honor.
So I am having to read about it in the papers!

The Air Force can never be the same without you.
You will be sorely missed and with great respect and affection.

I note from the Herald-Tribune that your plans for
the future are not yet fixed, but that you just might take a
few days off. I wonder whether you could keep flexible
enough to come up here and talk to my Defense Policy Seminar
which is now in its eleventh year. The students are in their
final years at the schools of Law, Business, Public Adminis-
tration, plus senior colonel-equivalents from the three
services, plus representatives of State and Defense. We have
had quite a distinguished lot from time to time: Al Wedemeyer,
Tommy Power, Monty, Jack Slessor, Ros Gilpatric (four times),
Frank Bogart, Tom Phillips, Gerry Ford, Cat Brown, Arleigh
Burke, etc. I started this thing; now Henry Kissinger is run-
ning it with me as his wing-man. The subject would be at your
own choice, but I could hope it would be a wrap-up of current
Air Force problems while your mind is still hot on the subject
and the requirement of "coordination" removed. We usually
meet on Mondays from 4 to 6, but we can usually shift to
another day of the week if need be. Most of our "lecturers"
operate from a few scribbled notes on the back of an envelope;
they talk for about an hour and then answer questions, which
may cover a broad field. By this time of year the students
are pretty knowledgeable. The classification is "Academic
Top Secret", which means that nothing said in the room may be

UNIVERSITÉ D'OTTAWA

FACULTÉ DES ARTS

OTTAWA 2, CANADA

UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA

FACULTY OF ARTS

Spanish Dept. Suite 27

January 31, 1965

Professor W. Barton Leach
Defense Studies Program,
Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Dear Sir:

It is my pleasure to take this opportunity to
introduce myself. A lecturer of Spanish at Ottawa U.,
graduated from the Spanish Air Force Military Academy
in 1953.

In a letter of the President of the Air Force
Association, Mr. Jess Larson, I came across a refer-
ence to your Defense Studies Program in which I am inter-
ested.

I would appreciate some information on this
respect,

Thanking you at once for your kind attention,
I beg to remain, Professor Leach,

427 Brittany Dr., OTTAWA 7, Ont.

Copy - Dr. Henry A. Kissinger

8 February 1965

Professor Joseph-Enmanuel Bryan
427 Brittany Drive
Ottawa 7, ON, A1R 0A0

Dear Professor Bryan,

I have your letter of January 31st, convening
the Harvard Defense Studies Program. At the time, I am
semi-retired from the Program which is being operated
by Professor Henry A. Kissinger, so I am turning over
your letter to him for reply. I think it would be help-
ful to Professor Kissinger if he knew the manner in
which you are interested in this enterprise. Are you
thinking of participating in the Program at Harvard?
(We have a number of participants from outside the
United States, and some provisions for fellowships.)
Or, are you thinking of establishing such a program
either at Ottawa or elsewhere? Since the Harvard Pro-
gram was started in 1954, about a dozen others have
been put in motion, including the United States Military
Academy at West Point and the Air Force Academy at
Colorado Springs. Indeed, the responsible officers at
the Air Force Academy have just published a volume on
"American Defense Policy" which seems to me excellent;
I am sure you could get a copy of this, gratis, by writ-
ing to Colonel Wesley W. Posvar, Head of the Department
of Political Science, United States Air Force Academy,
Colorado.

WBL:has

January 25, 1965

Professor W. Barton Leach
Law School of Harvard University
Langdell Hall

Dear Professor Leach:

In Professor Kissinger's absence,
I am writing to acknowledge the receipt of
your letter of January 19th.

He is expected to return to the
office on February 4th and I will bring
your letter to his attention at that time.

Cambridge 38, Mass.

23 March 1965

Dear Henry,

Apropos of our discussion yesterday on withdrawal of some U. S. divisions from Europe, let us see who has the gift of prophecy. You say that some divisions will be withdrawn in this administration, and I say they won't.

In attempting to read LBJ's mind, here is how I think it works or will work. "In the last seventeen years we have made great progress in Western Europe in the matter of security from Soviet attack or even prodding. The whole situation has simmered down perceptibly. If we can do as well in the next seventeen years, we can consider ourselves successful. But another concern which immediately affects me is the 1968 election. If I should withdraw a division or two from Europe, this might have very serious effects on NATO. It also might encourage the Russians to take some aggressive move -- not necessarily a big one, but enough to be a nuisance, probably to force me to restore the divisions, and even conceivably call out three or four divisions of the National Guard. If this should happen, I would be sunk in 1968. I am well aware of what happened in Korea. We withdrew our combat forces in 1949, and the North Koreans struck in 1950. Our withdrawal of these small forces (7500 men) was taken as a lessening of our will to resist attack from the North. Withdrawal of these troops was as clearly the cause of the North Korean attack as you are likely to find clear causation in these intricate international situations. Of course, if I should withdraw divisions from Europe, my Secretary of State would not make any statements as ill advised as Acheson's speech of January 1950; but actions really do speak louder than words, and no words that I might utter at the time of withdrawal of troops from Europe would be very effective. It does not strain our economy to leave the troops there. So I am going to let them stay, at least until November 1968."

It was a great pleasure to see that your younger

Cambridge 38, Mass.

2 April 1965

Dear Henry,

I enclose copy of a letter from Trevor Dupuy
dated 26 March, dealing with the possibility of a nationally
financed program for establishing the study of military his-
tory in secondary schools. This is the matter I referred to
when I asked you at the Godkin Lecture whether you would like
some money.

It would seem to me that this might well be a joint
project of the History Department, the School of Education,
and the Defense Studies Program. You will recall that one
year the Defense Studies Program gave a very successful half-
course in American Military History, staffed by William R.
Emerson of Yale, Katzenbach, Bill Wiseley, and me. I have re-
tained my lectures (Airpower) and I am sure that the other
lectures are available somewhere. This course was entitled
"Emergence of the United States as a World Military Power"
and, therefore, began about the turn of the Twentieth Century.

I have sent Dupuy a copy of this letter and suggest
that you contact him directly.

If other commitments permit, I would be interested
in participating in such a project.

WBL:has
Copy to Colonel Trevor N. Dupuy
enclosure - cpy ltr. WBL from TND 26 March

Professor Henry A. Kissinger
Director, Defense Studies Program
6 Divinity Avenue

C O P Y

HISTORICAL EVALUATION AND RESEARCH ORGANIZATION

2233 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 - Area Code 202/
337-0116

26 March 1965

Professor W. Barton Leach
Harvard Law School
Cambridge 38, Massachusetts

Dear Bart,

I have just had a very interesting luncheon with an official of the Office of Education who offered a suggestion which I think might interest you. In brief, he suggested that there is a need for a college-sponsored institute (as defined in Title XI of the National Defense Education Act) for teachers in secondary schools (and probably elementary schools, too) on the teaching of military history. We both agreed that this idea might well fall within the scope of the Defense Studies Program and the Harvard School of Education.

The name of the OE official is Donald N. Bigelow. His title is Head, Task Force, National Defense Institutes for Advanced Study, Division of College and University Assistance, Dept. of H.E.W. Dr. Bigelow's task is to help dispense with some 32 million dollars each year for short-term or regular sessions institutes, to improve teaching and new materials. This authorization, as I suggest above, falls within the new Title XI of the National Defense Education Act.

It is my understanding that the Office of Education fully supports "institute" activities which help to improve the supervision or training of teachers of history, geography, and modern languages. Dr. Bigelow's thesis was that a better understanding of military history surely falls within the mission of NDEA. To date, nothing has been done in this respect.

I'll be anxious to know your reaction to this idea and, in the meantime, will be thinking about ways in which HERO and Harvard might cooperate in such a venture.

TND/aj

TMD\sj

Executive Director
T. M. Dubny
/s/ Trevor
Sincerely,

the meantime, will be thinking a point may be in which HERO and

I'll be someone to know your reaction to this idea and, in

of military history already falls within the mission of MDEV. To
 languages. Dr. Bigelow's thesis was that a better understanding
 aviation or training of teachers of history, geography, and modern
 authorities "institute" activities which help to improve the under-
 It is my understanding that the Office of Education fully

National Defense Education Act.

ation, as I suggest above, falls within the new Title XI of the
institute, to improve teaching and new materials. This author-
35 million dollars each year for short-term or regular seasons
Dept. of H.E.W. Dr. Bigelow's task is to help furnish some
Advanced Study, Division of College and University Vassatance,
title is Head, Task Force, National Defense Institute for
The name of the OE official is Donald M. Bigelow. Hfa

well 符合 within the scope of the Defense Studies Program and
ing of military history. We both agreed that this idea might
arise schools (and properly elementary schools, too) on the teach-
XI of the National Defense Education Act) for teachers in second-
isa need for a college-sponsored institute (as defined in Title
I think might interest you. In brief, he argued that there
official of the Office of Education who offered an suggestion which
I have just had a very interesting luncheon with an of-

Dear Bart,

Cambridge 38, Massachusetts
Harvard Law School
Professor M. Barton Leach

Sp March 1962

333-011P
SS33 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001 - Ares Code 505

HISTORICAL EVALUATION AND RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
COPY

Law School of Harvard University
Cambridge 38, Mass.

DEC 21 1965

15 December 1965

Dear Henry,

I suppose you have a copy of the
enclosed handout from the GSPA. But I thought
I would pass it on anyway in the hope that
this would be helpful to you in the matter of
financing.

Thanks for your Christmas Card.

W. Barton Leach
Story Professor of Law

enclosure

Dr. Henry A. Kissinger
Director
Harvard Defense Studies Program
6 Divinity Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

RELEASE: MORNING PAPERS OF FRIDAY, DECEMBER 17, 1965

UNIVERSITY NEWS OFFICE

FORD GRANT FOR KENNEDY INSTITUTE OF POLITICS

Plans for a John F. Kennedy Institute of Politics -- a meeting-place for scholars and men from active public service -- move closer to realization with a grant of $2 million to Harvard University from the Ford Foundation.

The Ford grant and another gift of $500,000 to Harvard will assist in reaching the goal of $10 million to endow the Institute of Politics set by the Kennedy Library Corporation as part of the public subscription for President Kennedy's Memorial in Cambridge. The complex will include the John F. Kennedy Library as such (comprising an Archive and Museum) as well as the Institute of Politics. Fund-raising efforts for these institutions are continuing.

When completed, the Library will be turned over to the U.S. Government and administered by the National Archives, while the Institute is to be a part of the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration.

Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York was informed of the Ford Foundation grant in his capacity as President of the John F. Kennedy Library Corporation which is raising funds for the Library

(more)

-2-

and Institute buildings and also for Institute endowment. Senator Kennedy said:

"We are very grateful to the Ford Foundation for making such an important contribution to the work of the Institute of Politics. The Institute is central to all our hopes for the Kennedy Library project, as it is the part of the memorial which will carry on the basic concern President Kennedy had for bringing together the world of ideas and the world of political action, and encouraging young people to become active in public life.

"It is most gratifying to us that the Ford Foundation has chosen to honor President Kennedy's memory by helping to bring this about."

President Nathan M. Pusey of Harvard University said the Ford Foundation grant will enable Harvard, before the Institute is actually established, to begin experimentation with some of the activities contemplated for the Institute.

Prof. Richard E. Neustadt, author of "Presidential Power" and a consultant to the late president, will direct these experimental activities in his capacity as Associate Dean of the Graduate School of Public Administration. It is contemplated that when the Institute of Politics is established within the School, Professor Neustadt will be its first Director.

As its programs develop the Institute will seek to make the tasks and arts of government rewarding for practitioners, compelling

(more)

-3-

for scholars, and attractive to young people. The aim will be to
reach not only qualified Americans but also citizens of other
countries.

Through seminars and conferences this institution will enable
active men, elective and appointive, to come together with professors
and with other skilled observers in a setting free from pressure
where they can exchange ideas, share insights, and consider issues.
Through sponsorship of studies and research the Institute will help
to focus scholarly attention on the policy problems posed or faced
by men of action. Through visitors-in-residence programs the
Institute will help to tap the wisdom of distinguished public men.
Similarly it will help outstanding men in mid-career to sharpen their
perspective on the problems they confront. Through fellowship
programs the Institute will help to broaden the perspectives of
aspiring younger men committed to careers in active service.

By these and other means, the Institute will add new dimensions
to Harvard's programs of education for and service to the realm of
public affairs.

In his forthcoming Annual Report for 1964-65, Dean Don K. Price
of the Graduate School of Public Administration has commented on the
relationships between existing programs of the School and those to
be developed under Institute auspices. Dean Price has written, in
part:

(more)

-4-

"The announcement in December 1964 that an Institute of Politics, founded as part of the memorial to the late President John F. Kennedy, would be established within the Graduate School of Public Administration, was the major event in the School's history since its founding by the gift of Lucius N. Littauer three decades ago.

"As plans were developed for the establishment of the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, which President Kennedy himself had proposed to locate near Harvard and to use as a base for his contribution to public affairs after leaving the White House, the family and associates of the late President decided that his memorial should include, along with the Library, an institution that would continue actively to work toward his ideals of government service by increasing the understanding and cooperation between the scholarly community and the political world.

"After extensive consideration of the type of program best suited to carry out this purpose, and the type of institution best capable of undertaking it, the decision was made to create an Institute of Politics and to provide for its permanent establishment as a part of Harvard University. The decision was announced by Senator Robert F. Kennedy at a dinner held by the Kennedy Memorial Foundation in New York on December 13, 1964, and Harvard's plans for translating this goal into reality were outlined in somewhat

(more)

-5-

greater detail in the report of the President of Harvard University presented in January, 1965, to the Board of Overseers...

"The decision to establish the Institute within Harvard University was appropriate, of course, in view both of President Kennedy's personal connection with Harvard and Harvard's role during three centuries of American history in supplying leaders in politics and public service. But in a more specific sense, and for reasons that run deeper than the personal connections which members of this Faculty had with the late President, the Graduate School of Public Administration is an appropriate location for the proposed Institute. It was the first School of its kind to recognize that to educate men for careers in government it was not enough to teach them skills of management, without at the same time giving them an understanding of the substantive policy issues with which career officials and their political superiors both have to deal.

"In the American governmental tradition, the relation between active political leadership and responsible administration of high competence is not one of complete separation, but of continuous exchange and interaction. If a great university is to make the maximum contribution to the public service, it must reflect, in its own curriculum and the research interests of its faculty, the sensitive and sympathetic interaction between politics and administration that is required in modern government. While this School has always been interested in both aspects of public affairs,

(more)

-6-

the nature of the resources available to it in the past have always
led it to work rather more with men engaged in administrative or
professional careers within the government service, than with those
in positions of political accountability. The creation of the
Institute of Politics will give it an opportunity to deal more
effectively with the more important half of its problem, and to
serve those who, by seeking political office -- elective or
appointive -- undertake to accept the higher level of responsibility
for the affairs of government. ..."

(end)

Cambridge 38, Mass.

JUN 16 1966

14 June 1966

Dear Henry,

This answers yours of June 7th. Erlund Field
is now in Europe, and will return about July 1st, at
which time I believe that you and I and Maury Feld
should make an appointment to examine the Library at
Erlund's house in Weston. He is very proud of it and
enjoys showing it to knowledgeable people together with
the rather intricate catalog on which he has spent much
time.

He intends to donate this Library to the
Defense Studies Program, but he wishes to have it housed
at his residence until his death so that he can
supplement it and continue with his intricate cataloging.
When the donation is made the books of course become
the property of Harvard and anyone connected with the
Defense Studies Program (or, indeed, the University)
may borrow the books or consult them in Erlund's home.

This gift will raise a problem of evaluation
for income tax purposes as a charitable deduction. I
think you should take this up with the Head of the
University Libraries as to how an evaluation is arrived
at. I must say that when I gave my Library to the
Program, I was treated most casually. A figure of $200
was placed on my Library, which I consider to be ridicu-
lously small. I suggest that you take this evaluation
matter up with the Library people fairly soon. Perhaps
an evaluator can accompany us when we visit Field's
Library in his home.

WBL:has

Professor Henry A. Kissinger
Director
Harvard Defense Studies Program
6 Divinity Avenue

APR 17 1967

14 April 1967

Dear Henry,

I called John McNaughton this morning to tell him that unquestionably the issue of substituting professional armed forces for draftees would be raised at his lecture and suggested that he prepare himself for this. Indeed, if no one else raises it, I will. He said that he had not anticipated this but it would be very simple for him to bring the necessary papers and perhaps get a briefing in advance.

WBL:has

Professor Henry A. Kissinger
Director, Harvard Defense Studies Program
6 Divinity Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Cambridge 38, Mass.

APR 26 1966

25 April 1966

Dear Henry,

This confirms the brief conversation I had with
you on April 22. I enclose a copy of a portion of a letter
to Mr. Erlund Field, with reference to this magnificent
library he has dealing with World War II.

I also enclose a copy of Erlund Field's reply of
24 April. Although you are on sabbatical and have many in-
terests to absorb your time, I really think that it would be
worth your while to pay Field the personal compliment of
coming out to Weston and looking over this library. I am
certain that this library could not be reproduced for at
least $10,000, if it could be reproduced at all. Field is
very proud of it, wants to be sure that it has maximum useful-
ness, and concludes that the Defense Studies Program is the
outfit which can do the job.

The Fields live quite close to me in Weston. I
would be delighted if you could come out sometime around
five o'clock some afternoon, which would enable you and me
to go over to Field's house and see the library, perhaps
bringing Maury Feld with you. I consider this a once-in-a-
lifetime proposition. Then we could all come back to my
house and have dinner at the Golf Club which is just next
door. You will note that he is leaving for Europe in three
weeks.

I do not know the channels through which a gift
of this kind should be made. I assume that one starts with
the Director of the University Libraries who is Merle Fainsod.
Obviously, Field wants to get going on this thing, and it
would be a shame to cool off his enthusiasm.

WBL:has
enclosures 2

22 April 1966

Dear Erlund,

This is a somewhat delayed summary of my conversation
with you about (a) your military library and (b) your
antique furniture.

The Military Library

I understand that you want to give this to the Harvard
Defense Studies Program but also to retain it for your use
and supplementation during your lifetime. I believe this is
possible in such a way as to withdraw this library from your
estate for estate tax purposes, but also to give you a
charitable deduction for income tax purposes. That is, you
can give this library to the Defense Studies Program, sub-
ject to your life use. The amount of this gift which will
be deductible for income tax purposes will be the value of
the library, minus the value of your life interest as based
on the mortality tables in the income tax regulations.
There is a limit to what you can give in any one year and
take as a charitable deduction; that limit is a percentage
of your adjusted gross income, as to which I have no
knowledge. But this is something upon which your attorney
can advise you.

.....

Mr. Erlund Field
32 Shady Hill Road
Weston, Massachusetts

Mr. Erlund Field
32 Shady Hill Road
Weston, Massachusetts 02193

24 April, 1966

Dear Bart:

Many thanks for your prompt reply to my
conversation with you relative to my War Library.

I would like to enter into negotiations
with the Harvard Defense Studies Program for the
gift to them of my books. I would like to retain
it for my use and supplementation during my lifetime.
ent

I would appreciate your giving me the
name of the person in the organization whom I should
contact, since I would want his advice on the suit-
ability of this collection. I could make an appoint-
ment to see him at his convenience. Needless to say,
I would welcome your presence at such an interview.

I welcome the suggestions in your letter of
22 April, and will be guided by legal advice accord-
ingly.

If the Defense Studies Program would like
a general description of the contents of the library,
I will make a general outline for them.

You are aware that I am leaving May 18th
for a six weeks trip in Europe. Time is of the essence
only to initiate negotiations with them, the documentation
can wait my return after July 1.

Again many thanks. Please excuse my typing.

LAW SCHOOL
MEMORANDUM

FROM Leach
To Kissinger

Here are two volumes prepared by the boys at the Air Force Academy who are giving a course not unlike our Seminar. These fellows are pretty sharp, and I would suggest that your Staff go over these materials rather carefully to see whether we can pick up any items of interest for our own group. I would be sure that, if you so desired, the Academy would provide us, free of charge, any reasonable number you might require.

When are we going to get out a maximum book of Readings on Defense Policy? Don't you think it's about due?

LAW SCHOOL
MEMORANDUM

FROM Leach

To Kissinger

I thought Hoag was terrific. Why haven't I heard about him before? Don't answer: I'm inattentive or stupid.

SEP 12 1968

Cambridge, Mass. 02138

9 September 1968

Dear Henry,

I am going to be even less helpful to you than I have been before. I fractured my hip and after five weeks in the hospital I am at home but cannot even manage the stairs. The prognosis (as to which I have grave doubts) is that I will be able to get around on crutches and with a wheelchair by Thanksgiving.

At the opening meeting of the Seminar you might
care to read the following as a message from me:

I am glad that a number of lawyers
have chosen to take this course. This course
should not be considered a course in military
policy alone, although that is its primary
purpose. It offers an insight into the
workings of the Washington bureaucracy, and
all of you in one way or another will be con-
cerned with the Washington people. You may
become concerned at a low level or at a high
one, but what you learn in this course, if
you realize that this is one of the objectives,
you will greatly profit. I wish I could be
with you to state this in person but Fate has
otherwise decreed, due to an accident suffered
in my own home.

LAW SCHOOL
MEMORANDUM

FROM Leach
To Kissinger

This is for your fan mail file.

While I was at the University of Colorado in Boulder, I talked both with President Quigg (formerly with Ford Foundation) and Prof. James G. Allen of the History Dept. (and formerly its chairman for several years). Both of them are enthusiastic about setting up a Defense Studies Program, and Allen already has a Seminar in Aerospace Problems.

I am sending to both of them a copy of our syllabus and of the ambitious program at UCLA.

Against a dramatic Rocky Mountain backdrop, University of Colorado nestles in the valley at Boulder.

Students at the University of Colorado
are getting a needed perspective on
the space age through a unique history
course described in this . . .

Letter from Boulder

JAMES G. ALLEN

A pioneering educational experiment, a course
in the history of space, believed to be the first
such campus offering in US educational history,
has successfully completed its pilot phase at the
University of Colorado, at Boulder, under the
direction of Dr. James G. Allen, Chairman of the
University's Department of History. AIR FORCE/
SPACE DIGEST is especially proud to publish this
report by Dr. Allen on the course. He graciously
credits his attendance, at the Aerospace Education
Workshop, during the first World Congress of Flight
of the Air Force Association in 1959 at Las
Vegas, Nev., with sparking his efforts in establish-
ing the course at the University.—THE EDITORS

HERE AT the History Department of the
University of Colorado, we inaugurated
a course in the history of space during
the 1960 summer session. Our experi-
ment was well received, with a respectable student
enrollment, and, gratifyingly, we received gen-
erous coverage in such newspapers as the New
York Times and the Christian Science Monitor
among others.

The course was given primarily in terms of the
history of cosmological ideas and brought space
thought from early times right up to the present.
Introductory lectures indicated how primitive man

SPACE DIGEST / FEBRUARY 1961

at the very beginnings of civilization speculated on the nature of space and included it in his general picture of himself and his place in the universe. As conclusions began to form, man's concepts of space became closely related to other elements of scientific observation. Ideas of celestial mechanics were basic in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Historical attitudes toward space aided the development of many branches of science. Moreover, man's ideas on space were closely related to the general cultural atmosphere of particular periods. All aided the advance from mythical cosmology to the Newtonian concept leading to the modern realistic and mechanistic view of the universe. The course concluded with a survey of present-day concepts, techniques, and practical values of space exploration.

To present the course, the History Department brought two outstanding authorities to Boulder. They were Dr. Melvin Kranzberg, of the Department of History, Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio; and Dr. J. Allen Hynek, formerly Associate Director of the Smithsonian Geophysical Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., and now Chairman, Department of Astronomy, Northwestern University. Dr. Kranzberg gave the historical background while Dr. Hynek covered the present-day aspects of space. There were forty-three students enrolled in the first term and sixty-five in the second.

Students were asked to make written, unsigned comments at the end of the summer session. These were helpful in our future planning and included many requests that the course be extended in length to at least one semester. Here are some of the student comments.

* "I think this course was very useful to me. Previously, I have taken some work in history and philosophy and I have done some reading in the

field of astronomy. But my knowledge was rather unorganized. Now, having come to the end of the course, I think it gave me a perspective about man's ideas about space. The historical approach that you took was easy to follow and sensible."

* "I took this course to assist me in developing a background for science instruction in the elementary school field. I found the course interesting and enlightening."

* "For a person who has scant background in science and philosophy, this course is most interesting. In fact, this course should be required for any person attending the School of Arts and Sciences."

* "As an aeronautical engineering student interested in space, I found the course enlightening and interesting."

* "This is probably one of the most unusual but yet interesting courses I have ever taken. Since I took both [terms] this summer, I have received a general over-all view of space concepts, modern and ancient. It is practical since we are now living in an age when space is playing a leading role, and one can follow newspaper articles with some knowledge . . . as to what is happening and what are the basic mechanical elements underlying these developments. I found it a most interesting course."

* "With more time, much more could be covered. I think that there are more concepts of science which influenced ideas of space than we had a chance to cover."

* "This course served my purpose for a brief history of space. I think that it is tremendously worthwhile, for in the twentieth century we need people who are, at least, a bit informed. . . . I do think that it deserves more than five weeks as it is too short a time to get much insight into the subject. As a semester course the detail it deserves would be achieved."

SPACE DIGEST / FEBRUARY 1961

High Altitude Observatory at the University of Colorado, and soon to join forces with newly created National Center for Atmospheric Research, offers unique collateral study for space students.

* "Being an engineering student, some of the early history of space did not seem too interesting. Galileo to the present seemed to be the best. When I registered for the course I had perhaps the science viewpoint, in that I thought the content would be more along the lines of the history of the 'space' or cosmos itself instead of the viewpoints of historical characters concerning the concept of space."

* "I took this course because I have been exposed to certain of the practical uses of celestial bodies [study of tides, weather, and celestial navigation]. However, I knew little about space or the speculations about it. Since space is becoming more and more important, I thought it might be valuable to gain some knowledge in this area. I was required to have some history this summer, and the title of this course 'caught my eye.' I enjoyed

the course and believe that I have profited from what I learned."

We had some difficulty with textbooks, since the course, certainly in a History Department, was new and unrecognized. The first part was based on *Theories of the Universe, from Babylonian Myth to Modern Science*, Milton K. Munitz, editor (Glencoe, Ill., 1957). This, however, was not entirely applicable, especially for a five-week term. Hynek relied principally upon articles, short descriptive pamphlets, and mimeographed material on current developments. Of particular value was the April 1960 number of AIR FORCE/SPACE DIGEST ("Missile and Space Almanac").

The success of this project was gratifying. The course will be given again in the 1961 summer session, and arrangements are being concluded to make it a permanent offering of the History Department. This is a logical step, as such a course provides a broad historical basis for the program of the High Altitude Observatory at the University of Colorado.

The Observatory, under the direction of Walter Orr Roberts, is widely known in its own right. It is also in the process of joining forces with the newly created National Center for Atmospheric Research, now establishing its headquarters at Boulder. The National Center will become a major laboratory devoted to research on the fundamental problems of the science of meteorology and of the upper atmosphere.

## Why a Space-History Course?

The exploration of space has become one of the most significant factors of the modern world. Its various aspects are major items in our national economy and dominate certain aspects of our foreign policy. Space, with its many challenges, problems, and opportunities becomes increasingly related to our daily life and to our national security.

There are sound reasons for a university to offer a history of space. Many of the ancient and medieval historians, philosophers, theologians, and scientists wrote about space, even though their observations were to a great degree speculative. Astronomical facts were uncertain and all relationships within the physical realm of the earth, the sea, and the sky, were based upon certain assumptions. However, these early scholars did make significant contributions. For example, some of the conclusions of Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) may be regarded as an inspiration to Columbus and the scientific theory he set forth to prove in 1492.

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We know this because, among the many books he read was the Imago Mundi of Cardinal d'Ailly published in 1410. In this volume Columbus had marked the quotation, "Aristotle says that the sea is little between the farthest bound of Spain from the East and the nearest of India from the West." Columbus' own copy has been preserved with his marginal note. The accumulation of reliable facts proceeded slowly, surrounded and limited as they were by the sense of mysticism that dominated the early Middle Ages, finally broke through to the great age of discovery that opened in the fifteenth century, and which was punctuated by the astronomical advances of men like Galileo and Copernicus.

Today, the space era is modifying our concepts, with startling rapidity, and with day-to-day change even of essential things, even of time. We know time as it is on earth, affected and modified by terrestrial forces such as gravity. Time in space, freed from such factors, may well have an entirely different concept and relationship. Einstein's General Theory of Relativity indicates such modifications, and modern speculations, based upon the rapidly expanding knowledge of space, lead to the staggering conclusion that time itself may shrink as speeds approach the velocity of light. This is only one startling example of how the space age will change existing concepts.

These accomplishments in the discovery and exploration of the African coastline were great marvels of their day, even though they received none of the headlines and little of the fanfare accorded related explorations into space of our time. Our explorations of the heavens are indeed comparable to the advances of the great age of discovery. They, too, have advanced by gradual stages; the early ascent of balloons, the continual increase in the ceiling of our airplanes, the hurling of our satellites, rockets, space capsules, and our shots at the moon and the sun.

It is not fantastic to compare these few early navigators to the now so well known geographical landmarks of Africa and of the other continents with those Astronauts of our day who will make the first American manned flight of rockets into space. It does not stretch the imagination to compare those fifteenth-century barriers inhibiting ocean exploration to belts of radiation, zones of disintegration, areas of planetary dust and atomic particles that today are the obstacles to conquer before space travel comes out of the realms of imaginative fiction and into the fact of the twentieth century. Such areas and zones are con-

stantly being discovered or reexamined. These are examples of the modern hurdles requiring solution, not in terms of overcoming superstition, but in terms of an advanced technology. Our assaults on space have proceeded rapidly and within a short time.

Centuries have elapsed since Lucian of Samosata wrote in A.D. 160 of a voyage to the moon in a sailing ship. But it is less than 100 years since Jules Verne added the idea of escape velocity in his From the Earth to the Moon in 1869 and Edward Everett Hale first wrote of the artificial satellite in 1870. It is proper to compare Prince Henry of Portugal with those who, many more in number, now direct modern exploration into space.

All of these historic challenges, of superstition, fiction, and of fact, have been met, and we are now on the verge of an exploration of space comparable to those marvelous events and discoveries of the fifteenth century. It is upon these parallels that a history of space can be based.

With new ideas affecting us, enforcing such great changes in the very fundamentals of our thought, a history of space and an examination of its historical relationships becomes necessary. Such a course is not a fantastic addition to a time-honored curriculum. It is indeed a vital subject for modern education, because it is a great and interesting world in which we live.

No longer will one wish to have lived with Prince Henry and his navigators or to have taken part in the adventures of Elizabethan England and joined with the great captains of that day in exploring the oceans and the land and rivers beyond previously narrow confines. Quite truly are we doing the same things, engaging in the same adventures, and enjoying the thrill of the unknown and the unexplored. Their oceans are our skies and their ships are our rockets and space vehicles. Their problems are our problems. Their dangers are ours. Their accomplishments and successes will be ours also.—END

James G. Allen has been Chairman, Department of History, at the University of Colorado since 1945. He has written frequently in professional journals, especially in the field of British constitutional history, is also author of Naval History and Strategy—A Syllabus and Guide to Reading, and a recent study, entitled Editorial Opinion in the British Commonwealth.

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