THE ADMINISTRATION OF CONFESSION.

93

The Cossack, enraged at seeing himself so outwitted, threw
himself on his antagonist.

"Back!" cried Jashka; and, as Emilian nevertheless
pressed forward, he fired.

The Cossack dropped his right hand; several grains of shot
were imbedded in it.

"What did I say to you? There now, you have it; go
home and have your wound bound up. But stay; you will
blab in the end of my whereabouts; that does not suit me.
See; I'm a good fellow; swear not to tell any one that you
have seen me. Give me your powder and I will give you
back your gun and one hundred rubles into the bargain.
Now, am I not a good fellow? You'll swear, will you not?
Otherwise, I'll shoot you down!"

The Cossack reflected and finally consented to the bargain.
And, in truth, he declared to the physician that he had acci-
dentally emptied a charge of shot into his hand while out
hunting.

THE Priest leads each penitent alone, not two or more at
once, with uncovered head before the image of our Lord
Jesus Christ and begins:

Blessed be our God always, now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.

Glory be to Thee, O our God, glory be to Thee.

Heavenly King, Comforter, etc.

Then the Trisagion: O Holy God, etc.

After: Our Father, etc., Lord have mercy.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Come, let us worship before the King, our God.

Come, let us worship and fall down before Christ, the
King, our God.

Come, let us worship and fall down before Christ Himself,
our King and God.

(Psalm 50.) Have mercy upon me, O God, according to
Thy great mercy, and according to the fulness of Thy com-
passions blot out mine iniquity. Wash me thoroughly from

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my wickedness, and cleanse me from my sin. For I acknowledge my wickedness, and my sin is before me continually. Against Thee only have I sinned, and done evil before Thee. That Thou might be justified in Thy words, and prevail in Thy judgment. For, behold, in iniquities I was conceived, and in sins did my mother bear me. For, behold, Thou didst love truth; the uncertain and the hidden things of Thy wisdom Thou didst make known to me. Sprinkle me with hysop and I shall be cleansed; wash me and I shall be whiter than snow. Make me hear joy and gladness so that the broken bones shall rejoice. Turn Thy face from my sins, and blot out all my transgressions. Create a clean heart in me, O God, and renew a right spirit within me. Cast me not away from Thy Presence, and take not Thy Holy Spirit from me. Restore to me the joy of Thy salvation, and strengthen me with Thy guiding Spirit. I will teach the wicked Thy ways, and the ungodly shall be converted unto Thee. Deliver me from blood (guiltiness), O God, the God of my salvation, and my tongue shall rejoice in Thy righteousness. O Lord, open Thou my lips, and my mouth shall show forth Thy praise. For, if Thou didst desire sacrifice, I would give it; burnt offerings Thou dost not delight in. A sacrifice to God is a broken spirit; a heart broken and humbled, God will not despise. Do good, O Lord, in Thy good pleasure unto Zion, and build the walls of Jerusalem. Then shalt Thou delight in a sacrifice of righteousness, an oblation and burnt offerings; then shall they offer upon Thine altar young bullocks.

*Troparion:* Have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy upon us; we sinners, who have no excuse, bring to Thee, as our Master, this prayer: Have mercy upon us.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

Lord, have mercy upon us; in Thee resteth our hope; be not so angry with us, and think not of our misdeeds; but look down as the Gracious One also now, and deliver us from our enemies; for Thou art our God, and we are Thy people; we all are the work of Thy hands, and we call upon Thy name.

Now and ever, etc.

Open to us the gates of mercy, thou blessed Mother of God, so that we, who hope in Thee, may not perish, but may be freed by Thee from every misery; for Thou art the salvation of the Christian race.

Lord, have mercy.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF CONFESSION. 95.

FIRST PRAYER.

Let us pray to the Lord.

O God, our Savior, who, by Thy prophet, Nathan, didst grant forgiveness to David, when he repented of his sins, and didst accept the prayer of penitence from Manasseh, receive also this Thy servant (handmaid), N. N., repenting of his (her) sins, according to Thy wonted kindness, and overlook all that he (she) hath done, forgiving his (her) fault, and passing over his (her) transgressions. For Thou hast said, O Lord, I have no pleasure in the death of the sinner, but that he should turn and live; also Thou hast said that we should forgive offences seventy times seven. For as Thy greatness is without equal, so also boundless is Thy grace. If Thou shouldst be extreme to mark iniquities, who shall stand? Thou art a God of the penitents, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

SECOND PRAYER.

Let us pray to the Lord.

O Lord Jesus Christ, Son of the living God, Shepherd and Lamb, Who hast borne the sins of the world, Who didst remit the debt to the two debtors, and Who didst bestow the forgiveness of her sins on the sinful woman: do Thou, O Master, remit, forgive, and pardon the sins, misdeeds, and errors, both voluntary and involuntary, known and unknown, which have been done in commission and omission by these Thy servants. And if they as men, who walk in the flesh and dwell in the world, have been led astray by the devil, whether they have sinned in knowledge or ignorance, or have despised the priestly word, or have fallen under the priestly ban curse, or a curse of their own, or have bound themselves by an oath: vouchsafe Thyself, as the good Master, in Whom is no evil, to loose these Thy servants by the Word, and to forgive them their own curse and oath according to Thy great mercy. Yea, gracious Lord and Master, harken unto us, who implore for these Thy servants Thy grace, and forgive them as the gracious One all their errors, and remove them from the eternal torments; for Thou, O Master, hast said: Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth, shall be bound in Heaven; and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth, shall be loosed in Heaven. For Thou only art without sin, and to

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Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer
up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages.
Amen.

## THE EXHORTATION TO THE PENITENT.

Behold, my child, here stands Christ invisible, and He receives thy prayer of penitence: so be not ashamed and fear not, conceal also nothing from me; be not afraid, but tell me all that thou hast done, so that thou mayest obtain forgiveness from our Lord Jesus Christ. Behold, before us is also His holy image, and I am only a witness, so that I can testify all that thou wilt say to me; therefore, if thou concealest anything thy sin shall be double. Consider, therefore, thou hast entered this place of healing, so that thou mayest not go hence unhealed.

After this the Priest proposes to the penitent the questions,
one after another, pausing a little after each, until the an-
swer follows. After he has proposed the questions, which
concern faith and morals, according to the difference of rank
and sex and age of the penitent, and received the answers, he
says:

From all these sins must thou henceforth abstain, since
thou hast received a second baptism according to this Chris-
tian mystery. So make now, with God's help, a good begin-
ning, and do not imprudently return to thy former sins, so as
to become a derision to men, for this is not becoming to a
Christian; but he should live honorably, and righteously,
and godly, and to this God help thee with His grace.

When the confessor has said all this, and again ex-
amined the penitent, and the latter has disclosed all that is
within him without concealment, he says to him: Bow thyself.

The penitent bows his head, and the confessor prays.

## THE FINAL PRAYER.

Let us pray to the Lord.

O Lord and God of the salvation of Thy servants, gracious,
and merciful, and long-suffering, Who art grieved at our
misdeeds, Who desirest not the death of the sinner, but
rather that he should be converted and live, have mercy now
upon Thy servant (handmaid) N.; grant him (her) true peni-
tence, and the pardon and forgiveness of sins; remit to him
(her) all transgressions, both voluntary and involuntary;

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reconcile and unite him (her) with Thy Holy Church through
Jesus Christ Our Lord, with Whom be power and glory as-
cribed unto Thee, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

*At the conclusion of the holy sacrament of confession the Priest pronounces over the kneeling penitent the absolution.*

## THE ABSOLUTION.

Our Lord and God, Jesus Christ, forgive thee, my child N., by the grace and mercy of His kindness, all thy transgressions; and through the power granted unto me, I also, unworthy priest, forgive thee and absolve thee from all thy sins, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.

*At the close the priest signs with his right hand the penitent with the sign of the cross. Then he says:*

> It is indeed right to call the blessed, etc.

> *After this the benediction, etc.*

## THE HOLY COMMUNION.

(a) *The Holy Communion in the Church. (See the Holy Liturgy.)*

(b) *The Communion of the Sick.*

*The Priest takes a part of the Holy Sacrament, puts it into the chalice, and pours upon it a little wine. And then he says:*

> Blessed be our God always, now and ever, and to ages of ages.

*Reader. Amen.*

*After this the Trisagion: O, Holy God, etc.*

*After: Our Father, etc. Lord, have mercy.*

*After this the Creed: I believe in One God, the Father, Almighty, etc.*

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Then: Accept me to-day, O, Son of God, as a partaker of Thy mystical supper; for, I will not reveal the Mystery to Thine enemies, nor give Thee a kiss as Judas; but I will confess Thee, as the thief: Remember me, O Lord, in Thy Kingdom.

Glory be to the Father, etc.

O Heavenly King, Comforter, Thou Spirit of truth, omnipresent and filling all things, Treasure of blessings and Giver of Life, come and take Thine abode in us, Thou gracious One, purify us from every spot, and save our souls.

Now and ever, etc.

We have acknowledged Him to be God, who was born of thee in the flesh, O Virgin, Mother of God; pray Him, that He would save our souls.

Lord, have mercy.

## FIRST PRAYER.

O Lord Jesus Christ, our Master and Savior, who alone, as the good and gracious God, hast power to forgive sins, pardon this Thy servant (handmaid) N. all his (her) past offences, known and unknown, and make him (her) worthy without condemnation to partake of Thy Holy Sacrament, not to torment and not to the increase of sins, but to the cleansing of the soul and body, and to the gift of Thy Kingdom. For Thou art our strength and strong wall, a Defence against the adversary and Cleanser of the sins of Thy servant (handmaid): for Thou art the merciful and gracious God, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory. Amen.

## SECOND PRAYER.

Lord, I know, that I am not worthy, that thou shouldest enter under my roof, into the house of my soul, which is all waste and in ruins, and Thou hast in me no worthy place to lay Thy head. But since Thou wilt be with me, I come to Thee, trusting in Thy kindness. Command me to open the doors of my unworthy mouth, and I shall be satisfied with Thee, the only One; enter into me, and cleanse me from every bodily and spiritual defilement; be my helper and advocate, and make me worthy to stand at Thy right hand. For the sake of the prayers and intercessions of our all-spotless Lady, the Mother of God and ever Virgin Mary, and all Saints, who

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have always been well-pleasing unto Thee: for Thou art highly praised forever. Amen.

### THIRD PRAYER.

God, the Lord, the All-merciful, be gracious unto thee. The Lord Jesus Christ grant thee all good desires. The Almighty God deliver thee from every temptation. The Lord teach thee. The Lord give thee understanding. The Lord help thee. The Lord deliver thee. The Lord protect thee. The Lord guard thee. The Lord purify thee. The Lord fill thee with spiritual joys. The Lord be the helper of thy soul and thy body. The Lord give thee remission of sins, as the merciful, good and gracious One. The Lord and God, Jesus Christ, have mercy upon thee in the day of judgment, and bless thee all the days of thy life. For to Him are due all praise, honor and worship, together with His eternal Father, and His all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

> If the sick person has already confessed, the Holy Sacrament is now given to him; but if he has not yet confessed, the priest bids those present to withdraw for a season, and now questions the sick person concerning his various transgressions, taking great care that he shall not conceal anything, and be silent from shame. After the confession the priest says:

### FOURTH PRAYER.

O Lord, our God, who didst forgive the sins of Peter and the sinful woman because of their tears, and didst justify the publican, who acknowledged his transgressions: accept the confession of Thy servant (handmaid) N. and forgive him (her) as the gracious One his (her) voluntary and involuntary sins, with which he (she) hath sinned against Thee, whether in word, or in deed, or in thought. For Thou only hast the power to forgive sins, as a God of mercy and kindness, and to Thee, the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, we offer up praise and glory; now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.

> After the communion the priest says: Now lettest Thou, Lord, Thy servant depart in peace, according to Thy word; for mine eyes hath seen Thy salvation, which Thou hast prepared before the face of all peoples; a light to lighten the gentiles, and a glory of Thy people Israel.

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After: Our Father, the troperion of the day; and then—
Glory be the Father, etc.

For the sake of the intercessions, etc.

Lord, have mercy.

*In conclusion follows the benediction, etc.*

MORDVA.

AN ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCH.

BY A. J. MIKHAILOVSKI.

Of the Mongolian tribes inhabiting Russia, that called the Ugrian occupies a portion of North Russia, to the west of the Ural Mountains. The Finns and Lapps are branches of the Ugrian tribe inhabiting the western extremity of this area. To the Volgo-Finnish tribes of the same race belong the Mordvans, the Votiaks and the Tcheremese, whose villages can be found dispersed amongst those of the Russians and the Mongolians in East Russia. Of these Volgo-Finnish tribes, the Mordva became more Russified than any, especially that part of it which is known under the name of Terukhans, and which inhabits the government of Nijni-Novgorod. In this place the Mordvins have almost forgotten their own language, and only in a few villages have the women preserved relics of the old Mordvish dress, even these being met with more and more rarely from year to year. Quite a numerous subdivision of the Mordva, the tribe Erzia, also became half-Russified.

The purpose of the present sketch is to describe the Mordva, its tribes and the relics of their religious notions, which are becoming more and more scarce, and more mixed with those of the Russians.

I.

The Mordva, originally occupying the governments of Nijni-Novgorod, Simbirsk, Saratov and Penza, and the northern part of the Tambov government, is at present dispersed over a spacious area, stretching from Nijni-Novgorod to the Caspian Sea, and from the rivers Tzna and Moksha to the

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river Buguruslan. Those divisions inhabiting the govern-
ments of Samara, Astrakhan and part of Saratov, came to
those places in the XVII and even as late as the XVIII
centuries, driven thither by various causes: religious pressure,
privation of the rights of freedom, and the like. The most
important cause of this migration from former places of in-
habitance was the fact of being given in servitude to Rus-
sian noblemen and convents in order to be converted to
Christianity. This occurred as late as the XVI century and
especially after the reign of Ivan, the Terrible (IV).

The Mordva (*) is divided into the tribes: the Erzia, or Erdziadis, in the Nijni-Novgorod (mostly); the Terukhans, the most northern Mordvish tribe (about 13,000 people), which became almost Russified; the Moksha, quite a numerous tribe, living mostly in the governments of Tambov, Simbirsk and Saratov; and finally, the Karatais, a very insignificant Mordvish tribe, living in the Tetushi district of the Kazan government, near the confluence of the rivers Kama and Volga.

At the epoch of the invitation of Rurik "to come and gov-
ern" the country of the Slavonians, some tribes of the Ugrian
or Tchudish race were conquered by the Slavonians, and be-
came Russianized in the earliest existence of the Russian
State. Such were: the Vess, Meri and Moroma (**). But
the name of the Mordva of the same race is scarcely men-
tioned before the Mongols, under Genghis Khan, broke in from
Asia, by which time the names of the other tribes ceased to
be mentioned on account, perhaps, of their entire identifica-
tion with the Russians. The first contact of the Russians
with the tribe of Mordva occurred in the beginning of the
XII century, and probably happened in this way. With the
development and growth of their State, the Russians began
to extend their dominions to the East. In the northern direc-
tion, the scanty population did not furnish good prey, and in
the southern direction, different unsettled tribes had no con-

(*) Jornand, in his "De rebus Geticis," mentions Merens and Mordens, who are reputed to be Meri and Mordva. Strabon's Aorsi are thought to be the Mordvish tribe, Erzia. In the X century, according to Ibn Fazzlans, near the Bolgars a tribe Erzia lived, having the capital city of Arza. (Ibn Fazzlans und andere Araber Berichte, von C. Fraen.)

(**) *Mori*, in the Mordvish and other Tchudish tribes' languages, signifies "man." Therefrom are derived their names of tribes: *Meri*; *Mor-dva*; *Moro-ma*; *Muri* or *Mori* so call themselves: the Tcheremese; *Mort-Komi*, the Zirians; *Ood-Mort*, the Votiaks.

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stant places of residence, and, therefore, could not be easily conquered. The rich cities and villages of the Bolgars (the "Great City of the Silver Bolgars") long ago attracted the Russian grand dukes' attention. But on the way there, the tribe of Mordva had its settlements, living in a fertile country rich in furs and honey. The mutual invasions of the Russians and Bolgars happened quite often, and the Mordva was obliged by virtue of necessity to take part in them, being situated in their way. Having repelled the Bolgars after one of their successful invasions, the Russians established (in 1220) the city of Nijni-Novgorod in the country belonging to the Mordva, in order to collect tribute and to keep a lookout for the movements of the Mordva and the Bolgars. This was the first step of the Russians toward the possession of the Mordva country, which led them to new and hostile collisions. These mutual invasions went on, though not for a long time. The Russians, the Mordvins and the Bolgars had a similar fate; they were all conquered by the Mongols.

To this epoch of the conquest of the Mordva country by the Russians belong some legends explaining the fact. These legends are of two different origins—Russian and Mordvish. The following are of Russian origin:

"In old times, in the place where the city of Nijni-Novgorod is situated at present, there lived an eminent, rich and powerful Mordvin, by the name of the 'Stare.' He was a good friend of another, alike eminent and powerful Mordvin, the 'Nightingale' by name, the same one who is connected with 'Eliah of Moorom,' of a certain legend. The Stare married eighteen wives, by whom he had seventy sons.' They all lived together, were occupied with agriculture, took their herds upon the mountains, and in the evenings drove them to the river Oka to drink. Not far away, in a dell, a magician, the 'Woodpecker' by name, lived, who was alike Mordvin and the Nightingale's friend. The Stare questioned the Woodpecker as to the future fate of his seventy sons. The Woodpecker answered: 'If thy children will live peacefully and on good terms with each other, they shall have possession of these places; but if they quarrel they shall be conquered by the Russians, and then here, at the mouth of the Oka, the Russians will establish a stone city, very, very strong, which cannot be surmounted by any hostile force.' Having foretold this, the Woodpecker requested of the Stare to be honor-

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ably buried. He died at a very mature age, and the Stare-buried him at the mouth of the Oka, on the mountain which became known as the Woodpecker's mountain. Afterwards the Stare himself died, having made his will that his sons should live in peace. The Stare's sons and grandsons did so, but their descendants multiplied and began to quarrel. Then the magician Woodpecker's prophecy was fulfilled. One Saint Duke, Andreas Brogolubski, drove them away from the mouth of the Oka, and another Saint Duke, George, established the City of Nijni-Novgorod upon the Woodpecker's Mountain."

With some difference, this legend exists up to the present time; but this Mordva patriarch of a numerous family, who possessed the mouth of the river Oka, is not called the "Stare," but the "Falcon." At Nijni-Novgorod, beside the Woodpecker's Mountain, there is a hill, called the Falcon. It is remarkable that the unbaptized Mordvins have preserved till now the custom of giving children the names of birds: for instance: Torai (the Goose), Tir-pir (the Wild Dove), and similar names.

Concerning the establishment of the first city in the Mordva country, there is another legend of Russian origin which is as follows:

"From beyond the river Koodma (falling into the river Volga from the right side) a Mordvin Abramka (the nickname of Abraham) came to the mouth of the Oka, and settled on the Woodpecker's Mountain, which was covered with a thick forest. Abramka had fourteen sons and three daughters, and he built seventeen houses in the place where the bishop's house is situated at present. These Mordvins' village was called the "Abramov Old Town," and Abramka himself was the "panock," i. e., the director of the neighboring Mordva (the Terukhans). When the Russians began to prepare for the first invasion of the Mordva, Abramka fortified his town, and supplied it with fences and bulwarks; there were about 500 people. In his town Abramka built two gates: one on the south, broad, with oaken frames, which he filled with earth; and the other on the north, from which the water from the river Volga was brought up into the town. The Russians to the number of 14,000 approached the Abramov Town, and began to make terms with Abramka: "Go away from the mouth of the Oka, and give our prince tribute." "I am not the Mordvins' prince, and am only a selected 'panock,'"

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Abramka answered; “the Mordva would not listen to me. I shall collect all the Mordva people, shall speak to them, and shall persuade all the Mordvins to subject themselves to the Russian prince; only give me four years.” “I shall not give you four years,” the Russian “murza”(*) said, “I give you four days.” Abramka consented to this, and informed the nearest Mordva; in the course of two nights about 5,000 Mordvins crept into his town through the northern gate. On the fourth day of the term, Abramka ordered the earth removed from the southern gate, and the Mordvins threw themselves upon the Russians. But the latter overcame them, and took possession of the town which was burnt and pillaged by them. As to its inhabitants, they were either killed or captured. Abramka was killed. The Russians established their own city, a little above the “Abramov Town.” Having learned about their panock Abramka’s death, and that his town and the mouth of the river Oka were occupied by the Russians, the Mordva rose, and 6,000 Mordvins gathered to avenge their panock’s death and to thrust the Russians out of their country. There were scarcely a thousand Russians. Having ascertained the Mordva’s approach, the Russians came out of the city to fight them, cut their way through the Mordva throngs near the village Stcherbinovka, and went to the City of Vladimir. The Russians were on horseback, and therefore, while retreating, they could not be overtaken by the Mordvins, who were on foot. Having learned of this event, the Russian grand duke himself came to fight the Mordva, conquered their country, and founded the city of Nijni-Novgorod.”

Concerning the same conquest of the Mordva country by the Russians, there is another legend of Mordva origin, which is as follows (as it was written by the parish-priests at the request of Jacob, the bishop of Nijni-Novgorod):

“It happened that upon the Woodpecker Mountains the Mordva prayed to their God, and sank down to the very earth—the-mother(†) towards the East. A murza, the tzar of Moscow was passing by on a stone, down the river Volga. The murza said to his people: ‘You, my truthful, immut-

(*) The word “murza” is of Tartar origin, and signifies a man of high position.

(†) The earth is thought the mother of all living on it, therefore it is called the earth-the-mother.

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able servants, do look at these Woodpecker Mountains: what kind of a birch-tree forest is that moving and shaking, and even sinking down to the earth-the-mother? Do go, you, my truthful servants, and do ascertain, what kind of a birch-tree forest is that?" The servants went to learn, and they saw on the Woodpecker Mountains the Mordvins in their white blouses stand, pray to their God, and kneel down to the earth-the-mother toward the East. The servants returned, bowed low to the murza, and said to him, the tzar of Moscow: "That is not a birch-tree forest which moves, and shakes, and sinks down to the earth-the-mother; that is the Mordva who pray to their God, and kneel down upon the earth-the-mother." The murza, Moscow tzar, questions them: "Why do they stand in circles? and how do they pray?" The truthful servants reply to the murza: "They have in their circles big buckets filled with sweet wort, and they hold big-big sacred ladles; bread and salt are put upon the earth; gruel and omelet are suspended over the fire; the water in vats is bubbling, in which beef is boiling." The murza, Moscow tzar, said to his servants: "My truthful servants, do go, and say to the Mordva: 'Here is a barrel full of silver, and there is another full of gold!' Do give them to the old men, Mordvins, that pray there." The truthful servants went away, and carried the murza's gift to the old men, and presented it to them. The old men received the silver and gold, and gave the servants to drink of the sweet wort. The servants returned to the murza and informed him: "They treated us to the sweet-wort, and fed us with soft bread." After the prayer-meeting was over, the Mordvin old men, having received the murza's money, began to consider, with what they must present the murza, and what they must send to the Moscow tzar. They took honey, bread and salt, put all that on large dishes, and sent them with their young men. Being tired on the way, the young men sat down, ate the honey, bread and salt, and said: "The old men will not know." Then they put into the dishes some earth and yellow sand, and brought it up to the murza, and offered to him. The murza receives the earth and sand with due honor, and crosses himself, praising God: "Glory be to thee, O God, that thou hast given me the Mordva country." Then the murza proceeded to go down the river Volga on a stone. Where he threw a handful of the earth, a town was to be established, and

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where he threw a pinch of it, a village was to be founded.

Such were the legends about the original occupation of
the Mordva country by the Russians. From the time when
Russia was conquered by the Mongols, the Mordva began to
send their tribute consisting of furs, honey, falcons and ger-
falcons to their new lords, and from time to time also warriors
from their young people. Their chief occupations were agric-
culture, hunting and rearing bees. At the invasions of the
Mongols in Russia, the Mordvins led, and also took part in
them; but this did not last long. The Russians, after having
repelled the Mongols, avenged the Mordvins' treachery, and
began to occupy their country more and more, especially after
the XIV century. From that time the Mordvins were obliged
to pay their tribute to the Russians, as well as to the Mongols,
according to which party was dominant. When the Russians
got rid of the Mongols entirely, and began even to conquer
some parts of their domains, the Mordva was subjugated still
more, especially when Kazan was taken by Ivan the Terrible.
Probably that last legend of Mordva origin about the murza,
Moscow tzar, relates to Ivan the Terrible while he was going
down the river Volga to Kazan. He is often mentioned in
the Mordva songs, and to him is ascribed the origin of each
barrow in the steppe. On arrival at a place where it was pro-
posed to spend a night, he ordered each warrior to bring a
handful of the earth, and from the height of the barrow
which was formed thereby he approximatively guessed the
number of his troops. As the Mordvins served the Mongols
as guides, and often took part in their invasions, it was pro-
posed to Russianize them by means of converting them to
Christianity.

Discontented with the innovations that were introduced
by the Russians, the Mordvins availed themselves of any
event which happened to oppose the Russians. During
the so-called "Seditious Time" in Russia, the Mordvins
helped the Poles against the Russians. During the riots that
took place (in East Russia) from time to time, they could be
always found amongst the throngs of the discontented. But
the progress of Christianity helped their pacification very
much, and their Russianization began to be more successful,
especially after the time of Nicon, the patriarch of Russia (the
second half of the XVII century).

In the XVI century, after having conquered Kazan and

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Astrakhan, Ivan the Terrible began to desire to Christianize the Mordva. For this purpose he founded at Arzamas a monastery, the monks of which were very zealous and successful in converting the Mordva to Christianity. Its Superior, Job, especially distinguished himself in this respect; so that, by the end of the XVII century, the Christian Mordva became entirely Russianized. The tsar, Ivan the Terrible, established at the Alatir town a similar monastery of the Holy Trinity, and gave into its possession the Mordva to Christianize. The missionary activity of the Alatir monks, who, having converted their Mordva, began to baptise those in the neighborhood, greatly displeased them. They endured it patiently a good while, but during the Seditious Time in Russia, the Alatir Mordvins wished first of all to settle their own accounts with the monks. They “put into the water” the Superior, i. e., they drowned him in the River Soora. The monks elected another, and his fate was the same. A third Superior was elected, but the Mordva, having burst into the monastery, threw him down from a tower, drove away the rest of the brethren, pillaged the monastery, and took possession of its estates. After that the monastery, at the brethren's request, was subordinated to another monastery, that of Saint Sergius', the archimandrite of which was Dionysius, and the cellarer, Abraham Palitzin. Under the new missionaries' supervision, the conversion of the Mordvins was more successful, some of them coming and themselves requesting to be baptized.

When the patriarch, Nicon, took charge of the Russian Church, he began zealously to convert the heathen to Christianity. Himself the son of a Russianized Mordvin peasant, Mina, Nicon understood very well that the Mordvins' Russianization could not be performed otherwise than by means of their conversion. For this purpose he persuaded the tzar, Alexis Mikhailovitch, to appoint the archimandrite, Michael, archbishop of Riazan. The new archbishop was very zealous, and during the first three years baptized 4,200 Mordvins. In the beginning of the year 1655, he traveled in his archbishopric and baptized the Mordvins, ordering (with the permission of the patriarch, Nicon, perhaps) to hew down the forests and groves and to burn the buildings upon the cemeteries that were reputed sacred by the Mordva. Such decisive measures of the Riazan archbishop were successful; at one place he baptized over 300 people at once. During the last week of

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Lent, while returning to Riazan for Easter day, he stopped in a village, put on the bishop's mantle, and began to persuade the inhabitants to be baptized. At this time large throngs of the neighboring Mordva surrounded the archbishop, driving him out of the village. The fight began. The Mordvins, armed with arrows, wounded Michael, who expired within ten days. His body was removed to Riazan, and was buried in the cathedral. The bishop's mantle, pierced through with arrows and covered with blood, is preserved up to the present time, hung over Michael's tomb.

After the tragical death of Michael, the Mordvins' conversion to Christianity was pursued with greater perseverance. By the beginning of the XIX century it was almost accomplished, and their Russianization becomes more and more complete. This last was helped very much by the following measure: Under the pretense of ameliorating the administration of the Mordva affairs, some of the Mordvins were settled in another place (amidst the Russian villages), and in their place Russians were invited to settle. By this measure the Mordva began to intermarry with the Russians, forgot their own language, and mixed with the dominant population.

Before we begin to describe the state and customs of the contemporary Mordvins, it will be of some interest to say something about their faith and religious cult.

## II. DEITIES OF THE MORDVA.

To call the Mordvins idolators is entirely a mistake; they never had either idols or any other images of a deity. It is true that they revered sacred trees, under the shade of which they sacrificed, but they never acknowledged these trees to be deities. It is true that they sometimes offered prayers to the sun and to the moon, but they always thought them to be God's creatures.

The Mordvins believed in one supreme God, upon whom the whole world, visible and invisible, depends. The Erdzia-dis, the Terukhans, and the Karatais call him “Pas” (God), or “Tcham Pas” (the Supreme God), and the Mokshans: “Shkai.”

About the supreme being the Mordva had the following notions: He neither had a beginning, nor shall have an end; to

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see him is not only impossible for men, but even for the gods subjected to him; he lives in heaven, but how he lives, nobody can know. He also reigns upon earth; the heaven, earth, stars, sun, moon, gods (good spirits), men, animals, and evil spirits themselves, all have their origin from him; he is the maker of all the visible and invisible, the all-giver, ruling all things through gods and goddesses, subjected to him. Tcham-Pas loves his creatures, and he does only good; but in order that men should not forget themselves, he left to Shaitan to create evil spirits, and put them in marshes and pools. If a man does something disagreeable to Tcham-Pas, the latter permits the evil spirit to injure the man. But when the man prays to Tcham-Pas to deliver him from the evil, Tcham-Pas forbids the evil spirit, and orders him to remain in the water. But a single prayer is not sufficient to propitiate the enraged Supreme God. Public and private prayers to the deities subjected to him are necessary, and a good life is still more to the purpose.

The Mokshans' usual prayer to the Supreme God is short: "Shkai, otzu Shkai, verdo Shkai, vanimist!" i. e., "God, the Supreme God, the chief God, have mercy upon us!" The Erdziadis and the Terukhans apply to him with the prayer: "Tcham-Pas (the Supreme God), vel Pas (God of the world, i. e., of the people), have mercy upon us!" To this supreme deity the Mordva applied at the beginning of each prayer, to whatever deity it relates. But to Tcham-Pas himself there were neither any special feasts nor special sacrifices.

Beside this eternal God, the Mordva acknowledged good and evil spirits, created by him. According to their opinion, these spirits multiply like men, and there are plenty of them in the world. Everywhere a deity exists invisibly, either fulfilling an order of the Supreme God, or being appointed by him to rule a certain portion of the universe. This belief was common to all the tribes of the Mordva, but the notions of the Erdziadis and those of the Mokshans, concerning the gods of the second rank and the participation of each of them in ruling the universe, are different.

According to the Erdziadis' and the Terukhans' opinion, Tcham-Pas, intending to create the world, created first of all a spirit who was entirely similar to himself, on purpose that he could help him to create and rule the universe. This spirit was Shaitan. About the origin of Shaitan, the following legend was preserved:

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“Once, when nothing yet existed in the world, save the water, Tcham-Pas was floating along the ocean, and was speculating how to create the visible world and how to govern the universe. He said: ‘I have neither brother nor assistant with whom I could advise concerning this business,’ and at these words, in his vexation, he spit into the sea, and went on. Having floated some distance, Tcham-Pas looked back and saw that his saliva became a large hillock, and followed him. In order to destroy the hillock, Tcham-Pas struck it with his staff; Shaitan sprang out of it instantlly and said: ‘Thou regretest, O Lord, that thou hast neither brother nor assistant with whom thou couldst advise concerning the creation of the world; I would like to be thy brother, if thou pleasest.’ Tcham-Pas was delighted, and said: ‘Be thou not my brother, but my assistant. Let us create the earth. But what shall we make it from? There is nothing but water.’” Shaiton was silent; he did not know from what to make the earth. “Assistant, do dive into the ocean,” Tcham-Pas said to him; “on its bottom there is sand; do bring some; we shall make the earth from it.” “I was just going to say these very words, dear brother,” Shaitan interruped him, for he did not wish to show that Tcham-Pas was superior to him and knew more. And all the time Shaitan persisted in calling him brother, though Tcham-Pas took him only as an assistant. “Then go to the bottom and bring some sand,” Tcham-Pas said; “but, look here, assistant: when thou takest the sand, mention my name.” Shaitan sank to the bottom. While there, on account of his pride, he did not wish to mention the name of Tcham-Pas, and mentioned his own name. Therefore he got not one grain of sand. A flame came out from under the ocean and burnt Shaitan. So burnt, he rose upon the surface of the water. “Dear brother,” he said to Tcham-Pas, “I cannot get a grain of sand, because the flame is coming out of the ocean, which almost burnt me.” “Go again to the bottom, assistant,” Tcham-Pas says to him, “the flame will not hurt thee, provided thou mentionest my name.” The second time Shaitan went to the bottom, but again pride did not allow him to mention the name of Tcham-Pas. He mentioned his own name, and the flame burnt him anew. He rose upon the surface of the ocean, and again appeared before Tcham-Pas with no sand. “Well, assistant, didst thou bring any sand?” Tcham-

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Pas questioned him. "No, dear brother, I did not; again the flame hurt me still more than before." "Didst thou mention my name, assistant?" Tcham-Pas questioned. Shaitan was obliged to acknowledge that he did not mention the name of Tcham-Pas. "Whose name didst thou mention, then, assistant?" "My own, dear brother," Shaitan replied. "Listen to me, assistant," then Tcham-Pas said. "Go to the bottom for the third time, and take some sand therefrom, having mentioned my name. But remember, assistant, if thou dost not mention my name even now, the flame shall burn thee entirely, and nothing will be left of thee." The third time Shaitan sank to the bottom of the ocean, and, fearing lest the flame should burn him entirely, he mentioned the name of Tcham-Pas, and gathered a mouthful of sand without any hindrance. Having risen upon the surface of the water, he gave Tcham-Pas the sand, but not all; a portion of it he concealed behind his cheek. He thought: let my brother create his earth, and I shall create my own. Tcham-Pas began to disperse in the ocean the sand, which, increasing, became the earth. But, in proportion as the grains of sand increased in the ocean, those left behind Shaitan's cheek were increasing also; therefore his head grew like a mountain. Feeling an intolerable pain, Shaitan began to roar in frightful voice. "Why dost thou cry, assistant?" Tcham-Pas questioned him. Shaitan was obliged to confess. "I did not spit out all the sand, dear brother," he says, "and it grows in my head, and therefore I have painful suffering." Tcham-Pas struck Shaitan's head with his staff, and said: "Spit out the sand, assistant, and be healed from the pain." Shaitan began to spit out of his mouth the sand, but so vigorously that the liquid, still not being hardened, the earth was put in commotion, and therefore appeared pits, ravines, dells and valleys; and from these and that he spit out, were formed hillocks, hills and mountains. When Shaitan got rid of the pain, Tcham-Pas said to him: "Nay, thou canst not be my assistant; thou art malicious, and I am good; be thou cursed, and go under the bottom of the ocean, into hell, in the very fire that burnt thee; because of pride thou didst not wish to mention the name of thy Creator. Remain there, and suffer for ages and ages."

The Mordvins add to this legend about Shaitan as follows: "Shaitan became proud before his Creator, and said to him: 'Tcham-Pas! thou art already old; it is about time for thee to

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rest, and I am young; so let thou sit in thy place and sleep,
and I alone shall govern the world that we shall create.’
Tcham-Pas cursed him for this, and Shaitam got into such a
rage that he became forever the most malicious being and full
of hatred in respect to any good deed. For this very reason
Tcham-Pas drove him into a dark abyss.” There are some
other variations concerning Shaitan’s resistance to Tcham-Pas
at the creation of the world.

Afterwards Tcham-Pas created a goddess “Anga-Pattiai”
(literally, “mother goddess”). She is the source of life, child-
bearing, and the fertility of the earth. Thus, only the two
deities have their origin immediately from the Supreme
Tcham-Pas; a good Agna-Pattiai, and malicious Shaitan.
These two deities are of equal rank. If Shaitan cannot be
compared with Tcham-Pas, who created him, in respect to
power, and therefore does not struggle with him openly, he
constantly acts contrary to the good Anga-Pattiai, who her-
self, and through the gods and goddesses produced by her,
conducts the eternal struggle with the evil element, guarding
life and well-being of each creature.

Anga-Pattiai brought into the world four gods and four
goddesses.

Her eldest son was “Nishki-Pas,” the god of the heavens,
sun, fire and light (*). He was also the chief protector of bees.
He has a number of houses in heaven, inhabited by the souls
of good men. As the bees fly around their queen, good men’s
souls fly around Nishki-Pas. Therefore he is called *Nishki-
Pas* (the word “nishki” signifies an apiary in the Mordva
language); as well as “Sheeza-Pas” or “Shee-Pas,” i. e., the
sun-god. To him, as the first child of the goddess Anga-
Pattiai, the name of the god’s son (“Inisha-Pas”) is assigned.

The second son of the mother of gods, Anga-Pattiai, was
“Svet-Vereshkee-Vellen-Pas,” the sovereign of the earth, and
the constructor of human societies (“vellen,” or abridged
“vel,” signifies the world, in the meaning of society), which
are established after the manner of his brother Nishki-Pas’
heavenly apiary. Herefrom he has his name “Vereshkee”

(*) He is also called “Shee-Pas” and “Anga-Pattiai—“Nishka-eva,” i.e., “she who begot Nishki-Pas.” Anga-Pattiai was also called the “Boolamar-Pattiai” and “Boolaman-özais,” i. e., the goddess grandmother, and the grandmother of the özaises (the deities of a lower rank); with this she was the reputed chief protectress of midwives.

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“(ver-nishki” means a woody, terraneous, or rather apiary;
“ver” means forest. “Ver-nishki” has the meaning of an
apiary, situated on the earth and filled with human beings).

The third son of the supreme goddess is “Nazarom-Pas,”
the god of winter, night and noon. He admits into his king-
dom (“nazarom-nishki,” i. e., the dark apiary) the souls of all
the dead. Those of good men he sends to his brother Niski-
Pas, and those of malicious men he drives away into the do-
minions of Shaitan.

The fourth son of the mother of gods, "Voltzi-Pas," is the
supreme god of all the living beings, save men. He protects
men while hunting and fishing,

The eldest daughter, born of the mother of gods, was called
“Nieshkenda-Tevtiar” (the sister of Nishki-Pas, literally :
“Nishki’s girl”). She has also her own apiary (nishki) on
the earth, that of real bees; she is the protectress of bee-
breeding, which was the Mordva’s favorite occupation ancient-
ly. Together with this, Nishkenda-Tevtiar is the goddess of
fate. When a man is born, her mother Anga-Pattiai orders
her to compose the fate of the new-born. This goddess begot
a son “Poorg-ina-Pas” (*), who is also called “Melkazo”
("Verzi-Moochkee-Melkazo," i. e. the person who brings down
the son of the thunder storm’s spirit upon the earth).

Anga-Pattiai's second daughter, the goddess “Paxia-Pat-
tiai,” the protectress of fields, meadows and kitchen gardens,
begot the god “Ved-Pas” (the water-god), or “Ved-Mastir-
Pas” (the god of the water flowing upon the earth), who
governs seas, rivers, lakes, springs and wells.

The third daughter of the mother of gods, "Norrova-Apar-
oochi," the goddess of agriculture, begot "Mastir-Pas" (the
earth-god), who stays inside of the earth and gives this last
the power of producing all plants, especially grains and vege-
tables for kitchen-gardens.

The god's mother's fourth daughter, "Veria-Pattiai," is the
goddess of forests, groves and trees. Her son, "Varma-Pas,"
is the god of winds and air.

Having begotten these children, Anga-Pattiai wished in the

(*) "Poorg-ina-Pas" signifies the sun-god of thunder-storm, tempest. Probably, from it the name of a Mordvin prince, Poorgas, who fought the Russians in the first half of the XVII century, was derived. Poorg-Pas, or succinctly Poorgas, means the son of thunderstorm. The word "poorgah," used in the East Russia language, signifies a snow-storm.

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quickest possible time to fill all the world with good deities in order that each tree, blade, plant, not to speak of men, could be protected by a good spirit that must guard the creatures of Tcham-Pas from the snares of Shaitan. With this purpose she appealed to her father, the supreme sovereign of the universe. Tcham-Pas gave her a steel, and her son, Nishki-Pas, brought flints for her. Anga-Pattiai began to strike the flint with the steel, and therewith for as many flashes as were produced, so many good spirits ("özaises") appeared. Shaitan spied what Anga-Pattiai did, took two flints (nowhere could he get a steel, for it was received by the mother of gods from heaven, from Tcham-Pas himself), and also began to strike fire. As many evil spirits appeared as flashes were produced by Shaitan. Up to the present time Anga-Pattiai and Shaitan strike fire, and therefore the good as well as evil spirits increase from day to day, in proportion as men, animals and plants multiply.

Thus, the chief deities of the Mordva were as follows: (1) Tcham-Pas; (2) Anga-Pattiai, his daughter and the mother of gods; (3) Nishki-Pas; (4) Svet-Verishkee-Vellen-Pas; (5) Voltzi-Pas; (6) Nazarom-Pas; (7) Nishkenda-Pas; (8) Norrova-Aparoochi; (9) Paxia-Pattiai; (10) Veria-Pattiai; (11) Poorg-ina-Pas; (12) Mastir-Pas; (13) Ved-Mastir-Pas, and (14) Varma-Pas.

Beside these deities brought forth by striking fire from the flints by the goddess, Angi-Pattiai, on heavenly steel, an in calculable number of good spirits appeared, which are generally called the "özaises" (by the Erdziadis and Terukhans) and "özxes" (by the Mokshans). By these very names were called the feasts celebrated in honor of the different deities.

First of all Anga-Pattiai struck out flashes which produced the guardians of children, the goddesses "Anga-özaises" who help women at deliveries, and guard children from sickness and misfortunes of any kind. Each child has such a guardian, who takes care for its health. In each house, from the flashes that were struck by Anga-Pattiai, its own "Kardas-Siarkoözais" appeared, who guards men and animals living in the house from evil of any kind, who keeps peace, quiet and harmony in families, and who takes care there shall be abundance in the house in his charge. He has the place of his residence in the middle of the court-yard, in a hollow, under a stone which is called "karda-siarko" after his name. This

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deity is helped by "Yurta-özais," a good spirit guarding the manorhouse and premises, and by "Kölada-özais" (which properly means the birch-tree god), guarding the cattle, and especially the animals, favorites of the goddess Anga-Pattiai; sheep, swine and hens. Upon the "Kölada-özais" the following gods depended, that appeared also from the flashes produced by the mother of gods: "Angar-özais," the god of stallions; "Lishman-özais," the goddess of mares and foals; "Tounsiai," or "Toun-özais," the god of swine, and "Röv-özais," the goddess of sheep. These last two deities were especially loved by the goddess Anga-Pattiai, as swine and sheep were her most beloved animals.

To the goddess Nishkenda-Tevtiar are subjected the "Nishki-\özaises" (they have their origin from the same flashes pro-
duced by Anga-Pattiai), who guard apiaries, bee gardens and
hives; and to the goddess Narrovava-Aparoochi are subjected
good spirits (of the same origin): "Suavtuma-özais," the pro-
tector of ploughed fields; "Part-özais," guarding seed from
worms, grasshoppers, locusts and other pernicious insects;
and "Keret-özais," the god of agricultural implements.
"Ak-Shakal-özais" (a white fish, the spirit protecting fisher-
men) is subjected to Ved-Pas, and the following gods were de-
pendant upon Veria-Pattiai, the protectress of forests:
"Köloo-ozais" (his full name is "Vechkee-Köz-Köldigo"),
protecting the birch-trees; "Tumo-özais," the protector of
oak-tree; "Peksha-özais," that of linden-tree; "Peetcha-\özais" of fir-tree; "Shot-ran-özais," the deity of timber;
"Kören-özais" that of lime-bast, and so forth. In a word,
according to the opinion of the Erdziadis and Terukhans,
deities exist everywhere. Every one of them guards a creature
of Tcham-Pas, the supreme god. Supporting its existence
and carrying on a constant struggle for it with the evil spirits,
Shaitan's creatures, the good spirits fulfill the orders of Anga-
Pattiai, the mother of gods and all good in this world, who in
her own turn is commanded by Tcham-Pas. Besides, the
Mordva worshipped the "atiat," their ancestors. Inhabiting
the "heavenly apiary" of Nishki-Pas, the dead take care of
their descendants, support them in their wants and good ac-
tions, and restrain them from what is bad, warning them
either in dreams or in presages, in case of necessity. There-
from the Mordva had a good many signs and omens. Their
ancestors were prayed to, and sacrifices were offered to them
in the houses as well as in the cemeteries.

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The evil spirits, created by Shaitan, bring sickness upon people and cattle, send worms and locusts to the fields, kill the bees (in the appearance of a bear), destroy hives, bring noxious winds which spoil the proud seed, teach people evil deeds, etc. But the good deities fight them, and this fight is eternal.

According to the Mokshans' notions, the supreme, endless creator of the world, "Shkai," first of all created also Shaitan as his assistant. But Shaitan revolted against his creator, and therefore was thrown down by him from the upper abode, which is situated above the heavens. Then Shkai created in lieu of him, a new deity, "Soltan," who is also called "Soltan-Keriamiat" and also "Mastir-Kirdee," i. e., the sovereign of the universe, who governs the material (and not spiritual) world and the earth (and not the heaven). This is the only god of the Mokshans; all the rest of the deities are females. "Azarava" (i. e., the supreme goddess), the same as Anga-Pattiai of the Erdziadis, is the goddess of life, child-bearing and fertility. She is entirely similar to Soltan, because she was created by Shkai himself. From Soltan and Azarava the following goddesses have their origin: "Yurtazarava," the goddess of the place on which a house is situated; "Koodazarava," the goddess of the house itself and of the cattle; "Baniazarava," the goddess of bathing-houses; "Avynazarava," that of corn-kilns; "Paxiazarava," that of fields and meadows; "Verizarava," that of forests; "Vediazarava," that of rivers and lakes. These goddesses of second rank are numerous: each house has its own "Koodazarava," each field its own "Paxiazarava," and so forth.

The Mordva believed in intimate intercourse of the gods with human beings, save the Supreme God Tcham-Pas, of course, who was too high to enter into any immediate relations with men. It is remarkable that the relations of these gods of second rank with human beings were mostly amorous, like those in the classic mythology of Greece and Rome. Gods came down on the earth, were united to mortals, and carried them to Heaven. Amongst the various legends of this kind, there is one (which was preserved by the Terukhans) about Sirja, as follows:

In one Mordva village a girl, Sirja, lived, who was avoided by all suitors. Though she was pretty and industrious, and had legs thick like beams (a special merit of the Mordva women, their beauty), for some reason nobody wished to

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marry her. Once there was a fearful thunder-storm, and all the people fell down as if dead. When it was over, in the village where Sirja lived, a man appeared, who came from an unknown country, black all over, and with eyes that glittered like fire. He paid his addresses to Sirja, whose father and mother joyously consented to marry their daughter to him, though they did not know where he was from. During the wedding feast the bridegroom did not behave as he ought; he began to dance upon the dishes, spoons, benches and shelves, and therewith to roar louder and louder. When the time came for him to take his newly-married wife to his home, he roared like thunder, the lightning glittered from his eyes, on account of which the house was set on fire, and all the guests fell down as if dead, and the newly married couple disappeared. That was Poorg-ina-Pas, the god of thunder; he flew with his wife, Sirja, into heaven. At present when a thunder storm occurs, the Mordva think that Poorg-ina-Pas in the heaven is dancing upon the dishes, spoons, benches and shelves, just as he did at his marriage. During this time the Terukhans go out of their houses, and looking at the sky, they hold up their arms, and cry: "Softly, softly, thou art our own, as thou knowest." The children born from the gods and the Mordvin women lived on the earth, during their life-time were the princes of the Mordva, and after their death joined their parents in heaven. Perhaps, Poorgas, a powerful prince, who fought the Russians in the XIII century, and who was mentioned above, is reputed by the Mordva to be also a son of the thunder.

Concerning Shaitan, and the evil spirits created by, and subordinated to him (all are males, save twelve spirits of fever, and the thirteenth spirit of small-pox, who are females), the Mokshans thought as the Erdzcadis did, i. e., that the malicious spirits endeavor by all means to do evil to man, and the good spirits, fighting them, avert the evil.

Concerning the creation of the world, all the tribes of the Mordva have a similar notion. According to their legends, the Supreme God created all the visible and invisible. While he was creating, Shaitan in his malice endeavored by all means to corrupt each creature, but Tcham-Pas (or Shkai's) wisdom turned each saint of Shaitan into a good. Thus, when the sky was created, it was clear, luminous and blue. Shaitan threw upon it dark dense clouds. Tcham-Pas did not

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clear off the dark clouds from the sky, but he put in them the rain, and ordered them to water the earth, wherefrom this last became fertile. Tcham-Pas created the rivers with a smooth, clear surface. Shaitan sent the wind upon them, and put them into commotion. But Tcham-Pas built a vessel, helm and sail, and taught men navigation. When Tcham-Pas wished to create the dry land, and the water was already created, he saw Shaitan in the appearance of a duck, floating along the sea. Tcham-Pas ordered him to dive to the sea bottom, and to bring some earth therefrom. Shaitan dived, brought some earth, but did not give all of it to Tcham-Pas, and concealed some in his own mouth. Tcham-Pas created the dry land from the earth brought from the sea bottom; the earth came out of his hands, smooth and even, but Shaitan threw upon it the earth which was left in his mouth, therefrom mountains, stones and ravines appeared. However, Tcham-Pas repaired the injury done by Shaitan, and he put into the mountains gold, silver, iron and precious stones. He taught men to make the mill-stones from the stones thrown by Shaitan, and filled the ravines with water, wherefrom a number of brooks and creeks appeared. Tcham-Pas created the earth covered with excellent trees like a garden, but Shaitan set up the tempest which threw down a good many trees. Tcham-Pas turned the vacant spaces into the fields and meadows, and taught people agriculture and mowing of hay.

Endeavoring to corrupt Tcham-Pas' creatures, Shaitan wished to do the same with man. Tcham-Pas modeled a man from clay, and having not yet put the soul in him, he went for some while into another place to create a soul, and in order that Shaitan should not corrupt the created body, he set a dog to guard it. Originally the dog was a clean animal and had no hair. Shaitan brought forth a hard frost, so that the dog almost froze. Shaitan offered to the dog to cover him with hair in order that he should not be cold, and for this service Shaitan must be allowed but for a short while to approach the man, still soulless, created by Tcham-Pas. The dog consented to this. Shaitan spit all over the man, which produced all kinds of sickness, and began to breathe into him his own evil breathing. Tcham-Pas came back, drove away Shaitan, ordered the dog to wear the unclean hair always, and on purpose to repair the man's corrupted body, turned him inside out, but the sickness produced by Shaitan's saliva,

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remained in him. Then having breathed into the man his good breath, he left him. Therefrom the inclination to good as well as to evil remained in the man. The inclination to good was produced by Tcham-Pas' breath, and that to evil by Shaitan's breath. When the man was thus created, Shaitan said to Tcham-Pas, pointing at the man: "He has one-half of his soul my own, and another half thy own; let us divide all the men in two halves; one-half of them will be thy people, and the other half my own." Tcham-Pas drove away Shaitan, and in order that men, on account of the existence in them of evil, should not become Shaitan's prey, he put in man reason, and taught him to distinguish the good from the evil. From vexation Shaitan began to create his own creatures. He formerly created a good many of the evil spirits similar to himself, only less powerful; then he brought forth different kinds of sickness, and let them fall upon men. These sicknesses are the same evil spirits.

The Terukhans and some Erdziadis of the Nijni-Novgorod and Simbirsk governments relate about the creation of man somewhat differently. The intention of creating man belongs not to Tcham-Pas, but to Shaitan. For this purpose Shaitan gathered clay, sand and earth from 77 parts of the world, and modelled from them the body of a man. But having created the body, he could not give it a good appearance. He modeled it in the shape either of a hog, or of a dog, or of a reptile, and Shaitan wished to create it in the image of God. Finally, Shaitan called the birth-mouse, and said to it: "Fly thou to the heavens; there Tcham-Pas has a towel hung; when he goes to the bathing-house, he wipes himself over with this towel which is hung upon a nail; creep thou in one of the ends of the towel, twist a nest, breed the young mice, in order that one end of the towel becomes heavier, and on account of this the towel will fall down to me upon the earth." The bird-mouse obeyed Shaitan, twisted the nest in one of the ends of Tcham-Pas' towel, and bred up the young mice, and on account of their weight the towel fell down upon the earth. Shaitan instantly caught it, and with it he wiped over the modeled man, who acquired the image of God. Then Shaitan began to animate the man, but by no means could he put in him a life soul. He expended much effort, and finally was going to destroy his creature, but Tcham-Pas said to him: "Go thou, cursed Shaitan, into the fiery abyss,

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and I shall create man even without you." And Shaitan
replied: "Let me stand by, though, when thou puttest in
him a live soul; thou knowest, I was working over him, and
it is necessary to leave something of the man to my share;
otherwise (may it please thee, my dear brother, Tcham-
Pas) it will be somewhat offensive to me, neither will it be
quite honest on thy own side." Here a quarrel took place
between Tcham-Pas and Shaitan; finally Tcham-Pas got
tired of it. "Listen to me, Shaitan," he said; "let us di-
vide the man: his image is from my towel, and his soul is
also of my own, for I had breathed it into him; but his body
will be thy own." Shaitan disputed a good while, but he was
obliged to yield, for Tcham-Pas was incomparably more pow-
erful than he. Therefore, when a man dies, his soul, together
with the image of God, goes into the heaven to Tcham-Pas,
and his body, having lost the soul, loses the image of God as
well. putrefies, is decomposed, and becomes in the earth
the prey of Shaitan. As the bird mouse obeyed Shaitan,
and flew up to the heaven, and twisted the nest in the God's
towel, Tcham-Pas punished it. He deprived it of wings, ad-
ded a naked tail like that of Shaitan's, and gave it the same
paws as Shaitan has.

When men were multiplied (which fact occured very
soon after after the creation of the world), then Tcham-Pas
divided them into nationalities, to each of which he gave
its own language and its own faith. Men believe in one and
the same God, but differently. The Mordva says: As in a for-
est each tree has its own foliage and its peculiar tint, so each
nationality has its own faith and its own language. All
faiths are agreeable to God, for they were given by himself,
and, therefore, to turn from one faith to another is sinful.
There are seventy-seven faiths, as well as seventy-seven lan-
guages, upon the entire earth.

It is remarkable that some of those traditions concerning
the creation of the world by God, and the resistance of the
evil spirit to him existing in other tribes of the Finnish race,
(for instance, the Tchermese, Tchoovashes, Votiaks, and
others), are also shared by the Russian people. Such tradi-
tions cannot be looked upon otherwise than the relics of the
Russian people's faith while in the state of heathenism. It
is quite difficult to decide positively who borrowed these tra-
ditions from whom, the Slavonians from the Finns, or vice

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versa. But it would be most probable to suppose that these notions were common to both neighboring races—Slavonian and Finnish, or Tchoadish, as well; besides some religious practices were common to them both.

The Mordva has also a tradition about man's transgression, somewhat corresponding with the Christian idea concerning our Savior's death. The Mordva tradition is as follows:

The primitive men were in a blissful state. They had a number of cattle; the earth needed no manuring; crops were thousand-fold; there were hives full of bees upon each tree in the forest. Every one was rich, and riches were divided equally. To govern the people, Tcham-Pas sent Nishki-Pas, whom he called his son (Inishia-Pas), and who lived on the earth in the form of a man, and helped them in everything. If any one fell ill, Nishki-Pas healed them instantly; if rainy or fine weather was needed, as soon as men asked Nishki-Pas, he immediately fulfilled all that was wanted. No variance, no enmity, existed amongst the people, prevented by Nishki-Pas, who traveled from one village to another, and taught the people to do right. But Shaitan, in his malice, came to an old man, and having given him the branch of a plant that was unknown till that time, he said to him: "Plant this branch in the ground, and thrust in some high stakes around it, but don't speak about this to Nishki-Pas." The old man obeyed him, and planted the branch, and hops grew up. Then Shaitan again came to the old man, and taught him to make beer and mead, and also to distil whisky from rye. Therefrom drunkenness appeared; the people began to be at variance with each other; there occurred, quarrels, fights, and murders even. In vain Nishki-Pas admonished the people to cease to drink beer, mead and whisky. They ceased to obey him, began to deride him, to spit at him, to beat him, and drive him away from one village to another. In lieu of Nishki-Pas, the people decided to elect a superior over-themselves from their midst, but there occurred quarrels, fights and murders, for each one wished to be a superior, and nobody desired to be subjected. Nishki-Pas endeavored in vain to pacify them. Having assumed the appearance of a man, Shaitan appeared and began to speak to the people: "Why do you endure Nishki-Pas amongst yourselves? He assured you that he is a son of God; he tells lies about *that*; he is the same as every one, only he is not a good man; he forbids you

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to divert yourselves, to drink beer and whisky, and to have
many a mistress, and he wishes to rule over all the people.”
Stimulated by Shaitan, the people seized Nishki-Pas, beat
tortured, and finally murdered him. As soon as they
had killed him, they knew that he was the real son of Tcham-
Pas, for the dead Nishki-Pas got up and ascended into
heaven, having said to his assassins: “You did not wish to
live with me peacefully; now without me, it will be much
worse for you.” Just as he spoke these words the sun began
to give seven times less light and heat; the winter became
seven times more frigid; the earth began to need manuring
and increased labor, and even then it brought forth small
crops, and sometimes nothing at all; cattle died, until a very
insignificant number were left. Then, in order to keep order
among the people, and to examine their disputes, Tcham-Pas
appointed over the people the tzars, princes, judges and other
superiors, and gave them such power over the people that for
bad deeds they imprisoned and chastised, and for very great
faults they punished and executed them as well.

On account of connections of the Mordva with the Christians,
Christianity had a great influence on the Mordva faith even in
very ancient times. The heathens began to celebrate some
of the Christian saints. Thus, Saint Nicolas, the Thauma-
turgus, especially respected by the Russian people, became
from a very ancient time an object of worship, not only of
the Mordva and the other tribes of the Finnish race (the
Tchoovashes, Tchermese, Votiaks, Samoyedes, and others),
but also of the Tartar tribes. He is even respected by
the Mohammedans. The Erdziadis and Terukhans think him
one of their Pases, and they call him “Nicola-Pas.” The
Russian Church celebrates the memory of Saint Nicolas the
Thaumaturgus, twice a year, May 9 and December 6. The
very same days the Mordva celebrates for Nicola-Pas, per-
forming especial sacrifices. They identify him with their two
ancient Pases; in Spring with Mastir-Pas, the god giving the
earth the power of producing vegetation, and in Winter with
Nazarom-Pas, the god of Winter, night and moon. These
transformations of the modern deities into Christian saints
are quite numerous. The identifications are as follows, in
the order of the church calendar:

January 1 the Greek Church celebrates the feast of Basil the
Great, who is thought by some of the Russian people to be

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the protector of swine; in North and East Russia a custom is
preserved to prepare a hog's head for the table this day.
The same day the Mordva prays to his god of swine, Toun-
özais, and even calls him Basil (Velki-Vassai) in his prayers.
January 28, the day of Ephraim the Syrian, and also Novem-
ber 1, the day of Cosmus and Damian, in country villages
there is a custom to "bait the hobgoblin," (the house demon);
some gruel is left for him on the oven—a custom which was
preserved from the times of heathenism, of course. The very
same day in his house the Mordva prays and sacrifices to
Yurtova özais (in January) and Kardas-Siarko-ozais, the gods
of premises and houses. The Erdziadis, in their prayers to
the latter, mention the names of Cosmus and Damian. The
same day a hen is sacrificed to the deity of houses, the custom
reminding one of the popular superstition that Cosmus's and
Damian's day is hens' saint's day, and a roasted chicken
must be on the table. April 3, the day of Nicetas, the Con-
fessor of Faith, the Russian fishermen draw a strange
horse to treat the "Watery," (i. e., spirit or demon). At the
same time the Mordva prays to Ak-Shakal-özais, the god of
fishing, drowning a horse in a river or lake. April 17, or on
the next Friday following, the Mordva prays to Nishkenda-
Tevtiar, the goddess of bee breeding. The same day the Rus-
sian Christians pray to St. Zosimus, the protector of bees.
St. George the Vanquisher, (April 23) is identified by the
Mordva with Svet-Ureshkee-Ullan-Pas, the god of earth and
plants. The Terukhans pray to him the day following, that
of the Spring Nicolas, and call him "the father of Nicola-
Pas." May 9 they prayed to the god of water, and the 10th
of the same month to the god of the earth. It is remarkable
that May 10, according to the Russian superstitions, is the
saint's day of the earth. The day of the prophet Jeremiah
(May 1), whom the Russian people think the protector of
agricultural implements, and call "Eremy, the Putter of
Horses to the Teams," the Mordva prays to Keret-özais, the
god of agricultural implements. The day of John the Baptist
(June 24) the Mordva has a great celebration for Nishki-Pas,
the god of heaven, sun, light and heat, whom they identify
now with John the Baptist, now with our Savior. The day
of Eliah the Prophet (July 20) the Mordvins pray to Poor-
gina-Pas, the god of thunder, and identify him with this
prophet, to whom the Russian people ascribe the possession

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of thunder and lightning. The Mordvins identify their gods of the breeding of horses, Angar-özais and Lishman-özais, with the saints, Florus and Laurus, (August 18), and on the day sacred to the memory of those saints, pray for their horses; during these prayers only men are present, and women are not allowed to come. The same custom is observed at the horse feast of the Russians. September 15, the day of Nicetas, in the Russian villages they bribe the "Watery," tearing off the head of a goose, which is thrown into the water afterwards. The same day, or on Friday following, the Mordva performs the same ceremony of sacrifice to Ved-Mastir-Pas, the god of water. This god is identified with Saint Nicetas, who, in the Russian villages, is called the goose protector and goose killer. October 29 is the feast of shepherds; this day the Russians pray for sheep to Saint Anastasia, who is therefore called the "sheep protectress." The Mordva, identifying this saint with their goddess, Röv-özais, the protectress of sheep, pray to her the same day, October 29, or on the following Friday. November 8 is the day of St. Michael, the Archangel; the same day the Terukhans and Erdziadis have a great feast in honor of the Voltzi-Pas, the god of hunting. They identify this god with St. Michael the Archangel. On Christmas day the Mordva prayed to Anga-Pattiai (another thanksgiving to her took place on Friday before the Trinity Sunday), who was identified with the most holy Virgin, and to Nishki-Pas, otherwise Inisha-Pas, (literally, the son of God). The following day they celebrated in honor of the same goddess as the protectress of children and lying-in women. The christened Mordva identified Anga-Pattiai with the midwife Salomia, an apocryphal person, who is thought to have helped the Most Holy Virgin at the delivery of our Savior.

The prayers to deceased ancestors in the cemeteries took place the very same days that were instituted by the Greek Church to pray for the dead, i. e., Friday (Saturday of the christened Mordva), of the last week but one before Lent, and of the week after Low Sunday, and besides September 1 and October 1.

* In the apocryphal gospels ("Protevangil of James") Salomia is mentioned. Up to the time of correcting the books of divine services by the patriarch Nicon (in the XVII. century), December 26. the name of the midwife Salomia was mentioned during the service. The simple Russian believe in the midwife Salomia up to the present time; they pray to her at deliveries.

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When the Slavonians became Christians they adapted their god of thunder, Peroon, to Eliah the prophet, and their god of cattle, Voloss, to St. Blax, and so forth, as the Mordva adapted their deities to the Christian saints before becoming Christians. Thus their Supreme God, Tcham-Pas, was identified by the Mordvins with the Lord of Sabaoth, and in their prayers to him they call him the "Holy Lord of Savagof." *

The Mokshans' ancient deities are also identified with the Christian God and saints. Thus, Shkai is identified with the Lord of Sabaoth; Soltan with our Saviour; Azarava with the Virgin Mary; Koodagarava with the eve of the Epiphany (January 5), whom they think to be a saintly woman. Baniazarava is identified with the Great Thursday, who is reputed by them to be a saintly woman also; Avyn-Azarava with St. Thomas the Apostle, for whom as a goddess they celebrate the Low Sunday. St. Nicolas the Thaumaturgus, appears a separate god of the Mokshans, under the name of Nicola-zarava, for whom they celebrate December 6, and whom they think to be a goddess, and not a god.

ART CENTERS AND EPOCHS IN THE UNITED STATES.

BY E. VALE BLAKE.

THE first collection of paintings ever made within the federated States of North America was by an artist named John Watson. He was not located in the metropolis, nor in Boston or Philadelphia, or any other large city; but, in a small seaport on the Jersey shore—at Perth Amboy! This seems sufficiently amusing now, but in 1715 not only Perth Amboy, but other insignificant and forgotten places seriously hoped to rival New York, and were very much

*The same occurred with other nations as well. Thus, the Tcheremese Supreme God and creator of the universe, "Yuma-Lack," is identified with the Lord of Sabaoth, and is called "osh Yuma Koorooja" (literally, "the gray-haired God the Almighty.") The word "gray-haired" corresponds with the biblical expression "Ancient of days"). The Tcheremese goddess of life, "Yu-man-aba" (literally, the Mother of God), is identified with the Virgin Mary, and so forth.

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surprised a few years later to find themselves commercially dead. But so it happened that Jersey has the honor of having sheltered this earliest gallery of paintings while their original owner lived. But John Watson, having survived to the age of eighty-three, died, and left his pictures, and his business of portrait painting to a nephew, who, taking the unpopular side in politics, was obliged to leave rather hastily one fine day in 1776, and the Jersey yeomen, having more sound patriotism in their souls than love for art, sacked the building of the runaway traitor, and the paintings were either destroyed or scattered beyond chance of recovery.

It was a long time before any other attempt was made to form a collection. Art in the United States had a very blank youth. The imaginative faculty, as essential to the artist as to the poet, was in a great measure turned toward the invention of useful machines rather than to the fine arts, for which no great public existed; though there was not lacking individuals to appreciate the dawning talent of the Republic. The two American inventors, perhaps better known abroad as such, than any of our artists by their works, namely, Robert Fulton, the father of steam navigation, and S. F. B. Morse, whose name is inseparably connected with the success of the electric telegraph, both commenced life as painters, and the latter was the first President of the National Academy of Design.

That portrait painting should be the first branch of the fine arts to be cultivated in the young nation was but natural. People who have little taste and less knowledge of drawing and colors, will willingly pay for a child's likeness, a friend's miniature, a parent's portrait, when they would refuse to purchase a landscape or an historical scene. The pursuit of this branch of the fine arts before all others is discerned in the first glimmerings which we gain of our early artists; from that nameless portrait painter whom Cotton Mather deigns but to mention casually as a "limner," until we reach the generous patron, Bishop Berkeley of Newport, who caused himself and his family to be painted life size and full length, on one large canvas, by the artist Symbert, in 1750. This work, which has now become of historical value, was exhibited a few years ago at an art exhibition in Brooklyn; the colors were well preserved, and

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the countenances so individual and characteristic, that they
could scarcely have been other than good likenesses. There
was a certain degree of angularity and stiffness in the female
figures, but so there was probably in the originals of that
date.

Such preliminary instances of good work were to be found
here and there during the latter half of the eighteenth
century, but the first real epoch in American art was brought
about by the simultaneous appearance of Benj. West, of
Philadelphia, and John Singleton Copley, of Boston; these
two remarkable artists were born in the same year, 1738,
and may be said to have formally introduced Western art to
the knowledge of Europe. Both commenced as portrait
painters in early youth—West, as a mere child. His first
brushes were made of hairs extracted from the domestic cat,
his blacks and whites were ground charcoal and chalk, his
blue abstracted from his mother’s laundry, and he obtained
some red and yellow clays from friendly Indians in the
neighborhood of his home, which was at some distance from
the city. Yet this self-taught lad, who had never seen a pic-
ture when he commenced, became eventually President of
the Royal Academy in London, and produced large historical
paintings, such as “Death on the Pale Horse,” “Christ
Healing the Sick,” &c., which have received the praise of
three generations since they were executed. His confrère,
Copley, has scarcely had a superior in painting the human
countenance. His portraits, often full length, are now sought
for as treasures of art by connoisseurs and art collectors in
both hemispheres.

The great influence of West on his own and succeeding
times we do not attribute so much to the superiority of his
paintings—for doubtless there were many at that era in France
and England who excelled him in technical skill—but to the
fact that he created an epoch in art, by his refusal to follow
the conventional custom of representing his historical heroes
“in the nude,” or what was then called the classic style. This
point was fought out and won by West on the occasion of his
painting “The Death of Wolfe,” which was executed in
London, after he had definitely taken up his residence there.
The dying hero was represented in the same military costume
in which he fell. Sir Joshua Reynolds, then at the zenith of
his fame, strongly opposed this realism, denouncing it as

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"barbarous," and the phrase was reechoed by all the classical school. West replied "that the event to be commemorated had happened in the year 1758, and in a region of the world unknown to the Greeks and Romans, and at a period of time when no warrior who wore the classic costume existed." This picture was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and the popular verdict not only sustained the innovation but loudly applauded it, and Reynolds was forced to confess—"West has conquered: I foresee that this picture will not only become one of the most popular, but will occasion a revolution in art." And so it did. The spell of classicism was broken, and henceforth we are permitted to see historical personages as they appeared to their fellow men while living. Though residing so long abroad, West never lost the American spirit of invention—may we not say common sense—which he took with him.

Up to the commencement of the present century there were no organized schools of art in this country. Students were therefore obliged to cross the seas if they would learn European methods. Many did so, others worked their way up to fame and fortune by native genius, industry and perseverance. The three most prominent connecting links between the old century and the present, were Gilbert Stuart, Thos. Sully and the Newport miniature painter, Malbone. Stuart became famous as a colorist; and Sully excelled in portraying the delicate traits of American female beauty. Stuart's colors were not only considered exceptionally good when first applied, but they have endured remarkably well, one explanation of which probably is that he did not overlay one with another to obtain modifications of tints, but placed each pure upon the canvas; and this material he chose of a coarser grade than was usually used, by which he obtained greater suppleness and flexibility. Then, mixing his paints thin, he succeeded in attaining an appearance of softness and a human look in his flesh tints, scarcely approached by his rivals.

Historical painting, can hardly be said even up to the present time to have become domiciled among us. Yet one of the art centers of New England was formed and still exists on the basis of the historical paintings of John Trumbull of Connecticut. He had served as an aid to Washington through the war of 1776-83 and had made several paintings of his

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general, one of which is considered the best likeness extant. After the peace in 1783, Trumbull conceived the idea of producing a complete historical series of paintings representing the leading events of the struggle with Great Britain, probably with the expectation that they would be purchased by Congress. One or more were, and are now at the Capitol. Others were bought by Yale University. But the main series, chiefly battle scenes; are preserved in a building erected for the purpose at New Haven and known as the "Trumbull Gallery." Around this nucleus has gathered and grown that feeling for art which distinguishes this pleasant little university city. Trumbull's compositions are very spirited, full of fire and action, and scrupulously true to fact. One of the most popular, and which has been frequently engraved is the "Death of Montgomery." In this painting the foreground is occupied principally by the group surrounding the dying general, while the battle goes on in the distance. To the left, a reinforcement approaches over rising ground with admirable effect. But that which gives the whole scene its most forcible aspect of an actual event is the dimly-outlined forms of two scaling ladders barely perceptible through the artillery smoke in the background. It is wonderful how these distant and minute objects aid the impression of reality. Trumbull excelled in this sort of realism.

Closely following this artist and greatly exceeding him in technique was Washington Allston, of Newport, R. I. He went abroad to study and remained some years in London, but returned and settled in Boston. When he commenced his profession as an historical painter, Newport was really the art center of the United States. There flourished Malbone and there lived patrons of art whose descendants have flocked to New York, and other large cities, taking the crown of glory from its early rival. Allston made the mistake of choosing for his great historical paintings almost exclusively scripture subjects, and his pictures were consequently better adapted to adorn the walls of a church or chapel than the parlors of home life or the halls of fashionable resort, while at that era no church in New England would tolerate a picture within its walls. His first large work was eminently successful as a test of merit in execution. The "Dead man Revived" was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London, and obtained a prize of two hundred guineas. It was afterwards bought by

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the Academy of Fine Arts of Pennsylvania, and is now in Philadelphia. By some of our leading art critics Allston is believed to be our best representative of historical painting, though we think G. P. A. Healy, of Boston, who has painted both portraits and historical compositions with a master's hand, and whose celebrated picture, "Webster's Reply to Hayne," now in Faneuil Hall (containing one hundred and thirty portraits), may at least divide that honor with him. Allston's principal fault was in over refining. His unfinished sketches habitually showing more vigor and spirit than the completed picture.

For many years portrait painting held its ascendency in American art. Was it because there were so many great men to be painted? At least there were many who had filled a large space in the public eye. In the first place every artist of note, from Stuart to Rembrant Peale, essayed to paint Washington, either in his capacity of General or President of the Republic. And when the sculptors came, they did the same. Then there were other leading military men, the founders of the Government, Governors of States, &c., and all willing to have their lineaments sent down to posterity. One of the centers where a large collection of national portraits may be seen is in the Governor's room in the City Hall, New York. Here there are portraits of each successive Governor of the "Empire State," and all the Mayors who have presided over municipal affairs, from 1803 to the present time. In 1850 Mr. E. Dexter exhibited a collection of seven hundred and sixty-one miniatures of Americans. It was called the "St. Menim Collection." But a change was impending. Two lads were growing up who were destined to be epoch-markers in the history of American art—these were Thomas Cole and Asher B. Durand. We do not mean to say that there had been no landscape painting until the advent of these masters. There had been some pictures of merit in almost every department, including marine and genre, but these so distinctly excelled their predecessors that they may be fairly named the pioneer landscape painters of the country. Mr. Cole made a striking and sudden impression by a series of large allegorical paintings which he called the "Voyage of Life," in which he represented on canvas almost panoramic in size, the different stages of progress, from childhood, with its guardian angel; youth, with its hope and

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aspirations; manhood, beset with difficulties and dangers, to old age, with its shattered earthly aims, and its welcome hope of a heavenly refuge. These episodes of human existence are all presented under the symbol of a traveler through various scenes and aspects of nature, which gave full scope to the artists' power of expression from the almost celestial opening scene, to the steep and rugged hill over which hung the impending thunder cloud ready to burst upon the unprotected victim. Even those to whom allegory in general is distasteful, yet found in this delineator of nature's varied aspects food for study, and a succession of carefully drawn trees, rock, foliage and atmospheric effects, from which our native artists received an impulse in the right direction, not easily over estimated. Following this series came another set of still more ambitious paintings from the prolific pencil of Mr. Cole. These were called the "Course of Empire," and proved to be as superior in taste and execution as the subject, which of course, called for higher powers of imagination and technical skill in composition. This series consists of five paintings, commencing with a wild, uncultivated stretch of country —bearing no signs of civilized life; then follows a lovely pastoral scene; a city all glorious with a fête-day triumph; another showing the same under the hand of war and rapine, this contains some masterly specimens of figure and architectural drawing. The last represents "Desolation." Here is no aspect of human life but redundant nature striving to hide the remains of former glory, by the growth of ivy and other wild vines which climb over the solitary marble pillar with its shattered Corinthian capital, with numerous minor accessories, which do not detract from, but aid the general impression intended.

While Thomas Cole was thus challenging public attention by his ambitious compositions, his *confrère*, A. B. Durand, was quietly working his way into the hearts of amateurs, connoisseurs and professionals, by his smaller but perfect studies of nature as learned from American scenery. He had begun life as an engraver, and as such had already won an enviable reputation, when about 1835, he turned his attention to oil painting. His general taste was for quiet scenes and subdued tones, (except that he had a passion for light greens) but true and beautiful in expression, combined with such charming effects of atmosphere and shade, especially in his

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pictures including mountain and lake scenery, that even the untrained public eye could not remain insensible to such manifest truthfulness and beauty. In one point he has never been excelled, nor is he likely to be, for even genius can not go beyond perfection, and that is in his delineation of trees. The North American forests are eminently rich in beautiful varieties of tree life, and their variations of colors in the autumn greatly add to the richness of the picturesque forms and abundant foliage of many species; and of all these details Durand was complete master. We remember pictures of his which we have not seen for nearly two decades, in which particular trees stand out to the memory with the distinctness of a well-remembered face. Yet in the picture they were so harmonized with the surroundings that they appeared absolutely necessary portions of the scene. Mr. Durand was for a number of years president of the National Academy. In 1875, when over eighty years of age, he exhibited a painting of Lake George which elicited the highest admiration for its poetical treatment, its absolute harmony of forms and color, as well as that attention to detail which was a marked feature of all this artist's work.

Up to about 1830 there was little deserving of praise in the landscapes of American painters. But shortly after that period, both the public taste and the executive ability of our artists, grew rapidly in this direction. One cause of this development was the increased facilities afforded for study. We had passed the days when the arrival of a single work of art was a remarkable and exciting event. Almost with the commencement of the century, in 1802, there was formed in New York an association called the Academy of Fine Arts. This was not composed of artists, but rather of those would-be patrons of art who desired its more systematic development. But one artist of note, John Trumbull, was connected with it. An antique school was established under its auspices, but it was never very flourishing, and was finally merged, together with the New York Drawing Association, into the permanent society of the National Academy of Design, which was chartered in 1828. The National Academy maintained a nomadic existence in hired halls and exhibition rooms in various parts of the city until 1865, when the members took possession of the beautiful and commodious building erected for their use, mainly by the liberality of private

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citizens. This building is on the corner of Fourth avenue and Twenty-third street. Besides its annual exhibitions, which occur in the spring, the Academy maintains schools of instruction, both in the antique and life departments, with technical and general lectures, competitive examinations of drawings, and distributions of awards for merit. As connected with the education of the public taste and appreciation of art, we must mention a somewhat irregular association which was formed in 1839. It was called the American Art Union, and was based upon the principle of the French *Société des Amis des Arts*. Its plan was to receive subscriptions which formed a general fund, out of which works of art of acknowledged merit were purchased and distributed by lot among the subscribers. The "Union" held its ground for ten years, when it was broken up on account of its nominal infringement of a State law for the suppression of lotteries. It had in the meanwhile done a good work in awakening a taste for the best class of engravings, of which most of its issues consisted, though oil paintings, busts in bronze and marble were occasionally purchased. Its subscription list rose to the large sum of $100,000, and it had distributed annually from five hundred to one thousand pictures. Many of the artists employed by the "Union," have since arisen to an enviable distinction in their several specialties.

During the first years of the existence of the Art Union, there occurred an unprecedented influx of pseudo paintings of the "old masters." European dealers, having apparently learned that Americans were willing to pay liberally for works by eminent artists, sent over a perfect flood of "Rubens," "Murillos," "Titians," &c., &c., presuming upon the ignorance of our people. The delusion prevailed for a brief period only. "Old masters" became too abundant, and at last had to be sold for a song, or taken back whence they came. One corrective of this raid upon the pockets of our citizens was found in the excellent collection of pictures illustrative of different epochs of art in Europe, and containing genuine specimens from the twelfth century (an old Byzantine triptych on panel), to the present era. These were exhibited under the name of the "Bryan Collection." This praiseworthy attempt probably proved a loss to the importers; but it did something towards instructing the community as to the different schools of European painting, and at least

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taught them the extreme difficulty of obtaining authenticated copies even, much more, original works of the great celebrities of the past. About the same period a similar collection was made by Mr. J. J. Jarves for Boston.

The next regularly organized European assault upon the New York public in the matter of art was the opening of the Dusseldorf gallery on Broadway. But this was a legitimate business venture, and was what it claimed to be, the work of painters of the Dusseldorf school. These were genuine of their kind, and proved a pleasing and instructive novelty, presenting many features well worthy of study, if not imitation.

The Century Club (not organized originally as an art society), really proved, between 1850-60, one of the most attractive art centers in the city. Many artists were connected with it, and at their re-unions a considerable collection, of fine works only, were always exhibited. At this period many private individuals also had excellent galleries; that of James Lenox, Esq., has grown into a magnificent gift to the public. The building in which his rare and valuable library, picture gallery, sculptures and articles of vertu are displayed, is in itself a work of high art. Other private parties, such as the Aspinwalls, Belmonts, &c., possess galleries of paintings, numerically as large, and artistically speaking, nearly as valuable. The dealers, M. M. Knöedler, and Schaus, always have more or less works of merit (imported) in their rooms.

For a number of years Mr. William Page occupied a somewhat phenomenal position among American artists; partly by reason of his deviations from established rules of art (if any standard could be said to exist at that time in the country). He was a bold theorist, and experimentalist, not only in the matter of motive and composition, but even with the materials of his art; which naturally resulted in some failures—compensated for by as brilliant successes. He was full of surprises, never flat or insipid, but very unequal; yet he had an exquisite feeling for color, and great dexterity of technique. In theory an impressionist, in execution a realist: in his portraits he occasionally produced the effect of a relievo, so boldly did the features stand out from the canvas. He painted the most speaking eyes we have ever seen. His works were a continual challenge, not only to the public, but

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to the profession, from the audacity with which he set aside
the conventionalities. Several of his compositions fairly
divided the artistic community, laymen as well as profes-
sionals, into extreme factions of attraction and repulsion—
this was especially the case with his "Head of Christ," and
"Venus Rising from the Sea." His success, his failures, his
inequalities, all arose from the fact that his mind grasped
ideals which the hands could not execute—possibly, which
earthly materials could not produce in any hands.

Since the days of West and Allston, the two painters
who have most successfully carried American art abroad,
and given to our national landscape school of art a definite
place in the estimation of foreign connoisseurs, are Frederick
E. Church and Albert Bierstadt. The former by his "Ice-
bergs," "Niagara," "Heart of the Andes," &c.; and the
latter by his "Rocky Mountains," "Estes Park, Colorado,"
his Yosemite pictures and other delineations of the wonder-
ful western scenery. These two artists may be said to have
created an epoch in American art history by the attraction of
their works in the Paris exposition of 1867—in which their
genius, compelled, as it were, the multitudes gathered there,
to note the great natural wonders of the regions portrayed,
and to recognize the fact that native talent was fully equal to
its representation. Financially speaking, we believe Mr.
Bierstadt leads all our artists in the value set upon his works.
His "Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak," brought $25,000;
"Storm in the Rocky Mountains, Mount Rosalie," is valued
by its present owner at $35,000; his "Valley of the Yosem-
ite" was bought at approximate figures by the well-known
art collector, James Lenox, Esq., and is now in the "Len-
ox Library Gallery," on Fifth avenue. His pencil is pro-
lific, as well as able, and most of his paintings American in
subject. Though sufficiently careful in his treatment of de-
tail, Mr. Bierstadt's characteristic merit is his masterly man-
agement of high lights—one of the most difficult technicali-
ties of landscape painting. Mr. Thomas Hill has also done
excellent work in the same direction. His paintings were
highly praised in the official report of the Centenial Exhibi-
tion of 1876.

Among those whom we may call the inventive artists of
America, was William Morris Hunt, who died, Septem-
ber, 1879. At the time of his death he was employed in

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decorating the interior of the Assembly Chamber in the State Capitol at Albany. The height at which these paintings are above the floor — being large panels between the upper line of windows and the ceiling, required that the figures introduced should be of colossal size, the customary mode in such cases is to divide the wall into squares and finish piece by piece, the portions of a figure making up the composition. Mr. Hunt introduced the plan of working at night, when, by using a camera, he was enabled to throw an enlarged figure — fifteen feet high on the wall. This he outlined with charcoal and finished the whole figure at once. It was an audacious idea, but proved perfectly successful. Mr. Hunt had been for a long time carefully preparing for this work. He made his own pigments, and had tested them on stone covered with water for two years. The designs are symbolical — one representing the "East and Morning," the other "West and Evening." They are treated in a purely poetic and imaginative symbolism, novel in design and execution. If Mr. Hunt had never painted anything but these mural decorations, they would have been sufficient to secure his fame as an artist of the purest poetic instinct, with an executive power as rare as it is delightful. Mr. Hunt's previous works included the historical, landscape, genre pieces and portraits. A large collection of them is now on exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum.

Considering the infancy of our art, we find the genre painters, of whom Mr. Hunt was one of the earliest, and Eastman Johnson, a very successful living representative, promise very favorably for the future. The gain is very noticeable. The last mentioned artist has drawn special attention from the fact that he has illustrated Southern scenes — a part of the country not generally affected by our artists.

We have no great animal painter, though several artists who paint some animals fairly well, like the Hart brothers, and many others. The earliest of these were the naturalists, Wilson and Audubon, whose specialty was birds. Mr. Beard (who delights in travesty), is our most popular delineator of the smaller specimens of zoological life.

In marine painting we have now a large and able list of artists. One of the first who made this a specialty, and who was a frequent exhibitor at the National Academy, was Mr. Thomas Thompson. He especially excelled in the portraiture

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of sailing craft. Among living artists it would be invidious
to select a few names among such a list of experts. We shall,
therefore, in accordance with the leading design of this paper,
give only one who has struck out for himself a peculiar line
—something out of the ordinary. We have scores who give
us charming sea views, such as we can see and recognize
within a few hours travel of the metropolis, but William
Bradford has gone where few would choose to follow—among
the ice-bergs of the Arctic circle, and has produced a series of
paintings as novel as they are beautiful; and, by veteran ex-
perts, pronounced absolutely true to nature. His "Field Ice
in Melville Bay" was purchased by Queen Victoria, and
several other works of his were bought by members of the
Royal family. But one of his best remains in New York,
and is in the Museum of Natural History, near Central Park.
This is his large canvas showing the American exploring
steamship, the "Polaris Lying at Thank God Harbor."
Unfortunately this beautiful painting is hung in such a bad
position, that it can only be properly seen on a bright day
before 10 A. M. Mr. Bradford is, we believe, at the present
time in San Francisco, making studies on the Pacific
coast.

Painting in water colors has been slow in taking root
among us. The first society organized with a class for study
from life was in New York, in 1850; the members were
mostly designers and engravers, who met every two weeks
for instruction and comparison of work. In 1853, when the
Crystal Palace was opened, each member contributed a
picture. They attracted little attention, the public not seem-
ing to comprehend the real merit which was in many of the
compositions. This society may be said to have died of
neglect. A few years later a large and valuable collection of
foreign water colors was exhibited, and drew out considerable
interest among the more advanced amateurs of the art. But
the real starting point, from which its steady growth in pub-
lic favor may be dated, was the exhibition of the Artists' Fund
Society of 1866, in which paintings in water colors was made
a prominent feature. By some unexplained, spontaneous
feeling, water colors were at once taken up and appreciated;
something like enthusiasm followed, and immediately the
project of a new society for its prosecution was mooted, and
this resulted in the organization, in December of the same

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year, of the present flourishing institution of the "American Society of Painters in Water Colors."

Akin to the Water Color Society is the "Salmagundi" Sketch Club, the members of which work wholly in black and white. Their second Annual Exhibition, which took place last January, was eminently successful, and contained excellent specimens of that rather sombre art, which is, however, the highest test of the draughtsman's power. There can be no subterfuges in black and white—no covering up bad drawing with colors. The work shows for just what it is worth. We noticed in the last exhibition a very fine piece of work illustrating a scene from Hawthorne's "House of the Seven Gables," by a very promising young artist named Percival de Luce, a descendant of the earliest marine painter named above. Artistic talent we believe to be more generally hereditary than some other mental traits. The other most prominent art association in New York City is the Art Students' League, founded in 1875. This is exclusively a life school, and applicants for admission must submit drawings of merit of full length figures from a cast or from life, a drawing of a head, or an original composition, according to the class which they desire to enter; the standard is considered high. The Society of American Artists was organized in 1877; this is composed principally of admirers of foreign schools and methods, and was established in rivalry of the National Academy of Design.

A very valuable school of art has been for many years in operation at the Cooper Union, a free institution, founded by the well-known philanthropist, Peter Cooper. Here there is a department especially for young women, who are taught designing, decorative art, engraving, &c.; there are both day and evening classes, with lectures, and able professors, an ample supply of casts, models, &c. It is a most useful accessory to the art schools of New York. The Cooper Institute was opened in 1857. The art class two years later. The building cost $630,000, and since the inauguration of the art schools and other branches of instruction there have been expended on free classes in the useful and ornamental branches, $733,000. This institution includes a free reading room, library and lectures.

In our neighboring city we find the "Brooklyn Art Association," which was formed in 1861. Its object is to promote

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art interests generally by semi-annual free exhibitions of paintings and sculpture. It has a fine gallery, with art schools connected. In 1864 the Brooklyn Association exhibited the first collection of engravings ever gathered in the United States. The collection was owned by Mr. Claghorn, of Philadelphia. This included the works of foreign and American artists; many of the engravings were extremely rare and valuable. In 1872 there was exhibited a chronological array of paintings, with specimens for nearly every year between 1715 and the date of the exhibition. To this many public institutions, as well as private owners, loaned paintings of great interest and value.

There is also in Brooklyn an excellent school of design, including life and antique, connected with what is popularly known as the Washington Institute. This flourishing association is presided over by the veteran portrait painter, ideal and historical artist, Professor Ferdinand T. L. Boyle, whose "Judith and Holofernes" attracted marked attention in the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876.

Next to New York, the earliest development of a taste for the fine arts was to be found in Philadelphia. As early as 1805 was formed there the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In this there were more laymen than artists, and of the original seventy members, over forty were lawyers! A leading object with this society was the importation of the finest works which could be procured both in sculpture and painting. Going on with their collections until some fifty copies of the antique masters in sculpture, with a number of paintings, had been obtained, they gave their first public exhibition in 1811. In 1845, the building, with its valuable contents, was destroyed by fire. But no time was lost, or money spared in making new collections; a splendid gallery was erected, and Philadelphia now contains one of the finest permanent collections in the United States, with a large and prosperous school of different departments. Philadelphia has also a "Sketch Club," formed in 1860, and the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, which has been in operation since 1853. The regular course requires four years attendance. In addition to drawing and painting in oil and water colors, the art of designing for wall papers, engraving, and lithographing are taught.

In 1850, a Free School of Drawing was established in Bos-

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ton by the trustees of the Lowell Institute. The Boston Art Club was organized in 1855, and the Massachusetts Normal Art School in 1873. This last is for the training of art teachers of both sexes. In connection with the Boston Museum of Fine Arts is also a school of drawing and painting, with free scholarships for a certain number of both young men and women. There is also for women a school of carving and modeling, established in 1877. The Museum of Fine Arts has recently erected a most elegant and commodious building, in which a very fine collection of sculpture and paintings are to be seen.

At New Haven, in Connecticut, Buffalo, in Western New York, in Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco are found the largest collections and best schools of design after those already mentioned, although in many smaller cities art schools of considerable value are found. In St. Louis, the principal art association is largely managed by non-professionals. In Cincinnati, we have almost a foreign school domiciled with us. The population of that city is largely German, and its wealthy citizens, of which there are large numbers, have taken pride in importing fine specimens from the most esteemed masters of Vienna, Munich and Dusseldorf.

Even on the Pacific coast we find that art has its votaries as devoted as any in the east. Though organizing late, the San Francisco Art Association has a good collection, and a valuable library of books relating to art. This society was presented by the French government, while under the Presidency of M. Thiers (through Count de Remusat), with a large number of casts from the Greek and Italian masters. These were made from the originals in the Louvre, and include life-size statues, busts, basso-relievos, and statuettes. The School of Design has only existed about seven years.

The "Washington Art Association" was formed some twenty-five years ago. The "Washington Art Club," which was formed in 1875, had for its principal object to procure the establishment by Congress of a National "Bureau of Industrial and Fine Arts," and the appointment of a Congressional Committee, who should be made judges of the value of works of art offered to the government. What is known as the Corcoran Gallery contains the best collection of paintings in the city, and also over one hundred bronzes by the famous French sculptor, Antoine Louis Barye.

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The "Metropolitan Museum of Art," located in the Central Park, New York, was formally opened on the 30th of March of the present year. This promises to become the most important center of art influence in the United States. It already contains the valuable Cypriote collection known as the "Cesnola;" two large galleries of paintings (by both native and foreign artists): a considerable collection of ceramics, tapestry, gems, vellums, statuary, &c., &c. As the collections are not yet catalogued, we are unable to give any description, in detail, of the various departments.

From the very rapid development of the public taste for art within a few years, and the liberality of native patrons, the many promising young artists, and the excellence of many of the Schools of Design, we have no hesitation in predicating a happy future for the Fine Arts in America.

## VLADIMIR MONOMACHUS, THE GRAND DUKE OF KYJEV.

ONE of the prerogatives of periodical literature, at the present day, is to unearth the buried past; and, as it were, to compel contemporaneous readers to know what they should know, but what, without the agency of the periodical, they never would know. Ponderous volumes are constantly issuing from the printing-press which are written in refutation of preceding volumes that the world has received as "history." Modern research, as developed in modern historical volumes, has disproved, or failed to disprove, what mankind had previously been taught to believe about Caesar, Charlemagne, Richard III, Mary Queen of Scots, Cromwell, and all the rest of them. But how many of the people—properly so-called—ever find out what those volumes contain? The books are expensive, and few people buy them. They are large, and few people find the time or take the trouble to read them. But your cheap, portable, readable periodical, which comes at convenient intervals, is read, marked and inwardly digested by tens of thousands of people. And what those people so read they talk about and communicate to other people, and thus, in a Scriptural phrase, "Knowledge shall be increased."

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When we say, above, "the buried past," we refer to the literature of past centuries which is practically buried in the libraries of foreign countries; dust-covered tomes in the various European languages which, known to comparatively few people at the time of their publication, are wholly unknown to the present generation, and which would remain unknown but for the perseverance of a class of modern detectors, explorers, interviewers, who show forth their labors in the pages of our periodical literature. Those men are the true propagandists of knowledge. They "run to and fro," they dive through the dust of ages, and they bring to light hidden things.

For example, who, at the present day, at home or abroad, knows much of the truly great prince whose name is at the head of this article? He was a statesman, a soldier and a Christian, a contemporary of the Norman kings of England, and his best record is, not so much what other men have written of him, as what he himself wrote. He was born in the year 1053. His father was Vezevolod Jaroslavovitz, and his mother was a daughter of the Emperor Constantine. The suffix of his name, Monomachus, was given to him in his mature life by reason of his military prowess. He succeeded to the throne of Kyjev in 1113, and he died in 1125, after a brilliant reign of twelve years. For the greater part of what we have farther to say of this Prince, we shall avail ourselves of Mr. Ralston's little book on "Early Russian History," from which we make free quotations.

"No less important," says Mr. Ralston, "than the military exploits of Vladimir Monomachus were the benefits conferred on his realm as an administrator. Many a new city sprang into life during his rule, the most important being that which bore his name of Vladimir, and afterward became for a time the capital of Russia. And many a city already existing, grew and thrived, and waxed strong and secure under his fostering care. But greatest among his peaceful works, was the code of laws which was compiled by his orders, an enlarged rescension of that issued by his grandfather, Jaroslav, under the name of *Russhaya Pravda*, or Russian Right. That venerable monument of old wisdom and justice, closely connected with the records of German and Scandanavian jurisprudence, will enable all who consult it to dispose of that sweeping charge of Asiatic barbarism which

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we so often hear levelled against the Russian princes of the old
en days. From that Code, and from the testament which he
left behind him for the benefit of his children, may be seen
how enlightened as a law-giver, how wise as a prince, how
venerable as a house-father, was the ruler of the Russian
people during the first quarter of the twelfth century.

“One special point of interest for us, in Vladimir’s life, is
his marriage, or at least one of his marriages. We have seen
how Jaroslav’s daughter Elizabeth attended to our Western
Isles her husband, Harold Hardrada, when he joined Toste
against an English Harold, and fell at Stamford Bridge. Soon
after the widowed Elizabeth had sailed back to Scandanavia,
she was followed by a fugitive family of the Harold, who con-
quered at Stamford Bridge, but was himself conquered and
slain at Senlac. According to Icelandic sages, Gyda, our
Harold’s daughter—a daughter, by Edith of the Swan’s neck,
thinks Mr. Freeman—after spending some time in Denmark,
was married to a Russian prince, who seems to have been
Vladimir Monomachus, and thus a royal daughter of Saxon
England, became consort of the ruler of that country, from
which a prince of ours, bearing the name of the greatest of
our Saxon kings, has so recently brought home an Imperial
bride.”

The “testament” of Vladimir, mentioned above by Mr. Ralston, which its author termed his “Instruction,” is a remarkable document. He composed it while traveling in a sledge. “Sitting in my sledge,” he says, “I meditated in my soul, and gave thanks to God who has preserved me, sinner that I am, this day. If there is any one to whom this writing is not pleasing, let him not laugh, nor say, *On a long journey and sitting in a sledge, thou hast spoken foolishly.*”

After making many quotations from the Bible, he thus
proceeds:

“Reading these divine words, my children, praise God
who hath given us His grace, and this instruction from me,
simple and unintelligent man that I am. Hearken to me!
if ye do not accept all, yet accept half. If God softens your
hearts, shed tears for your sins, saying, *As thou didst have
compassion on the harlot, and on the robber, and on the publi-
can, so also have compassion on us, sinful men that we are!*
And in church, and when lying down in bed, do that. For-
get not, any single night when ye can, to bow down to the

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ground—if ye cannot do it oftener, at any rate thrice; and for-
get not this, be not lazy, for by this nightly bowing and chant-
ing a man overcomes the devil, and thereby gets quit of the
sins that he commits during the day. And if ye are travel-
ing on horseback, and there is nothing to do with anybody;
if ye cannot say other prayers, yet cry without ceasing in
secret, Lord, have mercy upon us! for that prayer is better
than all, certainly better than thinking of filthiness. Above
all, forget not the poor; but as far as ye can, according to
your power, nourish them, and give to the orphan, and help
the widow to her rights yourselves, and allow not the power-
ful to destroy any man. Slay no man, be he righteous or be
he guilty, neither command him to be slain; if he is guilty
and deserving of the penalty of death, yet do not destroy the
soul of any Christian. If ye are relating anything, be it good
or be it evil, swear not by God; neither cross yourselves, for
of that there is no need. If it comes to pass to you that ye
kiss the cross" [the manner and form of making a solemn
treaty], "and swear to your brethren or to any body else; if it
be that ye can fix your hearts and abide thereby, then
kiss it, and see that, after kissing it, ye do not
break your oath and destroy your souls. As touching bishops,
priests and abbots, receive blessing from them with love, and
turn not away from them, but according to your power love
them, and take heed that they pray to God for you. Above
all, have no pride in heart or mind, but say, we are mortal:
to-day alive, and to-morrow in the grave; all that Thou hast
given us is not ours, but Thine. Thou has intrusted it to us
for a few days, and lay not up treasures on the earth; that is
a great sin to us. Honor old men as fathers, and love young
men as brethren."

In sentences then following Vladimir gives directions to
his sons about the conduct of their home life, in which he
dwells persistently on the need of the master's own eye, that
he should delegate nothing, but attend to everything himself.
From that he proceeds to the duties of the commander in war,
denouncing laziness and idleness. "In your home life," he
says, "be not idle but look to all. Rely not on a bailiff nor a
servant, lest people coming to you smile sneeringly at your
house or your dinner. When you set out for war, be not idle;
rely not on your generals; give not yourselves up to drinking,
eating, or sleeping: but set the sentinels yourselves, and lie

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145

not down till you have arranged them on all sides around the army, and rise up early in the morning, and lay not aside your arms and armor, till you have in good time inspected everything round about, for through idleness a man perishes unexpectedly. Beware of lying, drunkenness and licentiousness, for thereby soul and body perish. And on a journey, whithersoever you go in your lands, allow neither your own servant nor those of others to do harm to any one, either in the villages or on the plough-lands, that the people curse you not. And whither you go, and where you stop, give meat and drink to him who asketh it, and especially honor a guest, whencesoever he cometh to you, be he simple, or be he noble; or be he a messenger or ambassador; and if ye cannot do it with gifts, do it at any rate with meat and drink; for those passers-by spread a man's character throughout all lands, either for good or for evil. Visit the sick, accompany the dead to the grave, for we are all mortal; and pass not by a man, but salute him, and give him good words. Love your wives, but let them not rule over you. But let this be the summit of all to you—have the fear of God above everything. If you find yourselves forgetting that, read my Instruction through frequently, and I shall not have shame, and it will be well for you. What good thing you know, forget not; and what you know not, learn; as my father, staying at home learned five languages; this is the foundation of honor from other lands. For idleness is the mother of all evil; what it knows it forgets; and what it knows not it learns not; First of all, as touching the church, let not the sun find you in bed. That my late father never did, and so no good men do. First give God material thanks, and then when the sun rises, or as soon as you see the sun, magnify God with joy, saying: *Lighten mine eyes. O Christ, my God! who hast given me Thy beauteous light; and add to me, O Lord, year after year, that afterward when I have repented of my sins, and amended my life, I may thus praise God.* And you can sit and consult with your council, or hunt, or ride out, or lie down and sleep; sleep at midday is ordained by God, for at that time beasts and birds and many kinds repose.

"What my subject was bound to do, that I performed myself, in war and in hunting, in heat and in cold, not giving myself repose. Not looking to lieutenants nor officers, I myself did what was requisite; and I also myself maintained

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order in my household, and maintained hunting order among hunters, and due order among horse dealers, and in all that touches falcons and hawks. Likewise I took the part of the poor peasant and unfortunate widow, that the mighty might not harm them; and I looked myself to ecclesiastical order and the service of God. But take it not ill, my children, neither let any one else do so while reading this; for I am not lauding myself nor mine own daring, but I am praising God and magnifying His grace, who protected me, poor and sinful man that I am, from those dangerous adventures, and created me active and well adapted for all human works. And, perusing this writing, betake yourselves to all good works, glorifying God with His saints. Fear not death, then, my children, neither in war nor from a wild beast, but do the work of men as God shall point out to you. For, if I never took harm from man, nor from a wild beast, nor from water, nor through falling from horseback, there can none of you take harm nor lose his life until it is ordained by God. But, when death is appointed by God, then can neither father nor mother, not brethren prevent it. But, if it is good to take care of ourselves, the care of God is better than that of man."

Vladimir's skill and prowess as a hunter are dwelt on at some length by Mr. Ralston. All that could be called "game" were his victims—the wild boar, the stag, the elk, the wild bull, the bear. But in his hunting encounters he often risked, and frequently nearly lost, his life. Those incidents belonged to the age.

Oleg, who was the son of Svjatoslav, brother of Vladimir's father, and therefore Vladimir's own cousin, killed in battle one of Vladimir's sons—Jzjaslav. Mstislav, another son of Vladimir, endeavored to make peace between his father and Oleg, but he was unable to accomplish it. That result was afterward reached, however. Vladimir wrote as follows to Oleg:

"O, greatly tortured and sorrowful man that I am! Much dost thou struggle with my heart, O my soul, and resist my heart; for since thou art immortal, I consider how it will stand with us before the terrible Judge if we do not repent and make peace together. For if any one saith I love God, but I do not love my brother, it is a lie. And again, if you forgive not your

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brother his trespasses, neither will your Heavenly Father
forgive you. The prophet saith, *Fret not thyself because of
evil-doers, neither be thou envious against them who work
iniquity. How good and beautiful where brethren are in
unity*. But this is the devil's instigation. There were wars
also in the days of our wise grandfathers, and of our good
fathers of blessed memory; for the devil desires not the good
of the human race, but leads us into discord. And this I have
written to thee because thy son whom thou didst christen"
[i. e. Mstislav, for whom Oleg had stood god-father], "and
who is posted near thee, hath urged me. He hath sent to
me his man and a letter, saying, *Let us come to agreement
and make peace. My brother indeed has perished, but
let not us twain be his avengers; but let us
commit vengeance to God, and those who are guilty will
stand before God, but let us not destroy the Russian land.*
And, seeing my son's humility, I grieved and feared God, and
said, *He, in his youth and inexperience, is thus humbling him-
self and committing it to God!* I am a sinner above all other
men. I have hearkened to my son and written thee a letter;
whether thou receivest it well or insultingly I shall see by
thy writing. For by these words I have anticipated thee in
that which I expected from thee, in humility and repent-
ance, desiring from God remission of my former sins. For
our Lord is not a man, but the God of the whole world, who
creates in a moment all that He willeth. He, Himself,
suffered shame, and spitting and scourging, and gave Him-
self up to death, though He was ruler of life and death. But
what are we? Sinful, wicked men; to-day alive, and to-
morrow dead; to-day in glory and honor, and to-morrow in
the grave and without remembrance; and what we have
amassed, others will divide. Consider, brother, our fathers.
What have they taken with them? For what is the good of
their grave-robes? Only that which they did for their souls
hath benefitted them. O, that thou hadst sent for me first,
brother, and anticipated me in these words! When they
slew my child and thine before thee, and when thou sawest
his blood and his wan body, which had blossomed like a fresh
flower, thou must have said, standing over him, plunging
into the thoughts of thy soul, *Woe is me! What have I
done? I laid snares for his inexperience; and for the worth-
lessness of this transitory world I have sought out sin for my-
self and tears for his father and mother!*"

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It may seem strange to our readers that such words as these, and such as are contained in our preceding quotations, should have been written by a Russian, in an age which is so often regarded and spoken of as an age of barbarism. Yet these words, which would well become the humblest and the most enlightened Christian of the present day, were written by Vladimir Monomachus, in the twelfth century of the Christian era—nearly eight hundred years ago!

## RUSSIAN FOLK-LORE.*

POETRY is the soul of a people. We mean by this, not the poetry of books written by known authors, and representing the higher functions of social and intellectual life, but that other nameless and authorless poetry which lives in the mouth of the people alone, which sounds over the summer fields during the harvest work and shortens the long wintry nights of the peasant, while, buried in snow, the wind howling around the low, black hut, he and his family are sitting huddled up near the stove, listening to grandfather's chant about heroes long dead and gone, the beautiful maidens they snatched from the heathen's grasp, and the dragons they killed with one blow.

The life of the Russian people is particularly rich in such poetry. Indeed, it may be said that even now the Russian people is living still in the epic period of its intellectual life. Even now each great event of the national life gives birth to a series of epic tales and songs which spring up, as it were, spontaneously from the mouth of the people. These tales present the richest source for the study of the Russian national character, and the best commentary on the history of

* Untersuchungen über die Volksepik der Grossrussen. Von Wilhelm Wollner. Leipzig, Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann.

W. R. S. Ralston. The Songs of the Russian People. London.

Alfred Ramband. La Russie épique.

Vladimir Stassoff. Proischojdzenie russkich Bylin. (Origin of Russian Epics.) St. Petersburg.

Orest Miller. Ilya Murometz e Bogatyrstvo Kievskoye. (I. M. and the Heroes of Kiev.) St. Petersburg.

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Russia. In them we see men and things as they appear reflected in the mind and imagination of the people, and find the true meaning and import of many events to be far different from what the official history of Russia represents them to be.

The study of Russian folk-lore is of comparatively recent origin. The first, very imperfect, collection of *bylinas* (epic tales) was made by Kirsha Daniloff towards the latter end of the eighteenth century. It was not published, however, before 1818, by the celebrated Russian philologist Kalaidovitch. The publication of these extraordinary works of national poetry produced a great impression in the Russian scientific and literary circles. Since that time many of the best and most competent Russian linguists and ethnographers have bestowed their special attention on Russian folk-lore. Among these Professor Sreznevsky, Rybnikoff, Bezsonoff, and especially A. Hilferding, stand foremost. Thanks to the studies and investigations of these men, we have in latter years acquired a tolerably full and complete conception of the Russian national poetry and of its chief types.

Without entering into the details of classification and no-
menclature of the different epic tales created by the Russian
rhapsodists, we will try to give our English and American
readers a concise picture of the types of the Russian mythical
heroes and of the principal tales in which they play a part.

The center of nearly all the Russian epopees is the court of
the Grand Duke Vladimir of Kieff—the same prince who con-
verted the Russian people to the Christian faith. But, strange
enough, Vladimir himself is not by any means the hero of the
tales. On the contrary, in most of them he plays a passive
and secondary part, sharing in this respect the fate of the
kings in fairy tales and in modern operas. The chief heroes of
Russian folk-lore are Ilia Murometz, Dobrynia Nikititch, and
Alësha Popovitch. Each of these figures represents one of
the classes into which the nation has been divided from the
very outset of its history. Ilia Murometz, the pet hero of
the Russian rhapsodies, about whom the most songs are sung
and the most extraordinary stories are told, is the representa-
tive of the "black people", of the peasantry. In him all the
leading features of the Russian national character are to be
found. In him all that the Russian people love and admire
is concentrated.

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The tales about Ilia Murometz are full of the deepest, most picturesque poetry. On him the rhapsodists have evidently bestowed all their art, all the resources of their imagination. We give a short epitome of these tales, preserving as nearly as possible the quaint, picturesque style of the original.

In the old city of Murom, in the suburb Karatcharoff, there sits Ilia, the son of Ivan the peasant, thirty years in one place without moving. Once upon a time there came two pilgrims before Ilia's windows and sang holy hymns, and asked him to give them to drink. "Oh, ye wandering pilgrims!" answered Ilia, "how can I give you to drink when I am sitting here for thirty years without being able to move?" But the pilgrims repeat their request, and behold! Ilia rises from his seat, opens the door, and gives the pilgrims some mead; they drink and then bid Ilia drink, too; he obeys, and "his heart felt like fire, and his white skin was covered with sweat." The pilgrims ask him what he feels: "I feel in me a great strength," he answers; "I feel as if Mother Earth had breathed upon me with the spirit of her strength!" "You shall be a great hero," the pilgrims answer; "Go, and fight with every brave hero or heroine in Holy Russia, or among the pagans; you shall conquer them all. Only beware of the great Svatogor, for him even mother earth carries with pain. Beware of Samson, for on his head there grow seven hairs of angels; beware of Mikula's (Nicholas) race, for the damp mother earth loves them; beware of Volga, Seslav's son, for he can subdue you, not by his strength, but by his wily tricks." Ilia obeys, craves his parent's blessing, and goes out of his native village to shield the good people of Russia from all evil, and to show off his strength and his courage before all the heroes and before the "ruddy sunlight of Prince Vladimir's eyes" (Vladimir krasno Solnyshko, literally, Vladimir, the ruddy little sun).

In this preamble to the epic myth of Ilia Murometz we find already some of the chief characteristics of the Russian people impersonated in its favorite hero. Ilia's sitting on one place, or "behind the stove," for thirty years without moving, and then his sudden uprising to the full strength of a mythical hero, illustrates so fully one of the principal features of the Slav national character, that this part of the epopee has become proverbial in designating many an event

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in Russian history. A certain physical heaviness, coupled with an extraordinary impulsiveness, with sudden outbursts of powerful energy, has at all times been the distinctive feature of the individual, as well as of the whole race of the Slav. In the allegorical instructions which the pilgrims give Ilia, we find impersonations of all the forces of Nature which surround the people, and appear so indomitable and awful that even a hero of Ilia's calibre would not dare to attack them. These impersonations belong to the Titanic period of Russian mythology—shadowy, giant figures looming out of the darkness of prehistorical times. Svatogor is the spirit of the earth, the *Erdgeist* of the Germans; Volga is the impersonation of the river bearing the same name, with its spring floods, under-currents and quick sands—the “wily tricks” Ilia is warned against; Mikula and Sampson are figures, arising in the people's fancy from biblical associations; thence the “seven angels' hairs” on Sampson's head, and the warning to live in peace with Mikula or Nicholas—the patron saint of the Russian people.

Endowed with his supernatural strength, Ilia steps out on the “war path” and achieves one feat of valor after the other. His chief opponents whom he easily crushes to atoms are: *Soloveï Razboïnik, Tsar Idolische and Kalin-Tsar*—“Robber Nightingale,” “King Idol” and “King Kalin”—all three impersonations of the great scourges which ravaged ancient Russia: the highwaymen and the infidels. The dominating feature of Ilia's career is the extreme simplicity and unaffectedness with which he achieves his greatest deeds—likewise a trait common to most of the truly national events and characters of Russian history. In the tales about this pet hero of the Russian people we seek in vain for all the glittering, supernatural *mise en scène* of fire swords, dragons, golden palaces and all the rest of it, a scenery common to the mythical world of most of the other nations. “Ilia, the old Cos-sack,” as he is generally called by the rhapsodists, trots out quietly into the world on the back of a little horse he has taken from his father’s plow. He has no glittering armor, no golden shield, in short, nothing of the paladin about him. Simple as his appearance is also his mode of life, his habits. He feels at home only in the *izba* (peasant hut), among the “black people” and the “tavern vagabonds” (*gol kabatzkaia*). There is no great personal sympathy between him and Prince

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Vladimir and his courtiers, but Ilia respects the prince as the champion of the true faith, as the representative of Russia, and despite all the quarrels he has with him, despite all the wicked tricks the prince plays on him, Ilia remains faithful, and serves him to the last.

"Once upon a time," sings the rhapsodist, "the great Tartar Czar Kalin (or Mamai), attacked the city of Kieff with a numberless host of pagans. Ilia was absent from court, for the Prince had insulted him, and had locked him up in a dungeon where he would have died of hunger if the fair Princess Apraxia had not delivered him. When the host of pagans approached the city, Prince Vladimir wept bitterly and cried: "Where is my hero, my brave Cossack, Ilia Murometz?" And he sent out his own daughter, Apraxia, to seek for him. But the princess said: "Go and look for Ilia in his dungeon, perhaps he is still alive." Vladimir had the dungeon opened and found the hero alive and well. Then the prince fell down on his knees and kissed his feet, and implored him to drive off the pagan force, not for his, Vladimir's sake, but for Apraxia, for the helpless women and children, for the poor of his people. "Not for you, you wily, treacherous prince," Ilia answers, "but for our holy faith and our poor black people will I fight the pagans." And he took his good sword, called his friends together, and fought the numberless host of pagans for six days and six nights without eating or sleeping, until not one of the rascals remained alive."

Another tale shows us Ilia as an honored guest at the Court of the Emperor Constantine at Tsargrad (Constantinople). The Emperor invites him to stay at his court as supreme chief of the army, but Ilia answers: "I thank thee, O Tsar Constantine, for thy good word. Three hours only have I been at your court and you have welcomed me with bread and salt and with friendly word. Thirty years have I served prince Vladimir, but have received from him neither white bread nor friendly word. But, O Tsar Constantine, I cannot remain with thee, for my sword and my life belong to mother Russia!"

Thus, throughout all his career Ilia Murometz remains the same; the ardent patriot, the son of mother Russia, of the poor "black people," and not the slave or servant of the prince. How very independent this champion of the people is of the court of Kieff, the following episode may serve to

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153

show. The prince one day forgot to invite Ilia to a court
festival. The warrior gets very angry about this lack of
courtesy. He takes his bow and arrow and shoots off all the
golden balls from the church cupolas of Kieff. Then he sum-
mons all the drunkards and vagabonds (*gol kabatzkaia*), and
bids them buy wine for all this gold. In a few hours half of
the city is drunk and Ilia leads the crowd to the palace.
Vladimir trembles with fear, and bids his daughter Apraxia
go invite Ilia to his table. Ilia comes and says to the prince:
"Hear me, Vladimir of Kieff, it is thy good luck that thou
hast sent thy young maiden to invite me. The arrow was
already quivering on my bow which was to pierce thy heart
and the hearts of thine courtiers. But now be it all forgot-
ten, and may God forgive you!"

With the same love and admiration as in life, the Russian
people surround their favorite hero in death. When Ilia
grew very old and had vanquished and subdued all that there
was to subdue, there came a "force of angels" and carried
him to the "Convent of Caverns" (*Petchersky Monastyr*) in
Kieff, and there the old Ilia fell asleep for ever. "But we,"
closes the rhapsodist his chant, "we sing even now the glory
of the old man, the old Cossack Ilia Murometz!"

*Dobrynia Nikititch and Alesha Popovitch, the mythical representatives in folk-lore of the Boyar and of the ecclesiastical class, possess neither the originality, nor the poetical force of their great contemporary. The songs and tales inspired by these heroes, as a rule, lack originality. The great nameless poet of folk-lore seems to regard them with as much respect as Ilia Murometz, but with less congenial feeling of brotherly sympathy.*

The rich poetical treasure, buried in the tales, songs and
*skazkas* of Russian folk-lore has of late attracted the atten-
tion of many of the ablest European philologists and poets.
Among these, Rambaud and W. R. S. Ralston have published
standard works on the subject. And in order to give the
reader, as far as the limits of this sketch admit, some idea
of the lyric tales of Russian folk-lore we copy here one of
the latter, selected from Mr. Ralston's book, "The Songs of
the Russian People":

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THE HEADLESS PRINCESS.

In a certain country there lived a King; and this King had a daughter who was an enchantress. Near the royal palace there dwelt a priest, and the priest had a boy of ten years old, who went every day to an old woman to learn reading and writing. Now it happened one day that he came away from his lessons late in the evening, and as he passed the palace he looked in at one of the windows. At that window the Princess happened to be sitting and dressing herself. She took off her head, lathered it with soap, washed it with clean water, combed its hair, plaited its long black braid, and then put it back again in its proper place. The boy was lost in wonder.

"What a clever creature!" thinks he. "A downright witch."

And when he got home he began telling everyone how he had seen the Princess without her head.

All of a sudden the King's daughter fell ill, and she sent for her father, and strictly enjoined him, saying:

"If I die, make the priest's son read the psalter over me three nights running."

The Princess died; they placed her in a coffin, and carried it to church. Then the King summoned the priest, and said:

"Have you got a son?"

"I have, your majesty."

"Well then," said the King, "let him read the psalter over my daughter three nights running."

The priest returned home, and told his son to get ready. In the morning the priest's son went to his lessons, and sat over his book looking ever so gloomy.

"What are you unhappy about?" asked the old woman.

"How can I help being unhappy when I am utterly done for?"

"Why, what's the matter? Speak out plainly."

"Well then, granny, I've got to read psalms over the Princess, and do you know she's a witch!"

"I knew that before you did! But don't be frightened, there's a knife for you. When you go into the church trace a circle round you; then read away from your psalter and don't look behind you. Whatever happens there, whatever horrors may appear, mind your own business and go on reading, reading. But if you look behind you, it will be all over with you!"

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In the evening the boy went to the church, traced a circle round him with the knife, and betook himself to the psalter. Twelve o'clock struck. The lid of the coffin flew up; the Princess arose, leapt out, and cried :

"Now I'll teach you to go peeping through my windows,
and telling people what you saw!"

She began rushing at the priest's son, but she couldn't any-
how break into the circle. Then she began to conjure up all
sorts of horrors. But in spite of all that she did, he went on
reading and reading, and never gave a look round, but at
daybreak the Princess rushed at her coffin, and tumbled into
it at full length, all of a heap.

The next night everything went on just the same. The
priest's son wasn't a bit afraid, went on reading without a stop
right up to daybreak, and in the morning went to the old
woman. She asked him:

Well! have you seen horrors?"

"Yes, granny!"

"It will be still more horrible this time. Here's a ham-
mer for you and four nails. Knock them into the four cor-
ners of the coffin, and when you begin reading the psalter,
stick up the hammer in front of you."

In the evening the priest's son went to the church, and did
everything just as the old woman had told him. Twelve
o'clock struck, the coffin lid fell to the ground, the Princess
jumped up and began tearing from side to side, and threaten-
ing the youth. Then she conjured up horrors, this time worse
than before. It seemed to him as if a fire had broken out
in the church; all the walls were wrapped in flames! But
he held his ground and went on reading, never once looking
behind him. Just before daybreak the Princess rushed to her
coffin. Then the fire seemed to go out immediately, and all
the deviltry vanished.

In the morning the King came to the church, and saw that
the coffin was open, and in the coffin lay the Princess, face
downwards.

"What's the meaning of all this?" says he.

The boy told him everything that had taken place. Then
the King gave orders that an aspen stake should be driven
into his daughter's breast, and that her body should be thrust
in a hole in the ground. But he rewarded the priest's son
with a heap of money and various lands.

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## ORTHODOX SERMONS.

BISHOP NESTOR, who represents the Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska and on the Pacific coast, has recently published a series of sermons on Revelation; the Holy Scriptures, and how to read them; Traditions, their origin and use and how to preserve and profit by them; the Atonement, and the Trinity. These important topics are treated clearly and with force by the Bishop, and we return thanks for the excerpts which he has sent us, and which we herewith condense for the readers of the ORIENTAL MAGAZINE.

The Right Rev. Prelate prepared the minds of his hearers beforehand by an epitome of the Orthodox faith as taught by Jesus Christ and his apostles, and pointed out the distinction between that which is orthodox and that which is not. Passing on then, Bishop Nestor presents reasons for a Divine revelation, and demonstrates also how the invisible things of God from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His eternal power and godhead. In other words, the universe reveals God to men—tells of His power, wisdom, goodness, &c., and yet men, blinded by depraved passions, fail to recognize Him as God, or give Him thanks for His great goodness, but are puffed up with vain imaginings, and while professing themselves to be wise they become fools, and change the glory of the corruptible God into images made like to corruptible men, and to birds and four-footed beasts and creeping things, thus changing the truth of God into a lie, and worshipping and serving the creature more than the Creator, who is over all and blessed forever. And because of this blindness of the human race and its inability to see God in His works, He revealed Himself to men by men—Moses, Samuel, David, Elijah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and by His only begotten Son, Jesus Christ. Jesus, Himself, coming from God, being of one substance with the Father, and possessing a perfect knowledge of God, declared that: "No man knoweth the Son but the Father; neither knoweth any man the Father save the Son, and He to whomsoever the Son will reveal Him." The hidden mystery of God, which had been kept secret from the foundation of the world, and which none of the princes of this world knew, because God had ordained it before the

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world was, in apostolic and later years was revealed unto men by the Holy Spirit who searcheth all things, even the deep things of God.

The manifestation of this divine mystery is made to men through the Holy Scriptures and Tradition. The former is a great gift of God for which we should always give thanks that they contain the Revelation of God to men, and that they have been preserved through all the centuries free from the admixture of human ideas and errors—in perfect purity. God was pleased to make this revelation of Himself by His Spirit through chosen men, and therein to make known His purpose to send the race a Savior, and a Great One who should save them from their sins. This purpose and promise was first made known to Eve, the mother of the race, then to Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, David, Jewish patriarchs and prophets, through a period extending over 4,000 years, until the fullness of the time had come when He sent forth His Son, made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were under the law, that we might become the sons of God. Hence, while meditating on these things, we should give thanks to the Father for sending His only begotten Son into the world, and to Jesus Christ for accomplishing our salvation and calling us to participate in the blessings of His benevolence. The proofs that the Scriptures are the Revelation of God are many, but Bishop Nestor covers the ground very thoroughly in the following: (1) The vast scope of their teachings; (2) their sublimity; (3) their purity; (4) the fulfillment of their prophecies; (5) miracles; and lastly, their powerful action upon human souls. In merely human books there is nothing to equal or approach the information contained in the Holy Scriptures. If in the books of ancient philosophers we meet with some truths resembling those contained in the Scriptures, we may be sure to find upon the testimony of ancient fathers and teachers of the Church, that these truths have either been borrowed from Hebrew books, or have only an apparent resemblance to the lessons of Scripture, and have not, in fact, such high meaning, nor do they impart such perfect knowledge. In sublimity of expression and argument, as well as in the purity of its lessons, the Bible far surpasses all other books and writings. The prophecies and miracles in particular prove the divine origin of the Scriptures. Man can divine something of the future by taking for

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a basis the present and past times, but he cannot foretell such facts as will take place in the remotest future, independent of present or past causes, and independent of any common or permanent law of nature. Such facts can only be known to the Omniscient, and He revealeth His secrets to His servants, the prophets. Such miracles also as were performed by Moses, by Elias, by Jesus Christ and His apostles, could be accomplished only by the power of an Almighty God. The ancient prophets appeared before the people without any temporal authority, unendowed with human dignities or preferences, but by the power of the word alone, in the name of God, they held the people in submission to the law, bridled vice, upheld piety, and fearlessly appeared before the mighty of earth and caused them to obey the commands of God. The apostles too, chosen by Jesus Christ, from the lowest class, vanquished by their preaching alone, wise, rich, and powerful nations and kingdoms.

It follows hence, that the Bible cannot be read as other books are read. As the Scriptures were written by inspiration of the Holy Ghost, we can therefore understand them only with the assistance of the Holy Ghost. The natural man, the man who has not in him the Spirit of God, cannot receive nor understand the things of the Spirit of God. As in the visible world we cannot see nor recognize external objects unless the sunlight illumines and reveals them to us; so neither can we see nor understand spiritual things, save as they are revealed by the Holy Spirit. We should read the Scriptures with sincere humility of soul and a frank desire to derive therefrom instruction in faith and inducements to lead a pious and virtuous life. God imparts His divine truths only to those of humble heart, but from the haughty and proud He conceals them.

Tradition, like Scripture is the true word of God which was primarily received and preserved in the Church by means of word and example. Tradition existed before Scripture. It began with Adam, was transmitted to Enoch, to Noah, to Abraham, to Moses, who first put them in writing as we have them in the Pentateuch. But a careful perusal of the law of Moses will show us that tradition remained in force even when the Law was written, and many important truths pro-pounded by the Law had already been known by tradition. And what is true of Old Testament tradition, is true also of

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the New. The apostles, Paul and John, tell us in their epistles
that there were some things they proposed to make known
by word of mouth rather than write them in letters. Hence,
those things are not preserved in the Scriptures, but they
come down to us in tradition. Owing to the difficulty of
communication in the first decade of Christianity the Scrip-
tures which then existed reached the remote and newly or-
ganized churches among the Gentiles slowly. The New
Testament was not written, and the narratives contained in
the Gospels were transmitted verbally by the apostles and
were received by the faithful as the word of God, and were
passed down by the elders to the younger members of the
congregations. Thus St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who
was a disciple of St. John the divine, handed down to St.
Irenæus the traditions which he had received from the beloved
disciple of Jesus Christ. In the course of time those traditions
were deposited in writings of the apostles and evangelists and
of Sts. Basil and John Chrysostom, Polycarp, Ignatius, Clem-
ent, Justin the Martyr, Theophilos of Antioch, and of others.
The acts of the holy martyrs in the early time of the Christian
Church were written; and in later years the fathers and
teachers of the third and fourth centuries embodied in detail
the holy traditions in their writings and transmitted them to
the universal church for all time to come. In the same way
the acts of the orthodox councils, both ecumenical and local,
their rules and ordinances are the depository of the holy tradi-
tions. In the ancient church, by example and ordinance of
the apostles, local councils assembled twice every year, and
all disputes concerning the doctrines of the church and good
order were decided before it, at first upon the basis of tradi-
tion, and afterwards on the basis of Scripture and tradition.
And whatever importance tradition possessed in the ancient
orthodox church it has the same now, because the orthodox
church is immutable and the holy traditions received from
the primitive church, from the apostles and from God, are
preserved in the same meaning to the present time. What-
ever the church teaches, therefore of that there can be no
doubt; whatever she orders may be followed without dispute
because that is perfect truth, absolutely necessary for salva-
tion. She teaches that which the primitive church received
from the apostles by word and by writings. She keeps the
same mysterious and sacred ceremonies which the ancient

164 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

orthodox church kept. She preserves in holiness, and proposes to all her children, all that which was proposed to and accepted by the faithful in the presence of the apostles and in the time of the ecumenical councils and universal teachers. Whoever, therefore, with faith accepts her instructions and obeys her guidance, will be safe from the errors into which many others have fallen.

## RELIGIOUS NOTES.

A REPORT on the general condition of the Orthodox Church during the year 1878 has just been published by Count D. Tolstoy, Procureur-General of the Holy Synod.

The report begins by stating the progress of missionary work. The number of missionaries is not considerable, neither are the resources they dispose of important. The difficulties they encounter in their work are very great on account of the immense territory of operation, as well as of the extreme ignorance of the races which are being converted. Nevertheless the results obtained by the missionaries are not unimportant.

In Siberia 3,803 heathen have been Christianized during the year 1878. The results obtained among the Moslem population are less considerable. Among them about 413 conversions have taken place.

In the interior of Russia the clergy have chiefly directed their endeavors towards bringing the old believers or Raskolniks into the Orthodox church; 3,150 conversions have been thus obtained. Over and above this 3,529 persons belonging to different sects have reentered the church. This gives for the year 1878 a total of 9,885 conversions.

The missions have been supplied, first from the government funds, and secondly, from the resources of the Mission Association. The latter society being subdivided in 28 sections and counting 6,254 active members, has expended during the year 1878 the sum of 139,762 rubles. Besides this association, the St. Geria Society at Kazan and the mission committees of the dioceses of Viatka, Orenburg and Ufa are to be remembered.

In 1878 the Orthodox Church in Russia numbered 58, 111,135 members. There exist 37,180 churches, 13,254 chap-

RELIGIOUS NOTES.

165

els and oratories in the empire. The secular clergy count
89,182 members, among these 1,303 archpriests, 33,499
priests, 7,883 deacons, 46,497 clerks. The regular clergy oc-
cupy 387 convents, and number 6,402 monks and 4,200 nov-
ices. There are, besides, 165 nunneries, having 4,437 nuns
and 11,302 novices.

There are in Russia, 223 ecclesiastical schools, viz.: 4 academies with 600 pupils, 33 seminaries containing 12,877 and 186 colleges with 28,913 pupils. The parish schools for the people, number 5,974, containing 171,957 boys and 11,041 girls.

The churches are aided by 11,441 societies. These ex-
pended during the year 1878, 1,677,813 rubles; of which
1,385,282 was for repairs and embellishment of churches;
164,679 rubles for parish schools and charitable institutions;
128,454 rubles for the clergy.

The St. Petersburg committee of the Society for Religious Instruction has had the happy idea of combining with the consecration of the great Cathedral of the Redemption at Moscow, a peculiarly important solemnity. The committee proposes to invite to the consecration, which will take place on the 26th of August of the present year, the four Patriarchs of the Oriental Church, and especially His Holiness the Patriarch of Constantinople. It is intended by this measure to revive the ancient custom of regular correspondence between the highest representatives of the Holy Eastern Church, and thus to bring into a more intimate union and coöoperation all the Orthodox Churches.

The committee proposes further to avail itself of the
presence of the Patriarchs at Moscow, to solve some import-
ant church questions, such as the so-called Bulgarian schism
and other questions pertaining to the basis of reunion of sev-
eral Western religious organizations with the Orthodox
Church.

Long ago the members of the Russian Orthodox Church de-
sired the convocation of an Ecumenical Council. The proposed
conference of the Patriarchs at Moscow may in a measure
replace such a Council. Personal deliberation can in many
instances settle questions which written communications are
unable to solve.

THE

ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

SEPTEMBER, 1880.

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA.

No other government has spent so liberally large sums of money, so much honest and faithful labor, in the cause of geographical and ethnographical science as the government of Russia, for the purpose of exploring the vast dominions of the empire, which occupy about one-seventh part of the entire surface of the globe. While the terrible war against Turkey was carried on in the cause of civilization and Christianity, at an unprecedented cost of precious blood and money, the engineers of the Imperial staffs were quietly surveying and exploring the unknown regions of Central Asia, and the result of their labors, the magnificent map of Turkestan and the adjacent regions was published, and stands to this day unsurpassed by any similar work as a marvel of topographical accuracy and artistic execution. Similar works—such as special maps of the basin of the Amou—Darya, the ancient Oxus, the Delta of the Amoor and of other countries—have been published, and have excited the wonder and admiration of scientists of all countries, whose political passions have not blinded them to the good deeds of an opponent. But the crowning point in this direction has been reached by the great ethnographical map of the Russian Empire, executed under the superintendence of Colonel A. F. Rittich, of the Imperial-General Staff, which so distinguished and competent a critic as the late Dr. August Petermann called the most important and superb cartographical work that has ever been published in any country. To give an idea of this magnificent work it will suffice to say that it comprises an area of 8,440,000 square miles, inhabited by 86,000,000 people.

168 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

The great bulk of the population of Russia is formed by nations of Slavish origin, consequently of people belonging to the great INDO-GERMANIC OR ARYAN RACE, and among these the Russians proper appear, of course, in overwhelming proportions.

## THE RUSSIANS

inhabit, in compact masses, European Russia. In Asia they are chiefly found in Southern Siberia, and, in more or less density, along both banks of the great northern rivers, and, in fact, in all cities where the conditions of soil or facilities of commerce invited colonization. The origin of the name of Russia has been attributed to various sources. The most widely-accepted theory is the derivation from the word "Rodse"—a name which the Finns gave to the Normans who, in the ninth century, came in large masses from Sweden to Finland on their way to what is to-day European Russia. "Rodse" means a rower—a name that might appropriately be applied to the sea-roving and sea-loving Northmen.

Before the arrival of the Normans the vast plains of modern Russia were inhabited by different tribes, all distinctly belonging to the great family of the Slavs, and no doubt the same which in ancient history appear under the name of Sarmatians. This great tribe inhabited, at the beginning of our era, the wide region between the Caspian Sea and the Vistula. Among these Slavs lived a large population belonging to the Germanic tribes—the Goths and Finns. The great migration of the nations during the third, fourth and fifth centuries swept like a tornado over these regions, and, like everywhere, destroyed all that was not strong in the ancient world. Upon the ruins new nations arose, and in south-eastern Europe the Slavish tribes soon developed to the importance of settled governments.

Byzantine historians of the tenth century speak of Rurik, the Varangian or Norman invader who founded the kingdom of Novgorod, as commanding armies of tens of thousands. His successors, Oleg and I'gor penetrated to the Caspian Sea. In a short time the three great tribes amalgamated into one, and whilst adopting the name of the invaders, the Russians, retained the language and customs of the old race, the Slavs. It is certain that towards the end of the ninth century a powerful, warlike young nation, calling itself Russian, began to occupy a prominent part in the annals of those dark

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA.

169

ages, relating to southeastern Europe, and around the ancient City of Kiev a strong, patriarchal government began to develop its forces. In those remote times the vexed Oriental question seems to have first appeared in the records of history. I'gor, Rurik's warlike son, led his victorious armies to the very gates of Constantinople, and the Byzantine emperor, Romanos, was obliged to purchase, with a heavy indemnity, the peace and good-will of his powerful neighbors. Under the beautiful Olga, I'gor's widow, who first embraced Christianity, the young empire continued to flourish and increase; and under Vladimir the Great (980) reached a period of splendor and prosperity, which to this day, with the holy City of Kiev as a center, is one of the most precious traditions of ancient Russian history.

The invasion of the Mongol hordes, which swept like a sea of blood and fire over these prospering countries, pressed the Russians towards the north, who, in their turn, pushed the Finns towards the inhospitable regions of the arctic zone. Novgorod became now the seat of Russian government, and the noble old city, by industry and commerce, grew and flourished till it became a most respected and influential member of the great Hansa league. To this day exists in Russia a proverb: "Who can prevail against God and Novgorod?"

It is not the purpose of this article to give a *resumé* of the history of Russia. It will suffice to say that in 1480 the Grand Dukes of Moscow—a title which the rulers had assumed—succeeded in throwing off the Mongol yoke; that the noble family of Rurik, which had ruled for nearly eight centuries, died out in 1610; and that the illustrious house of the Romanoffs acceded to the throne in 1613, of which house is the present emperor, His Majesty Alexander II.

It was not in the nature of things that during ten centuries of intercourse with foreign nations, purity of race and blood could be preserved. But it will suffice to say that the most numerous, most intelligent, brave and civilized portion of the original population of the great empire are the Slavs who date their origin to those tribes who lived in the eighth century between the Caspian Sea and the Vistula, and that Russia's proudest aristocracy delights in tracing its descent from the warriors who followed I'gor to Constantinople; to those who with Vladimir the Great embraced Christianity, and from whose ranks arose the martyrs and saints of the Holy Orthodox Church.

170 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

The purely Russian element is divided into Great Russia with 34,400,000 souls, Little Russia with 14,200,000, White Russia with 3,600,000. A little over four million people of direct Russian origin are scattered over the vast dominions subject to the Czar's rule on the great continent of Asia, making a total of over 56 millions.

POLES.

The Poles are a Slavish people next in importance to the Russians. In consequence of the difference in religion—they are almost without exception Roman Catholics—and other reasons, the Poles are in manners and habits nearer related to the West of Europe than to Russia. They are scattered over almost every part of the empire and number altogether 4,760,000 souls, of whom nearly four millions live in the old Kingdom of Poland; the rest are disposed over European Russia, the Caucasus and the Asiatic Khanates.

The Polish nation has from oldest times been renowned for its warlike disposition. Its national troop, the "Uhlans" is represented in almost every army of Europe, and forms a most valuable part of the famous Russian cavalry.

The remaining portion of the Slavish nation is represented by the

SERBIANS, BULGARIANS AND CZECHS.

The Serbians, once a powerful tribe, whose dominions extended as far as the Elbe, formed an empire on the Danube in 1340. Their Emperor Lazarus was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and in 1459 their fair country became subject to the sultan's rule. The first Servians emigrated to Russia under Peter the Great. They are settled in strictly national communities in Little Russia, where they number about 8,000 people. They are an intelligent, sober, hardworking race, which embraced Christianity already in 640.

The Bulgarians are of Ugrian-Finnish origin, and played quite an important part in the great revolution caused by the migration of the nations in the earliest portion of the middle ages. They lost their independence at the same time as their neighbors, the Serbians. They emigrated into Russia in the early part of the last century and are now settled, to the number of nearly 100,000, in Bessarabia, Tanrida and Cherson.

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA.

171

The Czechs (Bohemians) exist only in very small num-
bers and are of no consideration. After the Austro-Prussian
war of 1866, some six or seven thousand took up their resi-
dence in Russia, but they exercise of course neither political
nor social influence of any kind.

The next kindred, yet distinctly defined group is the

LETTO-SLAVISH GROUP,

which is divided into Lithuanians and Letts.

THE LITHUANIANS

were once a powerful, warlike nation of which the dukes
carried on successful wars against the Russians for centuries.
Their misfortune and decay dates from their union with Poland
in 1386, when their Grand Duke Jagellon became Christian and
was elected King of Poland. The servitude under which the
people were held by the Polish nobles unnerved and degraded
this powerful race, and their former glory lives only in tradi-
tion in their beautiful national songs. Since the last Polish
rebellion the Russian government has freed the peasantry
from the burden under which they have groaned for centu-
ries from their Polish masters, and even this short period of
freedom has raised them from their lethargy and gives fair
promise of a better future. They number about 1,450,000
people.

THE LETTS,

having lived in a state of servitude for many centuries, were
the first people of Russia among whom serfdom was abol-
ished. This great reform took place in 1816. They are in
many respects superior to their kinsmen, the Lithuanians. A
vast majority of the lower classes can read and write, and they
possess a great number of free schools. With the exception
of about 50,000, who belong to the Orthodox Church, they
acknowledge the Lutheran religion, while the Lithuanians
are, almost without exception, Roman Catholics. The number
of Letts living in Russia amounts to about one million.

THE GRECO-LATIN GROUP

is represented by the

GREEKS,

who were first invited by the great Catharine to settle in Rus-
sia. As everywhere else where this people exists, their
chief aim is to make as much money as possible in the short-

172 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

est possible time, with the least possible exertion. The Greek merchant at the exchange of Petersburgh, Moskow and Odesa, or at the great fair of Nishni-Novgorod is dreaded as a shrewd, sharp, often unscrupulous customer, with whom even the cunning Jew is cautious in his dealings. At this moment there live over 80,000 Greeks in the Empire.

## THE RUMANIANS

are the degenerated descendants of those Thraco-Illyrian Dacians who were Romanised by the colony which Trajan left there after his conquest of the country in 106. Few countries have undergone so many and various changes at this little spot of earth. It was successively conquered and governed by Goths, Slavs, Huns, Scythians and Magyars. Its important geographical position at the mouth of the Danube will attract the attention of Europe until the oriental question has been definitely settled. The language shows the history of the country with singular precision; it is a strange mixture of corrupt Slavish, Magyar, Turkish with some powerful old Dacian roots, all dressed up in a barbarous Latin jargon, and this gibberish is called Rumanian. There are about 650,000 Rumanians in Russia, all belonging to the Orthodox Church.

## THE FRENCH AND FRENCH SWISS

must be counted in this group. Those actually settled in Russia are very few in number, scarcely reaching 1,100. They are mostly engaged as teachers and artists. A small majority carries on business as merchants or mechanics.

Of importance among foreign populations in Russia, both in numbers and in moral and in intellectual weight, are

## THE GERMANS.

They are mostly the descendants of the conquerors of Lettland, Livland and Esthland, and have been residents for centuries in the Baltic provinces, whence they have spread over every part of the Empire, even in the midst of the Central Asian Khanates. They number about one million people, and are found as civil and military officers, often holding high and influential government positions, as merchants, professors, physicians, musicians, artists; also as mechanics and farmers.

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA.

173

## THE SWEDES

form a compact body of the population of the Grand Duchy of Finland, which was for centuries a Swedish province. They number there about 270,000, whilst 10,000 more are living in other parts of the Empire.

## ENGLISH AND SCOTCH

residents in Russia are not many hundred, and live only in the large cities, chiefly as mechanical engineers.

## THE IRANIAN RACE

is represented in European Russia by the

### ARMENIANS,

a very ancient nation, which derives its origin from Haik, the son of Japhet. This remarkable people, though enjoying only for a comparatively short period independence, has never lost its nationality. They are scattered over the whole inhabited world, yet remain Armenians, wherever they are. They are almost exclusively engaged in commerce, where for daring cunning and bold speculation they even outstrip the Greeks and Jews. They were converted to Christianity in the second century after Christ, and in spite of their dependence upon heathen and Mohammedan rulers, in spite of the frightful sufferings they have endured for the sake of their faith, they have remained true to their religion throughout all changes of masters and good and bad fortune. In European Russia they are represented by about 34,000 souls.

## THE GYPSIES

must be mentioned here as belonging to the Iranian tribe. They are in Russia the same interesting, ragged, mysterious race as everywhere else. Their number is estimated at something over 200,000.

## THE SEMITIC RACE

is represented by the

### JEWS,

who already in the early period of the Crusades escaped from the persecution and hardships they had to endure in Western Europe, and took refuge in Poland, whence in after years they spread over all parts of the Empire. Their num-

174 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

than at present resident in Russia amounts to over two and a
half millions, or nearly one-third of the whole Jewish race.

The second great division of the human race that inhabits
Russia is the

MONGOLIAN RACE,

of which the Ural-Altai group exists in European Russia,
which is again subdivided into Finns and Tartars.

THE FINNS

are divided into several distinct groups, of which the
Karelian, the Tschudi, Volga, and North Finns are the prin-
cipal. The total number resident in European Russia exceeds
four and a half millions.

The Finns, like all nations belonging to this family, were
driven in prehistoric times from their native home at the foot
of the Altai Mountains, and pressed northward until they
spread over Scandinavia, and to the Vistula in the west.

The Karelian group, which contains about two million
people, is again subdivided into different branches, all of
which, though possessing the Mongolian type, have many
distinct qualities. The principal tribes of the Karelian
Finns are the Karelians proper (shepherds), the Bothnians,
the Snomi, the Savolak, and Savakot. In the manners and
customs of these tribes every trace of their Asiatic origin is
lost; they are Europeans in the best sense of the word. They
are a healthy, industrious, honest and hardworking people,
who force the stingy products of the inhospitable soil they
inhabit only by means of untiring energy and hard work.
They were converted to Christianity by the Swedish King
Erich in the twelfth century, and the majority to-day ac-
knowledges the Lutheran faith. Since 1809 the Grand
Duchy of Finland belongs to Russia, but they have ever
since preserved their own national system of self-govern-
ment.

THE TSCHUDI GROUP

is closely related to the Karelians. The three most distinct
tribes among these are the Estlanders, Livlanders and Lap-
landers.

THE LAPLANDERS

alone differ in many respects from the others, which is the
natural consequence of the character of the country which

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA.

175

they inhabit, the most northern part of Europe, extending far into the arctic circle. Though smaller in stature and inferior in physical development to their nearest kinsmen, the Lapps are possessed of extraordinary power of endurance and bodily vigor. Patience, sobriety, readiness for self-sacrifice and honesty are their best qualities, which, however, are much impeded by natural indolence and a suspicious disposition. The Lapps are stanch and devoted Christians, and those residing in Russia belong, with few exceptions, to the Orthodox Church.

## THE VOLGA FINNS

differ only in a few unimportant details from their kinsmen. They are divided into three tribes, the Mordvins, the Tschermmissians and the Wotyaks.

The last group of Finns are the

### NORTHERN FINNS,

who are again divided into Permians, Syrians, Voguls and Samoyeds. As regards physical, moral and intellectual development, the northern Finns are infinitely below the three other branches of their family. The inhospitable northern country which they inhabit has naturally degraded a once superior race. Their only friend and means of support is the reindeer, which furnishes them with food and clothes, which supplies material for their dwellings, and is their only companion on the vast, inhospitable tundras. They are nominally Christians, but their religion is defiled by many remnants of the old heathenish rites. They are gradually decreasing in population, and the time is not far distant when this weak, incapable people will cease to exist.

The second great division of the Ural-Altai group comprises the

### TARTARS,

numbering nearly three million people in European Russia, belonging, almost without exception, to the Mohammedan religion. They are best divided into three classes—the Eastern Tartars, the Tartars of the Crimea, and the Lithuanian Tartars.

The Tartars are a noble and warlike, handsome, race; their blood has freely mixed with that of the noblest Russian families. The noblest representatives of this powerful race are

176 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

the Tartars of Khazan. They inhabit the country of the ancient Bulgarians, which was destroyed by the Asiatic hordes. Ula Machmed, who had fled before Timur's hosts, was the founder of the Khanate of Khazan, which, in 1536, fell into the hands of Ivan the Terrible. In spite of their strongly expressed Mongolian type, the Khazan Tartars are a handsome, graceful people. The women, particularly, are often of tender, delicate beauty. They are amiable and kindhearted, with a desire for mental improvement quite unusual among followers of Islam. Their number is about 450,000.

## THE TARTARS OF THE CRIMEA

formed once a powerful Khanate, comprising the Crimea, the Caucasus and a large part of Southern Russia, and which in time of war could muster 200,000 horsemen.

## THE LITHUANIAN TARTARS

settled in White Russia, and differ in manner and habits from the two other branches. The three branches united amount to about 1,200,000.

The remaining branches of the great Tartar family in Europe are the Bashkirs, the Meshtsheryaks, Nogai, Tschุvasch, Kirghiz, Karakalpaks, Turkomen and Kalmucks. All these tribes are more or less nomads, and have preserved much stronger traces of their Asiatic origin than the first described three branches. They all will be found again in the following analysis of Asiatic Russia, which is their real home.

Before entering upon the immense dominion of Asiatic Russia there is one race which above all attracts the interest and the attention of the student of geography and ethnography, namely, the Caucasians, a race which, on account of its superior moral and physical development, has given its name to the most advanced branch of the human family inhabiting this globe.

The Caucasus is no longer what it was to the ancient Greeks, the "end of the world," nor the "Inhospitabilis Caucasus" of Horace. Yet it contains to this day much that is strange and wonderful, and from the earliest dawn of history a shroud of romance and poetry has covered this wonderful country. Noah's ark landed on Mount Ararat, and the human race spread over the face of the globe from

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA.

177

its lofty summit. Prometheus was chained to a barren rock of these mountains for his offense against the gods. Jason is said to have led his Argonauts to that fabulous land. Remains of megalithic times, troglodyte dwellings, ruins of the best period of Greek art, mediæval towers and castles, of Christian churches, Moslem mosques, bear witness in their powerful language to the innumerable changes and revolutions that have taken place here. Among the hundreds of different tribes that inhabit to-day these mountains there must be lineal descendants of those generations which were actors in those revolutions, of which every inch of ground bears testimony.

In the most remote past, Iranian tribes, such as Kurds, Armenians and Ossetes; also Turkish races, Tartars, Turkmen have settled north and south of the Caucasus. All these nationalities have been classified according to the language spoken by them; their religion has been traced and fixed according to strictly defined scientific principles. But among them lives a people of whose origin nothing is known, because their language cannot be reduced to any known mother tongue. They are known in ethnography under the general name of

CAUCASIAN TRIBE.

This tribe has again been divided into the Iberian or Kartvelian, the West Caucasian and East Caucasian groups. Among the first branch

THE GEORGIANS

deserve first mention. They inhabit to-day the best parts of Transcaucasia, from the shores of the Black Sea eastward towards the mouth of the Alasan into the Kura, the Colchis and Iberia of the ancients, which to-day are the governments of Tiflis and Kutais.

The Georgians are a nation of very ancient civilization. Their chronicles give Thargamas, the fourth lineal descendant of Noah, as the founder of their race. The ruins lately discovered in this interesting country prove that more than 700 years before the Christian era the Georgians were in an advanced state of civilization, and built their houses of brick and mortar. The earliest inhabitants of the country acknowledged the doctrines of Zoroaster, but Christianity took root there at a very early age, probably in the first century of

178 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

our era. The ruins of many Christian churches, among
others the Zion Cathedral in Tiflis, the mountain monastery of
Saint David of Garadshi, a building of immense proportions,
bear witness to the devotion of those early believers, who
took refuge from the troubles and turmoil of the world in
these wild mountain solitudes.

The Romans in the zenith of their power, after them the
Byzantians, after them the Arabs, have ruled over this
country. In 787 the Bagrat family, an ancient and noble
native tribe, acceded to the government, and the climax of
power and prosperity was reached under their rule. Timur's
Mongol hordes swept over the country in the fourteenth
century. Persians, Turks and other hostile nations devas-
tated the flouishing kingdom, until King George XIII.
solemnly surrendered his kingdom to the evergrowing, vigorous,
youthful empire of Russia, and in 1803 Georgia became a
Russian province under the name of the Government of Tiflis;
Mingrelia followed in 1803, Imertia and Guria in 1810.

The Georgians acknowledge the Orthodox Church. They
are considered the handsomest race in the world. Their fea-
tures are of the purest Greek mould; their expression gentle
and kind; they are tall and slender, yet powerful in their
growth; their picturesque costume lends additional grace and
charm to their appearance, and their women, with their little
velvet caps and long white veil (tchadra), in which they
coquettishly enwrap their figures, are pictures of beauty and
loveliness which an artist might covet for his model.

The Georgians resident in Russia number over 350,000
souls. Closely related to them are the Mingrelians and Suan-
etes, numbering about 210,000 people.

Of equal, if not greater interest than the Georgians, are
the

CAUCASIAN HIGHLANDERS,

for whom no other name has been established, as they are
split into innumerable little clans and tribes. As regards the
language spoken by these mountaineers, there is a confusion
only equaled by that around the tower of Babel. A Russian
traveler has counted about one hundred and thirty distinct
dialects, and the Arabs called the Caucasus the Mountains of
Language.

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179

THE WEST CAUCASIAN GROUP,

though divided, like the Highlanders, into many different branches, forms one complete, powerful tribe. All these nations were formerly Christians, but have gradually been converted to the Mohammedan religion. Love of independence and liberty, a warlike spirit, great power of endurance and skill in all bodily exercises are the chief characteristics of this noble race. They are sober and hospitable, courageous to stoicism, without fear of death or bodily harm. Among these mountaineers the

CIRCASSIANS

deserve foremost mention. They are the handsomest and strongest of this powerful group. Tall and slender, yet muscular in build, of fair complexion, with dark hair, eagle eyes, and graceful, dignified manners, they form with their kinsmen, the Georgians, the most beautiful race of the earth. Their dress is picturesque; and the Imperial Body Guard, which consists of Circassians, in their gorgeous military costume, is the most magnificent, warlike looking troop of men that can be seen.

The Circassians belonged formerly to the Christian religion, and have only within the last hundred years been converted to Christianity. Relics of Christianity, with strange old remnants of heathenism, are met to this day among the lower classes.

The feudal system of the middle ages of Europe still prevails among the Circassians. Their family life since their conversion to Islam is thoroughly oriental. Women and children live separate. The boys, when they have reached a certain age, are sent away from home and entrusted to the care of some vassal, who is responsible for his physical and moral education. The greatest attention is naturally paid to the physical development of the young noble; exercises on horseback and with every kind of arms fill by far the greater portion of his time. The population can be distinctly divided into four classes—the Psehih, or princes; next to them ranks a vassal nobility, the Usds, who again rule over a lower class of nobles, the Tschofokoti; lastly come the Pschilt, or peasants, who were formerly serfs, but are now, thanks to the high-hearted policy of Alexander I, free tillers of the soil.

180 THE ORIENTAL CHURCH MAGAZINE.

The Circassian women have for ages been celebrated for their beauty. Their fiery black eyes are arched over by finely marked brows. The classical mould of their features, their rich southern complexion, their slender graceful build, have for centuries been the theme of poets' and artists' praise. Their intellectual qualities are equally attractive. They are full of life and wit, and if they had educational facilities would be fully competent to mix with the best civilized society. This utter neglect of cultivating the development of the intellectual faculties, particularly among the men, accounts for that one dark blot that stains the character of this noble, heroic race—namely, the infamous trade with their beautiful women, whom they send to the slave markets of Constantinople to supply the harems of the Ottoman Empire. The girls themselves, principally from the Tschofokoti and Pschilt class, are not the least aggrieved at their fate, and the prospect of entering the harem of some great lord, or perhaps even the Padishah himself, would tempt a daughter of an Usd noble.

The fiery, indomitable spirit of this warrior race has often led to bloody wars and cruel feuds. The song of one of their bards at a banquet, reciting the glorious deeds of some ancestral hero, has often sufficed to make the whole assembly rise, gird on their swords, call out their vassals, mount their horses and attack the Russian outposts on the Kuban line. The total number of this branch amounts to about 200,000 souls.

## THE EASTERN HIGHLANDERS

comprise the two groups of the Tschetscheny and the Lesguiens. They differ in some minor details from their neighbors, the Circassians. Their complexions are darker and their features less noble. Their lean, narrow face, with large bent noses, the gloomy, cruel expression of their deep-set black eyes, overhung by shaggy brows gives their countenance the expression of a bird of prey. And cruel, swift and bold as an eagle is this race, from which have sprung the most formidable enemies which Russia had to encounter in the wars against the Caucasian tribes.

They are Mohammedans of the most bigoted stamp. Already in the eighth century the Arabs had spread the faith of the Koran among these mountaineers, who embraced the

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181

new creed with all the passion and fire of their wild nature. This fanaticism, which the most remarkable man whom they have produced, Shamyl, fanned into a flame of wildest frenzy, taught that war—cruel, exterminating war—against the infidels, the Russians, was the most sacred duty of the believer. Any mercy shown to a “Christian dog” was to break Allah’s most holy commandments. In the innumerable battles and skirmishes with the Russians these East Caucasians never made a prisoner; not one Russian soldier who came into their power saved his life.

But the worst enemy which Russia had to encounter was not man, but nature. Impenetrable forests, natural barri-cades of shattered rocks, mountain passes which twenty men could successfully defend against an army, made every movement of a regular body of troops almost an impossi-bility. Many a time a devoted troop of Russian soldiers, marching in the deep stillness of the night through a defile, where no trace of an enemy could be seen, when it had arrived at the narrowest, most dangerous part of the pass, was startled by the fatal cry of “La illahah il Allah,”uttered in hoarse guttural tones, which were the sure harbinger of death and massacre, for immediately from every side a fire of unfailing accuracy was opened upon the Russians, and a regiment of brave, devoted men was cut down by an enemy which they could not even see. The bravery, endurance and patience on the part of the soldiers, the energy, foresight and intelligence on the part of the Russian officers in this terrible war are above all praise. In 1859 Shamyl was captured, and had to surrender to Prince Barytinski. Since then these Highlanders have lived in peace with their new masters. Their number is about 600,000.

The second great family inhabiting Asiatic Russia is the

HYPERBOREANS,

or inhabitants of the Arctic circle. Living in eternal winter and endless nights, they are naturally very inferior in physical and intellectual development to those living in milder climes and fertile regions. The origin of this vast family has not been distinctly settled. They are divided into different families, of which the Tschuktschi, the Koryaks, the Kamtschatkans, the Jukahiri, the Gilyaks, the Yenisei, Ostyaks, and the Ainos are the most important. All these people

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differ very little in appearance and manner of life. They are,
as a rule, of small stature, but strongly built, have small
hands and feet, and a very large head, with a broad, flat
face. Their hair is black and straight; the small, deep set
eyes without fire and life. The influence of the perpetual
cold, the want of variety of food, are the natural causes of
this abortive development. A continual struggle for daily
existence makes them apathetic and insensible to everything
else. These poor people are perfectly happy if they succeed
in procuring the most scanty necessaries for their families'
support. The best developed of these families are the
Tschuktschi, or Tschauktus, which, in their own language,
means "people." They live in the most northeasterly corner
of Asia, in a most desolate country, devoid of all vegetable
and animal life, with the exception of scanty moss and
lichen and the ever faithful reindeer. Towards the end of
July an abortive caricature of spring makes its appearance.
A few Arctic birds enliven for a while the mournful stillness
of the Tundra. The coast offers a terrible picture of wild
desolation. Black, sharp pointed rocks stare in grim relief
from the endless masses of ice that cover the sea to the
farthest horizon. A storm in these regions is one of the
most terrible spectacles in nature. The ice breaks, and then
begins a conflict between the water and the upheaved masses
that cannot be described. In spite of these miserable nat-
ural conditions, these poor people are of a mild, peaceful
character, of a large-hearted hospitality that has won the
admiration of the few travelers who have penetrated into
these inhospitable regions. Their religion is of the most
primitive character. They acknowledge one Supreme Being,
the Creator of that miserable world which they see around
them. He is as gentle and good as they are themselves. He
does not punish His children, and leaves this to evil spirits,
whom the people try to reconcile by sacrifices and prayers.
The remaining families differ from each other only in insig-
nificant details, with the exception of the

AINOS,

who are supposed to be aborigines of the Kuril Islands. They
are a very peculiar race, whose language cannot be connected
with that of any other tribe. They are small in stature, and
have a very strong growth of hair and beard. They are a

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183

kind-hearted, friendly people. Through their long intercourse with the Japanese they are infinitely superior in cleanliness and moral development to all other tribes of their race. Their government is of the most primitive, patriarchal kind; they are Thauman heathens, and live in polygamy. They were formerly much suppressed by the Japanese, but since 1875, when the whole of the island Saghalien, which they inhabit, came into Russian possession they are much improved, and it is to be expected that these kind-hearted, gifted people will now develop themselves to more advantage.

## THE MONGOLIAN RACE

forms by far the great majority of the population of Central Asia. The principal groups of this great family are the Tungusi, the Mongolians, and the Tartars.

### THE TUNGUSI

inhabit the vast space between the Sea of Okhotsk and the Gulf of Tartary, westward as far as the Yenisei, and are supposed to number about 64,000 souls. They are considered the most advanced and handsomest of the wild North Asiatic people. The Russians came first in contact with this warlike people in 1604, and only succeeded after a struggle of over fifty years in submitting them to their rule, and even now they enjoy greater privileges than any of the subject races in those regions. The Englishman, Hill, who traveled in 1848 in that distant country, noticed the wise and moderate policy of the Russian government, by which it gradually led this people from a state of barbarism into civilization. The honesty, hospitality and cheerful temper of the Tungusi are proverbial among their kindred. The colossal dimensions in which Nature appears in these vast regions have left their stamp upon the whole character of this people. They are fond of fine clothes, and delight in decorating themselves with pearls, colored furs and braids.

The second group, the

### MONGOLIANS

proper, number about 140,000 people. In Siberia they live in the government of Tomsk, but by far the largest number of them, 120,000, are found in Central Asia, in Kuldja. They are divided into two families, of which the

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## KALMUCKS

played once an important part in the history of Central Asia. In the beginning of the seventeenth century even Samarkand, Bokhara and Balkh had to pay tribute to them. The second branch, the

## BURATS,

inhabit the alpine region around Lake Baikal. They have long been in intimate intercourse with the Chinese and adopted much of their neighbors' manners and habits. They are Buddhists, have abandoned nomad life and are occupied with agriculture and trade.

By far the largest group of the Mongolian race are the

## TARTARS,

of which body 4,000,000 live in Russian Central Asia. To this group belong the

## JAKUTS,

who inhabit both banks of the Lena from the 60° N. latitude to the Arctic ocean. There is, perhaps, no country in the world subject to such terrible climate as the region inhabited by this people. The mean temperature of Jakutsk for the whole year is about 14° above zero (Fahrenheit), and in the midst of summer the ground never melts more than, perhaps, three to three and a half feet below the surface. But the mean temperature of July is nearly 70°, and single days have been known where the thermometer has risen to more than 100°. Yet even in the hottest days any fluid put into the cellar of a house will freeze within an hour. On the 28th of November the sun sets, not to appear again for thirty-nine days, and the desolation of this long night, where the thermometer often sinks to 60-70° below freezing point, is only a little relieved by the aurora borealis and the shining of the hard-frozen snow. It is a necessary consequence that this poor people stands on a very low scale of civilization.

Very different from them is another branch of the same group, the

## KIRGHIZ,

which is again divided into the Kirghiz-Kaisaks and the Kara-Khirgiz.

The Kirghiz-Kaisaks were settled in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Turkestan and Tashkent and came, under

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the government of Peter the Great, for the first time in con-
tact with the Russians. The annexations which Russia had
to make during this century for the sake of her own safety,
and which Prince Gortschakoff justified in his masterly cir-
cular in 1864, have brought both Kirghiz tribes entirely under
the dominion of Russia.

Of the remaining branches of the great Mongol race in
Asiatic Russia it must suffice here to name the Turkomen, at
this moment the most formidable and obstinate antagonists
to Russian progress, who inhabit the vast barren steppes to
the east of the Caspian Sea. Russia must and will subdue
these wild hordes of robbers, and their final and total subjec-
tion is a mere question of time.

The people of the great Indo-Germanic family are those
of whom we have spoken in the first part; they are Slavs,
Iranians, Poles and Germans. There are, besides these, Af-
ghans, Hindoos and Arabs scattered among the nations of
the immense Asiatic empire of Russia, numbering about
eight and a half million of souls and occupying over one-
third of the greatest continent of our globe.

THE RITUAL OF THE HOLY EASTERN CHURCH.

IT is one of the cheering evidences of progress in the nine-
teenth century that Christians of different tenets are
beginning to inquire concerning their differences, in order
to judge them by the twofold standard of the common tradi-
tion of the Church and the inspired Word of God. In any
such study as this the Holy Eastern Church may justly
claim the most prominent position. Not only is she (with
a single exception) the largest body of Christians numeri-
cally, in the world, but she can also with truth claim to
be the most ancient. For the Gospel was first preached in
Jerusalem, an Eastern city, and Rome, the capital of the
world, like all the West, received her illumination from East-
ern sources. It is well to bear these facts in mind.

Ex Oriente Lux !

The New Testament and early liturgies of the Church
were composed in the Greek language. Even St. Paul's epistle

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to the Christians at Rome was written in the Greek, not the Latin, tongue; and there is every reason to suppose that for many years the services of the Church at Rome were conducted in the Greek language. *Four* out of five of the patriarchates, into which the Church was portioned, were Greek, and *one* was Latin. A great majority of bishops in the early general councils were Oriental, both in name and origin. A Church which can boast such a lineage as this is surely entitled to every possible mark of respect, and the study of her rites should be neglected by no Christian scholar, whatever may be his creed or persuasion.

Since the Jewish Church was a shadow of the coming good things, it was but natural that many of her rites and ceremonies should be typical of sacraments and ordinances to be established in the new and better covenant made by Christ. And we shall find that the Holy Eastern Church, from her nearness in time and place to the Church of Israel, retains more of this likeness than the Western churches.

In order to fully understand and at the same time to admire the Eastern ritual, one should go to the great cathedrals of Russia or Greece on some high festival, and witness the ceremonies. But since this is not possible for most of our readers, we will endeavor in the brief space alloted to us to present as clear and succinct account as we can of this most beautiful and truly edifying form of worship.

## 1. FORM AND DECORATION OF THE CHURCH.

In the Holy Eastern Church the Byzantine form of architecture, which is older than the Gothic, is the prevailing mode. Under its spacious dome the church is cruciform, with the sanctuary usually at the eastern end. The principal entrance is at the western end, and after passing through two spacious porches or vestibules, one for penitents and the other for catechumens, the worshiper reaches the majestic nave adorned with lofty pillars, but unfurnished with seats, excepting a solitary row of chairs along the sides for the use of the sick, the aged and the infirm.

At the eastern end is the chancel, divided, as in the West, into choir and sanctuary, but in a different way. The choir is much smaller in proportion, and is raised with steps above the nave, and sometimes furnished with rails. Behind it towers the lofty *Ikonostasis*, or altar-screen, which, when

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the doors are closed, completely shuts the sanctuary and those within from the sight of those without. This *Ikonostasis* is beautifully adorned with pictures of Christ, His Blessed Mother, and other saints. Access to the sanctuary is obtained by means of three doors. Those in the middle are called the Royal or *Holy Doors*, through which none but a bishop, priest or deacon may pass. These doors are also furnished with a vail or curtain, which is drawn across them at certain portions of the service. The south door is called the *Deacon's Door*, and the north door the *Paranomarion*, through which ordinary servants of the church may pass when they have duty to perform in the sanctuary. The laity are not usually allowed to enter, and women never. The most prominent object in the sanctuary is, of course, the *Holy Table*, on which the Divine Mysteries are celebrated in the Holy Eucharist.

The Holy Table is a cubical structure of wood placed in the very middle of the sanctuary and covered with a linen cloth called *κατάσαρκα*, over which is placed a rich and beautiful altar cloth called *ἐνδύτιον*. As in the temple of the Old Testament the Holy of Holies contained the Ark of the Covenant with its precious deposits, so the Christian sanctuary has on its Holy Table a Tabernacle, which contains the consecrated elements of the Holy Eucharist, reserved for the communion of the sick; a cross, the sign of the eternal Priesthood of Christ; and the Book of the Gospels, which contains His Holy Law. Over all these is sometimes placed a *Baldachin*, or rich canopy supported by four pillars. Directly behind the Holy Table, at the extreme east, is the Bishop's Throne, and on either side a row of seats for the attendant clergy, who minister with him.

In the northeast corner of the sanctuary is a table very similar to that, which serves as an Altar. This is called the *Prothesis* or Table of Preparation. Here the elements of bread and wine are placed for preparation before they are removed by the Priest to the Holy Table at the time of the great entrance. On the south side of the sanctuary there is a place called *Διακονικόν*, where the holy vessels, clerical robes, books, etc., are carefully preserved.

Directly in front of the Holy Doors, in the choir, there is a little platform, slightly raised, which is called the *Ambon*. From this the gospel is read to the people and sermons are

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preached, as occasion may serve. In cathedral churches there
is a large pulpit in the middle of the church, where the Bishop
is robed, and prayers said before the Liturgy. The choir of
readers and singers are ranged on each side of the *Ambon* in
the chancel and sing antiphonally, like the choirs of angels.
The music is entirely vocal, since the use of instruments
is forbidden in the Oriental Church. The congregation stand
in the nave of the church, except when their posture is
kneeling. Only the infirm are allowed to sit on the chairs
ranged along the sides of the church. In the inner porch the
font, or vessel for Holy Baptism, is sometimes placed; because
that sacrament is the door of entrance into the Holy Church
of Christ.

## 2. THE HOLY VESSELS.

The holy vessels used in Divine Service are the following:

1. The *Chalice* (Ποτήριαν), or Cup used in the administration of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ. It is very similar in form and appearance to that used in other Christian bodies.

2. The *Disk* (Δίσκος), a Paten, or plate, on which the Holy Lamb (*Agnus*) is laid.

3. The *Asterisk* ('Aστερίσκος), a star made out of two semi-circles crossed and joined together. It serves as a covering to the Disk and typifies the Star in the East, which guided the Magi to the cradle of Jesus, in Bethlehem.

4. The *Spoon* (Δαβίδ), with a cross on the handle, used in the administration of the Body and Blood of Christ to the communicants. It is usually made of gold.

5. The *Spear* (Λόγχη), a lance-formed knife with a cross on the handle. It is used in cutting out from the sacrificial loaf the triangular portions which are to be consecrated. It is typical of the spear which pierced the Redeemer's side.

6. The vessel for the warm water which is poured into the chalice after the prayer of consecration. It also has a cross on the handle.

7. The *Sponge*. This is used in the Liturgy for cleaning the holy vessels and collecting the fragments of the disk, which are placed in the chalice.

8. The little plates which are used for the Prosphor loaves and for the Antidoron. The first is adorned with a picture of the crucifixion, and the second with that of the Holy Virgin Mary.

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9. The *Fans* (Φιπίδιον) used over the Holy Gifts in Episcopal services.

10. The *Ciborium* or Tabernacle—already described.

11. The little casket within the Tabernacle, divided into two compartments. In one is a little box containing the reserved elements; in the other are a little chalice, a spoon and a bottle of wine.

12. The *Cross*, which is placed on the Holy Table, always constructed in the Greek form. It is richly ornamented with the crucifixion and other designs.

13. The holy *Book of the Gospels*, the covers of which are richly adorned. On the front side, in the middle, is portrayed the Resurrection of the Lord, and in the four corners, the four Evangelists. On the other side we find the outpouring of the Holy Ghost, the Crucifixion of Christ, or some other event in the gospel history.

14. The 'Αναλόγιον is a high desk, on which the holy pictures and the Book of the Gospels are placed. The Deacon uses it when reading the gospel from the Ambon.

15. The *Cross*, which is placed behind the Holy Table, and carried in front of processions.

16. The holy water vase and sprinkler.

17. The *Font* for the administration of Holy Baptism. This is large enough for the immersion of an infant, and is ornamented with three candles, lighted during the service, and symbolical of the Holy Trinity, into whose sacred name the candidate is baptized.

18. The *oil vessel*, containing the oil with which the candidate for Baptism is anointed before his immersion. The Priest has also a vessel containing the consecrated oil and myrrh for the Holy Chrism.

19. The *crowns*, which are placed on the heads of bridegroom and bride in Holy Matrimony. These signify that the bridal pair are victorious over youthful lusts, and also that they are the princes and rulers of their posterity.

20. The *banners*, decorated with a cross, which are borne in processions. At other times they are placed on each side of the choir.

21. The vessel for the *five loaves*. This is used for the hallowing of bread. In the middle are placed the loaves; on the right, a vessel of wine; on the left, a vessel of oil; in front, three lights; behind, a vessel for the wheat.

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22. The lanterns, which are borne before the cross and pictures in processions.

23. The seven-branched candlestick, which is placed before the cross, behind the Holy Table, and which denotes the sevenfold Gifts of GOD, the Holy Ghost.

24. The great lights. These are placed before the holy pictures on the Ikonostasis, and hold four candles; a large one in the middle, denoting the Unity of the Trinity, and three small ones about it, denoting the Three Persons of the God-head.

25. The Primiker is a taper borne before the Bishop. It is also carried before the Gospels and the Holy Gifts at the great and little entrances.

26. The Dyker, a two-armed candle, denoting the Two Natures in One Person of Christ.

27. The Triker, a three-armed candle, representing the Holy Trinity.

28. The Polykandelon, a many-branched candlestick, with seven or twelve lights.

29. The Pankandelon, a candlestick containing more than twelve lights.

30. The Chorus is a corona, or circlet of lights, suspended from the dome in the Oriental Church. The Pankandelon is generally used instead of it.

31. The lamps, which are hung before the holy pictures.

32. The censer, in which the incense is burnt. This signifies the prayers of the faithful, which ascend to Heaven; and also the gracious gifts of the Holy Ghost, which fill the hearts of believers with joy.

### 3. THE VESTMENTS OF THE CLERGY.

In the Church of the Old Testament, the servants of the Lord were commanded to be arrayed in robes, which signified their holy office. It is but natural to suppose that in the Christian Church the same custom would prevail, and that the different robes of the clergy would be denoted by a difference of official dress. In the Oriental Church there are three great orders of clergy, called Bishops, Priests and Deacons. There are also lesser ranks, which are of ecclesiastical origin. Each of these has its appropriate costume.

1. Readers, Singers and Light-bearers are commonly arrayed in the short Phælonion. This is a word derived from

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the Greek φαιλόνης, (by metathesis for φαινόλης,) (Lat., penula, a thick cloak,) and signifies a mantle; and in this case a short cape, with a cross on the back, at the neck.

2. The Deacon is robed in a Sticharion (from στοιχος, a line), which is a white robe or tunic, emblematic of purity, and adorned with several stripes. He also wears over the left shoulder the Orarion, or deacon's stole, which he raises in his hand at the beginning of a public prayer. In common with the other orders of the clergy he wears ἐπιμανίκια, or cuffs (maniples), decorated with crosses, which confine the robes at the wrists.

3. The Priest wears a Sticharion (alb) like the Deacon, but with narrower sleeves. This is spanned by a girdle at the waist, and over it is the Epitrachëlion or priestly stole. This goes about the neck like the Latin stole, but is much broader and united into one piece like a yoke, adorned with crosses and with heavy fringe at the bottom. The Priest can perform no religious service without the Epitrachëlion, nor the Deacon without the Orarion. Over this the Priest puts on the Phælonion, or choruble. It is a wide mantle like the western cape, reaching nearly to the ground, open in front, but joined at the neck and richly ornamented with crosses, etc. There is also the Epigonation, a square vestment with fringe, hung on the rigth thigh of Arch-priests, or other Priests who are especially honoed by the church for their services.

4. The Bishop wears a Sakkos, an alb like the Deacon's, but covered all over with crosses. Over this he wears the Omophórion, a stole, with one end thrown over the left shoulder; typical of the lost sheep borne on the shoulder of the Good Shepherd. Sometimes he wears a little Omophórion, or stole, reaching to the waist. The Bishop also wears an Epigonation, square but suspended by one corner. On his breast he bears a cross attached to a chain, and also the Panagià. This latter is a circular brooch with a picture of Christ and His Blessed Mother. On his head the Bishop wears a mitre. This is not shaped at all like the cloven mitre of the Lattins, but is more like a royal crown, or the mitre of the Jewish High Priest. It denotes the glory of the Lord, and is also a remembrance of His crown of thorns.

The Bishop has also a dark mantle (Mantia), with light, horizontal stripes, and two plates with crosses on the

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shoulders in front, denoting the Old and New Testaments. Before him is carried a *Paterissa*, or pastoral staff; and under his feet is spread a carpet, called the *Eagle*. On this circular carpet there is worked the figure of an eagle hovering over a city, and it denotes the fall of the Roman eagle under the Cross of Christ. When the Bishop consecrates a church, he wears over his other vestments a fine white robe, called σινδών, which is bound with three girdles, at the neck, breast and waist.

The vesture of the *Holy Table* should also be noticed. We have spoken of the κατάσαρκα and ἐνδύτιον. When the Liturgy is to be celebrated, there is placed over these an enveloping cloth, which is called λι τ. ν. Within this is folded the *Antiminsion* (or corporal), a rich, silken cloth, adorned with a picture of the Burial of Christ. This is consecrated by the Bishop, and in unconsecrated buildings supplies the place of consecration; so that the Holy Eucharist can never be celebrated without an *Antiminsion*. The chalice and disk are covered with a rich veil, called the Air, ἀήρ. This is so-called, because at the singing of the Creed the Priest waves it up and down, in token of the Resurrection of the Lord and the Descent of the Holy Ghost. This is one of the most beautiful and impressive ceremonies of the Divine Service.

On Good Friday there is borne into the church a *bier*, denoting the death of the Lord Jesus. From Easter until Ascension Day this bier or pall is placed upon the Holy Table, and the Liturgy is celebrated upon it.

### 4. THE SERVICES OF THE CHURCH.

The Holy Eastern Church, of course, holds the Divine Liturgy as the central point of all Christian worship. All who receive the Communion fast strictly before its reception. Consequently, the Liturgy is celebrated between midnight and noon. On entering the church the people bow, cross themselves and remain standing.

At the close of the Liturgy the *Antidoron* is distributed to some of the people, and the congregation retire with the blessing of the priest.

In addition to the Liturgy, the Church has seven other daily services, in accordance with the words of David: "Seven times a day do I praise Thee for the judg-

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ments of Thy righteousness." These hours are called:
(1) Midnight Service; (2) Morning Service with the First Hour;
(3) The Third Hour; (4) The Sixth Hour; (5) The Ninth
Hour; (6) The Evening Service; and (7) The After-Vespers.
Vespers and Matins are commonly said together on the eve
of Sundays and great festivals. In the Oriental Church, as
in the Jewish, the ecclesiastical day begins with the previous
sunset, and not at midnight. Consequently the Vespers of
Sunday are said on Saturday evening. These services, in the
absence of a Priest, can be said by the laity and in private
houses; but the Divine Liturgy can be celebrated only by a
Priest (or Bishop) and in a church. A Priest can celebrate
only one Liturgy on a given day, and the Liturgy cannot be
repeated on the same Holy Table the same day. Hence, as
there is but one altar in each church, there can be but one
celebration. The Seven Hours are commonly said together
in groups of three at morning, noon and evening.

*Holy Baptism* is celebrated sometimes in the church and
sometimes in private houses, as need may be. (The form is
given in the O. C. M. for October, 1879.) It is always admin-
istered by *dipping* the infant, or adult, *three times* into the
water. The Russian Church, however, admits the validity of
baptism without her pale, provided that it has been properly
administered by pouring water three times in the name of
the Father, Son and Holy Ghost.

The Sacrament of Confirmation is called, in the Oriental
Church, the *Holy Chrism*. It is administered to infants and
young children, as well as to adult converts, soon after their
baptism by a *Priest*. Oil, mingled with myrrh and other
spices for the purpose, is solemnly consecrated by the *Bishops*
with "the laying on of hands," and then distributed to the
Priests. These annoint the person to be confirmed with the
Chrism, using a service, which can be found in the *Eucholo-
gion*, or service-book of the Greek Church. (In O. C. M. for
December, 1879.) It is also to be noted that, in accordance
with the custom of the Primitive Church, the Holy
Eastern Church admits *infants* and young children, who
have been baptised and confirmed within her pale, to receive
the Holy Communion.

*Confession* is made by the communicant to the Priest in
the church, often in the presence, but never in the hearing,
of others. Children are diligently taught their duty to God,

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their neighbor and themselves, in the excellent catechism of
the Oriental Church.

The *Unction*, spoken of by Saint James (Epistle, chap. 5,
v. 14, 15), is also administered to the sick, for the healing both
of body and soul. When given in its fullest form, the ser-
vice is conducted by *seven* priests, and the prayers and ser-
emonies can also be found in the *Euchologion*.

5. ECCLESIASTICAL RANK AND OFFICE.

In the Hierarchy of the Holy Eastern Church, as we
have already said, there are but three Apostolical Orders, viz.,
Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. But, as the needs of the
Church have required other offices, they have been instituted,
and are maintained. Thus we find in the Hierarchy, Patri-
archs, Exarchs, Metropolitan3, Archbishops, Archimandrites,
Heguméns, Arch-priests, Proto-deacons, etc., besides the mi-
nor orders for the lower services of the Church.

A Bishop has these exclusive rights and privileges, not
appertaining to other clergymen: (1.) He can administer all
sacraments and all other priestly offices, not only in his ca-
thedral, but in all the churches of his eparchy. (2.) He only
can *ordain* a Priest or Deacon, and consecrate the *Holy
Chrism*, or the *Antimansion*. (3.) He presides in all divine
services, blesses the people with *both* hands, and gives the
benediction with burning tapers. Several Bishops unite to
consecrate or ordain a Bishop. An Oriental Bishop must be
always a single man or a widower.

In the ranks of the Priesthood, an *Archimandrite* (abbot)
is the head of a monastery. An *Hegumén* (prior) presides
over monks. A *Proto-presbyter*, or *Archpriest*, presides over
other parish Priests. A *Hieromonach* is a Priest who is also
a monk. A Presbyter, or Priest, can administer all sacra-
ments and rites, except those which are reserved for Bishops.
Thus, he can confer Baptism, Chrism, Penance, the Holy
Eucharist, Matrimony and Unction. He conducts the ser-
vice, gives absolution and communion, imposes penances on
the guilty, seats himself in the chancel at certain times
near the Bishop's throne, and blesses the people, but with
the *right hand only*.

Deacons also have grades similar to those in the Priest-
hood, of *Archdeacon*, *Proto-deacon*, and *Hiero-deacon*. The
Deacons assist the Priest and Bishop in conducting the ser-

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vice, lead the prayers of the congregation, say the *ektene* (litany), and make ready the elements on the *Prothesis* for the celebration.

In the minor orders, the *Sub-deacons*, or assistants, attend upon the Bishop. The *readers*, *singers*, *lamp bearers* and *lamp lighters*, perform the duties described in their titles. The *Kanonarch* is the leader of the choir. The *Paranomaros* is properly the doorkeeper. The *Sakellar* is the sexton who takes charge of the church building. The *Proto-syncellus* and *Syncellus* are the first and second stewards of the Patriarch. The *οἰκονόμος* is the Bishop's steward. The *Chartophylax* is the Secretary of the Patriarch. Thus, all these officers have their appropriate duties to perform, and act harmoniously in the service of Almighty God.

It is a recognized principle of the Christian Church in all ages, that rites and ceremonies need not be alike in all countries, *provided the faith be kept whole and undefiled*. The Holy Eastern Church, while she invites other Christian bodies to a careful examination and consideration of her ritual, does not insist upon their acceptance of her rites. But she makes it a *conditio sine qua non*, that Christian bodies which desire to enter into inter-communion with her, shall accept the Seven Œcumenical Councils. Without the acceptance of these Seven Councils no inter-communion with her is possible. With this condition no Patriarch, no Holy Synod, no Bishop can dispense. Perhaps some Occidental Christians would consider her mode of worship too long and full of repetitions. But we must remember that the evil tendency of the age is to shorten or omit, as much as possible, the public and private worship of God. It is one thing to loll or sleep for an hour in a cushioned pew, and another to stand erect, like the Oriental Christian, while the most solemn mysteries of his holy religion are worthily celebrated. These beautiful rites and ceremonies come down to us from the earliest ages of the Church. They are redolent with the fragrance of the names of SS. Basil and Chrysostom. Some of the rites can be traced even to the apostles themselves, and are found in the liturgy of S. James. We seem, as we listen to those glorious words, almost to hear the "thousands of Archangels and myriads of Angels, the Cherubim and the Seraphim, six-winged, many-eyed, soaring, flying, singing, crying, shouting and saying the Triumphal Hymn:

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"'Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord of Sabaoth! Heaven and earth are full of Thy glory; Hosanna in the highest; blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest.'"

Or, when the soft voice of the Deacon bids us to earnest prayer with the words:

"Again and again in peace let us pray the Lord,"

We remember the supplication of the publican, and cry from the depth of a penitent heart:

"Lord, have mercy!"

## RUSSIAN SLAVES IN THE KHANATES OF CENTRAL ASIA.

Many years ago Russian slaves were already to be found in Central Asia. As early as the tenth century the Arabian travelers, Istachri and Ibu Chauleal, allude to Slavonians put up for sale in the Central Asiatic slave markets. These two travelers designate Khoresm, the present Khanate of Khiva, as the principal market for slaves; thence they were dispatched into the other States of Central Asia. But now, how came Russian prisoners to Khoresm, and who brought them thither?

The Steppes, situated along the Volga, and now known as Kirgiz, have, since all time, been the refuge of nomadic tribes different in blood and speech. The beginning of the planting of the Russian Empire had scarcely been made when our ancestors were forced to fight against these tribes, and it came to many encounters with the nomads. Early chronicles are filled with accounts of these wars, and a consequence of them was that prisoners were made on both sides. It is not without good foundation that Srvgatoslav says Russia's exports to Bulgaria consisted of honey, wax and slaves. Prisoners were turned into slaves and sold in populous market places. It is probable that our nomadic neighbors furnished a considerable portion of these slaves. The nomads, on their part, likewise made prisoners and sold them to the nearest settlements; they themselves needed none or very few. To sell these prisoners in Khoresm was the most convenient

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way for the nomads, as the highroad from the Volga to Central Asia, at that time, led through the above mentioned country.

Until the beginning of the XVI. century the number of Russian slaves in Central Asia was comparatively small, as the demand for them was not, on the whole, very great, but from that time forward, in the XVI., XVII., XVIII., until the beginning of the XIX. century, slavery in Central Asia assumed gigantic dimensions, so that, for instance, the Khanate of Khiva, very insignificant as to the extent of its territory, possessed over 2,000 Russian slaves; the number of Persian slaves amounted to 15,000 and over. This great increase of slavery was attributable principally to two causes. The first was of a political nature: the invasion at the beginning of the XVI. century of the Usbeks into the countries lying along the Sir Daria and the Amoo-Daria. This was a nomadic people of Turkish race which had hitherto nomadized along the upper part of the Ural mountains and in the southwest of Siberia. After the Usbeks had subdued the inhabitants of Marverannage, and spread through the cities and settlements, they showed neither desire nor inclination to lead a settled life; slaves had to be procured for the cultivation of the ground. The second cause was of a religious nature. Shortly before the descent of the Usbeks on Marverannage, the clergy of Central Asia, together with the Mullah of Herat, Schem-Eddin-Herali at the head, had published a Fetiva, by power of which Shüte Musselmen, as well as unbelievers, might be sold into slavery. This offered the full possibility of procuring great numbers of slaves from Persia, and sufficed for the increased demand for them in Central Asia. This Fetiva was very opportune for the Usbeks; without it they could not have kept any Persian slaves, as, according to the Koran, every Mussulman must be free.*

Slaves were procured in two ways: by military invasions, as, for instance, those of the Khans of Khiva and Bukharia into Persia, and by captures the nomado made of their settled neighbors in order to sell them at the markets of Central Asia. Persia was infested in the former way, Russia principally in the latter.

* Only the Kirgiz did not hold strictly to this law of the infallible book It was no uncommon occurrence to find Usbeks, Turcomen and Arabians—as faithful Sunnites as themselves—among the slaves of the Kirgiz.