from FOREIGN AFFAIRS, September 15, 1922
Vol. 1, No. 1

A REQUISITE FOR THE SUCCESS OF
POPULAR DIPLOMACY

By Elihu Root

THE control of foreign relations by modern democracies creates a new and pressing demand for popular education in international affairs. When the difficult art of regulating the conduct of nations toward each other, in such a way as to preserve rights and avoid offense and promote peaceful intercourse, was left to the foreign offices of the world the public in each country could judge policies by results, and, in the various ways by which public opinion expresses itself, could reward or punish the success or failure of government. To perform that particular function it was not very important that the public should be familiar with the affairs out of which success or failure came. That condition, however, is passing away. In the democratic countries generally, the great body of citizens are refusing to wait until negotiations are over or policies are acted upon or even determined. They demand to know what is going on and to have an opportunity to express their opinions at all stages of diplomatic proceedings. This tendency is due partly to a desire to escape from certain well recognized evils in diplomacy as it has been practiced. It is due in part doubtless to the natural disposition of democracies to revert to the conditions which existed before the invention of representative government and thus to avoid the temporary inequalities involved in delegations of power to official representatives however selected.

The new condition has undoubtedly been accelerated by the great war and its lessons. We have learned that war is essentially a popular business. All the people in the countries concerned are enlisted in carrying it on. It cannot be carried on without their general participation. And whoever wins the war all the people of all the countries involved suffer grievous consequences. There is a general conviction that there has been something wrong about the conduct of diplomacy under which peoples have so often found themselves embarked in war without intending it and without wishing for it and there is a strong desire to stop that sort of thing. Democracies determined to control their own destinies object to being led, without their knowledge, into situations where they have no choice.

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The demand for open diplomacy and contemporaneous public information, although in its application there is frequently an element of mere curiosity or news gathering business, nevertheless rests upon the substantial basis of democratic instinct for unhampered self-government. It is incident to the awakening sense of opportunity which, among the unskilled majority, has followed the exercise of universal suffrage, the spread of elementary education, and the revelation of the power of organization. The change is therefore not to be considered as temporary but as a step in the direct line of development of democratic government, which, according to the nature of democracies, will not be retraced. The new conditions and such developments as may grow from them, are the conditions under which diplomacy will be carried on hereafter. Of course, as in all practical human affairs, limitations and safeguards will be found necessary, but the substance will continue, and public opinion will be increasingly not merely the ultimate judge but an immediate and active force in negotiation.

The usefulness of this new departure is subject to one inevitable condition. That is, that the democracy which is undertaking to direct the business of diplomacy shall learn the business. The controlling democracy must acquire a knowledge of the fundamental and essential facts and principles upon which the relations of nations depend. Without such a knowledge there can be no intelligent discussion and consideration of foreign policy and diplomatic conduct. Misrepresentation will have a clear field and ignorance and error will make wild work with foreign relations. This is a point to which the sincere people who are holding meetings and issuing publications in opposition to war in general may well direct their attention if they wish to treat the cause of disease rather than the effects. Given the nature of man, war results from the spiritual condition that follows real or fancied injury or insult. It is a familiar observation that in most wars each side believes itself to be right and both pray with equal sincerity for the blessing of heaven upon their arms. Back of this there must lie a mistake. However much ambition, trade competition, or sinister personal motives of whatever kind, may have led towards the warlike situation, two great bodies of human beings, without whose consent war cannot be carried on, can never have come to two diametrically opposed genuine beliefs as

A REQUISITE FOR POPULAR DIPLOMACY

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to the justice of the quarrel without one side or the other, and probably both, being mistaken about their country's rights and their country's duties. Here is the real advantage of the change from the old diplomacy to the new. Irresponsible governments may fight without being in the least degree mistaken about their rights and duties. They may be quite willing to make cannon fodder of their own people in order to get more territory or more power, but two democracies will not fight unless they believe themselves to be right. They may have been brought to their belief by misrepresentation as to facts, by a misunderstanding of rules of right conduct, or through having the blank of ignorance filled by racial or national prejudice and passion to the exclusion of inquiry and thought; but they will fight not because they mean to do wrong but because they think they are doing right. When foreign affairs were ruled by autocracies or oligarchies the danger of war was in sinister purpose. When foreign affairs are ruled by democracies the danger of war will be in mistaken beliefs. The world will be the gainer by the change, for, while there is no human way to prevent a king from having a bad heart, there is a human way to prevent a people from having an erroneous opinion. That way is to furnish the whole people, as a part of their ordinary education, with correct information about their relations to other peoples, about the limitations upon their own rights, about their duties to respect the rights of others, about what has happened and is happening in international affairs, and about the effects upon national life of the things that are done or refused as between nations; so that the people themselves will have the means to test misinformation and appeals to prejudice and passion based upon error.

This is a laborious and difficult undertaking. It must be begun early and continued long, with patience and persistence, but it is the very same process as that by which all the people of the great democracies have learned within their own countries to respect law and to follow wise and salutary customs in their communities, and to consider the rights of others while they assert their own rights, and to maintain orderly self-government.

It so happens that our own people in the United States have been peculiarly without that kind of education in foreign affairs. Not only have we been very busy over the development of our own country and our own institutions, but our comparatively isolated position has prevented the foreign relations of the old

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world from becoming matters of immediate vital interest to the American people, and they have not been interested in the subject. Naturally enough a great part of our public men have neglected to study the subject. The great body of Americans in office would study questions of transportation and tariff and internal improvements and currency because their constituents were interested in these subjects; but there was no incentive for them to study foreign affairs because their constituents were in-different to them. The conditions are now widely different. Our people have been taught by events to realize that with the in-creased intercommunication and interdependence of civilized states all our production is a part of the world's production, and all our trade is a part of the world's trade, and a large part of the influences which make for prosperity or disaster within our own country consist of forces and movements which may arise any-where in the world beyond our direct and immediate control. I suppose that the people of the United States have learned more about international relations within the past eight years than they had learned in the preceding eighty years. They are, how-ever, only at the beginning of the task.

The subject is extensive and difficult and a fair working knowl-
edge of it, even of the most general kind, requires long and atten-
tive study. Underlying it are the great differences in the modes
of thought and feeling of different races of men. Thousands of
years of differing usages under different conditions forming
different customs and special traditions have given to each
separate race its own body of preconceived ideas, its own ways of
looking at life and human conduct, its own views of what is
natural and proper and desirable. These prepossessions play the
chief part in determining thought and action in life. Given two
groups of men, each having a different inheritance of custom and
tradition, and each will have a different understanding of written
and spoken words, of the reasons for conduct and the meaning of
conduct, and each will to a very considerable degree fail to under-
stand the other. Neither can judge the other by itself. If the
instinctive occidental reformer and the instinctive oriental fatalist
are to work together they must make biological studies of each
other. Add to these differences the selfish passions which have
not yet been bred out of mankind and there inevitably follow in
the contacts of international intercourse a multitude of situations
which cannot be solved by the men of any one nation assuming

A REQUISITE FOR POPULAR DIPLOMACY 7

that the rest of the world is going to think and feel as they them-
selves do and to act accordingly.

The organization of independent nations which has followed
the disappearance of the Holy Roman Empire is in the main the
outgrowth of that progress in civilization which leads peoples to
seek the liberty of local self-government according to their own
ideas. Whatever may be the form of local governments there can
be no tyranny so galling as the intimate control of the local affairs
of life by foreign rulers who are entirely indifferent to the local
conceptions of how life ought to be conducted. National inde-
pendence is an organized defense against that kind of tyranny.
Probably the organization of nations is but a stage of development
but it is the nearest that mankind has yet come towards securing
for itself a reasonable degree of liberty with a reasonable degree
of order.

It is manifest that the differences of thought and feeling and
selfish desire which separate nations in general have to be dealt
with in particular in the multitude of controversies which are sure
to arise between them and between their respective citizens in a
world of universal trade and travel and inter-communication.
The process of such adjustment without war is the proper subject
of diplomacy. During some centuries of that process many
images have grown up which have been found necessary or con-
venient for carrying on friendly intercourse, and many of these
have hardened into generally accepted customs in manners or in
morals which no longer require to be discussed but which every
nation has a right to assume that other nations will observe.
Many rules of right conduct have been accepted and universally
agreed upon as law to govern the conduct of nations. In England
and America these rules of international law are authoritatively
declared to be a part of the municipal law of the country en-
forceable by the courts. In this way the nations founded upon
differences have been gradually rescuing from the field of differ-
ence and controversy, and transferring to the field of common
understanding and agreement, one subject after another of
practical importance in the affairs of the world. The process is
in the direction of that unity of thought and feeling, the absence
of which hitherto has caused the failure of all schemes and efforts
for the unity of mankind. The study of international relations
means not only study of some particular controversy but study of
this long history of the process of adjustment between differing

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ideas and of the prejudices and passions and hitherto irreconcil-
able differences which have baffled adjustment and which affect
the relations and probable conduct of the nations concerned. All
these are in the background of every international question and
are often of vital importance to its right understanding.

The process I have described has created a community of
nations. That community has grown just as communities of
natural persons grow. Men cannot live in neighborhood with
each other without having reciprocal rights and obligations
towards each other arising from their being neighbors. The
practical recognition of these rights and obligations creates the
community. It is not a matter of contract. It is a matter of
usage arising from the necessities of self-protection. It is not a
voluntary matter. It is compelled by the situation. The neigh-
bors generally must govern their conduct by the accepted
standards or the community will break up. It is the same with
nations. No nation whose citizens trade and travel; that is to
say, no nation which lives in neighborhood with other nations
need consider whether or not it will be a member of the com-
munity of nations. It cannot help itself. It may be a good
member or a bad member, but it is a member by reason of the
simple fact of neighborhood life and intercourse. The Bolshevik
rulers of Russia are illustrating this. They have been trying to
repudiate all the obligations resulting from their country's mem-
bership in the community of nations, and one result is that inter-
course is impossible.

This great fact of the community of nations is not involved at
all in any question about the "League of Nations" or any other
association of nations founded upon contract. The "League of
Nations" is merely a contract between the signers of the instru-
ment by which they agree to super-add to the existing usages,
customs, laws, rights, and obligations of the existing community
of nations, certain other rights and obligations of the existing
community of nations, certain other rights and obligations which
shall bind the signers as matter of contract. Whether a country
enters into that contract or not, its membership of the community
of nations continues with all the rights and obligations incident to
that membership.

A self-respecting democracy which undertakes to control the
action of its government as a member of this community of
nations, and wishes to respond fairly and fully, not only to the

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demands of its own interests, but to the moral obligations of a member of the community, is bound to try to understand this great and complicated subject so that it may act not upon prejudice and error but upon knowledge and understanding.

There is one specially important result which should follow from such a popular understanding of foreign affairs. That is, a sense of public responsibility in speech and writing, or perhaps it would be better stated as a public sense of private responsibility for words used in discussing international affairs. More fights between natural persons come from insult than from injury. Under our common law, libel was treated as a crime, not because of the injury which it did to the person libeled, but because it tended to provoke a breach of the peace. Nations are even more sensitive to insult than individuals. One of the most useful and imperative lessons learned by all civilized governments in the practice of international intercourse has been the necessity of politeness and restraint in expression. Without these, the peaceful settlement of controversy is impossible. This lesson should be learned by every free democracy which seeks to control foreign relations.

It cannot, however, be expected that every individual in a great democracy will naturally practice restraint. Political demagogues will seek popularity by public speeches full of insult to foreign countries, and yellow journals will seek to increase their circulation by appeals to prejudice against foreigners. Hitherto these have been passed over because the speakers and writers were regarded as irresponsible, but if the democracy of which the speakers and publishers are a part is to control international intercourse that irresponsibility ends, and it is the business of the democracy to see to it that practices by its members which lead directly towards war are discouraged and condemned. Offenses of this character are frequently committed in this country by political speakers and sensational newspapers and because we are a great nation the expressions used become known in the other countries concerned and cause resentment and bitter feeling. What especially concerns us is that these are very injurious offenses against our own country. Such public expressions by our own citizens bring discredit upon our country and injure its business and imperil its peace. They answer to the description of crime in the old indictments as an act "against the peace and dignity" of the State. They will practically cease whenever the