Men's Societies

In this series on Blackfoot Culture, I have now given seven lectures to record in manuscript my information, illustrated by the pictures taken as I went along. I have told how it happened I first went into the Blackfoot country - about their habitat of the Plains and Rocky Mountains, the camps of Chief Mad Wolf my foster-father by adoption, his family and friends, their customs, industries, and ceremonies. Today it is necessary to omit the information already given, so I hope you may pardon me for not repeating.

In this lecture I will tell about their Warrior Societies. The most of my material was secured from the South Piegan division of the Blackfoot tribe in Montana, and some also from the North Piegans in Alberta. No distinction, however, need be made between the North and South Piegans, because their separation is entirely due to the accidental fact, that part of the Piegan division now lives in Canada. And their system of societies was in full function at the time of this separation.

Map of the four Blackfoot reservation in Montana and Alberta.

While living in the Blackfoot country, I had unusual opportunities for study and observation by having tips of my own, also horses, and camp equipment. Thus in their camps I was independent and took care of myself. The Blackfoot were nomads by nature and loved to wander.

With them I followed old Indian trails over the prairies and through the Rockies - during the short northern summer, and in autumn and winter. Thus by close association with them in their daily life, I had many good friends in the tribe and came to know them intimately.

In the spring of 1905, it happened I was camped in the Northern Rockies of Montana, with my Indian friends Onesta and Nitana, and they took

with them to visit the North Piegans in Canada - to the camp of their relative, a famous chief and medicine-man, Brings-Down-The-Sun. Then a very old man and their greatest living authority on Blackfoot lore. He knew more than any of the others, about their old customs, traditions, and ceremonies; and from him I gained valuable information, especially about their Men's Societies.

On that journey with Onesta and Nitana, to the camp of the North Piegans in the valley of Old Man's River, in Alberta, we were constantly together for more than a month. I had wonderful opportunities to learn about their sacred bundles and rituals, and to make picture records of every day life.

Onesta was religious by nature, and a good story teller when he felt in the mood. He had a good sense of humor, but was inclined to be serious rather than pleasure loving. He had with him a Medicine Necklace, also a Bear Spear, and the bundle of the Crow Water Society, a sort of organized cult for singing and dancing.

Nitana, his wife, was practical and a hard worker, a great help to her husband who spent most of his time and thought on sacred bundles and religious ceremonies. Warm hearted and good natured, she was skilled in the tanning of skins, making clothes, and care of the tipi. And like most Blackfoot women she was something of a botanist - a gatherer of the herbs and plants they used for both eating and healing.

My small Traveling-Tipi, which we used because it was light and easy to handle. Onesta (left) by the door, smoking his pipe and his drum beside him. Nitana standing, and their small daughter Yellow Mink in the open door.

Onesta and Nitana in their ritual of painting the Medicine Necklace. Its supernatural power was believed to come from the mountain lion, and had some mountain lion claws attached. Onesta (right) was praying while decorating this sacred necklace with red paint. His wife had the redstone pipe which they used in the ceremony.

Onesta chanting in the ritual, while decorating the Necklace with sacred red paint.

The end of the ritual, with Onesta wearing the Necklace over his left shoulder. Thus he was endowed with supernatural power (Sun Power), from the mountain lion. The lion claws can be seen attached to the necklace.

One of our midday camps on the open prairies, with a shelter from the hot sun. The altitude was 4500 feet - the air dry and never oppressive Nitana with her bank turned, seated in foreground, the author at left. We were having some refreshments of hot tea and dried meat for a woman visitor seated at left.

Another of our camps among the cottonwoods of a river valley. Onesta kneeling by the tipi door, beating on his drum while chanting a religious song. He said, that in this chant he was praying to the Sun for our safety and success on the journey, as we were about to enter a strange country. He also had with him the sacred Bear Spear of which he was the guardian. Throughout our travels, he had the care of that Spear constantly on his mind.

Whenever we made camp, he attended to the Spear first. Here he was kneeling by the tripod of the Bear Spear with its sacred bundle, praying while burning sweet grass as incense on a hot coal. He explained, that he used dried sweet grass in spring and summer, when it was at its best. But in autumn and winter, he used the root of the Big Turnip (Leprotaenia multifida), because its root then gave forth a strong fragrance.

Onesta by the tripod of the Bear Spear, smoking his redstone pipe. Once when he had to be away from camp for awhile, he asked me to look after the Bear Spear in his absence. He said he could not entrust the Spear to his wife, because ~~his~~ taboo did not allow women to touch it. He asked me to take the Spear with its bundle inside the tipi at sunset or during a storm - also it must never lie on the ground but hang from the tripod. And dogs must not be allowed to come inside the tipi where the Bear Spear rested, because dogs were hostile to bears.

One night, when the lodges of our camp glowed with light from their inside-fires, Onesta told the origin-legend of his Bear Spear:

"Long ago, when our people used dogs for beasts of burden instead of horses and people carried things on their backs, the young son of a chief was lost in the mountains. In his wandering, he followed an old trail which led him to a cave at hidden by thickets of berry bushes. Suddenly a huge grizzly rushed out with a roar. He seized the boy in his arms and carried him into the cave. There the boy lay with his face so close to the grizzly, he could feel his hot breath. Whenever he moved, the bear thrust forth his long sharp claws and held him tight. Finally the bear said: "My son, be not afraid, for I shall do you no harm. I am your head-chief of all the bears - it was my power which brought you to my den. If you remain here with me while snows are deep, I will help you. And before you leave in the spring, I will give you my supernatural power, so that you will become a great chief and be a help to your people."

The boy stayed all that winter with the bear and acted as he did.
When the snow was deep, he saw the bear lie so still he did not even
move. But when the warm winds of spring began to blow, the bear rolled
over on his back and lay for a long time with his legs in the air.

Then he sat up and began to yawn. And finally rose to his feet and walk-
ed round and round the cave. // Spring had come and it was time for
the bear to leave the cave. But before they went out, the grizzly
bestowed upon the boy his supernatural power. He took a stick and
raised himself on his hind legs, holding out his arms and extending
his claws. He tossed up his head and showing his sharp teeth, chanted,

"Behold my nose with its keen scent,
My teeth and my claws, they are my weapons.
Everything that lives fears the grizzly bear."

And then the bear said to the boy: "When you return, take this
lodge and people make a Bear Spear. Fasten a sharp stone to a shaft and bear's
teeth to the handle, also the nose of a bear. The nose and teeth must
go together. Cover the staff with bearskin and paint it red. Tie
grizzly claws to the handle - they will rattle and sound like a grizzly
when he runs. Whenever you go to war, wear the claw of a grizzly bear
in your hair and my power will go with you. When you charge in battle,
make a sound like a grizzly; and your enemies will be afraid, because
everything that lives fears the power of a grizzly bear."

The bear taught the boy the ceremony to be used for healing the
sick and how he must paint his face and body. If anyone were ill a
vow could be made to the Spear and the sick would recover.

909

Onesta and his Bear Spear, its point painted red, shaft covered with bearskin and a cluster of eagle feathers attached. His face was painted with the pattern the Spear owner used when he went to war - black across the forehead and two curved lines on both sides of his mouth for bear tusks. He also wore bear claws and a feather in his back hair.

910

Onesta with his family and the Bear Spear, also the drum and the war鼓 used in its ritual.

911

The position of the Bear Spear - the way Onesta carried it on his back.

912

Onesta and his family, with the Bear Spear on its tripod and the sacred bundle. In their costumes the yellow color predominated, because yellow was sacred to the Spear and used in its ritual.

913

Evening on the prairies, the sun setting behind a heavy cloud banked over the Rockies. Our camp was in a meadow of long bunch grass. In good summer weather on the prairies, I slept under the stars, outside the tipi.

914

Smoke rising from the tipis, horses feeding on the rich bunch grass. It was early summer and the prairie birds were singing.

The camp we visited of the North Plegans, was in the valley of Old Man's River, near the Porcupine Mountains in Alberta. The tipis of the famous medicine-man, Brings-Down-The-Sun, were hidden away in a grove of huge cottonwood trees. He was an uncle of my friend Onesta who took me to visit his camp, that I might learn from him about their ancient customs and traditions.

The families of Brings-Down-The-Sun and Onesta. Onesta at the right with his drum, and next to him the tall figure of Brings-Down-The-Sun with eagle feathers behind his ears. He was known as an #eagle catcher skilfully taking them alive while hidden in a pit - the tail feathers had great value for ceremonies use and decoration.

Brings-Down-The-Sun in his weasel-tail war suit. Made of soft-tanned deerskins, with beaded strips and decorated over shoulders and arms with black-tipped ermine tails.

The Thunder Tipi of Brings-Down-The-Sun, which was pitched in a meadow among the cottonwoods, for the special occasion of the Crow-Water ceremony of Onesta. Seven discs on the wing represented the constellation of the Great Bear, four bands under the top for trails of the Thunder or lightning. At the bottom discs for fallen stars and the rounded hills of the prairie. Onesta is seen entering with his drum and ceremonial objects, to make ready for the # dance and feast he was giving for his North Plegans guests.

A near view of Brings-Down-The-Sun, to show his head and face,
and the medal he sometimes wore, given to him by the Canadian Government.

Brings-Down-The-Sun in his everyday costume. This was taken on a
day of high wind; when he wore a blanket wrapped closely about him and
a red band about his head, to keep his long hair from blowing in the wind.

Brings-Down-The-Sun in his warshirt of soft-tanned deerskin, decorated
with bands of colored beads and ermine tails. His name in Blackfoot was
"Natosin-nepée, or literally the-sun-bringer." He held a sacred pipe, its
long stem decorated with bird feather and animal skins. His information
came to him from his father who had been head-chief. He was the chosen
medium because of his fine mind. The Blackfoot had no written records,
all information was handed down from father to son.

From Brings-Down-The-Sun I secured a large fund of information.
He told me about Men's Societies -some of the organizations and ceremonies
described had passed out of existence long ago. The men of the Piegan
tribe were organized into a series of warrior societies in which membership
was based on age. As a whole they were known as "All-comrades." They
were the dominating factor in the tribal organization. The power of the
head-chief depended on his cooperation with them. The list, in order
from youth to old age: Kakuíks (Doves, or youths), Soisksíssiks
(Mosquitoes, men who went to war), Mátsiks, (Braves, tried warriors),
All-brave-dogs // Sinopáiks (Kitéfoxes), Catchers, and last, Stámiks
(Bulls). The definite order of rank was expressed by the relative
ages, or dates of origin. The most recent of the series was the Doves,
while the Bulls was the first. The greater worth of the Bulls was

chiefly due to their relative antiquity. The function of these societies
was primarily to preserve order in the camp—and on the hunt and to
punish offenders against the public welfare, of military origin.

No society had a monopoly on police duty. The head-men would call upon one or two of the societies to guard the camp for a stated period. The pigeons, mosquitoes, all-brave-dogs, and braves were the ones most often called. They were called for specific duties and could not act until so commissioned. Here was a check upon arbitrary personal power. Also the random assignment of the societies as well as their constantly changing personnel, prevented the permanent seizure of power by a police or soldier organization.

The Kakuíks (Doves or Pigeons), were the most recent acquisition to the thw series of societies, the bulls were the first or oldest. The pigeons held their ceremonies out of doors, and usually in the early morning. They had eight officers and an indefinite number of members. Their leader wore an eagle feather in his back hair, his face and body painted red. There were four yellow pigeons who wore no clothes and had their bodies painted yellow. They carried bows and arrows and danced in a circle. During the dance, when they seated themselves in a circle to rest, they all sang in unison, beating time on their bows with arrows and the drummed on the sides of their drums with sticks.

Soisksissiks (Mosquitoes). When the Society of Mosquitoes assembled to dance, they wore eagle feathers in their hair and painted their faces and bodies red. They formed a circle round the drummers. They sang and imitated the actions of mosquitoes, jumping about and waving their robes, hovering together, pushing and crowding in imitation of mosquitoes. At the end of each song, they made a buzzing sound, all squatting down with heads low and robes drawn over their heads and hummed like mosquitoes.

After repeating this dance four times, the Mosquitoe Society marched and scattered through the camp. They wore long plumes hanging from their hair and claws attached to their wrists to represent the bills of mosquitoes, with which they scratched anyone they met, and said, "Now I shall draw blood from you." Anyone who resisted or tried to escape, they caught and scratched hard. But those who offered themselves freely and invited them to take their fill, they did not harm. Because, if a mosquito is left alone, its bite does not hurt.

Brings-Down-The-Sun said the Sinopáiks (Kit-Foxes) was one of the oldest of their societies. The people were afraid of it. Its ceremony was secret and the members had great power. It was started by a man named Elk Tongue who dreamed about a kit-fox. It invited him to its den, and there he was given the power, and information about forming the society. When the Kit-Foxes gave their ceremony, they opened two lodges into one big lodge. For four days and four nights they sat inside making ready. On the fifth day they came forth and marched through camp. Their leader wore a foxskin with its head in front, ears on top, and tail hanging down his back. His face and body were painted so as to frighten the people. The leader went first, to represent the nose of a fox. Behind him the second and third men in rank, for the eyes of a fox. Then the other members for the body. The two second men as the eyes, watched their chief who was the nose or leader and acted as he directed. In their dances they always went in pairs, because kit-foxes do not run singly but in pairs. They gave short even jumps with feet close together, imitating the movements of a fox, barking and moving restlessly like a fox. The two who were the eyes, kept barking and swinging their spears. They didn't move in straight lines, because a fox is not accustomed to go straight - his tail seems to guide him.

Brings-Down-The-Sun was himself a member of the Mátsiks (Braves). It was the most powerful of all, he said, at that time. They protected the tribe's resources of food, - the game and wild berries. They ruled the camp and helped the chiefs to enforce discipline. They compelled everyone to submit to their rule, and were known to sometimes kill people who refused to obey their orders, but never harmed anyone who obeyed their commands.

In the circle-camp of 1908, my Pine Tree Tipi was pitched on the inside-circle, not far from the society lodges of the Brave Dogs, who were appointed by the head-chief as the police. Among their leaders I had friends who gave me every opportunity to make records and pictures. Day and night I watched them. Their three lodges were pitched as one, near the center of camp and apart from the others. Here they had their headquarters - a place for feasts and councils. And here they kept their costumes and weapons and dressed for parades and dances.

The Brave Dogs in a group, with their two mounted men behind who were the assistant leaders. The function of the Brave Dogs in the tribal camp, was primarily to preserve order. Everyone feared to oppose them. As a society they had power, because they were prominent men who had a reputation as brave warriors and wereunited in a band. Short Robe their head-man was in the center of the group, with Flat Tail one of the "Old-Men-Comrades" or advisors wearing a beaver-skin cap, also Blood, Lone Chief, and Drags' His Robe. Some of the lay-members of the Society were, - Lazy Husband, Drags Behind, Raven Eyes, Makes-Cold-Weather, Bad Married, Big Spring, Bird Rattler, Bear Shoe, Three Bears, Black Beaver, Marrow Bones, Cream Antelope, and Duck Head.

The first evening of that big camp, I saw the Brave Dogs ride through
the camp shouting their orders to the people. On such occasions they
came forth in their best costumes - deerskin suits trimmed with bands of
colored quills and ermine tails, war bonnets and headdresses of selected
eagle feathers. Their herald rode in advance and called in a loud voice:

"Let everyone be quiet. Young people must be careful not to disturb
the fasting-woman. In her tipi an important ceremony of the sun-dance
is taking place."

My own tipi was so close to the lodges of the Brave Dogs, I could
tell when events of interest were taking place, by the beating of drums
and shaking of their rattles. Here you see the head of their parade,
the members dressed in fine war costumes. It was their custom to always
march by twos. Short Robe their head-man leading with his small son in
a miniature costume like his father's. Short Robe as head-man had a
war shirt of deerskin trimmed over shoulders and arms with black-tipped
weasel skins; and a large coyote skin with his head thrust through a
slit in the middle and the tail hanging down his back. According to
#CUSTOMER REVIEWS custom, he carried his society rattle in his right hand and a
blanket over the left arm.

A near view of the Brave Dog leaders as they marched. In front,
Short Robe with his small son. The tall figure on his left is Flat Tail
in a horned headdress. He was known as one of the "Old-Men-Comrades.
Directly behind him is Elk Horn the herald, with an eagle feather in his
back hair.

13

935 A rear view of the Brave Dogs marching. In their parades they went in time with the beating of drums, shaking their rattles and singing, a throng of women and children generally followed in the rear. Every now and then they stopped, and, turning about, faced the drummers and danced backwards and forwards. Then reversed and moved on. Here they had reversed. Short Robe, their leader is now in the rear-line with Flat Tail on his right dressed in a weaselskin costume and bonnet of curving horns and ermine. This gives a good view of the large coyote-skin which Short Robe, as leader wore hanging down his back, also the fine ermine-trimmed costume of his small son on his left. In this society there was great rivalry as to costumes. Each member strove to appear his best before the tribe, who watched their maneuvers and dances with great interest. Four members with eagle feathers in their back hair were known as "Old-Men-Comrades". They gave advice in the various ceremonies, one of them made announcements to the people, riding through the camp as a herald and when a meeting was desired, called the society together.

936 Lone Chief is the costume of a "grizzly bear." There were two members of the Brave Dogs who were known as grizzly bears. It was always interesting and amusing to watch their strange actions in dances and ceremonies, because they imitated the actions of bears. Of all the society, they attracted the most attention from the spectators. The two grizzlies were the only members to carry bows and arrows. They used the "bear-face" pattern - red over the face with black marks at the corners of the mouth for tusks. They wore headdresses of bear-skin, with bear's ears and two bear-claws on top for horns; and arm-bands of bearskin with bear claws. The lower part of their bodies were naked and painted with bright colors. They wore loin-cloths and beaded belts with daggers, and short-sleeved shirts of soft-tanned skins covered with fringe.

937 Big Moon, an assistant leader, and known as one of the "mounted-men."
His white war-horse was decorated with war pictures. The hollow squares
on the right shoulder represented the war expeditions of which he was
leader, and the ball a pit where he had intrenched himself to stand off
the enemy. Big Moon was my friend through many years, and helped me in
taking these pictures of the Brave Dogs - in their dances and ceremonies.
And he used his influence as a leader to help along my work in the big
tribal camp.

937a Portrait of Big Moon showing his feathered headdress and war shirt
with beaded bands.

938 Night Gun as a mounted-man. The Brave Dogs had two mounted-men who acted as assistant leaders. He wore an unusually fine costume of soft-tanned deerskin, a war bonnet of selected eagle feathers tipped with red horsehair, and carried a rifle and a skin shield. Ranking next to the leader, the two mounted-men secured for ceremonies the best finest horses possible, and the best costumes. //

939 In this group are five prominent members of the Brave Dogs. Center, with back turned, is Lone Chief in the costume of a grizzly bear. The four others, left to right - Drags-His-Robe, Mountain Chief, Flat Tail, and Blood. These four were known as "Old-Men-Comrades." It was their duty to call the society together for councils, to act as advisors in ceremonies, also as heralds in making announcements to the people.

939a Flat Tail, a prominent chief and one of the Old-Men-Comrades. In Otter-skin cap, and a round beaded disc on his beautiful war shirt of deerskin. His membership in the Brave Dog Society was represented by the rattle he holds. And his face-painting accorded with the design on the rattle he owned. Since the rattles of all members were different, the transfer to another society, consisted in the purchase of a particular rattle, which was regarded as a ceremonial object or bundle.

15

The lay members of the Brave Dogs wore whatever they pleased. They were mostly from prominent families who were chosen because of their fine costumes. Also because their relatives had property and could make liberal presents to the society. In their parades they carried their rattles in the right hand and blanket over the left arm. Their faces were painted to correspond with the designs of their rattles which were all different. If a member wanted to withdraw from the society, he sold his rattle. It was a ceremonial object. The idea of the ceremonial transfer or purchase was so fundamental to a Blackfoot, that a membership in a society or even a place in a dance association was regarded as procurable in that way.

In their parades, the Brave Dogs always marched by twos, in time with the beating of drums and singing their society songs. Four drummers walked in the rear, wearing blankets tied about their waists to leave their arms free to drum and leading the singing.

The Brave Dogs marching. Some carried sacred objects. The member on the right had a Shield, and immediately behind him another with the War Bridle, or Horse Medicine, also a society possession. They carried it to war for its protective power against the enemy; also on buffalo hunts to increase the speed and sure-footedness of their horses. A quirt went with it, also a cluster of eagle feathers. This Horse Medicine was believed to have such power, it was used in many ways. It not only gave good luck in stealing horses from enemies, but also for catching wild horses. And it was used in racing, to make another horse lose a race.

Costumes of Individual Members

943. Maka with a buffalo shield. It had some practical value in war. It was treated as a sacred bundle, and had songs with a ritual which was used when it was formally transferred like any medicine bundle. It originated in a dream and had an origin myth. This Plains type of shield had a wide distribution.

944. Bird Rattler with a shield, and wearing a fine weasel-tail suit, decorated with bands of colored beads and many black-tipped ermine tails. The lay members of the Brave Dogs were chosen because of their fine costumes, and were generally of the best families who could make liberal gifts to the society.

945. Drags-His-Robe. According to the society custom he carried the rattle in his right hand. It was looked upon as a ceremonial object, and he painted his face to correspond with the design of his rattle.

946. Bird with his society rattle, and wearing his blanket over his left arm, according to the custom of the Brave Dogs.

946a. Two other lay members of the Brave Dogs. For parades they wore their best costumes and always marched by twos.

947 The Brave Dog Society marching in full regalia to the beating of drums.

947a Sometimes they stopped in their march to give their dance, and then continued again.

948 Here the Brave Dogs have reversed and you have a rear view of their line. In their parades around the circle-camp, thus to stop every now and then. They turned about to face the drummers in the rear, danced backwards and forwards, and then moved on again.

948a nearer view of line - Blankets always on left arm

949 Elk Horn, one of the Old Men Comrades, as he rode ahead of the society to make their announcements. He carried a Shield and the War Bridle. Coyote tails were fastened to his stirrups and he wore a horned war-bonnet of eagle feathers.

950 Again Elk Horn with war bonnet and War Bridle acting as herald and riding around the camp-circle at a galop. He had a powerful voice and was making announcements to the people.

951 As the Brave Dogs proceeded through the camp, sometimes they stopped in front of the tipi of a prominent man to give an informal dance, seating themselves in a circle in their regular positions. Here the drummers are in the center and the Old Men Comrades on the extreme left. They were passing a pipe and resting before their dance. Elk Horn, the herald, is third from the left and engaged with the pipe.

952 Here the Brave Dogs are at the Eagle Tipi. It was on the inner-circle and belonged to Running Fisher, a prominent chief. Wherever they stopped to give their dance, the owner of the lodge was expected to give them a feast and furnish tobacco for a smoke. And it was their society custom to keep on dancing until the food appeared. A man of prominence dared not refuse, lest he might get the reputation of being stingy. Here they had seated themselves in a circle on both sides of the door and in their regular positions. Short Robe as the leader at the head with his small son beside him and then the four Old Men Comrades or advisors. The two grizzly bear members are at the other end of the circle at the right, with the lay members between. The families of the members - women and children - went along and helped in the singing.

The Brave Dogs sitting by the Eagle Tipi, smoking before the feast. One of the mounted-men, the assistant leader, is at the right, his horse decorated with war pictures. In their society dance, the two mounted men were accustomed to ride round and round the circle of members, in the opposite direction. This figure was used in their dance by the Brave Dogs, because the founder of the society had a reputation of riding down enemies in battle with his horse.

954 The drummers standing, beating time on their drums and singing. A crowd of spectators are in the background. The people were always interested and excited by the warlike spirit and dances of the warrior societies.

955 In this figure of their dance, the Brave Dogs rose in their places. The two mounted men kept riding round and round their circle in opposite directions, and forced the dancers towards the center. The drummers stood in the center of their line - the families of the members behind, to help in the singing.

956 An interesting part of the dance, was the unhorsing of the two mounted men. All members who had performed the brave feat of unhorsing an enemy in battle, took hold of the mounted men and pulled them from their horses. Then all danced together. In this picture, Big Moon was unhorsed and is dancing at the head of his horse, surrounded by the other members who were taking part in the dance.

957 This was the end of the dance, indicated by the positions of the dancers. When they were ready to stop, they held their society rattles high in the air and the drummers their drums. They all shouted in unison and returned to their seats. Big Moon, one of the mounted men is at the extreme left, holding aloft the War Bridle, next to him. Three Bears waving an eagle-wing, and then Bear Shoe holding up his society rattle. The four Old-Men-Comrades stand in the center of the line. Bird Rattler is close to the tipi with the buffalo Shield. It was evening and the sun sinking behind the Rocky Mountains, cast long shadows of the tipis.

A near view of the Brave Dog dancers, Big Moon with the War Bridle and known as a mounted man. He was always helped me and used his influence to get the pictures I wanted. Next to Big Moon, Three Bears with an eagle-wing, and Bear Shoe with his society rattle.

Lone Chief and Cream Antelope, the two grizzly bear members. They had headdresses of bear-skin with two bear horns on top for horns, arm bands of bear-skin and shirts of soft-tanned skin whitened. Their shirts were slit and cut into rows and only reached to the waist, with fringe round the bottom and short sleeves. It was always amusing to watch the two grizzly bears - in dances and ceremonies they always acted like bears - for painting they used the bear-face, a red ground with black marks down from the eyes and corners of the mouth. At a feast, there was a taboo for the bears to pass any meat. A woman must hand the food to each guest, for the bears would take possession of any they could lay hold of and devoured it like bears. And in former times the bears would intercept hungers bringing in the meat. They helped themselves to the best cuts. But in the course of time the giver would receive liberal presents from various society members.

After a feast at the Eagle Tipi, some of the head-men made speeches before the society seated. Black Bear was talking when this picture was taken. At the left end are the Old Men Comrades, and at the extreme right, next to the women in foreground, the two grizzly bears are seated. They can be recognized at a distance by their distinctive shirts. After the speeches, the Brave Dogs all sang together, accompanied by the beating of drums.

Three lay members of the society seated, listening to a speaker. Lay members were chosen for their fine costumes and generally from the best families.

A view to show the interior arrangements of a Brave Dog tipi, and the way they had of caring for their elaborate regalia, costumes, and sacred bundles. They were looked after with great care. Left is the War Bridle and Whip that went with it - the long bundle tied to a lodge pole. It was carried by members on important occasions and taken to war for protective purposes. Hanging from a pole on the right, is one of their rattles which was regarded as a ceremonial object. From the center pole hangs a banner decorated with ermine tails, and a fine war bonnet of eagle-tail feathers, also a buffalo Shield, and a weasel-tail suit. Three prominent men were there, White Grass the medicine-man and doctor in the center, Black Weasel right, and on the left Horn who was famous in the tribe as a hunter and trapper. He lived in the mountains and foothills and was seldom seen in the camps. White Grass and Horn were both friends of Chief Mad Wolf, my Indian foster-father. Black Weasel was a younger man.

"Ikaika chkani (Nose-cut-already-off). A husband could kill an unfaithful wife or cut off her nose. Members of the Brave Dog Society might be called on to inflict the punishment. Before strangers these women without noses were always ashamed and covered their faces with their blankets.

When the Men's Societies entered the dancing-lodge at the Sun Dance, they hung their weapons and regalia on the center-pole and sat down in rows. They gave their rituals and dances, and told of their brave deeds in war before the assembled people. They sang war songs and counted "coups", accompanied by the beating of drums. They had a feast and passed around a Medicine Pipe for everyone to smoke and pray. Little Dog (Inuitaikoan) the war chief, speaking through a mouthpiece, told his people and the others a story.

One evening I saw the Brave Dog Society parading through camp. They marched to the beating of drums, and sang in unison shaking their rattles. Dressed in fine costumes of wild animal skins and war bonnets, they carried their weapons and regalia. Elk Horn as their herald, rode in advance and announced to the people, they would give that night their society dance in their big dance-lodge. In front are their leaders, Short Robe the head-man and the four Old Men Comrades.

After dark I saw the three lodges of the Brave Dogs glowing with light from their inside fires. Then people began to assemble, coming from all parts of the camp, until the big dance-lodge was thronged. I stood outside, listening to the war whoops and singing. The rhythmical beating of the drums increased until it reached a climax. Then with loud beating and shouts would suddenly cease. I could not enter the door because of the great crowd. So I loosened a lodge-peg and crawled informally under the side, to find myself among the women and children - the families of the members. But they were so thrilled with the dance, they took no notice of my sudden appearance in their midst.

It was a weird looking dance on the inside of that big tipi -
it was two lodges opened into one. They looked savage and wild with
the glow of the fire on their painted faces and bodies. Most of them
wore only loin cloths and moccasins. But Short Robe, their leader was
distinguished by the large coyote-skin, which he wore on his back,
the tail almost touching the ground. Four of the dancers had their
bodies painted with white clay, to represent gray wolves, and carried
long sticks decorated with eagle feathers. In the dance they circled
round and round the other dancers, imitating wolves driving buffalo.
Their step was an alternate lifting of the feet, slow or fast, according
to the beat of the drums.

In the dance, the two grizzly bears sat in a hole to represent a
den. Their headdresses had bear's ears and bear claws on top for
double horns. They had their faces painted as hideous as possible,
to frighten the spectators - red all over with black streaks across
the eyes and corners of the mouth - to represent the "bear-face".
Like bears they acted lazy and lolled in their den. According to custom,
the spectators threw things at them, when they wanted them to dance.
Then, at a point in the dance, when the wolves had herded the buffalo
together and were closing in to attack, the grizzly bears woke up.
Slowly and deliberately they rose like bears and joined the dance,
driving back the wolf dancers from the buffalo, after which they went
back to their den. This figure was repeated many times to the delight
of the spectators.

The dance of the Brave Dogs continued until late in the night. And all the time their lodges glowed with firelight and their drums beat steadily accompanied by shrill cries and singing. Before they separated they had a feast, then rode through the camp shouting their orders and singing their society song, "It is bad to live to be old, better to die young fighting bravely in battle."

969

Said Brings-Down-The-Sun about his own society: "Men who joined the Braves had to face danger when it came - they could not turn away. When we decided it was time for the tribe to change camp, we made a feast in our society lodge and invited the head-chief. After we had eaten and were smoking together, our chief would say:

10

"'My children, who have you asked me to come here? What is it that you want'?

"And our leader would answer: 'Grass is scarce, the water poor and the ground no longer clean, it is time to move to another place.'

"Then the head-chief would reply: 'In the morning we shall break camp. Tell the people to bring in their horses from the hills and to picket them close - we shall start at the rising of the sun.'"