TABLE OF CONTENTS

<table><thead><tr><th>SECTION AND CHAPTER</th><th>PAGE</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>INTRODUCTION</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Scope of study</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnological classification of China</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Origin and migrations of the people of China</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>SECTION A. THE PEOPLE OF CHINA'S FAR NORTH</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>I. THE TUNGUSIC FAMILY</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Physical type</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Geographical environment</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Culture</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>Social organization</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>Religion</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>Language</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>SECTION B. THE PEOPLE OF CHINA'S WEST AND NORTHWEST</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>II. THE IRANIAN AND TURKIC FAMILY</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Physical type</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>Geographical environment</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>Culture</td><td>24</td></tr><tr><td>Social organization</td><td>25</td></tr><tr><td>Religion</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>Language</td><td>28</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>III. THE MONGOLIAN FAMILY</td>
      <td>30</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>31</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>34</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>34</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>36</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>37</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>39</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>SECTION C. THE PEOPLE OF CHINA'S WEST AND SOUTHWEST</td>
      <td>41</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>IV. THE INDO-CHINESE FAMILY</td>
      <td>45</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>1. Tibetan Group</td>
      <td>46</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>46</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>46</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>47</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>48</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>49</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>50</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>2. Ch'iang Group</td>
      <td>51</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>51</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>51</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>52</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>53</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>54</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>

<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>3. Lolo Group</td>
      <td>55</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>56</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>55</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>57</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>59</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>60</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>4. K'a-ch'in Group</td>
      <td>61</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>61</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>61</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>62</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>63</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>64</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>V. THE T'AI-SHAN FAMILY</td>
      <td>65</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>66</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>66</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>67</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>68</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>69</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>70</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>VI. THE NIAO-P'U FAMILY</td>
      <td>71</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>1. Miao-Yao Group</td>
      <td>71</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>72</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>73</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>74</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>

<table>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>74</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>75</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>2. Wa-Palaung Group</td>
      <td>76</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>76</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>77</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>77</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>78</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>79</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>80</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>SECTION D. THE PEOPLE OF CHINA'S EASTERN ISLANDS</td>
      <td>81</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>VII. THE MALAYAN PEOPLE OF TAIWAN</td>
      <td>83</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>84</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical organization</td>
      <td>83</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>84</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>85</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>87</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Language</td>
      <td>87</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>SECTION E. THE PEOPLE OF CHINA-PROPER</td>
      <td>89</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>VIII. THE CHINESE</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Physical type</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Geographical environment</td>
      <td>92</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Culture</td>
      <td>93</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Social organization</td>
      <td>93</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Religion</td>
      <td>96</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>

1

# INTRODUCTION

One third of the land area in the world is Asia and in Asia live nearly two thirds of all mankind. About half of these, or more than one fourth of the world's population, live in China. If it is true that a nation's strength depends upon material resources, man hours of labor and a willingness to work toward a unified set of objectives; then China is potentially one of the most important nations in the world.

Whatever happens in China will affect all of Asia, and the changes that take place in Asia will vitally influence the remaining third of mankind in other parts of the world. Because the momentum of change is increasing rapidly in China, it is of supreme importance that the rest of the world increase its understanding of that nation, for without such understanding we cannot adequately cope with the human relationship problems with which we shall more and more be faced.

This study has been undertaken because of the writer's conviction that an ethnographical knowledge of China is basic to cultural understanding. In other words, if we are to understand Chinese philosophy, religion, art, politics, etc. we have got to look for the roots of such

2

things in the ethnical composition of the nation, of
the relationship of these groups to the regions they
inhabit, in their cultural patterns, in their social or-
ganization and in their orientation with one another.

It is the writer's hope that such intimate under-
standing will lead to that kind of tolerance which will
become a part of the fabric of world peace.

The scope of the study is suggested by a definition
of the terms used in the title.

China includes the eighteen provinces commonly
called "China-Proper", the ten provinces lying mostly
between the Great Wall and the Soviet Russian frontier,
and the two large islands lying off the east coast of China.

China-Proper

Hopei
Shantung
Shansi
Shensi
Honan
Anhwei
Hupeh
Hunan
Kiangsu
Chekiang
Kiangsi
Fukien
Szechuan
Sikang
Yunnan
Kweichow
Kwangsi
Kwangtung

Outlying Provinces

Heilungkiang
Kirin
Liaoning
Jehol
Chahar
Suiyuan
Ninghsia
Chinghai
Kansu
Sinkiang

Island Provinces

Taiwan
Hainan

3

Ethnography is the scientific mapping out of diff-
erent ethnical regions showing the vital connections
between social and geographical phenomena. ¹

An outline is a sketch or draft showing the
principle characteristics of any scheme or work. ² This
study is limited to an outline because of the almost complete
lack of detailed material for some parts of the work and
because of the superabundance of material for other parts.
This work is undertaken as a preliminary scan of the field
in preparation for further work at a later date.

An outline of the ethnography of China, then, is
a sketch or draft of the principal characteristics of the
different ethnical groups now inhabiting China; showing
their physical types, their social organization, their
language types, their culture patterns and their orientations
to one another against the background of their geographical
environment.

The organization of this study is based upon
the eight main ethnical groups found in contemporary China.
Since there is not sufficient evidence available for the

1. Encyclopaedia Britannica

2. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary

4

classification of these groups according to the chronology
of their appearance in China, I will discuss them in order
of convenience when looking at the map, beginning in the
north and moving in general toward the south.

Very few classifications in existence agree in all
details. The following classification has been set up
after a careful study of all material collected for this
study. I use it knowing that further study may suggest
changes.

A. The People of China's Far North

I. The Tungusic Family

1. The Coldi of the Amur River Basin

2. The Orochi " " " "

3. The Solon-Daur

4. The Manchu

B. The People of China's West and Northwest

I. The Iranian and Turkic Family

1. The Tajik of the Lower Pamirs in Sinkiang

2. The Uighur of the Kashgar Region in Sinkiang

3. The Taranchi of the Ili Valley in Sinkiang

4. The Kirghiz of the high Pamirs

5. The Kazakh of the Steppes

II. The Mongolian Family

1. Western Group

a. The Kalmuck of North Sinkiang

b. The Jungars of Dzungaria in Sinkiang

c. The Torgots

2. Eastern Group

a. The Khalkhas

b. The Tumet, the Shakhar and the Buriat

5

C. The People of China's West and Southwest

I. The Indo-Chinese Family

1. Tibetan Group

a. The Tibetan of Northwestern Sikang

b. The K'u-chung in northwest Yunnan and Sikang

c. The Hsi-fan of northwest Szechuan

d. The Lu-tze " " "

e. The K'o-tze " " "

2. Ch'iang Group of north Szechuan

3. Lolo Group

a. The Lolo of southwest Szechuan, northwest
Kweichow, northeast and central Yunnan

b. The Moso of north Yunnan and southeast Szechuan

c. The Lissu of northwest and southwest Yunnan

d. The Woli of south Yunnan

e. The Lohei of west Yunnan

f. The Ak'a of southwest Yunnan

4. K'a-ch'in Group of southwest Yunnan

II. The T'ai-Shan Family

1. Western Group

a. The Pai-Yi of southwest Yunnan

2. Eastern Group

a. The Lung-jen in southeast Yunnan

b. The Sa-jen " " "

c. The Chung-chia in central and south Kweichow
and southeast Yunnan

d. The Ch'ang-jen of west, south and central
Kwangsi

e. The Li of north and central Hainan Island

III. The Miao-P'u Family

1. Miao-Yao Group

a. The Miao of Kweichow, west Hunan, east and
south Yunnan and south Szechuan

b. The Yao of central, east and north Kwangsi,
southwest Hunan, north Kwangtung,
southeast Kweichow and south Yunnan

2. Wa-Palaung Group

a. The K'a-wa of southwest Yunnan on the Burma
frontier

b. The K'a-la to the north of the K'a-wa

c. The Palaung of the southwest frontier of
Yunnan

d. The P'umen of southwest Yunnan

6

D. The People of China's Eastern Islands

I. The Malayan People of Taiwan

1. The Atayal

2. The Bonun

3. The Tsou

4. The Rukai (Tsarisen)

5. The Paiwan

6. The Panapanayan (Puyuma)

7. The Pangtsah (Ami)

8. The Saisiat

9. The Yami

E. The People of China Proper

I. The Chinese

1. Northern Group

2. Southern Group

The method of dealing with the above classification
has been to select the groups which seem most typical as the
basis for description for each major division. In the use
of terminology I have tried to follow that which indicates
ethnological groups rather than social or political distinc-
tions. Thus, the term "Chinese" has been used in the
ethnic rather than the political sense.

The *origin and migrations of the people who now
com pose China* has not yet been definitely established.
Who the first inhabitants were and where they came from
is still a tantalizing question to students of human origins.
We do know from the earliest Chinese historical records
that the people who wrote those records were a well organ-
ized agricultural people with an advanced technology living