the goldman sachs group , inc . and subsidiaries management 2019s discussion and analysis net revenues in equities were $ 7.83 billion for 2015 , 16% ( 16 % ) higher than 2014 . excluding a gain of $ 121 million ( $ 30 million and $ 91 million included in equities client execution and securities services , respectively ) in 2014 related to the extinguishment of certain of our junior subordinated debt , net revenues in equities were 18% ( 18 % ) higher than 2014 , primarily due to significantly higher net revenues in equities client execution across the major regions , reflecting significantly higher results in both derivatives and cash products , and higher net revenues in securities services , reflecting the impact of higher average customer balances and improved securities lending spreads . commissions and fees were essentially unchanged compared with 2014 . we elect the fair value option for certain unsecured borrowings . the fair value net gain attributable to the impact of changes in our credit spreads on these borrowings was $ 255 million ( $ 214 million and $ 41 million related to fixed income , currency and commodities client execution and equities client execution , respectively ) for 2015 , compared with a net gain of $ 144 million ( $ 108 million and $ 36 million related to fixed income , currency and commodities client execution and equities client execution , respectively ) for 2014 . operating expenses were $ 13.94 billion for 2015 , 28% ( 28 % ) higher than 2014 , due to significantly higher net provisions for mortgage-related litigation and regulatory matters , partially offset by decreased compensation and benefits expenses . pre-tax earnings were $ 1.21 billion in 2015 , 72% ( 72 % ) lower than 2014 . investing & lending investing & lending includes our investing activities and the origination of loans , including our relationship lending activities , to provide financing to clients . these investments and loans are typically longer-term in nature . we make investments , some of which are consolidated , directly and indirectly through funds that we manage , in debt securities and loans , public and private equity securities , infrastructure and real estate entities . we also make unsecured loans to individuals through our online platform . the table below presents the operating results of our investing & lending segment. .
operating expenses were what multiple of pre-tax earnings in 2015?
operating environment . following difficult market conditions and the impact of a challenging macroeconomic environment on corporate performance , particularly in the energy sector , in the first quarter of 2016 , market conditions improved during the rest of the year as macroeconomic concerns moderated . global equity markets increased during 2016 , contributing to net gains from investments in public equities , and corporate performance rebounded from the difficult start to the year . if macroeconomic concerns negatively affect corporate performance or company-specific events , or if global equity markets decline , net revenues in investing & lending would likely be negatively impacted . although net revenues in investing & lending for 2015 benefited from favorable company-specific events , including sales , initial public offerings and financings , a decline in global equity prices and widening high-yield credit spreads during the second half of 2015 impacted results . 2016 versus 2015 . net revenues in investing & lending were $ 4.08 billion for 2016 , 25% ( 25 % ) lower than 2015 . this decrease was primarily due to significantly lower net revenues from investments in equities , primarily reflecting a significant decrease in net gains from private equities , driven by company-specific events and corporate performance . in addition , net revenues in debt securities and loans were lower compared with 2015 , reflecting significantly lower net revenues related to relationship lending activities , due to the impact of changes in credit spreads on economic hedges . losses related to these hedges were $ 596 million in 2016 , compared with gains of $ 329 million in 2015 . this decrease was partially offset by higher net gains from investments in debt instruments and higher net interest income . see note 9 to the consolidated financial statements for further information about economic hedges related to our relationship lending activities . operating expenses were $ 2.39 billion for 2016 , essentially unchanged compared with 2015 . pre-tax earnings were $ 1.69 billion in 2016 , 44% ( 44 % ) lower than 2015 . 2015 versus 2014 . net revenues in investing & lending were $ 5.44 billion for 2015 , 20% ( 20 % ) lower than 2014 . this decrease was primarily due to lower net revenues from investments in equities , principally reflecting the sale of metro in the fourth quarter of 2014 and lower net gains from investments in private equities , driven by corporate performance . in addition , net revenues in debt securities and loans were significantly lower , reflecting lower net gains from investments . goldman sachs 2016 form 10-k 63 .