A 24-year study of 1, 500 adults showed that those subjects with a high intake of foods rich in betacarotene were much less likely to die from cancer or heart disease than were those with a low intake of such foods. On the other hand, taking beta-carotene supplements for 12 years had no positive or negative effect on the health of subjects in a separate study of 20, 000 adults. Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the results of the two studies EXCEPT: ['The human body processes the beta-carotene present in foods much more efficiently than it does beta-carotene supplements.', 'In the 24-year study, the percentage of the subjects who had a high intake of betacarotene-rich foods who smoked cigarettes was much smaller than the percentage of the subjects with a low intake of beta-carotene-rich foods who smoked.', 'Beta-carotene must be taken for longer than 12 years to have any cancer-preventive effects.', 'In the 12-year study, half of the subjects were given beta-carotene supplements and half were given a placebo.']