Kennel club members who frequently discipline their dogs report a higher incidence of misbehavior than do members who rarely or never discipline their dogs. We can conclude from this that discipline does not improve dogs' behavior; on the contrary, it encourages misbehavior. The argument is flawed in that it fails to consider the possibility that ['kennel club members are more likely to use discipline than are other dog owners', "dogs' misbehavior is the cause of, rather than the result of, frequent discipline", 'dogs learn from past experience how their owners are likely to react to misbehavior', 'kennel club members tend to be more skilled at raising dogs than are other dog owners']