['The programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) protein is a critical regulator of T-cell activation and is also an important therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases. Little is known about the regulation and functional properties of the soluble PD-1 (sPD-1) variant. The aim of this study was to examine the role of sPD-1 in the regulation of human and murine rheumatoid arthritis (RA).', 'Expression of cytokines and sPD-1 in sera, synovial fluid, and peripheral blood (PB) mononuclear cells of patients with RA were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. PD-1 function was assessed in PB T cells after stimulation of the cells with anti-CD3 and PD-L1-Fc to crosslink PD-1. Recombinant PD-1-Fc was injected intraperitoneally into DBA/1 mice with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) to analyze the function of sPD-1 in vivo.', 'High concentrations of sPD-1 were found in sera and synovial fluid of patients with RA. The levels of serum sPD-1 were significantly correlated with titers of rheumatoid factor (RF) (r\u2009=\u20090.306, p\u2009=\u20090.005) and 28-joint Disease Activity Score (r\u2009=\u20090.545, p\u2009<\u20090.001). Further characterization of sPD-1 revealed that it functionally blocked the inhibitory effect of membrane-bound PD-1 on T-cell activation. Interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, and interleukin 17A were identified as inducers of sPD-1 in vitro. Moreover, PD-1-Fc enhanced proinflammatory cytokine expression, generation of Th1 cells and Th17 cells, and joint pathology in a CIA model.'] Does soluble PD-1 aggravate progression of collagen-induced arthritis through Th1 and Th17 pathways?