Meerkat "sentinels, " so-called because they watch for predators while other meerkat group members forage, almost never fall victim to those predators, yet the foragers often do. This advantage accruing to the sentinel does not mean that its watchful behavior is entirely self-interested. On the contrary, the sentinel' s behavior is an example of animal behavior motivated at least in part by altruism. The loud bark emitted by the sentinel as it dashes for the cover of the nearest hole alerts other group members to the presence of danger. Which one of the following is a questionable reasoning technique employed in the argument? ['concluding that a claim is false on the grounds that insufficient evidence has been offered to support it', "appealing to evidence that tends to undermine rather than support the argument's conclusion", "appealing to evidence that presupposes the truth of the argument's conclusion", 'inferring solely from an effect produced by an action that a purpose of the action is to produce that effect']