Infertility Options and Stratification Reproductive Technologies and Stratification As there is a continual expansion of reproductive technologies, there is also increasing deficits in the access and utilization of these technologies due to stratified reproduction. Barriers achieving equal access to these reproductive technologies include high costs, lack of adequate healthcare or no healthcare, restrictive policies, lack of transportation and the lack of autonomy given to women to make their own reproductive decisions. Racial Implications Ethnicity and race also play a role in stratified reproduction. Western media often focuses on the infertility of middle-class white woman, therefore, this implies that poor and non-white womenare hyper-fertile and should not be encouraged to reproduce .Bell, Ann V. 2010. “Beyond (Financial) Accessibility: Inequalities within the Medicalisation of Infertility.” Sociology of Health & Illness 32:631–46. Race and ethnicity are common tools used to justify reproductive injustices and health disparities seen throughout the United States. Latinx Populations and Stratified Reproduction Recently, the stories of Latinx struggle for reproductive rights have been coming out . These stories provided evidence that the US was funding forced sterilization of Latinx people and other ethnic groups. In their article, Elena R. Gutiérrez and Liza Fuentes study two communities, Puerto Rican women in Puerto Rico and New York and Mexican-origin women in Los Angeles. Once Puerto Rico became a US colony in 1898, people began to talk about Puerto Rico being overpopulated. To deal with this a large portion , over 34\% of mothers aged 20–49 , were sterilized. Not all women chose to be sterilized. Many of these women were used for contraceptive testing without their knowledge. Mexican-origin women were another community that experiences forced sterilization. They were non consensual sterilizations. These sterilizations came from the idea that Latinx folks are over-populating the US. In his article, Leo Chavez discusses Latinx fertility in the United States. Their ethnic identity drove a new set of advertisements, anti-immigration advertisements. These advertisements suggest that the Latinx communities leave . That their fertility was not wanted in the US, a countrywhere the population growth rate was near zero . Puerto Ricans  such as those discussed in the article by Gutiérrez and Fuentes  were a part of this larger Latinx community that was being targeted. In Leo Chavez's article, he collects data to discuss fertility rates in Latinx people. He uses this data to show thatwhile Latinx folks are having more children, they are not started at a younger age as the US would like to believe . Black and African American Women Experiencing Stratified Reproduction Nearly one in four African American women live below the poverty line  which greatly increases the risks associated with bearing children.Tucker, J., & Lowell, C. (2016). National Snapshot: Poverty Among Women & Families, 2015. Black women are 2.5 times more likely to die during pregnancy  and their children are 2 times more likely to die as infants.BLKHLTH. (2017). Why Black Health Matters: An Introduction to BLKHLTH. Many attempt to view this issue as a biological issue of African American women; however, black women residing in other countries have less reproductive complication than their American counterparts. Black women are less likely to be given medical advice, to be warned of possible medical complications  and to receive helpful prenatal therapies.Dominguez, T. P. (2011). Adverse Birth Outcomes in African American Women: The Social Context of Persistent Reproductive Disadvantage. Social Work In Public Health, 26(1), 3-16. This differential treatment from medical health professional leads to more birth complications, adverse birth outcomes and fetal death thus contributing to the system of stratified reproduction. Residential segregation may indirectly harm health through harmful living environments and limited access to resources. Segregated communities often are characterized by more crime, greater pollution, higher population densities, more poverty, and fewer and lower quality services leading to infant mortality. This includes forms of environmental injustice  which incorporates the unfair plotting of landfill facilities and the deliberate targeting of minority and low income communities as repositories for hazardous waste sitesHarris , M. L. (2016). Ecowomanism: Black Women, Religion, and the Environment. Black Scholar, 46(3), 27-39. Even though residential segregation affects various minority groups, in the United States there are stark health discrepancies between black woman and their white counterparts. Flint, Michigan is a predominately black area that exemplifies the harmful impact low environmental quality can have on healthy reproduction . The issue of water contamination has been present since 2014, even though data that shows that fertility rates decreased by 12 percent and infant mortality raised 58 percent for residence in Flint .West Virginia University. (2017). Flint's water crisis led to fewer babies and higher fetal death rates, researchers find. ScienceDaily. Queer Stratified Reproduction More recently, there has been a closer look into how the system of stratified reproduction impacts the LGBTQ+ community. Stratified reproduction within the reproductive field of medicine feeds into a political economy that does not include a right to health, but a right to purchase health care if one can afford it and is deemed worthy of these biomedicines. States such as Arizona and Mississippi have recently seen legislative attempts to allow health care services to deny care to LGBTQ people and these stratifications of access to care also denies LGBTQ people the same possibilities for family planning and formation.Greil, A. L., McQuillan, J., Shreffler, K. M., Johnson, K. M., & Slauson-Blevins, K. S. (2011). Race-Ethnicity and Medical Services for Infertility: Stratified Reproduction in a Population-based Sample of U.S. Women. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(4), 493–509. URL
Infertility options and stratification Reproductive technologies and stratification As there is a continual expansion of reproductive technologies, there is also increasing deficits in the access and utilization of these technologies due to stratified reproduction. Barriers achieving equal access to these reproductive technologies include high costs, lack of adequate healthcare or no healthcare, restrictive policies, lack of transportation and the lack of autonomy given to women to make their own reproductive decisions. Racial implications Ethnicity and race also play a role in stratified reproduction. Western media often focuses on the infertility of middle-class white women, to the detriment of poor and nonwhite women .Bell, Ann V. 2010. “Beyond (Financial) Accessibility: Inequalities within the Medicalisation of Infertility.” Sociology of Health & Illness 32:631–46. Race and ethnicity are common tools used to justify reproductive injustices and health disparities seen throughout the United States. Latino populations and stratified reproduction Recent scholarship has investigated the history of conflict around Latinas and fertility in the United States . These stories provided evidence that the United States had funded forced sterilization of Latino people and other ethnic groups. In their article, Elena R. Gutiérrez and Liza Fuentes study two communities, Puerto Rican women in Puerto Rico and New York and Mexican-origin women in Los Angeles. Once Puerto Rico became an American colony in 1898, people began to talk about Puerto Rico being overpopulated. By 1965 , over 34\% of mothers aged 20–49 had been sterilized. Not all women chose to be sterilized. Many of these women were used for contraceptive testing without their knowledge. Mexican-origin women were another community that experienced forced sterilization. Some women were forced into nonconsensual sterilizations, including as they were giving birth. Scholar Leo Chavez argues that these sterilizations came from the idea that Latinos are over-populating the U.S. In his article, Leo Chavez discusses Latino fertility in the United States. He writes that their presence promoted anti-immigration sentiment and advertising suggesting that they should leave the United States and that their fertility was not welcome in the country . Puerto Ricans , such as those discussed in the article by Gutiérrez and Fuentes , were a part of this larger Latino community that was being targeted. In Chavez's article, he collects data to discuss fertility rates among Latinas, showing that, though Latina women were more fertile than their non-Hispanic white counterparts, they had fewer lifetime sexual partners . Black women experiencing stratified reproduction Nearly one in four African-American women live below the poverty line , which greatly increases the risks associated with bearing children.Tucker, J., & Lowell, C. (2016). National Snapshot: Poverty Among Women & Families, 2015. Black women are two and a half times more likely to die during pregnancy , and their children are two times more likely to die as infants.BLKHLTH. (2017). Why Black Health Matters: An Introduction to BLKHLTH. Many attempt to view this issue as a biological issue of African-American women; however, black women residing in other countries have less reproductive complication than their American counterparts. Black women are less likely to be given medical advice, to be warned of possible medical complications , and to receive helpful prenatal therapies.Dominguez, T. P. (2011). Adverse Birth Outcomes in African American Women: The Social Context of Persistent Reproductive Disadvantage. Social Work In Public Health, 26(1), 3-16. This differential treatment from medical health professional leads to more birth complications, adverse birth outcomes and fetal death thus contributing to the system of stratified reproduction. Residential segregation may indirectly harm health through harmful living environments and limited access to resources. Segregated communities often are characterized by more crime, greater pollution, higher population densities, more poverty, and fewer and lower-quality services, leading to infant mortality. This includes forms of environmental injustice , which incorporates the unfair plotting of landfill facilities and the deliberate targeting of minority and low-income communities as repositories for hazardous waste sites.Harris , M. L. (2016). Ecowomanism: Black Women, Religion, and the Environment. Black Scholar, 46(3), 27-39. Even though residential segregation affects various minority groups, in the United States there are stark health discrepancies between black woman and their white counterparts. Flint, Michigan is a predominately black area that exemplifies the harmful impact low environmental quality can have on healthy reproduction : The Flint water crisis decreased fertility rates by 12 percent and raised infant mortality by 58 percent among Flint residents .West Virginia University. (2017). Flint's water crisis led to fewer babies and higher fetal death rates, researchers find. ScienceDaily. Queer stratified reproduction More recently, there has been a closer look into how the system of stratified reproduction impacts the LGBTQ+ community. Stratified reproduction within the reproductive field of medicine feeds into a political economy that does not include a right to health, but a right to purchase health care if one can afford it and is deemed worthy of these biomedicines. States such as Arizona and Mississippi have recently seen legislative attempts to allow health care services to deny care to LGBTQ people ; these stratifications of access to care also deny LGBTQ people the same possibilities for family planning and formation.Greil, A. L., McQuillan, J., Shreffler, K. M., Johnson, K. M., & Slauson-Blevins, K. S. (2011). Race-Ethnicity and Medical Services for Infertility: Stratified Reproduction in a Population-based Sample of U.S. Women. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(4), 493–509. URL
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