Besides the common meaning of "a soul", po was a variant Chinese character for po "a lunar phase" and po "dregs". The Book of Documents used po as a graphic variant for po "dark aspect of the moon" – this character usually means ba "overlord; hegemon". For example, "On the third month, when (the growth phase, ) of the moon began to wane, the duke of Chow [i.e., Duke of Zhou] commenced the foundations, and proceeded to build the new great city of Lǒ" (tr. Legge 1865:434). The Zhuangzi "[Writings of] Master Zhuang" wrote zaopo (lit. "rotten dregs") "worthless; unwanted; waste matter" with a po variant. A wheelwright sees Duke Huan of Qi with books by dead sages and says, "what you are reading there is nothing but the [] chaff and dregs of the men of old!" (tr. Watson 1968:152). In the history of Chinese writing, characters for po "lunar brightness" appeared before those for hun "soul; spirit". The spiritual hun and po "dual souls" are first recorded in Warring States period (475–221 BCE) seal script characters. The lunar po or "moon's brightness" appears in both Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE) Bronzeware script and oracle bone script, but not in Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BCE) oracle inscriptions. The earliest form of this "lunar brightness" character was found on a (ca. 11th century BCE) Zhou oracle bone inscription (Yü 1987:370) . Etymologies The po soul's etymology is better understood than the hun soul's. Schuessler (2007:290, 417) reconstructs hun "'spiritual soul' which makes a human personality" and po "vegetative or animal soul ... which accounts for growth and physiological functions" as Middle Chinese γuən and pʰak from Old Chinese *wûn and *phrâk. What do the words hun and [po] mean? Hun expresses the idea of continuous propagation ([zhuan] ), unresting flight; it is the qi of the Lesser Yang, working in man in an external direction, and it governs the nature (or the instincts, [xing] ). [Po] expresses the idea of a continuous pressing urge ([po] ) on man; it is the [qi] of the Lesser Yin, and works in him, governing the emotions ([qing] ). Hun is connected with the idea of weeding ([yun] ), for with the instincts the evil weeds (in man's nature) are removed. [Po] is connected with the idea of brightening ([bai] ), for with the emotions the interior (of the personality) is governed. (tr. Needham and Lu 1974:87) Etymologically, Schuessler says pò "animal soul" "is the same word as" pò "a lunar phase". He cites the Zuozhuan (534 BCE, see below) using the lunar jishengpo to mean "With the first development of a fetus grows the vegetative soul". Pò, the soul responsible for growth, is the same as pò the waxing and waning of the moon". The meaning 'soul' has probably been transferred from the moon since men must have been aware of lunar phases long before they had developed theories on the soul. This is supported by the etymology 'bright', and by the inverted word order which can only have originated with meteorological expressions ... The association with the moon explains perhaps why the pò soul is classified as Yin ... in spite of the etymology 'bright' (which should be Yang), hun's Yang classification may be due to the association with clouds and by extension sky, even though the word invokes 'dark'. 'Soul' and 'moon' are related in other cultures, by cognation or convergence, as in Tibeto-Burman and Proto-Lolo–Burmese *s/ʼ-la "moon; soul; spirit", Written Tibetan cognates bla "soul" and zla "moon", and Proto-Miao–Yao *bla "spirit; soul; moon". (2007:417) The semantics of po "white soul" probably originated with "lunar whiteness". Zhou bronze inscriptions commonly recorded lunar phases with the terms jishengpo "after the brightness has grown" and jisipo "after the brightness has died", which Schuessler explains as "second quarter of the lunar month" and "last quarter of the lunar month". Chinese scholars have variously interpreted these two terms as lunar quarters or fixed days, and (Shaughnessy 1992:136–145) Wang Guowei's lunar-quarter analysis the most likely. Thus, jishengpo is from the 7th/8th to the 14th/15th days of the lunar month and jisipo is from the 23rd/24th to the end of the month. Yü (1987:370) translates them as "after the birth of the crescent" and "after the death of the crescent". Etymologically, lunar and spiritual po < pʰak < *phrâk are cognate with bai < bɐk < *brâk "white" (Matisoff 1980, Yü 1981, Carr 1985) . According to Hu Shih (1946:30) , po etymologically means "white, whiteness, and bright light"; "The primitive Chinese seem to have regarded the changing phases of the moon as periodic birth and death of its [po], its 'white light' or soul." Yü (1981:83) says this ancient association between the po soul and the "growing light of the new moon is of tremendous importance to our understanding of certain myths related to the seventh day of the months." Two celebrated examples in Chinese mythology are Xi Wangmu and Emperor Wu meeting on the seventh day of the first lunar month and The Princess and the Cowherd or Qixi Festival held on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The etymology of hun < γuən < *wûn is comparatively less certain. Hu (1946:31) said, "The word hun is etymologically the same as the word yun, meaning "clouds." The clouds float about and seem more free and more active than the cold, white-lighted portion of the growing and waning moon." Schuessler cites two possibilities. Since pò is the 'bright' soul, hún is the 'dark' soul and therefore cognate to yún 'cloud' Carr 1985:62 , perhaps in the sense of 'shadowy' because some believe that the hún soul will live after death in a world of shadows Eberhard 1967:17 . (2007:290) + Chinese-English dictionary translations of hun and po Dictionary Hun Po Giles (1912) The soul, that part of the soul (as opp. to ) which goes to heaven and is able to leave the body, carrying with it an appearance of physical form; the subliminal self, expl. as . The mind; wits; faculties. The soul; that part of the soul (as opposed to ) which is indissolubly attached to the body, and goes down to earth with it at death; the supraliminal self, expl. as . Form; shape. The disc or substance of the moon from the time it begins to wane to new moon. Mathews (1931) The soul, the spiritual part of man that ascends to heaven, as contrasted with . The wits; the spiritual faculties. The animal or inferior soul; the animal or sentient life which inheres in the body – the body in this sense; the animals spirits; this soul goes to the earth with the body. Chao and Yang (1947) the soul (of a living person or of the dead) the physical side of the soul Karlgren (1957) spiritual soul (as opp. to ) the animal soul of man (as opp. to ) Lin (1972) Soul; the finer spirits of man as dist. , the baser spirits or animal forces (Taoism) the baser animal spirits of man, contrasted with finer elements three finer spirits and seven animal spirits), the two together conceived as animating the human body Liang (1992) a soul; a spirit. 1. (Taoism) vigor; animation; life. 2. form; shape; body. 3. the dark part of the moon. Wu (1993) ① soul ② mood; spirit ③ the lofty spirit of a nation ① soul ② vigour; spirit Ling et al . (2002) ① same as ... soul; believed by the superstitious to be an immaterial spiritual entity distinguished from but coexistent with the physical body of a person and a dominant spiritual force, and which leaves upon the person's death. ② spirit; mood. ③ lofty spirit. ① soul; spiritual matter believed by religious people as dependent on human's body. ② vigour; spirit. DeFrancis (2003) soul, spirit; mood ① soul; ② vigor; spirit Both Chinese hun and po are translatable as English "soul" or "spirit", and both are basic components in "soul" compounds. In the following examples, all Chinese-English translation equivalents are from DeFrancis (2003) . Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen, eminent historians of science and technology in China (1974:88) , define hun and po in modern terms. "Peering as far as one can into these ancient psycho-physiological ideas, one gains the impression that the distinction was something like that between what we would call motor and sensory activity on the one hand, and also voluntary as against vegetative processes on the other." Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein (2008:521) cautions about hun and po translations: "Although the term "souls" is often used to refer to them, they are better seen as two types of vital entities, the source of life in every individual. The hun is Yang, luminous, and volatile, while the po is Yin, somber, and heavy." History Based on Zuozhuan usages of hun and po in four historical contexts, Yü (1987:370) extrapolates that po was the original name for a human soul, and the dualistic conception of hun and po "began to gain currency in the middle of the sixth century" BCE. Two earlier 6th century contexts used the po soul alone. Both describe Tian "heaven; god" duo "seizing; taking away" a person's po, which resulted in a loss of mental faculties. In 593 BCE (Duke Xuan 15th year , tr. Legge 1872:329 ), after Zhao Tong behaved inappropriately at the Zhou court, an observer predicted: "In less than ten years [Zhao Tong] will be sure to meet with great calamity. Heaven has taken his [] wits away from him." In 543 BCE (Duke Xiang 29th year, tr. Legge 1872:551), Boyou from the state of Zheng acted irrationally, which an official interpreted as: "Heaven is destroying [Boyou], and has taken away his [] reason." Boyou's political enemies subsequently arranged to take away his hereditary position and assassinate him. Two later sixth-century Zuozhuan contexts used po together with the hun soul. In 534 BCE, the ghost of Boyou (above) was seeking revenge on his murderers, and terrifying the people of Zheng (Duke Zhao, Year & , tr. Legge 1872:618 ). The philosopher and statesman Zi Chan, realizing that Boyou's loss of hereditary office had caused his spirit to be deprived of sacrifices, reinstated his son to the family position, and the ghost disappeared. When a friend asked Zi Chan to explain ghosts, he gave what Yu calls "the locus classicus on the subject of the human soul in the Chinese tradition" ( Yu 1972 :372). Hun and po souls, explains Yu (1987:371) , "are regarded as the very essence of the mind, the source of knowledge and intelligence. Death is thought to follow inevitably when the hun and the p'o leave the body. We have reason to believe that around this time the idea of hun was still relatively new." Silk painting found in the tomb of Lady Dai at Mawangdui dated to 168 BCE, interpreted (Yü 1987:367) as depicting her hun soul ascending to heaven and her family performing the zhaohun "summoning the soul" ritual below. Soon after death, it was believed that a person's hun and po could be temporarily reunited through a ritual called the fu "recall; return", zhaohun "summon the hun soul", or zhaohun fupo "to summon the hun-soul to reunite with the po-soul". The earliest known account of this ritual is found in the (3rd century BCE) Chuci poems Zhao Hun "Summons of the Soul" and Dazhao "The Great Summons" (Csíkszentmihályi 2006:140–141) . For example, the wu Yang () summons a man's soul in the "Zhao Hun". Hu (1946:31–32) proposed, "The idea of a hun may have been a contribution from the southern peoples" (who originated Zhao Hun rituals) and then spread to the north sometime during the sixth century BCE. Calling this southern hypothesis "quite possible", Yu (1987:373) cites the Chuci, associated with the southern state of Chu, demonstrating "there can be little doubt that in the southern tradition the hun was regarded as a more active and vital soul than the p'o. The Chuci uses hun 65 times and po 5 times (4 in hunpo, which the Chuci uses interchangeably with hun , Brashier 1996:131 ). The identification of the yin-yang principle with the hun and po souls evidently occurred in the late fourth and early third centuries BCE (Yü 1987:374) , and by "the second century at the latest, the Chinese dualistic conception of soul had reached its definitive formulation." The Liji (11 , tr. Legge 1885:444) compounds hun and po with qi "breath; life force" and xing "form; shape; body" in hunqi and xingpo . "The [] intelligent spirit returns to heaven the [] body and the animal soul return to the earth; and hence arose the idea of seeking (for the deceased) in sacrifice in the unseen darkness and in the bright region above." Compare this modern translation (Yü 1987:374) , "The breath-soul (hun-ch'I ) returns to heaven; the bodily soul (hsing-p'o ) returns to earth. Therefore, in sacrificial-offering one should seek the meaning in the yin-yang principle." Yü summarizes hun/po dualism. Loewe (1979:9) explains with a candle metaphor; the physical xing is the "wick and substance of a candle", the spiritual po and hun are the "force that keeps the candle alight" and "light that emanates from the candle". The Yin po and Yang hun were correlated with Chinese spiritual and medical beliefs. Hun is associated with shen "spirit; god" and po with gui "ghost; demon; devil" (Carr 1985:62) . The (ca. 1st century BCE) Lingshu Jing medical text spiritually applies Wu Xing "Five Phase" theory to the Zang-fu "organs", associating the hun soul with liver (Chinese medicine) and blood, and the po soul with lung (Chinese medicine) and breath. The Lingshu Jing (Brashier 1996:142) also records that the hun and po souls taking flight can cause restless dreaming, and eye disorders can scatter the souls causing mental confusion. Han medical texts reveal that hun and po departing from the body does not necessarily cause death but rather distress and sickness. Brashier (1996:145–6) parallels the translation of hun and po, "If one were to put an English word to them, they are our 'wits', our ability to demarcate clearly, and like the English concept of "wits," they can be scared out of us or can dissipate in old age." Jade burial suits were believed to delay the bodily po soul's decomposition. During the Han Dynasty, the belief in hun and po remained prominent, although there was a great diversity of different, sometimes contradictory, beliefs about the afterlife (Hansen 2000:119; Csikszentmihalyi 2006:116–117, 140–142) . Han burial customs provided nourishment and comfort for the po with the placement of grave goods, including food, commodities, and even money within the tomb of the deceased (Hansen 2000:119) . Chinese jade was believed to delay the decomposition of a body. Pieces of jade were commonly placed in bodily orifices, or rarely crafted into jade burial suits. Generations of sinologists have repeatedly asserted that Han-era people commonly believed the heavenly hun and earthly po souls separated at death, but recent scholarship and archeology suggest that hunpo dualism was more an academic theory than a popular faith. Anna Seidel analyzed funerary texts discovered in Han tombs, which mention not only po souls but also hun remaining with entombed corpses, and wrote (1982:107) , "Indeed, a clear separation of a p'o, appeased with the wealth included in the tomb, from a hun departed to heavenly realms is not possible." Seidel later (1987:227) called for reappraising Han abstract notions of hun and po, which "do not seem to have had as wide a currency as we assumed up to now." Pu Muzhou surveyed usages of the words hun and po on Han Dynasty bei "stele" erected at graves and shrines, and concluded (1993:216, tr. Brashier 1996126), "The thinking of ordinary people seems to have been quite hazy on the matter of what distinguished the hun from the po."  These stele texts contrasted souls between a corporeal hun or hunpo at the cemetery and a spiritual shen at the family shrine. Kenneth Brashier (1996:158) reexamined the evidence for hunpo dualism and relegated it "to the realm of scholasticism rather than general beliefs on death." Brashier (1996:136–137) cited several Han sources (grave deeds, Book of the Later Han, and Jiaoshi Yilin) attesting beliefs that "the hun remains in the grave instead of flying up to heaven", and suggested it "was sealed into the grave to prevent its escape." Another Han text, the Fengsu Tongyi says, "The vital energy of the hun of a dead person floats away; therefore a mask is made in order to retain it. Daoism Hun and po spiritual concepts were important in several Daoist traditions. For instance (Baldrian-Hussein 2008:522) , "Since the volatile hun is fond of wandering and leaving the body during sleep, techniques were devised to restrain it, one of which entailed a method of staying constantly awake." The sanhunqipo "three hun and seven po" were anthropomorphized and visualized. Ge Hong's (ca. 320 CE) Baopuzi frequently mentions the hun and po "ethereal and gross souls". The "Genii" Chapter argues that the departing of these dual souls cause illness and death. All men, wise or foolish, know that their bodies contain ethereal as well as gross breaths, and that when some of them quit the body, illness ensues; when they all leave him, a man dies. In the former case, the magicians have amulets for restraining them; in the latter case, The Rites [i.e., Yili] provide ceremonials for summoning them back. These breaths are most intimately bound up with us, for they are born when we are, but over a whole lifetime probably nobody actually hears or sees them. Would one conclude that they do not exist because they are neither seen nor heard? (2 , tr. Ware 1966:49–50 ) In T'ai-i's elixir for Summoning Gross and Ethereal Breaths the five minerals [i.e., cinnabar, realgar, arsenolite, malachite, and magnetite] are used and sealed with Six-One lute as in the Nine-crucible cinnabars. It is particularly effective for raising those who have died of a stroke. In cases where the corpse has been dead less than four days, force open the corpse's mouth and insert a pill of this elixir and one of sulphur, washing them down its gullet with water. The corpse will immediately come to life. In every case the resurrected remark that they have seen a messenger with a baton of authority summoning them. (4 , tr. Ware 1966:87 ) For visualizing the ten souls, the Baopuzi "Truth on Earth" chapter recommends taking dayao "great medicines" and practicing a fenxing "divide/multiply the body" multilocation technique. My teacher used to say that to preserve Unity was to practice jointly Bright Mirror, and that on becoming successful in the mirror procedure a man would be able to multiply his body to several dozen all with the same dress and facial expression. My teacher also used to say that you should take the great medicines diligently if you wished to enjoy Fullness of Life, and that you should use metal solutions and a multiplication of your person if you wished to communicate with the gods. By multiplying the body, the three Hun and the seven Po are automatically seen within the body, and in addition it becomes possible to meet and visit the powers of heaven and the deities of earth and to have all the gods of the mountains and rivers in one's service. (18 , tr. Ware 1966:306 ) The Daoist Shangqing School has several meditation techniques for visualizing the hun and po. In Shangqing Neidan "Internal Alchemy", Baldrian-Hussein says, the po plays a particularly somber role as it represents the passions that dominate the hun. This causes the vital force to decay, especially during sexual activity, and eventually leads to death. The inner alchemical practice seeks to concentrate the vital forces within the body by reversing the respective roles of hun and po, so that the hun (Yang) controls the po (Yin). (2008:533) Number of souls The number of human "souls" has been a long-standing source of controversy among Chinese religious traditions. Stevan Harrell (1979:521) concludes, "Almost every number from one to a dozen has at one time or another been proposed as the correct one." The most commonly believed numbers of "souls" in a person are one, two, three, and ten. One "soul" or linghun is the simplest URL Harrell gives a fieldwork example. When rural Taiwanese perform ancestral sacrifices at home, they naturally think of the ling-hun in the tablet; when they take offerings to the cemetery, they think of it in the grave; and when they go on shamanistic trips, they think of it in the yin world. Because the contexts are separate, there is little conflict and little need for abstract reasoning about a nonexistent problem. (1979:523) Two "souls" is a common folk belief, and reinforced by yin-yang theory. These paired souls can be called hun and po, hunpo and shen, or linghun and shen. Three "souls" comes from widespread beliefs that the soul of a dead person can exist in the multiple locations. The missionary Justus Doolittle recorded that Chinese people in Fuzhou Believe each person has three distinct souls while living. These souls separate at the death of the adult to whom they belong. One resides in the ancestral tablet erected to his memory, if the head of a family; another lurks in the coffin or the grave, and the third departs to the infernal regions to undergo its merited punishment. (1865 II:401–2) Ten "souls" of sanhunqipo "three hun and seven po" is not only Daoist; "Some authorities would maintain that the three-seven "soul" is basic to all Chinese religion" (Harrell 1979:522) . During the Later Han period, Daoists fixed the number of hun souls at three and the number of po souls at seven. A newly deceased person may return () to his home at some nights, sometimes one week () after his death and the seven po would disappear one by one every 7 days after death. According to Needham and Lu (1974:88) , "It is a little difficult to ascertain the reason for this, since fives and sixes (if they corresponded to the viscera) would have rather been expected." Three hun may stand for the sangang "three principles of social order: relationships between ruler-subject, father-child, and husband-wife" (Needham 1974:89) . Seven po may stand for the qiqiao "seven apertures (in the head, eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth)" or the qiqing "seven emotions (joy, anger, sorrow, fear, worry, grief, fright)" in traditional Chinese medicine (Baldrian-Hussein 2008:522) . Sanhunqipo also stand for other names.  }}   External links page 1461, Kangxi Dictionary entries for hun and po  What Is Shen (Spirit)?, Appendix: Hun and Po The Indigenous Chinese Concepts of Hun and P'o Souls, Singapore Paranormal Investigators – link obsolete – Internet Archive copy, Singapore Paranormal Investigators – link obsolete – Internet Archive copy , Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association
Besides the common meaning of "a soul", po was a variant Chinese character for po "a lunar phase" and po "dregs". The Book of Documents used po as a graphic variant for po "dark aspect of the moon" – this character usually means ba "overlord; hegemon". For example, "On the third month, when (the growth phase, ) of the moon began to wane, the duke of Chow [i.e., Duke of Zhou] commenced the foundations, and proceeded to build the new great city of Lǒ" . The Zhuangzi "[Writings of] Master Zhuang" wrote zaopo (lit. "rotten dregs") "worthless; unwanted; waste matter" with a po variant. A wheelwright sees Duke Huan of Qi with books by dead sages and says, "what you are reading there is nothing but the [] chaff and dregs of the men of old!" . In the history of Chinese writing, characters for po "lunar brightness" appeared before those for hun "soul; spirit". The spiritual hun and po "dual souls" are first recorded in Warring States period (475–221 BCE) seal script characters. The lunar po or "moon's brightness" appears in both Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE) Bronzeware script and oracle bone script, but not in Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BCE) oracle inscriptions. The earliest form of this "lunar brightness" character was found on a (ca. 11th century BCE) Zhou oracle bone inscription . Etymologies The po soul's etymology is better understood than the hun soul's. reconstructs hun "'spiritual soul' which makes a human personality" and po "vegetative or animal soul ... which accounts for growth and physiological functions" as Middle Chinese γuən and pʰak from Old Chinese *wûn and *phrâk. What do the words hun and [po] mean? Hun expresses the idea of continuous propagation ([zhuan] ), unresting flight; it is the qi of the Lesser Yang, working in man in an external direction, and it governs the nature (or the instincts, [xing] ). [Po] expresses the idea of a continuous pressing urge ([po] ) on man; it is the [qi] of the Lesser Yin, and works in him, governing the emotions ([qing] ). Hun is connected with the idea of weeding ([yun] ), for with the instincts the evil weeds (in man's nature) are removed. [Po] is connected with the idea of brightening ([bai] ), for with the emotions the interior (of the personality) is governed. Tr. . Etymologically, Schuessler says pò "animal soul" "is the same word as" pò "a lunar phase". He cites the Zuozhuan (534 BCE, see below) using the lunar jishengpo to mean "With the first development of a fetus grows the vegetative soul". Pò, the soul responsible for growth, is the same as pò the waxing and waning of the moon". The meaning 'soul' has probably been transferred from the moon since men must have been aware of lunar phases long before they had developed theories on the soul. This is supported by the etymology 'bright', and by the inverted word order which can only have originated with meteorological expressions ... The association with the moon explains perhaps why the pò soul is classified as Yin ... in spite of the etymology 'bright' (which should be Yang), hun's Yang classification may be due to the association with clouds and by extension sky, even though the word invokes 'dark'. 'Soul' and 'moon' are related in other cultures, by cognation or convergence, as in Tibeto-Burman and Proto-Lolo–Burmese *s/ʼ-la "moon; soul; spirit", Written Tibetan cognates bla "soul" and zla "moon", and Proto-Miao–Yao *bla "spirit; soul; moon". The semantics of po "white soul" probably originated with "lunar whiteness". Zhou bronze inscriptions commonly recorded lunar phases with the terms jishengpo "after the brightness has grown" and jisipo "after the brightness has died", which Schuessler explains as "second quarter of the lunar month" and "last quarter of the lunar month". Chinese scholars have variously interpreted these two terms as lunar quarters or fixed days, and Wang Guowei's lunar-quarter analysis the most likely. Thus, jishengpo is from the 7th/8th to the 14th/15th days of the lunar month and jisipo is from the 23rd/24th to the end of the month. Yü translates them as "after the birth of the crescent" and "after the death of the crescent". Etymologically, lunar and spiritual po < pʰak < *phrâk are cognate with bai < bɐk < *brâk "white" . According to Hu Shih , po etymologically means "white, whiteness, and bright light"; "The primitive Chinese seem to have regarded the changing phases of the moon as periodic birth and death of its [po], its 'white light' or soul." Yü says this ancient association between the po soul and the "growing light of the new moon is of tremendous importance to our understanding of certain myths related to the seventh day of the months." Two celebrated examples in Chinese mythology are Xi Wangmu and Emperor Wu meeting on the seventh day of the first lunar month and The Princess and the Cowherd or Qixi Festival held on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The etymology of hun < γuən < *wûn is comparatively less certain. Hu said, "The word hun is etymologically the same as the word yun, meaning "clouds." The clouds float about and seem more free and more active than the cold, white-lighted portion of the growing and waning moon." Schuessler cites two possibilities. Since pò is the 'bright' soul, hún is the 'dark' soul and therefore cognate to yún 'cloud' , perhaps in the sense of 'shadowy' because some believe that the hún soul will live after death in a world of shadows . + Chinese-English dictionary translations of hun and po Dictionary Hun Po Giles The soul, that part of the soul (as opp. to ) which goes to heaven and is able to leave the body, carrying with it an appearance of physical form; the subliminal self, expl. as . The mind; wits; faculties. The soul; that part of the soul (as opposed to ) which is indissolubly attached to the body, and goes down to earth with it at death; the supraliminal self, expl. as . Form; shape. The disc or substance of the moon from the time it begins to wane to new moon. Mathews The soul, the spiritual part of man that ascends to heaven, as contrasted with . The wits; the spiritual faculties. The animal or inferior soul; the animal or sentient life which inheres in the body – the body in this sense; the animals spirits; this soul goes to the earth with the body. Chao and Yang the soul (of a living person or of the dead) the physical side of the soul Karlgren spiritual soul (as opp. to ) the animal soul of man (as opp. to ) Lin Soul; the finer spirits of man as dist. , the baser spirits or animal forces (Taoism) the baser animal spirits of man, contrasted with finer elements three finer spirits and seven animal spirits), the two together conceived as animating the human body Liang a soul; a spirit. 1. (Taoism) vigor; animation; life. 2. form; shape; body. 3. the dark part of the moon. Wu ① soul ② mood; spirit ③ the lofty spirit of a nation ① soul ② vigour; spirit Ling et al ① same as ... soul; believed by the superstitious to be an immaterial spiritual entity distinguished from but coexistent with the physical body of a person and a dominant spiritual force, and which leaves upon the person's death. ② spirit; mood. ③ lofty spirit. ① soul; spiritual matter believed by religious people as dependent on human's body. ② vigour; spirit. DeFrancis soul, spirit; mood ① soul; ② vigor; spirit Both Chinese hun and po are translatable as English "soul" or "spirit", and both are basic components in "soul" compounds. In the following examples, all Chinese-English translation equivalents are from DeFrancis . Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen, eminent historians of science and technology in China , define hun and po in modern terms. "Peering as far as one can into these ancient psycho-physiological ideas, one gains the impression that the distinction was something like that between what we would call motor and sensory activity on the one hand, and also voluntary as against vegetative processes on the other." Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein cautions about hun and po translations: "Although the term "souls" is often used to refer to them, they are better seen as two types of vital entities, the source of life in every individual. The hun is Yang, luminous, and volatile, while the po is Yin, somber, and heavy." History Based on Zuozhuan usages of hun and po in four historical contexts, Yü extrapolates that po was the original name for a human soul, and the dualistic conception of hun and po "began to gain currency in the middle of the sixth century" BCE. Two earlier 6th century contexts used the po soul alone. Both describe Tian "heaven; god" duo "seizing; taking away" a person's po, which resulted in a loss of mental faculties. In 593 BCE (Duke Xuan 15th year ), after Zhao Tong behaved inappropriately at the Zhou court, an observer predicted: "In less than ten years [Zhao Tong] will be sure to meet with great calamity. Heaven has taken his [] wits away from him." In 543 BCE (Duke Xiang 29th year, Boyou from the state of Zheng acted irrationally, which an official interpreted as: "Heaven is destroying [Boyou], and has taken away his [] reason." Boyou's political enemies subsequently arranged to take away his hereditary position and assassinate him. Two later sixth-century Zuozhuan contexts used po together with the hun soul. In 534 BCE, the ghost of Boyou (above) was seeking revenge on his murderers, and terrifying the people of Zheng (Duke Zhao, Year & ). The philosopher and statesman Zi Chan, realizing that Boyou's loss of hereditary office had caused his spirit to be deprived of sacrifices, reinstated his son to the family position, and the ghost disappeared. When a friend asked Zi Chan to explain ghosts, he gave what Yu calls "the locus classicus on the subject of the human soul in the Chinese tradition" . Yu 1972 , p. 372. Hun and po souls, explains Yü , "are regarded as the very essence of the mind, the source of knowledge and intelligence. Death is thought to follow inevitably when the hun and the p'o leave the body. We have reason to believe that around this time the idea of hun was still relatively new." Silk painting found in the tomb of Lady Dai at Mawangdui dated to 168 BCE, interpreted as depicting her hun soul ascending to heaven and her family performing the zhaohun "summoning the soul" ritual below. Soon after death, it was believed that a person's hun and po could be temporarily reunited through a ritual called the fu "recall; return", zhaohun "summon the hun soul", or zhaohun fupo "to summon the hun-soul to reunite with the po-soul". The earliest known account of this ritual is found in the (3rd century BCE) Chuci poems Zhao Hun "Summons of the Soul" and Dazhao "The Great Summons" . For example, the wu Yang () summons a man's soul in the "Zhao Hun". Hu proposed, "The idea of a hun may have been a contribution from the southern peoples" (who originated Zhao Hun rituals) and then spread to the north sometime during the sixth century BCE. Calling this southern hypothesis "quite possible", Yü cites the Chuci, associated with the southern state of Chu, demonstrating "there can be little doubt that in the southern tradition the hun was regarded as a more active and vital soul than the p'o. The Chuci uses hun 65 times and po 5 times (4 in hunpo, which the Chuci uses interchangeably with hun ). The identification of the yin-yang principle with the hun and po souls evidently occurred in the late fourth and early third centuries BCE , and by "the second century at the latest, the Chinese dualistic conception of soul had reached its definitive formulation." The Liji (11 ), compounds hun and po with qi "breath; life force" and xing "form; shape; body" in hunqi and xingpo . "The [] intelligent spirit returns to heaven the [] body and the animal soul return to the earth; and hence arose the idea of seeking (for the deceased) in sacrifice in the unseen darkness and in the bright region above." Compare this modern translation , "The breath-soul (hun-ch'I ) returns to heaven; the bodily soul (hsing-p'o ) returns to earth. Therefore, in sacrificial-offering one should seek the meaning in the yin-yang principle." Yü summarizes hun/po dualism. Loewe explains with a candle metaphor; the physical xing is the "wick and substance of a candle", the spiritual po and hun are the "force that keeps the candle alight" and "light that emanates from the candle". The Yin po and Yang hun were correlated with Chinese spiritual and medical beliefs. Hun is associated with shen "spirit; god" and po with gui "ghost; demon; devil" . The (ca. 1st century BCE) Lingshu Jing medical text spiritually applies Wu Xing "Five Phase" theory to the Zang-fu "organs", associating the hun soul with liver (Chinese medicine) and blood, and the po soul with lung (Chinese medicine) and breath. The Lingshu Jing also records that the hun and po souls taking flight can cause restless dreaming, and eye disorders can scatter the souls causing mental confusion. Han medical texts reveal that hun and po departing from the body does not necessarily cause death but rather distress and sickness. Brashier parallels the translation of hun and po, "If one were to put an English word to them, they are our 'wits', our ability to demarcate clearly, and like the English concept of "wits," they can be scared out of us or can dissipate in old age." Jade burial suits were believed to delay the bodily po soul's decomposition. During the Han Dynasty, the belief in hun and po remained prominent, although there was a great diversity of different, sometimes contradictory, beliefs about the afterlife . Han burial customs provided nourishment and comfort for the po with the placement of grave goods, including food, commodities, and even money within the tomb of the deceased . Chinese jade was believed to delay the decomposition of a body. Pieces of jade were commonly placed in bodily orifices, or rarely crafted into jade burial suits. Generations of sinologists have repeatedly asserted that Han-era people commonly believed the heavenly hun and earthly po souls separated at death, but recent scholarship and archeology suggest that hunpo dualism was more an academic theory than a popular faith. Anna Seidel analyzed funerary texts discovered in Han tombs, which mention not only po souls but also hun remaining with entombed corpses, and wrote , "Indeed, a clear separation of a p'o, appeased with the wealth included in the tomb, from a hun departed to heavenly realms is not possible." Seidel later called for reappraising Han abstract notions of hun and po, which "do not seem to have had as wide a currency as we assumed up to now." Pu Muzhou surveyed usages of the words hun and po on Han Dynasty bei "stele" erected at graves and shrines, and concluded , "The thinking of ordinary people seems to have been quite hazy on the matter of what distinguished the hun from the po." Tr. . These stele texts contrasted souls between a corporeal hun or hunpo at the cemetery and a spiritual shen at the family shrine. Kenneth Brashier reexamined the evidence for hunpo dualism and relegated it "to the realm of scholasticism rather than general beliefs on death." Brashier cited several Han sources (grave deeds, Book of the Later Han, and Jiaoshi Yilin) attesting beliefs that "the hun remains in the grave instead of flying up to heaven", and suggested it "was sealed into the grave to prevent its escape." Another Han text, the Fengsu Tongyi says, "The vital energy of the hun of a dead person floats away; therefore a mask is made in order to retain it. Daoism Hun and po spiritual concepts were important in several Daoist traditions. For instance , "Since the volatile hun is fond of wandering and leaving the body during sleep, techniques were devised to restrain it, one of which entailed a method of staying constantly awake." The sanhunqipo "three hun and seven po" were anthropomorphized and visualized. Ge Hong's (ca. 320 CE) Baopuzi frequently mentions the hun and po "ethereal and gross souls". The "Genii" Chapter argues that the departing of these dual souls cause illness and death. All men, wise or foolish, know that their bodies contain ethereal as well as gross breaths, and that when some of them quit the body, illness ensues; when they all leave him, a man dies. In the former case, the magicians have amulets for restraining them; in the latter case, The Rites [i.e., Yili] provide ceremonials for summoning them back. These breaths are most intimately bound up with us, for they are born when we are, but over a whole lifetime probably nobody actually hears or sees them. Would one conclude that they do not exist because they are neither seen nor heard? (2 ) In T'ai-i's elixir for Summoning Gross and Ethereal Breaths the five minerals [i.e., cinnabar, realgar, arsenolite, malachite, and magnetite] are used and sealed with Six-One lute as in the Nine-crucible cinnabars. It is particularly effective for raising those who have died of a stroke. In cases where the corpse has been dead less than four days, force open the corpse's mouth and insert a pill of this elixir and one of sulphur, washing them down its gullet with water. The corpse will immediately come to life. In every case the resurrected remark that they have seen a messenger with a baton of authority summoning them. (4 ) For visualizing the ten souls, the Baopuzi "Truth on Earth" chapter recommends taking dayao "great medicines" and practicing a fenxing "divide/multiply the body" multilocation technique. My teacher used to say that to preserve Unity was to practice jointly Bright Mirror, and that on becoming successful in the mirror procedure a man would be able to multiply his body to several dozen all with the same dress and facial expression. My teacher also used to say that you should take the great medicines diligently if you wished to enjoy Fullness of Life, and that you should use metal solutions and a multiplication of your person if you wished to communicate with the gods. By multiplying the body, the three Hun and the seven Po are automatically seen within the body, and in addition it becomes possible to meet and visit the powers of heaven and the deities of earth and to have all the gods of the mountains and rivers in one's service. (18 ) The Daoist Shangqing School has several meditation techniques for visualizing the hun and po. In Shangqing Neidan "Internal Alchemy", Baldrian-Hussein says, the po plays a particularly somber role as it represents the passions that dominate the hun. This causes the vital force to decay, especially during sexual activity, and eventually leads to death. The inner alchemical practice seeks to concentrate the vital forces within the body by reversing the respective roles of hun and po, so that the hun (Yang) controls the po (Yin). Number of souls The number of human "souls" has been a long-standing source of controversy among Chinese religious traditions. Stevan Harrell concludes, "Almost every number from one to a dozen has at one time or another been proposed as the correct one." The most commonly believed numbers of "souls" in a person are one, two, three, and ten. One "soul" or linghun is the simplest idea. Harrell gives a fieldwork example. When rural Taiwanese perform ancestral sacrifices at home, they naturally think of the ling-hun in the tablet; when they take offerings to the cemetery, they think of it in the grave; and when they go on shamanistic trips, they think of it in the yin world. Because the contexts are separate, there is little conflict and little need for abstract reasoning about a nonexistent problem. Two "souls" is a common folk belief, and reinforced by yin-yang theory. These paired souls can be called hun and po, hunpo and shen, or linghun and shen. Three "souls" comes from widespread beliefs that the soul of a dead person can exist in the multiple locations. The missionary Justus Doolittle recorded that Chinese people in Fuzhou Believe each person has three distinct souls while living. These souls separate at the death of the adult to whom they belong. One resides in the ancestral tablet erected to his memory, if the head of a family; another lurks in the coffin or the grave, and the third departs to the infernal regions to undergo its merited punishment. Ten "souls" of sanhunqipo "three hun and seven po" is not only Daoist; "Some authorities would maintain that the three-seven "soul" is basic to all Chinese religion" . During the Later Han period, Daoists fixed the number of hun souls at three and the number of po souls at seven. A newly deceased person may return () to his home at some nights, sometimes one week () after his death and the seven po would disappear one by one every 7 days after death. According to Needham and Lu , "It is a little difficult to ascertain the reason for this, since fives and sixes (if they corresponded to the viscera) would have rather been expected." Three hun may stand for the sangang "three principles of social order: relationships between ruler-subject, father-child, and husband-wife" . Seven po may stand for the qiqiao "seven apertures (in the head, eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth)" or the qiqing "seven emotions (joy, anger, sorrow, fear, worry, grief, fright)" in traditional Chinese medicine . Sanhunqipo also stand for other names. Review at Oxford Academic. cite book |translator-last=Ware |translator-first=James R. |date=1966 |title=Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The Nei Pien of Ko Hung |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262230223 |ref=CITEREFWare1966}} Footnotes Further reading External links page 1461, Kangxi Dictionary entries for hun and po '' What Is Shen (Spirit)?, Appendix: Hun and Po The Indigenous Chinese Concepts of Hun and P'o Souls, Singapore Paranormal Investigators – link obsolete – Internet Archive copy, Singapore Paranormal Investigators – link obsolete – Internet Archive copy , Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association
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cite book |translator-last=Ware |translator-first=James R. |date=1966 |title=Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The Nei Pien of Ko Hung |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262230223 |ref=CITEREFWare1966
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